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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 
BULLETIN 145 


THE INDIAN TRIBES 
OF NORTH AMERICA 


By 
JOHN R. SWANTON 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS 
CITY OF WASHINGTON 


Standard Book Number 87474-092-4 
Library of Congress catalog card number 52-61970 


Distributed in the United States and Canada by 
Random House, Inc. 
Distributed in the United Kingdom and Europe by 
David & Charles (Publishers), Ltd., South Devon House, 
Newton Abbot, Devon 


Originally published 1952 
Reprinted 1968, 1969 


Printed in the United States of America 


CONTENTS 


Hen ROGU CONE 6s 5 22a = ees oe ke Re 5 a ee a ee ge te 
LSU TIC eee a ae we ry See ee te ee es OR ee eel re 
INGWaEainpshITes: 2 =. Mee. 22 oss 25 oe eae eae oe ee 
\W/ CETERA Fass ee ae en ene ey RE oak, ole en RO ee Oa Re ee Be RO Oe ET ee 
NIESSACHUSCLUS. =o Le een eae oa Soe tae eke oe Se ee ee eee, Ses 
LRelecerG ky DESIG T AGG le eae Ree og A ple EPR A tr Meet ead es ee ep er ed one PROP ere 
(CHEERY TT OUD AE eee ee Ca a A OL oe, LE Oe ene eR eT 
ING NOV is Sc ERS See Eo Dect Re eR ree Seat eR Mare er Bey c pmyr eee cate a gd Be Beye ee 
LUG LIBS Ea ee a eA ge Ce EC ar ee ee ee a re 
FReaePERVOO RDU PR UANN Soy 2 ht ue 0 eg ea a ee ee eH 
IDS DIDS A RS A SFL eS TAS Es he ee oe oe A OE en eee Ce eee 
MmanvianGd. and the District of Columbia... -=.2-..2..222-2.-22242.-+=- 
WES So a eae eee 2 Se 7 eee ee one ee ee ee 
NST MVAT UIE cary eye a reer Sry. eet ye 2 ete je aie a. Te ae. ee 
Ort Canons as atin Pee ore Se a BN ec ae SB sy See ye 
SHO OY CRO Noe ae A A Ee ae ae ee eee ee te ee ee eee ee 
SOIREE EO EE ee EO Sg eee ee ee ee ee eee 
“PLE TNG hype alle lel Nye aig ght DE Be SORE Ehren eee eed Rong. ee: VU Sek OES Dat Se 2S 


_ LESSSISS1 Gyo) Eales nd ke 7 a SS Oo ea ee eM at re EES 
OC ee ee a ee ee eee ee a ee oe 


ieee aa party ep eee Bee ba re ee ee oe BR Se elu (Rabe 
Wisconsin 


VI BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


PAGE 
Montana. 2. 2222.28 bo eee ee a ee ee 387 
Hida Qt 2) ae ee a Pe ea Nh ke seh cera ah 398 
Washington ee... ce Ale ho So ee ra oo bee ere 412 
recone je oe Al ce pg hs DO re gee! ee ee 451 
Californigge : Sc ce 2k 8 2 ee pa, at oash oe ar ey 2 ne 478 
PATS S Meal sy Ses ee Ee NL AS ala ag hy ha Een 529 
LOE Te: \0 bees Ok eA ie ULE nna ap eee nln al ME Rea > Dies 2 Viet oo 544 
The West Indies 
indian:.tribes: of Haiti... 22225062 ee ees a we ee ea 608 
Indian tribes: of Cubaet.s asco 5255 ee le heh ee ee oe 610 
Indianetribestofe Ru erto RCO ess sas a 611 
Indianktribes oftJamaicain ss 3's 22 ke oe Sie Ue a eee ed ee 611 
MeéxicorandCentral«Amern¢a ts 2-4 254462235 = 5 ee ee 611 
Bi bNOgTAPHY =~ ek ee a ee ee ee 643 
Widen ios Atenas arash costes eae eee eee eee 683 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
MAPS 
PAGE 
1. Outline map of North America showing relative position of the four fol- 
lowing maps illustrating the locations of the Indian tribes of North 
JAD OTIG Bess cert do ws yin tee sh Ss re aM ae at aa pl | 11 
2. Northwestern North America (section 1 of map 1)_________________-_ 26 
3. Northeastern North America (section 2 of map 1)__________________- 106 
4, Southwestern North America (section 3 of map 1)__________________- 186 
4, Southeastern North America (section 4 of map 1)__________________-_ 298 


THE INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 


By Joun R. Swanton 


INTRODUCTION 


From the date of its first appearance in 1891 the Powell map of 
“Linguistic Families of American Indians North of Mexico” has 
proved of the widest utility. It has been reissued several times and 
copied into numerous publications. There has, however, been almost 
equal need of a map giving the location of the tribes under the several 
families. 

To one familiar from his readings in early American history with 
the names and locations of our prominent eastern “tribes,” such as 
the Delaware, Iroquois, Cherokee, and Choctaw, the preparation of a 
tribal map would seem to be simple, and it would indeed be so if all 
Indians had been grouped into bodies as clearly marked as those 
mentioned. But even in the eastern United States the term “‘tribe”’ 
is quickly found to have no uniform application. The Creeks were a 
confederation of a few dominant tribes and a number of subordinate 
bodies, each formerly independent. The name ‘Delaware’ is com- 
monly said to have covered three tribes or subtribes, but while two of 
these seem never to have been independent of each other, the third, 
the Munsee, is often treated as if it were entirely separate. The name 
“Powhatan” was applied to about 30 tribes or subtribes which had 
been brought together by conquest only a few years before Virginia 
was settled, and the term ‘Chippewa,’ or “Ojibwa,” is used for a 
multitude of small bands with little claim to any sort of governmental 
unity. In the case of the Iroquois, on the other hand, the tribe was 
only a part of the governmental unit, the Iroquois Confederation, or 
Longhouse. 

The northern Plains tribes present a certain coherence but farther 
south and west our difficulties multiply. An early explorer in Texas 
states that in that region, by ‘‘nation’”’ was to be understood only a 
single town or perhaps a few neighboring villages, and in fact the 
number of tribal names reported from this section seems almost 
endless. In the governmental sense, each Pueblo community was a 
tribe, and if we were to attempt a complete list we should have in the 
first place a large number of existing, or at least recently existing, 

m | 


2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (BULL. 145 


tribes, little and big, and a still greater number known only through 
the early writers or by tradition. In California, Kroeber (1925) states 
that there were no tribes in the strict sense of the term except among 
the Yokuts of the San Joaquin Valley and their immediate neighbors. 
Elsewhere in California, and in western Oregon and Washington as 
well, tribe and town might be considered convertible terms. As the 
number of these was continually shifting, it would be impracticable 
to enter them in that capacity in a work of the present kind. 

North of the International Boundary, conditions are, if possible, 
worse, except in the southernmost section of Canada where lived tribes 
similar to those in the eastern parts of the United States, such as the 
Huron, Chippewa, Assiniboin, and Blackfoot, though the Chippewa, 
as alreddy mentioned, require a somewhat elastic extension of our 
common concept of a tribe. On the north Pacific coast, however, the 
conditions noted in western Oregon and Washington are continued. 
We have numerous local groups associated into several major divisions 
on linguistic grounds alone. Still farther north and east, among the 
Algonquians, Athapascans, and Eskimo, we are confronted with a 
bewildering array of bands and local groups, usually confined to one 
town and taking their name from it or from a certain territory over 
which its members hunted, and the numbers and names of these are 
uncertain even at the present time. Nothing remotely resembling 
scientific accuracy is possible in placing these bands, if we aim at 
chronological uniformity, and we must either enter great linguistic 
groups, embracing sometimes almost an entire stock, or make an 
arbitrary selection of bands with the idea of including those which 
we esteem the most important. 

Northeastern México and some parts of Central America may also 
be defined as band areas, but most of North America below the Rio 
Grande was occupied by well-recognized tribal divisions. 

From all of the West Indies except Haiti, Cuba, and Puerto Rico 
nothing like a complete list of tribes has survived, and even for the 
best documented of these, Haiti, it is impossible to say how many of 
the caciquedoms mentioned should be given tribal status. 

A short study of the conditions above outlined shows that only 
two alternatives are open in a work like the present. Either one 
must, in effect, alter it to a town and band map, entering the most 
minute recorded subdivisions and setting his results forth, not on one 
map but on dozens, or he must be satisfied with a relatively conven- 
tional classification, having in view popular convenience rather than 
scientific uniformity, and making the best grouping he can of those 
peoples which did not have real tribal organizations. In the present 
undertaking the latter plan has been followed, but clues to the more 
scientific study have been given by including lists of “‘subdivisions”’ 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 3 


and ‘“‘villages.”” There is no profession that these lists are complete; a 
perfect presentation of them would demand an investigation for 
which there is as yet no opportunity. The rest of the accompanying 
text has been devoted to certain items of information likely to be 
called for first by the general reader, including: the origin of the tribal 
name and a brief list of the more important synonyms, the linguistic 
connections of the tribe—it has not seemed feasible to try to include 
the physical and cultural connections—its location, a brief sketch of 
its history, its estimated and actual population at different periods 
(based mainly on Mooney’s (1928) study and the reports of the 
United States and Canadian Indian Offices), and the ‘‘connection in 
which it has become noted,” particularly the extent to which its 
name has been perpetuated geographically or otherwise. I have also 
included references to the more important sources of information. 
Two works have been used as basal authorities. One, the Handbook 
of American Indians (Hodge, 1907, 1910), is general in scope and may 
be assumed throughout except for the tribes of México, Central 
America, and the West Indies. The other, Kroeber’s Handbook of 
the Indians of California (1925), is the basal authority used in treating 
the Indian groups of that State. In the Gulf area I have utilized the 
results of my own studies, published and unpublished. 

As far as possible each tribe, or group has been treated by itself, 
but in Washington, Oregon, California, and Alaska, to avoid needless 
repetition, the history of the tribes is considered as a whole. The 
section on México, Central America, and the West Indies represents 
an afterthought. Both map and text material were drawn originally 
from the ‘Indian Languages of Mexico and Central America” 
(Thomas and Swanton, 1911), and Dr. Lehmann’s (1920) monumental 
work on ‘‘Zentral Amerikas,” but they have been made over thoroughly 
in the light of the classification and map of Dr. J. Alden Mason (1940) 
and Frederick Johnson (1940), and no attempt has been made to 
take up the history of the several tribes or indicate other authorities. 

A brief history of the present undertaking will perhaps enable the 
reader to obtain a better understanding of it, appreciate the difficulties 
encountered in the compilation, and in consequence view its short- 
comings, of which as the compiler I am keenly aware, with due charity. 
It represents an evolution both in method of procedure and in the 
extent of territory covered. In the beginning I was governed by the 
older tradition regarding map work of the kind, the idea of entering 
a tribe in the place where it was first encountered by Whites, but an 
attempt to carry out this plan soon presented difficulties because 
neighboring tribes were often encountered a century or more apart 
and their relative positions may have changed utterly in the interval. 
There is no certainty, for instance, that the Indians outside of the 


4 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


narrow strip of territory opened to our vision by De Soto’s army in 
1539-43 were in the same relative position when Carolina was 
settled about 1670 and Louisiana in 1699. It is particularly to be 
noted that, while De Soto found eastern Arkansas full of towns, it 
was almost deserted when Marquette and La Salle visited it in 1673 
and 1682. We also know that great alterations took place in the 
St. Lawrence Valley between the voyages of Cartier in 1534-43 and 
Champlain’s appearance there in 1603. 

In view of these difficulties, I gave up this plan and tried the device 
of putting each tribe in the region with which it was most closely 
associated historically. But with what region were the Shawnee, 
Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, Comanche, and some other tribes most 
closely associated? The Middle West or the Plains are rather too 
general terms. Moreover, tribes acquired this close association with 
certain sections at very different periods and, if this plan were carried 
out, the map as a whole would be historically inaccurate. Thus the 
Delaware upon the whole were associated most closely with the valley 
of the river which bears their name, but when the Foxes had reached 
Iowa and the Dakota had occupied South Dakota, where they are best 
known, the Delaware had removed many hundred miles from this 
region. The Abnaki were most closely associated with western Maine 
but were uprooted in the middle of the eighteenth century and moved 
to Canada. The Huron are most closely connected historically with 
the region of Lake Simcoe, Ontario, but they were driven from there 
in the middle of the seventeenth century, and a hundred years later 
under the name Wyandot they, or at least part of them, came to be 
“closely associated’? with Ohio. Thus we have here two associations 
of the same tribe. 

For a time it seemed as if some of these inconsistencies were un- 
avoidable and that any attempt at chronological accuracy was out 
of the question. Such is indeed the case if we insist upon absolute, 
documented accuracy, because Alaska, western Canada, and the 
northwestern part of the United States were almost wholly unknown 
until the latter half of the eighteenth century and there is no authentic 
information regarding many tribes until the beginning of the nine- 
teenth when many eastern tribes, and some of those on the Plains, 
had been displaced or destroyed. But on experimenting along this 
line I discovered that if we select the year 1650, or rather a few years 
prior to that date and assume a fairly static condition for 30 or 40 
years afterward, we can determine the location of most of the tribes 
of the eastern and southern United States and eastern Canada in a 
fairly satisfactory manner, and this arrangement was finally decided 
upon. Up to 1649 the Hurons were still in Ontario; the Erie, the 
Neutral Nation, and the Susquehanna had not been destroyed by the 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 5 


Iroquois; and King Philip’s War, which was to scatter the New 
England Indians, did not break out until 1675. The Virginia Indians 
had suffered very much as a result of their risings in 1622 and 1644 
but continued to occupy the same general territories in which the 
colonists found them. By 1650 the Gulf region had been traversed 
by Spanish expeditions and Florida had been settled nearly a hundred 
years, but there had been little displacement of the aborigines even 
in Florida, and between the accounts of the Spanish chroniclers and 
the later narratives of Virginia traders, and the South Carolina colo- 
nists after 1670 we are able to get a fair idea of the position of the 
principal Southeastern peoples at that date. Meantime the French 
penetrated into the Ohio Valley and as far south on the Mississippi 
as the mouth of the Arkansas by 1673, and to the ocean by 1682, 
and they founded Louisiana in 1699. La Salle’s Texas colony, estab- 
lished in 1685, however unfortunate for himself and the other partici- 
pants in the venture, gives a more than fair view of the Indians of 
that great territory, soon supplemented by the reports of those who 
accompanied the later Spanish expeditions. Moreover, this data may 
be checked in some measure by the much earlier reports of Cabeza 
de Vaca bearing on the years 1528 to 1536 and the chroniclers of 
Moscoso’s invasion of east Texas in 1542. Moving still farther west, 
we find that New Mexico had been occupied by Spaniards long before 
the date selected, that Coronado had crossed the southern Plains, 
and that travelers by sea and land had visited southern California. 
In the meantime eastern Canada had been penetrated by two Euro- 
pean nations from two directions—by the French along St. Lawrence 
River and the Great Lakes and by the English Hudson’s Bay Com- 
pany through their posts on the body of water which gives them their 
name. Moose Factory was founded in 1671, Fort Nelson in 1682, 
and Fort Churchill in 1688. From these as bases explorers and traders 
soon worked their way far inland, and on the other hand the com- 
mandants collected considerable information from the natives them- 
selves regarding the regions from whence they came. 

As has been said, there was beyond a great tract of country which 
remained unvisited by Europeans until well into the eighteenth cen- 
tury, but over much of this area there is no evidence of recent tribal 
movements, and some movements are known sufficiently well to justify 
an attempt to reconstruct the earlier conditions. Thus the migration 
of Haida from the northern end of the Queen Charlotte Islands to 
Prince of Wales Island evidently occurred in recent times, not earlier 
than the eighteenth century, and it is clear that they replaced the 
Tlingit there since the names of their towns in the invaded country are 
all derived from Tlingit. Whether the movement of the Tsimshian 
to the coast of British Columbia and the, probably contemporary, 


6 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BoLy. 145 


removal of a part of the Tlingit northward, happened before or after 
1650 we shall never know, but it seems to have taken place long be- 
fore the Haida emigration just mentioned. It was formerly believed 
that mass migrations of impressive character took place in the Colum- 
bia River Valley about the beginning of the nineteenth century. 
This idea was perhaps set in motion by George Gibbs (1877) in speak- 
ing of the migrations of Klikitat Indians, and was suggested in some 
particulars by Mooney (1928) but elaborated by James Teit (1928) 
and adopted and amplified by Berreman (1937). This involved the 
assumption that before that time both banks of Columbia River from 
The Dalles to the mouth of Snake River were in possession of Salishan 
tribes, that south of them lay the Cayuse and Molala, and south of 
them again the ancestors of all of the Shahaptian peoples except the 
Nez Percés; and that about the beginning of the nineteenth century 
the Shoshoneans of the interior moved northward, pushing the Sha- 
haptians ahead of them; and that these in turn, after disrupting the 
Cayuse and Molala, expelled the Salishans from the valley of the 
Columbia in the region just indicated. More recent researches by 
Ray, Murdock, Blyth, and Steward (1938) seem to indicate that this 
is entirely erroneous and that, except for a displacement of the Mo- 
lala and a relatively recent expansion of Shahaptians toward the 
south at the expense of the Shoshoneans, the tribes and stocks seem 
to have occupied substantially the same areas in the earliest times 
of which we have any record as they did when the reservations were 
established. At any rate, supposition of stability in tribal location 
makes the work of the cartographer much simpler, and we will accept 
the tribal distribution shown by Ray in his paper published in 1938 
as being as near the probable situation in 1650 as can now be deter- 
mined. From the fact that he indicates the northern boundary of 
Shoshonean peoples in the eighteenth century, it is assumed that he 
regards the rest of his map as valid for that century. 

For the position of the interior Athapascan tribes before they were 
attacked by the Cree, I am indebted to Dr. Diamond Jenness, formerly 
Chief of the Department of Anthropology of the National Museum 
of Canada, who was also kind enough to go over most of my Canadian 
section and has made many valuable suggestions and amplifications. 

The scope of the work has also been expanded territorially as it 
progressed. Originally it was intended merely as a convenient guide 
to the tribes of the several states of the American Union and Alaska, 
demand for such a work being considerable. But since the original 
linguistic map of the Bureau had included the Dominion of Canada 
and Greenland, it was later determined to make this of the same ex- 
tent. And finally, owing to the representations of a leading anthro- 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 7 


pologist, it was amplified to take in México, Middle America, and the 
West Indies. 

The method of treatment for Canada and Greenland has been 
practically identical with that for the United States, but it was thought 
best to represent on the map not merely the tribes but the band divi- 
sions of the larger northern tribes, such as the Chippewa, Cree, Algon- 
kin, Montagnais, and several of the Athapascan groups, including the 
Kutchin and Khotana of the far Northwest and Alaska. Many of 
these band names are English and wholly modern, but it is highly 
probable that some of them correspond to more ancient divisions 
and, since they have found a place in literature, the identification of 
their locations will be convenient. For the placing of those in the 
Northeast I am particularly indebted to the late anthropologists Dr. 
Frank G. Speck, of the University of Pennsylvania, and Dr. John 
M. Cooper, of the Catholic University of America. 

Objection has been made to entering the names of Eskimo tribes or 
bands on the map, since almost all refer simply to “people living at 
such-and-such a place,” most of them had little permanence, and there 
was aN enormous number of them, the ones I have mentioned being 
merely a selection. On the other hand, it may be urged that some 
groups, notably those in Alaska, had considerable continuity, that 
most of them probably owed their existence to certain natural food 
supplies which would tend to reproduce other tribes at the same spots 
even though these were broken up, and that finally most of the tribes 
here entered have obtained a place in Eskimo literature and it is 
convenient to know where they lived even though they may have 
been no more important than other tribes not mentioned. Besides, 
if this were not done, the map would have little more value, so far as 
the Eskimo country is concerned, than the linguistic map. In the 
text I have indicated the relative lack of importance of the Eskimo 
tribes by treating all under the one head ‘‘Eskimo,”’ and their names, 
like the band names of the northern Indians just mentioned, are in 
different type. The West Greenland names are, of course, quite 
modern but are thought to represent the principal bands of an earlier 
date. 

As already stated, that portion of the map south of the territory of 
the United States is based on the map of México and Central America 
published by Dr. Thomas and myself (1911), on the work of Lehmann 
(1920) mentioned above, but particularly on the papers of Mason 
(1940) and Johnson (1940). Although European influence in this 
region goes back to the early part of the sixteenth century, relatively 
little tribal displacement had taken place by 1650. On the West 
Indies, however, it was very different, and, if we were to note only the 
tribes extant there in 1650, little could be inserted. However, it 


8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


has seemed best to submit to the anachronism here by giving the 
tribes in occupancy when Spaniards first came among them at the end 
of the fifteenth century and beginning of the sixteenth. In this part 
of the map I have followed Lehmann except in Jamaica and Haiti, 
but I have omitted several of his Jamaica names which seem to be 
merely those of towns. The tribal distribution in Haiti is the result 
of my studies of Peter Martyr’s “De Orbo Novo,” and I have increased 
the five “‘provinces” given by Las Casas (1875-76) because it seems to 
me that Marien in the northwest and Maguana in the center should 
have independent status. Probably the caciquedoms here and in 
the other islands were in a constant state of flux. 

In treating the linguistic stocks, considerable compromise has been 
found necessary. Since the publication of Powell’s map (1891) the 
investigations of various students have rendered certain changes 
necessary, but other proposed changes have not been accepted by 
all students, and some are violently opposed. 

The connection between Shahaptian, Waiilatpuan, and Lutuamian, 
first suggested by Hewitt (1897) and recently confirmed by Jacobs 
(1937), has made it necessary to put these three groups of languages 
into one stock which is here called Shapwailutan, a name made up of 
the first three syllables of the original stock names and in that form 
suggested by Hewitt many years ago. The connection of Natchez 
with the Muskhogean family, originally proposed by Brinton and 
confirmed by me, has been recognized in the present classification. 
I have also placed the former Tonikan, Chitimachan, and Attacapan 
stocks under the stock name Tunican in accordance with the results 
of my own researches though the inclusion of the first mentioned is 
not entirely beyond question. Dr. J. P. Harrington’s studies (1910) 
have made the relationship between Kiowan and the Tanoan tongues 
so evident that they have been placed in one family and given the 
name Kiowa-Tanoan. There no longer seems to be any excuse for 
keeping the old Shoshonean, Piman, and Nahuatlan stocks apart, 
and I have followed Buschmann (1859) and Brinton (1891) in uniting 
them as Uto-Aztecan. Kiowa-Tanoan is probably related to this 
but the fact has still to be demonstrated. 

In California we are confronted by some puzzling questions as to 
relationships, which have been made the basis of violent differences of 
opinion. Some of our ethnologists have been very skeptical regarding 
the Algonquian connection of Yurok and Wiyot but I let it stand as on 
Kroeber’s Handbook (1925) pending exact determination. On the 
other hand, the validity of the so-called Penutian stock seems to be 
recognized by all of those who have had the best opportunities to study 
the languages composing it and is admitted here. The relationship 
between some of the languages of the other great stock created by 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 9 


Dixon and Kroeber (1919), the Hokan, is also allowed by other stu- 
dents. A doubt still remains whether all of the languages classified 
under this head, even in the original and most conservative usage of the 
term, should go with it. Or rather, it seems doubtful whether our 
information is sufficient to justify the erection of this stock over against 
the Penutian. Mr. J. P. Harrington (personal information) is of the 
opinion that the distinction betweem Hokan and Penutian is artificial 
and that the languages of both groups and of various others not as 
yet brought together are probably related. But since the name Hokan 
has received literary recognition, it seems best to continue it provision- 
ally for the forms of speech first placed in that category. Kroeber’s 
confirmation of Brinton’s suggestion regarding the Serian and Te- 
quistlatecan stocks has served to add them to the Hokan family 
through Yuman, and Sapir proposed extension to Subtiaba and 
Coahuilteco. J am favorably disposed toward very considerable ex- 
tensions of the present family boundaries but feel that more una- 
nimity of opinion is desirable before including the more radical sugges- 
tions in a general work of this kind. Personally, I am convinced that 
a very large part of the vocabulary and structure of the Siouan and 
Muskhogean languages has had a common origin and believe that it 
will ultimately be found best to consider them as branches of one 
stock, but adequate proof has not yet been presented. The Tunican 
stock also shares certain well-marked structural peculiarities with 
Muskhogean while having connections also with the ancient Texas 
stocks, but the meaning of this has yet to be determined. It is plain 
that the structural parallelism between Athapascan and Tlingit is not 
accidental, and some striking similarities extend to Haida. Whether 
the somewhat similar parallelism between Salishan, Chimakuan, and 
Wakashan means genetic relationship is another problem, but the 
answers to these are not as yet sufficiently assured to incorporate any 
changes from the older classification in this work. It is evident that 
a future map devoted to the distribution of languages in North 
America must give something more than stocks or supposed stocks. 
It must show the degree of relationship between languages as well in- 
side as outside of stock boundaries. 

No doubt the positions assigned to certain tribes in the present map 
will surprise many ethnologists. This will be particularly true of the 
placing of some of those of the Plains like the Arapaho, Kiowa, Kiowa 
Apache, and Arikara. In fact, some of these locations are extremely 
speculative but they are governed by the necessity of harmonizing 
them with the locations of other tribes at the time selected as standard, 
1650. In the case of certain tribes removed from their original seats 
before 1650, or whose locations were learned only at a considerably 
later time, the date of known occupancy is indicated in parentheses. 


10 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


The present work was well under way before it was learned that 
something similar was being undertaken by Professor Kroeber, and 
Kroeber’s work has since appeared (1939) as ‘Cultural and Natural 
Areas of Native North America.” This magnificent publication will 
undoubtedly continue to occupy a place all by itself for a long time 
but it is evidently intended mainly for the university student, though 
its usefulness will by no means be confined to such students, and in 
other particulars the purposes of that study were quite distinct from 
those which the present writer has entertained. 

“Tt aims,” says Prof. Kroeber, “‘first, to review the environmental 
relations of the native cultures of North America. Its second purpose 
is to examine the historic relations of the culture areas, or geographical 
units of cultures.” My own compilation has no such ambitious 
purposes. It is merely intended to inform the general reader what 
Indian tribes occupied the territory of his State and to add enough 
data to indicate the place they occupied among the tribal groups of 
the continent and the part they played in the early period of our 
history and the history of the States immediately to the north and 
south of us. It attempts to be rather a gazetteer of present knowledge 
than a guide to the attainment of more knowledge. 

The preparation of this manuscript extended over several years 
and some new material was added indeed until my retirement from 
active membership on the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology 
in 1944. It is admittedly defective in the use of material published 
during the years since that date. 

In the synonymy only those forms have been given which differ 
so much from the popular designation of the tribe as to make identifi- 
cation difficult. 

Although I have usually leaned very largely on Mooney’s popula- 
tion figures (1928) in my over-all estimates, my own for the South- 
eastern tribes, as shown by those on map 8 of Bulletin 137 (Swanton, 
1946), would generally be considerably smaller. 

The work has been done from the point of view of the United 
States, and therefore the Chippewa have been treated under Minne- 
sota, the Huron under Ohio, and the Assiniboin under Montana, 
although their centers were rather north of the International Boundary. 

On the maps the boundary lines between modern political nations 
and states are indicated by long dashes; those between linguistic 
stocks or major divisions of that type by short dashes and divisions 
between smaller tribal or group bodies by dots.? 


!NoTE: This has not been consistently carried through on the maps.— J. R. 8. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA Vt 


Map 1.—Outline map of North America showing relative position of the four 
following maps illustrating the locations of the Indian tribes of North America: 
Section 1, Northwestern North America (map 2, facing p. 26); section 2, 
Northeastern North America (map 3, facing p. 106); section 3, Southwestern 


North America (map 4, facing p. 186); section 4, Southeastern North America 
(map 5, facing p. 298). 


MAINE 


Abnaki. Properly Wabanaki, “‘those living at the sunrise,” “those 
living at the east,’ “‘easterners.”’ Also called: 


Alndnbal, own name, meaning ‘Indians,’ or “men.” 

Aquannaque, Wabanaki as pronounced by Huron. 

Bashabas, name given them from a principal chief. 

Cannon-gageh-ronnons, name given by Mohawk. 

Moassones, from a name applied to their country; perhaps from Penobscot 
Maweshenook, “berry place.” 

Narankamigdok epitsik arenanbak, ‘‘villages of the Narainkamigdog,”’ 
said to be a collective name for all the Abnaki villages. 

Natio Luporum, “‘Wolf Nation.” 

Nats4gana, name given by Caughnawaga Iroquois. 

Onagungees, Onnogonges, Anagonges, or Owenagunges, name given by 
the Iroquois. 

Skacewanilom, name given by the Iroquois. 

Tarrateens, name given by the tribes of southern New England. 


Connections —The Abnaki belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
family, their closest connections being with their neighbors to the 
east and west. Indeed their name has very commonly been extended 
to include the Malecite, Penobscot, and Pennacook, and even the 
Micmac, though on the other hand the Sokoki have sometimes been 
left out. 

Location.—The main body was in western Maine, in the valleys 
of the Kennebec, Androscoggin, and Saco Rivers and on the neighbor- 
ing coast, overlapping also into Carroll County, N. H. A single 
tribe, the Missiassik, was in northwestern Vermont, representing 
probably a late intrusion. (See also New Hampshire and Vermont.) 


Subdivisions 


Amaseconti, on Sandy River, Franklin County. 

Arosaguntacook, on the lower course of Androscoggin River. 

Missiassik, in the valley of Missisquoi River, Franklin County, Vt. 

Norridgewock, on Kennebec River. 

Ossipee, on Ossipee River and Lake in Maine and New Hampshire. 

Pequawket, on Lovell’s Pond and the headwaters of Saco River, Maine and 
New Hampshire. 

Rocameca, on the upper course of Androscoggin River. 

Sokoki, on Saco River and in the adjacent parts of Cumberland and York Counties. 

Wawenoc, on the seacoast of Sagadahoc, Lincoln, and Knox Counties. 


Villages 


Amaseconti; there were two villages of this tribe, at Farmington Falls and New 
Sharon, respectively. 

Aquadocta, westward of Saco. 

Arosaguntacook town, probably near Lewiston. 


13 


14 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Cobbosseecontee, a town or band on the stream of that name, which empties 
into the Kennebec River at Gardiner. 

Ebenecook, at Ebenecook Harbor, Southport Island. 

Kennebec, between Augusta and Winslow. 

Ketangheanycke, near the mouth of Kennebec River. 

Masherosqueck, near the coast and not certainly Abnaki. 

Mecadacut, on the coast between Penobscot and Kennebec Rivers. 

Missiassik, belonging to the Missiassik tribe, on Lake Champlain at the mouth 
of Missisquoi River, Vt. 

Moratiggon, probably on the Maine or New Hampshire coast and possibly not 
Abnaki. 

Moshoquen, on or near the coast. 

Muscongus, on the coast and probably near Muscongus Island. 

Negusset, about the site of Woolwich. 

Ossaghrage, Iroquois name of an Abnaki village. 

Ossipee, probably on Ossipee Lake. 

Ouwerage, probably on Ossipee Lake. 

Pasharanack, probably on the coast. 

Pauhuntanuc, probably on the coast. 

Pemaquid, near Pemaquid, Lincoln County. 

Pequawket town, about Fryeburg. 

Pocopassum, probably on the coast. 

Sabino, at the mouth of the Kennebec River, possibly on the west side. 

Sagadahoc, at the mouth of the Kennebec River. 

Satquin, on the coast southwest of the Kennebec River. 

Segotago, probably identical with Sagadahoc. 

Sowocatuck, perhaps the chief village of the Sokoki, Saco River. 

Taconnet, at the falls of the Kennebec near Waterville. 

Unyjaware, Iroquois name for an Abnaki village. 

Wacoogo, probably on or near the coast. 


History.—The Abnaki and their neighbors claim to have immigrated 
into their historic seats from the southwest. Aside from possible 
Norse visitants in 1000-1010, John Cabot, during his second voyage 
in 1498, probably brought the first white men within sight of Abnaki 
territory, but he seems to have had no dealings with the people. 
From that time on, Breton, Basque, Norman, and English fishermen 
constantly visited the coast. In 1604 Champlain passed along it 
from north to south and visited several Abnaki bands, and in 1605 
Waymouth penetrated the Wawenoc country. In 1607-08 came an 
abortive attempt on the part of the Plymouth Company to make a 
permanent settlement at the mouth of the Kennebec River, but it is 
probable that English fishermen were on Monhegan Island almost 
continuously after that date. Pemaquid was also occupied at an 
early period. The Abnaki were soon afterward missionized from 
Canada and became attached to the French interest. For a time 
they were successful in driving the English colonists away but later 
they suffered several severe defeats—particularly the capture of 
Norridgewock in 1724 and the defeat of the Pequawket in 1725— 
were much reduced in numbers, and finally withdrew to Canada where 


SwaNTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 15 


they were settled at Bécancour and Sillery, and later at St. Francis, 
along with other refugee tribes from the south. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates this at 3,000 in 1600, includ- 
ing the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy. The St. Francis Indians, 
including remnants of other New England tribes, numbered 395 in 
1903, and 280 in 1924. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The activities of the 
missionary Rasles, compilation by him of the Abnaki dictionary, the 
destruction of Norridgewock, and the defeat of the Pequawket on 
Lovell Pond, as mentioned above, have made the Abnaki famous. 


Malecite. They extended into the northeastern part of the State of 
Maine from Canada (q. v.). 
Passamaquoddy. Signifying ‘Those who pursue the pollock,” but 
strictly “‘pollock-plenty-place’”’ (Eckstorm). Also called: 
Machias Tribe, applied to some living on Machias River. 
Quoddy, abbreviation of Passamaquoddy. 
St. Croix Indians, from one of the rivers they inhabited. 
Scotuks, from the name of the Schoodic Lakes. 
Unchechauge or Unquechauge. 


Connections.—The Passamaquoddy belong to the Algonquian lin- 
guistic family, their closest connections being the Malecite, and their 
more remote relatives the Abnaki, Penobscot, and Pennacook. 

Location.—On Passamaquoddy Bay, St. Croix River, and the 
Schoodic Lakes. (See also Canada.) 


Villages 
Gunasquamekook, on the site of St. Andrews, N. B. 
Imnarkuan, on the site of Pembroke, Washington County. 
Sebaik, at Pleasant Point, Passamaquoddy Bay, near Perry, Washington County. 


Other towns were on Lewis Island and at Calais, in Maine, and on the New 
Brunswick side of St. Croix River. 

EHistory.—The early history of the Passamaquoddy was identical 
with that of the Malecite (q. v.). When the territory of the 13 
colonies was separated from English rule, the greater part of this 
tribe was left on the south side of the boundary. They enjoy, jointly 
with the Penobscot, the privilege of having a representative in the 
Maine State legislature, though he speaks only on matters of concern 
to the two tribes. 

Population.—The population of the Passamaquoddy was estimated 
at about 150 in 1726, 130 in 1804, 379 in 1825, 400-500 in 1859; and 
was enumerated as 386 in 1910. In 1930, 435 Indians were returned 
from Washington County, and practically all of these must have 
belonged to this tribe. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Passamaquoddy 
have given their name to Passamaquoddy Bay, which forms part of 


16 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


the eastern boundary of the State of Maine and are the easternmost 

body of Indians in the United States. 

Pennacook. The Accominta and Newichawanoc of the extreme 
southwestern part of the State belonged to this tribe. (See New 
Hampshire.) 

Penobscot. Meaning “the rocky place,” or “the descending ledge 
place” (Eckstorm), referrmg to the falls between Oldtown and 
Bangor. Also called: 


d 


Pentagouet, from the name of their principal village near Castine. 


Connections.—The Penobscot belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
stock, their nearest connections being the Abnaki, Passamaquoddy, 
Malecite, and Pennacook, with whom they were frequently classed 
under the name of the first mentioned. 

Location.—On both sides of Penobscot Bay and in the entire drain- 
age area of Penobscot River. 


Subdivisions 
A body of Penobscot on Moosehead Lake were known as ‘‘Moosehead Lake 
Indians,’ but their separation from the rest was probably temporary. 


Villages 
Agguncia, said to have been a small settlement near Brewer, Penobscot County, 
from which the fabulous city of ‘‘Norumbega” derived its name. 
Asnela, a settlement on an island of the same name in Penobscot Bay. 
Catawamtek, at Rockland. 
Kenduskeag, at Bangor, near the site of the Penobscot Exchange Hotel. 
Mattawamkeag, about Mattawamkeag Point, Penobscot County. 
Meecombe, on the lower course of Penobscot River. 
Negas, in Penobscot County. 
Olamon, on an island in Penobscot River near Greenbush. 
Oldtown, the present village on an island of the same name. 
Passadumkeag, on an island in Penobscot River near the present Passadumkeag. 
Pentagouet, at or near Castine. 
Precaute, on the southeast coast of Maine; it may have been a Passamaquoddy 
town. 
Segocket, near the mouth of Penobscot River. 
Wabigganus, probably near the mouth of the Penobscot River. 


History.—Native tradition brings the Penobscot from the South- 
west. They were encountered by French and English fishermen and 
explorers early in the sixteenth century, and one of their towns came 
to have a European reputation as a city of fabulous size and impor- 
tance under the name of Norumbega. In the seventeenth century 
their chief, known to the Whites as Bashaba, seems to have extended 
his authority, probably his moral authority only, over the tribes to 
the westward as far as the Merrimac. The Penobscot were visited 
by Champlain in 1604 and by numerous later explorers. They assisted 
the French against the English until 1749, when they made peace 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA t7 


and in consequence did not remove to Canada with the Abnaki. 
They have remained in their old country to the present day, their 
principal settlement being on Oldtown Island. Conjointly with the 
Passamaquoddy, they have a representative at the sessions of the 
Maine State legislature privileged to speak on tribal affairs only. 

Population.—The following are early estimates of the Penobscot 
population: 650 in 1726, 1,000 in 1736, 700 in 1753, 400 in 1759, 700 
in 1765, 350 in 1786. According to the United States Census of 1910, 
there were 266, including 13 scattered outside of the State of Maine. 
The census of 1930 returned 301 Indians from Penobscot County, 
practically all belonging to this tribe. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Penobscot have 
given their name to a bay, ariver, and a county in the State of Maine, to 
a post village in Hancock County, and a branch post office in Detroit. 
The title of the chief above mentioned, Bashaba or Bessebes, became 
the center of a myth among the Whites in which he was elevated to 
the dignity of a local king or emperor. The widely quoted myth of 
Norumbega should also be mentioned in this connection. This tribe 
and the Passamaquoddy constitute the only bodies of Indians of any 
size remaining in New England. 


NEW HAMPSHIRE 


Abnaki. Parts of Grafton County were occupied by the Ossipee and 
Pequawket bands, affiliated with the Sokoki of the Abnaki tribe. 
(See Maine.) 

Pennacook. Gerard (Hodge, 1910) says the name is ‘‘cognate with 
Abnaki péndékuk, or pena”kuk, ‘at the botton of the hill or highland,’ ” 
but Speck says simply ‘‘down hill.’”’ Also called: 

Merrimac, from the river of that name. 
Nechegansett, name given by Gookin (1792). 
Owaragees, Iroquois name (fide Colden (1747)). 

Connections.—The Pennacook belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
stock, their nearest relatives being the Abnaki, with whom they were 
frequently classed, and the Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, and Malecite. 

Location.—In southern and central New Hampshire, northeastern 
Massachusetts, and the southernmost part of Maine. (See also 
Maine, Massachusetts, and Vermont.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 
Accominta, at or near the site of York, Maine. 
Agawam, at Ipswich, Mass. 
Amoskeag, at Amoskeag Falls on the Merrimack River. 
Coosuc, a division along Connecticut River between Upper and Lower Ammo- 
noosuc Rivers, the principal village apparently near the mouth of the latter. 


18 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Nashua, a division along the upper course of Nashua River, the village being near 

Leominster, Mass. 

Naumkeag, at Salem, Mass. 

Newichawanoc, a division on upper Piscataqua River and Salmon Falls River in 
Maine and New Hampshire, the principal village being near Berwick, Maine. 
Pennacook, a division on both banks of Merrimack River above and below Concord, 

the village of the same name being on the site of Concord. 
Pentucket, at Haverhill, Mass. 

Piscataqua, on Piscataqua River near Dover. 

Souhegan, a division on Souhegan River, Hillsborough County, with the village 
of the same name probably near Amherst, formerly called Souhegan. 

Squamscot, on Exeter River near Exeter, Rockingham County. 

Wachuset, a division on the upper Nashua River, Mass., the village of the same 
name being located probably near Princeton. 

Wamesit, a division on the south bank of Merrimack River below the mouth of 

Concord River, Mass., the village of the same name being near Lowell. 
Weshacum, at Weshacum Ponds, near Sterling, Mass. 

Winnecowet, in Rockingham County. 
Winnipesaukee, around the lake of the same name. 

History.—The early history of the Pennacook was like that of the 
Abnaki except that they were earlier affected by the English settle- 
ments on Massachusetts Bay. In King Philip’s War (1675-76) the 
Nashua and Wachuset tribes joined the hostiles, but the greater part 
of the Pennacook, under Wannalancet, remained on friendly terms 
until the treacherous seizure of about 200 of their number by Waldron 
in 1676. They then abandoned their country and the greater part 
removed to Canada, where they ultimately joined the Abnaki and other 
Indians of St. Francis. The remainder were finally settled at Scati- 
cook, Rensselaer County, N. Y. 

Population.—The number of Pennacook is estimated by Mooney 
(1928) at 2,000 in 1600 and 1,250 in 1676. The remnant is included 
among the 280 St. Francis Indians returned in 1924. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The town of Penacook 
and Lake Penacook, Merrimack County, are named after the Penna- 
cook, as well as a branch station of the Concord Post Office, and their 
name also appears in Whittier’s poem “The Bridal of Pennacook.”’ 


VERMONT 


Abnaki. An Abnaki band known as the Missiassik was at one time 
settled on Missisquoi River in Franklin County. (See Maine.) 

Mahican. Bands of the Mahican hunted in the southwestern and 
western parts of the State and made temporary settlements from 
time to time. One Mahican village (Winooskeek) is thought to 
have been located at the mouth of Winooski River. (See New 
York.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 19 


Pennacook. The eastern margins of Vermont were occupied by the 
Pennacook, who must have hunted considerably within its borders. 
(See New Hampshire.) 

Pocomtuc. The northernmost bands of the Pocomtuc extended 
into the southern parts of the State. (See Massachusetts.) 


MASSACHUSETTS 


Mahican. The Mahican extended over most of Berkshire County, 
where they were represented mainly by the Housatonic or Stock- 
bridge Indians. (See New York.) 

Massachuset. Meaning “at the range of hills,” by which is meant 
the hills of Milton. 

Connections.—The Massachuset belonged to the Algonquian lin- 
guistic stock, their tongue being an n-dialect, and formed one group 
with the Narraganset, Niantic (East and West), and Wampanoag, and 
probably the Nauset. 

Location.—In the region of Massachusetts Bay between Salem on 
the north and Marshfield and Brockton on the south. Later they 
claimed lands beyond Brockton as far as the Great Cedar Swamp, 
territories formerly under the control of the Wampanoag. 


Subdivisions 


Johnson (1881) says that there were ‘‘three kingdoms or sagamoreships having 
under them seven dukedoms or petty sagamores.’”’ Some of these undoubtedly 
correspond to the divisions recently worked out by Speck (1928) by means of pro- 
vincial documents. He identifies six main divisions, two of them further subdi- 
vided, all called by the names of their chiefs, as follows: 

(1) Band of Chickataubut (including the later bands of Wampatuck and some 
other of his heirs and a district and band earlier controlled by Obatinnewat or 
Obtakiest), all of the Massachuset territory south of Charles River and west of 
the neighborhood of Ponkapog Pond. 

(2) Band of Nanepashemet, all the Massachuset territory north of Charles 
River. Nanepashemet’s domain was afterward divided among his three sons: 
Winnepurkit, owning about Deer Island and in Boston Harbor; Wonohaquaham, 
owning about Chelsea and Saugus; and Montowampate, owning about Lynn 
and Marblehead. 

(3) Band of Manatahqua, about Nahant and Swampscott. 

(4) Band of Cato, a tract 5 miles square east of Concord River. 

(5) Band of Nahaton, around Natick. 

(6) Band of Cutshamakin, Cutshamequin, or Kutchamakin, about Dorchester, 
Sudbury, and Milton. 

Villages 

Conohasset, about Cohasset. 

Cowate, ‘Praying Indians,” at the Falls of Charles River. 

Magaehnak, probably ‘‘Praying Indians,” 6 miles from Sudbury. 

Massachuset, location uncertain. 

Mishawum, at Charlestown. 

Mystic, at Medford. 


20 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Nahapassumkeck, in the northern part of Plymouth County, probably on the 
coast. 

Natick, ‘‘Praying Indians,” near the present Natick. 

Neponset, on Neponset River about Stoughton. 

Nonantum, on Nonantum hill, in Newton. 

Pequimmit, ‘‘Praying Indians,’”’ near Stoughton. 

Pocapawmet, on the south shore of Massachusetts Bay. 

Punkapog, “‘Praying Indians,” near Stoughton. 

Sagoquas, south of Cohasset. 

Saugus, near Lynn. 

Seccasaw, in the northern part of Plymouth County. 

Titicut, ‘‘Praying Indians,”’ possibly Wampanoag, in Middleborough town. 

Topeent, on the north coast of Plymouth County. 

Totant, at or near Boston. 

Totheet, on the north coast of Plymouth County. 

Wessagusset, near Weymouth. 

Winnisimmet, at Chelsea. 

Wonasquam, near Annisquam, Essex County, perhaps a later outvillage. 


HMstory.—The Massachuset were visited by several voyagers, be- 
ginning at least as far back as the time of John Cabot but were first 
particularly noted by Captain John Smith, who coasted their terri- 
tory in 1614. In 1617 they were much reduced by a pestilence and 
about the same time they were depleted by wars with their north- 
eastern neighbors. The Puritans settled in their country in 1629, 
and mission work was soon begun among them, and was pursued 
with particular zeal by John Eliot. The converts were gathered into 
separate villages, where they gradually declined in numbers and 
presently disappeared as distinct bodies, though a few descendants of 
the Punkapog town people are still living in Canton, Mattapan, and 
Mansfield. 

Population—The number of Massachuset is estimated by Mooney 
(1928) to have been 3,000 in 1600. In 1631 it was reduced to about 
500, and soon considerably below that figure by smallpox. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Massachuset gave 
their name to Massachusetts Bay and through that to the present 
Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The Massachuset are also noted | 
as the tribe in which the famous apostle to the Indians, John Eliot, | 
labored, through whom a large part of them were gathered into vil- | 
lages of ‘“‘Praying Indians.’”’ The ‘“Elot Bible” and other works by | 
him have preserved a knowledge of the Massachuset language to our 
own day. Crispus Attucks, who was killed in the Boston massacre 
and is generally regarded as the first victim of the American Revolu- 
tion, was of mixed Negro-Massachuset ancestry. The marriage of 
Winnepurkit, a Massachuset chief whose lands were about Boston 
Harbor, to the daughter of Passaconaway, chief sachem of the 
Pennacook, was made by Whittier the subject of a poem, ‘“The 
Bridal of Pennacook.” 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA Al! 


Nauset. Meaning unknown. Also called: 
Cape Indians, from their situation. 
Connections.—(See under discussion of the Massachuset.) 
Location.—All of Cape Cod except the extreme western end. 


Subdivisions 


Speck (1928) has identified the following: Iyanough, Wiananno, or Hyannis 
(centering about Barnstable); Manomoy, or Monomoy (about Chatham); 
Nauset (from Eastham to Truro). 

Villages 


Aquetnet, at Skauton Neck, Sandwich, Barnstable County. 

Ashimut or Ashimuit, at a large spring near the junction of Falmouth, Mashpee, 
and Sandwich Townships, Barnstable County. 

Coatuit, near Osterville, Barnstable County. 

Codtaumut or Cataumut, in Mashpee Township. 

Cummaquid, at Cummaquid Harbor. 

Manamoyik, near Chatham. 

Mashpee, on the coast of Mashpee Township. 

Mattakees or Mattakeset, in Barnstable and Yarmouth Townships. 

Meeshawn, in Provincetown or Truro Township. 

Nauset, near Eastham. 

Nemskaket, on or near Nemskaket Creek. 

Nobsqussit or Nobscusset, near Dennis. 

Pamet, near Truro. 

Pawpoesit, near Barnstable. 

Pispogutt or Pispoqutt, in the western part of Barnstable County, near Buz- 
zards Bay. 

Poponesset, near Poponesset Bay. 

Potanumaquut, on Pleasant Bay near Harwich. 

Punonaknit, at Billingsgate near Wellfleet. 

Satuit, on Cotuit River near Mashpee. 

Sawkatuket or Satucket, in Brewster or Harwich. 

Skauton, near Sandwich, probably on Buzzards Bay. 

Sokones or Succonesset, near Falmouth. 

Wakoquet, or Waquoit, near Waquoit or Weequakit, in Barnstable Township. 

Wessquobs or Weesquobs, near Pocasset. 


Many of these contained Wampanoag Indians and some Indians of other 
tribes. 

History.—F rom the exposed position of the Nauset on Cape Cod 
their territory came under the observation of many of the earliest 
explorers, but actual contact with the people was not so simple a 
matter. In 1606 Champlain had an encounter with them. In 1614 
Hunt carried off 7 Nauset Indians and 20 Patuxet of the Wampanoag 
tribe whom he sold into slavery. They seem to have escaped the great 
New England pestilence of 1617. Although they behaved in a hostile 
manner toward the Pilgrims at their first landing in 1620, they soon 
became firm friends and even rendered some assistance against King 
Philip (1675-76). Most of them had been Christianized before this 


22 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


time and collected into churches. In 1710 many died of fever, but the 
number of Indians in Nauset territory was increased by additions 
from other tribes driven from their proper territories, so that the 
population of the principal Indian settlement at Mashpee has not 
fallen below 200 down to the present day, though a great deal of 
mixture with other races has taken place. 

Population.—The number of the Nauset was estimated by Mooney 
(1928) at 1,200 in 1600. In 1621 they were believed to number 500; 
in 1674, 462 were reported in the various inhabited centers on Cape 
Cod, containing Nauset, Wampanoag, and other Indians. In 1698, 
515 Indians were reported from Mashpee, mainly Nauset and Wam- 
panoag. In 1767, 292 were reported at the same place and the 
number has varied between 200 and 300 down to 1930. The United 
States Census of 1910 reported 206 Indians of this band, all but 5 in 
Massachusetts. Speck (1928) estimates that there were 230 in 1920, 
all of whom were mixed-bloods. The census of 1930 returned only 
38 Indians from Barnstable County and 54 from Massachusetts, but 
it may be incomplete. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—As already remarked, 
it was in the Nauset territory and in considerable measure through 
their blood that the Massachusetts aborigines maintained their 
existence longest. Nauset Beach, Nauset Harbor, and Nauset Light 
perpetuate the name. 


Nipmue. From Nipmaug, “fresh water fishing place.” 

Connections.—The Nipmuc belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
family, their language being an J/-dialect. Their nearest relatives 
were the other tribes of Massachusetts and the tribes of Rhode Island, 
Connecticut, and the Hudson River Valley. 

Location.—The Nipmuc occupied the central plateau of Massachu- 
setts, particularly the southern part of Worcester County, but they 
extended into northern Rhode Island and Connecticut. (See also 
Connecticut and Rhode Island.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Acoomemeck, location uncertain. 

Attawaugan, near Attawaugan in the town of Killingly, Conn. 
Chabanakongkomun, near Dudley. 

Chachaubunkkakowok, location uncertain. 

Coweset, in northern Rhode Island west of Blackstone River. 

Hassanamesit, at Grafton. 

Magunkaquog, at Hopkinton. 

Manchaug, near Oxford. 

Manexit, near Thompson, Conn. 

Mashapaug, at Mashapaug Pond in the town of Union, Conn. 
Medfield, at Medfield, native name unknown. 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 23 


Menemesseg, near New Braintree. 

Metewemesick, near Sturbridge. 

Missogkonnog, location uncertain. 

Muskataquid, location uncertain. 

Nashobah, near Magog Pond, in Littleton. 

Nichewaug, about Nichewaug, near Petersham. 

Okommakamesit, near Marlborough. 

Pakachoog, near Worcester, probably in Millbury. 

Quabaug, near Brookfield. 

Quadick, near the present Quadick Reservoir, Thompson County, Conn. 

Quantisset, on Thompson Hill, near Thompson, Conn. 

Quinebaug, on Quinebaug River near Quinebaug Station, town of Thompson, 
Conn. 

Quinetusset, near Thompson in northeast corner of Connecticut. 

Segunesit, in northeastern Connecticut. 

Tatumasket, west of Mendon, in the southern part of Worcester County. 

Wabaquasset, about 6 miles from Quinebaug River, south of Woodstock, Conn., 
sometimes regarded as an independent tribe. 

Wacuntug, on the west side of Blackstone River, near Uxbridge. 

Wenimesset, at New Braintree. 


History.—There was no coherence among the people bearing the 
name of Nipmuc and some of them were from time to time attached 
to the more powerful tribes in their neighborhood, such as the Massa- 
chuset, Wampanoag, Narraganset, and Mohegan. The Whites 
first met them after Plymouth and the Massachusetts Bay were settled. 
In 1674 there were seven villages of Christian Indians among the 
Nipmuc but in 1675 practically all took part with King Philip against 
the colonists and at its close fled to Canada or to the tribes on Hudson 
River. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 500 inde- 
pendent Nipmuc in 1600. If we consider as Nipmuc the Indians re- 
turned from Worcester County, Mass., and Windham and Tolland 
Counties, Conn., in 1910, there were then 81. 


Pennacook. The following bands of Pennacook lived in the north- 
eastern part of Massachusetts: Agawam, Nashua, Naumkeag, 
Pentucket, Wachuset, Wamesit, and Weshacum. (See New 
Hampshire.) 

Pocomtuc. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—The Pocomtuc belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
family, and spoke an r-dialect, their nearest relatives probably being 
the Wappinger. 

Location.—The Pocomtuc home was in the present counties of 
Franklin, Hampshire, and Hampden, Mass., and in the neighboring 
parts of Connecticut and Vermont. 


24 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Agawam, about Springfield, their principal village of the same name being on 
Long Hill. 

Mayawaug, near W. Suffield, town of Suffield, Conn. 

Nameroke, in the town of Enfield, east of Thompsonville, Conn. 

Nonotue, a division and village about Northampton. 

Pocomtuc, a division in Deerfield River Valley and the adjacent parts of the 
Connecticut River Valley, the principal town of the same name being near 
Deerfield. (See also Vermont.) 

Scitico, near the place of that name in the eastern part of the town ot Enfield, 
Conn. 

Squawkeag, on both sides of Connecticut River in the northern part of Franklin 
County, their principal village, of the same name, being near Northfield. 
History.—The fort of the Pocomtuc proper, on Fort Hill near 

Deerfield, was destroyed by the Mohawk in 1666. The Pocomtuc 

combined with the Narraganset and Tunxis in attacks on the Mohegan 

chief, Uncas, and later joined the hostile Indians under King Philip. 

At the close of the war they fled to Scaticook on the Hudson, where 

some of them remained until 1754, going then to St. Francis, Canada. 
Population—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,200 

Pocomtuc in 1600. If we count as Pocomtuc the Indians returned 

from Hampden and Hampshire Counties in 1910, there were then 23 

left, but they may have been of quite other origin. 


Wampanoag. The name has the same meaning as Abnaki, “eastern 
people.”” Also called: 
Massasoits, from the name of their famous chief. 
Philip’s Indians, from King Philip. 

Connections —The Wampanoag belonged to the Algonquian lin- 
guistic stock, speaking an n-dialect like the neighboring Massachuset, 
Narranganset, Niantic (East and West), and the Nauset. 

Location.—The Wampanoag occupied Rhode Island east of Narra- 
gansett Bay; Bristol County, Mass.; the southern part of Plymouth 
County, below Marshfield and Brockton; and the extreme western 
part of Barnstable. The Indians of Martha’s Vineyard should also be 
added to them, and it will be convenient to treat under the same head 
those of Nantucket and the Saconnet, or Sakonnet, of Sakonnet Point, 
R. I., whose connection was more remote. They controlled Rhode 
Island in Narragansett Bay until the Narraganset tribe conquered it 
from them. (See also Rhode Island.) 


Subdivisions 


Speck (1928) gives the following mainland subdivisions: 

(1) Band of Massasoit, in a territory called Sowwams on the east side of Narra- 
gansett Bay; the western part of Bristol County, Mass.; all of Bristol 
County, R. I.; and the eastern part of Providence County, R. I. 

(2) Band of Annawon, about Squannaconk swamps in Rehoboth Township. 


SwanTon] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 25 

(3) Band of Weetamoe, a chieftainess, their territory being called Pocasset, in 
southeastern Rhode Island, about Tiverton and adjacent parts of Bristol 
County, Mass. 

(4) Band of Corbitant or Caunbatant, about Swansea. 

(5) Band of Tispaquin or Tuspaquin, lands called Assawampset, about Assa- 
wampset Pond: 

(6) Band of Tyasks or Tyashk, about Rochester and Acushnet. 

(7) Band of Totoson, in a territory centering about Mattapoisett and Rochester. 

(8) Band of Coneconam or Cawnacome, in a territory known as Manomet, 
extending from Manomet to Woods Hole. 

(9) Band of Piowant or Piant, between Assonet Bay and Taunton River. 

There were several vacant tracts not occupied by any of the above. In 1861 
there were bands of Wampanoag at Herring Pond, Dartmouth, Mamatakesett 
Pond, Tumpum Pond, and Watuppa Pond. 

Speck (1928) gives the following bands on Martha’s Vineyard, but the classi- 
fication applies to a time when Indians from various parts of the mainland had 
begun to settle there: 

(1) Band of Nohtooksaet who came from Massachusetts Bay, about Gay Head. 

(2) Band of Mankutquet (including the bands of Wannamanhut who came from 
near Boston (Christian town) and Toohtoowee, on the north shore of 
Chilmark), in the western part of Martha’s Vineyard excluding the pre- 
ceding. 

(3) Band of Tewanticut (including the bands of Cheesehahchamuk, about 
Homes’ Hole; Wampamag, of Sanchakankachet; and Tom Tyler, about 
Edgartown), in the eastern section of Martha’s Vineyard. 

(4) Band of Pahkepunnasso, on the island of Chappaquiddick. 

There were two bands on Nantucket, the names of which are unknown, and we 
must also add the Sakonnet, on Sakonnet Point, R. I., and the Indians of the 
Elizabeth Islands. 


Villages 


Mainland: Mainland—Continued 


Acushnet, about Acushnet. 
Agawam, about Wareham. 


Assameekg, probably near  Dart- 
mouth. 

Assawompset, in Middleborough 
Township. 


Assonet, conjectural village near the 
present Assonet. 

Coaxet, near Little Compton, R. I. 

Cohannet, about Fowling Pond near 
Taunton. 

Comassakumkanit or Herring Pond, 
Herring Pond, Plymouth County. 
Cooxissett, probably in Plymouth 

County. 
Cowsumpsit, in Rhode Island. 
Jones’ River, in Kingston Township. 
Kitteaumut, near Monument Pond, 
Plymouth County. 
Loquasquscit, near Pawtucket, R. I. 
Mattakeset, near Duxbury. 


Mattapoiset, near Mattapoiset, Plym- 
outh County. 

Munponset, location unknown. 

Namasket, about Middleboro. 

Nasnocomacack, on the coast and 
probably a few miles north of 
Plymouth. 

Nukkehkummees, near Dartmouth. 

Pachade, near Middleboro. 

Patuxet, at Plymouth. 

Pocasset, near Tiverton, R. I. 

Pokanoket, on Bristol Peninsula, R. I. 

Quittaub, in the southwestern part of 
Plymouth County. 


Saltwater Pond, in Plymouth County. 

Shawonet, near Somerset. 

Wauchimoqut, probably near See- 
konk. 

Wawayontat, on Weweantitt River 
near Wareham. 


26 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Martha’s Vineyard: Nantucket—Continued 
Chaubaqueduck, on the main island Quays, a district and probably village. 
or on Chappaquiddick Island. Sasacacheh, a district and probably 
Gay Head, at Gay Head. village. 
Nashamoiess, in the southeastern Shaukimmo, a district and probably 
part of the island. village, south of Nantucket Harbor. 
Nashanekammuck, at Chilmark. Siasconsit, a district and probably 
Nunnepoag, location uncertain. village, including the site of the 
Ohkonkemme, near Tisbury. present Siasconset. 


Sanchecantacket, near Edgartown. 


: Squam, a district and probably village. 
Seconchqut, location uncertain. : : x TERCRS 


Talhanio, location uncertain. 


Nantucket: 
Miacomit, location uncertain. Tetaukimmo, a district and probably 
Podpis, a district and probably village. 
village. Toikiming, location uncertain. 


History.—With many older writers on the Norse voyages to America, 
Mount Hope Bay, in the territory of the Wampanoag, was a favorite 
site for the supposed Icelandic colony (ca. 1000-1010), but the theory 
is now less popular. In 1602 Gosnold touched at Martha’s Vineyard 
and was kindly treated by the natives. Soon after the Pilgrims had 
established themselves at Plymouth in 1620 they made a treaty of 
friendship with the Wampanoag head chief, Massasoit, who played 
a great part in the early history of the colony. He died in 1662 and 
was succeeded by two sons in succession, the second of whom, Meta- 
comet or Metacom, is the King Philip of history. Observing the 
steady influx of White colonists into Indian lands, King Philip organ- 
ized a native confederacy against them and a bloody war followed 
(1675-76), in which King Philip was killed and the power of the 
tribes of southern New England finally destroyed. The Wampanoag 
survivors settled with the Sakonnet, who had remained neutral, 
and formed towns with the Nauset in the western part of Barnstable 
County. In 1763 they suffered severely from an epidemic, but a 
number of bands have preserved their autonomy, in a much mixed 
condition, to the present day. The Indians of Martha’s Vineyard 
and Nantucket, like the Sakonnet, had refused to join the confederacy 
and consequently maintained their numbers relatively intact for a 
longer period. They continued to decline, however, and in 1764 two- 
thirds of the Nantucket Indians were destroyed by a fever. Two or 
three mixed-bloods were left in 1809, and in 1855 Abram Quary, the 
last of these, died. The Indians of Martha’s Vineyard, on the other 
hand, received considerable accessions from the mainland and have 
maintained themselves down to our day though, like the mainland 
Indians, much mixed with other tribes and other races. 

Population.—Of Wampanoag proper Mooney (1928) estimated that 
there were 2,400 in 1600. They probably suffered severely in the 


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SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA PW 


epidemic of 1617, but in 1630 they are said to have had about 30 
villages. In 1700 the Sakonnet Indians, including most of the 
Wampanoag remnants, were estimated at 400. In 1861 a partial 
census gives 258, and we may suppose that the total was about 300. 
Martha’s Vineyard: The estimates of the Indian population of 
Martha’s Vineyard vary greatly. Mooney (1928) estimated the 
number of Indians at 1,500 in 1600, perhaps taken from an estimate 
of 1642, which gives the same figure, while a later writer places their 
number as “not less than 3,000” (Hare, 1932, p. 44). An estimate 
made in 1698 gave 1,000. In 1764, 313 were returned; in 1807, 360, 
only about 40 of whom were full-bloods. In 1861, 393 were returned, 
but in 1910 only 147. Nantucket: Mooney estimates the Indian 
population of Nantucket to have been 1,500 in 1600 and Mayhew 
(Speck, 1928) gives the same number in 1642. Hare (1932, p. 44) 
also estimates the Indian population to have been 1,500. In 1763 
there were 358; in 1790, 20; in 1809, 2 or 3. An informant of Dr. 
Speck gives the total number of Indians in Barnstable, Plymouth, 
and Bristol Counties in 1928 as 450. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Wampanoag 
made their mark in history chiefly through the activities of their 
chiefs, Massasoit and King Philip. One of the two largest bodies of 
Indians in southern New England to maintain their identity down to 
the present day were the Wampanoag of Martha’s Vineyard. 


RHODE ISLAND 


Narraganset. Their name means “people of the small point.” 

Connections.—The Narraganset belonged to the Algonquian lin- 
guistic family and spoke an n-dialect like the neighboring Massa- 
chuset, Wampanoag, and probably the Niantic (East and West) 
and the Nauset. 

Location.—The Narraganset occupied the greater part of Rhode 
Island west of Narragansett Bay, between Providence and Pawcatuck 
Rivers. At one time they dominated the Coweset (see Nipmuc) 
north of them and the Eastern Niantic, and they drove the Wampa- 
noag from the island which gives its name to the State of Rhode Island 
and the Pequot from some territory they held in the west. (See also 
Massachusetts and Connecticut.) 


Subdivisions 


There are said to have been eight chiefs over as many territorial divisions, all 
under one head chief. 
Villages 


Chaubatick, probably within a few miles of Providence. 
Maushapogue, in Providence County. 


28 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Mittaubscut, on Pawtuxet River, 7 or 8 miles above its mouth. 
Narraganset, above the site of Kingston. 

Pawchauquet, in western Rhode Island. 

Shawomet, near Warwick. 

History.—The Narraganset traced their origin to the Southwest. 
They escaped the great pestilence of 1617 and were in fact increased 
in numbers by bands of refugees. In 1633 the Narraganset lost 700 
in a smallpox epidemic. In 1636 Roger Williams settled among them 
and through their favor was enabled to lay the foundations of the 
present State of Rhode Island. They remained on good terms with 
the Whites until King Philip’s war (1675-76), into which they threw 
their whole strength. In the celebrated swamp fight at Kingston 
they lost nearly 1,000 killed and captured, and the remnants of the 
tribe were soon forced to abandon the country. Some probably 
joined the Mahican and Abnaki or even got as far as Canada and 
never returned to their own people, but others obtained permission to 
come back and were settled among the Eastern Niantic who had taken 
no part in the contest. From that time on the combined tribes were 
known as Narraganset. In 1788 many of these united with the 
Brotherton Indians in New York, and a few have gone to live with the 
Mohegan in Connecticut. The remainder are near Charlestown, 
Riek: 

Population.—The Narraganset are estimated by Mooney (1928) to 
have pumbered 4,000 in 1600, including the Eastern Niantic, and were 
perhaps as numerous in 1675. Along with the Eastern Niantic, they 
had a total population of about 140 in 1812, and 80 in 1832, while the 
census of 1910 returned 16. The same year, however, 284 Indians 
all told were returned from Rhode Island, and in 1930, 130. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Narraganset were 
famed as the most powerful tribe of southern New England and became 
noted also on account of Roger Williams’ dealings with them and his 
report regarding them. Narragansett Bay, the Town of Narragansett 
in Washington County, and Narragansett Pier, the well-known 
summer resort, were named after them. 


Niantic, Eastern. The word Niantic signifies, according to Trumbull 
(1818) “at a point of land on a (tidal) river or estuary.” 
Connections.—The Eastern and the Western Niantic were parts of 

one original tribe split in two perhaps by the Pequot; the nearest 

relatives of both were probably the Narraganset. 
Location.—The western coast of Rhode Island and neighboring 
coast of Connecticut. 
Village 


Wekapaug, on the great pond near Charlestown. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 29 


History.—As has just been stated, the Eastern Niantic were closely 
connected with the Narraganset, but they refused to join them in 
King Philip’s war and at its close the remnants of the Narraganset 
were settled among them. Their subsequent history has been given 
under Narraganset. 

Population.—(See Narraganset. ) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Niantic, in the town of 
Westerly, Washington County, R. I., perpetuates the name. (See 
Niantic, Western, under Connecticut.) 


Nipmuc. The Coweset and some other bands of Nipmuc extended 
into the northwestern part of the State but most of these were 
under the domination of the Narraganset. (See Massachusetts.) 

Pequot.- The Pequot originally occupied some lands in the western 
part of Rhode Island of which the Narraganset dispossessed them. 
(See Connecticut.) 

Wampanoag. The Wampanoag occupied the mainland sections of 
Rhode Island east of Narragansett Bay and Providence River. 
At one period they also held the island which gives this State its 
name but they were driven from it by the Narraganset. (See 


Massachusetts.) 
CONNECTICUT 


Mahican. The northwestern corner of Litchfield County was occu- 
pied by the Wawyachtonoc, a tribe of the Mahican Confederacy of 
the upper Hudson, though their main seats were in Columbia and 
Dutchess Counties, N. Y. (See New York.) 

Mohegan. The name means “wolf.’’ They are not to be confused 
with the Mahican. Also called: 


River Indians. 

Seaside People. 

Unkus [Uncas] Indians, from the name of their chief. 
Upland Indians. 


Connections.—The Mohegan belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
stock and spoke a y-dialect closely related to Pequot. 

Location.—The Mohegan originally occupied most of the upper val- 
ley of the Thames and its branches. Later they claimed authority 
over some of the Nipmuc and the Connecticut River tribes, and in the 
old Pequot territory. (See also New York.) 


Villages 


Ashowat, between Amston and Federal. 

Catantaquck, near the head of Pachaug River. 

Checapscaddock, southeast of the mouth of Shetucket River in the town of 
Preston. 

Kitemaug, on the west wide of Thames River between Uncasville and Massapeag. 

Mamaquaog, on Natchaug River northeast of Willimantic. 


30 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Mashantackack, near Palmertown, town of Montville. 

Massapeag, at the place now so-called on the west side of Thames River. 
Mohegan, at the present town of Mohegan on the west side of Thames River. 
Moosup, at the present Moosup in the town of Plainfield. 

Nawhesetuck, on Fenton River north of Willimantic. 

Pachaug, at the present Pachaug in the town of Griswold. 

Paugwonk, near Gardiner Lake in the town of Salem. 

Pautexet, near the present Jewett City in the town of Griswold. 

Pigscomsuck, on the right bank of Quinebaug River near the present line between 

New London and Windham Counties. 

Poquechanneeg, near Lebanon. 

Poquetanock, near Trading Cove, town of Preston. 

Shantuck, on the west side of Thames River just north of Mohegan. 

Showtucket or Shetucket, near Lisbon in the fork of the Shetucket and Quinebaug 

Rivers. 

Wauregan, on the east side of Quinebaug River in the town of Plainfield. 
Willimantic, on the site of the present city of Willimantic. 
Yantic, at the present Yantic on Yantic River. 

History—The Mohegan were probably a branch of the Mahican. 
Originally under Sassacus, chief of the Pequot, they afterward became 
independent and upon the destruction of the Pequot in 1637, Uncas, 
the Mohegan chief, became ruler also of the remaining Pequot and 
set up pretensions to territory north and west beyond his original 
borders. At the end of King Philip’s War, the Mohegan were the 
only important tribe remaining in southern New England, but as 
the White settlements advanced they were reduced progressively both 
in territory and in numbers. Many joined the Scaticook, and in 1788 
a still larger body united with the Brotherton in New York, where they 
formed the largest single element in the new settlement. The rest 
continued in their old town at Mohegan, where a remnant of mixed- 
bloods still survives. 

Population.—The number of Mohegan were estimated by Mooney 
(1928) at 2,200 in 1600; in 1643, including the remnant of the Pequot 
and perhaps other tribes, at between 2,000 and 2,500. In 1705 
they numbered 750; in 1774, 206 were reported; in 1804, 84; in 1809, 
69; in 1825, 300; in 1832, about 350; in 1910, 22. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Mohegan became 
celebrated on account of the services rendered the Whites by Uncas. 
Today their name is perpetuated in Mohegan, on Thames River, and 
the name of their chief in Uncasville on the same stream. There is 
a post village of this name in McDowell County, W. Va., and a 
Mohegan Lake in Westchester County, N. Y., but this is named 
after the Mahican. 


Niantic, Western. Regarding the name, see Niantic, Eastern, under 
Rhode Island. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 31 


Connections.—These were the same as for the Eastern Niantic. 
(See Rhode Island.) 
Location.—On the seacoast from Niantic Bay to Connecticut River. 


Villages 


Niantic or Nehantucket, near the present town of Niantic. There was another 
near Old Lyme. 

History —Originally the Western Niantic are thought to have con- 
stituted one tribe with the Eastern Niantic and to have been cut apart 
from them by the Pequot. They were nearly destroyed in the 
Pequot war and at its close (1637) were placed under the control of 
the Mohegan. About 1788 many joined the Brotherton Indians. 
A small village of Niantic was reported as existing near Danbury in 
1809, but this perhaps contained remnants of the tribes of western 
Connecticut, although Speck (1928) found several Indians of mixed 
Niantic-Mohegan descent living with the Mohegan remnant, de- 
scendants of a pure-blood Niantic woman from the mouth of Niantic 
River. 

Population. The Western Niantic population was estimated by 
Mooney (1928) at 600 in 1600; there were about 100 in 1638; 85 in 
1761. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name of the West- 
ern Niantic is perpetuated in Niantic village, Niantic River, and 
Niantic Bay, in New London County. Post villages in Macon 
County, Ill., and Montgomery County, Pa., bear the name Niantic. 


Nipmuc. Some bands of this tribe extended into the northeastern 
part of the State. (See Massachusetts.) 

Pequot. The name means, according to Trumbull (1818), ‘“‘de- 
stroyers.”” Also called: 


Sickenames, in a Dutch deed quoted by Ruttenber (1872). 


Connections—The Pequot belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
stock, and spoke a y-dialect closely related to Mohegan. 

Location.—The Pequot occupied the coast of New London County 
from Niantic River nearly to the Rhode Island State line. Until 
driven out by the Narraganset, they extended into Rhode Island 
as far as Wecapaug River. (See also Rhode Island.) 


Villages 


Asupsuck, in the interior of the town of Stonington. 

Aukumbumsk or Awcumbuck, in the center of the Pequot country near Gales 
Ferry. 

Aushpook, at Stonington. 

Cosattuck, probably near Stonington. 

Cuppanaugunnit, probably in New London County. 

Mangunckakuck, probably on Thames River below Mohegan. 


32 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Maushantuxet, at Ledyard. 

Mystic, near West Mystic on the west side of Mystic River. 
Monhunganuck, near Beach Pond in the town of Voluntown. 
Nameaug, near New London. 

Noank, at the present place of that name. 

Oneco, at the place of that name in the town of Sterling. 
Paupattokshick, on the lower course of Thames River. 

Pawcatuck, probably on the river of the same name, Washington County, R. I. 
Pequotauk, near New London. 

Poquonock, inland from Poquonock Bridge.” 

Sauquonckackock, on the west side of Thames River below Mohegan. 
Shenecosset, near Midway in the town of Groton. 

Tatuppequauog, on the Thames River below Mohegan. 

Weinshauks, near Groton. 

Wequetequock, on the east side of the river of the same name. 

History—The Pequot and the Mohegan are supposed to have 
been invaders from the direction of Hudson River. At the period 
of first White contact, the Pequot were warlike and greatly dreaded 
by their neighbors. They and the Mohegan were jointly ruled by 
Sassacus until the revolt of Uncas, the Mohegan chief. (See 
Mohegan.) About 1635 the Narraganset drove them from a corner 
of the present Rhode Island which they had previously held, and 
2 years later the murder of a trader who had treated some Indiahs 
harshly involved the Pequot in war with the Whites. At that time 
their chief controlled 26 subordinate chiefs, claimed authority over 
all Connecticut east of Connecticut River, and on the coast as far 
west as New Haven or Guilford, as well as all of Long Island except 
the extreme western end. Through the influence of Roger Williams, 
the English secured the assistance or neutrality of the surrounding 
tribes. Next they surprised and destroyed the principal Pequot 
fort near Mystic River along with 600 Indians of all ages 
and both sexes, and this disaster crippled the tribe so much that, 
after a few desperate attempts at further resistance, they determined 
to separate into small parties and abandon the country (1637). 
Sassacus and a considerable body of followers were intercepted near 
Fairfield while trying to escape to the Mohawk and almost all were 
killed or captured. Those who surrendered were divided among 
the Mohegan, Narraganset, and Niantic, and their territory passed 
under the authority of Uncas. Their Indian overlords treated them 
so harshly, however, that they were taken out of their hands by 
the colonists in 1655 and settled in two villages near Mystic River, 
where some of their descendants still live. Numbers removed to 
other places—Long Island, New Haven, the Nipmuc country, and 
elsewhere—while many were kept as slaves among the English in 
New England or sent to the West Indies. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 33 


Population.—The Pequot population was estimated by Mooney 
(1928) at 2,200 in 1600; in 1637, immediately after the Pequot war, 
there were said to be 1,950, but the figure is probably too high. 
In 1674 the Pequot in their old territory numbered about 1,500; in 
1762, 140. In 1832 there were said to be about 40 mixed-bloods, 
but the census of 1910 gave 66, of whom 49 were in Connecticut and 
17 in Massachusetts. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The Pequot are 
remembered principally on account of the bitter and, to them, 
disastrous war related above. The name is borne by a post village 
in Crow Wing County, Minn. 


Wappinger. The valley of Connecticut River was the home of a 
number of bands which might be called Mattabesec after the name 
of the most important of them, and this in turn was a part of the 
Wappinger. (See New York.) 


NEW YORK 


Delaware. Bands of two of the main divisions of the Delaware 
Indians, the Munsee and Unami, extended into parts of New 
York State, including the island of Manhattan. (See New Jersey.) 

Erie. The Erie occupied parts of Chautauqua and Cattaraugus 
Counties. (See Onio.) 

Iroquois. From Algonkin Iri®akhoiw, ‘real adders,’’ with the French 
suffix -ois. Also called: 

Ofigwano?siofini’, their own name, meaning ‘“‘We are of the extended 
lodge,’”’ whence comes the popular designation, ‘‘People of the long- 
house.” 

Canton Indians. 

Confederate Indians. 

Five Nations, from the five constituent tribes. 

Mat-che-naw-to-waig, Ottawa name, meaning ‘‘bad snakes.” 

Mingwe, Delaware name. 

Nadowa, name given by the northwestern Algonquians and meaning 
“adders.” 

Six Nations, name given after the Tuscarora had joined them. 

Connections.—The Iroquois belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic 
stock, their nearest relations being the Tuscarora, Neutral Nation, 
Huron, Erie, and Susquehanna. 

Location.—In the upper and central part of the Mohawk Valley 
and the lake region of central New York. After obtaining guns from 
the Dutch, the Iroquois acquired a dominating influence among the 
Indians from Maine to the Mississippi and between the Ottawa and 
Cumberland Rivers. (See also Indiana, Kansas, Ohio, Oklahoma, 
Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Canada.) 


34. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Subdivisions 


There were five tribes, as follows: Cayuga, about Cayuga Lake; Mohawk, in 
the upper valley of Mohawk River; Oneida, about Oneida Lake; Onondaga, in 
Onondaga County and the neighboring section; Seneca, between Lake Seneca 
and Genesee River. Later there were added to these, for the most part not on 
terms of perfect equality, the Tuscarora from North Carolina, some Delaware, 
Tutelo, Saponi, Nanticoke, Conoy, New England Indians, and other fragments 
of tribes, besides entire towns from the Huron, Erie, Andaste, and other conquered 
peoples. 

Villages 
Cayuga: 

Chondote, on the east side of Cayuga Lake a few miles south of Cayuga. 

Gandasetaigon, near Port Hope, Ont. 

Ganogeh, at Canoga. 

Gayagaanhe, near the east shore of Cayuga Lake 3% miles south of Union 
Springs. 

Gewauga, at Union Springs, town of Springport. 

Goiogouen, on the east side of Cayuga Lake on Great Gully Brook, about 4 
miles south of the present Union Springs, and 4 leagues from the town of 
Tiohero. 

Kawauka, (?), Kente, on Quinte Bay, Lake Ontario, Ont. 

Neodakheat, at Ithaca. 

Oneniote, at Oneida on Cayuga Lake. 

Onnontare, probably east of Seneca River and at Bluff Point, near Fox Ridge, 
Cayuga County. 

Owego, on the right bank of Owego Creek, about 2 miles from the Susquehanna 
River, in Tioga County. 

Skannayutenate, on the west side of Cayuga Lake, northeast of Canoga, 
Seneca County. 

Tiohero, 4 leagues from Goiogouen. 


Mohawk: 


Canajoharie, on the east bank of Otsquago Creek nearly opposite Fort Plain. 

Canastigaone, on the north side of Mohawk River just above Cohoes Falls. 

Canienga, near the bank of Mohawk River. 

Caughnawaga, on Mohawk River near the site of Auriesville. 

Chuchtononeda, on the south side of Mohawk River—named from a band. 

Kanagaro, on the north side of Mohawk River in Montgomery County or 
Herkimer County. 

Kowogoconnughariegugharie, (?). 

Nowadaga, at Danube, Herkimer County. 

Onoalagona, at Schenectady. 

Osquake, at Fort Plain and on Osquake Creek, Montgomery County. 

Saratoga, about Saratoga and Stillwater. 

Schaunactada, at and south of Albany. 

Schoharie, near Schoharie. 

Teatontaloga, on the north side of Mohawk River and probably near the mouth 
of Schoharie Creek in Montgomery County. 

Tewanondadon, in the peninsula formed by the outlet of Otsego Lake and 
Shenivas Creek. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 35 


Oneida: 

Awegen. 

Cahunghage, on the south side of Oneida Lake. 

Canowdowsa, near junction of Lackawanna and Susquehanna Rivers. 

Chittenango, on Chittenango Creek, Madison County. 

Cowassalon, on creek of same name in Madison County. 

Ganadoga, near Oneida Castle, Oneida County. 

Hostayuntwa, at Camden. 

Oneida, name of several of the main towns of the tribe, in the valleys of Oneida 
Creek and Upper Oriskany Creek. 

Opolopong, on the east branch of Susquehanna, about 30 miles above Shamokin 
and 10 miles below Wyoming, Pa. 

Oriska, near Oriskany in Oneida County. 

Ossewingo, a few miles above Chenango, Broome County. 

Ostogeron, probably above Toskokogie on the Chenango River. 

Schoherage, probably on the west branch of Chenango River (?) below Tuskokogie. 

Sevege, a short distance above Owego on the west side of the east branch of 
the Susquehanna River. 

Solocka, about 60 miles above Shamokin, on a creek issuing from the Great 
Swamp north of the Cashuetunk Mountains, Pa. 

Tegasoke, on Fish Creek in Oneida County. 

Teseroken, (?). 

Teiosweken, (?). 

Tkanetota, (?). 

Onondaga: 

Ahaouet, (?). 

Deseroken, traditional. 

Gadoquat, at Brewerton, Onondaga County. 

Gannentaha, a mission on Onondaga Lake about 5 leagues from Onondaga. 

Gistwiahna, at Onondaga Valley. 

Onondaga, the principal town of the tribe, which occupied several distinct sites, 
the earliest known probably 2 miles west of Cazenovia and east of West 
Limestone Creek, Madison County. 

Onondaghara, on Onondaga River 3 miles east of Onondaga Hollow. 

Onondahgegahgeh, west of Lower Ebenezer, Erie County. 

Onontatacet, on Seneca River. 

Otiahanague, at the mouth of Salmon River, Oswego County. 

Teionontatases, (?). 

Tgasunto, (?). 

Touenho, south of Brewerton, at the west end of Lake Oneida. 

Tueadasso, near Jamesville. 

Seneca: 

Buckaloon, on the north side of Allegheny River near the present Irvine, 
Warren County, Pa. 

Canadasaga, near Geneva. 

Canandaigua, near Canandaigua. 

Caneadea, at Caneadea. 

Catherine’s Town, near Catherine. 

Cattaraugus, on a branch of Cattaraugus Creek. 

Chemung, probably near Chemung. 

Cheronderoga, (?). 


36 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Chinklacamoose, probably mainly Delaware but frequented by Seneca, on the 
site of Clearfield, Pa. 

Chinoshahgeh, near Victor. 

Condawhaw, at North Hector. 

Connewango, 2 villages, one at Warren, Pa., and one on the left bank of Alle- 
gheny River above the site of Tionesta, Pa. 

Dayoitgao, on Genesee River near Fort Morris. 

Deonundagae, on Livingston River west of Genesee River. 

Deyodeshot, about 2 miles southeast of East Avon, on the site of Keinthe. 

Deyohnegano, 2 villages: one near Caledonia; one on Allegheny Reservation, 
Cattaraugus County. 

Deyonongdadagana, on the west-bank of Genesee River near Cuylerville. 

Dyosyowan, on Buffalo Creek, Erie County, Pa. 

Gaandowanang, on Genesee River near Cuylerville. 

Gadaho, at Castle. 

Gahato, probably Seneca, in Chemung County. 

Gahayanduk, location unknown. 

Ganagweh, near Palmyra. 

Ganawagus, on Genesee River near Avon. 

Ganeasos, (?). 

Ganedontwan, at Moscow. 

Ganos, at Cuba, Allegany County. 

Ganosgagong, at Dansville. 

Gaonsagaon, (?). 

Gaousge, probably Seneca, on Niagara River. 

Gaskosada, on Cayuga Creek west of Lancaster. 

Gathtsegwarohare, (?). 

Geneseo, near Geneseo. 

Gistaquat, (?). 

Goshgoshunk, mainly Munsee and Unami, 3 villages on Allegheny River in the 
upper part of Venango County, Pa. 

Hickorytown, mainly Munsee and Unami, probably about East Hickory or 
West Hickory, Forest County, Pa. 

Honeoye, on Honeoye Creek, near Honeoye Lake. 

Joneadih, on Allegheny River nearly opposite Salamanca. 

Kanagaro, 2 villages, one on Boughton Hill, directly south of Victor, N. Y.; 
one with several different locations from 14 to 4 miles south from the first, 
and southeast from Victor, on the east side of Mud Creek. 

Kanaghsaws, about 1 mile northeast of Conesus Center. 

Kannassarago, between Oneida and Onondaga. 

Kashong, on Kashong Creek at its entrance into Lake Seneca. 

Kaskonchiagon, (?). 

Kaygen, on the south bank of Chemung River below Kanestio River. 

Keinthe, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, later transferred to Bay of Quinte. 

Lawunkhannek, mainly Delaware, on Allegheny River above Franklin, Venango 
County, Pa. 

Mahusquechikoken, with Munsee and other tribes, on Allegheny River about 
20 miles above Venango, Pa. 

Middle Town, 3 miles above the site of Chemung. 

New Chemung, at or near the site of Chemung. 

Newtown, on Chemung River near Elmira. 

Oatka, at Scottsville, on the west bank of Genesee River. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 3d 


Old Chemung, about 3 miles below New Chemung. 

Onnahee, on the east side of Fall Brook, in the western part of lot 20, town of 
Hopewell, Ontario County. 

Onoghsadago, near Conewango (?). 

Onondarka, north of Karaghyadirha on Guy Johnson’s map of 1771. 

Owaiski, near Wiscoy on the west bank of Genesee River, Allegheny County. 

Sheshequin, about 6 miles below Tioga Point, Bradford County, Pa. 

Skahasegao, at Lima, Livingston County. 

Skoiyase, at Waterloo. 

Sonojowauga, at Mount Morris, Livingston County. 

Tekisedaneyout, in Erie County. 

Tioniongarunte, (?). 

Tonawanda, on Tonawanda Creek, Niagara County. 

Totiakton, on Honeoye outlet not far from Honeoye Falls in Monroe County. 

Venango, at Franklin, at the mouth of French Creek, Venango County, Pa. 

Yorkjough, about 12 miles from Honeoye and 6 from New Genesee, probably 
in Livingston County. 

Yoroonwago, on upper Allegheny River near the present Corydon, Warren 
County, Pa. 

Troquoian villages of unspecified tribe 


Adjouquay, (?). 

Anpuaqun, (?). 

Aratumquat, (?). 

Cahunghage, on the south side of Oneida Lake. 

Caughnawaga, on Sault St. Louis, Quebec Province, Canada. 

Chemegaide, (?). 

Churamuk, on the east side of Susquehanna River, 18 miles above Owego. 

Codocararen, (?). 

Cokanuk, (?). 

Conaquanosshan, (?). 

Conihunta, 14 miles below Unadilla. 

Connosomothdian, (?). 

Conoytown, of mixed Conoy and Iroquois, on Susquehanna River between Bain- 
bridge and Sunbury, Pa. 

Coreorgonel, of mixed Tutelo and Iroquois, on the west side of Cayuga Lake inlet 
and on the border of the Great Swamp 3 miles from the south end of Cayuga 
Lake. 

Cowawago, (?). 

Cussewago, principally Seneca, on the site of the present Waterford, Erie County, 
Pa. 

Ganadoga, near Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 

Ganagarabhare, at Venango, Crawford County, Pa. 

Ganeraske, at the mouth of Trent River, Ontario, Canada. 

Ganneious, at the site of Napanee, Ontario, Canada. 

Glasswanoge, (7). 

Indian Point, at Lisbon, N. Y. 

Janundat, on Sandusky Bay, Erie County, Ohio. 

Jedakne, Iroquois or Delaware, on the west branch of Susquehanna River, prob- 
ably at Dewart, Northumberland County, Pa. 

Johnstown, location not given. 


38 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn 145 


Jonondes, location unknown. 

Juaniata, on Duncan Island in Susquehanna River, near the mouth of the Juniata. 

Juraken, 2 villages, one on the right bank of the Susquehanna at Sunbury, Pa., 
the other on the left bank of the east branch of the Susquehanna. 

Kahendohon, location unknown. 

Kanaghsaws, about 1 mile northwest of Conesus Center, N. Y. 

Kannawalohalla, at Elmira, N. Y. 

Kanesadageh, a town of the Turtle Clan mentioned in the Iroquois Book of Rites. 

Karaken, location unknown. 

Karhationni, location unknown. 

Karhawenradonh, location unknown. 

Kayehkwarageh, location unknown. 

Kickenapawling, mixed Delaware (?) and Iroquois, 5 miles north of the present 
Stoyestown, Pa., at the fork of Quemahoning and Stony Creeks. 

Kittanning, mixed Iroquois, Delaware, and Caughnawaga, about the present 
Kittanning, Armstrong County, Pa. 

Kuskuski, mixed Delaware and Iroquois, on Beaver Creek, near Newcastle, Pa. 

La Montagne, on a hill on Montreal Island, Quebec Province, Canada. 

La Prairie, at La Prairie, Quebec, Canada. 

Logstown, Shawnee, Delaware, and Iroquois, on the right bank of the Ohio River, 
14 miles below Pittsburgh. 

Loyalhannon, on Loyalhanna Creek, Pa. 

Manckatawangum, near Barton, Bradford County, Pa. 

Matchasaung, on the left bank of the east branch of the Susquehanna River, about 
13 miles above Wyoming, Pa. 

Mingo Town, near Steubenville, Ohio. 

Mohanet, probably Iroquois, on the east branch of the Susquehanna River, Pa. 

Nescopeck, mixed Iroquois, Shawnee, and Delaware, formerly at the mouth of 
Nescopeck River, Luzerne County, Pa. 

Newtown, 4 towns: one, probably of the Seneca, on Chemung River near Elmira, 
N. Y.; one, probably of Iroquois and Delaware, on the north bank of Licking 
River, near Zanesville, Ohio; one, probably of Iroquois and Delaware, on 
Muskingum River near Newtown, Ohio; and one, probably of Iroquois and 
Delaware, on the west side of Wills Creek, near Cambridge, Ohio. 

Newtychanning, on the west bank of the Susquehanna River and the north side 
of Sugar Creek, near North Towanda, Pa. 

Ohrekionni, (?). 

Oka, mixed Iroquois, Nipissing and Algonkin, on Lake of the Two Mountains, 
near Montreal, Quebec, Canada. 

Onaweron, location unknown. 

Onkwe Iyede, location unknown. 

Opolopong, on the east branch of the Susquehanna River about 30 miles above 
Shamokin and 10 miles below Wyoming, Pa. 

Oskawaserenhon, location unknown. 

Ostonwackin, Delaware and Iroquois, at the mouth of Loyalstock Creek on the 
west branch of the Susquehanna River, at Montoursville, Pa. 

Oswegatchie, at Ogdensburg, N. Y. 

Otsiningo, on Chenango River, Broome County, N. Y. 

Otskwirakeron, location unknown. 

Ousagwentera, ‘‘beyond Fort Frontenac.” 

Pluggy’s Town, a band of marauding Indians, chiefly Mingo, at Delaware, Ohio. 

Runonvea, near Big Flats, Chemung County, N. Y. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 39 


Saint Regis, on the south bank of the St. Lawrence River at the international 
boundary and on both sides. 

Sault au Recollet, near the mouth of the Ottawa River, Two Mountains County, 
Quebec, Canada. 

Sawcunk, mixed Delaware, Shawnee, and Mingo, on the north bank of the Ohio 
River near the mouth of Beaver Creek and the present town of Beaver, Pa. 
Schohorage, on the west bank of the Susquehanna River, a short distance above 

the Indian town of Oquaga, Pa. 

Sconassi, on the west side of the Susquehanna River below the west branch, 
probably in Union County, Pa. 

Scoutash’s Town, Mingo or Shawnee, near Lewistown, Logan County, Ohio. 

Seneca Town, Mingo, on the east side of Sandusky River in Seneca County, Chio. 

Sevege, a short distance above Owego on the west side of the east branch of 
Susquehanna River, N. Y. 

Sewickley, a Shawnee town occupied in later years by a few Mingo and Delaware, 
on the north side of Allegheny River about 12 miles above Pittsburgh, near 
Springdale, Pa. 

Shamokin, Delaware, Shawnee, and Iroquois, a short distance from the forks of 
the Susquehanna and on the northeast branch. 

Shenango, 3 towns: one, on the north bank of the Ohio River a short distance 
below the present Economy, Pa.; one, at the junction of the Conewango 
and Allegheny Rivers; and one, some distance up the Big Beaver near Kuskuski 
(see above). 

Sheshequin, Iroquois and Delaware, about 8 miles below Tioga Point, Pa. 

Sittawingo, in Armstrong County, Pa. 

Skenandowa, at Vernon Center, Oneida County, Pa. 

Solocka, about 60 miles above Shamokin on a creek issuing from the Great Swamp 
north of the Cashuetunk Mountains, Pa. 

Swahadowri, (?). 

Taiaiagon, near Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 

Tioga, at Athens, Pa. 

Tohoguses Town, at junction of Plum and Crooked Creeks, Armstrong County, Pa. 

Tonihata, on an island in the St. Lawrence River supposed to be Grenadier Island, 
Leeds County, Ontario, Canada. 

Tullihas, mixed Delaware, Mahican, and Caughnawaga, on the west branch of 
the Muskingum River, Ohio, above the forks. 

Tuskokogie, just above Schoherage (q. v.) on Chenango River (?). 

Unadilla, near Unadilla, Otsego County. 

Wakerhon, (?). 

Wauteghe, on upper Susquehanna River between Teatontaloga and Oquaga. 

Youcham, (?). 


History.—In Cartier’s time the five Iroquois tribes seem to have 
been independent and in a state of constant mutual warfare. At a 
later period, not before 1570 according to Hewitt (1907), they were 
induced by two remarkable men, Dekanawida and Hiawatha, to form 
a federal union. While the immediate object of the league was to 
bring about peace between these and other neighboring tribes, the 
strength which the federal body acquired and the fact that they were 
soon equipped with guns by the Dutch at Albany incited them to 
undertake extensive wars and to build up a rude sort of empire. 


40 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu 145 


The related Tuscarora of North Carolina joined them in successive 
migrations, the greater part between 1712 and 1722, and the remainder 
in 1802. In the French-English wars they took the part of the English 
and were a very considerable factor in their final victory. Later all 
but the Oneida and part of the Tuscarora sided against the American 
colonists and as a result their principal towns were laid waste by 
Sullivan in 1779. The Mohawk and Cayuga, with other Iroquoian 
tribes in the British interest, were given a reservation on Grand River, 
Ontario. The remainder received reservations in New York except 
the Oneida, who were settled near Green Bay, Wis. The so-called 
Seneca of Oklahoma consist of remnants from all of the Iroquois 
tribes, the Conestoga, Hurons, and perhaps others, which Hewitt 
(in Hodge, 1910) thinks were gathered around the Erie and perhaps 
the Conestoga as a nucleus. 

Population.—In 1600 the Iroquois are estimated by Mooney (1928) 
to have numbered 5,500; in 1677 and 1685 their numbers were placed 
at about 16,000; in 1689 they were estimated at about 12,850; in 
1774, 10,000 to 12,500; in 1904 they numbered about 16,100, of whom 
10,418 were in Canada; in 1923 there were 8,696 in the United States 
and 11,355 in Canada; total, 20,051. By the census of 1910 there 
were reported in the United States 2,907 Seneca, 2,436 Oneida, 365 
Onondaga, 368 Mohawk, 81 Cayuga, 1,219 St. Regis, and 61 unspeci- 
fied, a total of 7,437, besides 400 Tuscarora. In 1930 the figure, 
including Tuscarora, was 6,866. In 1937, 3,241 Oneida were living 
in Wisconsin and 732 ‘‘Seneca” in Oklahoma. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The group of tribes 
known as the Iroquois is famous from the fact that it had attained the 
highest form of governmental organization reached by any people north 
of the valley of México. It is also noted, largely in consequence of the 
above fact, for the dominating position to which it attained among the 
Indian tribes of northeastern North America, and for its long contin- 
ued alliance with the English in their wars with the French. Hia- 
watha, the name of one of the founders of the confederation, was 
adopted by Longfellow as that of his hero in the poem of the name, 
though the story centers about another people, the Chippewa. Lewis 
H. Morgan (1851) based his theories regarding the rfature of primitive 
society, which have played a very important part in ethnology and 
sociology, on studies of Iroquois organization. The name Iroquois 
has been given to a branch of the Kankakee River, IIll., to an Illinois 
County and a village in the same, and to villages in South Dakota 
and Ontario. The names of each of the five constituent tribes have 
also been widely used. 


SWANTON) INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 4] 


Mahican. The name means ‘“wolf.’”’ This tribe is not to be con- 
fused with the Mohegan of Connecticut (q. v.), though the names 
are mere varieties of the same word. Also called: 


Akochakanefi, meaning “Those who speak a strange tongue.” (Iroquois 
name.) 

Canoe Indians, so called by Whites. 

Hikanagi or Nhikana, Shawnee name. 

Loups, so called by the French. 

Orunges, given by Chauvignerie (1736), in Schoolcraft (1851-57, vol. 3, 
p. 554). 

River Indians, Dutch name. 

Uragees, given by Colden, 1747. 


Connections.—The Mahican belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
family, and spoke an r-dialect, their closest connections being with 
the southern New England Indians to the east. 

Location.—On both banks of the upper Hudson from Catskill Creek 
to Lake Champlain and eastward to include the valley of the 
Housatonic. (See also Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont, and 


Wisconsin.) 
Subdivisions 


Mahican proper, in the northern part of the territory. 

Mechkentowoon, on the west bank of Hudson River above Catskill Creek. 

Wawyachtonoc, in Dutchess and Columbia Counties and eastward to the 
Housatonic River in Connecticut. . 

Westenhuck (or Housatonic?), near Great Barrington, Mass. 

Wiekagjoc, on the eastern bank of the Hudson River near Hudson. 


Villages 


Aepjin, at or near Schodac. 

Kaunaumeek, in New York about halfway between Albany and Stockbridge, 
Mass. 

Kenunckpacook, on the east side of Housatonic River a little above Scaticook. 

Maringoman’s Castle, on Murderer’s Creek, at Bloominggrove, Ulster County. 

Monemius, on Haver Island, in Hudson River near Cohoes Falls, Albany County. 

Nepaug, on Nepaug River, town of New Hartford, Litchfield County, Conn. 

Peantam, at Bantam Lake, Litchfield County, Conn. 

Potic, west of Athens, Greene County. 

Seaticook, 3 villages in Dutchess and Rensselaer Counties, and in Litchfield 
County, Conn., the last on Housatonic River near the junction with Ten Mile 
River. 

Wequadnack, near Sharon, Litchfield County, Conn. 

Wiatiac, near Salisbury, Litchfield County, Conn. 

Wiltmeet, on Esopus Creek, probably near Kingston. 

Winooskeek, on Lake Champlain, probably at the mouth of Winooski River, Vt. 

Wyantenuc, in Litchfield County, Conn. 


Aistory.—The traditional point of origin of the Mahican was in 
the West. They were found in occupancy of the territory outlined 
above by the Dutch, and were then at war with the Mohawk who, in 


42 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


1664, compelled them to move their capital from Schodac near Albany 
to the present Stockbridge. They gradually sold their territory and 
in 1721 a band was on Kankakee River, Ind., while in 1730, a 
large body settled close to the Delaware and Munsee near Wyoming, 
Pa., afterward becoming merged with those tribes. In 1736 those in 
the Housatonic Valley were gathered into a mission at Stockbridge 
and were ever afterward known as Stockbridge Indians. In 1756 a 
large body of Mahican and Wappinger, along with Nanticoke and 
other people, settled in Broome and Tioga Counties under Iroquois 
protection. In 1788 another body of Indians drawn from New York, 
Connecticut, and Rhode Island, including Mahican, settled near the 
Stockbridges at Marshall, N. Y. The Stockbridge and Brotherton 
Indians later removed to Wisconsin, where they were probably joined 
by part at least of the band last mentioned. A few Mahican re- 
mained about their old home on Hudson River for some years after 
the Revolution but disappeared unnoticed. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were about 3,000 
Mahican in 1600; the Stockbridges among the Iroquois numbered 
300 in 1796, and 606 in 1923, including some Munsee. The census of 
1910 gave 533 Stockbridges and 172 Brotherton. The census of 1930 
indicated about 813. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Mahican tribe 
has probably attained more fame from its appearance in the title of 
Cooper’s novel. ‘The Last of the Mohegans,” than from any cir- 
cumstance directly connected with its history. There is a village 
called Mohegan in the northern part of Westchester County, N. Y., 
and another, known as Mohican in Ashland County, Ohio, while 
an affluent of the Muskingum also bears the same name. 


Mohegan. (See Connecticut.) 
Montauk. Meaning “uncertain.” 


Connections—The Montauk belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 

family and spoke an r-dialect like that of the Wappinger. 
Location.—In the eastern and central parts of Long Island. 

Subdivisions 

Corchaug, in Riverhead and Southold Townships. 

Manhasset, on Shelter Island. 

Massapequa, in the southern part of Oyster Bay and Huntington Townships. 

Matinecock, in the townships of Flushing, North Hempstead, the northern part 
of Oyster Bay and Huntington, and the western part of Smithtown. 

Merric, in the eastern part of Hempstead Townsbip. 

Montauk proper, in Southampton Township. 

Nesaquake, in the eastern part of Smithtown and the territory east of it. 

Patchogue, on the southern coast from Patchogue to Westhampton. 

Rockaway, in Newtown, Jamaica, and Hempstead Townships. 


SwaANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 43 


Secatogue, in Islip Township. 
Setauket, on the north shore from Stony Brook to Wading River. 
Shinnecock, on the coast from Shinnecock Bay to Montauk Point. 


Villages 


Aquebogue, on a creek entering the north side of Great Peconic Bay. 
Ashamomuck, on the site of a White town of the same name in Suffolk County. 
Cutchogue, at Cutchogue in Suffolk County. 

Massapequa, probably at Fort Neck. 

Mattituck, on the site of the present Mattituck, Suffolk County. 

Merric, on the site of Merricks, Queens County. 

Montauk, above Fort Pond, Suffolk County. 

Nesaquake, at the present Nissequague, about Smithtown, Suffolk County. 
Patchogue, near the present Patchogue, Suffolk County. 

Rechquaakie, near the present Rockaway. 


There were also villages at Flushing, Glen Cove, Cold Spring, Huntington, 
Cow Harbor, Fireplace, Mastic, Moriches, Westhampton, and on Hog Island in 
Rockaway Bay. 

History —The Montauk were in some sense made tributary to the 
Pequot, until the latter were destroyed, when they were subjected 
to a series of attacks by the Narraganset and took refuge, about 1759, 
with the Whites at Easthampton. They had, meanwhile, lost the 
greater part of their numbers by pestilence and, about 1788, most 
of those that were left went to live with the Brotherton Indians in 
New York. A very few remained on the island, whose mixed-blood 
descendants are still officially recognized as a tribe by the State of 
New York, principally under the name Shinnecock. 

Population.—Including Canarsee, the Montauk are estimated by 
Mooney (1928) at 6,000 in 1600. In 1658-59 an estimate gives about 
500; in 1788, 162 were enumerated; in 1829, 30 were left on Long 
Island; in 1910, 167 ‘‘Shinnecock,”’ 29 ‘“Montauk,” and 1 ‘‘Possepa- 
tuck.” In 1923, 250 were returned, including 30 Montauk, 200 
Shinnecock, and 20 Poospatock (Patchoag). 

Connection in which they have become noted—The name of the 
Montauk is perpetuated in that of the easternmost point of land on 
Long Island, a post village in the same county, and one in Dent 
County, Mo. They were among those tribes most active in the 
manufacture of siwan or wampum. 


Neutrals. So called by the French because they remained neutral 
during the later wars between the Iroquois and Huron. Also called: 
Hatiwa"ta-runh, by Tuscarora, meaning ‘Their speech is awry’; in 
form it is close to the names applied by the other Iroquois tribes and 
more often quoted as Attiwandaronk. 
Connecitions.—The Neutrals belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic 
stock; their position within this is uncertain. 


44 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Location.—In the southern part of the province of Ontario, the 
westernmost part of New York, in northeastern Ohio, and in south- 
eastern Michigan. (See also Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Canada.) 


Subdivisions 


It seems impossible to separate these from the names of the villages, except 
perhaps in the cases of the Aondironon (in Ontario bordering Huron territory), 
and the Ongniaahra (see below). 


Villages 


There were 28, but only the names of the following have been preserved: 
Kandoucho, in Ontario near the Huron country, i. e., in the northern part of 
Neutral territory. 
Khioetoa, apparently a short distance east of Sandwich, Ontario. 
Ongniaahra, probably on the site of Youngstown, N.Y. 
Ounontisaston, not far from Niagara River. 
Teotongniaton, in Ontario. 


History.—Shortly after the destruction of the Huron, the Neutrals 
became involved in hostilities with the Iroquois and were themselves 
destroyed in 1650-51, most of them evidently being incorporated 
with their conquerors, though an independent body is mentioned as 
wintering near Detroit in 1653. 

Population.—The Neutrals were estimated by Mooney (1928) to 
number 10,000 in 1600; in 1653 the independent remnant included 
800. They were probably incorporated finally with the Iroquois 
and Wyandot. 

Connection in which they habe become noted.—The chief claim of the 
Neutrals to permanent fame is the fact that the name of one of their 
subdivisions, the Ongniaahra, became fixed, in the form Niagara, to 
the world-famous cataract between New York and Ontario. 


Saponi. Some years after leaving Fort Christanna, Va., the Saponi 
settled among the Iroquois and were formally adopted by the Cay- 
uga tribe in 1753. (See Virginia.) 

Tuscarora. After their defeat in the Tuscarora War, 1712-13, bands 
of this tribe began moving north and in course of time the majority 
settled in New York so that the Iroquois came to be known after- 
wards as the ‘‘Six Nations’”’ instead of the ‘‘Five Nations.” (See 
North Carolina.) 

Tutelo. The Tutelo accompanied the Saponi from Virginia and 
were adopted by the Cayuga at the same time. (See Virginia.) 
Wappinger. From the same root as Abnaki and Wampanoag, and 

meaning ‘‘ Kasterners”’ 

Connections —The Wappinger belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
family and spoke an r-dialect, their nearest allies being the Mahican, 
the Montauk, and next the New England tribes. 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 45 


Location.—The east bank of the Hudson River from Manhattan 
Island to Poughkeepsie and the territory eastward to the lower 
Connecticut Valley. (See also Connecticut.) 


Subdivisions or ‘“Sachemships”’ 


Hammonasset, west of the Connecticut River, Conn., at its mouth. 

Kitchawank, in the northern part of Westchester County beyond Croton River 
and between Hudson River and the Connecticut. 

Massaco, in the present towns of Simsbury and Canton on Farmington River, Conn. 

Menunkatuck, in the present town of Guilford, Conn. 

Nochpeem, in the southern part of Dutchess County, N. Y. 

Paugusset, in the eastern part of Fairfield County and the western edge of New 
Haven County, Conn. 

Podunk, in the eastern part of Hartford County, Conn., east of Connecticut River. 

Poquonock, in the towns of Windsor, Windsor Locks, and Bloomfield, Hartford 
County, Conn. 

Quinnipiac, in the central part of New Haven County, Conn. 

Sicaog, in Hartford and West Hartford, Conn. 

Sintsink, between Hudson, Croton, and Pocantico Rivers. 

Siwanoy, in Westchester County and part of Fairfield County, Conn., between 
the Bronx and Five Mile River. 

Tankiteke, mainly in Fairfield County, Conn., between Five Mile River and 
Fairfield and extending inland to Danbury and even into Putnam and Dutchess 
Counties, N. Y. 

Tunxis, in the southwestern part of Hartford County, Conn. 

Wangunk, on both sides of Connecticut River from the Hartford city line to 
about the southern line of the town of Haddam. 

Wappinger proper, about Poughkeepsie in Dutchess County, N. Y. 

Wecquaesgeek, between the Hudson, Bronx, and Pocantico Rivers. 


Villages 


Alipconk, in the Weckquasgeek sachemdom, on the site of Tarrytown, N. Y. 

Appaquag, on the Hockanum River east of Hartford, Conn., in the Podunk 
sachemdom., 

Aspetuck, near the present Aspetuck in Fairfield County, Conn., in the Tankiteke 
sachemdom. 

Canopus, in Canopus Hollow, Putnam County. 

Capage, near Beacon Falls on Naugatuck River, Conn., in the Paugusset sachem- 
dom. 

Cassacuhque, near Mianus in the town of Greenwich, Conn., Siwanoy sachemdom. 

Cockaponset, near Haddam in Middlesex County, Conn., in the Wangunk sachem- 
dom. 

Coginchaug, near Durham, Conn., in the Wangunk sachemdom. 

Cossonnacock, near the line between the towns of Haddam and Lyme, Conn., 
in the Wangunk sachemdom. 

Cupheag, given as the’probable name of a town at Stratford, Conn., but this was 
perhaps Pisquheege. 

Hockanum, at the mouth of Hockanum River, Hartford County, Conn., in the 
Podunk sachemdom. 

Keskistkonk, probably on Hudson River, south of the highlands, in Putnam 
County, in the Nochpeem sachemdom, 


46 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLu. 145 


Kitchiwank, about the mouth of Croton River, N. Y., in the Kitchiwank sachem- 
dom. 

Machamodus, on Salmon River in Middlesex County, Conn., in the Wangunk 
sachemdom. 

Massaco, near Simsbury on Farmington River, Conn., in the Massaco sachemdom. 

Mattabesec, on the site of Middletown, Conn., in the Wangunk sachemdom. 

Mattacomacok, near Rainbow in the town of Windsor, Conn., in the Wangunk 
sachemdom. 

Mattianock, at the mouth of Farmington River in the Poquonock sachemdom. 

Menunketuck, at Guilford, Conn., in the Menunketuck sachemdom. 

Meshapock, near Middlebury, Conn., in the Paugussett sachemdom. 

Mioonktuck, near New Haven, Conn., in the Quinnipiac sachemdom. 

Namaroake, on Connecticut River in the town of East Windsor, Conn., in the 
Podunk sachemdom. 

Naubuc, near Glastonbury, Conn., in the Podunk sachemdom. 

Naugatuck, near Naugatuck, Conn., in the Paugussett sachemdom. 

Newashe, at the mouth of Scantic River, in the Podunk sachemdom. 

Nochpeem, in the southern part of Dutchess County. 

Noroaton, at the mouth of Noroton River, in the Siwanoy sachemdom. 

Norwauke, at Norwalk, Conn., in the Siwanoy sachemdom, 

Ossingsing, at the site of Ossining, N. Y. 

Pahquioke, near Danbury, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom. 

Pashesauke, on Lyndes Neck at the mouth of the Connecticut River in the 
Hammonassett sachemdom. 

Pasquasheck, probably on the bank of Hudson River in Dutchess County. 

Pataquasak, near Essex Post Office, Conn., in the Hammonassett sachemdom. 

Pattaquonk, near Chester, Conn., in the Hammonassett sachemdom. 

Paugusset, on the bank of Housatonic River about 1 mile above Derby, Conn., 
in the Paugusset sachemdom. 

Pauquaunuch, in Stratford Township, Fairfield County, Paugusset sachemdom, 
apparently the same town as Pisquheege. 

Pequabuck, near Bristol, Conn., in the Tunxis sachemdom. 

Pisquheege, near Stratford, Fairfield County, in the Paugusset sachemdom. 

Pocilaug, on Long Island Sound near Westbrook, Conn., in the Hammonassett 
sachemdom, 

Pocowset, on Connecticut River opposite Middletown, Conn., in the Wangunk 
sachemdom. 

Podunk, at the mouth of Podunk River, Conn., in the Podunk sachemdom. 

Pomeraug, near Woodbury, Conn., in the Paugussett sachemdom. 

Poningo, near Rye, N. Y., in the Siwanoy sachemdom. 

Poquannuc, near Poquonock in Hartford County, Conn., in the Poquonock 
sachemdom. 

Potatuck, the name of one or two towns on or near Potatuck River, in the town 
of Newtown, Fairfield County, Conn., in the Paugusset sachemdom. 

Pyquag, near Wethersfield, Conn., in the Wangunk sachemdom. 

Quinnipiac, on Quinnipiac River north of New Haven, Conn., in the Quinnipiac 
sachemdom. 

Ramapo, near Ridgefield, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom. 

Sackhoes, on the site of Peekskill, N. Y., in the Kitchawank sachemdom. 

Saugatuck, at the mouth of Saugatuck River, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom. 

Scanticook, on Scantic River near its junction with Broad Brook, Hartford Coun- 
ty, Conn., in the Podunk sachemdom. 

Senasqua, at the mouth of Croton River, in the Kitchawank sachemdom. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 47 


Shippan, near Stamford, Conn., in the Siwanoy sachemdom. 

Sioascauk, near Greenwich, Conn., in the Siwanoy sachemdom. 

Squantuck, on the Housatonic River, above Derby, Conn., in the Paugussett 
sachemdom, 

Suckiauk, near W. Hartford, Conn., in the Sicaog sachemdom. 

Titicus, near Titicus in the town of Ridgefield, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachem- 
dom. 

Totoket, near Totoket in the town of N. Branford, New Haven County, Conn., 
in the Quinnipiac sachemdom. 

Tunxis, in the bend of Farmington River near Farmington, Conn., in the Tunxis 
sachemdom. 

Turkey Hill, near Derby, Conn., in the Paugussett sachemdom, perhaps given 
under another name. 

Unkawa, between Danbury and Bethel, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom. 

Weantinock, near Fairfield, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom. 

Wecquaesgeek, at Dobbs Ferry, in the Wecquaesgeek sachemdom. 

Weataug, near Weatogue in the town of Simsbury, Conn., in the Massaco sachem- 
dom. 

Wepowaug, near Milford, Conn., in the Paugusset sachemdom. 

Werawaug, near Danbury, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom. 

Woodtick, near Woodtick in the town of Wolcott, New Haven County, Conn., 
in the Tunxis sachemdom. 

Woronock, near Milford, Conn., in the Paugusset sachemdom, evidently another 
name for Wepowaug. 


History.—The Wappinger were found by Henry Hudson in 1609 in 
occupancy of the lands above mentioned. The Connecticut bands 
gradually sold their territory and joined the Indians at Scaticook and 
Stockbridge. The western bands suffered heavily in war with the 
Dutch, 1640-45, but continued to occupy a tract along the coast 
in Westchester County until 1756, when most of those who were 
left joined the Nanticoke at Chenango, Broome County, N. Y., 
and were finally merged, along with them, into the Delaware. Some 
joined the Moravian and Stockbridge Indians while a few were still 
living in Dutchess County in 1774, and a few mixed-bloods live now on 
Housatonic River below Kent. These belong to the old Scaticook 
settlement founded by a Pequot Indian named Mauwehu or Mahwee, 
and settled mainly by individuals of the Paugusset, Unkawa, and 
Potatuck towns of the Paugusset sachemdom. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates the population of the New 
York divisions of Wappinger at about 3,000 in 1600, and places that 
of the various Connecticut bands at 1,750, a total of 4,750. The war 
with the Dutch is said to have cost the western bands 1,600, but we 
have no estimates of their population at a later date, except as parts 
of the Stockbridge, Brotherton, and Iroquois Indians, and a few 
mixed-bloods at Scaticook, Conn., a few miles below Kent. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Wappinger bands 
were among those particularly engaged in the manufacture of siwan 


48 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


or wampum. They occupied much of the mainland territory of the 
present Greater New York but not Manhattan Island. Wappingers 
Falls in Dutchess County, N. Y., preserves the name. 


Wenrohronon. Probably meaning ‘The people or tribe of the place 
of floating scum,’’ from-the famous oil spring of the town of Cuba, 
Allegany County. 

Connections.—The Wenrohronon belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic 
stock. Their closest affiliations were probably with the Neutral 
Nation, which part of them finally joined, and with the Erie, who 
bounded them on the west. 

Location.—Probably originally, as indicated in the explanation of 
their name, about the oil spring at Cuba, N. Y. (See also Penn- 
sylvania.) 

History.—The Wenrohronon maintained themselves for a long time 
in the above territory, thanks to an alliance with the Neutral Nation, 
but when the protection of the latter was withdrawn, they left their 
country in 1639 and took refuge among the Hurons and the main 
body of the Neutrals, whose fate they shared. 

Population.—Before their decline Hewitt (in Hodge, 1910) estimates 
the Wenrohronon at between 1,200 and 2,000. Those who sought 
refuge with the Hurons in 1639 numbered more than 600. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Wenrohronon are 
noted merely on account of their association with the oil spring above 


mentioned. 
NEW JERSEY 


Delaware. The name is derived from that of Delaware River, which 
in turn, was named for Lord Delaware, second governor of Virginia. 


Also called: 


Abnaki or Wabanaki, ‘‘Easterners,’’ from their position relative to many 
other Algonquian tribes. (See Abnaki under Maine, Wampanoag under 
Massachusetts, and Wappinger under New York.) 

A-ko-tci-ki/n&®, “‘One who stammers in his speech,” the Mohawk name. 
The Oneida and Tuscarora names were similar. 

Anakwanck!, Cherokee name, an attempt at Wabanaki. 

Lenni Lenape (their own name), meaning ‘‘true men,” or ‘‘standard men,’’ 

Loup, ‘“‘wolf,’”’ so called by the French. 

Mochomes, “‘grandfather,’’ name given by those Algonquian tribes which 
claimed descent from them. 

Nar-wah-ro, Wichita name. 

Renni Renape, a form of Lenni Lenape. 

Tc&-k4’né*, shortened form of Mohawk name given above. (The names 
in the languages of the other four Iroquois tribes are about the same). 


Connections.—The Delaware belonged to the Algonquian linguis- 


tic stock, their closest relatives being the Nanticoke, Conoy, and 
Powhatan Indians to the south and the Mahican, Wappinger, and 


SwaNTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 49 


southern New England Indians on the north. The dialect of the 
northernmost of their major divisions, the Munsee, differed consid- 
erably from that of the southern groups. 

Location.—The Delaware occupied all of the State of New Jersey, 
the western end of Long Island, all of Staten and Manhattan Islands 
and neighboring parts of the mainland, along with other portions of 
New York west of the Hudson, and parts of eastern Pennsylvania, 
apd vorthern Delaware. (See also Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, 
Kansas, Maryland and the District of Columbia, Missouri, New 
York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, and the Munsee under Kansas, 
Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.) 

: Subdivisions 


There were three major divisions or subtribes, the Munsee in northern New 
Jersey and adjacent portions of New York west of the Hudson, the Unalachtigo 
in northern Delaware, southeastern Pennsylvania, and southern New Jersey, 
and the Unami in the intermediate territory, extending to the western end of 
Long Island. Each comprised a great many minor divisions which it is not 
always easy to classify under the three main heads. As Munsee may probably 
be reckoned the following: 


Catskill, on Catskill Creek, Greene County, N. Y. 

Mamekoting, in Mamakating Valley, west of the Shawangunk Mountains, N. Y. 

Minisink, on the headwaters of Delaware River in the southwestern part of Ulster 
and Orange Counties, N. Y., and the adjacent parts of New Jersey and Penn- 
sylvania. 

Waranawonkong, in the country watered by the Esopus, Wallkill, and Shawan- 
gunk Creeks, mainly in Ulster County, N. Y. 

Wawarsink, centered about the junction of Wawarsing and Rondout Creeks, 
Ulster County, N. Y. 


We may class as Unami the following: 


Aquackanonk, on Passaic River, N. J., and lands back from it including the 
tract called Dundee in Passsaic. 

Assunpink, on Stony Creek near Trenton. 

Axion, on the eastern bank of Delaware River between Rancocas Creek and 
Trenton. 

Calcefar, in the interior of New Jersey between Rancocas Creek and Trenton. 

Canarsee, in Kings County, Long Island, on the southern end of Manhattan 
Island, and the eastern end of Staten Island, N. Y. 

Gachwechnagechga, on Lehigh River, Pa. 

Hackensack, in the valleys of Hackensack and Passaic Rivers. 

Haverstraw, on the western bank of the lower Hudson, in Rockland County, N. Y. 

Meletecunk, in Monmouth County. 

Mosilian, on the eastern bank of Delaware River about Trenton. 

Navasink, on the highlands of Navesink, claiming the land from Barnegat to the 
Raritan. 

Pompton, on Pompton Creek. 

Raritan, in the valley of Raritan River and on the left bank of Delaware River 
as far down as the falls at Trenton. 

Reckgawawanc, on the upper part of Manhattan Island and the adjacent main- 
land of New York west of the Bronx. 


50 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Tappan, on the western bank of Hudson River in Rockland County, N. Y., and 
Bergen County. 
Waoranec, near Esopus Creek, Ulster County, N. Y. 


The following may be considered as Unalachtigo, though I am in some doubt 
about the Neshamini: 


Amimenipaty, at site of a large pigment plant of the Du Pont Company at Edge- 
moor, Del. 

Asomoche, on the eastern bank of Delaware River between Salem and Camden. 

Chikohoki, at site of Crane Brook Church, on west side of Delaware River near 
its junction with the Christanna River. 

Eriwonec, about Old Man’s Creek in Salem or Gloucester County. 

Hopokohacking, on site now occupied by Wilmington, Del. 

Kahansuk, about Low Creek, Cumberland County. 

Manta, about Salem Creek. 

Memankitonna, on the present site of Claymont, Del., on Naaman’s Creek. 

Nantuxet, in Pennsylvania and Delaware. 

Naraticon, in southern New Jersey, probably on Raccoon Creek. 

Neshamini, on Neshaminy Creek, Bucks County, Pa. 

Okahoki, on Ridley and Crum Creeks, Delaware County, Pa. 

Passayonk, on Schuylkill River, Pa., and along the western bank of Delaware 
River, perhaps extending into Delaware. 

Shackamaxon, on the site of Kensington, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Siconesse, on the eastern bank of Delaware River a short distance above Salem. 

Tirans, on the northern shore of Delaware Bay about Cape May or in Cumberland 
County. 

Yacomanshaghking, on a small stream about the present Camden. 


Villages 


It will not be practicable to separate the villages belonging to the three great 
divisions in all cases. The following are entered in the Handbook of American 
Indians (Hodge, 1907, 1910): 


Achsinnink, Unalachtigo village on Hocking River, Ohio, about 1770. 

Ahasimus, probably Unami, in northern New Jersey. 

Alamingo, a village, probably Delaware, on Susquehanna River. 

Allaquippa, possible name of a settlement at the mouth of the Youghiogheny 
River, Pa., in 1755. 

Anderson’s Town, on the south side of White River about Anderson, Ind. 

Au Glaize, on a southeastern branch of Maumee River, Ohio. 

Bald Eagle’s Nest, on the right bank of Bald Eagle Creek near Milesburg, Pa. 

Beaversville, near the junction of Buggy Creek and Canadian River, Okla. 

Beavertown, on the east side of the extreme eastern head branch of Hocking 
River near Beavertown, Ohio. 

Black Hawk, probably Delaware, about Mount Auburn, Shelby County, Ind. 

Black Leg’s Village, probably Delaware, on the north bank of Conemaugh River 
in the southeastern part of Armstrong County, Pa. 

Buckstown, probably Delaware, on the southeast side of White River, about 3 
miles east of Anderson, Ind. 

Bulletts Town, probably Delaware, in Coshocton County, Ohio, on Muskingum 
River about halfway between Walhonding River and Tomstown. 

Cashiehtunk, probably Munsee, on Delaware River near the point where it is 
met by the New Jersey State line. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTII AMERICA 51 


Catawaweshink, probably Delaware, on or near Susquehanna River, near Big 
Island, Pa. 

Chikohoki, a Manta village on the site of Burlington, Burlington County, N. J. 

Chilohocki, probably Delaware, on Miami River, Ohio. 

Chinklacamoose, probably Delaware, on the site of Clearfield, Pa. 

Clistowacka, near Bethlehem, Pa. 

Communipaw, village of the Hackensack, at Communipaw. 

Conemaugh, probably Delaware, about Conemaugh, Pa. 

Coshocton, on the site of Coshocton, Ohio. 

Crossweeksung, in Burlington County, probably about Crosswicks. 

Custaloga’s Town, Unalachtigo, two villages, one near French Creek, opposite 
Franklin, Pa., the other on Walhonding River, near Killbucks Creek in Coshoc- 
ton County, Ohio. 

Edgpiiliik, in western New Jersey. 

Eriwonec, about Old Man’s Creek in Salem or Gloucester County. 

Frankstown, probably Delaware, about Frankstown, Pa. 

Friedenshiitten, a Moravian mission town on Susquehanna River a few miles 
below Wyalusing, probably in Wyoming County, Pa. 

Friedensstadt, in Beaver County, Pa., probably near Darlington. 

Gekelemukpechuenk, in Ohio, and perhaps identical with White Eyes’ Town. 

Gnadenhiitten, three Moravian Mission villages, one on the north side of Mahon- 
ing Creek near its junction with the Lehigh about the present Lehighton; a 
second on the site of Weissport, Carbon County, Pa.; and a third on the Mus- 
kingum River near the present Gnadenhutten, Ohio. (Brinton (1885) says 
there were two more towns of the same name.) 

Goshgoshunk, with perhaps some Seneca, on Allegheny River about the upper 
part of Venango County, Pa. 

Grapevine Town, perhaps Delaware, 8 miles up Captina River, Belmont County, 
Ohio. 

Greentown, on the Black Fork of Mohican River near the boundary of Richland 
and Ashland Counties, Ohio. 

Gweghkongh, probably Unami, in northern New Jersey, near Staten Island, or 
on the neighboring New York mainland. 

Hespatingh, probably Unami, apparently in northern New Jersey, and perhaps 
near Bergen or Union Hill. 

Hickorytown, probably about East Hickory or West Hickory, Pa. 

Hockhocken, on Hocking River, Ohio. 

Hogstown, between Venango and Buffalo Creek, Pa., perhaps identical with 
Kuskuski. 

Jacobs Cabins, probably Delaware, on Youghiogheny River, perhaps near Jacobs 
Creek, Fayette County, Pa. 

Jeromestown, near Jeromesville, Ohio. 

Kalbauvane, probably Delaware, on the headwaters of the west branch of Susque- 
hanna River, Pa. 

Kanestio, Delaware and other Indians, on the upper Susquehanna River, near 
Kanestio Creek in Steuben County, N. Y. 

Kanhangton, about the mouth of Chemung River in the northern part of Bradford 
County, Pa. 

Katamoonchink, perhaps the name of a Delaware village near West Whiteland, 
Chester County, Pa. 

Kickenapawling, probably Delaware and Iroquois, at the junction of Stony 
Creek with Conemaugh River, approximately on the site of Johnstown, Pa. 


52 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Kiktheswemud, probably Delaware, near Anderson, Ind., perhaps identical with 
Buckstown or Little Munsee Town. 

Killbuck’s Town, on the east side of Killbuck Creek, about 10 miles south of 
Wooster, Ohio. 

Kishakoquilla, two towns successively occupied by a chief of the name, one about 
Kishacoquillas, Mifflin County, Pa., the other on French Creek about 7 miles 
below Meadville, Crawford County, Pa. 

Kiskiminetas, on the south side of lower Kiskiminetas Creek, near its mouth, 
Westmoreland County, Pa. 

Kiskominitoes, on the north bank of Ohio River between the Hocking and Scioto 
Rivers, Ohio. 

Kittanning, divided into several settlements and mixed with Iroquois and 
Caughnawaga, near Kittanning on Allegheny River, Armstrong County, Pa. 
Kohhokking, near “‘Painted Post’”’ in Steuben County, N. Y., or Elmira, Chemung 

County, N. Y. 

Kuskuski, with Iroquois, on Beaver Creek, near Newcastle, in Lawrence County, 
Pa. 

Languntennenk, Moravian Delaware near Darlington, Beaver County, Pa. 

Lawunkhannek, Moravian Delaware on Allegheny River above Franklin, Ve- 
nango County, Pa. 

Lichtenau, Moravian Delaware on the east side of Muskingum River, 3 miles 
below Coshocton, Ohio. 

Little Munsee Town, Munsee, a few miles east of Anderson, Ind. 

Macharienkonck, Minisink, in the bend of Delaware River, Pike County, Pa., 
opposite Port Jervis. 

Macocks, some distance north of Chikohoki, which was probably at Wilmington, 
Del., perhaps the village of the Okahoki in Pennsylvania. 

Mahoning, on the west bank of Mahoning River, perhaps between Warren and 
Youngstown, Ohio. 

Mechgachkamic, perhaps Unami, probably near Hackensack, N. J. 

Meggeckessou, on Delaware River at Trenton Falls, N. J. 

Meniolagomeka, on Aquanshicola Creek, Carbon County, Pa. 

Meochkonck, Minisink, on the upper Delaware River in southeastern New York. 

Minisink, Minisink, in Sussex County, N. J., near where the State line crosses 
Delaware River. 

Munceytown, Munsee, on Thames River northwest of Brantford, Ontario, Canada. 

Muskingum, probably Delaware, on the west bank of Muskingum River, Ohio. 

Nain, Moravian Indians, principally Delaware, near Bethlehem, Pa. 

Newcomerstown, village of Chief Newcomer, about the site of New Comerstown, 
Tuscarawas County, Ohio. 

Newtown, the name of three towns probably of the Delaware and Iroquois, one 
on the north bank of Licking River, near the site of the present Zanesville, 
Ohio; a second about the site of Newtown, Ohio; and a third on the west side 
of Wills Creek near the site of Cambridge, Ohio. 

Nyack, probably Canarsee, about the site of Fort Hamilton, Kings County, 
Long Island, afterward removed to Staten Island. 

Nyack, Unami probably, on the west bank of Hudson River about the present 
Nyack, N. Y. 

Ostonwackin, with Cayuga, Oneida, and other Indians, on the site of the present 
Montoursville, Pa. 

Outaunink, Munsee, on the north bank of White River, opposite Muncie, Ind. 

Owl’s Town, probably Delaware, on Mohican River, Coshocton County, Ohio. 

Pakadasank, probably Munsee, about the site of Crawford, Orange County, N. Y. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 53 


Papagonk, probably Munsee, in Ulster County, N. Y., also placed near Pepacton, 
Delaware County, N. Y. 

Passycotcung, on Chemung River, N. Y. 

Peckwes, Munsee or Shawnee, about 10 miles from Hackensack. 

Pematuning, probably Delaware, near Shenango, Pa. 

Pequottink, Moravian Delaware, on the east bank of Huron River, near Milan, 
Ohio. 

Playwickey, probably Unalachtigo, in Bucks County, Pa. 

Pohkopophunk, in eastern Pennsylvania, probably in Carbon County. 

Queenashawakee, on the upper Susquehanna River, Pa. 

Ramcock, Rancocas, in Burlington County. 

Raystown, (?). 

Remahenonce, perhaps Unami, near New York City. 

Roymount, near Cape May. 

Salem, Moravian Delaware, on the west bank of Tuscarawas River, 1% miles 
miles southwest of Port Washington, Tuscarawas County, Ohio. 

Salt Lick, probably Delaware, on Mahoning River near Warren, Ohio. 

Sawcunk, with Shawnee and Mingo, near the mouth of Beaver Creek, about the 
site of the present Beaver, Pa. 

Sawkin, on the east bank of Delaware River in New Jersey. 

Schepinaikonck, Minisink, perhaps in Orange County, N. Y. 

Schipston, probably Delaware, at the head of Juniata River, Pa. 

Schoenbrunn, Moravian Munsee, about 2 miles below the site of New Philadel- 
phia, Ohio. 

Seven Houses, near the ford of Beaver Creek just above its mouth, Beaver County, 
Pa. 

Shackamaxon, on the site of Kensington, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Shamokin, with Shawnee, Iroquois, and Tutelo, on north sides of Susquehanna 
River including the island at the site of Sunbury, Pa. 

Shannopin’s Town, on Allegheny River about 2 miles above its junction with the 
Monongahela. 

Shenango, with other tribes, the name of several towns, one on the north bank of 
Ohio River a little below Economy, Pa.; one at the junction of Conewango and 
the Allegheny; and one some distance up Big Beaver, near Kuskuski (q. v.). 

Sheshequin, with Iroquois, about 6 miles below Tioga Point, Bradford County, Pa. 

Soupnapka, on the east bank of Delaware River in New Jersey. 

Three Legs Town, named from a chief, on the east bank of Muskingum River 
a few miles south of the mouth of the Tuscarawas, Coshocton County, Ohio. 
Tioga, with Nanticoke, Mahican, Saponi, Tutelo, etc., on the site of Athens, Pa. 
Tom’s Town, on Scioto River, a short distance below the present Chillicothe and 

near the mouth of Paint Creek, Ohio. 

Tullihas, with Mahican and Caughnawaga, on the west branch of Muskingum 
River, Ohio, about 20 miles above the forks. 

Tuscarawas, with Wyandot, on Tuscarawas River, Ohio, near the mouth of Big 
Sandy River. 

Venango, with Seneca, Shawnee, Wyandot, Ottawa, etc., at the site of Franklin, 
Venango County, Pa. 

Wechquetank, Moravian Delaware, about 8 miles beyond the Blue Ridge, 
northwest from Bethlehem, Pa., probably near the present Mauch Chunk. 

Wekeeponall, on the west bank of the Susquehanna River, about the mouth of 
Loyalstock Creek in Lycoming County, Pa., probably identical with Queen 
Esther’s Town. 

Walagamika, on the site of Nazareth, Lehigh County, Pa. 


54 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


White-eyes Village, named from a chief, on the site of Duncan’s Falls, 9 miles 
below Zanesville, Ohio. 

White Woman’s Town, near the junction of Walhonding and Killbuck Rivers, 
about 7 miles northwest of the forks of the Muskingum River, in Coshocton 
County, Ohio. 

Will’s Town, on the east bank of Muskingum River at the mouth of Wills Creek, 
Muskingum County, Ohio. 

Woapikamikunk, in the valley of White River, Ind. 

Wyalusing, Munsee and Iroquois, on the site of Wyalusing, Bradford County, Pa. 

Wyoming, with Iroquois, Shawnee, Mahican, and Nanticoke; later entirely 
Delaware and Munsee; principal settlement at the site of Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 


History.—The traditional history of the Delaware set forth in the 
famous Walam Olum (see Brinton, 1882-85, vol. 5), gave them an 
origin somewhere northwest of their later habitat. They were found 
by the earliest white voyagers in the historic seats above given. 
The Dutch came into contact with the Unami and Munsee Delaware 
in 1609 and the Swedes with the Unalachtigo in 1637. Both were 
succeeded by the English in 1664, but the most notable event in 
Delaware history took place in 1682 when these Indians held their 
first council with William Penn at what is now Germantown, Phila- 
delphia. About 1720 the [roquois assumed dominion over them and 
they were gradually crowded west by the white colonists, reaching the 
Allegheny as early as 1724, and settling at Wyoming and other points 
on the Susquehanna about 1742. In 1751, by invitation of the Huron, 
they began to form villages in eastern Ohio, and soon the greater part of 
them were on the Muskingum and other Ohio streams. Backed by the 
French and by other western tribes, they now freed themselves from 
Iroquois control and opposed the English settlers steadily until the 
treaty of Greenville in 1795. Notable missionary work was done 
among them by the Moravians in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- 
turies. About 1770 they received permission from the Miami and 
Piankashaw to settle between the Ohio and White Rivers, Ind. In 
1789, by permission of the Spanish government, a part moved to 
Missouri and later to Arkansas, along with a band of Shawnee, and by 
1820 they had found their way to Texas. By 1835 most of the bands 
had been gathered on a reservation in Kansas, but in 1867 the greater 
part of these removed to the present Oklahoma, where some of them 
occupied a corner of the Cherokee Nation. Others are with the Caddo 
and Wichita in southwestern Oklahoma, a few Munsee are with the 
Stockbridges in Wisconsin, and some are scattered in other parts of 
the United States. In Ontario, Canada, are three bands—the Dela- 
wares of Grand River, near Hagersville; the Moravians of the Thames, 
near Bothwell; and the Munceys of the Thames, near Muncey— 
nearly all of whom are of the Munsee division. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 8,000 
Delaware in 1600 not including the Canarsee of Long Island; estimates 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 55 


made during the eighteenth century vary between 2,400 and 3,000; 
nineteenth-century estimates are much lower, and the United States 
Census of 1910 returned 914 Delawares and 71 Munsee, or a total of 
985, to which must be added the bands in Canada, making perhaps 
1,600 all together. 140 Delaware were reported on the Wichita 
Reservation, Okla., in 1937. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The Delaware are 
noted as one of the very few tribes which have come to be known by 
an English term, and as one of the chief antagonists of the Whites 
while the latter were forcing their way westward, but in later years as 
furnishing the most reliable scouts in White employ. A different sort 
of fame has been attained by one of their early chiefs, Tamenend, 
whose name, in the form Tammany, was applied to a philanthropic 
society, a place of meeting, and a famous political organization. 
Delaware chiefs signed the famous treaty with Penn under the oak 
at Shackamaxon, and their tribes occupied Manhattan Island and the 
shores of New York Harbor at the arrival of the Dutch. The name 
Delaware has been used for postoffices in Arkansas, Iowa, Kentucky, 
Missouri, New Jersey, Ohio, and Oklahoma, besides the State of 
Delaware. Lenape is a post village in Leavenworth County, Kans., 
and Lenapah in Nowata County, Okla. 


PENNSYLVANIA 


Delaware. In early times this tribe occupied the eastern parts of 
Pennsylvania along Delaware River; later they were, for a time, 
on the Susquehanna and the headwaters of the Ohio. (See New 
Jersey.) 


Erie. The Erie extended over the extreme northwestern corner of 
the State. (See Ohio.) 


Honniasont. An Iroquois term meaning ‘‘Wearing something round 
the neck.” Also called: 

Black Minqua, the word “black” said to refer to ‘‘a black badge on their 
breast,’’ while ‘‘Minqua” indicated their relationship to the White 
Minqua, or Susquehanna (q. v.). 

Connections—The Honniasont belonged to the Iroquoian lin- 
guistic family. 

Location.—On the upper Ohio and its branches in western Penn- 
sylvania and the neighboring parts of West Virginia and Ohio. (See 
also Ohio.) 

History.—The Honniasont appear first as a tribe which assisted the 
Susquehanna in war and traded with the Dutch, but a little later 
they are reported to have been destroyed by the Susquehanna and 
Seneca. The remnant seems to have settled among the Seneca, and 


56 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


a Minqua town, probably occupied by their descendants, is mentioned 
from time to time among the latter and in the neighborhood of their 
former country. 

Population.—This is unknown, but as late as 1662 the Honniasont 
must have been fairly numerous if the testimony of five Susquehanna 
chiefs taken in that year is to be relied upon, which was to the effect 
that they were then expecting 800 Honniasont warriors to join them. 


Iroquois. In very early times these Indians entered Pennsylvania 
only as hunters and warriors, but at a later period they made 
numerous settlements in the State. (See New York.) 


Saluda. A band of “Saluda” Indians from South Carolina moved to 
Conestoga in the eighteenth century. They may have been Shawnee. 
(See South Carolina.) 


Saponi. The majority of the Saponi lived at Shamokin for a few 
years some time after 1740 but then continued on to join the 
Iroquois. (See Virginia.) 


Shawnee. Bands of Shawnee were temporarily located at Conestoga, 
Sewickley, and other points in Pennsylvania. (See Tennessee.) 


Susquehanna. A shortened form of Susquehannock, meaning un- 
known. 


Akhrakouaehronon, given in Jesuit Relations, from a town name. See 
Atra‘kwae ronnons’ below. 

Andaste or Conestoga, from Kanastége, ‘‘at the place of the immersed pole.” 

Atra‘kwae‘ronnons, from the name of a town, and probably signifying ‘“‘at 
the place of the sun,” or ‘‘at the south.” 

Minqua, from an Algonquian word meaning “stealthy,” “treacherous.” 

White Minqua, to distinguish them from the Black Minqua. (See Hon- 
niasont above.) 


Connections —The Susquehanna belonged to the Iroquoian lin- 
guistic stock. 

Location.—On the Susquehanna River in New York, Pennsylvania, 
and Maryland. 

Subdivisions 

Originally Susquehanna may have been the name of a confederacy of tribes 
rather than a single tribe. Hewitt (in- Hodge, 1910) suggests that the Wyoming 
(in the territory about the present Wyoming) may have been such a subtribe. 
The barely mentioned Wysox, on a small creek flowing into the Susquehanna at 
the present Wysox, was perhaps another. Mention is made of the Turtle, Fox, 
and Wolf ‘families,’ evidently clans, and of the Ohongeeoquena, Unquehiett, 
Kaiquariegahaga, Usququhaga, and Seconondihago “‘nations,’’ also perhaps clans. 


Villages 
Smith (1884) mentions several, but Hewitt (in Hodge, 1910) is of the opinion 
that the names really belong to independent tribes. Champlain says that there 
were more than 20 villages, though the only one named is Carantouan, thought 
to have been on the site of the present Waverly, N. Y. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 57 


History —When encountered by the English, French, and Dutch 
early in the seventeenth century, the Susquehanna were a numerous 
people, but even then they were at war with the Iroquois by whom 
they were conquered in 1676 and forced to settle near the Oneida in 
New York. Later they were allowed to return to the Susquehanna 
River and reoccupy their ancient country, but they wasted away 
steadily and in 1763 the remnant, consisting of 20 persons, was 
massacred by Whites inflamed with accounts of Indian atrocities on 
the far frontier. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that the Susquehanna 
numbered 5,000 in 1600. In 1648 they are said to have had 550 
walriors. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Susquehanna 
is perpetuated in that of the Susquehanna River and in the names 
of a county and a town. Conestoga is the designation of two places in 
Lancaster County, Pa., and one in Chester County, and was given 
to a widely used type of wagon. 


Tuscarora. These Indians on their way to join the Iroquois bands of 
New York stopped from time to time in the Susquehanna Valley. 
(See North Carolina.) 


Tutelo. Most of these Indians lived at Shamokin with the Saponi 
-and accompanied them to the Iroquois Nation. (See Virginia.) 


Wenrohronon. This tribe occupied some parts of the State along the 
northwestern border. (See New York.) 


DELAWARE 


Delaware. The Unalachtigo division of the Delaware occupied all 
of the northern parts of this State when it was first visited by 
Europeans. (See New Jersey.) 


Nanticoke. Bodies of Indians classed under this general head ex- 
tended into the southern and western sections. Unalachtigo and 
Nanticoke are two forms of the same word though, as differenti- 
ated, they have been applied to distinct tribes. (See Maryland.) 


MARYLAND AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 
Conoy. Probably a synonym of Kanawha, but the meaning is un- 
known; also spelled Canawese, and Ganawese. Also called: 


Piscataway, from a village on Piscataway Creek where the Conoy chief 
resided. 
Connections.—The Conoy belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
stock and were probably intermediate between the Nanticoke and 
Powbatan Indians. 


58 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Location.—Between the Potomac River and the western shore of 
the Chesapeake. 


Subdivisions 


Acquintanacsuak, on the west bank of Patuxent River in St. Marys County. 

Conoy proper or Piscataway, in the southern part of Prince Georges County. 

Mattapanient, on Patuxent River, probably in St. Marys County. 

Moyawance, on the west bank of the Potomac River above the Conoy proper. 

Nacotchtank, on the eastern branch of the Potomac, in the District of Columbia. 

Pamacocack, about the mouth of Mattawoman Creek and the present Pomonkey, 
Charles County. 

Patuxent, in Calvert County. 

Potapaco, in the southern and central parts of Charles County. 

Secowocomoco, on Wicomico River in St. Marys and Charles Counties. 


Villages 

The principal settlement of each of the above subdivisions was generally known 
by the same name. In addition we have the following: 

Catawissa, at Catawissa, Columbia County, Pa. 

Conejoholo, on the east bank of the Susquehanna on or near the site of Bain- 
bridge, Lancaster County, Pa. 

Conoytown, on Susquehanna River between Conejoholo and Shamokin (Sun- 
bury), Pa. 

Kittamaquindi, at the junction of Tinkers Creek with the Piscataway a few 
miles above the Potomac, Prince Georges County, the principal village of the 
Conoy proper. 

History.—Iif the name of the Conoy is identical with that of Kana- 
wha River, as appears probable, they must have lived at some period 
along that stream. They were found by Smith and the Maryland 
colonists in the location above given and missions were established 
among them by the Jesuits on the first settlement of Maryland in 
1634. They decreased rapidly in numbers and were presently as- 
signed a tract of land on the Potomac, perhaps near the site of Wash- 
ington. In 1675 they were attacked by the Susquehanna Indians 
who had been driven from their own territories by the Iroquois, 
retired up the Potomac River, and then to the Susquehanna, where 
they were finally assigned lands at Conejoholo near the Nanticoke 
and Conestoga. Some of them were living with these two tribes at 
Conestoga in 1742. They gradually made their way northward, 
stopping successively at Harrisburg, Shamokin, Catawissa, and Wyo- 
ming, and in 1765 were in southern New York, at Owego, Chugnut, 
and Chenango, on the eastern branch of the Susquehanna. They 
moved west with the Mahican and Delaware and soon became known 
only as constituting a part of those tribes. They used the Turkey 
as their signature at a council held in 1793. 

Population—The number of Conoy was estimated by Mooney 
(1928) at 2,000 in 1600; in 1765 they numbered only about 150. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Conoy is 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 59 


perpetuated by Conoy, 2 miles north of Falmouth, Lancaster County, 
Pa., and probably (see above) by the Great and Little Kanawha 
Rivers, Kanawha County, Kanawha Ridge, and several places in 
West Virginia, besides post villages in Hancock County, lowa, and 
Red River County, Tex. 


Delaware. They probably occupied, or at least hunted over, some 
territory in the extreme northeastern part of the State. (See New 
Jersey.) 


Nanticoke. From Nentego, a variant of Delaware Unechtgo, or 
Unalachtiyo, ‘‘Tidewater people,’ the neighboring division of 
Delaware being known by the same name. Also called: 


Doegs, Toags, or Taux, by some early writers, probably shortened from 
Tawachguans. 

Ganniataratich-rone, Mohawk name. 

Otaydchgo, Tawachgudns, Mahican and Delaware name, meaning ‘‘Bridge 
people.” 

Skaniadaradighroonas, ‘‘Beyond-the-sea people,’’ Iroquois name. 


Connections.—The Nanticoke belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
family, their closest connections probably being with the Unalachtigo 
Delaware—as the name implies—and also with the Conoy. 

Location.—Although the Nanticoke are frequently more narrowly 
delimited, it will be convenient to group under this head all of the 
Indians of the Eastern Shoré of Maryland and southern Delaware. 


Subdivisions 


Annamessicks, in the southern part of Somerset County. 

Choptank, on Choptank River. 

Cuscarawaoc, at the head of Nanticoke River in Maryland and Delaware. 

Manokin, on Manokin River in the northern part of Somerset County. 

Nanticoke proper, on the lower course of Nanticoke River. 

Nause, in the southern end of the present Dorchester County. 

Ozinies, on the lower course of Chester River; they may have been part of or 
identical with the Wicomese. 

Tocwogh, on Sassafras River, in Cecil and Kent Counties. 

Wicocomoco, on Wicocomoco River in Somerset and Wicocomoco Counties. 

Wicomese, in Queen Anne’s County. 


Villages 


Ababco, a subtribe or village of the Choptank on the south side of Choptank River 
in Dorchester County, near Secretary Creek. 

Askimimkansen, perhaps Nanticoke, on an upper eastern branch of Pocomoke 
River, probably in Worcester County. 

Byengeahtein, probably in Dauphin or Lancaster County, Pa. 

Chenango, a mixed population on Chenango River about Binghamton, N. Y. 

Hutsawap, a village or subtribe of the Choptank, in Dorchester County. 

Locust Necktown, occupied by a band of Nanticoke proper known as Wiwash, on 
Choptank River, in Dorchester County. 


60 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Matchcouchtin, consisting of Nanticoke proper, probably in Pennsylvania. 

Matcheattochousie, Nanticoke proper, probably in Pennsylvania. 

Natahquois, Nanticoke proper, probably on the eastern shore of Maryland or 
on the Susquehanna, Pennsylvania. 

Nause, belonging to the tribe of the same name, on the north bank of Nanticoke 
River near its mouth. 

Pekoinoke, Nanticoke proper, still existing in Maryland in 1755. 

Pohemkomeati, on lower Susquehanna River, Pennsylvania. 

Teahquois, Nanticoke proper, probably on lower Susquehanna River, Pennsyl- 
vanilla. 

Tequassimo, a subtribe or village on the Choptank, on the southern shore of 
Choptank River. 

Tocwogh, the principal village of the tribe of that name, said to be on the south 
side of Chester River in Queen Anne County, but, unless this is a later location, 
probably on the south side of Sassafras River in Kent County. 

Witichquaom, Nanticoke proper, near Susquehanna River in southern Pennsylvania. 
History.—Traditionally, the Nanticoke are supposed to have come 

from the west at about the same time as the Delaware, but they were 

found in the location above given by the earliest white explorers and 

settlers. They were at war with the Maryland colonists from 1642 

to 1678. In 1698 reservations were set aside for them. Soon after 

1722 the greater part of them began to move north, stopping for a 

time on the Susquehanna at its junction with the Juniata. In 1748 

the greater part of the tribe went farther up, and, after camping 

temporarily at a number of places, settled under Jroquois protection 
at Chenango, Chugnut, and Oswego. In 1753 part of these joined the 

Iroquois in western New York, and they were still living with them in 

1840, but the majority, in company with the remnants of the Mahican 

and Wappinger, emigrated west about 1784 and joined the Delaware 

in Ohio and Indiana, with whom they soon became incorporated, 
disappearing as a distinct tribe. Yet a part did not leave their old 
country. Some were living in Maryland in 1792 under the name of 

Wiwash, and some mixed-bloods still occupy a small territory on 

Indian River, Delaware. The Choptank, or a part of them, also re- 

mained in their old country on the south of Choptank River, Dorchester 

County, where a few of their descendants, their blood much mixed 

with that of Negroes, were to be found in 1837. Some Wicocomoco 

must also have stayed about their ancient seats, since a few mongrels 
are said to retain the name. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated a total Indian population on 
the eastern shore of Maryland in 1600 of 2,700, including 700 Toewogh 
and Ozinies, 400 Wicocomoco, and 1,600 Nanticoke and their more 
immediate neighbors. In 1722 they are said to have numbered about 
500 and in 1765 those who had emigrated to New York were supposed 
to count about 500 more. In 1792 the Nanticoke proper left in Mary- 
land were said to comprise only 30 persons, but in 1911 Speck (1915) 
estimated their descendants in southern Maryland at 700. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 61 


Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Nanticoke 
is perpetuated in that of Nanticoke River between Wicomico and 
Dorchester Counties, and by the town of Nanticoke in the former. 
There are also places of the name in Broome County, N. Y., and 
Luzerne County, Pa. 


Powhatan. The Accohanoc Indians of the panhandle of Virginia, 
who extended over into Worcester County, were the only repre- 
sentatives of the Powhatan Indians in Maryland, though the 
Conoy were closely related to them. (See Virginia.) 


Shawnee. Shawnee Indians settled temporarily in western Mary- 
land near the Potomac and in the northeastern part of the State 
on the Susquehanna. (See Tennessee.) 


Susquehanna. They lived along and near the Susquehanna River. 
(See Pennsylvania.) 
VIRGINIA 


Cherokee. This tribe claimed territory in the extreme southwestern 
part of the State. If not actually occupied by them, it at least 
formed part of their hunting territories. (See Tennessee.) 


) 


Manahoac. Meaning ‘They are very merry,” according to Tooker 
(1895), but this seems improbable. Also called: 


Mahocks, apparently a shortened form. 


Connections.—The Manahoac belonged to the Siouan linguistic 
family; their nearest connections were probably the Monacan, 
Moneton, and Tutelo. 

Location.—In northern Virginia between the falls of the rivers and 
the mountains east and west and the Potomac and North Anna 
Rivers north and south. 

Subdivisions 

Subtribes or tribes of the confederacy as far as known were the following: 
Hassinunga, on the headwaters of the Rappahannock River. 

Manahoaec proper, according to Jefferson (1801), in Stafford and Spottsylvania 

Counties. 

Ontponea, in Orange County. 
Shackaconia, on the south bank of the Rappahannock River in Spottsylvania 

County. 

Stegaraki, on the Rapidan River in Orange County. 
Tanxnitania, on the north side of the upper Rappahannock River in Fauquier 

County. 

Tegninateo, in Culpeper County, at the head of the Rappahannock River. 
Whonkentia, in Fauquier County, near the head of the Rappahannock. 


Villages 


Mahaskahod, on the Rappahannock River, probably near Fredericksburg, is 
the only town known by name. 


62 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


History.—Traditional evidence points to an early home of the 
Manahoac people in the Ohio Valley. In 1608 John Smith discovered 
them in the location above given and learned that they were allied 
with the Monacan but at war with the Powhatan Indians and the 
Iroquois (or perhaps rather the Susquehanna). After this they 
suddenly vanish from history under a certainly recognizable name, 
but there is good reason to believe that they were one of those tribes 
which settled near the falls of the James River in 1654 or 1656 and 
defeated a combined force of Whites and coast Indians who had been 
sent against them. They seem to have been forced out of their old 
country by the Susquehanna. Probably they remained for a time 
in the neighborhood of the Monacan proper and were in fact the 
Mahock encountered by Lederer (1912) in 1670 at a point on James 
River which Bushnell seems to have identified with the site of the 
old Massinacack town, the fact that a stream entering the James at 
this point is called the Mohawk rendering his case rather strong. 
Perhaps the old inhabitants had withdrawn to the lower Monacan 
town, Mowhemencho. In 1700 the Stegaraki were located by Govy- 
ernor Spotswood of Virginia at Fort Christanna, and the Mepontsky, 
also placed there, may have been the Ontponea. We hear of the 
former as late as 1723, and there is good reason to believe that they 
united with the Tutelo and Saponi and followed their fortunes, and 
that under these two names were included all remnants of the 
Manahoac. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,500 
Manahoac in 1600 but this is probably rather too high, since their 
numbers and those of the Tutelo together seem to have been 600-700 
in 1654. However, it is possible that these figures cover only the 
Manahoac, while Mooney’s include part of the Saponi and Tutelo. 


Meherrin. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—The Meherrin belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic 
family, their closest connections probably being the Nottaway. 

Location.—Along the river of the same name on the Virginia-North 
Carolina border. 

History—The tribal name Meherrin first appears in the form 
““Maharineck” in the account of an expedition by Edward Blande 
and others to North Carolina in 1650, and next in an Indian census 
taken in 1669. Later they seem to have adopted a body of Conestoga 
or Susquehanna fleeing from Pennsylvania after their dispersal by 
the Iroquois about 1675. This is the only way to account for the 
fact that they are all said to have been refugee Conestoga. They 
were living on Roanoke River in 1761 with the southern bands of 
Tuscarora and Saponi, and the Machapunga, and probably went 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 63 


north in the last Tuscarora removal in 1802. (For information 
regarding another possible band of Meherrin see ‘‘ Nottaway.”’) 

Population —Mooney (1928) estimates the Meherrin population at 
700in 1600. In 1669 they are said to have had 50 bowmen, or approxi 
mately 180 souls. In 1755 they were said to be reduced to 7 or 8 
fighting men, but in 1761 they are reported to have had 20. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Meherrin River, an 
affluent of the Chowan, running through southern Virginia and north- 
eastern North Carolina, and a Virginia town perpetuate the name 
of the Meherrin. 


Monacan. Possibly from an Algonquian word signifying ‘‘digging stick,” 
or “spade,”’ but more likely from their own language. Also called: 
Rahowacah, by Archer, 1607, in Smith (1884). 


Connections.—The Monacan belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock. 
Their nearest connections were the Manahoac, Tutelo, and Saponi. 
Location.—On the upper waters of James River above the falls at 


Richmond. 
Villages 


(Locations as determined by D. I. Bushnell, Jr.) 


Massinacack, on the right bank of James River about the mouth of Mohawk 
Creek, and a mile or more south of Goochland. 

Mohemencho, later called Monacan Town, on the south bank of James River 
and probably covering some of “the level area bordering the stream in the 
extreme eastern part of the present Powhatan County, between Bernards 
Creek on the east and Jones Creek on the west.”’ 

Rassawek, at the confluence of the James and Rivanna Rivers and probably 
“on the right bank of the Rivanna, within the angle formed by the two streams.’’ 


Two other towns are sometimes added but as they afterward appeared as 
wholly independent tribes, the Saponi and the Tutelo, it is probable that their 
connection with the Monacan was never very intimate. They seem to have 
been classed as Monacan largely on the evidence furnished by Smith’s map, in 
which they appear in the country of the ‘‘Monacans’”’ but Smith’s topography, 
as Bushnell has shown, was very much foreshortened toward the mountains and 
the Saponi and Tutelo towns were farther away than he supposed. Again, while 
Massinacack and Mohemencho are specifically referred to as Monacan towns 
and Smith calls Rassawek “the chiefe habitation” of the Monacan, there is no 
such characterization of either of the others. 


History.—Capt. John Smith learned of the Monacan in the course 
of an exploratory trip which he made up James River in May 1607. 
The people themselves were visited by Captain Newport the year 
following, who discovered the two lower towns. The population 
gradually declined and in 1699 some Huguenots took possession of 
the land of Mowhemencho. The greater part of the Monacan had 
been driven away some years before this by Colonel Bornn (Byrd?). 
Those who escaped continued to camp in the region until after 1702, 


64 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLu. 145 


as we learn from a Swiss traveler named F. L. Michel (1916). It is 
probable that the remnant finally united with their relatives the 
Saponi and Tutelo when they were at Fort Christanna and followed 
their fortunes, but we have no further information as to their fate. 

Population —The number of the Monacan was estimated by 
Mooney (1928) at 1,200 in 1600 including part of the Saponi and 
Tutelo, but they can hardly have comprised over half as many. In 
1669 there were still about 100 true Monacan as they were credited 
with 30 bowmen. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Monacan is 
perpetuated by a small place called Manakin on the north bank of 
James River, in Goochland County, Va. 


Nahyssan. A contraction of Monahassano or Monahassanugh, 
remembered in later times as Yesa?. 

Connections.—The Nahyssan belonged to the Siouan linguistic 
stock, their nearest relatives being the Tutelo, Saponi, and probably 
the Monacan and Manahoac. 

Location.—The oldest known location of the Nahyssan has been 
identified by D. I. Bushnell, Jr. (1930), within very narrow limits as 
‘probably on the left bank of the James, about 1% miles up the 
stream from Wingina, in Nelson County.” 

History.—In 1650 Blande and his companions noted a site, 12 
miles south-southwest of the present Petersburg, called ‘“Manks 
Nessoneicks’” which was presumably occupied for a time by the 
Nahyssan or a part of them, since ‘‘Manks’”’ may be intended for 
“Tanks,” the Powhatan adjective signifying “little.” In 1654 or 
1656 this tribe and the Manahoac appeared at the falls of James 
River having perhaps been driven from their former homes by the 
Susquehanna. They defeated a force of colonials and Powhatan 
Indians sent against them but did not advance further into the 
settlements. In 1670 Lederer (1912) found two Indian towns on 
Staunton River, one of which he calls Sapon and the other Pintahae. 
Sapon was, of course, the town of the Saponi but it is believed that 
Pintahae was the town of the Nahyssan Indians, though Lederer 
gives this name to both towns. Pintahae was probably the Hana- 
thaskie or Hanahaskie town of which Batts and Fallam (1912) speak a 
year later. About 1675 the Nahyssan settled on an island below the 
Occaneechi at the junction of the Staunton and Dan Rivers. Before 
1701 all of the Siouan tribes who had settled in this neighborhood 
moved into North Carolina, and it is thought that the Nahyssan fol- 
lowed the Saponi and Tutelo to the headwaters of the Yadkin and that 
their subsequent fortunes were identical with those of these two. (See 
Saponi and Tutelo.) 

Population.—(See Saponi and Tutelo.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 65 
Nottaway. Meaning ‘“‘adders,” in the language of their Algonquian 
neighbors, a common designation for alien tribes by peoples of 
that linguistic stock. Also called: 
Cheroenhaka, their own name, probably signifying “fork of a stream.” 
Mangoak, Mengwe, another Algonquian term, signifying “stealthy,” 
“treacherous.” 

Connections.—The Nottaway belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic 
family, their closest connections probably being the Mceherrin, 
Tuscarora, and Susquehanna. 

Location.—On the river of the same name in southeastern Virginia. 

History.—The Nottaway were found by the Virginia colonists in 
the location given above. Though they were never prominent in 
colonial history, they kept up their organization long after the other 
tribes of the region were practically extinct. In 1825 they are 
mentioned as living on a reservation in Southampton County and 
ruled over by a ‘‘queen.”’ The name of this tribe was also applied to 
a band of Indians which appeared on the northern frontiers of South 
Carolina between 1748 and 1754. They may have included those 
Susquehanna who are sometimes confounded with the Meherrin, and 
are more likely to have included Meherrin than true Nottaway 
although they retained the name of the latter (see Swanton, 1946). 

Population.—The number of Nottaway, exclusive of those last 
mentioned, was estimated by Mooney (1928) at 1,500 in the year 
1600. In 1709 Lawson reported one town with 30 fighting men, but 
in 1827 Byrd estimated that there were 300 Nottaway in Virginia. 
In 1825, 47 were reported. The band that made its appearance on 
the frontiers of South Carolina was said to number about 300. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name of the Notta- 
Way is preserved by Nottoway River, Nottoway County, and two towns, 
one the county seat of the above, the other in Sussex county. There 
is a Nottawa in St. Joseph County, Mich. 


Occaneechi. Meaning unknown. 


The Botshenins, or Patshenins, a band associated with the Saponi and 
Tutelo in Ontario, were perhaps identical with this tribe. 
Connections.—The Occaneechi belonged to the Siouan linguistic 
stock; their closest connections were probably the Tutelo and Saponi. 
Location.—On the middle and largest island in Roanoke River, just 
below the confluence of the Staunton and the Dan, near the site of 
Clarksville, Mecklenburg County, Va. (See also North Carolina.) 
History —Edward Blande and his companions heard of them in 
1650. When first met by Lederer in 1670 at the spot above 
mentioned, the Occaneechi were noted throughout the region as 
traders, and their language is said to have been the common speech 


66 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


both of trade and religion over a considerable area (Lederer, 1912). 
Between 1670 and 1676 the Occaneechi had been joined by the Tutelo 
and Saponi, who settled upon two neighboring islands. In the latter 
year the Conestoga sought refuge among them and were hospitably 
received, but, attempting to dispossess their benefactors, they were 
driven away. Later, harassed by the Iroquois and English, the 
Occaneechi fled south and in 1701 Lawson (1860) found them on the 
Eno River, about the present Hillsboro, Orange County, N. C. 
Later still they united with the Tutelo and Saponi and followed their 
fortunes, having, according to Byrd, taken the name of the Saponi. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,200 
Occaneechi in the year 1600. ‘There is no later estimate, but in 1709 
this tribe along with the Shakori, Saponi, Tutelo, and Keyauwee 
were about 750. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Occaneechi is 
associated particularly with the Occaneechi Trail or Trading Path, 
which extended southwest through North and South Carolina from 
the neighborhood of Petersburg, Va. 


Powhatan. Said by Gerard to signify ‘falls in a current of water,” 
and applied originally to one tribe but extended by the English to 
its chief Wahunsonacock, and through him to the body of tribes 
which came under his sway. Also called: 


Sachdagugh-roonaw, Iroquois name. 


Connections.—The Powhatan belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
stock, their nearest relatives probably being the Algonquian tribes of 
Carolina and the Conoy. 

Location.—In the tidewater section of Virginia from Potomac 
River to the divide between James River and Albemarle Sound, and 
the territory of the present eastern shore of Virginia. (See also 
Maryland and District of Columbia.) 


Subdivisions 


Subtribes constituting this group are as follows: 


Accohanoc, in Accomac and part of Northampton Counties, Va., and probably 
extending slightly into Maryland. 

Accomage, in the southern part of Northampton County, Va. 

Appomattoc, in Chesterfield County. 

Arrohattoc, in Henrico County. 

Chesapeake, in Princess Anne County. 

Chickahominy, on Chickahominy River. 

Chiskiac, in York County. 

Cuttatawomen, in King George County. 

Kecoughtan, in Elizabeth City County. 

Mattapony on Mattapony River. 

Moraughtacund, in Lancaster and Richmond Counties. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 67 


Mummapacune, on York River. 

Nansemond, in Nansemond County. 
Nantaughtacund, in Essex and Caroline Counties. 
Onawmanient, in Westmoreland County. 

Pamunkey, in King William County. 

Paspahegh, in Charles City and James City Counties. 
Pataunck, on Pamunkey River. 

Piankatank, on Piankatank River. 

Pissasec, in King George and Westmoreland Counties. 
Potomae, in Stafford and King George Counties. 
Powhatan, in Henrico County. 

Rappahannock, in Richmond County. 

Secacawoni, in Northumberland County. 

Tauxenent, in Fairfax County. 

Warrasqueoe, in Isle of Wight County. 

Weanoc, in Charles City County. 

Werowocomoco, in Gloucester County. 

Wicocomoco, in Northumberland County. 
Youghtanund, on Pamunkey River. 


Villages 


Accohanoc, on the river of the same name in Accomac or Northampton Counties. 

Accomac, according to Jefferson (1801), about Cheriton, on Cherrystone Inlet, 
Northampton County. 

Acconoc, between Chickahominy and Pamunkey Rivers, in New Kent County. 

Accoqueck, on Rappahannock River, above Secobec, in Caroline County. 

Accossuwinck, on Pamunkey River, King William County. 

Acquack, on the north bank of Rappahannock River, in Caroline County. 

Appamattoc, on the site of Bermuda Hundred, in Prince George County. 

Appocant, on the north bank of Chickahominy River, in New Kent County. 

Arrohattoc, in Henrico County on the James River, i2 miles below the falls at 
Richmond. 

Askakep, near Pamunkey River in New Kent County. 

Assaomeck, near Alexandria. 

Assuweska, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in King George County. 

Attamtuck, between the Chickahominy and Pamunkey Rivers in New Kent 
County. 

Aubomesk, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in Richmond County. 

Aureuapeugh, on Rappahannock River in Essex County. 

Cantaunkack, on York River in Gloucester County. 

Capahowasic, about Cappahosic in Gloucester County. 

Cattachiptico, on Pamunkey River in King William County. 

Cawwontoll, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County. 

Chawopo, at the mouth of Chipoak Creek, Surry County. 

Checopissowo, on Rappahannock River above Tobacco Creek, in Caroline County. 

Chesakawon, above the mouth of Corotoman River, in Lancaster County. 

Chesapeake, according to Jefferson on Linnhaven River in Princess Anne County, 
a small stream flowing north into Chesapeake Bay. 

Chiconessex, about Wiseville, in Accomac County. 

Chincoteague, about Chincoteague Inlet, in Accomac County. 

Chiskiac, on the south side of York River, about 10 miles below the junction of 


the Mattapony and Pamunkey. 


68 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Cinquack, near Smiths Point on the Potomac, in Northumberland County. 

Cinquoteck, in the fork of Mattapony and Pamunkey Rivers, in King William 
County. 

Cuttatawomen, (1) on the Rappahannock River at Corotoman River in Lancaster 
County; (2) about Lamb Creek on the Rappahannock, in King George County. 

Gangasco, near Eastville, in Northampton County. 

Kapawnich, on the north bank of the Rappahannock, about Corotoman River in 
Lancaster County. 

Kerahocak, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in King George County. 

Kiequotank, on the eastern shore of Accomac County, north of Metomkin. 

Kupkipcock, on Pamunkey River in King William County. 

Machapunga, (1) in Northampton County; (2) on Potomac River. 

Mamanahunt, on Chickahominy River, in Charles City County. 

Mamanassy, at the junction of Pamunkey and Mattapony Rivers in King and 
Queen County. 

Mangoraca, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in Richmond County. 

Mantoughquemec, on Nansemond River, in Nansemond County. 

Martoughquaunk, on Mattapony River in Caroline County. 

Massawoteck, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in King George County. 

Matchopick, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County. 

Matchut, on Pamunkey River, in New Kent County. 

Mathomauk, on the west bank of James River, in Isle of Wight County. 

Matomkin, about Metomkin Inlet in Accomac County. 

Mattacock, on the north bank of York River in Gloucester County. 

Mattacunt, on the south side of Potomac River in King George County. 

Mattanock, on the west side of Nansemond River, near its mouth, in Nansemond 
County. 

Maysonec, on the north bank of the Chickahominy in New Kent County. 

Menacupunt, on Pamunkey River, in King William County. 

Menaskunt, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County. 

Meyascosic, on the north side of James River in Charles City County. 

Mohominge, near the falls of James River, in Richmond County. 

Mokete, on Warrasqueoc Creek, in Isle of Wight County. 

Moraughtacund, near the mouth of Moratico River in Richmond County. 

Mouanast, on the north bank of Rappahannock River, in King George County. 

Mutchut, on the north bank of the Mattapony River in King and Queen County. 

Muttamussinsack, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Caroline County. 

Myghtuckpassu, on the south bank of Mattapony River in King William County. 

Namassingakent, on the south bank of Potomac River in Fairfax County. 

Nameroughquena, on the south bank of the Potomac River in Alexandria County, 
opposite Washington, D. C. 

Nansemond, probably about Chuckatuck in Nansemond County. 

Nantapoyac, on the south bank of James River in Surry County. 

Nantaughtacund, on the south side of the Rappahannock River in either Essex 
County or Caroline County. 

Nawacaten, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County. 

Nawnautough, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond 
County. 

Nechanicok, on the south bank of the Chickahominy in the lower part of Henrico 
County. 

Nepawtacum, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in Lancaster County. 

Onancock, near Onancock in Accomac County. 

Onawmanient, probably on Nominy Bay, in Westmoreland County. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 69 


Opiscopank, on the south bank of the Rappahannock River in Middlesex County. 

Oquomock, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County. 

Orapaks, in New Kent County, between the Chickahominy and Pamunkey Rivers. 

Ottachugh, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Lancaster County. 

Ozatawomen, on the south bank of the Potomac River in King George County. 

Ozenic, on Chickahominy River in New Kent County. 

Pamawauk, perhaps identical with Pamunkey. 

Pamuncoroy, on the south bank of Pamunkey River in New Kent County. 

Pamunkey, probably near West Point in King William County. 

Papiscone, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in King George County. 

Pasaugtacock, on the north bank of York River in King and Queen County. 

Paspahegh, (1) on the south bank of Chickahominy River in Charles City County; 
(2) on the north bank of James River in Charles City County. 

Passaunkack, on the south bank of Mattapony River in the northwestern part of 
King William County. 

Pastanza, on or near Potomac River, possibly on Aquia Creek, in Stafford County. 

Pawcocomac, on the north bank of Rappahannock River at the mouth of the Coro- 
toman in Lancaster County. 

Peccarecamek, an Indian settlement reported on the southern Virginia border, 
perhaps mythical. 

Pemacocack, on the west bank of Potomac River in Prince William County about 
30 miles below Alexandria. 

Piankatank, on Piankatank River in Middlesex County. 

Pissacoac, on the north bank of Rappahannock River above Leedstown in West- 
moreland County. 

Poruptanck, on the north bank of York River in Gloucester County. 

Potaucac, in New Kent County between the Chickahominy and Pamunkey 
Rivers. 

Potomac, about 55 miles in a straight line from Chesapeake Bay, on a peninsula 
in what is now Stafford County, formed by Potomac River and Potomac 
Creek. 

Powcomonet, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County. 

Powhatan, on the north bank of James River at the falls on ground now forming 
an eastern suburb of Richmond. 

Poyektauk, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County. 

Poykemkack, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County. 

Pungoteque, in Accomac County, probably near Metomkin Inlet. 

Quackcohowaon, on the south bank of the Mattapony in King William County. 

Quioucohanock, probably on an eminence now called Wharf Bluff just east of 
Upper Chipoak Creek in Surry County. 

Quiyough, on the south bank of Aquia Creek near its mouth, in Stafford County. 

Rappahannock, at the mouth of a creek on Rappahannock River in Richmond 
County. 

Rickahake, probably in Norfolk County. 

Righkahauk, on the west bank of Chickahominy River in New Kent County. 

Ritanoe, probably Powhatan, in Virginia or North Carolina. 

Roscows, in Elizabeth City County. 

Secacawoni, at the mouth of Coan Creek on the south bank of the Potomac in 
Northumberland County. 

Secobec, on the south bank of Rappahannock River in Caroline County. 

Shamapa, on Pamunkey or York River. 

Sockobeck, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in King George County. 

Tantucquask, on Rappahannock River in Richmond County. 


70 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Tauxenent, about Mount Vernon in Fairfax County. 

Teracosick, on the west bank of Nansemond River in Nansemond County. 

Utenstank, on the north bank of Mattapony River in Caroline County. 

Uttamussac, on the north bank of Pamunkey River in King William County. 

Uttamussamacoma, on the south bank of Potomac River in Westmoreland 
County. 

Waconiask, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in King George County. 

Warrasqueoc, on the south bank of James River at the mouth of Warrasqueoc 
Creek in Isle of Wight County. 

Weanoc, below the mouth of Appamattox River at the present Weyanoke in 
Prince George County. 

Wecuppom, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County. 

Werawahon, on the north bank of Chickahominy River in New Kent County. 

Werowacomoco, on the north bank of York River in Gloucester County about 
opposite the mouth of Queen Creek. 

Wicocomoco, at the mouth of Wicomico River in Northumberland County. 

Winsack, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County. 


History.—The Powhatan were visited by some very early explorers, 
including probably the Cabots in 1498. Their territory was well 
known to the Spaniards in the latter part of the sixteenth century and 
a Jesuit mission was established among them in 1570 though soon 
extinguished by the Indians. In 1607 the Virginia colony was 
planted on James River and from that time on relations between the 
Whites and Powhatans were of the most intimate character, friendly 
at first, but later disturbed by the exactions of the newcomers. Peace 
was restored for a time by the marriage of Powhatan’s daughter 
Pocahontas to John Rolfe, and lasted until Powhatan’s death in 1618. 
In 1622 Powhatan’s second successor, Opechancanough, led an up- 
rising against the colonists, as a result of which all of the White set- 
tlements except those immediately about Jamestown were destroyed. 
War continued until 1636 when exhaustion of both sides led to peace, 
but in 1644 Opechancanough led another uprising as destructive as 
the first. He was captured and was killed the same year. The tribes 
made peace separately, and they were placed upon reservations, 
where they gradually dwindled away. In 1654 or 1656 the Pamunkey 
assisted the English in resisting an invasion of some inland people, 
but the allied army was severely defeated (see Manahoac). In 1675 
these Indians were accused of having committed certain depredations, 
really caused by the Conestoga, and several unauthorized expeditions 
were led against them by Nathaniel Bacon. In August 1676, a 
great body of them gathered in a fort near Richmond which was car- 
ried by storm, and men, women, and children indiscriminately mas- 
sacred. Peace was made with the survivors on condition that an 
annual tribute be paid by each village. In 1722 in a treaty made at 
Albany between the English and Iroquois, the latter agreed to cease 
their attacks upon the Powhatan Indians, but the Powhatans already 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 71 


had been greatly reduced and they continued to decline. Those on 
the eastern shore of Virginia, who had become very much mixed with 
Negroes, were driven away in 1831 during the excitement caused by 
the slave rising under Nat Turner. In 1785 Jefferson reported the 
Powhatan Indians reduced to two tribes, the Pamunkey and Matta- 
pony, embracing only about 15 men, but he must have overlooked 
great numbers of these Indians, for at the present time there are 
several bands, including the Chickahominy, Nansemond, Pamunkey, 
Mattapony, Upper Mattapony, Rappahannock, Wicocomoco, Poto- 
mac, Powhatan, and Werowocomoco (Speck, 1925). 

Population.—The Powhatan population was estimated by Mooney 
(1928) as 9,000 in 1600; Smith (1884) allows them 2,400 warriors; in 
1669 a census gave 528 warriors or about 2,000 population, the Wico- 
comoco being then the largest tribe. In 1705 the Pamunkey by 
themselves numbered 150 souls. Jefferson in 1785 represented the 
two tribes which he mentions as having but 15 men; Mooney, however, 
believed that there must have been a population of something like 
1,000 because of the number of mixed-bloods still surviving. The 
census of 1910 returned 115 Chickahominy and 85 Pamunkey. The 
United States Office of Indian Affairs Report for 1923 includes still 
other bands, giving in all a population of 822, and Speck (1925) gives 
the names of 10 bands aggregating 2,118 in 1923. The census of 
1930 returned only 203 Indians from Virginia but evidently missed 
nearly all except the Pamunkey. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Powhatan Con- 
federacy is famous as embracing those Indians among whom the 
first permanent English settlement in North America was made; for 
the personal character of its chief, Powhatan, who had conquered 
about 24 tribes, in addition to the 6 under him at his accession, before 
the appearance of the Europeans; on account of the dealings of the 
Whites with both Powhatan and his brother Opechancanough, as 
well as the massacre of the settlers by the latter in 1622 and again in 
1644; and not least from the fame attached to Powhatan’s daughter, 
Pocahontas. There are post villages named Powhatan in Jefferson 
County, Ala.; Lawrence County, Ark.; Natchitoches Parish, La.; 
McDowell County, W. Va.; a county and county seat of the name in 
Virginia; Powhatan Point in Belmont County, Ohio; and Powhattan 
in Brown County, Kans. 


Saponi. Evidently a corruption of Monasiccapano or Monasuka- 
panough, which, as shown by Bushnell, is probably derived in part 
from a native term ‘‘moni-seep”’ signifying “shallow water.’’ Paa- 
nese is a corruption and in no way connected with the word ‘‘Pawnee.”’ 
Connections—The Saponi belonged to the Siouan linguistic family, 

their nearest relations being the Tutelo. 


72 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Location.—The earliest known location of the Saponi has been 
identified by Bushnell (1930) with high probability with ‘‘an extensive 
village site on the banks of the Rivanna, in Albemarle County, 
directly north of the University of Virginia and about one-half mile 
up the river from the bridge of the Southern Railway.”’ This was 
their location when, if ever, they formed a part of the Monacan 
Confederacy. (See also North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and New York.) 


Villages 


The principal Saponi settlement usually bore the same name as the tribe or, 
at least, it has survived to us under that name. In 1670 Lederer reports another 
which he visited called Pintahae, situated not far from the main Saponi town after 
it had been removed to Otter Creek, southwest of the present Lynchburg (Lederer, 
1912), but this was probably the Nahyssan town. 

Mstory.—As first pointed out by Mooney (1895), the Saponi tribe 
is identical with the Monasukapanough which appears on Smith’s 
map as though it were a town of the Monacan and may in fact have 
been such. Before 1670, and probably between 1650 and 1660, they 
moved to the southwest and probably settled on Otter Creek, as 
above indicated. In 1670 they were visited by Lederer in their new 
home and by Thomas Batts (1912) a year later. Not long afterward 
they and the Tutelo moved to the junction of the Staunton and Dan 
Rivers, where each occupied an island in Roanoke River in Mecklen- 
burg County. This.movement was to enable them to escape the 
attacks of the Iroquois, and for the same reason they again moved 
south before 1701, when Lawson (1860) found them on Yadkin River 
near the present site of Salisbury, N. C. Soon afterward they left 
this place and gravitated toward the White settlements in Virginia. 
They evidently crossed Roanoke River before the Tuscarora War of 
1711, establishing themselves a short distance east of it and 15 miles 
west of the present Windsor, Bertie County, N. C. A little later 
they, along with the Tutelo and some other tribes, were placed by 
Governor Spotswood near Fort Christanna, 10 miles north of Roanoke 
River about the present Gholsonville, Brunswick County. The name 
of Sappony Creek in Dinwiddie County, dating back to 1733 at least, 
indicates that they sometimes extended their excursions north of 
Nottoway River. By the treaty of Albany (1722) the Iroquois 
agreed to stop incursions on the Virginia Indians and, probably about 
1740, the greater part of the Saponi and the Tutelo moved north 
stopping for a time at Shamokin, Pa., about the site of Sunbury. 
One band, however, remained in the south, in Granville County, 
N.C., until at least 1755, when they comprised 14 men and 14 women. 
In 1753 the Cayuga Iroquois formally adopted this tribe and the 
Tutelo. Some of them remained on the upper waters of the Susque- 
hanna in Pennsylvania until 1778, but in 1771 the principal section 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 73 


had their village in the territory of the Cayuga, about 2 miles south 
of Ithaca, N. Y. They are said to have separated from the Tutelo 
in 1779 at Niagara, when the latter fled to Canada, and to have 
become lost, but a portion, at least, were living with the Cayuga on 
Seneca River in Seneca County, N. Y., in 1780. Besides the Person 
County Indians, a band of Saponi Indians remained behind in North 
Carolina which seems to have fused with the Tuscarora, Meherrin, 
and Machapunga and gone north with them in 1802. 

Population.—The Saponi and the Tutelo are identified by Mooney 
(1928) as remnants of the Manahoac and Monacan with an estimated 
population of 2,700 in 1606. In 1716 the Huguenot Fontaine found 
200 Saponi, Manahoac, and Tutelo at Fort Christanna. In 1765, when 
they were living on the upper Susquehanna, the Saponi are said to have 
had 30 warriors. The main North Carolina band counted 20 warriors 
in 1761, and those in Person County, 14 men and 14 women in 1755. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—A small place called 
Sapona, in Davidson County, N. C., east of the Yadkin River, 
preserves the name of the Saponi. 


Shakori. They seem to have lived in the State at one time. (See 
North Carolina.) 


Shawnee. Indians of this tribe were settled for a time in the Shen- 
andoah Valley. (See Tennessee.) 


Tutelo. Significance unknown but used by the Iroquois, who seem 
to have taken it from some southern tongue. Also called: 
Kattera, another form of Tutelo. 
Shateras, a third form of the name. 

Connections.—The Tutelo belonged to the Siouan linguistic family, 
their nearest connections being the Saponi and probably the Monacan. 

Location.—The oldest known town site of the Tutelo was near 
Salem, Va., though the Big Sandy River at one time bore their name 
and may have been an earlier seat. (See also North Carolina, New 
York, and Pennsylvania.) 

History.—In 1671 Failam and Batts (1912) visited the town above 
mentioned. Some years later the Tutelo moved to an island in 
Roanoke River just above the Occaneechi, but in 1701 Lawson 
found them still farther southwest, probably about the headwaters of 
the Yadkin (Lawson, 1860). From that time forward they accom- 
panied the Saponi until the latter tribe separated from them at 
Niagara as above noted. In 1771 they were settled on the east side 
of Cayuga Inlet about 3 miles from the south end of the lake. This 
village was destroyed by Sullivan in 1779, but the Tutelo continued 
to live among the Cayuga sufficiently apart to retain their own 
language until 1898, when the last individual who could speak it 


74 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuULL. 145 


fluently died. A certain amount of Tutelo blood flows in the veins of 
some of the Iroquois. (For further information, see Swanton (1937).) 

Population.—(See Saponi.) In 1701-9, according to Lawson (1860), 
the Tutelo, Saponi, Keyauwee, Occaneechi, and Shakori numbered 
together about 750. In 1715 Governor Spotswood reported that the 
Indians at Fort Christanna, including the Tutelo, Saponi, Occaneechi, 
and Manahoac, numbered 300. In 1763 the Tutelo, Saponi, Nanti- 
coke, and Conoy had 200 men, probably less than 1,000 souls. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Tutelo are note- 
worthy chiefly as the principal body of Siouan Indians from Virginia 
to retain their integrity and preserve a knowledge of their language 
late enough for a permanent record of it to be made. 


WEST VIRGINIA 


Moneton. Meaning ‘Big Water’ people. 

Connections.—The Moneton belonged to the Siouan linguistic 
family; their nearest connections were probably the Manahoac and 
Monacan of Virginia and perhaps the Ofo of Ohio and Mississippi. 

Location.—Probably on the lower course of Kanawha River. 

History.—The Moneton were first mentioned by Thomas Batts in 
1671. (See Alvord and Bidgood, 1912.) Three years later they were 
visited by Gabriel Arthur, an indentured servant of the trader Abraham 
Wood, and this is the last we hear of them as an independent tribe. 
They probably united with the Siouan people in the Piedmont region 
of Virginia. 

Population.—Unknown. Arthur calls the principal Moneton 
settlement ‘‘a great town.” 

Cherokee (see Tennessee), Conoy (see Maryland), Delaware 
(see New Jersey), Honniasont and Susquehanna (see Pennsylvania), 
and Shawnee (see Tennessee) settled in various parts of West Virginia 
from time to time, but none of them was established there at an early 
date for an appreciable period except perhaps the Conoy, whose name 
appears to be perpetuated in that of the Kanawha River. There is 
no information regarding the Moneton residence there other than the 
preservation of their name. 


NORTH CAROLINA 


Bear River Indians. A body of Indians mentioned by Lawson and 
associated with Algonquian tribes. ‘They may have been a part of 
the Machapunga (q.v.). Rights (1947) calls them the Bear River 
or Bay River Indians. Lawson (1709) gives the name of their town 
as Raudauqua-quank and estimates the number of their fighting 
men at 50. Mooney (1928) places them with the Pamlico in his 
estimate as of the year 1600 and gives the two a population of 1,000. 
(See also California for another tribe of the same name.) 


— 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 75 


Cape Fear Indians. Named from Cape Fear, their native designation 
being unknown or indeed whether they were an independent tribe 
or a part of some other. 

Connections.—No words of the language of the Cape Fear Indians 
have been preserved, but early references clearly associate them with 
the eastern Siouan tribes, and they may have been a part of the Wac- 
camaw, since Waccamaw River heads close to Cape Fear. They 
would then have been connected with the Siouan linguistic family 
and probably with the southern Atlantic division of which Catawba 
is the typical member. 

Location.—On Cape Fear River, as above stated. (See also South 
Carolina.) 

Villages 

The only village mentioned by name is Necoes, about 20 miles from the mouth 
of Cape Fear River, probably in Brunswick County. In 1715 five villages were 
reported. 

History— While the Cape Fear Indians were probably met by sev- 
eral of the early voyagers, our first specific notice of them comes from 
the narratives of a New England colony planted on Cape Fear River 
in 1661. These settlers seized some of the Indian children and sent 
them away under pretense of instructing them in the ways of civiliza- 
tion and were themselves in consequence driven off. In 1663 a colony 
from Barbadoes settled bere but soon left. In 1665 a third colony 
established itself at the mouth of Oldtown Creek in Brunswick 
County, on the south side of the river, on land bought from the Indians, 
but, though the latter were friendly, like the others this attempt at 
settlement was soon abandoned. They were visited by Capt. William 
Hilton in 1663. In 1695 they asked to be taken under the protection 
of Governor Archdale. The protection was granted and shortly 
afterward they rescued 52 passengers from a wrecked New England 
vessel who formed the nucleus of Christ Church Parish north of 
Cooper River. A few Cape Fear Indians accompanied Barnwell on 
his Tuscarora expedition in 1711-12. They were active in his behalf 
as scouts and also guarded the region around Port Royal. After the 
Yamasee War they were removed to South Carolina and settled inland 
from Charleston, probably in Williamsburg County (Milling, 1940). 
In the latter part of the eighteenth century, a remnant of this tribe 
and the Pedee lived in the Parishes of St. Stephens and St. Johns under 
a chief called King John. By 1808 only a half-breed woman remained 
of these two tribes, though others may have removed to the Catawba. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates a population of 1,000 Cape 
Fear Indians in 1600. The census of 1715, above mentioned, gives 
206. In 1808 White neighbors remembered when as many as 30 
Pedee and Cape Fear Indians lived in their old territories. 


76 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Catawba. This tribe occupied parts of southwestern North Carolina 
near Catawba River. (See South Carolina.) 


Cheraw. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Ani’-Suwa/’li, Cherokee name. 

Saraw, Suali, synonyms even more common than Cheraw. 

Xuala, Xualla, Spanish and Portuguese forms of the word, the z being 
intended for sh. 


Connections.—The Cheraw are classed on circumstantial grounds in 
the Siouan linguistic family though no words of their tongue have been 
preserved. 

Location.—The earliest known location of the Cheraw appears to 
have been near the head of Saluda River in Pickens and Oconee 
Counties, S. C., whence they removed at an early date to the present 
Henderson, Polk, and Rutherford Counties. 

Villages 

The names given are always those of the tribe, though we have a “‘Lower Saura 
Town” and an “Upper Saura Town” on a map dating from 1760. 

History—Mooney (1928) has shown that the Cheraw are identical 
with the Xuala province which De Soto entered in 1540, remaining 
about 4 days. They were visited by Pardo at a later date, and almost 
a hundred years afterward Lederer (1912) heard of them in the same 
region. Before 1700 they left their old country and moved to the 
Dan River near the southern line of Virginia, where they seem to 
have had two distinct settlements about 30 miles apart. About the 
year 1710, on account of constant Iroquois attacks, they moved 
southeast and joined the Keyauwee. The colonists of North Carolina, 
being dissatisfied at the proximity of these and other tribes, Governor 
Eden declared war against the Cheraw, and applied to Virginia for 
assistance. This Governor Spotswood refused, as he believed the 
Carolinians were the aggressors, but the contest was prosecuted by 
the latter until after the Yamasee War. During this period complaint 
was made that the Cheraw were responsible for most of the depre- 
dations committed north of Santee River and they were accused of 
trying to draw the coast tribes into an alliance with them. It was 
asserted also that arms were being supplied them from Virginia. The 
Cheraw were then living upon the upper course of the Great Pee Dee, 
near the line between the two colonies and in the later Cheraw dis- 
trict of South Carolina. Being still subject to attack by the Iroquois, 
they finally—between 1726 and 1739—became incorporated with the 
Catawba, with whom at an earlier date they had been at enmity. 
In 1759 a party joined the English in their expedition against Fort 
Duquesne, but the last notice of them is in 1768 when the remnant 
was still hving with the Catawba. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA Te 


Population.—During the Spanish period the Cheraw appear to 
have been of considerable importance but no estimate of their num- 
bers has come down to us. Mooney (1928) gives 1,200 as a probable 
figure for the year 1600. The census of 1715 gives 140 men and a 
total of 510, probably including the Keyauwee and perhaps some other 
tribes. In 1768 the survivors numbered 50 to 60. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Cheraw are famous 
as one of the few tribes in the Carolinas mentioned by De Soto’s 
chroniclers which can be identified and located with fair precision. 
They were noted later for their persistent hostility to the English 
and have left their name in Suwali Gap in the Blue Ridge Mountains, 
N. C.; in Saura Town Mountains, Stokes County, N. C.; in the town 
of Cheraw, Chesterfield County, S. C.; and possibly in the Uwaharrie 
River and Uwaharrie Mountains of North Carolina. There is a 
locality named Cheraw in Otero County, Colo. 


Cherokee. The Cherokee lived in the mountainous parts of the 
State in the west. (See Tennessee.) 


Chowanoc. Meaning in Algonquian “(people) at the south.” 
Connections.—The Chowanoc belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
family and were evidently most nearly allied to the other North 
Carolina Algonquians. 
Location.—On Chowan River about the junction of Meherrin and 
Blackwater Rivers. 
Villages 
Maraton, on the east bank of Chowan River in Chowan County. 
Ohanoak, on the west side of Chowan River not far below Nottoway River 
probably in Hertford County. 
Catoking, (probably) near Gatesville, in Gates County. 
Metocaum, on Chowan River in the present Bertie County. 
Ramushonok, apparently between the Meherrin and Nottoway Rivers in Hertford 
County. 


History.—In 1584-85, when first known to Europeans, the Chow- 
anoc were the leading tribe in northeastern North Carolina. In 
1663 they entered into a treaty with the English by which they sub- 
mitted to the English Crown, but they violated this in 1675 and after 
a year of warfare were compelled to confine themselves to a reserva- 
tion on Bennett’s Creek which became reduced by 1707 from 12 square 
miles to 6. They sided with the colonists in the Tuscarora War, and 
at about the same time were visited by a Church of England mis- 
sionary, Giles Rainsford. In 1723 a reservation of 53,000 acres was 
set aside for them conjointly with the Tuscarora and in 1733 they 
were given permission to incorporate with that tribe. They con- 
tinued to decline in numbers until in 1755 Governor Dobbs stated 
that only 2 men and 3 women were left. 


78 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Population.—In 1584-85 one of the Chowanoc towns, Ohanoak, 
was said to contain 700 warriors, and Mooney (1928) estimates their 
numbers at about 1,500 in 1600. In 1707 they were reduced to one 
town with about 15 fighting men, but at the end of the Tuscarora 
War their numbers were placed at 240. In 1731 less than 20 families 
were reported and by 1755 only 5 individuals, as above noted. 

Connection in which they have become noted——The Chowanoc seem 
to have been the most powerful Algonquian tribe south of the Pow- 
hatan. Their memory is preserved in the names of Chowan River 
and Chowan County, and in the designation of a small post office in 
the county of the name, all in North Carolina. 


Coree, or Coranine. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—As the final stage of the Coree existence was passed 
with an Algonquian tribe, some have thought that the affiliations of 
this people were also Algonquian. On the other hand Lawson (1860) 
notes that their language and that of a tribe to the north were mutually 
intelligible and there is reason for thinking that this northern tribe 
belonged to the Iroquois Confederacy. At least the Coree were 
closely associated in many ways with the Iroquoian Tuscarora. 

Location.—On the peninsula south of Neuse River in Carteret and 
Craven Counties. 

Villages 
Coranine, probably on the coast in Carteret County. 
Narhantes, among the Tuscarora, 30 miles from Newbern. 
Raruta, probably on the coast of Carteret County, south of Neuse River. 

History.— When the Coree and the Whites first met is unknown, 
but they appear in the records of the Raleigh colony under the name 
Cwarennoc. They were greatly reduced before 1696 in a war with 
another people. They took part with the Tuscarora in their war 
against the colonists, and in 1715 the remnant of them and what was 
left of the Machapunga were assigned a reservation on Mattamuskeet 
Lake in Hyde County, where they occupied one village, probably 
until they became extinct. A few of them appear to have remained 
with the Tuscarora. 

Population.—The population of this tribe and the Neusiok was 
estimated by Mooney (1928) at 1,000 in 1600. In 1707 Lawson says 
they had 25 fighting men and were living in 2 villages. No later 
enumeration is known. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Although some distance 
from the Coree country, Core Creek Station in Craven County, N.C., 
may perpetuate the name of the Coree. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 79 


Eno. Significance unknown, but Speck suggests i’nare, ‘‘to dislike,’ 
whence, ‘‘mean,’”’ ‘‘contemptible’’; ye"i’nare, “People disliked,” 


Haynokes, synonym from Yardley (1654). 


Connections.—The Eno were probably of the Siouan linguistic 
stock, though, on account of certain peculiarities attributed to them, 
Mooney (1895) casts some doubt upon this. Their nearest relatives 
were the Shakori. 

Location.—On Eno River in the present Orange and Durham 
Counties. (See also South Carolina.) 


Villages 


The only village name recorded, distinct from that of the tribe, is Adshusheer, 
a town which they shared with the Shakori. It is located by Mooney (1928) near 
the present Hillsboro. Lawson (1860) speaks in one place as if it were a tribe but 
as there is no other mention of it, it is more likely that it was simply the name of 
the town which the Eno and Shakori occupied. 


History—The Eno are first mentioned by Governor Yeardley of 
Virginia, who was told that they had valiantly resisted the northward 
advance of the Spaniards. From this it appears possible that they 
had formerly lived upon the Enoree River in South Carolina, which 
lay on the main trail from St. Helena to the Cheraw country at the 
foot of the Appalachian Mountains. Lederer (1912) mentions them 
in 1671 and Lawson (1860) in 1701 when they and the Shakori were 
in the town of Adshusheer. About 1714, together with the Shakori, 
Tutelo, Saponi, Occaneechi, and Keyauwee, they began to move 
toward the Virginia settlements. In 1716 Governor Spotswood of 
Virginia proposed to settle the Eno, Cheraw, and Keyuawee at Eno 
town “‘on the very frontiers’ of North Carolina but the project was 
defeated by the latter province on the ground that all three tribes 
were then at war with South Carolina. From the records it is not 
clear whether this Eno town was the old settlement or a new one 
nearer the Albemarle colonists. Owing to the defeat of this plan, the 
Eno moved into South Carolina. Presumably they finally united 
with the Catawba, among whom, Adair (1930) states, their dialect 
was still spoken in 1743. 

Population —Mooney (1928) estimates the combined Eno, Shakori, 
and Adshusheer at 1,500 in 1600. In 1714 the Eno, Shakori, Tutelo, 
Saponi, Occaneechi, and Keyauwee totaled 750. There is no other 
record of their numbers. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—In marked distinction 
from their neighbors, the Eno had taken to a trading life. Their 
name was given to Eno River in Orange and Durham Counties, N. C., 
and perhaps to a place called Enno in the southwestern part of Wake 
County, and to Enoree River in South Carolina (see above), as also 
to a post village near the last mentioned. 


80 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Hatteras. Meaning unknown. 

Connections —The Hatteras belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
family. 

Location.—Among the sandbanks about Cape Hatteras east of 
Pamlico Sound and frequenting Roanoke Island. 


Village 
Sandbanks, on Hatteras Island. 


History—Lawson (1860) thought the Hatteras showed traces of 
White blood and therefore they may have been the Croatan Indians 
with whom Raleigh’s colonists are supposed to have taken refuge. 
They disappeared soon after as a distinct tribe and united with the 
mainland Algonquians. In 1761, the Rev. Alex. Stewart baptized 7 
Indians and mixed-blood children of the ‘‘Attamuskeet, Hatteras, and 
Roanoke” tribes and 2 years later he baptized 21 more. 

Population.—The Hatteras population has been estimated with the 
Machapunga and other tribes at 1,200 in 1600; they had 16 warriors 
in 1701, or a total population of about 80. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The possible connec- 
tion of the Hatteras with the Croatan has been mentioned and their 
name has become perpetuated in the dangerous cape at the angle of 
the outer sand islands of their old country. 


Keyauwee. Meaning unknown. 
Connections.—From the historical affiliations of Keyauwee, they are 
presumed to have been of the Siouan linguistic family. 
Location.—About the points of meeting of the present Guilford, 
Davidson, and Randolph Counties. (See also South Carolina.) 


Villages 
No separately named villages are known. 


HMstory.—The Keyauwee do not appear to have been noted by 
white men before 1701 when Lawson (1860) found them in a palisaded 
village about 30 miles northeast of Yadkin River near the present 
Highpoint, Guilford County. At that time they were preparing to 
join the Saponi and Tutelo for better protection against their enemies, 
and, shortly afterward, together with the last mentioned tribes, the 
Occaneechi, and the Shakori, they moved toward the settlements 
about Albemarle Sound. As mentioned already, Governor Spots- 
wood’s project to settle this tribe together with the Eno and Cheraw 
at Enotown on the frontier of North Carolina was foiled by the opposi- 
tion of the latter colony. The Keyauwee then moved southward to 
the Pee Dee along with the Cheraw, and perhaps the Eno and Shakori. 
In the Jefferys atlas of 1761 their town appears close to the boundary 
line between the two Carolinas. They do not reappear in any of the 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA S81 


historical records but probably united ultimately in part with the 
Catawba, while some of their descendants are represented among the 
Robeson County Indians, often miscalled Croatan. 

Population —Mooney (1928) estimates 500 Keyauwee in 1600. In 
1701 they are said to have numbered approximately as many as the 
Saponi, but the population of that tribe also is unknown. Shortly 
afterward it is stated that the Keyauwee, Tutelo, Saponi, Occaneechi, 
and Shakori totaled 750 souls. This is all the information that we 
have. 


Machapunga. Said to mean “bad dust,” or “much dirt,” in the 
native Algonquian language. 
Connections.—The Machapunga belonged to the Algonquian lin- 
guistic stock. 
Location.—In the present Hyde County and probably also in 
Washington, Tyrrell, and Dare Counties, and part of Beaufort. 


Villages 

The only village named is Mattamuskeet (probably on Mattamuskeet Lake 
in Hyde County). However, we should probably add Secotan on the north bank 
of Pamlico River in Beaufort County, and perhaps the town of the Bear River 
Indians (q. v.). 

History.—The Machapunga seem to have embraced the larger part 
of the descendants of the Secotan, who lived between Albemarle and 
Pamlico Sounds when the Raleigh colony was established on Roanoke 
Island (1585-86) though the Pamlico may also have been included 
under the same head. They were reduced to a single village by 1701, 
took part with other Indian tribes of the region in the Tuscarora War, 
and at its close were settled on Mattamuskeet Lake with the Coree. 
In 1761 a small number were still living in North Carolina, evidently 
at the same place, and the Rev. Alex. Stewart reported that he had 
baptized seven Indian and mixed-blood children belonging to the 
“Attamuskeet, Hatteras, and Roanoke.’”’ On a second visit 2 years 
later he baptized 21 more. 

Population—The Machapunga are estimated by Mooney (1928) to 
have numbered 1,200, including some smaller tribes, in 1600. In 1701 
Lawson gives 30 warriors, probably less than 100 souls (Lawson, 
1860). In 1775 there were said to be 8 to 10 on the mainland and as 
many more on the off-shore banks. In 1761 the number of warriors 
was only 7 or 8. The Bear River Indians (q. v.) may have combined 
with these. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—In the form Machi- 
pongo, the name is applied to a post village in Northampton County, 
Va. 


82 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Meherrin. This tribe extended across from Virginia into North- 
ampton and Hertford Counties. (See Virginia.) 


Moratok. A place name, but the meaning otherwise unknown. 
Connections.—There is little doubt that the Moratok belonged to 
the Algonquian linguistic stock and were closely related to the other 
Algonquian tribes of the sound region of North Carolina. 
Location.—On Roanoke River and apparently on the north side, and 
estimated to be 160 miles up the river, though the distance is evidently 
reckoned from the Raleigh settlement on Roanoke Island. 


Villages 
The village bearing the name of the tribe is the only one known. 


History.—The sole mention of the Moratok is in the narratives of 
the Raleigh expeditions. They were first recognized as an independent 
tribe by Mr. Maurice Mook (1943 a). 

Population.—Unknown but reported as large. 

Natchez. Part of the Natchez Indians sought refuge with the Chero- 
kee after their tribe had been broken up by the French, and most of 
them appear to have lived along Hiwassee River. They accom- 
panied those Cherokee who moved to Oklahoma and settled on the 
western margin of the Cherokee Reservation, where a few of them 
retained their language long enough to have it recorded. (See 
Mississippi.) 

Neusiok. Probably a place name. 

Connections.—The form of this name suggests that the Neusiok were 
of the Algonquian stock, but they may have been Iroquoian like their 
neighbors the Tuscarora and Coree (?). 

Location.—On lower Neuse River particularly on the south side, in 
Craven and Cartaret Counties. 


Village 
Chattooka, on the site of Newbern, and Rouconk, exact location unknown. 


History.—In 1584 Amadas and Barlowe heard of the Neusiok as a 
war with the tribes farther north. The later settlers speak of them 
as Neuse Indians. They dwindled away rapidly after White contact 
and perhaps united finally with the Tuscarora. 

Population.—With the Coree the Neusiok are estimated by Mooney 
(1928) at 1,000 in the year 1600. In 1709 they numbered but 15 
warriors although occupying two towns. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Neusiok is 
connected with that of the River Neuse in North Carolina, and a 
post village. 


oO 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 83 


Occaneechi. When the Occaneechi lived on Roanoke River, Va., 
they probably ranged over into Warren, Halifax, and Northampton 
Counties, N. C. In 1701 they were in Orange County, N.C. (See 
Virginia.) 

Pamlico. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—The Pamlico belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
stock. 

Location—On Pamlico River. 

History.—The Pamlico are mentioned by the Raleigh colonists in 
1585-86 under the name Pomouik. In 1696 they were almost de- 
stroyed by smallpox. In 1701 Lawson recorded a vocabulary from 
them which shows their affiliations to have been as given above 
(Lawson, 1860). In 1710 they lived in a single small village. They 
took part in the Tuscarora war, and at its close that part of the 
Tuscarora under treaty with the English agreed to destroy them. A 
remnant of the Pamlico was probably incorporated by the Tuscarora 
as slaves. 

Population—The Pamlico are estimated by Mooney (1928), 
together with “Bear River” Indians, as 1,000 in 1600. In 1710 they 
numbered about 75. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The Pamlico have 
given their name to or shared it with the largest sound in North 
Carolina and a North Carolina county. They are also noteworthy 
as having been almost if not quite the most southerly Algonquian tribe 
on the Atlantic seaboard, and the most southerly one from which a 
vocabulary has been collected. 


Saponi. This tribe lived on Yadkin River and in other parts of the 
State for a certain period. (See Virginia.) 


Shakori. A native name but its significance unknown, though perhaps 
the same as Sugari, “stingy or spoiled people,” or “of the river- 
whose-water-cannot-be drunk.” Also called: 


Cacores, a misprint. 


Connections.—The Shakori belonged to the Siouan linguistic family, 
their closest connections being evidently with the southern division 
of the Siouan tribes of the East. Barnwell (1908) identified them 
with the Sissipahaw (q. v.). 

Location.—The Shakori moved so frequently and there is so much 
uncertainty regarding their early history, that this is hard to give, 
but, as they usually kept company with the Eno, tenancy of the 
courses of Shocco and Big Shocco Creeks in the present Vance, 
Warren, and Franklin Counties is perhaps the location most closely 
connected with them in historic times. (See South Carolina and 
Virginia.) 


84 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLu. 145 


History.—It is possible that the Shakori gave their name to the 
province of Chicora visited by Ayllon and his companions in 1521. 
If so, we must suppose that they moved north later in the sixteenth 
century or early in the seventeenth, perhaps as a result of the Pardo 
expeditions. In 1650 Edward Blande and his associates found the 
“Nottoway and Schockoores old fields” between Meherrin and Notto- 
way Rivers, but the Indians were not there. In 1654 Governor Yeard- 
ley of Virginia was told by a Tuscarora Indian of an inland people 
called the ‘‘Cacores,’’ probably an attempt to indicate this tribe. 
In 1672 Lederer found them living in a village 14 miles from that of the 
Eno (Lederer, 1912), and in 1701 Lawson says these two tribes (the 
Shakori and Eno) were in one village called Adshusheer on Eno River 
(Lawson, 1860). The later fortunes of the Shakori were bound up 
with those of the Eno (q. v.). 

Population.—Mooney (i928) estimates the Shakori, Eno, and 
‘‘Adshusheer”’ at 1,500 in 1600. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The two creeks, Shocco 
and Big Shocco, and a post office 9 miles south of Warrenton, Warren 
County, perpetuate the name of the Shakori. If Chicora refers to the 
same tribe, it appears prominently in Spanish narratives of American 
exploration, particularly because of the information regarding Indian 
customs obtained by Peter Martyr from an Indian, Francisco of 
Chicora. 


Sara, see Cheraw. 


Sissipahaw. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—The Sissipahaw were probably of the Siouan linguistic 
family though no words of their language are known. 

Location.—The principal Sissipahaw settlement appears to have 
been about the present Saxapahaw on Haw River in the lower part of 
Alamance County. (See also South Carolina.) 

History.—The name of this tribe is possibly preserved in the Sauxpa 
mentioned by the Spanish officer Vandera in 1569 as a place visited 
by Juan Pardo. Lawson (1860) spoke of them in connection with his 
travels through Carolina in 1701, but he did not visit them. Barn- 
well (1908) identified them with the Shakori with whom they were 
doubtless nearly allied and of whom they may have been a branch. 
They united with other tribes of the region against the English in the 
Yamasee war of 1715, and later with other Siouan remnants probably 
joined the Catawba. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the Sissipahaw at 800 in 
1600. ‘Haw Old Fields” constituted the largest body of fertile 
land in the region. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 85 


Connections in which they have become noted.—The name Sissipahaw 
has been brought down to our times by Haw River and the towns of 
Haw River and Saxapahaw on the same, in Alamance County, N. C. 


Sugeree. This tribe occupied parts of Mecklenburg County. (See 
South Carolina.) 


Tuscarora. From their own name Skd-ru’-ré", signifying according to 
Hewitt (tn Hodge, 1910), ‘‘hemp gatherers,” and applied on account 
of the great use they made of Apocynum cannabinum. Also called: 


A-ko-t’s’-ki-ro’-ré"’", Mohawk name. 
Ani’-Skala’lf, Cherokee name. 

A-t’As-ki-lo’-l8"’, Oneida name. 

Tewohomomy (or Keew-ahomomy), Saponi name. 


Connections.—The Tuscarora belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic 
family. 

Location.—On the Roanoke, Tar, Pamlico, and Neuse Rivers. 
(See also Pennsylvania and New York.) 


Subdivisions 


The Tuscarora should be considered a confederacy with three tribes or a tribe 
with three subtribes as follows: Ka‘té‘nu’a’ka’, ‘‘People of the submerged pine 
tree’; Akawintca’ka’, meaning doubtful; and Skari’ré2, “hemp gatherers,’ 
i. e., the Tuscarora proper. 


Villages 


The following were in North Carolina, a more precise location not being possible 

except in the cases specified: 

Annaooka. 

Chunaneets. 

Cohunche. 

Conauhcare. 

Contahnah, near the mouth of Neuse River. 

Cotechney, on the opposite side of Neuse River from Fort Barnwell, about the 
mouth of Contentnea Creek. 

Coram. 

Corutra. 

Harooka. 

Harutawaqui. 

Kenta. 

Kentanuska. 

Naurheghne. 

Neoheroka, in Greene County. 

Nonawharitse. 

Nursoorooka. 

Oonossoora. 

Tasqui, a day’s journey from Cotechney on the way to Nottaway village. 

Tonarooka, on a branch of Neuse River between “‘Fort Narhantes’’ and Cotech- 
ney. 

Torhunte, on a northern affluent of Neuse River. 

Tosneoc. 


86 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Ucouhnerunt, on Pamlico River, probably in the vicinity of Greenville, in Pitt 
County. 
Unanauhan. 


Later settlements in New York were these: 


Canasaraga, on Canaseraga Creek on the site of the present Sullivan. 

Ingaren. 

Junastriyo. 

Jutaneaga. 

Kanhats. 

Kaunehsuntahkeh. 

Nyuchirhaan, near Lewiston, Niagara County. 

Ohagi, on the west side of Genesee River a short distance below Cuylersville, 
Livingston County. 

Oquaga, on the east branch of the Susquehanna on both sides, in the town of 
Colesville, Broome County. 

Oyonwayea, also called Johnson’s Landing, in Niagara County, about 4 miles 
east of the outlet of Niagara River at the mouth of Four Mile Creek. 

Shawiangto, on the west side of the Susquehanna not far from Windsor, Broome 
County. 

Tiochrungwe, on the “main road” from Oneida to Onondaga. 

Tuscarora, the name of three villages: one a short distance east of ‘‘Anatsagane,”’ 
probably the present Stockbridge, in Madison County; the second about 3 miles 
below Oquaga, in Broome County, approximately on the site of Windsor; and 
the third 12 miles by land and 20 by water below Oquaga, in the vicinity of 
Great Bend, in Susquehanna County. 


The location of Ganatisgowa is uncertain. 


History.—The place or manner of separation of the Tuscarora from 
the Iroquois tribes of New York is not known, and they were found 
in the tract indicated above when the country was first entered by 
white colonists. John Lawson, Surveyor General of North Carolina, 
lived in close contact with these Indians for many years and his 
History of Carolina gives us our earliest satisfactory picture of them. 
(See Lawson, 1860.) It was his capture and execution by the tribe 
in September 1711, however, which brought on the first Tuscarora 
War, though behind it lay a series of encroachments by the Whites 
on Tuscarora territory, and the kidnaping and enslavement of num- 
bers of Indians. Immediately after Lawson’s death, part of the 
Tuscarora, headed by chief Hencock, and the Coree, Pamlico, Ma- 
chapunga, and Bear River Indians conspired to cut off the white 
settlers and, in consequence, on September 22, 1711, they rose and 
massacred about 130 of the colonists on Trent and Pamlico Rivers. 
Colonel Barnwell, with 33 white men and about 500 Indians, marched 
against the hostiles, by direction of the colony of South Carolina, 
drove them from one of their towns with great loss, and invested 
Hencock’s own town, Cotechney. But having suffered severely in 
two assaults upon the place and fearing lest the white captives in the 
hands of the Indians would be killed, he made peace and returned 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 87 


home. Dissatisfied with the treatment accorded him by the North 
Carolina authorities, however, he violated the treaty during his retreat 
by seizing some Indians and sending themawayasslaves. This brought 
on the second Tuscarora War, 1712-13. South Carolina was again 
appealed to for assistance, and Colonel James Moore set out for the 
north with about 900 Indians and 33 white men, a number which 
was considerably swelled before he reached the seat of trouble. 
March 20 to 23 he stormed the palisaded town of Neoheroka, inflicting 
a loss upon the enemy of about 950. The Tuscarora became so 
terrified at this that part of them abandoned Fort Cohunche, situated 
at Hencock’s town and started north to join their relatives, the 
Iroquois. This was only the beginning of the movement, bands of 
Tuscarora being noted at intervals as moving north or as having 
arrived among the Five Nations. They were adopted by the Oneida 
but, contrary to the general impression, were not granted coordinate 
rights in the League before September 1722. A part of the Tuscarora 
under a chief named Tom Blunt (or Blount), had, however, remained 
neutral. They received recognition by the government of North 
Carolina, and continued in their former homes under their own chiefs. 
In 1766, 155 removed to New York, and the 105 remaining were 
brought north in 1802 while a deputation of northern Tuscarora were 
in Carolina to obtain payment for the lands they had formerly occu- 
pied. When the Tuscarora first moved north they were settled at 
various places along the Susquehanna in Pennsylvania and in New 
York, some in the Oneida country itself. In 1875, by the treaty of 
Fort Herkimer, the Oneida sold to the State of New York, the lands 
on which their adopted children, the Tuscarora, had settled, and for a 
time the Tuscarora were dispersed in various settlements in New York 
State, and even in Pennsylvania. At the outbreak of the American 
Revolution, the majority of Tuscarora and Oneida espoused the cause 
of the colonists and in consequence they were attacked by Indians 
in the British interest, including even some of their Iroquois brethren, 
their houses were burned, their crops and other property destroyed, 
and they themselves scattered. A large band of them settled, how- 
ever, at a place called Oyonwayea or Johnson’s Landing, on Lake 
Ontario. Later a party from this settlement discovered a place in 
the northeastern part of the present Tuscarora Reservation which 
pleased them so much that they decided to winter there and they 
were presently joined by the rest of the inhabitants of Oyonwayea. 
At the treaty held at Genesee, September 15, 1797, between Robert 
Morris and the Seneca tribe, Morris reserved to the tribe, by grant, 
2 square miles, covering their new settlements, and the Seneca there- 
upon granted them an additional square mile. As a result of their 
appeal to the legislature of North Carolina above mentioned, they 


88 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunu. 145 


were able to lease lands in the south, and they devoted the proceeds 
to the purchase of 4,329 acres adjoining their New York reserve. 
The Tuscarora who had sided with Great Britain were granted lands 
in severalty on Grand River, Ontario. 

Population.—There were 5,000 Tuscarora in 1600 according to an 
estimate by Mooney (1928). In 1708, Lawson gives 15 towns and 
1,200 warriors (Lawson, 1860). Barnwell in 1712 estimates 1,200 to 
1,400 fighting men (Barnwell, 1908); Chauvignerie in 1736, 250 war- 
riors, not including those in North Carolina, and on the Susquehanna 
and Juniata Rivers (Chauvignerie, in Schoolcraft, 1851-57, vol. 3, 
p. 555). In 1752 the southern Tuscarora were said to number 300 
men; in 1754 there were said to be 100 men and 200 women and 
children and these figures are repeated in 1761. In 1766 there were 
said to be 220 to 230 all told in the south; next year we read that 155 
southern Tuscarora had removed and that 105 remained. Other 
estimates place the total Tuscarora population at 1,000 in 1765, 2,000 
in 1778, 1,000 in 1783, and 400 in 1796. In 1885 there were 828 
(evenly divided between New York and Canada). In 1909 there 
were 364 in New York and a year later 416 in Canada, a total of 780. 
In 1910, 400 were reported in the United States and in 1923, 376 in 
New York alone. The number in Canada is not separately given. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—This tribe is noted 
historically for its prominence among the peoples of eastern North 
Carolina, for the two wars which it waged with the colonists, and for 
the rather spectacular migration of the greater part to the north and 
its union with the Five Iroquois Nations. The name Tuscarora 
occurs applied to settlements in Frederick County, Md.; Craven 
County, North Carolina; Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania; Livingston 
County, N. Y.; Elko County, Nev.; and Ontario; and to a creek and 
mountain in Pennsylvania. 


Tutelo. This tribe lived for a while on the upper Yadkin and later in 
Bertie County. (See Virginia.) 
Waccamaw. They probably ranged across into North Carolina from 
the head of Waccamaw River. (See South Carolina.) 
Wateree. According to Lederer (1912) they were living in 1670 on 
the upper Yadkin. (See South Carolina.) 
Waxhaw. They extended over into Union County from South Car- 
olina. (See South Carolina.) 
Weapemeoc. Meaning unknown, but evidently a place name. Also 
called: 
Yeopim, a shortened and more usual form. 
Connections.—The Weapemeoc were almost certainly of the Algon- 
quian linguistic family and related to the Powhatan Indians to the 
north and the Chowan, Machapunga, and Pamlico to the south. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 89 


Location.—Most of the present Currituck, Camden, Pasquotank, 
and Perquimans Counties, and part of Chowan County north of 
Albemarle Sound. 


Subdivisions 


In the same section in later times are given the following tribes which must be 
regarded as subdivisions of the Weapemeoc: 


Pasquotank, on Pasquotank River. 

Perquiman, on Perquimans River. 

Poteskeet, location uncertain. 

Yeopim, or Weapemeoc proper, on Yeopim River. 


Villages 


Chepanoc, on Albemarle Sound in Perquimans County. 

Mascoming, on the north shore of Albemarle Sound, in Chowan County. 

Metachkwem, location unknown. 

Pasquenock, perhaps identical with Pasquotank, on the north shore of Albe- 
marle Sound, perhaps in Camden County. 

Weapemeoc, probably in Pasquotank County. 


History —The Weapemeoc first appear in history in the narratives 
of the Raleigh colony of 1585-86. Later they are spoken of under 
the various subdivisional names. They parted with some of their 
land in 1662. In 1701, according to Lawson (1860), only 6 of the 
Yeopim survived though there were 40 warriors of the other sub- 
divisions, including 10 Pasquotank and 30 Potekeet. 

Population.—In the time of the Raleigh colony the Weapemeoc 
are said to have had between 700 and 800 warriors. They were 
estimated by Mooney (1928) at 800 in 1600. From their number 
as given by Lawson in 1701 Rights (1947) estimates 200 at that date. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—In the form Yeopim 
the name has been preserved in that of a railroad station in Per- 
quimans County, N.C. 


Woccon. Significance unknown. 


Connections—The Woccon belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock, 
their closest relations being the Catawba. 

Location.—Between Neuse River and one of its affluents, perhaps 
about the present Goldsboro, Wayne County. 


Villages 


Tooptatmeer, supposed to have been in Greene County. 
Yupwauremau, supposed to have been in Greene County. 


Mistory.—The first mention of the Woccon appears to be by Lawson 
writing about 1701, who recorded 150 words of their language. These 
show that it was nearer Catawba than any other known variety of 


90 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


speech. Lack of any earlier mention of such a large tribe lends 
strength to the theory of Dr. Douglas L. Rights that they were 
originally Waccamaw (q. v., under South Carolina). They took 
part against the Whites in the Tuscarora Wars and were probably 
extinguished as a tribe at that time, the remnant fleeing north with 
the Tuscarora, uniting with the Catawba, or combining with other 
Siouan remnants in the people later known as Croatan. 

Population.—The number of Woccon was estimated by Mooney 
(1928) at 600 in 1600. Lawson (1860) gives 120 warriors in 1709. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The sole claim of the 
Woccon to distinction is from the fact that it is the only one of the 
southern group of eastern Siouan tribes other than the Catawba 
from which a vocabulary has been preserved. 


Yadkin. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—The Yadkin probably belonged to the Siouan lin- 
guistic family. 

Location.—On Yadkin River. 

History.—The Yadkin first appear in history in a letter by the 
Indian trader, Abraham Wood, narrating the adventures of two men, 
James Needham and Gabriel Arthur, whom he had sent on an explor- 
ing expedition to the west. They passed this tribe and town, which 
they call ‘‘Yattken,”’ in the summer of 1674. Lawson (1860) gives 
the name as Reatkin but applies it to the river, and there is no later 
mention of the people. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Their name Yadkin is 
perpetuated by the Yadkin River, Yadkin County, and the towns 
and villages of Yadkin College, Yadkin Falls, Yadkin Valley, and 
Yadkinville, all in the State of North Carolina. 


Yeopim, see Weapemeoc. 
SOUTH CAROLINA 


Catawba. Significance unknown though the name was probably 
native to the tribe. Also called: 

Ani’ta’gui, Cherokee name. 

Iswa or Issa, signifying “‘river,”’ and specifically the Catawba River; orig- 
inally probably an independent band which united early with the 
Catawba proper. 

Oyadagahreenes, Tadirighrones, Iroquois names. 

Usherys, from iswahere, “‘river down here’’; see Issa. 

Connections.—The Catawba belonged to the Siouan linguistic 
family, but Catawba was the most aberrant of all known Siouan 
languages, though closer to Woccon than any other of which a vocab- 
ulary has been recorded. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 9] 


Location.—In York and Lancaster Counties mainly but extending 
into the neighboring parts of the State and also into North Carolina 


and Tennessee. 
Subdivisions 


Two distinct tribes are given by Lawson (1860) and placed on early maps, the 
Catawba and Iswa, the latter deriving their name from the native word meaning 
“river,’’ which was specifically applied to Catawba River. 


Villages 


In early days this tribe had many villages but few names have come down to us. 
In 1728 there were six villages, all on Catawba River, the most northerly of which 
was known as Nauvasa. In 1781 they had two called in English Newton and 
Turkey Head, on opposite sides of Catawba River. 

History.—The Catawba appear first in history under the name 
Ysa, Issa (Iswa) in Vandera’s narratives of Pardo’s expedition into 
the interior, made in 1566-67. Lederer (1912) visited them in 1670 
and calls them Ushery. In 1711-13 they assisted the Whites in their 
wars with the Tuscarora, and though they participated in the Yamasee 
uprising in 1715 peace was quickly made and the Catawba remained 
faithful friends of the colonists ever after. Meanwhile they declined 
steadily in numbers from diseases introduced by the Whites, the use 
of liquor, and constant warfare with the Iroquois, Shawnee, Delaware, 
and other tribes. In 1738 they were decimated by smallpox and in 
1759 the same disease destroyed nearly half of them. Through the 
mediation of the Whites, peace was made at Albany in 1759 between 
them and the Iroquois, but other tribes continued their attacks, and 
in 1763 a party of Shawnee killed the noted Catawba King Haigler. 
The year before they had left their town in North Carolina and 
moved into South Carolina, where a tract of land 15 miles square had 
been reserved for them. From that time on they sank into relative 
insignificance, ‘They sided with the colonists during the revolution 
and on the approach of the British troops withdrew temporarily into 
Virginia, returning after the battle of Guilford Court House. In 1826 
nearly the whole of their reservation was leased to Whites, and in 
1840 they sold all of it to the State of South Carolina, which agreed to 
obtain new territory for them in North Carolina. The latter State 
refused to part with any land for that purpose, however, and most of 
the Catawba who had gone north of the State line were forced to 
return. Ultimately a reservation of 800 acres was set aside for them 
in South Carolina and the main body has lived there ever since. A 
few continued in North Carolina and others went to the Cherokee, 
but most of these soon came back and the last of those who remained 
died in 1889. A few Catawba intermarried with the Cherokee in 
later times, however, and still live there, and a few others went to the 


92 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn 145 


Choctaw Nation, in what is pow Oklahoma, and settled near Scully- 
ville. These also are reported to be extinct. Some families estab- 
lished themselves in other parts of Oklahoma, in Arkansas, and near 
Sanford, Colo., where they have gradually been absorbed by the 
Indian and White population. About 1884 several Catawba were 
converted by Mormon missionaries and went to Salt Lake City, and 
in time most of those in South Carolina became members of the 
Mormon Church, although a few are Baptists. Besides the two 
divisions of Catawba proper, the present tribe is supposed to include 
remnants of about 20 smaller tribes, principally Siouan. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the number of Catawba in 
1600, including the Iswa, at 5,000. About 1682 the tribe was sup- 
posed to contain 1,500 warriors or about 4,600 souls; in 1728, 400 war- 
riors or about 1,400 souls; and in 1743, after incorporating several 
small tribes, as having less than that number of warriors. In 1752 
we have an estimate of about 300 warriors, or about 1,000 people; 
in 1755, 240 warriors; in 1757, about 300 warriors and 700 souls; 
and in 1759, 250 warriors. Although there is an estimate accrediting 
them with 300 warriors in 1761, King Haigler declared that they had 
been reduced by that year, after the smallpox epidemic of 1760, to 
60 fighting men. In 1763 fewer than 50 men were reported, and in 
1766 “‘not more than 60.” In 1775 there was estimated a total 
population of 400; in 1780, 490; in 1784, 250; in 1822, 450; in 1826, 
110. In 1881 Gatschet found 85 on the reservation and 35 on ad- 
joining farms, a total of 120. The census of 1910 returned 124, and 
in 1912 there were about 100, of whom 60 were attached to the reser- 
vation. The census of 1930 gave 166, all but 7 in South Carolina. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Catawba, whether 
originally or by union with the Iswa, early became recognized as 
the most powerful of all the Siouan peoples of Carolina. They are 
also the tribe which preserved its identity longest and from which 
the greatest amount of linguistic information has been obtained. 
Thenameitself was given to a variety of grape, andhas become applied, 
either adopted from the tribe directly or taken from that of the grape, 
to places in Catawba County, N. C.; Roanoke County, Va.; Marion 
County, W. Va.; Bracken County, Ky.; Clark County, Ohio; Caldwell 
County, Mo.; Steuben County, N. Y.; Blaine County, Okla.; York 
County, S. C.; and Price County, Wis. It is also borne by an island in 
Ohio, and by the Catawba River of the Carolinas, a branch of the 
Wateree. 


Cherokee. The extreme northwestern portion of the State was 
occupied by Cherokee Indians. (See Tennessee.) 

Chiaha. A part of this tribe lived in South Carolina at times. (See 
Georgia.) 


SwaNTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 93 


Chickasaw. The Chickasaw territory proper was in northern 
Mississippi, at a considerable distance from the State under dis- 
cussion, but about 1753 a body of Chickasaw Indians settled on 
the South Carolina side of Savannah River, to be near the English 
trading posts and to keep in contact with the English, who were 
their allies. Before 1757 most of them moved over to the imme- 
diate neighborhood of Augusta and remained there until the period 
of the American Revolution. In that war they sided against the 
colonists and their lands were confiscated in 1783. (See Mississippi.) 


Congaree. Meaning unknown. 


Connection.—No words of this language have been preserved but 
the form of the name and general associations of the tribe leave little 
doubt that it was a Siouan dialect, related most closely to Catawba. 

Location.—On Congaree River, centering in the neighborhood of 
the present State Capital, Columbia. 


Village 


The only village mentioned bore the same name as the tribe and was sometimes 
placed on the Congaree opposite Columbia, sometimes on the north side of the 
Tiver. 

History —The Congaree are mentioned in documents of the seven- 
teenth century as one of the small tribes of the Piedmont region. In 
1701 Lawson (1860) found them settled on the northeast bank of 
Santee River below the mouth of the Wateree. They took part 
against the Whites in the Yamasee War of 1715, and in 1716 over 
half of them were captured and sent as slaves to the West Indies. 
The remnant appear to have retreated to the Catawba, for Adair 
(1930) mentions their dialect as one of those spoken in the Catawba 
Nation. 

Population.—The Congaree are estimated by Mooney (1928) at 
800 in 1600. A census taken in 1715 gives 22 men and a total popu- 
lation of about 40. 

Connection in which they have become neted.—Congaree River and 
a railroad station in Richland County, S. C., preserve the name; 
Columbia, the State capital, was originally known as the Congarees. 
Creeks. In the time of De Soto, Cofitachequi, which seems to 

have been either Kasihta or Coweta, and a few other Creek towns 

including perhaps Hilibi and part of the Chiaha Indians were in 
the territory of the present State of South Carolina near Savan- 
nah River. The Coosa of Coosawhatchie, Edisto, and Ashley 

Rivers may have been Creek in origin, and in later times Creeks 

constantly resorted to the provincial settlements in this area. 

(See Alabama.) 


94 BUREAU GF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Cusabo. Meaning perhaps ‘‘Coosawhatchie River (people).” 


Connections.—There is little doubt that the Cusabo belonged to the 
Muskhogean linguistic family. Their closest connections appear to 
have been with the Indians of the Georgia coast, the Guale. 

Location.—In the southernmost part of South Carolina between 
Charleston Harbor and Savannah River and including most of the 
valleys of the Ashley, Edisto, Ashepoo, Combahee, Salkehatchie, and 


Coosawhatchie Rivers. 
Subdivisions 


These people should be divided first into the Cusabo proper, who occupied all 
of the coast, and the Coosa, who were inland upon the rivers above mentioned. 
The Cusabo proper seem to have consisted of a northern group of tribes or sub- 
tribes, including the Etiwaw (on Wando River), Wando (on Cooper River), 
Kiawa (on the lower course of Ashley River), and perhaps the Stono (about 
Stono Entrance); and a southern group including the Edisto (on Edisto Island), 
Ashepoo (on lower Ashepoo River), Combahee (on lower Combahee River), 
Wimbee (between the latter and the lower Coosawhatchie River), Escamacu 
(between St. Helena Sound and Broad River), and perhaps a few others. Some- 
times early writers erroneously include the Siouan Sewee and Santee as Cusabo. 


Villages 


Ahoya or Hoya, on or near Broad River. 

Ahoyabi, near the preceding. 

Aluste, near Beaufort, possibly a form of Edisto. 
Awendaw, near Awendaw Creek; it may have been Sewee (q. v.). 
Bohicket, near Rockville. 

Cambe, near Beaufort. 

Chatuache, 6-10 leagues north of Beaufort. 

Mayon, probably on Broad River. 

Talapo, probably near Beaufort. 

Touppa, probably on Broad River. 

Yanahume, probably on the south side of Broad River. 


Historya—While their country was most likely skirted by earlier 
navigators, the first certain appearance of the Cusabo in history is 
in connection with a slave-hunting expedition sent out by Vasques 
de Ayllon. This reached the mainland in 1521, probably a little 
north of the Cusabo territory and introduced the blessings of White 
civilization to the unsuspecting natives by carrying away about 70 
of them. One of these Indians was finally taken to Spain and 
furnished the historian Peter Martyr with considerable information 
regarding his country and the names of a number of tribes, some 
of whom were certainly Cusabo. In 1525 Ayllon sent a second expedi- 
tion to the region and in 1526 led a colony thither. Dissatisfied 
with his first landing place, probably near the landfall of the expedition 
of 1521, he moved the colony ‘40 or 45 leagues,”’ perhaps to the 
neighborhood of Savannah River. But it did not prosper, Ayllon 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 95 


died, trouble broke out among the survivors, and finally they returned 
to Haiti in the middle of the following winter. In 1540 De Soto 
passed near this country, but apparently he did not enter it, and the 
next European contact was brought about by the settlement of 
Ribault’s first colony at Port Royal in 1562. The small number 
of people left by Ribault managed to maintain themselves for some 
time with the assistance of friendly natives, but, receiving no relief 
from France, they became discouraged, and built a small vessel in 
which a few of them eventually reached home. In 1564 a Spanish 
vessel visited this coast for the purpose of rooting out the French 
settlement. Later the same year a second Huguenot colony was 
established on St. Johns River, Florida, and communication was 
maintained with the Cusabo Indians. In 1565 this colony was 
destroyed by the Spaniards who visited Port Royal in quest of certain 
French refugees, and the year following Fort San Felipe was built 
at the same place. From this time until 1587 a post was maintained 
here, although with some intermissions due to Indian risings. In 
1568-70 a vain attempt was made to missionize the Indians. In 1576 
a formidable Indian uprising compelled the abandonment of the fort, 
but it was soon reoccupied and an Indian town was destroyed in 
1579 by way of reprisal. Next year, however, there was a second 
uprising, making still another abandonment necessary. The fort 
was reoccupied in 1582 but abandoned permanently 5 years later; 
and after that time there was no regular post in the country but 
communication was kept up between the Cusabo and St. Augustine 
and occasional visits seem to have been made by the Franciscan 
Friars. Between 1633 and 1655 we have notice of a new mission in 
Cusabo territory, called Chatuache, but when the English settled 
South Carolina in 1670 there appears to have been no regular mission 
there and certainly no Spanish post. Charleston was founded on 
Cusabo soil, and from the date of its establishment onward relations 
were close between the English and Cusabo. In 1671 there was a 
short war between the colonists and the Coosa Indians and in 1674 
there was further trouble with this people and with the Stono. In 
1675 the Coosa Indians surrendered to the English a large tract of 
land which constituted Ashley Barony, and in 1682 what appears 
to have been a still more sweeping land cession was signed by several 
of the Cusabo chiefs. In 1693 there was another short war, this time 
between the Whites and the Stono. A body of Cusabo accom- 
panied Colonel Barnwell in his expedition against the Tuscarora 
in 1711-12, and this fact may have quickened the consciences of the 
colonists somewhat, because in 1712 the Island of Palawana, ‘near 
the Island of St. Helena,” was granted to them. It appears that 
most of their plantations were already upon it but it had inadvertently 


96 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BoLL. 145 


been granted to a white proprietor. The Cusabo here mentioned 
were those of the southern group; there is reason to think that the 
Kiawa and Coosa were not included. Early in 1720 “King Gilbert 
and ye Coosaboys” took part in Col. John Barnwell’s punitive expedi- 
tion against St. Augustine (Barnwell, 1908). In 1743 the Kiawa 
were given a grant of land south of the Combahee River, probably 
to be near the other coast Indians. Part of the Coosa may have 
retired to the Catawba, since Adair (1930) mentions “‘Coosah”’ as 
one of the dialects spoken in the “Catawba Nation,” but others 
probably went to the Creeks. At least one band of Cusabo may have 
gone to Florida, because, in “‘A List of New Indian Missions in the 
Vicinity of St. Augustine,”’ dated December 1, 1726, there is mention 
of a mission of San Antonio “of the Cosapuya nation and other 
Indians” containing 43 recently converted Christians and 12 pagans. 
Two years later we are informed that ‘‘the towns of the Casapullas 
Indians were depopulated,” though whether this has reference to the 
ones in Florida or to those in their old country is not clear. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the number of southern 
Cusabo, exclusive of the Edisto, at 1,200 in 1600, the Edisto at 1,000, 
the Etiwaw at 600, and the Coosa at 600. He classifies the Stono 
with the Westo, thereby falling into a common error. The colonial 
census of 1715 gives the number of southern Cusabo as 295, including 
95 men, in 5 villages, while the Etiwaw (probably including the other 
northern Cusabo) had 1 village, 80 men, and a total population 
of 240. There were thus 535 Cusabo over all. The Coosa are 
nowhere mentioned by name and were probably included with one 
or the other of these. The 55 Indians at the Florida mission above 
mentioned, consisting of individuals of “the Cosapuya nation and 
other Indians,” included 24 men, 13 women, and 18 children. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The first part of the 
name Coosa is identical in origin with the first part of the name of 
Coosawhatchie River, S. C., and a post village. The people them- 
selves are noted in history as the first in eastern North America north 
of Florida among whom European settlements were begun. They had 
an earlier and longer contact with Europeans than any other Indians 
on the Atlantic seaboard except those of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 


Eno. This tribe moved into the northern part of the State after 1716 
and perhaps united ultimately with the Catawba. At some pre- 
historic period they may have lived on Enoree River. (See North 
Carolina.) 


Keyauwee. They settled on the Pee Dee after 1716 and probably 
united with the Catawba. (See North Carolina.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 97 


Natchez. A band of Indians of this tribe lived for several years at 
a place called Four Hole Springs in South Carolina but left in 1744 
fearing the vengeance of the Catawba because of seven of that tribe 
whom they had killed. (See Mississippi.) 


Pedee. Meaning unknown, but Speck (1935) suggests from Ca- 
tawba pi’ri, “something good,” or pi’here, “smart,” “expert,” 
“capable.” 

Connections.—No words of the language have survived but there is 
every reason to suppose that it was a dialect of the Siouan linguistic 
family. 

Location.—On Great Pee Dee River, particularly its middle course. 

Village 

No village names are known apart from the tribal name, which was sometimes 
applied to specific settlements. 

History.—The Pedee are first mentioned by the colonists of South 
Carolina. In 1716 a place in or near their country called Saukey 
(perhaps Socatee) was suggested as the site for a trading post but the 
proposition to establish one there was given up owing to the weakness 
of the Pedee tribe, who were thought to be unable to protect it. In 
1744, the Pedee, along with Natchez Indians, killed some Catawba 
and were in consequence driven from their lands into the White 
settlements. Soon afterward most of them joined the Catawba, but 
some remained near the Whites, where they are mentioned as late as 
1755. In 1808 the Pedee and Cape Fear tribes were represented by 
one half-breed woman. 

Population.—Mooney, 1928, estimates the number of Pedee as 600 
in 1600. The census of 1715 does not give them separate mention, 
and they were probably included among the 610 Waccamaw or the 
106 Winyaw. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Great and Little 
Pee Dee Rivers and a station in Marion County, S. C., also a post 
village in Anson County, N. C., perpetuate the name of the Pedee. 


Saluda. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—These are uncertain but circumstantial evidence 
indicates strongly that the Saluda were a band of Shawnee, and 
therefore of the Algonquian stock. 

Location.—On Saluda River. 

History.—Almost all that we know regarding the Saluda is contained 
in a note on George Hunter’s map of the Cherokee country drawn in 
1730 indicating “Saluda town where a nation settled 35 years ago, 
removed 18 years to Conestogo, in Pensilvania.’’ As bands of 
Shawnee were moving into just that region from time to time during 
the period indicated, there is reason to think that this was one of them, 


98 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


all the more that a “Savana” creek appears on the same map flowing 
into Congaree River just below the Saluda settlement. 
Population.—Unknown. 
Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Saluda is 
preserved by Saluda River and settlements in Saluda County, S. C.; 
Polk County, N. C.; and Middlesex County, Va. 


Santee. Named according to Speck (1935), from iswa?’ti, ‘“‘the 
river,” or ‘‘the river is there.’’ Also called: 
Seretee, by Lawson (1860). 


Connections.—No words of the Santee language have come down to 
us, but there is little doubt that they belonged to the Siouan linguistic 
family. 

Location.—On the middle course of Santee River. 


Villages 
The only name preserved is Hickerau, on a branch of Santee River. 


History.—The Santee were first encountered by the Spaniards 
during the seventeenth century, and in the narrative of his second 
expedition Captain Eg¢ija places them on Santee River. In 1700 they 
were visited by John Lawson, who found their plantations extending 
for many miles along the river, and learned that they were at war with 
the coast people (Lawson, 1860). They furnished Barnwell (1908) 
with a contingent for his Tuscarora campaign in 1711-12, but are said 
to have taken part against the Whites in the Yamasee War of 1715. In 
1716 they were attacked by the Etiwaw and Cusabo, acting in the 
interest of the colonists, and the greater part of them were carried 
away captive and sent to the West Indies. The remainder were 
probably incorporated with the Catawba. 

Population.—The number of Santee was estimated by Mooney 
(1928) at 1,000 in 1600. In 1715 an Indian census gave them 43 
warriors and a total population of 80 to 85 in 2 villages. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Santee has 
been given permanency chiefly by its application to the Santee River, 
S. C., but it has also been applied to a village in Orangeburg 
County, S. C. 


Sewee. Significance: perhaps, as Gatschet suggested, from sdwe’, 
bbs ”) 
island. 


Connections.—No words of their language have survived, but the 
Sewee are regarded as Siouan on strong circumstantial grounds, in 
spite of the fact that they are sometimes classed with the Cusabo. 

Location.—On the lower course of Santee River and the coast 
westward to the divide of Ashley River about the present Monks 
Corner, Berkeley County. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 99 


Villages 


Lawson, writing about 1700, mentions a deserted village in Sewee Bay called 
Avendaughbough which may have belonged to them (Lawson, 1860). The name 
seems to be still preserved in the form Awensdaw. 

History.—Possibly Xoxi (pronounced Shoshi or Shohi), one of the 
provinces mentioned by Francisco of Chicora, an Indian carried from 
this region by the Spaniards in 1521, is a synonym of Sewee. The 
name is mentioned by Captain Egija in 1609. They may have been 
the Indians first met by the English expedition which founded the 
colony of South Carolina in 1670, when they were in Sewee Bay. 
They assisted the English against the Spaniards, and supplied them 
with corn. Lawson (1860) states that they were formerly a large 
tribe, but in his time, 1700, were wasted by smallpox and indulgence 
in alcoholic liquors. Moreover, a large proportion of the able-bodied 
men had been lost at sea in an attempt to open closer trade relations 
with England. Just before the Yamasee War, they were still living in 
their old country in a single village, but it is probable that the war 
put an end to them as a distinct tribe. The remnant may have united 
with the Catawba. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) gives an estimate of 800 Sewee for the 
year 1600. In 1715 there were but 57. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—At an earlier period 
this name was applied to the body of water now called Bulls Bay. 
There is a post hamlet with this designation in Meigs County, Tenn., 
but the name is probably of independent origin. 


Shakori. This tribe is thought to have moved south with the Eno 
after 1716 and to have united ultimately with the Catawba. At 
some prehistoric period they perhaps lived on or near Enoree River, 
and there is reason to think that they or a branch gave their name 
to the Province of Chicora. (See North Carolina.) 


Shawnee. In 1680, or shortly before, a band of Shawnee, probably 
from the Cumberland, settled on Savannah River, and the year 
following they performed a great service to the new colony of 
South Carolina by driving off the Westo Indians, whom I consider 
to have been Yuchi. These Shawnee appear to have been of the 
band afterward known as Hathawekela. They remained long 
enough in the neighborhood of Augusta to give their name to 
Savannah River, but by 1707 some of them had begun to move into 
Pennsylvania, and this movement continued at intervals until 1731, 
when all seem to have been out of the State. The Saluda (q. v.) 
were perhaps one of these bands. In 1715, as a result of the 
Yamasee War, a body moved from the Savannah to the Chatta- 
hoochee, and thence to the Tallapoosa. (See Tennessee.) 


100 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Sissipahaw. Possibly they were the Sauxpa mentioned by the Span- 
ish officer Vandera in 1569, and if so they may then have been in 
South Carolina, a proposition considerably strengthened if Chicora 
is to be identified with the Shakori, since Barnwell (1908) equates 
these tribes. (See North Carolina.) 


Sugeree. Speck (1935) suggests Catawba ye'si’grihere, ‘people 
stingy,” or ‘‘spoiled,” or ‘‘of the river whose-water-cannot-be- 
drunk.’’ (Cf. Shakori.) Also called: 


Suturees, a synonym of 1715. 


Connections.—No words of their language have been preserved, but 
there is every reason to suppose that they belonged to the Siouan 
linguistic family and were closely related to the Catawba, and perhaps 
still more closely to the Shakori. 

Location.—On and near Sugar Creek in York County, S. C., and 


Mecklenburg County, N. C. 
Villages 


There were said to be many but their names have not been preserved. 


History —The Sugeree are hardly mentioned by anyone before 
Lawson in 1701. They probably suffered in consequence of the 
Yamasee War and finally united with the Catawba. 

Population.—No separate enumeration or estimate of the Sugeree 
appears ever to have been made, and Mooney (1928) seems to have 
included them in the population of 5,000 allowed the Catawba. 

Connection wn which they have become noted.—The name Sugeree has 
been preserved in Sugar Creek, an affluent of Catawba River in North 
and South Carolina. 


Waccamaw. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—Nothing of their tongue has been preserved but evi- 
dence points to a connection of the Waccamaw with the Siouan 
linguistic family, and presumably with the Catawba dialectic group. 
The Woccon may have been a late subdivision, as Dr. Rights has 
suggested. (See North Carolina.) 

Location.—On Waccamaw River and the lower course of the Pee 
Dee. (See North Carolina.) 

Villages 


The Waccamaw were reported to have had six villages in 1715, but none of 
the names is preserved. 

History—The name of the Waccamaw may perhaps be recorded 
in the form Guacaya, given by Francisco of Chicora as that of a 
‘“‘province”’ in this region early in the sixteenth century. In 1715 the 
Cheraw attempted to incite them to attack the English, and they 
joined the hostile party but made peace the same year. In 1716 a 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 101 


trading post was established in their country at a place called Uauenee 
(Uaunee, Euaunee), or the Great Bluff, the name perhaps a synonym 
of Winyaw, although we know of no Winyaw there. There was a 
short war between them and the colonists in 1720 in which they lost 
60 men, women, and children killed or captured. In 1755 the Chero- 
kee and Natchez are reported to have killed some Pedee and Wacca- 
maw in the White settlements. Ultimately they may have united 
with the Catawba, though more probably with the so-called Croatan 
Indians of North Carolina. There is, however, a body of mixed bloods 
in their old country to whom the name is applied. 

Population—The Waccamaw are estimated by Mooney (1928) at 
900 in 1600 along with the Winyaw and some smaller tribes. The 
census of 1715 gives 210 men and 610 souls, and in 1720 they are said 
to have had 100 warriors. (See Cape Fear Indians under North 
Carolina.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Waccamaw River in 
North and South Carolina and Waccamaw Lake in North Carolina, 
which empties into the river, perpetuate their name. 


Wateree. Gatschet suggests a connection with Catawba, wateran, ‘‘to 
float on the water.”’ Also called: 


Chickanee, name for a division of Wateree and meaning “‘little.”’ 
Guatari, Spanish spelling of their name. 


Connections.—The Wateree are placed in the Siouan linguistic stock 
on circumstantial evidence. 

Location.—The location associated most closely with the Wateree 
historically was on Wateree River, below the present Camden. (See 
North Carolina.) 

History.—The Wateree are first mentioned in the report of an ex- 
pedition from Santa Elena (Beaufort) by Juan Pardo in 1566-67. 
They lived well inland toward the Cherokee frontier. Pardo made a 
small fort and left a corporal there and 17 soldiers, but the Indians 
soon wiped it out. In 1670 Lederer (1912) places them very much 
farther north, perhaps on the upper Yadkin, but soon afterward they 
are found on Wateree River where Lawson met them. In 1711-12 
they furnished a contingent to Barnwell in his expedition against the 
Tuscarora. In a map dated 1715 their village is placed on the west 
bank of Wateree River, possibly in Fairfield County, but on the Moll 
map of 1730 it is laid down on the east bank. The Yamasee War re- 
duced their power considerably, and toward the middle of the eight- 
eenth century they went to live with the Catawba, with whom the 
survivors must ultimately have fused. They appear as a separate 
tribe, however, as late as 1744, when they sold the neck of land between 
Congaree and Wateree Rivers to a white trader. 


102 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Population.—The number of Wateree is estimated by Mooney 
(1928) at 1,000 in 1600. There is no later enumeration. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Wateree were one 
of the most powerful tribes of central South Carolina as far back as 
the time of the Spanish settlements at St. Helena. Their name is 
preserved in Wateree River, S. C., and in a post village in Richland 
County in the same State. 


Waxhaw. Meaning unknown. Also called: 


Flatheads, a name given to this tribe and others of the Catawba connection 
owing to their custom of deforming the head. 

Connection.—Nothing of their language has been preserved, but 
circumstantial evidence points to a close relationship between the 
Waxhaw and the Catawba and hence to membership in the Siouan 
linguistic stock. Their closest contacts appear to have been with 
the Sugeree. 

Location.—In Lancaster County, S. C., and Union and Mecklen- 
burg Counties, N. C. 

Villages 
Lawson mentions two villages in 1701 but the names are not given. 


History—The Waxhaw were possibly the Gueza of Vandera, who 
lived in western South Carolina in 1566-67. Lederer (1912) writing 
about 1670, speaks of the Waxhaw under the name Wisacky and says 
that they were subject to and might be considered a part of the 
Catawba. They were probably identical with the Weesock, whose 
children were said by Gabriel Arthur (1918) to be brought up in 
Tamahita (Yuchi) families ‘‘as ye Ianesaryes are mongst ye Turkes.” 
Lawson (1860) visited them in 1701. At the end of the Yamasee 
War, they refused to make peace with the English and were set upon 
by the Catawba and the greater part of them killed. The rest fled to 
the Cheraw, but a band numbering 25 accompanied the Yamasee to 
Florida in 1715 and are noted as still there in 1720. 

Population —The Waxhaw are included by Mooney (1928) in the 
5,000 estimated population of the Catawba. No separate estimate 
of their numbers is given anywhere. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Waxhaw were dis- 
tinguished in early times on account of their custom of deforming the 
heads of their children, Their name is preserved in Waxhaw Creek 
and in the name of a post town, both in Union County, N. C.; by a 
hamlet in Lancaster County, S. C.,; and a place in Bolivar County, 
Miss. 


Winyaw. Meaning unknown. 
Connections—The Winyaw are placed in the Siouan linguistic 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 103 


family on circumstantial evidence. Their closest connections were 
with the Pedee and Waccamaw. 

Location.—On Winyaw Bay, Black River, and the lower course of 
the Pee Dee. 

History.—Unless this tribe is represented by the Yenyohol of Fran- 
cisco of Chicora (1521), the Winyaw were first mentioned by the colo- 
nists of South Carolina after 1670. In 1683 it was charged that 
colonists had raided them for slaves on an insufficiently supported 
charge of murder by some of their people This unfriendly act did 
not prevent some of them from joining Barnwell’s army in the first 
Tuscarora War. Along with other Indians they, indeed, withdrew 
later from the expedition, but they claimed that it was for lack of 
equipment. In 1715 the Cheraw tried to induce them and the Wac- 
camaw to side against the colonists in the Yamasee War. A year 
later a trading post was established in the territory of the Waccamaw 
not far from their own lands. (See Waccamaw.) About the same 
time some of them settled among the Santee, but they appear to have 
returned to their own country a few years later. Some assisted the 
Whites in their war with the Waccamaw in 1720. They soon disap- 
pear from history and probably united with the Waccamaw. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) includes the Winyaw in his estimate 
of 900 for the ‘‘Waccamaw, Winyaw, Hook, &c.”’ as of the year 1600. 
The census of 1715 gives them one village of 36 men and a total 
population of 106. 

Connection in which they have become noted—Winyaw Bay, S. C., 
preserves the name. It was from this tribe or one in the immediate 
neighborhood that Francisco of Chicora was carried away by the 
first Ayllon expedition and from which one of the earliest ethno- 
logical descriptions of a North American tribe was recorded The 
name by which the Spaniards knew the province, however, Chicora, 
was probably derived from the Shakori, Sugeree, or a branch of one 
of them. 


Yamasee. The Yamasee Indians lived originally near the southern 
margin of the State and perhaps at times within its borders, but 
they are rather to be connected with the aboriginal history of 
Georgia. In 1687, having become offended with the Spaniards, 
they settled on the north side of Savannah River on a tract after- 
ward known as the Indian land and remained there in alliance with 
the colonists until 1715, when they rebelled and fled to St. Augustine. 
(See Georgia.) 


Yuchi. The Yuchi probably did not enter South Carolina until after 
the year 1661. The Westo, whom I consider to have been a part 
of them, were driven away by the Shawnee in 1681, but there was 


104 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


a band of Yuchi higher up the Savannah River which did not move 
until 1716, and later another body settled between Silver Bluff and 
Ebenezer Creek. Hawkins says that they had villages at Ponpon 
and Saltkechers, but that is all the evidence we have of settlements 
so far east, and these probably belonged to the Yamassee. In 1729 
the Yuchi began to move west to join the Creeks and by 1751 
completed the evacuation. (See Georgia.) 


GEORGIA 


Apalachee. After the English and Creeks destroyed the Apalachee 
towns in Florida in 1704, they established a part of the tribe in a 
village not far below the present Augusta. In 1715, when the 
Yamasee War broke out, these Apalachee joined the hostile Indians 
and went to the Chattahoochee to live near that faction of the 
Lower Creeks which was favorable to Spain. Soon afterward, 
however, the English faction gained the ascendency among the 
Creeks, and the Apalachee returned to Florida. (See Florida.) 


Apalachicola. From Hitchiti “Apalachicoli” or Muskogee ‘‘Apala- 
chicolo,” signifying apparently ‘“‘People of the other side,’ with 


reference probably to the Apalachicola River or some nearby stream. 
Also called: 


Talwa lako or Italwa lako, “big town,’’ name given by the Muskogee Indians’ 
Palachicola or Parachukla, contractions of Apalachicola. 

Connections —This was one of those tribes of the Muskhogean 
linguistic stock which spoke the Atsik-hata or Hitchiti language, and 
which included in addition the Hitchiti, Okmulgee, Oconee, Sawokh, 
Tamah, Mikasuki, Chiaha, and possibly the Osochi (but see Osochi). 

Location.—The earliest known home of the Apalachicola was near 
the river which bears their name in the center of the Lower Creek 
country. Later they lived for a considerable period at the point 
where it comes into existence through the junction of the Chatta- 
hoochee and Flint Rivers. (See also Alabama and Florida.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The following names of towns or tribes were given by a Tawasa Indian, Lam- 
hatty, to Robert Beverley (1722) and may well have belonged to the Apalachicola: 
Aulédley, Eph{ppick, Sonepdh, and perhaps Socsodéky (or Socsésky). The census 
of 1832 returned two distinct bodies of Indians under the synonyms Apalachicola 
and Talwa ako. 

History.—According to Muskogee legend, the ancestors of the 
Muskogee encountered the Apalachicola in the region above indicated 
when they entered the country, and they were at first disposed to fight 
with them but soon made peace. According to one legend the Creek 
Confederacy came into existence as a result of this treaty. Spanish 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 105 


documents of the seventeenth century are the earliest in which the 
name appears. It is there used both as the name of a town (as early 
as 1675) and, in an extended sense, for all of the Lower Creeks. This 
fact, Muskogee tradition, and the name Talwa tako all show the early 
importance of the people. They were on more friendly terms with 
the Spaniards than the Muskogee generally and hence were fallen 
upon by the Indian allies of the English and carried off, either in 
1706 or 1707. They were settled on Savannah River opposite Mount 
Pleasant, at a place which long bore their name, but in 1716, just 
after the Yamasee War, they retired into their old country and estab- 
lished themselves at the junction of Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers. 
Later they moved higher up the Chattahoochee and lived in Russell 
County, Ala., remaining in the general neighborhood until they 
removed to new homes in the present Oklahoma in 1836-40. There 
they established themselves in the northern part of the Creek Reser- 
vation but presently gave up their ceremonial ground and were grad- 
ually absorbed in the mass of Indians about them. 

Population.—In 1715 just before the outbreak of the Yamasee War, 
there were said to be 2 settlements of this tribe with 64 warriors and 
a total population of 214. A Spanish census of 1738 also gave 2 
settlements with 60 warriors in one and 45 in the other; a French census 
of 1750, more than 30 warriors; a British enumeration of 1760, 60; 
one of 1761, 20; an American estimate of 1792, 100 (including the 
Chiaha); and the United States Census of 1832, a total population of 
239 in 2 settlements. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Apalachicola River, 
Apalachicola Bay, and the name of the county seat of Franklin 
County, Fla., are derived from this tribe. The Spaniards applied 
their name to the Lower Creeks generally, and they were also noted 
as one of the tribes responsible for the formation of the Confederation. 


Chatot. Some of these Indians lived at times in the southwest cor- 
ner of this State. (See Florida.) 


Cherokee. From early times the Cherokee occupied the northern 
and northeastern parts of Georgia, though from certain place names 
it seems probable that they had been {preceded in that territory 
by Creeks. (See Tennessee.) 

Chiaha. Meaning unknown though it may contain a reference to 
mountains or highlands. (Cf. Choctaw and Alabama tcaha, 
Hitchiti teaihi, “high.’’) Also called: 


Tolameco or Solameco, which probably signifies “big town,’ a name 
reported by the Spaniards. 


106 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Connections.—The Chiaha belonged to the Muskhogean linguistic 
stock and in later times spoke the Muskogee tongue, but there is every 
reason to class them in the Hitchiti group. (See Apalachicola.) 

Location.—In later historic times the Chiaha were on the middle 
course of Chattahoochee River, but at the earliest period at which 
we have any knowledge of them they seem to have been divided into 
two bands, one on Burns Island, in the present State of Tennessee, 
the other in eastern Georgia near the coast. (See also South Carolina 
and Florida.) 


Subdivisions 
The Mikasuki of northern Florida are said to have separated from these people. 
Villages 


Hawkins (1848) gives the following: 

Aumucculle, on a creek of the same name which enters Flint River ‘‘45 miles below 

Timothy Barnard’s.”’ 

Chiahutci, Little Chiaha, a mile and a half west of the Hitchiti town, near Auhegee 

Creek. 

Hotalgihuyana, occupied jointly with the Osochi, on the right bank of Flint 

River 6 miles below Kinchafoonee. 

HMistory.—Some confusion regarding this tribe has been occasioned 
by the fact that in the sixteenth century there appear to have been 
two divisions. The name first appears in the De Soto narratives 
applied to a ‘‘province” on an island in Tennessee River which J. Y. 
Brame has identified in a very satisfactory manner with Burns Island 
close to the Tennessee-Alabama line. They were said to be ‘‘subject 
to a chief of Coga,”’ from which it may perhaps be inferred that the 
Creek Confederacy was already in existence. Early in 1567 Boyano, 
Juan Pardo’s lieutenant, reached this town with a small body of 
soldiers and constructed a fort, Pardo joining him in September. 
When Pardo returned to Santa Elena shortly afterward he left a 
small garrison here which was later destroyed by the Indians. Possibly 
Chehawhaw Creek, an eastern affluent of the Coosa indicates a later 
location of this band. The only remaining reference which might 
apply to them occurs in the names of two bodies of Creeks called 
“Chehaw” and ‘Chearhaw” which appear in the census rolls of 
1832-33, but they may have gotten their designations from former 
residences on or near the creek so called. In 1727 there was a tradition 
among the Cherokee that the Yamasee Indians were formerly Cherokee 
driven out by the Tomahitans, i. e., the Yuchi, and in this there may 
be some reminiscence of fhe fate of the Chiaha. 

In the Pardo narratives the name ‘‘Lameco or Solameco”’ is given 
as a synonym for the northern Chiaha, and this may have been 
intended for Tolameco, which would be a Creek term meaning ‘“‘Chief 
Town.” This was also the name of a large abandoned settlement 


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SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 107 


near Cofitachequi on the middle course of Savannah River visited by 
De Soto in 1540. Since we know that Chiaha were also in this region, 
it is a fair supposition that this town had been occupied by people of 
this connection. There is a Chehaw River on the South Carolina 
coast between the Edisto and Combahee, and as ‘“‘Chiaha’”’ is used 
once as an equivalent for Kiawa, possibly the Cusabo tribe of that 
name may have been related. Moreover, we are informed (S. C. 
Docs.) that the Chiaha had their homes formerly among the Yamasee. 
In 1715 they withdrew to the Chattahoochee with other upper Creek 
towns, probably from a temporary abode on Ocmulgee River. After 
the Creeks moved to Oklahoma the Chiaha settled in the northeastern 
corner of the Creek Reservation and maintained a square ground 
there until after the Civil War, but they have now practically lost 
their identity. Some of them went to Florida and the Mikasuki are 
said by some Indians to have branched off from them. In the country 
of the western Seminole there was a square ground as late as 1929 
which bore their name. 

Population —There are no figures for the northern band of Chiaha 
unless they could have been represented in the two towns of the 
1832-33 census given above, which had total populations of 126 and 
306 respectively. For the southern division a Spanish census of 1738 
gives 120 warriors but this included also the Osochi and Okmulgee. 
In 1750 only 20 were reported, but in 1760, 160, though an estimate 
the following year reduces this to 120. In 1792 Marbury gives 100 
Chiaha and Apalachicola, and the census of 1832-33 returned 381 
of the former. In 1799 Hawkins states that there were 20 Indian 
families in Hotalgi-huyana, a town occupied jointly by this tribe and 
the Osochi, but in 1821 Young raises this to 210. He gives 670 for 
the Chiaha proper. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The Chiaha tribe is 
of some note on account of the prominence given to one branch of it 
in the De Soto narratives. As above mentioned, its name, spelled 
Chehawhaw, is applied to a stream in the northern part of Talladega 
County, Ala.;it is given in the form Chehaw to a post hamlet of Macon 
County, Ala.; to a stream in Colleton County, S. C.; and also to 
a small place in Seminole County, Okla. 


Chickasaw. A band of Chickasaw lived near Augusta from about 
1723 to the opening of the American Revolution, and later they were 
for some time among the Lower Creeks. (See Mississippi and 
South Carolina.) 


Creeks. A part, and perhaps a large part, of the Indians who after- 
ward constituted the Creek Confederacy were living in the sixteenth 


108 BUREAU Of AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


century in what the Spaniards called the province of Guale on the 
present Georgia coast. Some of them moved inland in consequence 
of difficulties with the Whites, and in the latter half of the seven- 
teenth century most of those afterward known as Lower Creeks 
were upon Chattahoochee and Ocmulgee Rivers, the latter river 
being then called Ocheese Creek, from the Hitchiti name given to 
the Indians living on it. After the Yamasee War (1715) all assem- 
bled upon Chattahoochee River and continued there, part on the 
Georgia side of the river, part on the Alabama side, until they 
removed to the present Oklahoma early in the nineteenth century. 
(See Creek Confederacy and Muskogee under Alabama.) 


Guale. Meaning unknown, though it resembles Muskogee wahali, 
“the south,” but it was originally applied to St. Catherines Island, or 
possibly to a chief living there. Also called: 

Ouade, a French form of Guale. 
Ybaha, Yguaja, Ibaja, Iguaja, Yupaha, Timucua name. 
Connections.—The names of villages and the title ‘‘mico’”’ applied 
to chiefs leave little doubt that these Indians belonged to the Musk- 
hogean linguistic family. Part of them were probably true Creeks 
or Muskogee. (See Alabama.) Their nearest connections otherwise 
appear to have been with the Cusabo Indians. (See South Carolina.) 
Location.—On the Georgia coast between St. Andrews Sound and 

Savannah River, though the section between St. Catherines Sound 

and Savannah seems to have been little occupied. (See also Florida.) 


Subdivisions 


Three rough divisions appear to be indicated by Governor Ibarra of Florida, 
but this is very uncertain. (See below under Villages.) 


Villages 


So far as they can be made out, the villages in each of the three groups men- 
tioned above were as follows: 
Northern group: 

Asopo, apparently a form of Ossabaw but stated to have been on St. Cath- 
erines Island. 

Chatufo. 

Couexis, given in the French narratives as near St. Catherines. 

Culapala. 

Guale, not, it appears, on the island of that name but ‘‘on an arm of a river 
which is a branch of another on the north bank of the aforesaid port in Santa 
Elena in 32° N. lat.,”’ probably on Ossabaw Island. 

Otapalas. 

Otaxe (Otashe). 

Posache, ‘‘in the island of Guale.” 

Tolomato, said to have been on the mainland 2 leagues from St. Catherines 
Island and near the bar of Sapello. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 109 


Uchilape, ‘‘near Tolomato.”’ 

Uculegue. 

Unallapa, 

Yfusinique, evidently on the mainland. 

Yoa, said to have been 2 leagues up a river emptying into an arm of the sea 
back of Sapello and St. Catherines Sound. 

Central group: 

Aleguifa, near Tulufina. 

Chucalagaite, near Tulufina, 

Espogache, near Espogue. 

Espogue, not more than 6 leagues from Talaxe. 

Fasquiche, near Espogue. 

Sapala, evidently on or near Sapello Island. 

Sotequa. 

Tapala. 

Tulufina, probably on the mainland. 

Tupiqui, probably the original of the name Tybee, but this town was very much 
farther south. 

Utine. 

Southern group: 

Aluque. 

Asao, probably on St. Simons Island. 

Cascangue, which seems to have been reckoned as Timucua at times and hence 
may have been near the Timucua border. 

Falquiche. 

Fuloplata, possibly a man’s name. 

Hinafasque. 

Hocaesle, 

Talaxe, probably on St. Simons Island or on the Altamaha River, both of 
which were known by the name Talaxe. 

Tufulo. 

Tuque. 

Yfulo. 


To the above must be added the following town names which cannot be allo- 
cated in any of the preceding divisions: 

Alpatopo. 

Aytochuco. 

Ayul. 

Olatachahane, perhaps a chief’s name. 

Olatapotoque, given as a town, but perhaps a chief’s name. 

Olataylitaba, perhaps two names run together, Olata and Litabi. 

Olocalpa. 

Sulopacaques. 

Tamufa. 

Yumunapa. 


History.—The last settlement of the Ayllon colony in 1526 was on 
or near the Guale country, as the name Gualdape suggests. When 
the French Huguenot colony was at Port Royal, S. C., in 1562, they 
heard of a chief called Ouadé and visited him several times for 
provisions. After the Spaniards had driven the French from Florida, 
they continued north to Guale and the Cusabo territory to expel 


110 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


several Frenchmen who had taken refuge there. In 1569 missionary 
work was undertaken by the Jesuits simultaneously among the 
Cusabo and Guale Indians and one of the missionaries, Domingo 
Augustin, wrote a grammar of the Guale language. But the 
spiritual labors of the missionaries proved unavailing, and they soon 
abandoned the country. In 1573 missionary work was resumed by 
the Franciscans and was increasingly successful when in 1597 there 
was a general insurrection in which all of the missionaries but one were 
killed. The governor of Florida shortly afterward burned very many 
of the Guale towns with their granaries, thereby reducing most of the 
Indians to submission, and by 1601 the rebellion was over. Mission- 
ary work was resumed soon afterward and continued uninterruptedly, 
in spite of sporadic insurrections in 1608 and 1645 and attacks of 
northern Indians in 1661, 1680, and even earlier. However, as a 
result of these attacks those of the Guale Indians who did not escape 
inland moved, or were moved, in 1686, to the islands of San Pedro, 
Santa Maria, and San Juan north of St. Augustine. Later another 
island called Santa Cruz was substituted forSan Pedro. The Quaker, 
Dickenson, who was shipwrecked on the east coast of Florida in 1699, 
visited these missions on his way north. At the time of the removal 
some Guale Indians appear to have gone to South Carolina, and in 
1702 a general insurrection of the remainder took place, and they 
joined their kinsmen on the outskirts of that colony under the leader- 
ship of the Yamasee. A few may have remained in Florida. In 
any event, all except those who had fled to the Creeks were united 
after the outbreak of the Yamasee in 1715 and continued to live in 
the neighborhood of St. Augustine until their virtual extinction. In 
1726 there were two missions near St. Augustine occupied by Indians 
of the ‘‘Iguaja nation,” i. e., Guale, but that is the last we hear of 
them under any name but that of the Yamasee (q. v.). 

Population.—Mooney (1928), who was not aware of the distinction 
to be drawn between the Guale Indians and the Yamasee, gives an 
estimate of 2,000 Guale in the year 1650. For the two tribes this is 
probably too low. The Guale alone, before they had been depleted 
by White contact and Indian invasions from the north, might well have 
numbered 4,000, but some of these were later added to the Creeks. In 
1602 the missionaries claimed that there were more than 1,200 Chris- 
tians in the Guale province, and in 1670 the English estimated that the 
Spanish missions contained about 700 men. The first accurate census 
of the Yamasee and Guale Indians together, made in 1715, perhaps 
omitting some few of the latter still in Florida, gives 413 men and a 
total population of 1,215. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Aside from the abortive 
missionary undertakings of the friars who accompanied Coronado, 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA a | 


and a short missionary experience among the Calusa, the provinces of 
Guale and Orista (Cusabo) were the first north of México in which 
regular missionary work was undertaken, and the grammar of the 
Guale language by Domingo Augustin was the first of any language 
in that region to be compiled. 


Hitchiti. Perhaps from Atcik-hata, a term formerly applied to all 
of the Indians who spoke the Hitchiti language, and is said to refer 
to the heap of white ashes piled up close to the ceremonial ground. 
Also called: 


At-pasha-shliha, Koasati name, meaning “mean people.” 


Connections.—The Hitchiti belonged to the Muskhogean linguistic 
family and were considered the mother town of the Atcik-hata group. 
(See Apalachicola.) 

Location.—The Hitchiti are oftenest associated with a location in 
the present Chattahoochee County, Ga., but at an earlier period 
were on the lower course of the Ocmulgee River. (See also Florida 
and Oklahoma.) 

Villages 
Hihaje, location unknown. 
Hitchitoochee, on Flint River below its junction with Kinchafoonee Creek. 
Tuttallosee, on a creek of the same name, 20 miles west from Hitchitoochee. 

History.—The Hitchiti are identifiable with the Ocute of De Soto’s 
chroniclers, who were on or near the Ocmulgee River. Early English 
maps show their town on the site of the present Macon, Ga., but after 
1715 they moved to the Chattahoochee, settling first in Henry County, 
Ala., but later at the site above mentioned in Chattahoochee County, 
Ga. From this place they moved to Oklahoma, where they gradually 
merged with the rest of the Indians of the Creek Confederacy. 

Population.—The population of the Hitchiti is usually given in 
conjunction with that of the other confederate tribes. The following 
separate estimates of the effective male Hitchiti population are 
recorded: 1738, 60; 1750, 15; 1760, 50; 1761, 40; 1772, 90; in 1832 the 
entire population was 381. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—In early days, as 
above mentioned, the Hitchiti were prominent as the leaders in that 
group of tribes or towns among the Lower Creeks speaking a language 
distinct from Muskogee. Hichita, McIntosh County, Okla., pre- 
serves the name. 

Kasihta. One of the most important divisions of the Muskogee, 
possibly identical with the Cofitachequi of the De Soto narratives. 

(See Muskogee under Alabama.) 


112 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Oconee. Significance unknown. 

Connections.—The Oconee belonged to the Muskhogean linguistic 
stock, and the Atcik-hata group. (See Apalachicola.) 

Location.—Just below the Rock Landing on Oconee River, Ga. 
(But see also Florida.) 

History.—Early documents reveal at least two bodies of Indians 
bearing the name Oconee and probably related. One was on or near 
the coast of Georgia and seems later to have moved into the Apalachee 
country and to have become fused with the Apalachee tribe before 
the end of the seventeenth century. The other was at the point 
above indicated, on Oconee River. About 1685 they were on Chatta- 
hoochee River, whence they moved to the Rock Landing. A more 
northerly location for at least part of the tribe may be indicated in 
the name of a Cherokee town, though that may have been derived 
from a Cherokee word as Mooney supposed. About 1716 they moved 
to the east bank of the Chattahoochee in Stewart County, Ga., and 
a few years later part went to the Alachua Plains, in the present 
Alachua County, Fla., where they became the nucleus of the Seminole 
Nation and furnished the chief to that people until the end of the 
Seminole war. Most of them were then taken to Oklahoma, but 
they had already lost their identity. 

Population.—The following estimates of effective Oconee men in 
the Creek Nation are preserved: 1738, 50; 1750, 30; 1760, 50; 1761, 50. 
In 1675 there were about 200 Indians at the Apalachee Mission of 
San Francisco de Oconi. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Oconee is 
perpetuated in the Oconee River, the town of Oconee, Oconee Mills, 
and Oconee Siding, all in Georgia, but not necessarily in the name of 
Oconee County, 5. C., which is of Cherokee origin, although there 
may be some more remote relationship. There is a place of the 
name in Shelby County, III. 


Okmulgee. Signifying in the Hitchiti language, “where water boils 
up” and referring probably to the big springs in Butts County, 
Ga., called Indian Springs. Also called: 


Waiki lako, “Big Spring,” Muskogee name. 


Connections —The Okmulgee belonged to the Muskhogean linguistic 
stock and the Atsik-hata group. (See Apalachicola under Georgia.) 

Location.—In the great bend of the Chattahoochee River, Russell 
County, Ala.; earlier, about the present Macon, Ga. (See also 
Alabama and Oklahoma.) 

History.—The Okmulgee probably separated from the Hitchiti or 
one of their cognate towns when these towns were on Ocmulgee- River 
and settled at the point above indicated, where they became closely 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 113 


associated with the Chiaha and Osochi. They went west with the 
other Creeks and reestablished themselves in the most northeastern 
part of the allotted territory, where they gradually lost their identity. 
Although small in numbers, they gave the prominent Perryman 
family to the Creek Nation and its well-known head chief, Pleasant 
Porter. 

Population.—A French census of about 1750 states that there were 
rather more than 20 effective men among the Okmulgee, and the 
British census of 1760 gives 30. Young, quoted by Morse, estimates 
a total population of 220 in 1822. There are few other enumerations 
separate from the general census of the Creeks. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name of the city 
of Okmulgee and that of Ocmulgee River were derived independently 
from the springs above mentioned. ‘The name Okmulgee given to the 
later capital of the Creek Nation in what is now Oklahoma was, 
however, taken from the tribe under consideration. It has now 
become a flourishing oil city. 


Osochi. A division of the Lower Creeks which Jived for a time in 
southwestern Georgia. (See Alabama.) 


Sawokli. A division of the Creeks belonging to the group of towns 
that spoke the Hitchiti language. (See Alabama.) 


Shawnee. The Shawnee band which settled near Augusta concerns 
South Carolina and Georgia almost equally. Their history has 
already been given in treating the tribes of the former State. 
(See also Tennessee.) 


Tamathli. The name is possibly related to that of a Creek clan with 
the Hitchiti plural ending, in which case it would refer to ‘‘flying 
creatures,” such as birds. 

Connections.—Tamathli belonged to the Atsik-hata group in the 
Creek Confederation. 

Location.—The historic seats of the Tamathli were in southwestern 
Georgia and neighboring parts of Florida. 

History.—It is believed that we have our first mention of the 
Tamathli in the Toa or Toalli of the De Soto narratives. When 
De Soto passed through Georgia in 1540, it is believed that this tribe 
was living at Pine Island in Daugherty County. They may have 
been connected with the Altamaha Yamasee living between Ocmulgee 
and Oconee Rivers whose name sometimes appears in the form Tama. 
They afterward drifted into Florida and were established in a mission 
called La Purificacién de la Tama on January 27, 1675, by Bishop 
Calderén of Cuba, in the Apalachee country 1 league from San Luis. 
In a mission list dated 1680 appears the name of another mission, 
Nuestra Sefiora de la Candelaria dela Tama. The Tamathli suffered 


114 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


the same fate as the Apalachee in general when the latter were at- 
tacked by Moore in 1704. At least part of these Indians afterward 
moved to the neighborhood of St. Augustine, where another mission 
was established for them, but this was attacked by the Creeks on 
November 1, 1725, while mass was being celebrated. Many Indians 
were killed and the remainder moved to other missions. In 1738 we 
hear of a ‘’Tamaxle nuevo,” as the northernmost Lower Creek settle- 
ment and a southern division called “Old Tamathle,” and are informed 
that “in the town of Tamasle in Apalachee [i. e., Old Tamathle] 
there were some Catholic and pagan families.”” We hear again of 
these Tamathl Indians from Benjamin Hawkins (1848), writing in 
1799, who sets them down as one of the tribes entering into the forma- 
tion of the Florida Seminole. A town of the same name also 
appears in the Cherokee country ‘‘on Valley River, a few miles above 
Murphy, about the present Tomatola, in Cherokee County, N. C.”’ 
The name cannot be interpreted in Cherokee and there may once 
have been a northern division of the Tamathli. 

Population.—The Spanish census dated 1738 enters Old Tamathlhi, 
with 12 men, and New Tamathli with 26, but the latter probably was 
in the main a Sawokli settlement. The French estimate of 1750 
entered only the former town with 10 men. In Young’s enumeration 
of Seminole towns (in Morse, 1822) this is given a total population of 
220. 


Timucua. One contact between the Timucua Indians and Georgia 
is mentioned later in connection with the Osochi. When the 
Spaniards first came in contact with them, the Timucua occupied 
not merely northern and central Florida but Cumberland Island 
and a part of the adjacent mainland. The Timucua evidently 
withdrew from this territory as a result of pressure exerted by 
northern Indians in the latter part of the seventeenth century or 
the very beginning of the eighteenth. (See Utina under Florida.) 


Yamasee. Meaning unknown, though it has been interpreted by 
Muskogee yamasi, ‘‘gentle.” The form given in some early 
writings, Yamiscaron, may have been derived from a Siouan dialect 
or from Timucua, as there is no 7 in any of the Muskhogean tongues. 
Connections.—The Yamasee town and chief names indicate plainly 

that they spoke a Muskhogean dialect and tradition affirms that it 

was connected most closely with Hitchiti, a contention which may be 
considered probable. 

Location.—The earliest references that we have place the Yamasee 
on Ocmulgee River not far above its junction with the Oconee. They 
seem to have ranged or extended northeastward of these rivers to or 
even slightly beyond the Savannah, but always inland. (See also 
Florida, Alabama, South Carolina.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 115 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Immediately before the outbreak of the Yamasee War there were the following: 
Upper Towns: 
Huspaw, near Huspaw Creek between Combahee River and the Whale Branch. 
Pocotaligo, near Pocotaligo River. 
Sadkeche, probably near Salkehatchie, a hamlet at the Atlantic Coast Line 
crossing of the Combahee River. 
Tomatly, in the neighborhood of Tomatly, Beaufort County, 8. C. 
Yoa, near Huspaw. 
Lower Towns: 
Altamaha, location unknown. 
Chasee, location unknown. 
Oketee, probaly near one of the places so called on New River, in Jasper and 
Beaufort Counties, S. C. 
Pocasabo. 
Tulafina (?), perhaps near Tulafinny Creek, an estuary of the Coosawhatchie 
River in Jasper County. 
Other possible Yamasee settlements were Dawfuskee, Ileombe, and Peterba. 
History.—The first reference to the Yamasee appears to be a mention 
of their name in the form Yamiscaron as that of a province with which 
Francisco of Chicora was acquainted in 1521. The ‘Province of 
Altamaha”’ mentioned by De Soto’s chronicler Ranjel in 1540 probably 
included at least a part of the Yamasee people. For a hundred years 
afterward the tribe remained practically unnoticed except for a brief 
visit by a Spanish soldier and two missionaries in 1597, but in 1633 
they are reported to have asked for missionaries, and in 1639 peace is 
said to have been made between the allied Chatot, Lower Creeks, and 
Yamasee and the Apalachee. In 1675 Bishop Calderédn of Cuba 
founded two missions in the Apalachee country which were occupied 
by Yamasee or their near relatives. The same year there were three 
Yamasee missions on the Atlantic coast but one of these may have 
been occupied by Tamathli. Later they moved nearer St Augustine 
but in the winter of 1684-85 some act of the Spanish governor offended 
them and they removed to South Carolina, where the English gave 
them lands on the west side of Savannah River near its mouth. Some 
of these Indians were probably from the old Guale province, but the 
Yamasee now took the lead. Eighty-seven warriors of this nation took 
part in Barnwell’s expedition against the Tuscarora (see North 
Carolina). In 1715 they rose in rebellion against the English and 
killed two or three hundred settlers but were defeated by Governor 
Craven and took refuge in Florida, where, until the cession of Florida 
to Great Britain, the Yamasee continued as allies of the Spaniards. 
Meanwhile their numbers fell off steadily. Some remained in the 
neighborhood of the St. Johns River until the outbreak of the Seminole 
War. 


116 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


The Oklawaha band of Seminole is said to have been descended 
from them. Another band accompanied the Apalachee to Pensacola 
and Mobile, and we find them located near those two places on various 
charts. They may be identical with those who, shortly afterward, 
appear among the Upper Creeks on certain maps, though this is the 
only testimony we have of their presence there. At any rate, these 
latter are probably the Yamasee found among the Lower Creeks in 
the nineteenth century and last heard of among the Seminole of 
west Florida. Of some historical importance is a small band of these 
Indians who seem to have lived with the Apalachicola for a time, after 
the Yamasee War, and in 1730 settled on the site of what is now 
Savannah under the name of Yamacraw. There the Georgia colonists 
found them three years later, and the relations between the two peoples 
were most amicable. The name Yamacraw was probably derived 
from that of a Florida mission, Nombre de Dios de Amacarisse, where 
some of the Yamasee once lived. Ultimately these Yamacraw are 
believed to have retired among the Creeks and later may have gone 
to Florida. 

Population.—It is impossible to separate distinctly the true Yamasee 
from the Guale Indians. Mooney (1928) gives an estimate of 2,000 
in 1650, probably too low. A mission list compiled by Gov. Salazar 
of Florida in 1675 gives 1,190 Yamasee and Tama. In 1708 the two 
tribes, united under the name Yamasee, were thought to have 500 
men capable of bearing arms. In 1715 a rather careful census gives 
413 men and a total population of 1,215. Lists dating from 1726 
and 1728 give 313 and 144 respectively in the missions about St. 
Augustine. A fairly satisfactory Spanish census, taken in 1736, 
indicates that there were then in the neighborhood of St. Augustine 
more than 360 Yamasee and Indians of Guale. This does not include 
the Yamasee near Pensacola and Mobile, those in the Creek Nation, 
or the Yamacraw. In 1761 a body of Yamasee containing 20 men 
was living near St. Augustine, but by that time the tribe had probably 
scattered widely. In 1821 the ‘‘Emusas’” on Chattahoochee River 
numbered 20 souls. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Yamasee are famous 
particularly on account of the Yamasee War, which marked an epoch 
in Indian and White history in the Southeast. At the end of the 
seventeenth century a certain stroke was used in paddling canoes 
along the coast of Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida, which was 
called the ‘‘Yamasee stroke.” A small town in Beaufort County, 
S. C., is called ‘‘Yemasee,”’ a variant of this name. 


Yuchi. Significance unknown, but perhaps, as suggested by Speck 
(1909), from a native word meaning ‘‘those far away,” or “‘at a 
distance,” though it is also possible that it is a variant of Ochesee 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA Fe7 


or Ocheese, which was applied by the Hitchiti and their allies to 
Indians speaking languages different from their own. Also called: 


Ani’-Yu’ts!, Cherokee name. 

Chiska, probably a Muskogee translation of the name of one of their bands. 

Hughchee, an early synonym. 

Round town people, a name given by the early English colonists. 

Rickohockans, signifying “‘cavelanders”’ (Hewitt, in Hodge, 1907), perhaps 
an early name for a part of them. 

Tahogaléwi, abbreviated to Hogologe, name given them by the Delaware 
and other Algonquian people. 

Tamahita, so called by some Indians, perhaps some of the eastern Siouans. 

Tsoyaha, “‘People of the sun,” their own name, or at least the name of 
one band. 

Westo, perhaps a name applied to them by the Cusabo Indians of South 
Carolina though the identification is not beyond question. 


Connections.—The Yuchi constituted a linguistic stock, the Uchean, 
distinct from all others, though structurally their speech bears a 
certain resemblance to the languages of the Muskhogean and Siouan 
families. 

Location.—The earliest known location of the Yuchi was in 
eastern Tennessee, perhaps near Manchester, but some of them 
extended stil] farther east, while others were as far west as Muscle 
Shoals. On archeological grounds Prof. T. M. N. Lewis believes that 
one main center of the Yuchi was on Hiwassee River. We find 
settlements laid down on the maps as far north as Green River, 
Kentucky. In later times a part settled in West Florida, near the 
present Eucheeanna, and another part on Savannah and Ogeechee 
Rivers. (See also Alabama, Florida, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and South 
Carolina.) 

Subdivisions 

There appear to have been three principal bands in historic times: one on 
Tennessee River, one in West Florida, and one on Savannah River, but only a 
suggestion of native band names has survived. Recently Wagner has heard of 


at least three subdivisional names, including the Tsoyaha, or “Sun People’”’ and 
the Root People. 


Villages 


Most of their settlements are given the name of the tribe, Yuchi, or one of its 
synonyms. In early times they occupied a town in eastern Tennessee called by 
the Cherokee Tsistu’yl, ‘‘Rabbit place,’”’ on the north bank of Hiwassee River 
at the entrance of Chestua Creek in Polk County, Tenn., and at one time also that 
of Hiwassee, or Euphasee, at the Savannah Ford of Hiwassee River. The 
Savannah River band had villages at Mount Pleasant, probably in Screven 
County, Ga., near the mouth of Brier Creek, 2 miles below Silver Bluff on Savan- 
nah River in Barnwell County; and one on Ogeechee River bearing the name of 
that stream, though that was itself perhaps one form of the name Yuchi. 
Hawkins (1848) mentions former villages at Ponpon and Saltketchers in South 
Carolina, but these probably belonged to the Yamasee. The following Yuchi 
settlements were established after the tribe united with the Lower Creeks: 


118 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Arkansaw River, in Oklahoma. 

Big Pond Town, Polecat Creek, and Sand Creek, in and near Creek County, Okla. 

Blackjack Town. 

Deep Fork Creek, Okla. 

Duck Creek Town. 

Intatchkalgi, on Opilthlako Creek 28 miles above its junction with Flint River, 
probably in Schley County, Ga. 

Padshilaika, at the junction of Patchilaika Creek with Flint River, Macon 
County, Ga. 

Red Fork, location uncertain. 

Snake Creek, location uncertain. 

Spring Garden Town, above Lake George, Fla. 

Tokogalgi, on Kinchafoonee Creek, an affluent of Flint River, Ga. 


History.—The chroniclers of the De Soto expedition mention the 
Yuchi under the name Chisca, at one or more points in what is now 
Tennessee. In 1567 Boyano, an officer under Juan Pardo, had two 
desperate encounters with these Indians somewhere in the highlands 
of Tennessee or North Carolina, and, according to his own story, 
destroyed great numbers of them. In 1670 Lederer (1912) heard of 
people called Rickohockans living in the mountains who may have 
been Yuchi, and two white men sent from Virginia by Abraham 
Wood visited a Yuchi town on a head stream of the Tennessee in 
1674. About this time also, English explorers and settlers in South 
Carolina were told of a warlike tribe called Westo (probably a division 
of Yuchi) who had struck terror into all of the coast Indians, and 
hostilities later broke out between them and the colonists. At this 
juncture, however, a band of Shawnee made war upon the Westo 
and drove them from the Savannah. For a time they seem to have 
given themselves up to a roving life, and some of them went so far 
inland that they encountered La Salle and settled near Fort St. 
Louis, near the present Utica, Ill. Later some were located among the 
Creeks on Ocmulgee River, and they removed with them to the 
Chattahoochee in 1715. Another band of Yuchi came to live on 
Savannah River about 20 miles above Augusta, probably after the 
expulsion of the Westo. They were often called Hogologe. In 1716 
they also moved to the Chattahoochee but for a time occupied a town 
distinct from that of the other Yuchi. It was probably this band 
which settled near the Shawnee on Tallapoosa River and finally 
united with them. Still later occurred a third influx of Yuchi who 
occupied the Savannah between Silver Bluff and Ebenezer Creek. 
In 1729 a Kasihta chief named Captain Ellick married three Yuchi 
women and persuaded some of the Yuchi Indians to move over 
among the Lower Creeks, but Governor Oglethorpe of Georgia 
guaranteed them their rights to their old land until after 1740, and 
the final removal did not, in fact, take place until 1751. 

A still earlier invasion of southern territories by Yuchi is noted by 


— 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 119 


one of the governors of Florida in a letter dated 1639. These in- 
vaders proved a constant source of annoyance to the Spaniards. 
Finally they established themselves in West Florida not far from the 
Choctawhatchee River, where they were attacked by an ailied Spanish 
and Apalachee expedition in 1677 and suffered severely. They con- 
tinued to live in the same region, however, until some time before 1761 
when they moved to the Upper Creeks and settled near the Tukabah- 
chee. Eucheeanna in Walton County, Fla. seems to preserve their 
name. 

A certain number of Yuchi remained in the neighborhood of Ten- 
nessee River, and at one time they were about Muscle Shoals. They 
also occupied a town in the Cherokee country, called by the latter 
tribe Tsistu’yi, and Hiwassee at Savannah Ford. In 1714, the 
former was cut off by the Cherokee in revenge for the murder of a 
member of their tribe, instigated by two English traders. Later 
tradition affirms that the surviving Yuchi fled to Florida, but many 
of them certainly remained in the Cherokee country for a long time 
afterward, and probably eventually migrated west with their hosts. 

A small band of Yuchi joined the Seminole just before the outbreak 
of the Seminole War. They appear first in West Florida, near the 
Mikasuki but later had a town at Spring Garden in Volusia County. 
Their presence is indicated down to the end of the war in the Peninsula, 
when they appear to have gone west, probably reuniting with the 
remainder of the tribe. 

The Yuchi who stayed with the Creeks accompanied them west 
and settled in one body in the northwestern part of the old Creek 
Nation, in Creek County, Okla. 

Population.—For the year 1650 Mooney (1928) makes an estimate 
of 1,500 for the Yuchi in Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee, but this 
does not include the “Westo,” for whom, with the Stono, he allows 
1,600. ‘The colonial census of 1715 gives 2 Yuchi towns with 130 
men and 400 souls, but this probably takes into consideration only 1 
band out of 3 or 4. In 1730 the band still on Tennessee River was 
supposed to contain about 150 men. In 1760, 50 men are reported 
in the Lower Creek town and 15 in one among the Upper Creeks. 
In 1777 Bartram (1792) estimated the number of Yuchi warriors in 
the lower town at 500 and their total population as between 1,000 
and 1,500. In 1792 Marbury (1792) reports 300 men, or a population 
of over 1,000, and Hawkins in 1799 says the Lower Creek Yuchi 
claimed 250 men. According to the census of 1832-33 there were 
1,139 in 2 towns known to have been occupied by Indians of this 
connection. In 1909 Speck stated that the whole number of Yuchi 
could “hardly exceed five hundred,” but the official report for 1910 
gives only 78. That, however, must have been an underestimate as 


120 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


the census of 1930 reported 216. Owing to the number of Yuchi 
bands, their frequent changes in location, and the various terms 
applied to them, an exact estimate of their numbers at any period 
is very difficult. In the first half of the sixteenth century they may 
well have numbered more than 5,000. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Yuchi have at- 
tained an altogether false reputation as the supposed aborigines of 
the Gulf region. They were also noted for the uniqueness of their 
language among the Southeastern tongues. The name is preserved 
in Euchee, a post hamlet of Meigs County, Tenn.; Eucheeanna, a 
post village of Walton County, Fla.; Euchee (or Uchee) Creek, 
Russell County, Ala.; Uchee, a post station of Russell County, Ala.; 
Uchee Creek, Columbia County, Ga.; and an island in Savannah 
River near the mouth of the latter. 


Yufera. (See Florida.) 
FLORIDA 


Acuera. Meaning unknown (acu signifies “‘and’”’ and also ‘‘moon’’). 

Connections.—This tribe belonged to the Timucuan or Timuquanan 
linguistic division of the Muskhogean linguistic family. 

Location.—Apparently about the headwaters of the Ocklawaha 
River. 

Towns.—(See Utina.) 

History —The Acuera were first noted by De Soto in a letter written 
at Tampa Bay to the civil cabildo of Santiago de Cuba. According 
to information transmitted to him by his officer Baltazar de Gallegos, 
Acuera was “a large town ... where with much convenience we 
might winter,’’ but the Spaniards did not in fact pass through it, 
though, while they were at Ocale, they sent to Acuera for corn. The 
name appears later in Laudonniére’s narrative of the second French 
expedition to Florida, 1564-65 (1586), as a tribe allied with the Utina. 
It is noted sparingly in later Spanish documents but we learn that 
in 1604 there was an encounter between these Indians and Spanish 
troops and that there were two Acuera missions in 1655, San Luis 
and Santa Lucfa, both of which had disappeared by 1680. The 
inland position of the Acuera is partly responsible for the few notices 
of them. The remnant was probably gathered into the ‘‘Pueblo de 
Timucua,” which stood near St. Augustine in 1736, and was finally 
removed to the Mosquito Lagoon and Halifax River in Volusia 
County, where Tomoka River keeps the name alive. 

Population.—This is nowhere given by itself. (See Utina.) 


Aguacaleyquen, see Utina. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 131 


Ais. Meaning unknown; there is no basis for Romans’ (1775) deri- 
vation from the Choctaw word ‘“‘isi’’ (deer). Also called: 


Jece, form of the name given by Dickenson (1699). 


Connections.—Circumstantial evidence, particularly resemblance in 
town names, leads to the conclusion that the Ais language was similar 
to that of the Calusa and the other south Florida tribes. (See 
Calusa.) It is believed that it was connected with the Muskhogean 
stock. 

Location.—Along Indian River on the east coast of the peninsula. 


Villages 


The only village mentioned by explorers and geographers bears some form of 
the tribal name. 


History.—Fontaneda (1854) speaks of a Biscayan named Pedro 
who had been held prisoner in Ais, evidently during the sixteenth 
century, and spoke the Ais language fluently. Shortly after the 
Spaniards made their first establishments in the peninsula, a war 
broke out with the Ais, but peace was concluded in 1570. In 1597 
Governor Mendez de Cango, who traveled along the entire east 
coast from the head of the Florida Keys to St. Augustine, reported 
that the Ais chief had more Indians under him than any other. A 
little later the Ais killed a Spaniard and two Indiars sent to them by 
Cango for which summary revenge was exacted, and still later a 
difficulty was created by the escape of two Negro slaves and their 
marriage with Ais men. Relations between the Floridian govern- 
ment and these Indians were afterward friendly but efforts to mis- 
sionive them uniformly failed. An intimate picture of their condition 
in 1699 is given by the Quaker Dickenson (1803), who was ship- 
wrecked on the coast farther south and obliged, with his companions, 
to travel through their territory. They disappear from history after 
1703, but the remnant may have been among those who, according 
to Romans (1775), passed over to Cuba in 1763, although he speaks 
of them all as Calusa. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the number of Indians on 
the southeastern coast of Florida in 1650, including this tribe, the 
Tekesta, Guacata, and Jeaga, to have been 1,000. As noted above, 
the Ais were the most important of these and undoubtedly the 
largest. We have no other estimates of population applying to the 
seventeenth century. In 1726, 88 ‘‘Costa” Indians were reported in 
a mission farther north and these may have been drawn from the 
southeast coast. In 1728, 52 “Costa” Indians were reported. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Ais were noted 
as the most important tribe of southeastern Florida, and they were 


122 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


probably responsible for the fact that the watercourse on which they 
dwelt came to be called Indian River. 


Alabama. Early in the eighteenth century the Pawokti, and perhaps 
some other Alabama bands, lived near Apalachicola River, whence 
they were driven in 1708. After the Creek-American War a part 
of the Alabama again entered Florida, but they do not seem to 
have maintained an independent existence for a very long period. 
(See Alabama.) 


Amacano. A tribe or band perhaps connected with the Yamasee, 
placed in a mission on the Apalachee coast in 1674 with two others, 
Chine, and Caparaz (q. v.). The three together had 300 souls. 


Amacapiras, see Macapiras. 


Apalachee. Meaning perhaps “people on the other side’ (as in 
Hitchiti), or it may be cognate with Choctaw apelachi, ‘a helper.” 
Connections.—These Indians belonged to the Muskhogean linguistic 

family, their closest connections having been apparently the Hitchiti 

and Alabama. 
Location.—The Apalachee towns, with few exceptions, were com- 
pactly situated in the neighborhood of the present Florida capital, 

Tallahassee. (See also Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Oklahoma.) 


Villages 


Aute, 8 or 9 days’ journey from the main towns and apparently southwest of them. 

Ayubale, 77 leagues from St. Augustine. 

Bacica, probably near the present Wacissa River. 

Bacuqua, seemingly somewhat removed from the main group of towns. 

Calahuchi, north of the main group of towns and not certainly Apalachee. 

Cupayca, location uncertain; its name seems to be in Timucua. 

Ibitachuco, 75 leagues from St. Augustine. 

Iniahica, close to the main group of towns, possibly the Timucua name for one of 
the others given, since hica is the Timucua word for ‘‘town.” 

Ochete, on the coast 8 leagues south of Iniahica. 

Ocuia, 84 leagues from St. Augustine. 

Ospalaga, 86 leagues from St. Augustine. 

Patali, 87 leagues from St. Augustine. 

Talimali, 88 leagues from St. Augustine and very likely identical with Iniahica. 

Talpatqui, possibly identical with the preceding. 

Tomoli, 87 leagues from St. Augustine. 

Uzela, on or near Ocilla River. 

Yapalaga, near the main group of towns. 

Ychutafun, on Apalachicola River. 

Yecambi, 90 leagues from St. Augustine. 


A few other names are contained in various writings or placed upon 
sundry charts, but some of these belonged to distinct tribes and were 
located only temporarily among the Apalachee; others are not men- 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 123 


tioned elsewhere but appear to belong in the same category; and still 
others are simply names of missions and may apply to certain of the 
towns mentioned above. Thus Chacatos evidently refers to the 
Chatot tribe, Tama to the Tamah, and Oconi probably to a branch of 
the Oconee mentioned elsewhere. The Chines were a body of Chatot 
and derived their name from a chief. Among names which appear 
only in Spanish we find Santa Fe. Capola and Ilcombe, given on the 
Popple Map, were probably occupied by Guale and Yamasee refugees. 
A late Apalachee settlement was called San Marcos. 

History—The Apalachee seem to appear first in history in the 
chronicles of the Narvaez expedition (Bandelier, 1905). The ex- 
plorers spent nearly a month in an Apalachee town in the year 1528 
but were subjected to constant attacks on the part of the warlike 
natives, who pursued them during their withdrawal to a coast town 
named Aute. In October 1539, De Soto arrived in the Apalachee 
province and remained there the next winter in spite of the unceas- 
ing hostility of the natives, who well maintained the reputation for 
prowess they had acquired 11 years before. Although the province 
is mentioned from time to time by the first French and Spanish col- 
onists of Florida, it did not receive much attention until the tribes 
between it and St. Augustine had been pretty well missionized. In 
a letter written in 1607 we learn that the Apalachee had asked for 
missionaries and, although one paid a visit to them the next year, 
the need is reiterated at frequent intervals. It was not until 1633, 
however, that the work was actually begun. In that year two monks 
entered the country and the conversion proceeded very rapidly so 
that by 1647 there were seven churches and convents and eight of 
the principal chiefs had been baptized. In that year, however, a 
great rebellion took place. Three missionaries were killed and all of 
the churches with their sacred objects were destroyed. An expedi- 
tion sent against the insurgents was repulsed, but shortly afterward 
the movement collapsed, apparently through a counterrevolution in 
the tribe itself. After this most of the Apalachee sought baptism 
and there was no further trouble between them and the Spaniards 
except for a brief sympathetic movement at the time of the Timucua 
uprising of 1656. The outstanding complaint on the part of the 
Indians was that some of them were regularly commandeered to work 
on the fortifications of St. Augustine. In 1702 a large Apalachee war 
party was severely defeated by Creek Indians assisted by some Eng- 
lish traders, and in 1704 an expedition from South Carolina under 
Colonel Moore practically destroyed the nation. Moore claims to 
have carried away the people of three towns and the greater part of 
the population of four more and to have left but two towns and part 


124 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


of another. Most of these latter appear to have fled to Mobile, 
where, in 1705, they were granted land on which to settle. The 
Apalachee who had been carried off by Moore were established near 
New Windsor, S. C., but when the Yamasee War broke out they 
joined the hostile Indians and retired for a time to the Lower Creeks. 
Shortly afterward the English faction among the Lower Creeks be- 
came ascendant and the Apalachee returned to Florida, some remain- 
ing near their old country and others settling close to Pensacola to 
be near their relatives about Mobile. By 1718 another Apalachee 
settlement had been organized by the Spaniards near San Marcos de 
Apalache and close to their old country. In 1728 we hear of two 
small Apalachee towns in this neighborhood. Most of them grav- 
itated finally to the neighborhood of Pensacola. In 1764, the year 
after all French and Spanish possessions east of the Mississippi passed 
into the hands of Great Britain, the Apalachee, along with several 
other tribes, migrated into Louisiana, now held by Spain, and settled 
on Red River, where they and the Taensa conjointly occupied a strip 
of land between Bayou d’Arro and Bayou Jean de Jean. Most of 
this land was sold in 1803 and the Apalachee, reduced to a small 
band, appear to have moved about in the same general region until 
they disappeared. They are now practically forgotten, though a few 
mixed-blood Apalachee are still said to be in existence. A few 
accompanied the Creeks to Oklahoma. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates 7,000 Apalachee Indians in 
1650, a figure which seems to me to be ample. Governor Salazar’s 
mission-by-mission estimate in 1675 yielded a total of 6,130, and a 
Spanish memorial dated 1676 gives them a population of 5,000. At 
the time of Moore’s raid there appear to have been about 2,000. The 
South Carolina Census of 1715 gives 4 Apalachee villages, 275 men, 
and 638 souls. As the Mobile Apalachee were shortly afterward 
reduced to 100 men, the number of the entire tribe in 1715 must have 
been about 1,000. By 1758 they appear to have fallen to not much 
over 100, and in 1814 Sibley reported but 14 men in the Louisiana | 
band, signifying a total of perhaps 50 (Sibley, 1832). Morse’s esti- — 
mate (1822) of 150 in 1817 is evidently considerably too high. | 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Apalachee were | 
mentioned repeatedly as a powerful and warlike people, and this | 
character was attested by their stout resistance to Narvaez and — 
De Soto. The sweeping destruction which overtook them at the | 
hands of the Creeks and Carolinians marks an epoch in Southeastern | 
history. Their name is preserved in Apalachee Bay and River, Fla.; 
Apalachee River, Ga., Apalachee River, Ala.; and most prominently 
of all, in the Appalachian Mountains, and other terms derived from 
them. Tallahassee, the capital of Florida, the name of which signifies 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 125 


“Old Town,” is on the site of San Luis de Talimali, the principal 
Spanish mission center. There is a post village named Apalachee in 
Morgan County, Ga. 


Apalachicola. At times some of the Apalachicola Indians lived south 
of the present Florida boundary line and they gave their name to the 
great river which runs through the panhandle of that State. (See 
Georgia.) 


Calusa. Said by a Spaniard, Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, who 
was a captive among them for many years, to mean “fierce people,” 
but it is perhaps more probable that, since it often appears in the 
form Carlos, it was, as others assert, adopted by the Calusa chief 
from the name of the Emperor Charles V, about whose greatness 
he had learned from Spanish prisoners. 

Connections.—From the place names and the few expressions 
recorded by Fontaneda, I suspect that the Calusa were connected 
linguistically with the Muskhogean stock and particularly with that 
branch of it to which the Apalachee and Choctaw belonged, but no 
definite conclusion on this point is as yet possible. 

Location.—On the west coast of the Peninsula of Florida southward 
of Tampa Bay and including the Florida Keys. The Indians in the 
interior, about Lake Okeechobee, while forming a distinct group, 
seem also to have been Calusa. 


Subdivisions 
Unknown, except as indicated above. 
Villages 


In the following list the letters 8 and I indicate respectively towns belonging 
to the seacoast division and those of the interior division about Lake Okeechobee. 
Beyond this allocation the positions of most of the towns may be indicated merely 
in & general manner, by reference to neighboring towns. 


Abir (I), between Neguitun and Cutespa. 

Alcola (or Chosa), location uncertain. 

Apojola Negra, the first word is Timucua; the second seems to be Spanish; loca- 
tion unknown. 

Calaobe (S). 

Caragara, between Namuguya and Henhenguepa. 

Casitoa (8S), between Muspa and Cotebo. 

Cayovea (S). 

Cayucar, between Tonco and Neguitun. 

Chipi, between Tomg¢gobe and Taguagemae. 

Chosa (see Alcola). 

Comachica (8). 

Cononoguay, between Cutespa and Estegue. 

Cotebo, between Casitoa and Coyobia. 

Coyobia, between Cotebo and Tequemapo. 

Cuchiyaga, said to be southwest from Bahia Honda and 40 leagues northeast of 
Guarungube, probably on Big Pine Key. 


126 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Custavui, south of Jutun. 

Cutespa (I), between Abir and Cononoguay. 

Elafay, location uncertain. 

Enempa (I). 

Estame (S), between Metamapo and Sacaspada. 

Estantapaca, between Yagua and Queyhicha. 

Estegue, between Cononoguay and Tomsobe. 

Excuru, between Janar and Metamapo. 

Guarungube, ‘“‘on the point of the Martyrs,”’ and thus probably near Key West. 

Guevu (S). 

Henhenguepa, between Caragara and Ocapataga. 

Janar, between Ocapataga and Escuru. 

Judyi, between Satucuava and Soco. 

Juestocobaga, between Queyhicha and Sinapa. 

Jutun (S), between Tequemapo and Custavui. 

Metamapo (8S), between Escuru and Estame. 

Muspa (S), between Teyo and Casitoa. 

Namuguya, between Taguagemae and Caragara. 

Neguitun, between Cayucar and Abir. 

No or Non (S). 

Ocapataga, between Henhenguepa and Janar. 

Queyhicha, between Estantapaca and Juestocobaga. 

Quisiyove (S). 

Sacaspada (S), between Estame and Satucuava. 

Satucuava, between Sacaspada and Judyi. 

Sinaesta (S). 

Sinapa (8S), between Juestocobaga and Tonco. 

Soco, between Judyi and Vuebe. 

Taguagemae, between Chipi and Namuguya. 

Tampa (S), the northernmost town, followed on the south by Yegua, and 
probably on Charlotte Harbor. 

Tatesta (S), between the Tequesta tribe and Cuchiyaga, about 80 leagues north 
of the latter, perhaps at the innermost end of the Keys. 

Tavaguemue (I). 

Tequemapo (S), between Coyobia and Jutun. 

Teyo, between Vuebe and Muspa. 

Tiquijagua (?). 

Tomo (8). 

Tomsobe (I), between Estegue and Chipi. 

Tonco, between Sinapa and Cayucar. 

Tuchi (8S). 

Vuebe, between Soco and Teyo, possibly the same as Guevu. 

Yagua (8S), between Tampa and Estantapaca. 


History.—Most early navigators who touched upon the west coast 
of Florida must have encountered the Calusa but the first definite 
appearance of the tribe historically is in connection with shipwrecks 
of Spanish fleets, particularly the periodical treasure fleet from 
México, upon the Calusa coast. These catastrophes threw numerous 
Spanish captives into the hands of the natives and along with them 
a quantity of gold and silver for which the Calusa shortly became 
noted. Ponce de Leon visited them in 1513, Miruelo in 1516, Cordova 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 127 


in 1517; and Ponce, during a later expedition in 1521, received from 
them a mortal wound from which he died after reaching Cuba. 
Most of our early information regarding the Calusa is obtained from 
Fontaneda (1854), who was held captive in the tribe from about 1551 
to 1569. At the time when St. Augustine was settled attempts were 
made to establish a post among these Indians and to missionize them, 
but the post had soon to be withdrawn and the missionary attempt 
proved abortive. The Calusa do not seem to have been converted to 
Christianity during the entire period of Spanish control. While 
their treatment of castaways was restrained, in every other respect 
they appear to have continued their former manner of existence, 
except that they resorted more and more to Havana for purposes of 
trade. Outside of a steady diminution in numbers there is little to 
report of them until the close of the Seminole War. The Seminole, 
when hard pressed by the American forces, moved south into the 
Everglade region and there came into contact with what was left of 
the Calusa. Romans (1775) states that the last of the Calusa emi- 
grated to Cuba in 1763, but probably the Indians who composed this 
body were from the east coast and were not true Calusa. The 
Calusa themselves appear about this time under the name Muspa, 
which, it will be seen, was the designation of one of their towns. On 
the movement of the Seminole into their country they became involved 
in hostilities with the American troops, and a band of Muspa attacked 
the camp of Colonel Harney in 1839 killing 18 out of 30 men. July 
23 of the same year Harney fell upon the Spanish Indians, killed their 
chief, and hung six of his followers. The same band later killed a bot- 
anist named Perrine living on Indian Key and committed other depre- 
dations. The Calusa may have been represented by the ‘Choctaw 
band” of Indians, which appears among the Seminole shortly after 
this time. The Seminole now in Oklahoma assert that a body of 
Choctaw came west with them when they were moved from Florida, 
but the only thing certain as to the Calusa is that we hear no more 
about them. Undoubtedly some did not go west and either became 
incorporated with the Florida Seminole or crossed to Cuba. 

Population.—Mooney’s (1928) estimate of 3,000 Calusa Indians in 
1650 is probably as near the truth as any estimate that could be 
suggested. No census and very few estimates of the population, 
even of the most partial character, are recorded. An expedition 
sent into the Calusa country in 1680 passed through 5 villages said 
to have had a total population of 960, but this figure can be accepted 
only with the understanding that these villages were principal centers. 
In the band that attacked Harney in 1839 there were said to be 250 
Indians. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—When first discovered 


128 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (BULL. 145 


the Calusa were famous for the power of their chiefs, the amount of 
gold which they had obtained from Spanish treasure ships, and for 
their addiction to human sacrifice. Their name persists in that of 
Caloosahatchee River and probably also in that of Charlotte Harbor. 
Another claim to distinction is the adoption by their chief of the name 
of the great Emperor Charles—if that was indeed the case. The 
only similar instance would seem to be in the naming of the Delaware 
Indians, but that was imposed upon the Lenni Lenape, not adopted 
by them. 


Caparaz. A small tribe or band placed in 1674 in connection with a 
doctrina called San Luis on the Apalachee coast along with two 
other bands called Amacano and Chine. Possibly they may have 
been survivors of the Capachequi encountered by De Soto in 1540. 
The three bands were estimated to contain 300 people. 


Chatot. Meaning unknown, but the forms of this word greatly 
resemble the synonyms of the name Choctaw. 
Connections —The language spoken by this tribe belonged, un- 
doubtedly, to the southern division of the Muskhogean stock. 
Location.—West of Apalachicola River, perhaps near the middle 
course of the Chipola. (See also Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana). 


Villages 

From the names of two Spanish missions among them it would appear that 
there were at least two towns in early times, one called Chacato, after the name 
of the tribe, and the other Tolentino. 

History.—The Chatot are first mentioned in a Spanish document 
of 1639 in which the governor of Florida congratulates himself on 
having consummated peace between the Chatot, Apalachicola, and 
Yamasee on one side and the Apalachee on the other. This, he says, 
‘fis an extraordinary thing, because the aforesaid Chacatos never 
maintained peace with anybody.” In 1674 the two missions noted 
above were established among these people, but the following year 
the natives rebelled. The disturbance was soon ended by the Spanish 
officer Florencia, and the Chatot presently settled near the Apalachee 
town of San Luis, mission work among them being resumed. In 
1695, or shortly before, Lower Creek Indians attacked this mission, 
plundered the church, and carried away 42 Christianized natives. In 
1706 or 1707, following on the destruction of the Apalachee towns, the 
Chatot and several other small tribes living near it were attacked 
and scattered or carried off captive, and the Chatot fled to Mobile, 
where they were well received by Bienville and located on the site of 
the present city of Mobile. When Bienville afterward moved the 
seat of his government to this place he assigned to them land on Dog 
River by way of compensation. After Mobile was ceded to the 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 129 


English in 1763 the Chatot, along with a number of other small tribes 
near that city, moved to Louisiana. They appear to have settled 
first on Bayou Boeuf and later on Sabine River. Nothing is heard of 
them afterward though in 1924 some old Choctaw remembered their 
former presence on the Sabine. The remnant may have found their 
way to Oklahoma. 

Population.—I would estimate a population of 1,200—1,500 for the 
Chatot when they were first missionized (1674). When they were 
settled on the site of Mobile, Bienville (1932, vol. 3, p. 536) says that 
they could muster 250 men, which would indicate a population of near 
900, but in 1725-26 there were but 40 men and perhaps a total popu- 
lation of 140. In 1805 they are said to have had 30 men or about 100 
people. In 1817 a total of 240 is returned by Morse (1822), but this 
figure is probably twice too large. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Chatot are noted 
because at one time they occupied the site of Mobile, Ala., and because 
Bayou Chattique, Choctaw Point, and Choctaw Swamp close by that 
city probably preserve theirname. The Choctawhatchee, which is near 
their former home, was probably named for them. 


Chiaha. A few Creeks of this tribe emigrated from their former towns 
to Florida before the Creek-American War and after that encounter 
may have been joined by others. In an early list of Seminole set- 
tlements they are credited with one town on ‘‘Beech Creek,’”’ and 
this may have been identical with Fulemmy’s Town or Pinder 
Town located on Suwanee River in 1817, which was said to be 
occupied by Chiaha Indians. The Mikasuki are reported to have 
branched off from this tribe. (See Georgia.) 


Chilucan. A tribe mentioned in an enumeration of the Indians in 
Florida missions made in 1726. Possibly the name is derived from 
Muskogee chiloki, “people of a different speech,’”’ and since one of 
the two missions where they are reported was San Buenaventura 
and elsewhere that mission is said to have been occupied by Mocama 
Indians, that is, seacoast Timucua, a Timucuan connection is 
indicated. In the list mentioned, 70 Chilucan were said to be at 
San Buenaventura and 62 at the mission of Nombre de Dios. 


Chine. A small tribe or band associated with two others called 
Amacano and Caparaz (q. v.) in a doctrina established on the coast 
of the Apalachee country called San Luis. Other evidence suggests 
that Chine may be the name of a Chatot chief. Later they may 
have moved into the Apalachee country, for in a mission list dated 
1680 there appears a mission called San Pedro de los Chines. This 
tribe and the Amacano and Caparaz were said to number 300 
individuals in 1674. 


130 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Creeks, see Alabama, Chiaha, Hitchiti, Mikasukee, Muskogee, 
Oconee, Sawokli, Tawasa, and Yuchi.) 


Fresh Water (“Agua Dulce’’) Indians. A name applied to the people 
of seven to nine neighboring towns, and for which there is no native 
equivalent. 

Connections.—The same as Acuera (q. v.). 
Location.—In the coast district of eastern Florida between St. 

Augustine and Cape Canaveral. 


Villages 


The following towns are given in this province extending from north to south, 
but not all of the native names have been preserved: 


Anacape, said to have been 20 leagues south of St. Augustine. 

Antonico; another possible name is Tunsa. 

Equale, location uncertain. 

Filache, location uncertain. 

Maiaca, a few leagues north of Cape Canaveral and on St. Johns River. 

Moloa, south of the mouth of St. Johns River (omitted from later lists). 

San Julian, location uncertain. 

San Sebastian, on an arm of the sea near St. Augustine, destroyed in 1600 by a 
flood. 

Tocoy, given by one writer as 5 leagues from St. Augustine; by another as 24 
leagues. 

The names Macaya and Maycoya, which appear in the neighborhood of the 
last of these are probably synonyms or corruptions of Maiaca, but there seems to 
have been a sister town of Maiaca at an early date which Fontaneda (1854) calls 
Mayajuaca or Mayjuaca. In addition to the preceding, a number of town names 
have been preserved which perhaps belong to places in this province. Some of 
them may be synonyms of the town names already given, especially of towns 
like Antonico and St. Julian, the native names of which are otherwise unknown. 
These include: 


Cacoroy, 114 leagues from Nocoroco. 

Caparaca, southwest of Nocoroco. 

Chimaucayo, south of St. Augustine. 

Cicale, 3 leagues south of Nocoroco. 

Colucuchia, several leagues south of Nocoroco. 

Disnica, probably south of St. Augustine, though not necessarily in the Fresh 
Water Province. 

Elanogue, near Antonico. 

Malaca, south of Nocoroco. 

Mogote, in the region of Nocoroco. 

Nocoroco, one day’s journey south of Matanzas Inlet and on a river called No- 
coroco River, perhaps Halifax River. 

Perqumaland, south of the last mentioned; possibly two towns, Perqui and 
Maland. 

Pia, south of Nocoroco. 

Sabobche, south of Nocoroco. 

Tomeo, apparently near or in the Fresh Water province. 

Tucura, apparently in the same province as the last mentioned. 

Yaocay, near Antonico. 


SwaNTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 131 


History.—The history of this province differed little from that of 
the other Timucua provinces, tribes, or confederacies. Ponce de 
Leon made his landfall upon this coast in 1513. The French had 
few dealings with the people but undoubtedly met them. Fontaneda 
(1854) heard of the provinces of Maiaca and Mayajuaca, and later 
there were two Spanish missions in this territory, San Antonio de 
Anacape and San Salvador de Maiaca. These appear in the mission 
list of 1655 and in that of 1680 but from data given with the latter 
it is evident that Yamasee were then settled at Anacape. All of 
these Indians were converted rapidly early in the seventeenth century 
and the population declined with increasing celerity. The last body 
of Timucua were settled in this district and have left their name in 
that of Tomoka Creek. (See Utina.) 

Population.—There are no data on which to give a separate and 
full statement of the Timucua population in this district. In 1602, 
however, 200 Indians belonging to it had been Christianized and 100 
more were under instruction. (See Acuera.) 


Guacata. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—On the evidence furnished by place names in this 
section, the tribe is classified with the south Florida peoples. 

Location.—On or near Saint Lucie River in Saint Lucie and Palm 
Beach Counties. 

History —The Guacata are first mentioned by Fontaneda (1854), 
who in one place speaks of them as on Lake Mayaimi (Okeechobee), 
but this probably means only that they ranged across to the lake 
from the eastern seacoast. Shortly after his conquest of Florida 
Menendez left 200 men in the Ais country, but the Indians of that 
tribe soon rose against them and they moved to the neighborhood of 
the Guacata, where they were so well treated that they called the place 
Santa Lucia. Next year, however, these Indians rose against them 
and although they were at first defeated the Spaniards were so hard 
pressed that they abandoned the place in 1568. ‘They were still an 
independent body in the time of Dickenson, in 1699, but not long 
afterward they evidently united with other east coast bands, and they 
were probably part of those who emigrated to Cuba in 1763. 

Population.—No separate estimate has ever been made. (See Ais.) 


Guale. In relatively late times many of these Indians were driven 
from their country into Florida. (See Georgia.) 


Hitchiti. The ancient home of the Hitchiti was north of Florida but 
after the destruction of the earlier tribes of the peninsula, in which 
they themselves participated, Hitchiti-speaking peoples moved in in 
great numbers to take their places, so that up to the Creek-American 
War, the Hitchiti language was spoken by the greater number of 


132 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Seminole. The later immigration, as we have indicated above, 
reduced the Hitchiti element to a minority position, so that what 
we now call the Seminole language is practically identical with 
Muskogee. True Hitchiti as distinguished from Hitchiti-speaking 
peoples who bore other names, do not appear to have been very 
active in this early movement though Hawkins (1848) mentions 
them as one of those tribes from which the Seminole were made up. 
The Hitchiti settlement of Attapulgas or Atap’halgi and perhaps 
other of the so-called Fowl Towns seem to represent a later immigra- 
tion into the peninsula. (See Georgia.) 


Ieafui. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—They were undoubtedly of the Timucuan group 
though they seem to have been confused at times with a tribe called 
Cascangue which may have been related to the Muskogee or Hitchiti. 
On the other hand, Cascangue may have been another name of this 
tribe, possibly one employed by Creeks or Hitchiti. 

Location.—On the mainland and probably in southeastern Georgia 
near the border between the Timucua and the strictly Muskhogean 
populations. 

Villages 


Seven or eight towns are said to have belonged to this tribe but the names of 
none of them are known with certainty. 

History.—Icafui seems to be mentioned first by the Franciscan 
missionaries who occasionally passed through it on their way to or 
from interior peoples. It was a “‘visita’”’ of the missionary at San 
Pedro (Cumberland Island). Otherwise its history differed in no 
respect from that of the other Timucuan tribes. (See Utina.) 

Population.—Separate figures regarding this tribe are wanting. 
(See Utina.) 


Jeaga. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—The Jeaga are classed on the basis of place names 
and location with the tribes of south Florida, which were perhaps of 
the Muskhogean division proper. 

Location.—On the present Jupiter Inlet, on the east coast of Florida. 


Villages 


Between this tribe and the Tequesta the names of several settlements are given 
which may have belonged to one or both of them, viz: Cabista, Custegiyo, Janar, 
Tavuacio. 

History.—The Jeaga tribe is mentioned by Fontaneda (1854) and 
by many later Spanish writers but it was of minor importance. Near 
Jupiter Inlet the Quaker Dickenson (1803), one of our best informants 
regarding the ancient people of the east coast of Florida, was cast 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 133 


ashore in 1699. In the eighteenth century, this tribe was probably 
merged with the Ais, Tequesta, and other tribes of this coast, and 
removed with them to Cuba. (See Ais.) 

Population—No separate enumeration is known. (See Ais.) 


Koasati. Appearance of a ‘“Coosada Old Town” on the middle 
course of Choctawhatchee River on a map of 1823 shows that a 
band of Koasati Indians joined the Seminole in Florida, but this is 
all we know of them. (See Alabama.) 


Macapiras, or Amacapiras. Meaning unknown. A _ small tribe 
which was brought to the St. Augustine missions in 1726 along with 
some Pohoy, and so apparently from the southwest coast. There 
were only 24, part of whom died and the rest returned to their old 
homes before 1728. 


Mikasuki. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—These Indians belonged to the Hitchiti-speaking 
branch of the Muskhogean linguistic family. They are said by some 
to have branched from the true Hitchiti, but those who claim that 
they were originally Chiaha (q. v.) are probably correct. 

Location.—Their earliest known home was about Miccosukee Lake 
in Jefferson County. (See also Oklahoma.) 


Villages 


Alachua Talofa or John Hick’s Town, in the Alachua Plains, Alachua County. 
New Mikasuki, near Greenville in Madison County. 
Old Mikasuki, near Miccosukee Lake. 

History —The name Mikasuki appears about 1778 and therefore 
we know that their independent status had been established by that 
date whether they had separated from the Hitchiti or the Chiaha. 
They lived first at Old Mikasuki and then appear to have divided, 
part going to New Mikasuki and part to the Alachua Plains. Some 
writers denounce them as the worst of all Seminole bands, but it is 
quite likely that, as a tribe differing in speech from themselves, the 
Muskogee element blamed them for sins they themselves had com- 
mitted. Old Mikasuki was burned by Andrew Jackson in 1817. 
Most Mikasuki seem to have remained in Florida where they still 
constitute a distinct body, the Big Cypress band of Seminole. Those 
who went to Oklahoma retained a distinct Square Ground as late as 
1912. 

Population.—Morse (1822) quotes a certain Captain Young to the 
effect that there were 1,400 Mikasuki in his time, about 1817. This 
figure is probably somewhat too high though the Mikasuki element 
is known to have been a large one. They form one entire band among 
the Florida Seminole. 


134 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Connection in which they have become noted.—The Mikasuki attained 
prominence in the Seminole War. In the form Miccosukee their 
name has been applied to a Jake in Jefferson and Leon Counties, Fla., 
and a post village in the latter county. In the form Mekusuky it 
has been given to a village in Seminole County, Okla. 


Mococo, or Mucogo. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—They belonged with little doubt to the Timucuan 
division of the Muskhogean linguistic stock. 

Location.—About the head of Hillsboro Bay. 


Villages 
None are mentioned under any other than the tribal name. 


History. —The chief of this tribe gave asylum to a Spaniard named 
Juan Ortiz who had come to Florida in connection with the expedi- 
tion of Narvaez. When De Soto landed near the Mococo town its 
chief sent Ortiz with an escort of warriors to meet him. Ortiz after- 
ward became De Soto’s principal interpreter until his death west of 
the Mississippi, and the Mocogo chief remained on good terms with 
the Spaniards as long as they stayed in the neighborhood. There 
are only one or two later references to the tribe. (See Utina.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The contacts of the 
Mococo with De Soto and his followers constitute their only claim to 
distinction. 

Muklasa. A small Creek town whose inhabitants were probably 
related by speech to the Alabama and Koasati. They are said 
to have gone to Florida after the Creek War. (See Alabama.) 


Muskogee. The first true Creeks or Muskogee to enter Florida seem 
to have been a body of Eufaula Indians who made a settlement 
called Chuko tcati, Red House, on the west side of the peninsula 
some distance north of Tampa Bay.? This was in 1761. Other 
Muskogee drifted into Florida from time to time, but the great 
immigration took place after the Creek-American War. The new- 
comers were from many towns, but more particularly those on the 
Tallapoosa River. They gave the final tone and the characteristic 
language to the Florida emigrants who had before been dominantly 
of Hitchiti connection, and therefore the so-called Seminole lan- 
guage is Muskogee, with possibly a few minor changes in the 
vocabulary. (See Alabama.) 


Ocale, or Etocale. Meaning unknown, but perhaps connected with 
Timucua tocala, “it is more than,’’ a comparative verb. 


2 A possible exception to this statement was the temporary entrance of a small body of Coweta Indians 
under Secoffee, or the Cowkeeper. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA loo 


Connections.—(See Acuera.) 
Location.—In Marion County or Levy County north of the bend 
of the Withlacoochee River. 


Villages 
Uqueten (first village approaching from the south), and perhaps Itaraholata. 


History.—This tribe is first mentioned by the chroniclers of the 
De Soto expedition. He passed through it in 1539 after crossing 
Withlacoochee River. Fontaneda also heard of it, and it seems to 
appear on De Bry’s map of 1591. This is the last information that 
has been preserved. 

Population —Unknown. (See Acuera and Utina.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Within comparatively 
modern times this name was adopted in the form Ocala as that of 
the county seat of Marion County, Fla. There is a place so called in 
Pulaski County, Ky. 


Ocita, see Pohoy. 


Oconee. After leaving the Chattahoochee about 1750 the Oconee 
moved into Florida and established themselves on the Alachua 
Plains in a town which Bartram calls Cuscowilla. They constituted 
the first large band of northern Indians to settle in Florida and their 
chiefs came to be recognized as head chiefs of the Seminole. One 
of these, Mikonopi, was prominent during the Seminole War, but 
the identity of the tribe itself is lost after that struggle. Another 
part of them seem to have settled for a time among the Apalachee 
(q. v.). (See Georgia.) 


Onatheaqua. In the narratives of Laudonniére and Le Moyne this 
appears as one of the two main Timucua tribes in the northwestern 
part of Florida, the other being the Hostaqua (or Yustaga). Else- 
where I have suggested that it may have covered the Indians 
afterward gathered into the missions of Santa Cruz de Tarihica, 
San Juan de Guacara, Santa Catalina, and Ajoica, where there were 
230 Indians in 1675, but that is uncertain. (See Utina.) 


Osochi. A Creek division thought to have originated in Florida. 
(See Alabama.) 


Pawokti. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—They were probably affiliated either with the Tawasa 
or the Alabama. In any case there is no reason to doubt that they 
spoke a Muskhogean dialect, using Muskhogean in the extended sense. 

Location.—The earliest known location of the Pawokti seems to have 
been west of Choctawhatchee River, not far from the shores of the 
Gulf of México. (See also Alabama.) 


136 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


History.—Lamhatty (in Bushnell, 1908) assigns the Pawokti the 
above location before they were driven away by northern Indians, 
evidently Creeks, in 1706-7. Although the name does not appear in 
any French documents known to me, they probably settled near 
Mobile along with the Tawasa. At any rate we find them on Alabama 
River in 1799 a few miles below the present Montgomery and it is 
assumed they had been there from 1717, when Fort Toulouse was 
established. ‘Their subsequent history is merged in that of the 
Alabama (q. v.). 

Population.—(See Alabama.) 


Pensacola. Meaning “hair people,” probably from their own tongue, 
which in that case was very close to Choctaw. 

Connections.—The name itself, and other bits of circumstantial 
evidence, indicate that the Pensacola belonged to the Muskhogean 
stock and, as above noted, probably spoke a dialect close to Choctaw. 

Location.—In the neighborhood of Pensacola Bay. (See also 
Mississippi.) 

History.—In 1528 the survivors of the Narvaez expedition had an 
encounter with Indians near Pensacola Bay who probably belonged to 
this tribe. It is also probable that their territory constituted the 
province of Achuse or Ochus which Maldonado, the commander of 
De Soto’s fleet, visited in 1539 and whence he brought a remarkably 
fine “blanket of sable fur.”” In 1559 a Spanish colony under Tristan 
de Luna landed in a port called ‘“‘the Bay of Ichuse,” (or ‘‘ Ychuse’’) 
undoubtedly in the same province, but the enterprise was soon given 
up and the colonists returned to Mexico. The Pensacola tribe seems 
to be mentioned first by name in Spanish letters dated 1677. In 1686 
we learn they were at war with the Mobile Indians. Twelve years 
afterward, when the Spanish post of Pensacola was established, it is 
claimed that the tribe had been exterminated by other peoples, but 
this is an error. It had merely moved farther inland and probably 
toward the west. They are noted from time to time, and in 1725-6 
Bienville (1932, vol. 3, p. 535) particularly describes the location of 
their village near that of the Biloxi of Pearl River. The last mention 
of them seems to be in an estimate of Indian population dated Decem- 
ber 1, 1764, in which their name appears along with those of six other 
small tribes. They may have been incorporated finally into the 
Choctaw or have accompanied one of the smaller Mobile tribes into 
Louisiana near the date last mentioned. 

Population.—In 1725 (or 1726) Bienville (1932, vol. 3, p. 535) says 
that in the Pensacola village and that of the Biloxi together, there 
were not more than 40 men. The enumeration mentioned above, 
made in 1764, gives the total population of this tribe and the Biloxi, 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 137 


Chatot, Capinans, Washa, Chawasha, and Pascagoula collectively as 
251 men. 

Connection in which they have become noted—Through the adoption 
of their name first for that of Pensacola Bay and secondly for the port 
which grew up upon it, the Pensacola have attained a fame entirely 
disproportionate to the aboriginal importance of the tribe. There are 
places of the name in Yancey County, N. C., and Mayes County, 
Okla. 

Pohoy, Pooy, or Posoy. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—They were evidently closely connected with the 
Timucuan division of the Muskhogean linguistic stock. (See Utina). 

Location.—On the south shore of Tampa Bay. 

Towns.—(See History.) 

Mstory.—This tribe, or a part of the same, appears first in history 
under the names Ogita or Ucita as a “province” in the territory of 
which Hernando de Soto landed in 1539. He established his head- 
quarters in the town of the head chief on June 1, and when he marched 
inland on July 15 he left a captain named Calderén with a hundred 
men to hold this place pending further developments. These were 
withdrawn at the end of November to join the main army in the 
Apalachee country. In 1612 these Indians appear for the first time 
under the name Pohoy or Pooy in the account of an expedition to the 
southwest coast of Florida under an ensign named Cartaya. In 1675 
Bishop Calder6én speaks of the “‘ Pojoy River,’ and in 1680 there is a 
passing reference to it. Some time before 1726 about 20 Indians of 
this tribe were placed in a mission called Santa Fe, 9 leagues south of 
St. Augustine, but they had already suffered from an epidemic and 
by 1728 the remainder returned to their former homes. (See Utina.) 

Population.—In 1680 the Pohoy were said to number 300. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The only claim of the 
Pohoy to distinction is derived from their contacts with the expedition 
of De Soto. 

Potano. Meaning unknown. 
Connections.—(See Utina.) 
Location.—In the territory of the present Alachua County. 


Towns 


The following places named in the De Soto narratives probably belonged to 
this tribe: Itaraholata or Ytara, Potano, Utinamocharra or Utinama, Cholupaha, 
and a town they called Mala-Paz. A letter dated 1602 mentions five towns, and 
on and after 1606, when missionaries reached the tribe, stations were established 
called San Francisco, San Miguel, Santa Anna, San Buenaventura, and San 
Martin(?). There is mention also of & mission station called Apalo. 


138 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


History.—The name Potano first appears as that of a province 
through which De Soto passed in 1539. In 1564-65 the French colon- 
ists of Florida found this tribe at war with the Utina and assisted the 
latter to win a victory overthem. After the Spaniards had supplanted 
the French, they also supported the Utina in wars between them and 
the Potano. In 1584 a Spanish captain sent to invade the Potano 
country was defeated and slain. A second expedition, however, 
killed many Indians and drove them from their town. In 1601 they 
asked to be allowed to return to it and in 1606 missionary work was 
undertaken among them resulting in their conversion along with most 
of the other Timucua peoples. Their mission was known as San 
Francisco de Potano and it appears in the mission lists of 1655 and 
1680. In 1656 they took part in a general Timucuan uprising which 
lasted 8 months. In 1672 a pestilence carried off many and as the 
chief of Potano does not appear as signatory to a letter written to 
Charles II by several Timucua chiefs in 1688, it is possible their 
separate identity had come to an end by that date. Early in the 
eighteenth century the Timucua along with the rest of the Spanish 
Indians of Florida were decimated rapidly and the remnant of the 
Potano must have shared their fate. (See Utina.) 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates the number of Potano 
Indians at 3,000 in 1650 and this is probably fairly accurate, as the 
Franciscan missionaries state that they were catechizing 1,100 persons 
in the 5 towns belonging to the tribe in 1602. In 1675 there were 
about 160 in the 2 Potano missions. (See Acuera and Utina.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Potano tribe was 
anciently celebrated as, with one or two possible exceptions, the most 
powerful of al! the Timucua peoples. 


Saturiwa. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—(See Utina.) 

Location —About the mouth of St. Johns River. Some early 
writers seem to include Cumberland Island in their jurisdiction. 


Villages 


Laudonniére (1586) says that the chief of this tribe ruled over 30 subchiefs, but 
it is uncertain whether these subchiefs represented villages belonging to the tribe, 
allied tribes, or both. The Spaniards give the following: San Juan del Puerto, the 
main mission for this province under which were Vera Cruz, Arratobo, Potaya, 
San Matheo, San Pablo, Hicachirico (‘Little Town’), Chinisca, and Carabay. 
San Diego de Salamototo, near the site of Picolata, on which no villages seem to 
have depended; and Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe, 3 leagues from St. Augustine, 
may be classed here somewhat uncertainly. 


History —The Saturiwa were visited by Jean Ribault in 1562 and 


probably by earlier explorers, but they appear first under their proper 
name in the chronicles of the Huguenot settlement of Florida of 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 139 


1564-5. Fort Caroline was built in the territory of the Saturiwa and 
intimate relations continued between the French and Indians until 
the former were dispossessed by Spain. The chief, known as Saturiwa 
at this time, assisted De Gourgues in 1567 to avenge the destruction 
of his countrymen. It is perhaps for this reason that we find the 
Spaniards espousing the cause of Utina against Saturiwa 10 years 
later. The tribe soon submitted to Spain, however, and was one of 
the first missionized, its principal mission being San Juan del Puerto. 
There labored Francisco de Pareja to whose grammar and religious 
works we are chiefly indebted for our knowledge of the Timucua 
language (Pareja, 1612, 1613, 1886). Like the other Florida Indians, 
they suffered severely from pestilence in 1617 and 1672. The name 
of their chief appears among those involved in the Timucua rebellion 
of 1656, and the names of their missions appear in the list of Bishop 
Calderén and in that of 1680. We hear nothing more of them, and 
they evidently suffered the same fate as the other tribes of the group. 

Population.—No separate figures for the Saturiwa have been pre- 
served, except that a missionary states in 1602 that there were about 
500 Christians among them and in 1675 San Juan del Puerto contained 
“about thirty persons” and Salamototo “about forty.’”’ (See Utina.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The prominence of the 
Saturiwa was due to the intimate dealings between them and the 
French colonists. Later the same people, though not under the same 
name, became a main support of the Spanish missionary movement 
among the Florida Indians. 


Sawokli. A division of Creek Indians belonging to the Hitchiti- 
speaking group. Anciently it seems to have lived entirely in 
Florida, but later it moved up into the neighborhood of the Lower 
Creeks. (See Alabama.) 


Seminole. Meaning ‘one who has camped out from the regular 
towns,” and hence sometimes given as “‘runaway,” but there is too 
much onus in this rendering. Prof. H. E. Bolton believes it was 
adopted from Spanish cimarron meaning ‘‘wild.” 

Ikanafaskalgi, ‘‘people of the point,” a Creek name. 
Ikanitiksalgi, ‘‘peninsula people,”’ own name. 

Isti seminole, ‘‘Seminole people.”’ 

Lower Creeks, so called by Bartram (1792). 
Ungiayé-rono, ‘‘peninsula people,’”’ Huron name. 

Connections—As implied above, the Seminole removed from the 
Creek towns and constituted just before the last Seminole War a fair 
representation of the population of those towns: perhaps two-thirds 
Creek proper or Muskogee, and the remaining third Indians of the 
Hitchiti-speaking towns, Alabama, Yamasee, and besides a band of 


140 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 148 


Yuchi, latterly a few of the original Indian inhabitants of southern 
Florida. 

Location.—The Seminole towns were first planted about Apalachi- 
cola River, in and near the old Apalachee country and in the Alachua 
country in the central part of the State, although a few were scattered 
about Tampa Bay and even well down the east coast as far south as 
Miami. They did not enter the Everglade section of the State until 
toward the end of the last Seminole War. As a result of that war, the 
greater part were removed to the territory now constituting Seminole 
County, Okla. A few remained in their old territory and their descend- 
ants are there today. | 

Villages 


Ahapopka, near the head of Ocklawaha River. 

Ahosulga, 5 miles south of New Mikasuki, perhaps in Jefferson County. 

Alachua, near Ledwiths Lake. 

Alafiers, probably a synonym for some other town name, perhaps McQueen’s 
Village, near Alafia River. 

Alapaha, probably on the west side of the Suwannee just above its junction with 
the Allapaha. 

Alligator, said to be a settlement in Suwannee County. 

Alouko, on the east side of St. Marks River 20 miles north of St. Marks. 

Apukasasoche, 20 miles west of the head of St. Johns River. 

Attapulgas: first location, west of Apalachicola River in Jackson or Calhoun 
Counties; second location inland in Gadsden County. 

Beech Creek, exact location unknown. 

Big Cypress Swamp, in the ‘“‘Devil’s Garden” on the northern edge of Big Cypress 
Swamp, 15 to 20 miles southwest of Lake Okeechobee. 

Big Hammock, north of Tampa Bay. 

Bowlegs’ Town, chief’s name, on Suwannee River and probably known usually 
under another name. 

Bucker Woman’s Town, on Long Swamp east of Big Hammock. 

Burges’ Town, probably on or near Flint or St. Marys River, southwestern 
Georgia. 

Calusahatchee, on the river of the same name and probably occupied by Calusa 
Indians. 

Capola, east of St. Marks River. 

Catfish Lake, on a small lake in Polk County nearly midway between Lake Pierce 
and Lake Rosalie, toward the headwaters of Kissimmee River. 

Chefixico’s Old Town, on the south side of Old Tallahassee Lake, 5 miles east of 
Tallahassee. 

Chetuckota, on the west bank of Pease Creek, below Pease Lake, west central 
Florida. 

Choconikla, on the west side of Apalachicola River, probably in Jackson County. 

Chohalaboohulka, probably identical with Alapaha. 

Chukochati, near the hammock of the same name. 

Cohowofooche, 23 miles northwest of St. Marks. 

Cow Creek, on a stream about 15 miles northeast of the entrance of Kissimmee 
River. 

Cuscowilla (see Alachua). 

Etanie, west of St. Johns River and east of Black Creek. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 141 


Etotulga, 10 miles east of Old Mikasuki. 

Fish-eating Creek, 5 miles from a creek emptying into Lake Okeechobee. 

Fulemmy’s Town, perhaps identical with Beech Creek, Suwannee River. 

Hatchcalamocha, near Drum Swamp, 18 miles west of New Mikasuki. 

Hiamonee, on the east bank of Ocklocknee River, probably on Lake Iamonia. 

Hitchapuksassi, about 20 miles from the head of Tampa Bay and 20 miles south- 
east of Chukochati. 

Homosassa, probably on Homosassa River. 

Iolee, 60 miles above the mouth of Apalachicola River on the west bank at or 
near Blountstown. 

John Hicks’ Town, west of Payne’s Savannah. 

King Heijah’s Town, or Koe Hadjo’s Town, consisted of Negro slaves, probably in 
Alachua County. 

Lochchiocha, 60 miles east of Apalachicola River and near Ocklocknee River. 

Loksachumpa, at the head of St. Johns River. 

Lowwalta (probably for Liwahali), location unknown. 

McQueen’s Village, on the east side of Tampa Bay, perhaps identical with Alafiers. 

Miami River, about 10 miles north of the site of Fort Dallas, not far from Bis- 
cayne Bay, on Little Miami River. 

Mulatto Girl’s Town, south of Tuscawilla Lake. 

Negro Town, near Withlacoochee River, probably occupied largely by runaway 
slaves. 

New Mikasuki, 30 miles west of Suwannee River, probably in Madison County. 

Notasulgar, location unknown. 

Ochisi, at a bluff so called on the east side of Apalachicola River. 

Ochupocrassa, near Miami. 

Ocilla, at the mouth of Aucilla River on the east side. 

Oclackonayahe, above Tampa Bay. 

Oclawaha, on Ocklawaha River, probably in Putnam County. 

Oithlakutci, on Little River 40 miles east of Apalachicola River. 

Okehumpkee, 60 miles southwest from Volusia. 

Oktahatki, 7 miles northeast of Sampala. 

Old Mikasuki, near Miccosukee in Leon County. 

Oponays, ‘‘back of Tampa Bay,” probably in Hillsboro or Polk Counties. 

Owassissas, on an eastern branch of St. Marks River and probably near its head. 

Payne’s Town, near Koe Hadjo’s Town, occupied by Negroes. 

Picolata, on the east bank of St. Johns River west of St. Augustine. 

Pilaklikaha, about 120 miles south of Alachua. 

Pilatka, on or near the site of Palatka, probably the site of a Seminole town and 
of an earlier town as well. 

Red Town, at Tampa Bay. 

Sampala, 26 miles above the forks of the Apalachicola on the west bank, in 
Jackson County, or in Houston County, Ala. 

Santa Fe, on the river of the same name, perhaps identical with Washitokha. 

Sarasota, at or near Sarasota. 

Seleuxa, at the head of Aucilla River. 

Sitarky, evidently named after a chief, between Camp Izard and Fort King, 
West Florida. 

Spanawalka, 2 miles below Iolee and on the west bank of Apalachicola River. 

Suwannee, on the west bank of Suwannee River in Lafayette County. 

Talakhacha, on the west side of Cape Florida on the seacoast. 

Tallahassee, on the site of present Tallahassee. 

Tallahassee or Spring Gardens, 10 miles from Volusia, occupied by Yuchi. 


142 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Talofa Okhase, about 30 miles west southwest from the upper part of Lake George. 

Taluachapkoapopka, a short distance west of upper St. Johns River, probably at 
the present Apopka. 

Tocktoethla, 10 miles above the junction of Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers. 

Tohopki lagi, probably near Miami. 

Topananaulka, 3 miles west of New Mikasuki. 

Topkegalga, on the east side of Ocklocknee River near Tallahassee. 

Totstalahoeetska, on the west side of Tampa Bay. 

Tuckagulga, on the east side of Ocklocknee River between it and Hiamonee. 

Tuslalahockaka, 10 miles west of Walalecooche. 

Wacahoota, location unknown. 

Wachitokha, on the east side of Suwannee River between Suwannee and Santa Fe 
Rivers. 

Wakasassa, on the coast east of the mouth of Suwannee River. 

Wasupa, 2 miles from St. Marks River and 18 miles from St. Marks itself. 

Wechotookme, location unknown. 

Welika, 4 miles east of the Tallahassee town. 

Wewoka, at Wewoka, Okla. 

Willanoucha, at the head of St. Marks River, perhaps identical with Alouko. 

Withlacoochee, on Withlacoochee River, probably in Citrus or Sumter County. 

Withlako, 4 miles from Clinch’s battle ground. 

Yalacasooche, at the mouth of Ocklawaha River. 

Yulaka, on the west side of St. Johns River, 35 miles from Volusia or Dexter. 

Yumersee, at the head of St. Marks River, 2 miles north of St. Marks, a 
settlement of Yamasee. (See Georgia.) 


History —The origin of the Seminole has already been given (p. 
112). The nucleus of the nation was constituted by a part of the 
Oconee, who moved into Florida about 1750 and were gradually fol- 
lowed by other tribes, principally of the Hitchiti connection. The 
first true Muskogee to enter the peninsula were some of the Indians 
of Lower Eufaula, who came in 1767 but these were mixed with 
Hitchiti and others. There was a second Muskogee immigration in 
1778, but after the Creek-American War of 1813-14 a much greater 
immigration occurred from the Creek Nation, mainly from the Upper 
Towns, and as the great majority of the newcomers were Muskogee, 
the Seminole became prevailingly a Muskogee people, what is now 
called the Seminole language being almost pure Muskogee. Later 
there were two wars with the Whites; the first from 1817-18, in which 
Andrew Jackson lead the American forces; and the second, from 1835 
to 1842, a long and bitter contest in which the Indians demonstrated 
to its fullest capacity the possibilities of guerrilla warfare in a semi- 
tropical, swampy country. ‘Toward the end of the struggle the Indi- 
ans were forced from northern and central Florida into the Everglade 
section of the State. This contest is particularly noteworthy on ac- 
count of the personality of Osceola, the brains of Seminole resistance, 
whose capture by treachery is an ineffaceable blot upon all who were 
connected with it and incidentally upon the record of the American 


5 But see footnote p. 134. 


SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 143 


Army. Diplomacy finally accomplished what force had failed to 
effect—the policy put in practice by Worth at the suggestion of Gen- 
eral E. A. Hitchcock. The greater part of the hostile Indians sur- 
rendered and were sent to Oklahoma, where they were later granted 
a reservation of their own in the western part of the Creek Nation. 
Both the emigrants, who have now been allotted, and the small num- 
ber who stayed behind in Florida have since had an uneventful his- 
tory, except for their gradual absorption into the mass of the popu- 
lation, an absorption long delayed in the case of the Florida Seminole 
but nonetheless certain. 

Population.— Before the Creek-American war the number of Semi- 
nole was probably about 2,000; after that date the best estimates give 
about 5,000. Exclusive of one census which seems clearly too high, 
figures taken after the Seminole war indicate a gradual reduction of 
Seminole in Oklahoma from considerably under 4,000 to 2,500 in 1851. 
A new census, in 1857, gave 1,907, and after that time little change is 
indicated though actually the amount of Indian blood was probably 
declining steadily. In Florida the figures were: 370 in 1847, 348 in 
1850, 450 in 1893, 565 in 1895, 358 in 1901, 446 in 1911, 600 in 1913, 
562 in 1914, 573 in 1919, 586 in 1937. In 1930 there were 1,789 in 
Oklahoma, 227 in Florida, and 32 scattered in other States. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The chief claim of this 
tribal confederation to distinction will always be the remarkable war 
which they sustained against the American Nation, the losses in men 
and money which they occasioned having been out of all proportion to 
the number of Indians concerned. The county in Oklahoma where 
most of the Seminole were sent at the end of the great war bears 
their name, as does a county in Florida, and it will always be asso- 
ciated with the Everglade country, where they made their last stand. 
Towns or post villages of the name are in Baldwin County, Ala.; 
Seminole County, Okla.; Armstrong County, Pa.; and Gaines County, 
Tex. 


Surruque. Meaning unknown. 

Connections —Somewhat doubtful, but they were probably of the 
Timucuan linguistic group. (See Utina.) 

Location.—At or very close to Cape Canaveral. 

History.—The Surruque appear first in history as the “‘Sorrochos” 
of Le Moyne’s map (1875), and his “Lake Sarropé” also probably 
derived its name from them. About the end of the same century, 
the sixteenth, trouble arose between them and the Spaniards, in 
consequence of which the Spanish governor fell upon a Surruque town, 
killed 60 persons and captured 54. Later they probably united with 
the Timucua people and shared their fortunes. 

Population.—No estimate is possible. (See Utina. ) 


144 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Tacatacuru. The meaning is unknown, though it seems to have some- 
thing to do with ‘‘fire” (taca). 
Connections.—(See Utina.) 
Location.—On Cumberland Island to which the name Tacatacuru 
was applied. 
Villages 


It is probable that the same name was used for its chief town, which was 
missionized by the Spaniards under the name of San Pedro Mocama. Under 
this mission were those of Santo Domingo and Santa Maria de Sena. 

History.—The chief of Tacatacuru (now Cumberland Island), or of 
the neighboring mainland, met Jean Ribault in 1562 and seems to 
have remained on good terms with the French during their occupancy 
of Fort Caroline in 1564-65. He, or a successor, is mentioned among 
those who joined De Gourgues in his attack upon the Spaniards in 
1567, but soon afterward they made peace with Spain and one chief, 
Don Juan, was of great assistance to the white men in many ways, 
particularly in driving back the Guale Indians after their rising in 
1597. This chief died in 1600, and was succeeded by his niece. The 
church built by these Indians was said to be as big as that in St. 
Augustine. The good relations which subsisted between the Tacata- 
curu Indians and the Spaniards do not appear to have been broken 
by the Timucua rebellion of 1656. By 1675 the tribe had abandoned 
Cumberland Island and it was occupied by Yamasee. The mission 
of San Pedro Mocama consequently does not appear in the mission 
list of 1680, although it is in that of 1655.4. The tribe was subsequently 
amalgamated with the other Timucua peoples and shared their 
fortunes. (See Utina.) 

Population.—There is no estimate of the number of Tacatacuru 
distinct from that of the other Timucua. The missionary stationed 
among them in 1602 notes that there were then 8 settlements and 
792 Christianized Indians in his province, but this province may not 
have been confined to the tribe. In that year Santo Domingo 
served 180 Christians and Santa Maria de Sena 112. 


Tawasa. Meaning unknown. 

Connections—They spoke a dialect belonging to the Timucuan 
division of the Muskhogean linguistic family, intermediate between 
Timucua proper and Choctaw, Hitchiti, Alabama, and Apalachee. 

Location.—In 1706-7 in west Florida about the latitude of the 
junction of the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers; at an earlier time 
and again later they were on the Alabama near the present Mont- 
gomery. (See also Louisiana.) 


4I have stated elsewhere (Swanton, 1946, p. 187) that the name of this mission was wanting in the list 
drawn up in 1655. I should have given the date as 1680. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 145 


Villages 


They usually occupied only one town but Autauga on Autauga Creek in the 
southeastern part of Autauga County, Ala., is said to have belonged to them. 

History.—De Soto found the Tawasa near the Montgomery site in 
1540. Some time during the next century and a half they moved to 
the neighborhood of Apalachicola River, but in 1707 they were 
attacked by the Creeks, who captured some of them, while the 
greater part fled to the French and were by them given lands near 
the present Mobile. They occupied several different sites in that 
neighborhood but in 1717 they moved back to the region where 
De Soto found them, their main village being in the northwestern 
suburbs of the present Montgomery. After the Treaty of Fort 
Jackson in 1814, they were compelled to abandon this place and move 
into the Creek territories between the Coosa and Talapoosa Rivers, 
where they remained until the main migration beyond the Mississippi. 
Previous to this, some of them had gone with other Alabama into 
Louisiana and they followed their fortunes. The name was remem- 
bered by Alabama in Polk County, Tex., until within a few years. 

Population.—The French census of 1760 returned 40 Tawasa men 
and the Georgia census of 1792 “about 60.’ The census of 1832-33 
gives 321 Indians in towns called Tawasa and Autauga, but all of 
these were quite certainly not Tawasa Indians in the strict application 
of that term. (See Alabama.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Tawasa tribe will 
be remembered ethnologically on account of the rescue of so much 
important information regarding the early history of themselves and 
their neighbors through the captive Indian Lamhatty (in Bushnell, 
1908), who made his way into Virginia in 1708, and on account of 
the still more important vocabulary obtained from him. 


Tekesta or Tequesta. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—The language of this tribe was probably connected 
with the languages of the other peoples of the southeast coast of 
Florida and with that of the Calusa, and may have been Muskhogean. 

Location.—In the neighborhood of Miami. 


Villages 


Besides Tekesta proper, the main town, four villages are mentioned between 
that and the next tribe to the north, the Jeaga, to whom some of the villages may 
have belonged. These were, in order from south to north: Tavuacio, Janar, 
Cabista, and Custegiyo. 


History.—The Tekesta do not appear in history much before the 
time of Fontaneda, who was a captive among the Calusa from 1551 
to 1569. In 1566 we learn that they protected certain Spaniards 
from the Calusa chief, although the latter is sometimes regarded as 


146 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


their overlord. A post was established in their country in 1566 but 
abandoned 4 years later. Attempts made to convert them to Chris- 
tianity at that time were without success. In 1573 they are said to 
have been converted by Pedro Menendez Marques, but later they 
returned to their primitive beliefs. It was these Indians who, accord- 
ing to Romans (1775), went to Cuba in 1763 along with some others 
from this coast. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1650 there were 
1,000 Indians on the southeast coast of Florida. According to Romans 
those who went to Cuba in 1763 had 30 men. Adair (1775) says 
there were 80 families. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Although the name has 
found io topographical lodgement, the Tekesta may be remembered 
as the earliest known body of people to occupy the site of Miami. 


Tocobaga. Meaning unknown, though toco means in Timucua ‘‘to 
come out,” ‘‘to proceed from.” 
Connections.—(See Utina.) 
Location.—About Old Tampa Bay. 


Villages 
The main town was at or near Safety Harbor at the head of Old Tampa Bay. 


History.—Narvaez probably landed in the territory of this tribe in 
1528, but his chroniclers speak of meeting very few Indians. Eleven 
years later De Soto’s expedition disembarked just south in Tampa Bay 
but came into little contact with this tribe. Two years after driving 
the French from St. Johns River in 1565, Menendez visited Tocobaga, 
and left a captain and 30 soldiers among them, all of whom were wiped 
out the year following. In 1612 a Spanish expedition was sent to 
punish the chiefs of Pohoy and Tocobaga because they had attacked 
Christian Indians, but spent little time in the latter province. There 
is no assured reference to a mission nearer than Acuera, nor do the 
Tocobaga appear among the tribes which participated in the great 
Timucua revolt of 1656. Ultimately it is probable that they joined 
the other Timucua and disappeared with them, though they may have 
united with the Calusa. It is also possible that they are the 
‘“‘Tompacuas” who appear later in the Apalachee country, and if so 
they may have been the Indians placed in 1726 in a mission near 
St. Augustine called San Buenaventura under the name ‘‘Macapiras’”’ 
or “‘Amacapiras.”’ (See Utina.) 

Population—Unknown. (See Utina.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The principal claim to 
notoriety on the part of the Tocobaga is the fact that Narvaez landed 
in their country in 1528. 


SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 147 


Ucita, see Pohoy. 


Utina or Timucua. The first name, which probably refers to the 
chief and means “powerful,” is perhaps originally from uti, ‘‘earth,”’ 
while the second name, Timucua, is that from which the linguistic 
stock, or rather this Muskhogean subdivision of it, has received 
its name. 

Connections.—As given above. 

Location.—The territory of the Utina seems to have extended from 
the Suwannee to the St. Johns and even eastward of the latter, 
though some of the subdivisions given should be rated as independent 
tribes. (See Timucua under Georgia.) 


Towns 


Laudonniére (1586) states that there were more than 40 under the Utina chief, 
but among them he includes ‘“‘Acquera”’ (Acuera) and Moquoso far to the south 
and entirely independent, so that we are uncertain regarding the status of the 
others he gives, which are as follows: Cadecha, Calanay, Chilili, Eclauou, Molona, 
Omittaqua, and Onachaquara. 

As the Utina, with the possible exception of the Potano, was the leading Timucua 
division and gave its name to the whole, and as the particular tribe to which 
each town mentioned in the documents belonged cannot be given, it will be well 
to enter all here, although those that can be placed more accurately will be 
inserted in their proper places. 

In De Soto’s time Aguacaleyquen or Caliquen seems to have been the principal 
town. In the mission period we are told that the chief lived at Ayaocuto. 


Acassa, a town inland from Tampa Bay. 

Aguacaleyquen, a town in the province of Utina between Suwannee and Santa 
Fe Rivers. 

Ahoica, probably near the Santa Fe River. 

Alachepoyo, inland from Tampa Bay. 

Alatico, probably on Cumberland Island. 

Albino, 40 leagues or 4 days inland from St. Augustine and within 14% to 2 
leagues of two others called Tucuro and Utiaca. 

Alimacani, on an island of the same name not far north of the mouth of St. 
Johns River. 

Amaca, inland from Tampa Bay. 

Anacapa, in the Fresh Water Province 20 leagues south of St. Augustine. 

Anacharaqua, location unknown. 

Antonico, in the Fresh Water Province. 

Apalu, in the province of Yustaga. 

Arapaja, 70 leagues from St. Augustine, Probably on Alapaha River. 

Araya, south of the Withlacoochee River. 

Archaha, location unknown. 

Assile, on or near Aucilla River. 

Astina, location unknown. 

Atuluteca, probably near San Pedro or Cumberland Island. 

Ayacamale, location unknown. 

Ayaocute, in the Utina country 34 leagues from St. Augustine. 

Ayotore, inland from Cumberland Island and probably southwest. 

Beca, location unknown. 


148 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buy 145 


Becao, location unknown. 

Bejesi, location unknown, perhaps the Apalachee town of Wacissa. 

Cachipile, 70 leagues west of St. Augustine. 

Cacoroy, south of St. Augustine and 1% leagues from Nocoroco, probably in the 
Fresh Water Province. 

Cadecha, allied with Utina. 

Calany, allied with Utina. 

Caparaca, south of St. Augustine, southwest of Nocoroco and probably in the 
Fresh Water Province. 

Casti, location unknown. 

Cayuco, near Tampa Bay. 

Chamini, 70 leagues west of St. Augustine. 

Chimaucayo, south of St. Augustine. 

Chinica, 1% leagues from St. Augustine. 

Cholupaha, south of Aguacaleyquen in the Potano Province. 

Chuaquin, 60 leagues west of St. Augustine. 

Cicale, south of St. Augustine and 3 leagues south of Nocoroco, perhaps in the 
Fresh Water Province. 

Cilili, said to be a Utina town. 

Colucuchia, several leagues south of Nocoroco. 

Coya, location unknown. 

Disnica, south of St. Augustine, perhaps should be Tisnica. 

Egalamototo, on the site of Picolata. 

Ecita, near Tampa Bay, possibly a variant of Ogita. 

Eclauou, location unknown. 

Edelano, on an island of the same name in St. Johns River. 

Elajay, location unknown, perhaps Calusa. 

Elanogue, in the Fresh Water Province near Antonico. 

Emola, location unknown. 

Enecaque, location unknown. 

Equale, in the Fresh Water Province. 

Ereze, inland from Tampa Bay. 

Esquega, a town or tribe on the west coast. 

Exangue, near Cumberland Island. 

Filache, in the Fresh Water Province. 

Guacara, on Suwannee River in northwestern Florida. 

Guacoco, probably a town on a plain so called in the Urriparacoxi country. 

Heliocopile, location unknown. 

Helmacape, location unknown. 

Hicachirico (“‘Little town’’), one league from the mission of San Juan del Puerto, 
which was probably at the mouth of St. Johns River in the Saturiwa Province. 

Hiocaia, the probable name of a town giving its name to a chief, location unknown. 

Huara, inland from Cumberland Island. 

Itaraholata, south of Potano, Potano Province. 

Juraya, a rancheria, apparently in the Timucua territory. 

Laca, another name for Ecalamototo. 

Lamale, inland from Cumberland Island. 

Luca, between Tampa Bay and the Withlacoochee River in the Urriparacoxi 
country. 

Machaba, 64 leagues from St. Augustine, near the northern border of the Timucua 
country inland. 

Maiaca, the town of the Fresh Water Province most distant from St. Augustine, 
a few leagues north of Cape Canaveral and on St. Johns River. 


SWANTON ] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 149 


Malaca, south of Nocoroco. 

Marracou, location unknown. 

Mathiaqua, location unknown. 

Mayajuaca, near Maiaca. 

Mayara, on lower St. Johns River. 

Mocama, possibly a town on Cumberland Island, province of Tacatacuru, but 
probably a province. 

Mogote, south of St. Augustine in the region of Nocoroco. 

Moloa, on the south side of St. Johns River near its mouth, province of Saturiwa. 

Napa, on an island one league from Cumberland Island. 

Napituca, north of Aguacaleyquen, province of Utina. 

Natobo, a mission station and probably native town 2}4 leagues from San Juan 
del Puerto at the mouth of St. Johns River, province of Saturiwa. 

Nocoroco, at the mouth of a river, perhaps Halifax River, one day’s journey south 
of Matanzas Inlet, Fresh Water Province. 

Ocale, in a province of the same name in the neighborhood of the present Ocala. 

Ogita, probably on Terra Ceia Island, on Hillsborough Bay. 

Onathaqua, a town or tribe near Cape Canaveral. 

Osigubede, a chief and probably town on the west coast. 

Panara, inland from Cumberland Island. 

Parca, location unknown. 

Patica, on the seacoast 8 leagues south of the mouth of St. Johns River. 

Patica, on the west bank of St. Johns River in the Utina territory. 

Pebe, a chief and probably a town on the west coast. 

Pentoaya, at the head of Indian River. 

Perquymaland, south of Nocoroco; possibly the names of two towns, Perqui and 
Maland, run together. 

Pia, on the east coast south of Nocoroco. 

Pitano, a mission station and probably a native town a league and a half from 
Puturiba. 

Pohoy, a town or province, or both, at Tampa Bay, and perhaps a synonym of 
Ocita. 

Potano, the principal town of the Potano tribe, on the Alachua plains. 

Potaya, 4 leagues from San Juan del Puerto at the mouth of St. Johns River. 

Puala, near Cumberland Island. 

Punhuri, inland from Cumberland Island. 

Puturiba, probably near the northern end of Cumberland Island, province of 
Tacatacuru. There was another town of the same name west of the Suwannee 
River. 

Sabobche, near the coast south of Nocoroco. 

Saint Julian, in the Fresh Water Province. 

San Mateo, about 2 leagues from San Juan del Puerto at the mouth of St. Johns 
River, province of Saturiwa. 

San Pablo, about 144 leagues from San Juan del Puerto, province of Saturiwa. 

San Sebastian, on an arm of the sea near St. Augustine. 

Sarauahi, a quarter of a league from San Juan del Puerto. 

Sena, on an “‘inlet’’ north of the mouth of St. Johns River, perhaps Amelia River: 

Siyagueche, near Cape Canaveral. 

Socochuno, location unknown. 

Soloy, not far from St. Augustine and probably on the river called Seloy by the 
French. 

Surruque, a town or tribe near Cape Canaveral. 


150 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Tacatacuru, the name of Cumberland Island and Province, and perhaps of the 
chief town, on the mainland side of the island near the southern end, 2 leagues 
from the Barra de San Pedro. 

Tafocole, inland from Tampa Bay. 

Tahupa, inland from Cumberland Island. 

Tanpacaste, a chief and perhaps town north of Pohoy, i.e., north of Tampa Bay. 

Tarihica, 54 leagues from St. Augustine, and perhaps in the Onatheaqua Province. 

Tocaste, on a large lake south of the Withlacoochee River, province of Urri- 
paracoxi. 

Tocoaya, very near Cumberland Island. 

Tocobaga, the chief town of the province so called, in Safety Harbor, Tampa Bay. 

Tocoy, in the Fresh Water Province 5 leagues south of St. Augustine. 

Tolapatafi, probably toward the west coast of the peninsula of Florida near 
Aucilla River. 

Toloco, location unknown. 

Tomeo, near the Fresh Water Province. 

Tucura, near the Fresh Water Province. 

Tucuro, see Abino. 

Tunsa, possibly a synonym of Antonico. 

Ugachile, a town or tribe in the Yustaga Province, perhaps the mother town of 
the Osochi. 

Uqueten, the southernmost village of the province of Ocale on Withlacoochee 
River entered by De Soto. 

Urica, 60 leagues from St. Augustine. 

Uriutina, just north of the river of Aguacaleyquen, perhaps at Lake City. 

Urubia, near Cape Canaveral and 1% leagues from the town of Surruque. 

Utayne, inland from Cumberland Island. 

Utiaca, see Abino. 

Utichini, inland from Cumberland Island and within a league and a half of 
Puturiba. 

Utinamocharra, 1 day’s journey north of Potano, Potano Province. 

Vera Cruz, half a league from San Juan del Puerto, province of Saturiwa. 

Vicela, a short distance south of Withlacoochee River, province of Urriparacoxi. 

Xapuica, near the Guale country, perhaps a synonym of Caparaca. 

Xatalalano, inland from Cumberland Island. 

Yaocay, near Antonico in the Fresh Water Provinee. 

Yeapalano, inland from Cumberland Island and probably within half a league or 
a league of Puturiba. 

Yufera, inland and probably northwest from Cumberland Island. 


History—The Utina were evidently those Indians occupying the 
province called Aguacaleyquen which De Soto passed through in 1539. 
In 1564 the French came in contact with them after the establishment 
of Fort Caroline. On one occasion they sent a contingent to help 
them defeat the neighboring Potano. After the Spaniards had sup- 
planted the French, the Timucua allied themselves with the former 
and in 1576 or 1577 a body of soldiers was sent to support them against 
several neighboring tribes. They were missionized at a comparatively 
early date, and afterward followed the fortunes of the rest of the 
Timucua. 

Following is a brief over-all sketch of the history of the tribes consti- 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA L51 


tuting the Timucuan group. They first came into contact with 
Europeans during Ponce de Leon’s initial expedition in 1513 when the 
peninsula and subsequently the State received its name. Narvaez in 
1528 and De Soto in 1539 passed through the country of the western 
tribes. Ribault visited those on and near St. Johns River in 1562, and 
the French settlers of Fort Caroline on that river in 1564-65 were in 
close contact with them. A considerable part of our knowledge 
regarding these Indians is contained in the records of that colony. 
The Spaniards supplanted the French in 1565 and gradually conquered 
the Timucua tribes while the Franciscans missionized them. Our 
knowledge of the Timucua language is derived mainly from religious 
works by the missionaries Pareja and Mouilla and a grammar com- 
piled by the former. During the early half of the seventeenth century 
the missions were in a flourishing condition but a general rebellion in 
1656 occasioned some losses by death and exile. ‘They also suffered 
severely from pestilences which raged in the missions in 1613-17, 
1649-50, and 1672. It is probable that some decline in population 
took place even before the great rebellion but that and the epidemics 
occasioned considerable losses. Toward the end of the seventeenth 
century, however, all the Florida Indians began to suffer from the 
invasion of Creek and Yuchi Indians to the northward, and this was 
accentuated after the break-up of the Apalachee in 1704 by the 
expedition under Moore. Most of the remaining Timucua were then 
concentrated into missions near St. Augustine, but this did not secure 
immunity against further attacks by the English and their Indian 
allies. Sometime after 1736 the remnants of these people seem to have 
removed to a stream in the present Volusia County which in the 
form Tomoka bears their name. Here they disappear from history, 
and it is probable that they were swallowed up by the invading 
Seminole. 

Population.—The Timucua, in the wide extent of the term, are 
estimated by Mooney (1928) to have numbered 13,000 in 1650, 
including 3,000 Potano, 1,000 Hostaqua, 8,000 Timucua proper and 
their allies, and 1,000 Tocobaga. In a letter dated February 2, 1635, 
it is asserted that 30,000 Christian Indians were connected with the 
44 missions then maintained in the Guale and Timucua provinces. 
While this figure is probably too high, it tends to confirm Mooney’s 
(1928) estimate. In 1675 Bishop Calderén of Cuba states that he 
confirmed 13,152 in the four provinces of Timucua, Guale, Apalache, 
and Apalachicoli, but Governor Salazar estimates only 1,400 in the 
Timucua missions that year. Later, pestilences decimated the Timu- 
cua very rapidly, and their ruin was completed by attacks of the 
English and the northern Indians, so that by 1728 the single town 
which seems to have contained most of the survivors had but 15 men 


152 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLu. 145 


and 20 women. Light years later 17 men were reported there. Not 

long after this time the tribe disappears entirely, though it is highly 

probable that numbers of individuals who had belonged to it had 
made their homes with other Indians. 

As to the Utina tribe by itself, we have a missionary letter dated 
1602 which estimates its population as 1,500, in this case probably an 
understatement. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—This tribe, known as 
the Utina or Timucua, is noteworthy (1) for having given its name to 
the peoples of the Timucuan or Timuquanan stock now regarded as 
part of the Muskogean family, and (2) as having been, next perhaps 
to the Potano, the most powerful tribe constituting that stock. 

The Timucuan group has left its name in that of the river above 
mentioned. 

Yamasee. Some tribes affiliated with the Yamasee settled in the 
Apalachee country in the latter part of the seventeenth century. 
The great body came to Florida from South Carolina after their war 
with the English colonists in 1715, and most of them remained in 
the northeastern part of the peninsula. Their final appearance is 
as the Ocklawaha band of Seminole. Part of them moved west, 
however, and settled near Mobile, and either this or a third party 
lived among the Creeks for a time, after which they seem to have 
returned to west Florida, where they were represented by the 
““Yumersee”’ town of the Seminole. A considerable number of them 
were captured by the Creek Indians and incorporated with them. 
(See Georgia.) 


Yuchi. In the seventeenth century a body of Yuchi established 
themselves west of Apalachicola River, but moved north to join 
the Upper Creeks before 1761. At a much later date a body of 
eastern Yuchi joined the Seminole and in 1823 had a settlement 
called Tallahassee or Spring Gardens 10 miles from Volusia. They 
probably moved to Oklahoma at the end of the last Seminole war. 
(See Georgia.) 


Yufera. This is the name of a town or group of towns reported as 
located somewhere inland from Cumberland Island, and perhaps in 
the present territory of Georgia. The name is derived through 
Timucua informants but it may have referred to a part of the Mus- 
kogee tribe called Eufaula. 


Yui. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—(See Utina.) 

Location.—On the mainland 14 leagues inland from Cumberland 
Island and probably in the southeastern part of the present state of 
Georgia. 


SWANTON} INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 153 


Villages 


They had five villages but the names of these are either unknown or unidenti- 
fiable. 

History —The name of the Yui appears first in Spanish documents. 
They were visited by the missionary at San Pedro (Cumberland 
Island) and appear to have been Christianized early in the seventeenth 
century. No individual mission bore their name and they. are soon 
lost sight of, their history becoming that of the other Timucua tribes. 

Population.—The missionaries estimated more than 1,000 Indians 
in this province in 1602. (See Utina.) 


Yustaga. Meaning unknown. 

Connections—No words of the Yustaga language have been 
preserved but circumstantial evidence indicates they belonged to the 
Timucuan branch of the Muskhogean linguistic stock, although 
occasionally the provinces of Timucua and Yustaga are spoken of as 
if distinct. 

Location.—Approximately between Aucilla and Suwannee Rivers, 
somewhat toward the coast. 

Villages 

The Yustaga villages cannot be satisfactorily identified though the missions of 
Asile, San Marcos, Machaba, and San Pedro seem to have belonged to it. 

History —The Yustaga are first mentioned by Biedma (in Bourne, 
1904), one of the chroniclers of De Soto, who gives the title to a 
“province” through which the Spaniards marched just before coming 
to Apalachee. While the French Huguenots were on St. Johns River, 
some of them visited this tribe, and later it is again mentioned by the 
Spaniards but no mission bears the name. Its history is soon merged 
in that of the Timucuan peoples generally. The last mention of the 
name appears to be in 1659. It is of particular interest as the province 
from which the Osochi Indians who settled among the Lower Creeks 
probably emigrated in 1656 or shortly afterward. 

Population—In 1675, 40 Indians were reported in the mission of 
Asile and 300 in each of the others, giving a total very close to 
Mooney’s (1928) estimate of 1,000 as of the year 1600. 


ALABAMA 
Abihka, see Creek Confederacy and Muskogee. 


Alabama. Perhaps connected with the native word “‘albina,’’ mean- 
ing “to camp,” or alba amo, ‘‘weed gatherer,”’ referring to the black 
drink. Also called: 

Ma’-mo a®-ya -di, or Ma’-mo ha®-ya, by the Biloxi. 
Oke-choy-atte, given by Schoolcraft (1851-57), the name of an Alabama 
town, Oktcaiutci. 


154 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (BULL. 146 


Connections —The Alabama language belonged to the southern 
division of the Muskhogean stock, and was perhaps connected with 
the tongues of the Muklasa and Tuskegee, which have not been pre- 
served. It was closely related to Koasati and more remotely to 
Hitchiti and Choctaw. 

Location.—The principal historic seat of this tribe was on the upper 
course of Alabama River. (See also Florida, Louisiana, Oklahoma, 
and Texas.) 

Subdivisions 


The Tawasa and Pawokti, which later formed two Alabama towns, were origi- 
nally independent tribes (see under Florida), though the former, at least, was not 
properly Alabama. The same may have been true of some other Alabama towns, 
though we have no proof of the fact. 


Villages 
Besides the above: 

Autauga, on the north bank of Alabama River about the mouth of Autauga Creek 
in Autauga County. 

Kantcati, on Alabama River about 3 miles above Montgomery and on the same 
side. 

Nitahauritz, on the north side of Alabama River west of the confluence of the 
Alabama and Cahawba Rivers in Dallas County. 

Okchayutci, in Benjamin Hawkins’ time (about 1800) on the east bank of Coosa 
River between Tuskegee and the Muskogee town of Otciapofa. (See Hawkins, 
1848, 1916.) 

Wetumpka, a branch village reported in 1761. 


History.—Native tradition assigns the origin of the Alabama 
to a point at the confluence of Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers, but 
we seem to hear of the tribe first historically in what is now northern 
Mississippi west of the Chickasaw country. This is in the narratives 
of De Soto’s chroniclers, which, however, do not altogether agree, 
since one writer speaks of a province of the name, two others bestow 
the designation upon a small village, and only Garcilaso (1723), the 
least reliable, gives the title Fort Alibamo to a stockade—west of the 
village above mentioned—where the Spaniards had a severe combat. 
While this stockade was probably held by Alabama Indians, there 
is no certainty that it was. The next we hear of the tribe it is in 
its historic seats above given. After the French had established 
themselves at Mobile they became embroiled in some small affrays 
between the Alabama and Mobile Indians, but peace was presently 
established and thereafter the French and Alabama remained good 
friends as long as French rule continued. This friendship was 
cemented in 1717 by the establishment of Fort Toulouse in the 
Alabama country and the admission among them of one, or probably 
two, refugee tribes, the Tawasa and Pawokti. (See Florida.) About 
1763 a movement toward the west began on the part of those Indians 


SWANTON ] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 155 


who had become accustomed to French rule. Some Alabama joined 
the Seminole in Florida. Others accompanied the Koasati to Tom- 
bigbee River but soon returned to their own country. Still another 
body went to Louisiana and settled on the banks of the Mississippi 
River, where they were probably joined from time to time by more. 
Later they advanced further toward the west and some are still 
scattered in St. Landry and Calcasieu Parishes, but the greatest 
single body finally reached Polk County, Tex., where they occupy 
a piece of land set aside for them by the State. Those who remained 
behind took a very prominent part in the Creek-American War and 
lost all their land by the treaty of Fort Jackson, 1814, being obliged 
to make new settlements between the Coosa and Tallapoosa. They 
accompanied the rest of the Creeks to Oklahoma, and their des- 
cendants are to be found there today, principally about a little 
station bearing the name just south of Weleetka. 

Population.—In 1702 Iberville (én Margry, 1875-86, vol. 4, p. 514) 
estimated that there were 400 families of Alabama in two villages, 
and the English census of 1715 gives 214 men and a total population 
of 770 in four villages. These figures must have been exclusive 
of the Tawasa and Pawokti, which subsequent estimates include. 
About 1730-40 there is an estimate of 400 men in six towns. In 
1792 the number of Alabama men is given as 60, exclusive of 60 
Tawasa, but as this last included Kantcati the actual proportion 
of true Alabama was considerably greater. Hawkins, in 1799, esti- 
mated 80 gunmen in four Alabama towns, including Tawasa and 
Pawokti, but he does not include the population of Okchaiyutci. 
(See Hawkins, 1848.) In 1832 only two towns are entered which may 
be safely set down as Alabama, Tawasa and Autauga, and these had 
a population of 321 besides 21 slaves. The later figures given above 
do not include those Alabama who had moved to Louisiana. In 1805 
Sibley (1832) states there were two villages in Louisiana with 70 
men; in 1817 Morse (1822) gives 160 Alabama all told in Texas, 
but this is probably short of the truth. In 1882 the United States 
Indian Office reported 290 Alabama, Koasati, and Muskogee in 
Texas, the larger number of whom were probably Alabama. In 1900 
the figure is raised to 470. In 1910 a special agent from the Indian 
Office reported 192 Alabama alone. The census of 1910 gave 187 
in Texas and 111 in Louisiana, a total of 298. The 176 “Creek” 
Indians returned from Polk County, Tex., in 1930, were mainly 
Alabama. The number of Alabama in Oklahoma has never been 
separately reported. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Alabama attained 
early literary fame from Garcilaso de la Vega’s (1723) description 


156 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


of the storming of ‘Fort Alibamo.” Their later notoriety has 
rested upon the fact that their name became attached to Alabama 
River, and still more from its subsequent adoption by the State 
of Alabama. A railroad station in Oklahoma is named after them, 
and the term has been applied to places in Genesee County, N. Y., 
and in Polk County, Wis. There is an Alabama City in Etowah 
County, Ala., and Alabam in Madison County, Ark. 


Apalachee. A part of this tribe lived for a time among the Lower 
Creeks and perhaps in this State. Another section settled near 
Mobile and remained there until West Florida was ceded to Great 
Britain when they crossed the Mississippi. A few seem to have 
joined the Creeks and migrated with them to Oklahoma. (See 
Florida.) 


Apalachicola. Very early this tribe lived on the Apalachicola and 
Chattahoochee Rivers, partly in Alabama. Sometime after 1715 
they settled in Russell County, on the Chattahoochee River where 
they occupied at least two different sites before removing with the 
rest of the Creeks to the other side of the Mississippi. (See Georgia.) 


Atasi. A division or subtribe of the Muskogee (q. v.). 


Chatot. This tribe settled near Mobile after having been driven 
from Florida and moved to Louisiana about the same time as 
the Apalachee. (See Florida.) 


Cherokee. In the latter part of the eighteenth century some Cher- 
okee worked their way down the Tennessee River as far as Muscle 
Shoals, constituting the Chickamauga band. They had settlements 
at Turkeytown on the Coosa, Willstown on Wills Creek, and 
Coldwater near Tuscumbia, occupied jointly with the Creeks and 
destroyed by the Whites in 1787. All of their Alabama territory 
was surrendered in treaties made between 1807 and 1835. (See 
Tennessee.) 


Chickasaw. The Chickasaw had a few settlements in northwestern 
Alabama, part of which State was within their hunting territories. 
At one time they also had a town called Ooe-asa (Wi-aca) among 
the Upper Creeks. (See Mississippi.) 


Choctaw. This tribe hunted over and occupied, at least temporarily, 
parts of southwestern Alabama beyond the Tombigbee. (See 
Mississippi.) 

Creek Confederacy. This name is given to a loose organization 
which constituted the principal political element in the territory of 
the present States of Georgia and Alabama from very early times, 
probably as far back as the period of De Soto. It was built around 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 157 


a dominant tribe, or rather a group of dominant tribes, called 
Muskogee. The name Creek early became attached to these 
people because when they were first known to the Carolina colonists 
and for a considerable period afterward the body of them which 
the latter knew best was living upon a river, the present Ocmulgee, 
called by Europeans ‘‘Ocheese Creek.” The Creeks were early 
divided geographically into two parts, one called Upper Creeks, on 
the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers; the other, the Lower Creeks, on 
the lower Chattahoochee and Ocmulgee. The former were also 
divided at times into the Coosa branch or Abihka and the Talla- 
poosa branch and the two were called Upper and Middle Creeks 
respectively. Bartram (1792) tends to confuse the student by 
denominating all of the true Creeks “Upper Creeks’? and the 
Seminole “Lower Creeks.’”’ The dominant Muskogee gradually 
gathered about them—and to a certain extent under them—the 
Apalachicola, Hitchiti, Okmulgee, Sawokli, Chiaha, Osochi, Yuchi, 
Alabama, Tawasa, Pawokti, Muklasa, Koasati, Tuskegee, a part 
of the Shawnee, and for a time some Yamasee, not counting broken 
bands and families from various quarters. The first seven of the 
above were for the most part among the Lower Creeks, the 
remainder with the Upper Creeks. (For further information, see 
the separate tribal names under Alabama, Georgia, and Florida.) 


Eufaula. A division or subtribe of the Muskogee (q. v.). 
Fus-hatchee. A division of the Muskogee (q. v.). 
Hilibi. A division or subtribe of the Muskogee (q. v.). 


Hitchiti. This tribe lived for considerable period close to, and at 
times within, the present territory of Alabama along its south- 
eastern margin. (See Georgia.) 


Kan-hatki. A division of the Muskogee (q. v.). 
Kealedji. A division of the Muskogee (q. v.). 


Koasati. Meaning unknown; often given as Coosawda and Cou- 

shatta, and sometimes abbreviated to Shati. 

Connections.—They belonged to the southern section of the Musk- 
hogean linguistic group, and were particularly close to the Alabama. 

Location.—The historic location of the Koasati was just below the 
junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers to form the Alabama 
and on the east side of the latter, where Coosada Creek and Station 
still bear the name. (See also Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, 
and Oklahoma.) 

Villages 


Two Koasati towns are mentioned as having existed in very early times, one 
of which may have been the Kaskinampo. (See Tennessee.) At a later period a 


158 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


town known as Wetumpka on the east bank of Coosa River, in Elmore County, 
near the falls seems to have been occupied by Koasati Indians. During part of 
its existence Wetumpka was divided into two settlements, Big Wetumpka on the 
site of the modern town of the same name, and Little Wetumpka above the falls 
of Coosa. 

History.—It is probable that from about 1500 until well along in 
the seventeenth century, perhaps to its very close, the Koasati lived 
upon Tennessee River. There is good reason to think that they are 
the Coste, Acoste, or Costehe of De Soto’s chroniclers whose principal 
village was upon an island in the river, and in all probability this 
was what is now known as Pine Island. There is also a bare mention 
of them in the narrative of Pardo’s expedition of 1567 inland from 
Santa Elena, and judging by the entries made upon maps published 
early in the eighteenth century this tribe seems to have occupied the 
same position when the French and English made their settlements 
in the Southeast. About that time they were probably joined by the 
related Kaskinampo. Not long after they had become known to the 
Whites, a large part of the Koasati migrated south and established 
themselves at the point mentioned above. A portion seems to have 
remained behind for we find a village called Coosada at Larkin’s 
Landing in Jackson County at a much later date. The main body 
continued with the Upper Creeks until shortly after France ceded all 
of her territories east of the Mississippi to England in 1763, when a 
large part moved to Tombigbee River. These soon returned to their 
former position, but about 1795 another part crossed the Mississippi 
and settled on Red River. Soon afterward they seem to have split 
up, some continuing on the Red while others went to the Sabine and 
beyond to the Neches and Trinity Rivers, Tex. At a later date a 
few Texas bands united with the Alabama in Polk County, where 
their descendants still live, but most returned to Louisiana and 
gathered into one neighborhood northeast of Kinder, La. The 
greater part of the Koasati who remained in Alabama accompanied 
the Creeks to Oklahoma, where a few are still to be found. Previous 
to this removal, some appear to have gone to Florida to cast in their 
lot with the Seminole. 

Population.—The earliest estimates of the Alabama Indians prob- 
ably included the Koasati. In 1750 they are given 50 men; in 1760, 
150 men. Marbury (1792) credits them with 130 men. In 18382, 
after the Louisiana branch had split off, those who remained numbered 
82 and this is the last separate enumeration we have. Sibley (1806) 
on native authority gives 200 hunters in the Louisiana bands; in 
1814 Schermerhorn estimates that there were 600 on the Sabine; in 
1817 Morse places the total Koasati population in Louisiana and 
Texas at 640; in 1829 Porter puts it at 180; in 1850 Bollaert gives the 
number of men in the two Koasati towns on Trinity River as 500. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 159 


In 1882 the United States Indian Office reported 290 Alabama, 
Koasati, and Muskogee in Texas, but the Census of 1900 raised this 
to 470. The Census of 1910 returned 11 Koasati from Texas, 85 
from Louisiana, and 2 from Nebraska; those in Oklahoma were 
not enumerated separately from the other Creeks. The 134 ‘‘Creeks’’ 
returned from Louisiana in 1930 were mainly Koasati. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Coosada, a post village 
in Elmore County, Ala., near the old Koasati town, and Coushatta, 
the capital of Red River Parish, La,, preserve the name of the Koasati. 


Kolomi. A division of the Muskogee (q. v.). 


Mobile. Meaning unknown, but Halbert (1901) suggests that it 
may be from Choctaw moeli, ‘‘to paddle,” since Mobile is pro- 
nounced moila by the Indians. It is the Mabila, Mauilla, Mavila, 
or Mauvila of the De Soto chroniclers. 

Connections.—The language of the tribe was closely connected with 
that of the Choctaw and gave its name to a trade jargon based upon 
Choctaw or Chickasaw. 

Location.—When the French settled the seacoast of Alabama the 
Mobile were living on the west side of Mobile River a few miles be- 
low the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee. 

History.—When they make their first appearance in history in 1540 
the Mobile were between the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers, and 
on the east side of the former. Their chief, Tuscaloosa, was a very 
tall and commanding Indian with great influence throughout the 
surrounding country. He inspired his people to attack the invading 
Spaniards and a terrific battle was fought October 18, 1540, for the 
possession of one of his fortified towns (Mabila), which the Spaniards 
carried with heavy losses to themselves in killed and wounded, while 
of the Indians 2,500 or more fell. It is probable that the village of 
Nanipacna, through which a force of Spaniards of the De Luna 
colony passed in 1559, was occupied by some of the survivors of this 
tribe. Ata later date they may have settled near Gees Bend of the 
Alabama River, in Wilcox County, because early French maps give 
a village site there which they call ‘Vieux Mobiliens.”” A Spanish 
letter of 1686 speaks of them as at war with the Pensacola tribe. 
When the French came into the country, the Mobile were, as stated 
above, settled not far below the junction of the Tombigbee and Ala- 
bama. After a post had been established on the spot where Mobile 
stands today, the Mobile Indians moved down nearer to it and re- 
mained there until about the time when the English obtained posses- 
sion of the country. They do not appear to have gone to Louisiana 
like so many of the smaller tribes about them and were probably 
absorbed in the Choctaw Nation. 


160 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Population.—After allowing for all exaggerations, the number of 
Mobile Indians when De Soto fought with them must have been very 
considerable, perhaps 6,000 to 7,000. Mooney (1928) estimates 2,000 
Mobile and Tohome in 1650, over a hundred years after the great 
battle. In 1702 Iberville states that this tribe and the Tohome 
together embraced about 350 warriors; in 1725-26 Bienville (1932, 
vol. 3, p. 536), gives 60 for the Mobile alone, but in 1730 Régis de 
Rouillet (1732) cuts this in half. In 1758 De Kerlérec (1907) esti- 
mates the number of warriors among the Mobile, Tohome, and Na- 
niaba at about 100. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Mobile have 
attained a fame altogether beyond anything which their later numer- 
ical importance would warrant: (1) on account of the desperate 
resistance which they offered to De Soto’s forces, and (2) from the 
important Alabama city to which they gave their name. ‘There is a 
place called Mobile in Maricopa County, Ariz. 


Muklasa. Meaning in Alabama and Choctaw, “friends,” or ‘“‘people 
of one nation.” 

Connections.—Since the Muklasa did not speak Muskogee and their 
name is from the Koasati, Alabama, or Choctaw language, and since 
they were near neighbors of the two former, it is evident that they 
were connected with one or the other of them. 

Location.—On the south bank of Tallapoosa River in Montgomery 
County. (See Florida and Oklahoma.) 

History.—When we first hear of the Muklasa in 1675 they were in 
the position above given and remained there until the end of the 
Creek-American War, when they are said to have emigrated to Florida 
in a body. Nothing is heard of them afterward, however, and 
although Gatschet (1884) states that there was a town of the name 
in the Creek Nation in the west in his time, I could learn nothing about 
it when I visited the Creeks in 1911-12. 

Population.—In 1760 the Muklasa are said to have had 50 men, 
in 1761, 30, and in 1792, 30. These are the only figures available 
regarding their numbers. 


Muskogee. Meaning unknown, but perhaps originally from Shawnee 
and having reference to swampy ground. To this tribe the name 
Creeks was ordinarily applied. Also called: 

Ani’-Gu’sa, by the Cherokee, meaning ‘‘Coosa people,” after an ancient 
and famous town on Coosa River. 
Ku-t’/sha, by the Wyandot. 
Ochesee, by the Hitchiti. 
Sko’-ki ha®-ya, by the Biloxi. 
Connections.—The Muskogee language constitutes one division of 
the Muskhogean tongues proper, that which I call Northern. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 161 


Location.—From the earliest times of which we have any record 
these people seem to have had towns all the way from the Atlantic 
coast of Georgia and the neighborhood of Savannah River to central 
Alabama. (See also Florida, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Tennessee, 


and Texas.) 
Subdivisions and Villages 


It is difficult to separate major divisions of the Muskogee from towns and 
towns from villages, but there were certainly several distinct Muskogee tribes at 
a very early period. The following subdivisional classification is perhaps as good 
as any: 


Abihka (in St. Clair, Calhoun, and Talladega Counties): 

Abihka-in-the-west, a late branch of Abihka in the western part of the Creek 
Nation, Okla. 

Abihkutci, on Tallassee Hatchee Creek, Talladega County, on the right bank 
5 miles from Coosa River. 

Kan-tcati, on or near Chocolocko, or Choccolocco, Creek and probably not far 
from the present ‘“‘Conchardee.”’ 

Kayomalgi, possibly settled by Shawnee or Chickasaw, probably near Sylacauga, 
Talladega County. 

Lun-ham-ga, location unknown. 

Talladega, on Talladega Creek, Talladega County. 

Tcahki tako, on Choccolocco Creek in Talladega or Calhoun County. 

Atasi: Location (1) on the upper Ocmulgee River, (2) on the Chattahoochee, 
(3) on the Tallapoosa in Tallapoosa County, (4) on the south side of the Talla- 
poosa in Macon County, and (5) on the north side near Calebee Creek in 
Elmore County. 

Coosa: 

Abihkutci, a division of Okfuskee, which apparently came into existence after 
the Creeks had removed to Oklahoma. 

Atcinaulga, on the west bank of Tallapoosa River in Randolph County. 

Big Tulsa, on the east bank of Tallapoosa River at the mouth of Ufaubee Creek 
in Tallapoosa County. 

Chatukchufaula, possibly identical with the last, on Nafape Creek or Tallapoosa 
River. 

Chuleoewhooatlee, on the left bank of Tallapoosa River, 11 miles below Nuyaka, 
in Tallapoosa County. 

Hotitaiga, on Chattahoochee River in Troup County, Ga. 

Imukfa, on Emaufaw Creek in Tallapoosa County. 

Ipisagi, on Sandy Creek in Tallapoosa County. 

Kohamutkikatsa, location unknown. 

Little Tulsa, on the east side of Coosa River, 3 miles above the falls, Elmore 
County. 

Lutcapoga, perhaps near Loachapoka in Lee County, or on the upper Tallapoosa. 

Nafape, on a creek of the same name flowing into Ufaubee Creek. 

Okfuskee, location (1) at the mouth of Hillabee Creek, (2) at the mouth of 
Sand Creek, both in Tallapoosa County. 

Okfuskutci, (1) on Chattahoochee River in Troup County, Ga.; (2) on the upper 
Tallapoosa in Tallapoosa County, Ala.; (3) another town of the name or an 
earlier location of the first somewhere near the lower Tallapoosa. 

Old Coosa, near the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers. 


162 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Otciapofa, on the east side of the Coosa River in Elmore County, just below 
the falls. 

Saoga-hatchee, on Saogahatchee Creek, in Tallapoosa or Lee County. 

Suka-ispoga, on the west bank of Tallapoosa River below the mouth of Hillibee 
Creek, in Tallapoosa County. 

Tallassehasee, on Tallassee Hatchee Creek in Talladega County. 

Tcahkitako, on Chattahoochee River near Franklin, Heard County, Ga. 

Tcatoksofka, seemingly a later name of the main Okfuskee town. 

Tcawokela, 25 miles east northeast of the mouth of Upatoie Creek, probably 
near Chewacla Station, Lee County. 

Tcutakonini, on Chattahoochee River in Troup County, Ga. 

Tohtogagi, on the west bank of Tallapoosa River, probably in Randolph 
County. 

Tukabahchee Tallahassee, later called Talmutcasi, on the west side of Talla- 
poosa River in Tallapoosa County. 

Tukpafka, on Chattahoochee River in Heard County, Ga., later moved to 
Tallapoosa, settled on the left bank 11 miles above Okfuskee, Tallapoosa 
County, and renamed Nuyaka. 

Tulsa Canadian, a branch of Tulsa on the Canadian River, Okla. 

Tulsa Little River, a branch of Tulsa near Holdenville, Okla. 

Coweta (early location on the upper Ocmulgee, later on the west bank of Chatta- 

hoochee River in Russell County, Ala., opposite Columbus, Ga.): 

Coweta Tallahassee, later Likatcka or Broken Arrow, probably a former location 
of the bulk of the tribe, on the west bank of Chattahoochee River in Russell 
County, Ala. 

Katca tastanagi’s Town “at Cho-lose-parp-kari.” 

Settlements on “Hallewokke Yoaxarhatchee.” 

Settlements on ‘‘Toosilkstorkee Hatchee.”’ 

Settlements on ‘‘Warkeeche Hatchee.”’ 

Wetumpka, a branch of the last on the main fork of Big Uchee Creek 12 miles 
northwest from the mother town, Coweta Tallahassee. 

Eufaula: 

A branch among the Seminole called Kan-tcati. (See Florida, Seminole.) 

A branch village of Eufaula hopai on a creek called ‘‘Chowokolohatchee.”’ 

Eufaulahatchee or Eufaula Old Town, on Talladega Creek, also called Eufaula 
Creek, 15 miles from its mouth. 

Lower Eufaula or Eufaula hopai, above the mouth of Pataula Creek, in Clay 
County, Ga. 

Upper Eufaula, on the right bank of Tallapoosa River 5 miles below Okfuskee, 
in Tallapoosa County—at one time separated into Big Eufaula and Little 
Eufaula. 

Hilibi (at the junction of Hillabee and Bear Creeks, Tallapoosa County): 
Anetechapko, 10 miles above Hilibi on a branch of Hillabee Creek. 
Etcuseislaiga, on the left bank of Hillabee Creek, 4 miles below Hilibi. 
Kitcopataki, location unknown. 

Lanutciabala, on the northwest branch of Hillabee Creek, probably in Talla- 
poosa County. 

Little Hilibi, location unknown. 

Oktahasasi, on a creek of the name 2 miles below Hilibi. 

Hotiwahali (on the north bank of Tallapoosa River in Elmore County): 
Laptako, on the south side of Tallapoosa in Montgomery County nearly opposite 

Hotiwahali. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 163 


Kasihta (best-known location on the east bank of Chattahoochee River, at the 

junction of Upatoie Creek in Chattahoochee County, Ga.): 

Apatai, in the forks of Upatoie and Pine Knob Creeks in Muskogee County, Ga. 

Salenojuh, on Flint River 8 miles below Aupiogee Creek (?). 

Settlements bearing the same name (Kasihta). 

Settlements on Chowockeleehatchee Creek, Ala. 

Settlements on Little Uchee Creek, Ala. 

Settlements on ‘‘Tolarnulkar Hatchee.”’ 

Sicharlitcha, location unknown. 

Tallassee Town, on Opillikee Hatchee, perhaps in Schley or Macon Counties, 
Ga. 

Tuckabatchee Harjo’s Town, on Osenubba Hatchee, a west branch of the 
Chattahoochee, Ala. 

Tuskehenehaw Chooley’s Town, near West Point, Troup County, Ga. 

Okchai: 

Asilanabi, on Yellow Leaf Creek in Shelby County. 

Latogalga, or Fish Pond, on a branch of Elkhatchee Creek, 14 miles up, in 
Tallapoosa or Coosa County. 

Okchai, location (1) on the east side of the lower Coosa in Elmore County; (2) 
in the southeastern part of Coosa County, on a creek bearing their name, 
which flowed into Kialaga Creek. 

Potcas hatchee, probably a branch of this on the upper course of Hatchet 
Creek in Clay or Coosa County. 

Tcahki tako, on Chattahoochee River. 

Tulsa hatchee, location uncertain. 

Pakana: 

Pakan Tallahassee, on Hatchet Creek, Coosa County. 

The Pakana who settled near Fort Toulouse at the junction of Coosa and 
Tallapoosa Rivers and afterward moved to Louisiana, living on Calcasieu 
River for a while. 

Tukabahchee (in the sharp angle made where Tallapoosa River turns west in 

Elmore County): 

Only one small out village is mentioned, Wihili, location unknown. 

Wakokai (on the middle course of Hatchet Creek in Coosa County): 

Sakapadai, probably on Sacapartoy, a branch of Hatchet Creek, Coosa County. 

Tukpafka, on Hatchet Creek, Coosa County. 

Wiogufki, on Weogufka Creek in Coosa County. 

Besides the Muskogee tribes noted above, there were the following: 

Fus-hatchee. Not a major division; on the north bank of Tallapoosa River in 
Elmore County, 2 miles below Holtiwahali. They may have been related to 
the Hotiwahali. 

Kan-hatki. Not a major division; just below Kolomi on the north bank of 
Tallapoosa River in Elmore County. Possibly related to the Holiwahali. 

Kealedji. Not a primary division; perhaps a branch of Tukabahchee; location 
(1) on the Ocmulgee, (2) on Kialaga Creek in Elmore County or Tallapoosa 
County, having one branch Hatcheetcaba, west of Kealedji, probably in Elmore 
County. 

Kolomi. Probably not a major division; location (1) on the Ocmulgee, (2) on the 
middle Chattahoochee in Russell County, Ala., (3) on the north side of the 
lower Tallapoosa in Elmore County. They may have been related to the 
Holiwahali. 


164 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


Wiwohka. Not a primary division but a late town; location (1) near the mouth 

of Hatchet Creek in Coosa County, (2) on Weoka Creek in Elmore County. 

In addition to the above there were a number of towns and villages which 
cannot be classified, or only with extreme doubt. They are as follows: 


Acpactaniche, on the headwaters of Coosa River, perhaps meant for Pakana. 

Alkehatchee, an Upper Creek town. 

Atchasapa, on Tallapoosa River not far below Tulsa, possibly for ~ tcheechubba. 

Aucheucaula, in the northwestern part of Coosa County. 

Auhoba, below Autauga. (See Alabama.) 

Breed Camp, an Upper Creek town, probably meant for the Chickasaw settlement 
of Ooe-asa. 

Cauwaoulau, a Lower Creek village in Russell County west of Uchee Post Office 
and south of the old Federal road. 

Chachane, the Lower Creek town farthest downstream. 

Chanahunrege, between the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers in or near Coosa County. 

Chananagi, placed by Brannon (1909) ‘“‘in Bullock County, just south of the 
Central of Georgia Railroad near Suspension.” 

Chichoufkee, an Upper Creek town in Elmore County, east of Coosa River and 
near Wiwoka Creek. 

Chinnaby’s Fort, at Ten Islands in the Coosa River. 

Chiscalage, in or near Coosa County, perhaps a body of Yuchi. 

Cholocco Litabixee, in the Horseshoe Bend of Tallapoosa River. 

Chuahla, just below White Oak Creek, south of Alabama River. 

Cohatchie, in the southwestern part of Talladega County on the bank of Coosa 
River. 

Conaliga, in the western part of Russell County or the eastern part of Macon, 
somewhere near the present Warrior Stand. 

Cooccohapofe, on Chattahoochee River. 

Cotohautustenuggee, on the right bank of Upatoie Creek, Muscogee County, Ga. 

Cow Towns, location uncertain. 

Donnally’s Town, on the Flint or the Chattahoochee River. 

Ekun-duts-ke, probably on the south bank of Line Creek in Montgomery County. 

Emarhe, location uncertain. 

Eto-husse-wakkes, on Chattahoochee River, 3 miles above Fort Gaines. 

Fife’s Village, an Upper Creek village a few miles east of Talladega, Ala. 

Fin’halui, a Lower Creek settlement, perhaps the Yuchi settlement of High Log. 

Habiquache, given by the Popple Map as on the west side of Coosa River. 

Ikan atchaka, ‘‘Holy Ground,” in Lowndes County, 2% miles due north of White 
Hall, just below the mouth of Holy Ground Creek on the Old Sprott Plantation. 

Istapoga, in Talladega County near the influx of Estaboga Creek into Choc- 
colocco Creek, about 10 miles from Coosa River. 

Kehatches, somewhere above the bend of Tallapoosa River and between it and the 
Coosa. 

Keroff, apparently on the upper Coosa. 

Litafatchi, at the head of Canoe Creek in St. Clair County. 

Lustuhatchee, above the second cataract of Tallapoosa River. 

Melton’s Village, in Marshall County, Ala., on Town Creek, at the site of the 
present “‘Old Village Ford.”’ 

Ninnipaskulgee, near Tukabahchee. 

Nipky, probably a Lower Creek town. 

Oakchinawa Village, in Talladega County, on both sides of Salt Creek, near the 
point where it flows into Big Shoal Creek. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 165 


Old Osonee Town, on Cahawba River in Shelby County. 

Opillako, on Pinthlocco Creek in Coosa County. 

Oti palin, on the west bank of Coosa River, just below the junction of Canoe Creek. 
(See Chinnaby’s Fort.) 

Oti tutcina, probably between Coosa and Opillako or Pakan Tallahassee and on 
Coosa River. 

Pea Creek, perhaps an out settlement of Tukabahchee, location unknown. 

Pin Huti, somewhere near Dadeville in Tallapoosa County. 

Rabbit Town, possibly a nickname, location unknown. 

St. Taffery’s, location unknown. 

Satapo, on Tennessee River. 

Talipsehogy, an Upper Creek settlement. 

Talishatchie Town, in Calhoun County east of a branch of Tallasehatchee Creek, 
3 miles southwest of Jacksonville. 

Tallapoosa, said to be within a day’s journey of Fort Toulouse at the junction of 
the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers and probably on the river of that name. 

Talwa Hadjo, on Cahawba River. 

Tohowogly, perhaps intended for Sawokli, 8 to 10 miles below the falls of the 
Chattahoochee. 

Turkey Creek, in Jefferson County, on Turkey Creek north of Trussville, prob- 
ably Creek. 

Uncuaula, in the western part of Coosa County on Coosa River. 

Wallhal, an Upper Creek town given on the Purcell map, perhaps intended for 
Eufaula, or an independent town on Wallahatchee Creek, Elmore County. 

Weyolla, a town so entered on the Popple Map, between the Coosa and Tallapoosa 
but near the former; probably a distorted form of the name of some well-known 
place. 


History.—Muskogee tradition points to the northwest for the origin 
of the nation. In the spring of 1540, De Soto passed through some 
settlements and a ‘“‘province’”’ called Chisi, Ichisi, and Achese, in 
southern Georgia, which may have been occupied by Muskogee because 
they are known to Hitchiti-speaking people as Ochesee. Somewhat 
later he entered Cofitachequi, probably either the later Kasihta, or 
Coweta, and the same summer he entered Coosa and passed through 
the country of the Upper Creeks. Companions of De Luna visited 
Coosa again in 1559 and assisted it in its wars with a neighboring 
tribe to the West, the Napochi. Cofitachequi was visited later by 
Juan Pardo and other Spanish explorers and some of Pardo’s com- 
panions penetrated as far as Coosa. It is probable that part if not 
all of the province of Guale on the Georgia coast was at that time occu- 
pied by Muskogee, and relations between the Guale Indians and the 
Spaniards continued intimate from 1565 onward. Soon afterward 
the Spaniards also encountered the Creeks of Chattahoochee River. 
At what time the confederacy of which the Muskogee were the most 
important part was established is unknown but the nucleus probably 
existed in De Soto’s time. At any rate it was in a flourishing condi- 
tion in 1670 when South Carolina was colonized and probably con- 
tinued to grow more rapidly than before owing to the accession of 


166 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Creek tribes displaced by the Whites or other tribes whom the Whites 
had displaced. Before 1715 a large body were living on Ocmulgee 
River but following on the Yamasee outbreak of that year they with- 
drew to the Chattahoochee from which they had moved previously 
to be near the English trading posts. Occupying as they did a cen- 
tral position between the English, Spanish, and French colonies, the 
favor of the Creeks was a matter of concern to these nations, and they 
played a more important part than any other American Indians in 
the colonial history of the Gulf region. For a considerable period 
they were allied with the English, and they were largely instrumental 
in destroying the former Indian inhabitants of Florida and breaking 
up the missions which had been established there. Finding the terri- 
tory thus vacated very agreeable and one abounding in game, they 
presently began to settle in it permanently, particularly after it was 
ceded to Great Britain in 1763. The first of the true Muskogee to 
emigrate to Florida, except for a small band of Coweta, were some 
Eufaula Indians, and the Muskogee do not seem to have constituted 
the dominant element until after the Creek-American war, 1813-14. 
In the last decades of the eighteenth century, the internal organization 
of the Confederacy was almost revolutionized by Alexander McGilli- 
vray, the son of a Scotch trader, who set up a virtual dictatorship and 
raised the Confederacy to a high position of influence by his skill in 
playing off one European nation against another. After his death 
friction developed between the factions favorable to and those opposed 
to the Whites. Inspired by the Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, a large 
part of the Upper Creeks broke out into open hostilities in 1813, but 
nearly all of the Lower Creeks and some of the most prominent Upper 
Creek towns refused to join with them and a large force from the 
Lower Creeks under William MacIntosh and Timpoochee Barnard, 
the Yuchi chief, actively aided the American army. This war was 
ended by Andrew Jackson’s victory at Horsehoe Bend on the Talla- 
poosa River, March 27, 1814. One immediate result of this war was 
to double or triple the number of Seminole in Florida, owing to the 
multitude of Creeks who wished to escape from their old country. 
From this time on friction between the pro-White and anti-White 
Creek factions increased. When the United States Government 
attempted to end these troubles by inducing the Indians to emigrate, 
the friction increased still more and culminated in 1825 when the 
Georgia commissioners had induced William MacIntosh, leader of the 
pro-American faction, and some other chiefs to affix their signatures 
to a treaty ceding all that was then left of the Creek lands. For this 
act formal sentence of death was passed upon MacIntosh, and he was 
shot by a band of Indians sent to his house for that purpose May 1, 
1825. However, the leaders of the Confederacy finally agreed to the 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 167 


removal, which took place between 1836 and 1840, the Lower Creeks 
settling in the upper part of their new lands and the Upper Creeks in 
the lower part. The former factional troubles kept the-relations be- 
tween these two sections strained for some years, but they were finally 
adjusted and in course of time an elective government with a chief, 
second chief, and a representative assembly of two houses was estab- 
lished, which continued until the nation was incorporated into the 
State of Oklahoma. 

Population—Except where an attempt is made to give the popu- 
lation by towns, it is usually impossible to separate the Muskogee 
from other peoples of the Confederacy. Correct estimates of all 
Creeks are also rendered difficult because they were taking in smaller 
tribes from time to time and giving off colonists to Florida and 
Louisiana. In 1702 Iberville placed the whole number of Creek and 
Alabama families at 2,000. In 1708 South Carolina officials esti- 
mated about 2,000 warriors. In 1715 something approaching a 
census was taken of the tribes in their vicinity by the government of 
South Carolina and a total of 1,869 men and a population of 6,522 
was returned for the Creeks, exclusive of the Alabama, Yuchi, Shawnee, 
Apalachicola, and Yamasee. A town by town enumeration made 
by the Spaniards in 1738 shows 1,660 warriors; a French estimate of 
1750, 905; another of 1760, 2,620; a North Carolina estimate of 1760, 
2,000 warriors; an English estimate of 1761, 1,385; one of about 3,000 
the same year; an American estimate of 1792, 2,850; and finally the 
census taken in 1832-33 just before the emigration of the Creeks to 
their new lands across the Mississippi, showed a total of 17,939 in 
the true Muskogee towns. Besides these more careful statements, 
we have a number of general estimates of warriors in the eighteenth 
century ranging from 1,250 up to between 5,000 and 6,000. This 
last was by Alexander McGillivray and is nearest that shown by tlie 
census of 1832-33. It would seem either that the earlier estimates 
were uniformly too low or that the Confederacy increased rapidly dur- 
ing the latter part of the eighteenth century and the first part of the 
nineteenth. After the removal estimates returned by the Indian 
Office and from other sources ranged between 20,000 and 25,000. 
When a new census was taken in 1857, however, less than 15,000 were 
returned, and there was a slow falling off until 1919 when there were 
about 12,000. It must be noted that the census of 1910 returned 
only 6,945, a figure which can be reconciled with that of the United 
States Indian Office only on the supposition that it is supposed to 
cover only Indians of full or nearly full blood. The report of the 
United States Indian Office for 1923 gives 11,952 Creeks by blood. 
Regarding the later population it must be remembered that it has 
become more and more diluted. The United States Census of 1930 


168 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY {BoLL, 145 


gave 9,083 but included the Alabama and Koasati Indians of Texas 
and Louisiana and individuals scattered through more than 13 other 
States outside of Oklahoma, where 8,760 lived. These ‘general 
estimates” include the incorporated tribes. 

Connection in which they have become noted—In the form Mus- 
khogean, the name of this tribe was adopted by Powell (1891) for that 
group of languages to which the speech of the Muskogee belongs. 
In the form Muscogee it has been given to a county in western Georgia, 
and to a railroad junction in it, and to a post-village in Escambia 
County, Fla. In the form Muskogee it is the name of the capital.of 
Muskogee County, Okla., the third largest city in that state. The 
political organization of which they constituted the nucleus and the 
dominant element represents the most successful attempt north of 
México at the formation of a superstate except that made by the 
Iroquois, and the part they played in the early history of our Gulf 
region was greater than that of any other, not even excepting the 
Cherokee. They were one of the principal mound-building tribes to 
survive into modern times and were unsurpassed in the elaborate 
character of their ceremonials (except possibly by the Natchez), 
while their prowess in war was proven by the great contest which 
they waged with the United States Government in 1813-14, and the 
still more remarkable struggle which their Seminole relatives and 
descendants maintained in Florida in 1835-1842. Their great war 
speaker, Hopohithli-yahola, was probably surpassed in native great- 
ness by no chief in this area except the Choctaw Pushmataha. (See 
Foreman, 1930.) 


Napochi. If connected with Choctaw Napissa, as seems not unlikely, 
the name means “those who see,” or ‘‘those who look out,” probably 
equivalent to “frontiersmen.”’ 

Connection.—They belonged to the southern division of the Musk- 
hogeans proper, and were seemingly nearest to the Choctaw. 

Location.—Along Black Warrior River. 

History —The tribe appears first in the account of an attempt to 
colonize the Gulf States in 1559 under Don Tristan de Luna. A 
part of his forces being sent inland from Pensacola Bay came to 
Coosa in 1560 and assisted its people against the Napochi, whom 
they claimed to have reduced to ‘‘allegiance” to the former. After 
this the Napochi seem to have left the Black Warrior, and we know 
nothing certain of their fate, but the name was preserved down to 
very recent times among the Creeks as a war name, and it is probable 
that they are the Napissa spoken of by Iberville in 1699, as having 
recently united with the Chickasaw. Possibly the Acolapissa of 
Pearl River and the Quinipissa of Louisiana were parts of the same 
tribe. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 169 


Population. —Unknown. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The only claim the 
Napochi have to distinction is their possible connection with the 
remarkable group of mounds at Moundville, Hale County, Ala. 


Natchez. One section of the Natchez Indians settled among the 
the Abihka Creeks near Coosa River after 1731 and went to Okla- 
homa a century later with the rest of the Creeks. (See Mississippi.) 


Okchai. A division of the Muskogee (q. v.). 
Okmulgee. A Creek tribe and town of the Hitchiti connection. 
(See Georgia.) 


Osochi. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—Within recent times the closest connections of this 
tribe have been with the Chiaha, though their language is said to 
have been Muskogee, but there is some-reason to think that they 
may have been originally a part of the Timucua. (See below.) 

Location.—Their best known historic seat was in the great bend of 
Chattahoochee River, Russell County, Ala., near the Chiaha. (See 
also Georgia and Florida.) 

Villages 

The town of Hotalgi-huyana was populated in part from this tribe and in part 
from the Chiaha. The census of 1832 gives two settlements, one on the Chatta- 
hoochee River and one on a stream called Opillike Hatchee. 

History —The suggestion that the Osochi may have been Timucua 
is founded (1) on the resemblance of their name to that of a Timucua 
division in northwest Florida called by the Spaniards Ossachile or 
Ugachile, (2) on the fact that after the Timucua uprising of 1656 
some of the rebels “‘fled to the woods,” and (3) the later mention of 
a detached body of Timucua in the neighborhood of the Apalachicola. 
Early in the eighteenth century they seem to have been living with 
or near the Apalachicola at the junction of the Chattahoochee and 
Flint. From what Hawkins (1848) tells us regarding them, we must 
suppose that they moved up Flint River somewhat later and from 
there to the Chattahoochee, in the location near the Chiaha above 
given. They migrated to Oklahoma with the rest of the Lower 
Creeks, and maintained their separateness in that country for a 
while but were later absorbed in the general mass of the Creek 
population. 

Population.—The following estimates of the effective male popula- 
tion of the Osochi occur: 1750, 30; 1760, 50; 1792, 50. The census 
of 1832-33 returned a total of 539, but one of the two towns inhabited 
by these Indians may have belonged to the Okmulgee. 


170 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Pakana. A division of the Muskogee (q. v.). 


Pawokti. This tribe moved from Florida to the neighborhood of 
Mobile along with the Alabama Indians and afterward established 
a town on the upper course of Alabama River. Still later they 


were absorbed into the Alabama division of the Creek Confederacy. 
(See Florida.) 


Pilthlako. A division of the Creeks, probably related to the Muskogee 
(q. v.), and possibly a division of the Okchai. 


Sawokli. Possibly meaning “raccoon people,” in the Hitchiti language, 
and, while this is not absolutely certain, the okli undoubtedly 
means ‘‘people.”’ 


Connections.—The Sawokli belonged to the Muskhogean linguistic 
stock and to the subdivision called Atcik-hata. (See Apalachicola.) 
Location.—The best known historic location was on Chattahoochee 
River in the northeastern part of the present Barbour County, Ala. 
(See Florida and Georgia.) 
Villages 
Hatchee tcaba, probably on or near Hatchechubbee Creek, in Russell County, 
Ala. 
Okawaigi, on Cowikee Creek, in Barbour County, Ala. 
Okiti-yagani, in Clay County, Ga., not far from Fort Gaines. 
Sawokli, several different locations, the best known of which is given above. 
Sawoklutci, on the east bank of the Chattahoochee River, in Stewart County, Ga. 
Tcawokli, probably on Chattahoochee River in the northeastern part of Russell 
County, Ala. 


History.—When first known to the Spaniards the Sawokli were living 
on Chattahoochee River below the falls. A Spanish mission, Santa 
Cruz de Sabacola, was established in one section of the tribe by Bishop 
Calderén of Cuba in 1675, and missionaries were sent to a larger body 
among the Creeks in 1679 and again in 1681. Most of the Indians 
surrounding these latter, however, soon became hostile and those who 
were Christianized withdrew to the junction of the Chattahoochee 
and Flint Rivers, where they were settled not far from the newly 
established Chatot missions. The Sawokli appear to have remained 
in the same general region until 1706 or 1707, when they were displaced 
by hostile Indians, probably Creeks. At least part lived for a while on 
Ocmulgee River and returned to the Chattahoochee, as did the resi- 
dents of many other Indian towns, about 1715, after which they 
gradually split up into several settlements but followed the fortunes 
of the Lower Creeks. In the seventeenth century there may have been 
a detached body as far west as Yazoo River, since a map of that period 
gives a ‘‘Sabougla”’ town there and the name is preserved to the 
present day in a creek and post village. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 171 


Population—In 1738 a Spanish report gives the Sawokli 20 men, 
evidently an underestimate. In 1750 four settlements are given with 
more than 50 men, and in 1760 the same number of settlements and 
190 men, including perhaps the Tamati, but to these must be added 30 
men of Okiti-yakani. In 1761, including the neighboring and probably 
related villages, they are reported to have had 50 hunters. Hawkins 
in 1799 gives 20 hunters in Sawoklutci but no figures for the other 
towns. (See Hawkins, 1848.) In 1821 Young (in Morse, 1822) 
estimates 150 inhabitants in a town probably identical with this, and, 
according to the census of 1832-33, there were 187 Indians in Sawokli 
besides 42 slaves, 157 Indians in Okawaigi, and 106 in Hatcheetcaba; 
altogether, exclusive of the slaves, 450. 

Connection in which they have become noted—Sawokla is the name of 
a small place in Oklahoma, and a branch of this town has had its name 
incorporated in that of a stream, the Chewokeleehatchee, in Macon 
County., Ala., and in a post office called Chewacla in Lee County, Ala. 


Shawnee. In 1716 a band of Shawnee from Savannah River moved 
to the Chattahoochee and later to the Tallapoosa, where they 
remained until early in the nineteenth century. A second band 
settled near Sylacauga in 1747 and remained there until some time 
before 1761 when they returned north. (See Tennessee.) 


Taensa. This tribe was moved from Louisiana in 1715 and given a 
location about 2 leagues from the French fort at Mobile, one which 
had been recently abandoned by the Tawasa, along a watercourse 
which was named from them Tensaw River. Soon after the cession 
of Mobile to Great Britain, the Taensa returned to Louisiana. (See 
Louisiana.) 


Tohome. Said by Iberville to mean “‘little chief,” but this is evidently 
an error. 
Connections.—They belonged to the southern branch of the 
Muskhogean linguistic group, their closest relatives being the Mobile. 
Location.—About McIntosh’s Bluff on the west bank of Tombigbee 
River, some miles above its junction with the Alabama. 


Subdivisions 


Anciently there were two main branches of this tribe, sometimes called the 
Big Tohome and Little Tohome, but the Little Tohome are known more often 
as Naniaba, “people dwelling on a hill,” or “people of the Forks;’’ the latter 
would be because they were where the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers unite. 


Villages 


No others are known than those which received their names from the tribe 
and its subdivisions. 


172 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


History.—Cartographical evidence suggests that the Tohome may 
once have lived on a creek formerly known as Oke Thome, now 
contracted into Catoma, which flows into Alabama River a short 
distance below Montgomery. When first discovered by the Whites, 
however, they were living at the point above indicated. In the De 
Luna narratives (1559-60) the Tombigbee River is called “River of 
the Tome.” Iberville learned of this tribe in April 1700, and sent 
messengers who reached the Tohome village and returned in May. 
In 1702 he went to see them himself but seems not to have gone 
beyond the Naniaba. From this time on Tohome history is identical 
with that of the Mobile and the two tribes appear usually to have been 
in alliance although a rupture between them was threatened upon one 
occasion on account of the murder of a Mobile woman by one of the 
Tohome. In 1715 a Tohome Indian killed an English trader named 
Hughes who had come overland from South Carolina, had been 
apprehended and taken to Mobile by the French and afterward 
liberated. A bare mention of the tribe occurs in 1763 and again in 
1771-72. They and the Mobile probably united ultimately with the 
Choctaw. 

Population.—In 1700 Iberville estimated that the Tohome and 
Mobile each counted 300 warriors, but 2 years later he revised his 
figures so far that he gave 350 for the two together. In 1730 Regis de 
Rouillet estimated that there were 60 among the Tohome and 50 
among the Naniaba. In 1758 Governor De Kerlerec estimated that 
the Mobile, Tohome, and Naniaba together had 100 warriors. (See 
Mobile.) 


Tukabahchee. One of the four head tribes of the Muskogee (q. v.). 


Tuskegee. Meaning unknown, but apparently containing the 

Alabama term taska, ‘‘ warrior.” 

Connections.—The original Tuskegee language is unknown but it 
was probably affiliated with the Alabama, and hence with the southern 
branch of Muskhogeans. 

Location.—The later and best known location of this tribe was on 
the point of land between Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers, but in 1685 
part of them were on the Chattahoochee River near modern Columbus 
and the rest were on the upper Tennessee near Long Island. (See also 
Oklahoma and Tennessee.) 

Villages 
None are known under any except the tribal name. 


History.—In 1540 De Soto passed through a town called Tasqui 2 
days before he entered Coosa. In 1567 Vandera was informed that 
there were two places in this neighborhood near together called Tasqui 
and Tasquiqui, both of which probably belonged to the Tuskegee. 


SWANTON } INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 173 


By the close of the seventeenth century the Tuskegee appear to have 
divided into two bands one of which Coxe (1705) places on, an island 
in Tennessee River. This band continued to live on or near the Ten- 
nessee for a considerable period but in course of time settled among 
the Cherokee on the south side of Little Tennessee River, just above 
the mouth of Tellico, in the present Monroe County, Tenn. Sequoya 
lived there in his boyhood. Another place which retained this name, 
and was probably the site of an earlier settlement was on the 
north bank of Tennessee River, in a bend just below Chattanooga, 
while there was a Tuskegee Creek on the south bank of Little Tennes- 
see River, north of Robbinsville, in Graham County, N. C. This 
band, or the greater part of it, was probably absorbed by the Cherokee. 
A second body of Tuskegee moved to the location mentioned above 
where the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers come together. It is possible 
that they first established themselves among the Creek towns on the 
Ocmulgee, moved with them to the Chattahoochee in 1715 and finally 
to the point just indicated, for we have at least two documentary 
notices of Tuskegee at those points and they appear so situated on a 
number of maps. It is more likely that these were the Tuskegee who 
finally settled at the Coosa-Tallapoosa confluence than a third division 
of the tribe but the fact is not yet established. In 1717 the French 
fort called Fort Toulouse or the Alabama Fort was built close to this 
town and therefore it continued in the French interest as long as 
French rule lasted. After the Creek removal, the Tuskegee formed 
a town in the southeastern part of the Creek territories in Oklahoma, 
but at a later date part moved farther to the northwest and established 
themselves near Beggs. 

Population.—There are no figures for the Tuskegee division which 
remained on Tennessee River. The southern band had 10 men 
according to the estimate of 1750, but this is evidently too low. 
Later enumerations are 50 men in 1760, 40 in 1761, including those of 
Coosa Old Town, 25 in 1772 and 1792, 35 in 1799. The census of 
1832-33 returned a population of 216 Indians and 25 Negro slaves. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Tuskegee 
became applied locally to several places in eastern Tennessee and 
western North Carolina, and one in Creek County, Okla., but the most 
important place to receive it was Tuskeegee or Tuskegee, the county 
seat of Macon County, Ala. The Tuskegee Normal and Industrial 
Institute for colored people, located at this place, has, under the 
guidance of the late Booker T. Washington, made the name better 
known than any other association. 


Wakokai. A division or subtribe of the Muskogee (q. v.). 


174 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Wiwohka. A division of the Muskogee made up from several different 
sources. (See Muskogee.) 


Yamasee. There was a band of Yamasee on Mobile Bay shortly after 
1715, at the mouth of Deer River, and such a band is entered on 
maps as late as 1744. It was possibly this same band which appears 
among the Upper Creeks during the same century and in particular 
is entered upon the Mitchell map of 1755. Later they seem to have 
moved across to Chattahoochee River and later to west Florida, 
where in 1823 they constituted a Seminole town. (See Florida.) 


Yuchi. A band of Yuchi seems to have lived at a very early date 
near Muscle Shoals on Tennessee River, whence they probably 
moved into east Tennessee. A second body of the same tribe 
moved from Choctawhatchee River, Fla., to the Tallapoosa before 
1760 and established themselves near the Tukabahchee, but they 
soon disappeared from the historical record. In 1715 the Westo 
Indians, who I believe to have been Yuchi, settled on the Alabama 
side of Chattahoochee River, probably on Little Uchee Creek. The 
year afterward another band, accompanied by Shawnee and Apala- 
chicola Indians, established themselves farther down, perhaps at 
the mouth of Cowikee Creek in Barbour County, and not long 
afterward accompanied the Shawnee to Tallapoosa River. They 
settled beside the latter and some finally united with them. They 
seem to have occupied several towns in the neighborhood in succes- 
sion and there is evidence that a part of them reached the lower 
Tombigbee. The main body of Yuchi shifted from the Savannah 
to Uchee Creek in Russell County between 1729 and 1740 and 
continued there until the westward migration of the Creek Nation. 
(See Georgia.) 

MISSISSIPPI 


Acolapissa. When first known to Europeans, this tribe lived on Pearl 
River, partly in what is now Mississippi, -partly in Louisiana, but 
they were more closely associated with Louisiana in later times and 
will be treated among the tribes of that State. (See Louisiana.) 


Biloxi. Apparently a corruption of their own name Taneks a*ya, 
“first people,” filtered over the tongues of other Indians. Also 
called: 

Ananis, Anaxis, Annocchy, early French spellings intended for Taneks. 
Polu’ksalgi, Creek name. 
Connections.—They belonged to the Siouan linguistic family. 
Location.—Their earliest historical location was on the lower course 
of Pascagoula River. (See also Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 175 


Villages 


None are known except those bearing the name of the tribe, unless we assume 
the ‘“Moctobi” or “Capinans” to be a part of them. These, however, may have 
been merely synonyms of the tribal name. 

History.—It is possible that the Biloxi are the Capitanesses who 
appear west of Susquehanna River on early Dutch charts. On the 
De Crenay map of 1733, a Biloxi town site appears on the right bank 
of the Alabama River, a little above the present Clifton in Wilcox 
County, Ala. This was probably occupied by the Biloxi during their 
immigration from the north. Individuals belonging to the tribe were 
met by Iberville on his first expedition to Louisiana in 1699, and in 
June of the same year his brother Bienville visited them. In 1700 
Iberville found their town abandoned and does not mention encounter- 
ing the people themselves, though they may have been sharing the 
Pascagoula village at which he made a short stop. <A few years later, 
Pénicaut says (1702-23), St. Denis persuaded the Biloxi to abandon 
their village and settle on a small bayou near New Orleans but by 
1722 they had returned a considerable distance toward their old home 
and were established on the former terrain of the Acolapissa Indians 
on Pearl River. They continued in this neighborhood and close to 
the Pascagoula until 1763, when French government east of the 
Mississippi came to an end. Soon afterward, although we do not 
know the exact date, they moved to Louisiana and settled not far 
from Marksville. They soon moved farther up Red River and still 
later to Bayou Boeuf. Early in the nineteenth century they sold 
their lands, and, while part of them remained on the river, a large 
body migrated to Texas and settled on Biloxi Bayou, in Angelina 
County. All of these afterward left, either to return to Louisiana or 
to settle in Oklahoma. A few Biloxi are still living in Rapides Parish, 
La., and there are said to be some in the Choctaw Nation, but the 
tribe is now practically extinct. In 1886 the Siouan relationship of 
their language was established by Dr. Gatschet of the Bureau of Ameri- 
can Ethnology, and a considerable record of it was obtained by Mr. 
James O. Dorsey of the same institution in 1892-93. (See Dorsey 
and Swanton, 1912.) 

Population.—On the basis of the imperfect records available, I have 
made the following estimates of Biloxi population at different periods: 
420 in 1698, 175 in 1720, 105 in 1805, 65 in 1829, 6-8 in 1908. Mooney 
(1928) estimated that this tribe, the Pascagoula, and the “‘ Moctobi”’ 
might number 1,000 in 1650. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Biloxi are remark- 
able (1) as having spoken a Siouan dialect unlike all of their neighbors 
with one possible exception; (2) as the tribe first met by Iberville when 
he reached the coast of Louisiana and established the French colony 


176 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


of that name; (3) as having furnished the names of the first two capitals 
of Louisiana, Old and New Biloxi; that of the present Biloxi, Miss.; 
and the name of Biloxi Bay. 


Capinans. The name of a body of Indians connected in French 
references with the Biloxi and Pascagoula and probably a branch 
of one of them. 


Chakchiuma. Proper spelling Shaktci homma, meaning “Red 

Crawfish [People].”’ 

Connections.—They spoke a dialect closely related to Choctaw and 
Chickasaw. Their nearest relatives were the Houma (q. v.), who 
evidently separated from them in very recent times. 

Location.—In the eighteenth century on Yalobusha River where it 
empties into the Yazoo but at an early period extending to the head 
of the Yalobusha and eastward between the territories of the Choctaw 
and Chickasaw tribes as far as West Point. 


Subdivisions 


A French map dated about 1697 seems to call that section of the tribe on Yazoo 
River, Sabougla, though these may have been a branch of the Sawokli. 
(See Georgia.) 

History.—According to tradition, this tribe came from the west at 
the same time as the Chickasaw and Choctaw and settled between 
them. When De Soto was among the Chickasaw, an expedition was 
directed against the Chakchiuma ‘‘who the [Chickasaw] Cacique said 
had rebelled,’ but their town was abandoned and on fire. It was 
claimed that they had planned treachery against the Spaniards. The 
chief of the tribe at this time was Miko Lusa (Black Chief). After 
the French settlement of Louisiana a missionary was killed by these 
people and in revenge the French stirred up the neighboring tribes to 
attack them. They are said to have been reduced very considerably 
in consequence. Afterward, they remained closely allied with the 
French, assisted them after the Natchez outbreak, and their chief 
was appointed leader of the Indian auxiliaries in the contemplated 
attack upon the Chickasaw in 1739. The animosity thus excited 
probably resulted in their destruction by the Chickasaw and absorption 
into the Chickasaw and Choctaw tribes. From De Crenay’s map it 
appears that a part had gone to live with the Chickasaw by 1733. 
The rest may have gone to the Choctaw, for a band bearing their name 
constituted an important division of that nation. Tradition states 
that they were destroyed by the united efforts of the Chickasaw and 
Choctaw, but the latter were uniformly allied with the French and 
hostile to the Chickasaw when this alliance is supposed to have 
been in existence. 


SwaNTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA arg 


Population—Mooney (1928) estimates 1,200 souls among the 
Chakchiuma, Ibitoupa, Taposa, and Tiou in 1650; exclusive of the 
Tiou, my own would be 750. In 1699 they are said to have occupied 
70 cabins. In 1702 it is claimed that there were 400 families, which 
in 1704 had been reduced to 80, but probably the first figure is an 
exaggeration. About 1718-30 there were 50 Chakchiuma cabins and 
in 1722 the total population is placed at 150. 


Chickasaw. Meaning unknown, though the ending suggests that it 
might have been a place name. Also called: 


Ani’-Tsi’ksi, Cherokee name. 
Kasahdé ind®, Yuchi name. 
Tchaktchan, Arapaho name. 
Tchikasa, Creek name. 
Tci’-ka-sa’, Kansa name. 
Ti-ka’-jA, Quapaw name. 
Tsi’-ka-cé, Osage name. 


Connections.—Linguistically the Chickasaw were closely connected 
with the Choctaw and one of the principal tribes of the Muskhogean 
group. 

Location.—In northern Mississippi, principally in Pontotoc and 
Union Counties. (See South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, 
Kentucky, Oklahoma, and Tennessee.) 


Subdivisions 


Aside from some incorporated tribes such as the Napochi and Chakchiuma, no 
major subdivisions other than towns are mentioned until late in Chickasaw 
history when we hear of three such subdivisions: those of Tishomingo, Sealy, and 
McGilvery, named after their chiefs. These, however, were probably superficial 
and temporary. 

Villages 
Ackia. 
Alaoute, mentioned only by Iberville. 
Amalahta. 
Apeonné. 
Apile faplimengo (Iberville). 
Ashukhuma. 
Ayebisto (Iberville). 
Chatelaw. 
Chinica (Iberville). 
Chucalissa. 
Chukafalaa. 
Coiii loussa, (French Memoir of 1755). 
Latcha Hoa, on Latcha Hosa Run, an affluent of Ahoola Ihalchubba, a western 
tributary of Tombigbee River, northeastern Mississippi. 
Etoukouma (De Batz). 
Falatchao. 
Gouytola (Iberville). 


17s BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (BULL. 145 


Ogoula-Tchetoka (De Batz). 
Onthaba atchosa (Iberville). 
Ooe-asa, in Creek Nation near Sylacauga. 
Oucahata (Iberville). 
Oucthambolo (Iberville). 
Outanquatle (French Memoir of 1755). 
Tanyachilca (Iberville). 
Thanbolo (Iberville). 
Tuckahaw. 
Tuskawillao. 
Yaneka. 
All of the above, with one or two exceptions noted, were close to one another 
in the general location given above. 


History.—Like most of the other Muskhogean peoples, the Chicka- 
saw believed they had come from the west. They thought that they 
had settled for a time at a spot in northern Alabama on the north 
side of the Tennessee River long known as Chickasaw Old Fields. 
There is little doubt that Chickasaw had once lived at that place 
whether or not the whole tribe was so located. The first Europeans 
to become acquainted with the tribe were the Spaniards under De Soto, 
who spent the months of January, February, and March 1541, in 
the Chickasaw country, and in the latter month were attacked by the 
tribe with such fury that they were nearly destroyed. Little is heard 
of the Chickasaw from this time until French explorers and colonists 
arrived, at the end of the seventeenth century. They found the tribe 
in approximately the position in which De Soto had encountered 
them, and they found them as warlike as before. Although the French 
tried to make peace with them, English traders had effected establish- 
ments in their country even before the settlement of Louisiana, and 
they remained consistent allies of England while England and France 
were fighting for the possession of North America. In the south their 
alliance meant much the same to the English as Iroquois friendship 
meant to them in the north. As practically all of the surrounding 
peoples were devoted to the French, and the Chickasaw were not 
numerous, they were obliged to maintain a very unequal struggle 
until the final victory of England in 1763, and they suffered severely 
in consequence. They supported the Natchez when they revolted 
in 1729, and when French expeditions from the north and south were 
hurled upon them simultaneously in 1736, they beat both off with 
heavy losses. In 1740 a gigantic attempt was made to conquer them, 
but the greater part of the force assembled dissolved without accom- 
plishing anything. A small French expedition under Céloron suc- 
ceeded in obtaining a treaty of peace advantageous to the French 
but this soon became a dead letter, and French communications up 
and down the Mississippi River were constantly threatened and 
French voyageurs constantly attacked in the period following. In 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 179 


1752 and 1753 the French commanders Benoist and Reggio were 
defeated by the Chickasaw. At an earlier period, shortly before 
1715, they and the Cherokee together drove the Shawnee from their 
settlements on the Cumberland, and in 1745 they expelled another 
Shawnee band from the same region. In 1769 they utterly routed 
the Cherokee on the site of the Chickasaw Old Fields. In 1793-95 
war broke out with the Creeks, who invaded their territories with 
1,000 men, but while they were attacking a small stockade, a band 
of about 200 Chickasaw fell upon them, whereupon an unaccountable 
terror took possession of the invaders, and they fled precipitately. 
There was at one time a detached body of Chickasaw on the lower 
Tennessee not far from its mouth. They also had a town among the 
Upper Creeks for a brief period (Ooe-asa), and a settlement near 
Augusta, Ga., from about 1723 to the opening of the American 
Revolution. The Chickasaw maintained friendship with the Ameri- 
can Government after its establishment, but, being pressed upon by 
white settlers, parted with their lands by treaties made in 1805, 1816, 
1818, and 1832. The actual migration to new homes in what is now 
Oklahoma began in 1837 and extended to 1847. The Chickasaw and 
Choctaw mingled rather indiscriminately at first but their lands were 
separated in 1855 and the Chickasaw set up an independent govern- 
ment modeled on that of the United States which lasted until merged 
in the new State of Oklahoma. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were about 8,000 
in 1600. In 1702 Iberville estimated that there were 2,000 families 
of Chickasaw, but in 1715 a rather careful enumeration made by 
the colony of South Carolina, gave 6 villages, 700 men, and a popula- 
tion of 1,900. In 1761, a North Carolina estimate gives about 400 
men; in 1766, about 350. Most of the subsequent estimates of the 
number of warriors made during the eighteenth century vary between 
250 and 800. In 1817 Morse (1822) places the total population at 
3,625; in 1829 General Peter B. Porter estimates 3,600 (in School- 
craft, 1851-57, vol. 3); and a more accurate report in Schoolcraft 
gives 4,715 in 1833. The figures of the United States Indian Office 
between 1836 and the present time vary from 4,500 for 1865 to 1870 
to nearly 11,000 in 1923, but this latter figure includes more than 5,000 
freedmen and persons intermarried in the tribe, and, when we allow 
for mixed bloods, we shall find that the Chickasaw population proper 
has usually stood at between 4,500 and 5,500 during the entire period. 
There has probably been a slow decline in the absolute amount of 
Chickasaw blood owing to constant intermixture with other peoples. 
The 1910 census returned 4,204 Chickasaw and that of 1930, 4,745. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Chickasaw were 
noted (1) as one of the most warlike tribes of the Gulf area, (2) as 


180 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


the tribe of all those encountered by the Spaniards who came nearest 
putting an end to De Soto’s army, (3) as the constant allies of the 
English without whom the control of the Gulf region by the latter 
would many times have been jeopardized. There are post villages 
of the name in Mobile County, Ala., and Mercer County, Ohio, 
and Chickasha, a variant form, is the name of the county seat of 
Grady County, Okla. 


Choctaw. Meaning unknown, though Halbert (1901) has suggested 
that they received their name from Pearl River, ‘“Hachha’’. Also 
called: 


Ani’-Tsa‘ta, Cherokee name. 

Flat Heads, from their custom of flattening the heads of infants. 

Henné’sh, Arapaho name. 

Nabuggindebaig, probably the Chippewa name for this tribe, signifying 
“flat heads.” 

Pas falaya, “Long Hairs,’”’ given by Adair. 

Sanakiwa, Cheyenne name, meaning “feathers sticking up above the ears.” 

Ta-qta, Quapaw name. 

Tca-qté a®-ya-di, or Tca-qtd ha®-ya, Biloxi name. 

Tca-ta, Kansa name. 

Tétes Plates, French equivalent of ‘‘Flat Heads.” 

Tsah-ti, Creek name. 


Connections.—This was the largest tribe belonging to the southern 
Muskhogean branch. Linguistically, but not physically, it was most 
closely allied with the Chickasaw and after them with the Alabama. 

Location.—Nearly all of the Choctaw towns were in the southeastern 
part of Mississippi though they controlled the adjoining territory 
in the present State of Alabama. The small tribes of Mobile were 
sometimes called Choctaw. (See also Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma, 
Alabama, and Arkansas.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


From the earliest times of which we have any knowledge the Choctaw villages 
were distributed into three divisions: a southern, a northeastern, and a western, 
though a central group may also be distinguished. The southern division is 
fairly well defined by our several informants, but there is considerable disagree- 
ment with reference to the others. One authority gives but two divisions, an 
eastern and a western, and even cuts up the southern group between them. 
The following locations were established largely by Mr. H. S. Halbert (1901): 
Southern or Sixtown Division: 

Bishkun, in the northern part of Jasper County. 

Bissasha, on the west side of Little Rock Creek, in Newton County, sect. 23, 

tp. 8, range 12, east. 

Boktoloksi, on Boguetuluksi Creek, a southwest affluent of Chickasawhay 

River. 
Chickasawhay, on Chickasawhay River about 3 miles south of Enterprise, 
Clarke County. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 181 


Chinakbi, on the site of Garlandville, in Jasper County. 

Chiskilikbacha, probably in Jasper County. 

Coatraw, 4 miles southwest of the town of Newton in sect. 17, tp. 5, range 11, 
east, Newton County. 

Inkillis tamaha, in the northeastern part of Jasper County. 

Nashobawenya, in the southwestern part of Jasper County. 

Okatalaia, in the eastern part of Smith County or the western part of Jasper 
County. 

Oktak chito tamaha, location unknown. 

Oskelagna, probably in Jasper County. 

Puskustakali, in the southwest corner of Kemper County or the proximate 
part of Neshoba County. 

Siniasha, location uncertain. 

Tala, in the southern part of Newton County, between Tarlow and Bogue 
Felamma Creeks. 

Talahoka, in Jasper County. 

Yowani, on the east side of Chickasawhay River, in the southern part of Clarke 
County. 

Western Division: 

Abissa, location uncertain. 

Atlantchitou, location unknown. 

Ayoutakale, location unknown. 

Bok chito, probably on Bogue Chitto, in Neshoba and Kemper Counties. 

Bokfalaia, location uncertain. 

Bokfoka, location unknown. 

Boktokolo, location unknown. 

Cabea Hoola, location unknown. 

Chunky, on the site of Union, Newton County. 

Chunky chito, on the west bank of Chunky Creek, about half a mile below the 
confluence of that creek with Talasha Creek—later this belonged to the 
southern district. 

East Kunshak chito, near Moscow, in Kemper County. 

Filitamon, location unknown. 

Halunlawi asha, on the site of Philadelphia, in Neshoba County. 

Hashuk chuka, location unknown. 

Hashuk homa, location unknown. 

Imoklasha, on the headwaters of Talasha Creek, in Neshoba County, in sec- 
tions 4, 9, and 16, tp. 9, range 138, east. 

Iyanabi, on Yannubbee Creek, about 8 miles southwest of De Kalb, in Kemper 
County. 

Itichipota, between the headwaters of Chickasawhay and Tombigbee Rivers. 

Kafitalaia, on Owl Creek, in section 21, tp. 11, range 13, east, in Neshoba 
County. 

Kashtasha, on the south side of Custusha Creek, about 3 miles a little south of 
West Yazoo Town. 

Konshak osapa, somewhere west of West Imoklasha. 

Koweh chito, northwest of De Kalb, in Kemper County. 

Kushak, on Lost Horse Creek, 4 miles southeast of Lazelia, Lauderdale County. 

Kunshak bolukta, in the southwestern part of Kemper County some 2 miles 
from Neshoba County line and 1% miles from the Lauderdale County line. 

Kunshak chito, on or near the upper course of Oktibbeha River. 

Lushapa, perhaps on Lussalaka Creek, a tributary of Kentarcky Creek, in 
Neshoba County. 


182 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (BULL. 145 


Oka Chippo, location unknown. 

Oka Coopoly, on Ocobly Creek, in Neshoba County. 

Oka hullo, probably on or near the mouth of Sanoote Creek, which empties 
into Petickfa Creek in Kemper County. 

Oka Kapassa, about Pinckney Mill, in sect. 23, tp. 8, range 11, east, in Newton 
County—possibly in the southern section. 

Okalusa, in Romans’ time on White’s Branch, Kemper County. 

Okapoola, location unknown. 

Okehanea tamaha, location unknown. 

Oklabalbaha, location unknown. 

Oklatanap, location unknown. 

Oony, south of Pinckney Mill, in Newton County—possibly in the southern 
division. 

Osak talaia, near the line between Neshoba and Kemper Counties. 

Osapa chito, on the site of Dixon Post Office, in Neshoba County. 

Otuk falaia, location unknown. 

Pante, at the head of Ponta Creek, in Lauderdale County. 

Shinuk Kaha, about 7 miles a little north or east of Philadelphia, in Neshoba 
County. 

Shumotakali, in Kemper County, between the two head prongs of Black Water 
Creek. 

Tiwaele, location unknown. 

Tonicahaw, location unknown. 

Utapacha, location unknown. 

Watonlula, location uncertain. 

West Abeka, location unknown. 

West Kunshak chito, in Neshoba County, near the headwaters of Oktibbeha 
Creek. 

Wiatakali, about 1 mile south of the De Kalb and Jackson road, in Neshoba 
County. 

Yazoo, or West Yazoo, in Neshoba County, near the headwaters of Oktibbeha 
Creek, in sections 13 and 24, tp. 10, range 13, east. 

Northeastern Divison: 

Alamucha, 10 miles from Sukenatcha Creek, in Kemper County. 

Athlepele, location unknown. 

Boktokolo chito, at the confluence of Running Tiger and Sukenatcha Creeks, 
about 4 miles northwest of De Kalb. 

Chichatalys, location unknown. 

Chuka hullo, on the north side of Sukenatcha Creek, somewhere between the 
mouths of Running Tiger and Straight Creeks, in Kemper County. 

Chuka lusa, location unknown. 

Cutha Aimethaw, location unknown. 

Cuthi Uckehaca, probably on or near the mouth of Parker’s Creek, which emp- 
ties into Petickfa, in sect. 30, tp. 10, range 17, east. 

East Abeka, at the junction of Straight Creek with the Sukenatcha, in Kemper 
County. 

Escooba, perhaps on or near Petickfa Creek, in Kemper County. 

Hankha Ula, on a flat-topped ridge between the Petickfa and Black Water 
Creeks, in Kemper County. 

Holihta asha, on the site of De Kalb, in Kemper County. 

Ibetap okla chito, perhaps on Straight Creek, in Kemper County. 

Ibetap okla iskitini, at the head of the main prong of Yazoo Creek, in Kemper 
County. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 183 


Imoklasha iskitini, on Flat Creek, the eastern prong of Yazoo Creek, in Kemper 
County. 
Itokchako, near East Abeka, in Kemper County. 
Kunshaktikpi, on Coonshark Creek, a tributary of Kentarky Creek, in Neshoba 
County. 
Lukfata, on the headwaters of one of the prongs of Sukenatcha River. 
Oka Altakala, probably at the confluence of Petickfa and Yannubbee Creeks, 
in Kemper County. 
Osapa issa, on the north side of Blackwater Creek, in Kemper County. 
Pachanucha, location unknown. 
Skanapa, probably on Running Tiger Creek, in Kemper County. 
Yagna Shoogawa, perhaps on Indian branch of Running Tiger Creek. 
Yanatoe, probably in southwest Kemper County. 
Yazoo iskitini, on both sides of Yazoo Creek. 
The following were outside the original town cluster: 
Bayou Chicot, south of Cheneyville, St. Landry Parish, La. 
Boutté Station, in St. Charles Parish, La. 
Cahawba Old Towns, in Perry County, Ala., and probably on Cahawba River. 
Cheponta’s Village, on the west bank of the’ Tombigbee River in the extreme 
southeastern part of Choctaw County, Ala. 
Chisha Foka, on the site of Jackson. 
Coila, in Carroll County, probably occupied by Choctaw. 
Heitotowa, at the site of the later Sculleyville, Choctaw Nation, Okla. 
Shukhata, on the site of Columbus, Ala. 
Teeakhaily Ekutapa, on the lower Tombigbee River. 
Tombigbee, on or near Tombigbee River. 
A few other names of towns placed in the old Choctaw country appear on various 
maps, but most of these are probably intended for some of the villages given 
above. 


History.—After leaving the ruins of Mabila, De Soto and his fol- 
lowers, according to the Gentleman of Elvas (see Robertson, 1933), 
reached a province called Pafallaya, but, according to Ranjel, to a 
chief river called Apafalaya. Halbert is undoubtedly right in be- 
lieving that in these words we have the old name of the Choctaw, 
Patsfalaya, ‘‘Long Hairs,’ and this is the first appearance of the 
Choctaw tribe in history. We hear of them again, in Spanish Florida 
documents of the latter part of the seventeenth century, and from 
this time on they occupied the geographical position always asso- 
ciated with them until their removal beyond. the Mississippi. The 
French of necessity had intimate dealings with them from the time 
when Louisiana was first colonized, and the relations between the 
two peoples were almost invariably friendly. At one time an English 
party was formed among the Choctaw, partly because the prices 
charged by the Carolina traders were lower than those placed upon 
French goods. This was led by a noted chief named Red Shoes and 
lasted for a considerable time, one of the principal Choctaw towns 
being burned before it came to an end with the defeat of the British 
party in 1750. In1763, after French Government had given way to 


184 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunu. 145 


that of the English east of the Mississippi, relations between the 
latter and the Choctaw were peaceful though many small bands of 
Indians of this tribe crossed the Mississippi into Louisiana. The 
American Revolution did not alter conditions essentially, and, though 
Tecumseh and his emissaries endeavored to enlist the Choctaw in 
his favor, only about 30 individuals joined the hostile Creeks. The 
abstinence of the tribe as a whole was due very largely to the personal 
influence of the native statesman, Pushmataha, whose remains lie in 
the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, surmounted by an im- 
pressive monument. Meanwhile bands of Choctaw continued moving 
across the Mississippi, but the great migration occurred after the 
Treaty of Dancing Rabbit, September 30, 1830, by which the tribe 
ceded their old lands. However, a considerable body of Choctaw did 
not leave at this time. Many followed, it is true, at the time of the 
allotment in Oklahoma, but upward of a thousand still remain, prin- 
cipally in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, Miss. The western 
Choctaw established a government on the model of those of the other 
civilized tribes and that of the United States, and it was not given up 
until merged in the State of Oklahoma early in the present century. 

Population.—Estimates of the number of Choctaw warriors between 
1702 and 1814 vary between 700 and 16,000. A North Carolina 
estimate made in 1761 says they numbered at least 5,000 men. 
Common estimates are between 4,000 and 5,000, but even these 
figures may be a trifle low since the first reliable census, that of Arm- 
strong, in 1831, gave 19,554. However, there may have been a slight 
increase in population after the beginning of the nineteenth century, 
when an end was put to intertribal wars. Figures returned by the 
Indian Office since that time show a rather unusual constancy. They 
go as low as 12,500, and at the other extreme reach 22,707, but the 
average is from 18,000 to 20,000. The census of 1910 gave 15,917, 
including 1,162 in Mississippi, 14,551 in Oklahoma, 115 in Louisiana, 
57 in Alabama, and 32 in other States, but the United States Indian 
Office Report for 1923 has 17,488 Choctaw by blood in Oklahoma, 
1,600 “‘ Mississippi Choctaw” in Oklahoma, and 1,439 in the State of 
Mississippi, not counting about 200 in Louisiana, Alabama, and 
elsewhere. A few small tribes were gathered into this nation, but 
only afew. The census of 1930 returned 17,757, of whom 16,641 were 
in Oklahoma, 624 in Mississippi, 190 in Louisiana, and the rest in 
more than 14 other States. In 1937 the Mississippi Choctaw num- 
bered 1,908, from which it seems that many of the Mississippi Choc- 
taw were missed in 1930 unless the ‘Mississippi Choctaw” already in 
Oklahoma are included. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Choctaw were 
noted (1) as the most numerous tribe in the Southeast next to the 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 185 


Cherokee, (2) as depending more than most other tribes in the region 
on agriculture, (3) for certain peculiar customs such as head deforma- 
tion, extensive use of ossuaries for the dead, and the male custom of 
wearing the hair long, (4) as faithful allies of the French against the 
English but always at peace with the United States Government, 
(5) as having furnished the names to counties in Alabama, Missis- 
sippi, and Oklahoma, and settlements in the same States, and in Van 
Buren County, Ark. 


Choula. Bernard de La Harpe gives this as the name of a small 
tribe of 40 individuals on the Yazoo River. There is some reason 
to think it was applied to a part of the Ibitoupa tribe (q. v.). 
The name means “‘fox’’ in Chickasaw and Choctaw. 


Grigra. Said to have been given them from the frequent occurrence 
of these two syllables in their speech. They sometimes appear as 
the “Gray Village” of the Natchez. 


Connections.—The fact that the language of this tribe contained an 
r suggests a probable relationship with the tribes of the Tunican 
group. 

Location.—When first known to us, it formed one of the Natchez 
villages on St. Catherines Creek, Miss. 


Villages 


Only one village is mentioned called by a shorter form of the name given to the 
tribe, Gris or Gras. 

History.—The Grigra had been adopted by the Natchez at an earlier 
period than the Tiou (q. v.) and, like them, may once have resided on 
Yazoo River, but there is no absolute proof of this. They are men- 
tioned as one of three Natchez tribes belonging to the anti-French 
faction. Otherwise their history is identical with that of the Natchez. 

Population.—One estimate made about 1720-25 gives about 60 
warriors. 


Houma. Literally ‘‘red,’’ but evidently an abbreviation of saktci 
homma, ‘‘red crawfish.” 

Connections.—They spoke a Muskhogean language very close to 
Choctaw, and it is practically certain from the fact that their emblem 
was the red crawfish that they had separated from the Chakchiuma 
(Ge Wi) 

Location.—The earliest known location of the Houma was on the 
east side of the Mississippi River some miles inland and close to the 
Mississippi-Louisiana boundary line, perhaps near the present Pinck- 
ney, Miss. (See also Louisiana.) 


186 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Villages 

At one time the people of this tribe were distributed between a Little Houma 
village 2 leagues below the head of Bayou La Fourche and a Great Houma 
village half a league inland from it. This was after they had moved from their 
earlier home. 

History.—La Salle heard of the Houma in 1682, but he did not visit 
them. ‘Tonti made an alliance with them 4 years later, and in 1699 
their village was the highest on the Mississippi reached by Iberville be- 
fore returning to his ships. In 1700 Iberville visited them again and 
left a missionary among them to build a church, which was an accom- 
plished fact when Gravier reached the tribe in November of the same 
year. <A few years later the Tunica, who had been impelled to leave 
their old town, were hospitably received by this tribe, but in 1706 they 
rose upon their hosts, destroyed part of them, and drove the rest down 
the Mississippi. These reestablished themselves on Bayou St. John 
near New Orleans, but not Jong afterward they reascended the river to 
the present Ascension Parish and remained there for a considerable 
period. In 1776 they sold a part at least of their lands to two French 
Creoles but seem to have remained in the neighborhood until some years 
after the purchase of Louisiana by the United States. By 1805 some 
had gone to live with the Atakapa near Lake Charles. Most of the 
remainder appear to have drifted slowly across to the coast districts 
of Terrebonne and La Fourche Parishes, where their descendants, 
with Creole and some Negro admixture, still live. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates a Houma population in 1650 
of 1,000. In 1699 Iberville gives 140 cabins and about 350 warriors, 
while the Journal of the second vessel in this expedition gives a popu- 
lation of 600-700. In 1718, after the tribe had suffered from both 
pestilence and massacre, La Harpe estimates 60 cabins and 200 war- 
riors. In 1739 a French officer who passed their town rates the 
number of their warriors at 90-100 and the whole population at 270- 
300. In 1758 there is an estimate of 60 warriors and in 1784 one of 25 
while, in 1803, the total Houma population is placed at 60. In 1907 
the native estimate of mixed-blood population calling itself Houma 
was 800-900, but the census of 1910 returned only 125 Indians from 
Terrebonne. To these there should probably be added some from 
La Fourche but not a number sufficient to account for the discrepancy. 
In 1920, 639 were returned and in 1930, 936 from Terrebonne besides 
11 from La Fourche. Speck estimates double the number. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Houma, the capital of 
Terrebonne Parish, preserves the name. 


Ibitoupa. Meaning probably, people ‘‘at the source of’’ a stream 
or river. 


uM Mei ee 


VANYUME~ ‘ b Sa 


i: 7 


Bn Ae 


' } 
ITEPECAMO 
. ¢ 

/ 
a Ey 


Mar 4.—Southwestern North America (section 3 of map 1) 


i 
va 


onngeeey Mean America (enetioe & of ag » 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA is7 


Connections.—No words of this language are known unless the tribal 
name itself is native, but from this and Le Page du Pratz’s (1758) 
statement that their language, unlike that of the Tunica group, was 
without an 7, there is every reason to class it as Muskhogean and closely 
related to Chackchiuma, Chickasaw, and Choctaw. 

Location.—On Yazoo River in the present Holmes County, perhaps 
between Abyatche and Chicopa Creeks. 

Villages 

Only one village is known, and that called by the tribal name, though it is 
possible that the Choula, (q. v.) mentioned by La Harpe were an offshoot. 

History.—The Ibitoupa are mentioned in 1699 by Iberville, and in 
Coxe’s Carolana (1705). Before 1722 they had moved higher up and 
were 3 leagues above the Chakchiuma (q. v.), who were then probably 
at the mouth of the Yalobusha. They probably united with the 
Chickasaw soon after the Natchez War, though they may first have 
combined with the Chakchiuma and Taposa. They were perhaps re- 
lated to the people of the Choctaw towns called Ibetap okla. 

Population.—All that we know of the population of the Ibitoupa is 
that in 1722 it occupied 6 cabins; in the same year there are said to 
have been 40 Choula, a possible offshoot. 

Connection in which their name has become noted.—It seems to have 
been the original of the name of Tippo Bayou, Miss. 


Koasati. A band of Koasati moved from Alabama to Tombigbee 
River in 1763 but returned to their old country a few years later 
impelled by the hostilities of their new neighbors. (See Alabama.) 


Koroa. Meaning unknown. Also called: 


Kilua, Choctaw name, the Muskhogean people being unable to pronounce 
r readily. 

Connections.—The name and associations, together with Le Page 
du Pratz’s (1758) statement that their language possessed an r sound, 
are practically conclusive proof that this tribe belonged to the Tunican 
linguistic group. 

Location.—The Koroa appear oftenest in association with the Yazoo 
on the lower course of Yazoo River, but at the very earliest period 
they were on the banks of the Mississippi or in the interior of what is 
now Louisiana on the other side of that river. (See also Louisiana.) 


Villages 
None are known under any other name. 
History —In the De Soto narratives a people is mentioned called 


Coligua and Colima which may be the one under discussion. If not, 
the first appearance of the Koroa in history is on Marquette’s map 


188 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


applying to 1673, though they are there misplaced. The La Salle 
narratives introduce us, apparently, to two tribes of the name, one on 
Yazoo River, the other below Natchez, but there are reasons for 
thinking that the latter was the tribe elsewhere called Tiou. In 
Tonti’s account of his expedition overland to the Red River in 1690 
we learn of a Koroa town west of the Mississippi, and also of a Koroa 
River. In 1700 Bienville also learned of a trans-Mississippi Koroa 
settlement. From the time of Tonti’s expedition to the mouth of 
the Mississippi in 1686 there seems to have been a Koroa town on or 
near the lower Yazoo, as mentioned above. When the Natchez out- 
break occurred, this tribe and the Yazoo joined them and destroyed 
the French post on Yazoo River, but they suffered severely from 
Indians allied with the French and probably retired soon afterward 
to the Chickasaw, though part, and perhaps all of them, ultimately 
settled among the Choctaw. The Choctaw chief Allen Wright 
claimed to be of Koroa descent. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 2,000 
Koroa, Yazoo, Tunica, and Ofo in 1650. Le Page du Pratz places 
the number of Koroa cabins in his time at 40. In 1722 the total 
population of the Koroa, Yazoo, and Ofo is given as 250, and in 1730 
the last estimate of the Koroa and Yazoo together gives 40 warriors, 
or perhaps 100 souls. 


Moctobi. This name appears in the narratives of the first settlement 
of Louisiana, in 1699, applied to a tribe living with or near the Biloxi 
and Pascagoula. It is perhaps the name of the latter in the Biloxi 
language, or a subdivision of the Biloxi themselves, and is best 
treated in connection with the latter. 


Natchez. Meaning unknown (the z should not be pronounced). 

Also called: 

Ani’-Na’ts!, Cherokee name. 

Sunset Indians, given by Swan (in Schoolcraft (1851-57)). 

Theloé! or Thécoél, name used by the Natchez but seemingly derived from 
that of a town. 

Connections.—The Natchez were the largest of three tribes speaking 
closely related dialects, the other two being Taensa and Avoyel, and 
this group was remotely related to the great Muskhogean family. 

Lecation.—The historic seat of the Natchez Indians was along St. 
Catherines Creek, and a little east of the present city of Natchez. 
(See also Alabama, Louisiana, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South 
Carolina, and Tennessee.) 


Villages 


Iberville gives the following list of Natchez villages: ‘‘Natchés, Pochougoula, 
Ousagoucoulas, Cogoucoulas, Yatanocas, Ymacachas, Thoucoue, Tougoulas, and 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 189 


Achougoulas.” This list was obtained through the medium of the Mobilian trade 
language and part of the names are undoubtedly translated into it. Thus we 
find the Mobilian and Choctaw word for people, okla, ‘“‘ougoula,” or “‘oucoula,”’ in 
five of these. The term Tougoulas probably designates the town of the Tiou (q. v.), 
an adopted tribe, and one of the others is perhaps a designation for the adopted 
tribe of Grigra (q. v.). Later writers usually speak of but five settlements, 
including that of the Grigra. One of these, the town of the “‘walnuts,’’ is evi- 
dently the Ousagoucoulas of Iberville’s informants, meaning, in reality, the town 
of the Hickories. The Great Village was probably the town called Nachés or 
Natchez, and Pochougoula, the Flour Village, but the others mentioned, Jen- 
zenaque or Jensenac and the White Apple or Apple Village cannot be identified. 
A White-earth village is mentioned by one writer, probably intended for the 
White Apple village. The Natchez among the Cherokee lived for a time at a 
town called Guhlaniyi. 

History Undoubtedly tribes of the Natchez group were encoun- 
tered by De Soto and his companions in 1541-43, and it is highly 
probable that the chief Quigaltanqui, who figures so prominently in 
the pursuit of the Spaniards when they took to the Mississippi, was 
leader of the tribe in question or of one of its divisions. The name 
Natchez appears first, however, in the narratives of La Salle’s descent 
of the Mississippi in 1682. Relations between the French and Natchez 
were at first hostile, but peace was soon made and in 1699 a mis- 
sionary visited the latter with a view to permanent residence. The 
next year Iberville, who had stopped short of the Natchez in his earlier 
ascent of the Mississippi, opened negotiations with the Natchez chief. 
A missionary was left among them at this time and the mission was 
maintained until 1706. In 1713 a trading post was established. 
The next year four Canadians, on their way north, were killed by 
some Natchez Indians and this resulted in a war which Bienville 
promptly ended. Immediately afterward a stockaded fort was built 
on a lofty bluff by the Mississippi and named Fort Rosalie. Several 
concessions were granted in the neighborhood and settlers flowed in 
until this was one of the most flourishing parts of the new colony. 
Between 1722 and 1724 there were slight disturbances in the good 
relations which had prevailed between the settlers and Indians, but 
they were soon smoothed over and harmony prevailed until a new 
commandant named Chépart, who seems to have been utterly unfit 
for his position, was sent to take command of Fort Rosalie. In 
consequence of his mismanagement a conspiracy was formed against 
the French and on November 28, 1729, the Indians rose and destroyed 
both post and settlement, about 200 Whites being slain. Next year 
the French and their Choctaw allies attacked the forts into which 
the Natchez had retired and liberated most of their captives but ac- 
complished little else, and one night their enemies escaped across the 
Mississippi, where they established themselves in other forts in the 
marshy regions of northeastern Louisiana. There they were again 


190 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


attacked and about 400 were induced to surrender, but the greater 
part escaped during a stormy night and withdrew to the Chickasaw, 
who had been secretly aiding them. Later they divided into two 
bands, one of which settled among the Upper Creeks while the other 
went to live with the Cherokee. Afterward each followed the fate of 
their hosts and moved west of the Mississippi with them. 'Those who 
had lived with the Creeks éstablished themselves not far from Eufaula, 
Okla., where the last who was able to speak the old tongue died about 
1890. The Cherokee Natchez preserved their language longer, and 
a few are able to converse in it at the present day (1925). 

Population.—Mooney’s (1928) estimate of Natchez population in 
1650 is 4,500; my own, as of- 1698, 3,500. In 1731, after the losses 
suffered by them during their war with the French, Perrier estimated 
that they had 300 warriors. In 1735, 180 warriors were reported 
among the Chickasaw alone. During the latter half of the eighteenth 
century estimates of the warriors in the Creek band of Natchez vary 
from 20 to 150, and in 1836 Gallatin conjectures that its numbers 
over all were 300, which is probably above the fact. There are no 
figures whatever for the Cherokee band of Natchez. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Natchez have 
become famous in a number of ways: (1) because they were the largest 
and strongest tribe on the lower Mississippi when Louisiana was 
settled by the French, (2) on account of their monarchical government 
and the peculiar institution of the Sun caste, (3) on account of the 
custom of destroying relatives and companions of a dead member of 
the Sun caste to accompany him or her into the world of spirits, (4) for 
the massacre of the French post at Natchez and the bitter war which 
succeeded it, (5) from the name of the city of Natchez, Miss., adopted 
from them. The name is also borne by post villages in Monroe 
County, Ala.; and Natchitoches Parish, La.; and a post hamlet in 
Martin County, Ind. 


Ofo, or Ofogoula, see Mosopelea under Ohio. 


Okelousa. A tribe living at one time in northern Mississippi. (See 

Louisiana.) 
Pascagoula. ‘Bread people.”’ Also called: 

Miskigtla, Biloxi name. 

Connections.—They were probably Muskhogeans although closely 
associated with the Siouan Biloxi. 

Location.—Their earliest known location was on the river which 
still bears their name, about 16 French leagues from its mouth. 
(See also Louisiana and Texas.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 191 


Villages 

Unknown, but see Biloxi. 

History.—Iberville heard of the Pascagoula in 1699 when he made 
the first permanent settlement in Louisiana. That summer his brother 
Bienville visited them, and the following winter another brother, 
Sauvolle, who had been left in charge of the post, received several 
Pascagoula visitors. Some Frenchmen visited the Pascagoula town 
the next spring and Pénicaut (in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 5) has left 
an interesting account of them. In Le Page du Pratz’s time (early 
eighteenth century) they were on the coast, but they did not move 
far from this region as long as France retained possession of the 
country. When French rule ended the Pascagoula passed over to 
Louisiana and settled first on the Mississippi River and later on Red 
River at its junction with the Rigolet du Bon Dieu. In 1795 they 
moved to Bayou Boeuf and established themselves between a band 
of Choctaw and the Biloxi. Early in the nineteenth century all 
three tribes sold these lands. A part of the Pascagoula remained in 
Louisiana for a considerable period, Morse mentioning two distinct 
bands, but a third group accompanied some Biloxi to Texas and lived 
for a time on what came to be called Biloxi Bayou, 15 miles above its 
junction with the Neches. I have been able to find no Indians in 
Louisiana claiming Pascagoula descent, but in 1914 there were two 
among the Alabama who stated that their mother was of this tribe, 
their father having been a Biloxi. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1650 there were 1,000 
all told of the Biloxi, Pascagoula, and Moctobi. My own estimate 
for about the year 1698 is 875 of whom I should allow 455 to the 
Pascagoula. In 1700 Iberville states that there were 20 families, 
which would mean that they occupied the same number of cabins, 
but Le Page du Pratz raises this to 30. In 1758 the Pascagoula, 
Biloxi, and Chatot are estimated to have had about 100 warriors. 
In 1805 Sibley (1832) gives 25 among the Pascagoula alone. Morse 
(1822) estimates a total Pascagoula population of 240, and Schoolcraft 
(1851-57) cites authority for 111 Pascagoula in 1829. This is the 
last statement we have bearing upon the point. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Pascagoula tribe 
is of some note as a constant companion of the Siouan Biloxi, and 
from the fact that it has bequeathed its name to Pascagoula River, 
Pascagoula Bay, and Pascagoula Port, Miss. 


Pensacola. This tribe moved inland from Pensacola Bay near the 
end of the seventeenth century and in 1725-26 had established 
themselves near the Biloxi on Pearl River. (See Florida.) 


192 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Quapaw. When the French discovered this tribe in 1673 one town 
was on the east side of the Mississippi, but before 1700 it moved to 
the western bank. (See Arkansas.) 


Taposa. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—As this tribe is said to have been allied with the 
Chickasaw and, unlike the Tunica and Tiou, did not have an 7 sound 
in their language, there is every reason to suppose that they belonged 
to the Muskhogean stock. Probably they were most closely affiliated 
with their neighbors, the Chakchiuma and Chickasaw. 

Location.—Their earliest known location was on Yazoo River a 
few miles above the Chakchiuma. 

History—The Taposa are first mentioned by Iberville and the 
missionary De Montigny, in 1699. On the De Crenay map of 1733 
(1910) their village is placed very close to that of the Chakchiuma, 
whose fortunes they probably followed. 

Population.—The only hint as to the size of this tribe is given by 
Le Page du Pratz who says that the Taposa had about 25 cabins, 
half the number he assigns to the Chakchiuma. Other writers usually 
include them with the Chakchiuma (q. v.). 


Tiou. Meaning unknown. The name has occasionally been mis- 
printed “‘Sioux,”’ thus causing confusion with the famous Sioux 
or Dakota of Minnesota and the Dakotas. 

Connections—The Tiou are proved by a statement of Diron 
d’Artaguiette (1916) to have belonged to the Tunica linguistic group 
of the Tunican family. 

Location.—Their earliest location was near the upper course of 
Yazoo River; later they lived a little south of the Natchez and then 
among them. 

History.—Shortly before 1697 the Tiou appear to have been in the 
locality first mentioned, and a map of that date seems to give two 
towns of Tiou, one above the Tunica and one below them. By 1699 
part had settled among the Natchez, having been driven from their 
former homes, according to Le Page du Pratz (1758), by the Chicka- 
saw. Before establishing themselves finally with the Natchez, they 
seem to have lived for a time a short distance below them on the 
Mississippi River, where La Salle and his companions speak of them as 
Koroa. Part of the tribe appears to have remained on the Yazoo for 
some years after the rest had left. At a later period the Bayogoula 
called in Tiou and Acolapissa to take the places of the Mugulasha with 
whom they had formerly lived and whom they had destroyed. Soon 
after Fort Rosalie had been built, the Tiou sold the lands upon which 
they had settled to the Sieur Roussin and moved elsewhere. After 
the Natchez massacre the hostile Indians sent them to the Tunica in a 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 193 


vain endeavor to induce the latter to declare against the French. In 
1731, if we may trust a statement by Charlevoix, they were utterly cut 
off by the Quapaw, and while the completeness of this destruction may 
well be doubted, we hear nothing of them afterward. 

Population.—No estimate of Tiou population separate from that of 
the Natchez is known. 


Tunica. Meaning “the people,” or “those who are the people.” 
Also called: 


Yoron, their own name. 


Connections.—They were the leading tribe of the Tunica group of 
the Tunican stock, the latter including also the Chitimacha and 
Atakapa. 

Location.—On the lower course of Yazoo River, on the south side 
about 4 French leagues from its mouth. (See also Arkansas.) 

History.—There is evidence that tribes belonging to the Tunica 
group were encountered by De Soto west of the Mississippi and very 
probably the name of the tribe is preserved in that of the town of 
Tanico mentioned by Elvas (in Robertson, 1933), where people made 
salt, for in later years we find the Tunica engaged in the making and 
selling of this commodity. An early location for them on the eastern 
side of the Mississippi is indicated by the ‘‘Tunica Oldfields” near 
Friar Point, not many miles below Helena, Ark. The name appears on 
Marquette’s map (1673) but there they are wrongly placed. In 1682 
La Salle and his companions learned of this tribe, then located as given 
above, but neither he nor his lieutenant Tonti visited them on this or 
any subsequent expedition, though they learned of Tunica villages in 
the salt-making region of northeastern Louisiana. The Yazoo town of 
the tribe was first seen, apparently, by three missionary priests from 
Canada, one of whom, Father Davion, established himself among 
them in 1699. In 1702 he fled from his charges, but two or three 
years later was induced by them to return, and he remained among 
them for about 15 vears more. In 1706 this tribe left the Yazoo and 
were received into the Houma town nearly opposite the mouth of 
Red River, but later, according to La Harpe (1831), they rose upon 
their hosts and killed more than half of them, and for a long period 
they continued to live in the region they had thus appropriated. They 
were firm friends of the French and rendered them invaluable service 
in all difficulties with the tribes higher up, and particularly against the 
Natchez, but in 1719 or 1720 Davion was so much discouraged at the 
meager results of his efforts that he left them. The anger excited 
against them by their support of the French resulted in an attack by a 
large party of Natchez and their allies in 1731 in which both sides 
suffered severely and the head chief of the Tunica was killed. The 


194 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 145 


Tunica remained in the same region until some time between 1784 and 
1803, when they moved up Red River and settled close to the present 
Marksville, La., on the land of the Avoyel Indian village which they 
claimed to have bought from the Avoyel tribe. Before this event took 
place, in company with the Ofo, Avoyel, and some Choctaw, they 
attacked the pirogues of a British expedition ascending the Mississippi, 
killed six men, wounded seven, and compelled the rest to turn back. 
A few families descended from the Tunica are still settled on the site 
just mentioned, which forms a small reservation. Sibley (1832) says 
that in his time Tunica had settled among the Atakapa, and it was 
perhaps some of their descendants of whom Dr. Gatschet heard as 
living near Beaumont, Tex., about 1886. Mooney (1928) learned of 
some Tunica families in the southern part of the Choctaw Nation, 
Okla., but they had lost their old language. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1650 the total 
population of the Tunica, Yazoo, Koroa, and Ofo was 2,000, and this 
very figure, except that it does not include the Koroa, is given by. the 
missionary De Montigny in 1699. My own figure for the same date 
is somewhat higher, 2,450, out of which I estimate about 1,575 were 
Tunica. In 1719 the number of Tunica was conjectured to be 460 
and in 1803, 50 to 60, though a second statement of about the same 
pericd gives 25 warriors. Morse (1822)reports 30 Tunica in Louisiana. 
The census of 1910 gives 43 Tunica in all, but among these are included 
some Indians of other tribes and there were many mixed-bloods. 
The census of 1930 gives only 1, he being the only one who could 
speak the old language. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Tunica were 
prominent in history (1) from the fact that their language was the 
principal dialect of a stock on the lower Mississippi which received 
its name from them, (2) for their sedentary character, (3) for their 
devotion to the French interest and their part in the Natchez wars, 
(4) from the perpetuation of their name in Tunica County, and 
Tunica Oldfields, Miss., and a post village of the name in West 
Feliciana Parish, La. 


Yazoo. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.—The associations of this tribe with the Koroa and the 
fact that their language contained an r sound make it reasonably 
certain that they belonged to the Tunican group and stock. 

Location.—On the south side of Yazoo River about 4 French leagues 
above its mouth. (See also Arkansas.) 

History.—The Yazoo appear to have been the first of the tribes 
living on the lower part of the Yazoo River to have established 
themselves there, and hence it was from them that the stream received 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 195 


its name. They are mentioned by La Salle and his companions in 
connection with their voyage to the mouth of the Mississippi in 1682. 
A French post was established near them in 1718, and in 1727 a Jesuit 
missionary, Father Seuel, settled nearby. In 1729, however, the 
Yazoo joined the Natchez in their uprising, murdered the missionary, 
and massacred the French garrison. Their subsequent fortunes were 
identical with those of the Koroa, and they were probably absorbed 
into the Chickasaw or Choctaw. It is not improbable that there is 
some connection between the name of this tribe and that of two of 
the Yazoo towns among the Choctaw, but if so it goes back beyond 
recorded history. 

Population.—I have estimated that in 1698 there were somewhat 
more than 600 Yazoo and Koroa together. In 1700 Gravier reported 
30 Yazoo cabins, but a quarter of a century later Le Page du Pratz 
(1758) estimated 100. In 1722 the Yazoo, Koroa, and Ofo together 
are said to have numbered 250. In 1730, however, the number of 
Yazoo and Koroa warriors is placed at 40. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Yazoo are noted 
principally from the fact that they have transmitted their name to 
Yazoo River, Miss., and secondarily to Yazoo County and its capital 
city, in the same State. 


LOUISIANA 


Acolapissa. Meaning ‘‘those who listen and see,” indicating possibly 
‘“‘borderers”’ or “‘scouts.”’ Also called: 
Aquelou pissas, by Le Page du Pratz (1758, 2: 219). 
Cenepisa, by La Salle (in Margry, 1875-86, 1: 564). 
Colapissas, in 1699 by Pénicaut (in French, 1869, p. 38). 
Coulapissas, in 1700 by Sauvole (in Margry 1875-86, 4: 462). 
Equinipichas, by Sauvole (in French, 1851, 3: 225). 
Kinipissa, by Tonti (én Margry, 1875-86; 1: 604). 
Kolapissas, in 1700 by Gravier (in French, 1875, p. 88). 
Connections.—The Acolapissa belonged to the Muskhogean lin- 
guistic family and evidently spoke a language closely related to 
Choctaw and Chickasaw. They may have been more intimately 
connected with the Napissa who united with the Chickasaw and who 
were perhaps identical with the Napochi (q. v.) of De Luna, but their 
closest relatives were the Tangipahoa (q. v.). 
Location.—Their earliest known location was on Pearl River about 
11 miles above its mouth. (See also Mississippi.) 


Villages 


Iberville was told that they consisted of six villages and that the Tangipahoa 
constituted a seventh, but we treat the latter separately, and the names of the 
six are not given. 


196 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


History —The Acolapissa are not mentioned among the tribes that 
came to Iberville in 1699 to form an alliance with him, but after his 
departure for France, Bienville visited them and was well received, 
although at first they were terrified because of a slave raid made upon 
them 2 days before by the English and Chickasaw. In 1702 (or 1705) 
they moved from Pearl River and settled on a bayou on the north 
side of Lake Pontchartrain called ‘‘Castembayouque” (now Castine 
Bayou). Six months later the Natchitoches Indians (q. v.) de- 
scended to the French fort on the Mississippi from their town on Red 
River to ask assistance from St. Denis, the commandant there, because 
of the ruin of their crops. St. Denis sent them under the charge of 
Pénicaut to the Acolapissa, who welcomed them and assigned a place 
for them to settle close to their own village. Late in 1713 or early in 
1714 St. Denis, who had received a commission to proceed to Texas 
to examine the Spanish settlements, sent for the Natchitoches intend- 
ing to reestablish them in their former seats, but upon hearing of this 
project the Acolapissa fell upon them and killed and captured a con- 
siderable number. In 1718, according to Pénicaut, but in any case 
before 1722, they moved over to the Mississippi River and settled on 
the east side 13 leagues from New Orleans. In 1739 they constituted 
practically one settlement with the Bayogoula and Houma, with 
whom they finally merged. Their later history is one with that of 
the Houma (q. v.). 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1650 the population 
of the Acolapissa and the Tangipahoa together was 1,500. My own 
calculation as of 1698 is 1,050, based on La Harpe’s (1831) estimate of 
300 Acolapissa warriors in 1699 and Iberville’s estimate of 250 families 
3 years later. In 1722 Charlevoix states that there were 200 warriors 
and in 1739 there are said to have been of the Acolapissa, Houma, and 
Bayogoula together 90 to 100 warriors and 270 to 300 people exclu- 
sive of children. 


Adai. Meaning unknown. 


Connections.—This tribe was at first thought to have constituted 
an independent linguistic stock and the name Adaizan was given to 
it, but later Dr. Gatschet determined that the Adai language was a 
somewhat aberrant Caddo dialect, and it was therefore placed in the 
Caddoan stock. 

Location.—Near the present Robeline in Natchitoches Parish. 

History.—In 1699 Iberville mentions the Adai under the name 
Natao. In 1717 the mission of San Miguel de Linares was established 
among them by Spanish Franciscan missionaries. The buildings were 
destroyed in 1719 by a force of French and Indians, but they were 
rebuilt 2 years later as San Miguel de los Adaes, and the mission was 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 197 


not finally abandoned until 1773. In October 1721 a military post 
called Nuestra Sefiora del Pilar de los Adaes was located close to the 
mission and continued until the latter was given up. For 50 years this 
post was the capital of Texas in spite of, or because of, the fact that it 
was on its extreme eastern frontier. In 1778 De Méziéres states (in 
Bolton, 1914) that the tribe was almost extinct, but in 1805 Sibley 
reported a small Adai settlement on Lake Macdon near an affluent 
of Red River. The survivors probably combined with the other 
Caddoan tribes of the region and followed their fortunes. 

Population.—Bienville reported 50 warriors among them in 1700 
but twice as many in 1718. When the mission of San Miguel was 
rebuilt it is said to have served 400 Indians. In 1805 the Adai village 
contained only 20 men but the number of women was much greater. 
The total Adai population in 1825 was 27. My own estimate for 1698 
is about 400. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Adai were peculiar 
in having spoken a dialect so diverse from the other Caddo forms of 
speech that, as already stated, Powell (1891) at first gave them an 
independent status as constituting the Adaizan linguistic family. 
Historically, the Adai Indian and White settlement was noted as the 
easternmost outpost of the Spaniards and of the Franciscan Spanish 
missions, and it was the capital of the Province of Texas for 50 years. 


Alabama. Some of this tribe moved to Louisiana shortly after the 
territory east of the Mississippi was abandoned by the French. 
Most of them finally passed on into Texas, but a few are still settled 
in the southwestern part of the State. (See Alabama.) 


Apalachee. A band of Apalachee Indians moved from the neighbor- 
hood of Mobile to Louisiana in 1764, remained for a short time on the 
Mississippi River and then moved up to Red River, where they 
obtained a grant of land along with the Taensa. Later they sold 
this land and part of them probably removed to Oklahoma, but 
others remained in Louisiana and amalgamated with other tribes. 
(See Florida.) 


Atakapa. Meaning in Choctaw and Mobilian, ‘“‘man eater,” because 
they and some of the Indians west of them at times ate the flesh 
of their enemies. 

Skunnemoke, the name of a chief, extended to the whole people. 
Tak-pa’-ha*-ya-di, Biloxi name. 
Yuk’hiti ishak, own name. 

Connections.—The Atakapa were originally placed in an independent 
linguistic stock, including also the Bidai, Deadose, and probably the 
Opelousa, but it has now been determined that they belonged to one 
family with the Chitimacha, their eastern neighbors, and probably 


198 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


the Tunican group on the Mississippi, the whole being called the 
Tunican stock. 

Location.—Atakapa bands extended along the coast of Louisiana 
and Texas from Vermillion Bayou to and including Trinity Bay. 
(See Akokisa under Texas.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The Atakapa about Trinity Bay and the lower course of Trinity River were 
called Akokisa by the Spaniards, but they differed in no respect from the Atakapa 
of Lake Charles. There was, however, an eastern Atakapa dialect which was 
distinctly different from the one current in the Lake Charles and Trinity Bay 
sections and was spoken by two different bands, one about Vermillion Bay and 
one on the Mermentou River. There were a number of small villages but their 
names are unknown. 


History.—In 1528 Cabeza de Vaca learned of the existence of some 
of these Indians, calling them Han. The portion of the Atakapa 
living in Louisiana came to the attention of the French after the latter 
had established themselves on the Mississippi River, but it so hap- 
pened that they had more dealings with the people of Trinity Bay, 
the Akokisa. This was owing in the first place to the romantic adven- 
tures of a French officer, Simars de Belle-Isle, left upon this coast in 
1719. In 1721 Bernard de la Harpe and Captain Beranger accom- 
panied by Belle-Isle visited the bay and carried some Indians off 
with them to New Orleans. Fortunately for us, Beranger recorded 
a number of words in their language which prove it to have been 
almost identical with the Atakapa of Lake Charles. The Indians 
subsequently escaped and are reported to have reached their own 
country. In 1779 the band of Atakapa on Vermillion Bayou fur- 
nished 60 men and the Mermentou band 120 men to Galvez for his 
expedition against the British forts on the Mississippi. In the latter 
part of the eighteenth century numerous plots of land were sold to 
French Creoles by the Atakapa Indians, but the last village of the 
easternmost band was not abandoned until early in the nineteenth 
century. The last village of the Atakapa who spoke the eastern 
dialect was on the Mermentou and Indians are said to have lived 
there down to 1836. The Calcasieu band held together for a longer 
period, so that in 1908 a few persons were living who once made their 
homes in the last native village on Indian Lake or Lake Prien. It 
was from two of these that Dr. Gatchet, in January 1885, obtained 
his Atakapa linguistic material. (See Gatschet and Swanton, 1932.) 
Although in 1907 and 1908 I found a few Indians who knew some- 
thing of the old tongue, it is today practically extinct. (See also 
J.O. Dyer, 1917.) As early as 1747 a Spanish mission was proposed 
for the Akokisa Indians, and in 1756, or about that time, it was estab- 
lished on the left bank of Trinity River, a short distance below the 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 199 


present Liberty. It was named Nuestra Sefiora de la Luz, and near 
it was the presidio of San Agustin de Ahumada erected the same year. 
Before 1772 both of these had been abandoned. In 1804 the principal 
Akokisa village was on the west side of Colorado River about 200 
miles southwest of Nacogdoches, but there was another between the 
Neches and the Sabine. The ultimate fate of the tribe is unknown. 

Population.—Exclusive of the Akokisa, Mooney (1928) estimates a 
population of 1,500 Atakapa in 1650, which the Akokisa would per- 
haps swell to 2,000. In 1747 a Spanish report gives 300 Akokisa 
families, a figure which is probably too high. In 1779 the Bayou 
Vermillion and Mermentou bands had 180 warriors. Sibley (1832) 
states that in 1805 there were 80 warriors in the only Atakapa town 
remaining but that 30 of these were Houma and Tunica. The same 
writer adds that in 1760-70 the Akokisa numbered 80 men. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The traditional fame 
of the Atakapa rests upon the sinister reputation it had acquired as 
a body of cannibals. After the French began to settle southwestern 
Louisiana, they distinguished as the Atakapas district a section of 
southern Louisiana including the parishes of St. Mary, Iberia, Ver- 
million, St. Martin, and Lafayette, a usage which continues in com- 
mercial reports to the present day. The capital of this district, the 
modern St. Martinville, was known as the Atakapas Post. In Spar- 
tanburg County, S. C., is a place called Tucapau, the name of which 
may have been taken from this tribe. 


Avoyel. The name signifies probably “people of the rocks,” referring 
to flint and very likely applied because they were middlemen in 
supplying the Gulf coast tribes with flint. Also called: 

Little Taensa, so-called from their relationship to the Taensa (q. v.). 
Tassenocogoula, name in the Mobilian trade language, meaning ‘‘flint 
people.” 

Connections.—The testimony of early writers and circumstantial 
evidence render it almost certain that the Avoyel spoke a dialect of 
the Natchez group of the Muskhogean linguistic family. 

Location.—In the neighborhood of the present Marksville, La. 

History.—The Avoyel are mentioned first by Iberville in the ac- 
count of his first expedition to Louisiana in 1699, where they appear 
under the Mobilian form of their name, Tassenocogoula. He did not 
meet any of the people, however, until the year following when he 
calls them “Little Taensas.”” They were encountered by La Harpe 
in 1714, and Le Page du Pratz (1758) gives a short notice of them 
from which it appears that they acted as middlemen in disposing to 
the French of horses and cattle plundered from Spanish settlements. 
In 1764 they took part in an attack upon a British regiment ascending 


200 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


the Mississippi (see Ofo), and they are mentioned by some later 
writers, but Sibley (1832) says they were extinct in 1805 except for 
two or three women ‘‘who did live among the French inhabitants of 
Washita.’”’ In 1930 one of the Tunica Indians still claimed descent 
from this tribe. 

Population.—I have estimated an Avoyel population of about 280 
in 1698. Iberville and Bienville state that they had about 40 warriors 
shortly after this period. (See Taensa.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name of the 
Avoyel is perpetuated in that of Avoyelles Parish, La. 


”) 


Bayogoula. Meaning “bayou people,” either from their location or 
from the fact that their tribal emblem was the alligator. 


Connections.—Their language was of the southern Mushkogean 
division, not far removed from Houma and Choctaw. 

Location.—Near the present Bayou Goula, in Iberville Parish. 

History.—Unless this tribe was the Pishenoa encountered by Tonti 
in 1686 and not mentioned subsequently, it was first visited by Iber- 
ville in 1699. It then occupied one town with the Mugulasha (q. v.). 
In the winter of 1699-1700 the Bayogoula suffered severely from a 
surprise attack of the Houma. In the spring of 1700, for what cause 
we know not, the Bayogoula attacked their fellow townsmen, the 
Mugulasha, and destroyed them, but in 1706 they suffered a similar 
fate at the hands of the Taensa who had sought refuge with them. 
The remnant of the Bayogoula was given a place near New Orleans, 
but some time later they moved up the river to the present Ascension 
Parish, where they were found in 1739 between the Houma and 
Acolapissa. Yet our informant states that the three tribes were 
virtually one and the same, the distinction being kept up merely 
because the chief of each band was descended from the tribe men- 
tioned. The subsequent history of the Bayogoula is identical with 
that of the Houma. (See Houma under Mississippi.) 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1650 there were 
1,500 of the Bayogoula, Quinipissa, and Mugulasha together. My 
own estimate for the same tribes, as of 1698, is 875. In 1699 Iberville 
gave about 100 cabins and 200-250 warriors, and the Journal of his 
companion ship, Le Marin, has 400-500 people. In 1700, after the 
destruction of the Mugulasha, Gravier gives a population of 200, and 
about 1715 they are said to have had 40 warriors. For their numbers 
in 1739, see Houma under Mississippi. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—This tribe shared with 
the Washa the distinction of having been the first Indians within the 
limits of the present State of Louisiana to meet Iberville in the year 
in which the French colony of Louisiana was founded. The name is 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 201 


preserved in the post village of Bayou Goula, Iberville Parish, La., 
which seems to be close to the location of the original Indian town. 


Biloxi. The Biloxi settled in Louisiana about 1764, and a very few 
are still living there. (See Mississippi.) 


Caddo. The Caddo Indians are given under five different heads: 
the Adai and the Natchitoches Confederacy in Louisiana; the Eye- 
ish, the Hasinai Confederacy, and the Kadohadacho Confederacy 
in Texas. 


Chatot. The Chatot entered Louisiana about 1764, lived for a while 
on Bayou Boeuf, and later moved to Sabine River, after which 
nothing more is heard of them. (See Florida.) 


Chawasha. Meaning unknown, though possibly “raccoon place 

(people).” 

Connections.—A reference to this tribe and the Washa by Bienville 
places them in the Chitimacha division of the Tunican linguistic 
stock. I had erroneously concluded at an earlier period, on slender 
circumstantial evidence, that they were Muskhogeans. 

Location.—On Bayou La Fourche and eastward to the Gulf of 
Mexico and across the Mississippi. 

History.—After the relics of De Soto’s army had escaped to the 
mouth of the Mississippi River and while their brigantines were 
riding at anchor there, they were attacked by Indians, some of whom 
had “‘staves, having very sharp heads of fish-bone.”’ (See Bourne 
1904, vol. 2, p. 202.) These may have belonged to the Chawasha and 
Washa tribes. The same two tribes are said, on doubtful authority, 
to have attempted to attack an English sea captain who ascended the 
Mississippi in 1699, but they were usually friendly to the French. 
In 1712 ° they were moved to the Mississippi by Bienville and estab- 
lished themselves on the west side, just below the English Turn. In 
1713 (or more probably 1715) they were attacked by a party of 
Chickasaw, Yazoo, and Natchez, who killed the head chief and many 
of his family, and carried off 11 persons as prisoners. Before 1722 
they had crossed to the east side of the river, half a league lower down. 
In 1730, in order to allay the panic in New Orleans following on the 
Natchez uprising of 1729 which resulted in the massacre of the 
Whites at Natchez, Governor Perrier allowed a band of Negro slaves 
to attack the Chawasha, and it is commonly reported that they were 
then destroyed. The French writer Dumont (1753) is probably 
right, however, when he states that only seven or eight adult males 
were killed. At any rate they are mentioned as living with the 
Washa at Les Allemands on the west side of the Mississippi above 


5 So given by Bienville in an unpublished ms. (See page 294.) 


202 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLu. 145 


New Orleans in 1739, and in 1758 they appear as constituting one 
village with the Washa. Except for one uncertain reference, this is 
the last we hear of them, but they may have continued for a con- 
siderable period longer before disappearing as a distinct body. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) gives an estimate of 1,400 for the 
Washa, Chawasha, and Opelousa together in the year 1650. My own 
estimate for the first two and the Okelousa, as of 1698, is 700. This 
is based on Beaurain’s (La Harpe’s) estimate (1831) of 200 warriors 
for the 3 tribes. About 1715 there are said to have been 40 Chawasha 
warriors; in 1739, 30 warriors of the Washa and Chawasha together; 
and in 1758, 10 to 12. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Chawasha at- 
tained temporary notoriety on account of the massacre perpetrated 
upon them in the manner above mentioned. 


Chitimacha. Perhaps derived from the name of Grand River in the 
native tongue, which was Sheti, though Gatschet (1883) interprets it 
through the Choctaw language as meaning ‘‘those who have pots.” 


Connections.—The Chitimacha have given their name to a group of 
languages under the Tunican linguistic stock, including also the 
Chawasha and Washa. 

Location.—On Grand River, Grand Lake, and the lower course of 
Bayou La Teche. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The earliest French writers couple with this tribe the name of a tribe or supposed 
tribe called Yakna-Chitto, “Big Earth,” but it is not known whether they were 
a part of the Chitimacha or an entirely independent people. In later times the 
Chitimacha were drawn into two unnamed subdivisions, one near the upper end 
of Bayou La Fourche and the other on Grand Lake. Following are the known 
villages: 


Ama’tpan na’mu, two villages: (1) 3 miles east of Charenton on Bayou Teche; 
(2) on the east side of Grand Lake opposite Charenton. 

Grosse Téte na’mu, 2 miles from the village at Plaquemine. 

Hi’pinimsh na’mu, at the Fausse Pointe in the western part of Grand Lake, near 
Bayou Gosselin. 

Ka/me naksh tcat na’mu, at Bayou du Plomb, near Bayou Chéne, 18 miles north 
of Charenton. 

Ku’shuh na’mu, on Lake Mingaluak, near Bayou Chéne. 

Na’mu ka’tsi, the Bayou Chéne village, St. Martin’s Parish. 

Ne’kun tsi’snis, opposite Ile aux Oiseaux, in the Lac de la Fausse Pointe. 

Ne Pinu’nsh, on Bayou Teche, 2 miles west of Charenton. 

Oku’nkiskin, probably at some sharp bend on Bayou La Teche judging from their 
name. 

Shatshnish, at Jeanerette. 

She’ti na’mu, on Grand River west of Plaquemine. 

Sho’ktangi ha’ne hetci’nsh, on the south side of Graine & Volée Inlet, Grand Lake. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 203 


Tca’ti kuti’ngi na’mu, at the junction of Bayou Teche with the Atchafalaya 
Bayou. 

Tcat kasi’tunshki, on the site of Charenton. 

Tsa’htsinshup na’mu, the Plaquemine village, on Bayou des Plaquemines near 
Grand River. 

Waitinimsh, at Irish Bend near Franklin. 


There are said to have been others at the shell bank on the shore of Grand 
Lake, close to Charenton, and at a place called ‘‘Bitlarouges.” 

History.—Iberville made an alliance with the Chitimacha in 1699, 
shortly after his arrival in the present Louisiana. In August 1706, 
the Taensa captured some Chitimacha by treachery and enslaved 
them, and later the same year a Chitimacha war partly killed St. 
Cosme, missionary to the Natchez, and three other Frenchmen en- 
camped with him. War followed between the Chitimacha on one 
hand and the French and their Indian allies on the other, which 
dragged along until 1718. The Chitimacha suffered severely during 
these 12 years and this war was responsible for the fact that in the 
early days of the Louisiana colony the greater part of the Indian 
slaves were Chitimacha. By the terms of the peace concluded in 
1718, the Chitimacha agreed to settle at a designated spot upon the 
Mississippi, not far from the present Plaquemine. This, they or 
rather the eastern portion of them, did in 1719. In 1739 they seem 
to have been farther down, near the head of Bayou La Fourche. In 
1784 one village is reported on Bayou La Fourche and two on the 
Teche. By 1881 the only survivors were near Charenton, where 
they occupied a small part of what had once been a considerable 
reservation. In that year and the year following Dr. A. S. Gatschet 
of the Bureau of American Ethnology collected from them a consider- 
able body of linguistic material and some ethnological information. 
(See Gatschet, 1883.) Descendants of the tribe, mostly mixed-bloods, 
occupy the same section at the present time, but the Plaquemine 
band has disappeared. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1650 the Chiti- 
macha numbered 3,000 souls. The present writer allowed 750 war- 
riors to the tribe in 1698, based on Beaurain’s estimate of 700-800 
in 1699, which would mean about 2,625 souls. In 1758 the Mississippi 
band counted only about 80 warriors and in 1784 Hutchins gives 27. 
The size of the western band is nowhere indicated separately but the 
census of 1910 gives 69 for the entire tribe, 19 of whom were then at 
school in Pennsylvania. In 1930, 51 were returned. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Chitimacha were 
the most powerful tribe of the northern Gulf coast west of Florida in 
United States territory. They also attained prominence in early 
Louisiana history on account of their long war with the French 


204 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


and the number of Chitimacha slaves in colonial families arising from 
that fact. The survivors are noteworthy as the best basket makers 
in the whole Gulf region. 


Choctaw. Choctaw began moving into Louisiana not long after the 
settlement of New Orleans, at first temporarily, but later for per- 
manent occupancy, especially after the territory east of the Mis- 
sissippi had been ceded to Great Britain. Some settled on the 
northern shores of Lake Pontchartrain, where a few still remain, 
while other bands established themselves on the Nezpique, Red 
River, Bayou Boeuf, and elsewhere. Most of these drifted in time 
to the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, but a few families are still 
scattered about the State of Louisiana. (See Mississippi.) 


Doustioni. A small tribe of the Natchitoches Confederacy (q. v.). 


Houma. When first encountered by Europeans, the Houma lived 
near the present boundary line between Mississippi and Louisiana, 
if not actually on the Louisiana side. In 1706 or shortly afterward 
they moved altogether within the limits of Louisiana, where their 
descendants have remained to the present day. (See Mississippi.) 


Koasati. Part of this tribe entered Louisiana near the end of the 
eighteenth century and lived on Red River and in the western part 
of the State. At the present day, the largest single band of Koasati 
in existence is northeast of Kinder, La. (See Alabama.) 


Koroa. The Koroa camped, hunted, and had at times more perma- 
nent settlements in northeastern Louisiana. (See Mississippi.) 


Mugulasha. This was a tribe which formerly lived in the same town 
as the Bayogoula on the lower course of the Mississippi. Some 
early writers state that they were identical with the Quinipissa 
and they will be treated in connection with that tribe. 


Muskogee. The true Muskogee were represented by one band, a 
part of the Pakana tribe, which moved into the colony about 1764. 
They were settled upon Calcasieu River in 1805. Later they 
seem to have united with the Alabama now living in Polk County, 


Tex., but there are no known survivors at the present day. (See 
Alabama.) 


Natchez. When this tribe was attacked by the French after they had 
destroyed the Natchez post, they escaped into Louisiana and forti- 
fied themselves at Sicily Island, from which most of them again 
escaped. A part under the chief of the Flour Village attacked the 
French post at Natchitoches in the fall of 1731, drove the Natchi- 
toches from their town, and intrenched themselves init. St. Denis, 
commander of that post, attacked them, however, having been 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 205 


previously reinforced by some Caddo and Atakapa, and inflicted 
upon them a severe defeat. After this no considerable number of 
Natchez seem to have remained in Louisiana. (See Mississippi.) 


Natchitoches Confederacy. The word “Natchitoches” is generally sup- 
posed to be derived from “‘nashitosh’’, the native word for pawpaw 
but an early Spanish writer, José Antonio Pichardo, was told that 
it was from a native word “‘nacicit” signifying ‘‘a place where the 
soil is the color of red ochre,” and that it was applied originally to a 
small creek in their neighborhood running through red soil. The 
following are synonyms: 


Nachittoos, Yoakum, 1855-56, vol. 1, p. 392. 

Nachtichoukas, Jefferys, 1761, pt. 1, p. 164. 

Nacitos, Linares (1716) in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 6, p. 217. 
Nactythos, Iberville (1699) in Margry, 1880, 1875-86, vol. 4, p. 178. 
Nadchito, Bienville (1700), in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 4, p. 434. 
Naketosh, Gatschet, Caddo and Yatassi MS., p. 77, B. A. E. 
Napgitache, McKenney and Hall, 1854, vol. 3, p. 82. 
Naquitoches, Belle-Isle (1721), in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 6, p. 341. 
Nashi’tosh, Mooney, 1896, p. 1092. 

Nasitti, Joutel (1687) in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 3, p. 409. 
Natsytos, Iberville (1699) in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 4, p. 178. 
Notchitoches, Carver, 1778, map. 

Yatchitcohes, Lewis and Clark, 1840, p. 142. 


As part of the Caddo, the same terms were applied to them as appear 
under Kadohadacho (q. v.). 


Connections.—They belonged to the Caddo division of the Caddoan 
linguistic stock, their nearest relatives being the Indians of the Kado- 
hadacho and Hasinai Confederacies. 

Location.—In northwestern Louisiana. 


Subdivisions 


Doustioni, appearing sometimes as Souchitioni, a small tribe near the present 

Natchitoches. 

Natchitoches, close to the present site of Natchitoches. 
Ouachita, on Ouachita River not far from the present Columbia. 
Yatasi, on Red River near Shreveport. 

A tribe called Capiché is mentioned by Tonti, but it is otherwise never referred 
to. Another called Nakasa, Nakasé, Natchés or Nataché was probably a part of 
the Yatasi, and Tonti mentions a tribe called Choye, probably the Chaye of 
Joutel (1713), as a people associated with the Yatasi. At a relatively late date 
part of the Yatasi went to live with the Indians of the Kadohadacho Confedera- 
tion while the rest settled close to the Natchitoches, 


History.—Moscoso, De Soto’s successor, perhaps encountered some 
of the tribes of this group though his route lay farther north and 
west. On February 17, 1690, Tonti reached the villages of these 
Indians coming from the Taensa on Lake St. Joseph, and went on 
up the river to the Kadohadacho, visiting the Yatasi on the way. 


206 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


In March 1700 Bienville followed the same route from the Taensa 
and reached the Natchitoches Indians in April, stopping at the 
Ouachita town en route. He went up Red River as far as the Yatasi 
and then returned to Biloxi. In 1702 the Natchitoches tribe, having 
lost their crops, descended the Red River and the Mississippi to the 
French fort near the mouth of the latter, then commanded by Louis 
Juchereau de St. Denis, who received them kindly and sent them to 
live with the Acolapissa Indians on Lake Pontchartrain. A few 
years later St. Denis visited the Natchitoches country himself. In 
1707 four Indians of this tribe took part in an expedition against the 
Chitimacha to avenge the death of the missionary St. Cosme. In 
1713-14 St. Denis sent for the Natchitoches Indians in order to take 
them back to their old country, where‘he had planned to establish a 
post. On learning of the intentions of their neighbors, the Acolapissa 
Indians fell upon them, killed 17 and captured 50 women and girls, 
but the latter were apparently recovered soon afterward and all were 
returned to their old town, where the post was established according 
to plan in 1714. From this time until his death St. Denis’ career 
was intimately bound up with this post and the Indians about it, 
though he was frequently engaged in expeditions into and across 
Texas. He was formally appointed commandant of the post July 1, 
1720, and retained it until his death in June 1744. In 1731, with the 
assistance of his Indians and a detachment of soldiers from the 
Spanish post of Adai, he won a signal victory over a large body of 
Natchez Indians, the only clear-cut advantage which the French 
gained in the Natchez War. In the meantime Natchitoches had 
become the center of a flourishing trade with the Indians extending 
far to the north and west, and when St. Denis died his son, Louis de 
St. Denis continued to enjoy the advantages of it and to share the 
prestige of his father. During all of this time, however, the Natchi- 
toches Indians seem to have been decreasing, and toward the end of 
the eighteenth century they parted with most of their lands to French 
Creoles, though their relations with the latter seem to have been 
uniformly cordial. Part of them remained in their old country per- 
manently and either died out or mixed with the newcomers, while the 
rest joined their relatives of the Kadohadacho and Hasinai Con- 
federations and followed their fortunes. 

Population.—In 1700 Bienville estimated that there were 400-450 
warriors in the Natchitoches Confederacy, but in 1718 he reported 
that the number had fallen to 80, while La Harpe (1831) reported a 
total population of 150-200. In 1805 Sibley (1832) reported 52 
warriors and for the Natchitoches tribe by itself, 32, and 20 years 
later a total population of 61 was returned. An estimate of 1,000 for 
all of these tribes before White contact would probably be ample. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 207 


Connection in which they have become noted.—The city of Natchi- 
toches, La., is named after this group of tribes and is noteworthy as 
the oldest permanent settlement in the State. The victory which 
they enabled St. Denis to win over the Natchez Indians occupies a 
noteworthy place in the history of the section. 


Ofo. This tribe entered Louisiana some time in the latter half of 
the eighteenth century and finally united with the Tunica, settling 
with them at Marksville. (See the article Mosopelea under Ohio 
and Tunica under Mississippi.) 


Okelousa. Meaning “black water.”’ 

Connections.—The associations of this tribe were mainly with 
Muskhogean peoples and this fact, coupled with the Muskhogean 
name, indicates their linguistic affiliations with a fair degree of 
certainty. 

Location.—The Okelousa moved about considerably. The best- 
determined location is the one mentioned by Le Page du Pratz (1758), 
on the west side of the Mississippi back of and above Pointe Coupée. 
(See History below.) (See also Mississippi.) 

History.—After De Soto reached the principal Chickasaw town, 
the head chief came to him, January 3, 1541, “‘and promptly gave the 
Christians guides and interpreters to go to Caluga, a place of much 
repute among the Indians. Caluga is a province of more than 90 
villages not subject to anyone, with a savage population, very warlike 
and much dreaded, and the soil is fertile in that section.’”? (See 
Bourne, 1904, 1922, vol. 2, p. 132.) There is every reason to think 
that Caluga is a shortened form of Okalousa and it is rather likely 
that the later Okelousa were descended from these people, but if so 
either De Soto’s informants had very much exaggerated their numbers 
or they suffered immense losses before we hear of them again. The 
name in De Soto’s time may, however, have been applied to a geo- 
graphical region. Nicolas de la Salle, writing in 1682, quotes native 
informants to the effect that this tribe, in alliance with the Houma, 
had destroyed a third. La Harpe (1831) mentions them as allied with 
the Washa and Chawasha and wandering near the seacoast, a state- 
ment which led me to the erroneous conclusion that the three tribes 
thus associated were related. The notice of them by Le Page du 
Pratz has been mentioned above. They finally united with the 
Houma, the Acolapissa, or some other Muskhogean band on the 
lower Mississippi. 

Population.—Unknown, but for an estimate, see Chawasha (p. 202). 


Opelousa. Probably from Mobilian and Choctaw Aba Jusa, “black 
above,” and meaning “black headed” or “black haired.” 


208 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Connections.—No words of the Opelousa language have survived, 
but the greater number of the earlier references to them speak as if 
they were allied with the Atakapa, and it is probable that they belonged 
to the Atakapan group of tribes. 

Location.—In the neighborhood of the present Opelousas. 

History—The Opelousa seem to have been mentioned first by 
Bienvule in an unpublished report on the Indians of the Mississippi 
and Gulf regions. They were few in numbers and led a wandering 
life. They maintained some sort of distinct tribal existence into the 
nineteenth century but disappeared by the end of the first quarter of it. 

Population.—About 1715 this tribe was estimated to have 130 
warriors; in 1805 they are said to have had 40, and in 1814 the total 
population of the tribe is placed at 20. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Opelousa gave 
their name to an important post and the district depending upon it. 


Ouachita. A tribe of the Natchitoches Confederacy (q. v.). 


Pascagoula. This tribe entered Louisiana about 1764 and lived on 
Red River and Bayou Bocuf. Their subsequent history is wrapped 
in uncertainty. (See Mississippi.) 


Quapaw. From 1823 to 1833 the Quapaw lived with the Kadohadacho 
op a southern affluent of Red River. (See Arkansas.) 


Quinipissa. Signifying ‘‘those who see,” perhaps meaning ‘“‘scouts,”’ 
or “‘outpost.”’ : 

Connections.—The Quinipissa belonged to the southern division of 
the Muskhogean stock, and probably were very closely related to 
the Choctaw. 

Location.—On the west bank of the Mississippi River and some 
distance above New Orleans. 

History.—There may have been a connection between this tribe, 
the Acolapissa (q. v.) and the Napissa or Napochi. (See Mississippi.) 
They were met first by La Salle and his companions when the latter 
were on their way to the Gulf of Mexico in 1682. They treated the 
explorers in a hostile manner but made peace with Tonti in 1686. 
When Iberville ascended the river in 1699, no tribe of the name was 
to be found, but later it was learned that the chief of the Mugulasha 
tribe, then forming one village with the Bayogoula, was the same 
Quinipissa chief who had had dealings with La Salle and Tonti. 
According to some writers, the Mugulasha were identical with the 
Quinipissa; according to others, the Mugulasha had absorbed the re- 
mains of the Quinipissa. In May 1700, the Bayogoula rose against 
the Mugulasha and destroyed them as a tribe, though they probably 
adopted many of them as individuals. We hear nothing further re- 
garding them. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 209 


Population.—-There is no separate estimate of the number of the 
Quinipissa. (See Bayogoula.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Quinipissa are 
noted only for the encounter, ultimately hostile, which La Salle had 
with them in 1682 when he descended to the mouth of the Mississippi. 


Souchitioni, see Natchitoches Confederacy. 


Taensa. Meaning unknown, but the name is evidently derived from 

that of one of the tribe’s constituent towns. 

Connections.—They were one of the three known tribes of the 
Natchez division of the Muskhogean stock. 

Location.—At the western end of Lake St. Joseph, in Tensas 
Parish. (See also Alabama.) 


Villages 


The only list of Taensa villages preserved was obtained by Iberville through 
the medium of the Mobilian trade language and it is uncertain how much of each 
name is a Mobilian translation. In four of them we recognize the Mobilian 
word for people, okla. These villages are: Taénsas, Ohytoucoulas, Nyhougoulas, 
Couthaougoula, Conchayon, Talaspa, and Chaoucoula. Gatschet has endeav- 
ored to interpret all but one of them; Taénsas by reference to ta®’tci, ‘‘corn’’; 
Ohytoucoulas from u’ti, “chestnut”; Couthaougoula from uk’ha’tax, “lake’’; 
Conchayon from ko’nshak, ‘‘reed’’; Talaspa from ta’‘lapi, ‘‘five’’ or ta’‘lepa, 
“hundred”; Chaoucoula from issi, ‘‘deer’’ or ha’/tche, “river.’”’ Most of these 
seem in the highest degree doubtful. All of the towns were situated close together 
in the place above indicated. 

History.—Ilt is altogether probable that the Spaniards under De 
Soto encountered the Taensa or bands afterward affiliated with them, 
and the probability is strengthened by the fact that La Salle in 1682 
was shown some objects of Spanish origin by the chief of the Taensa. 
However, La Salle and his companions are the first Europeans known 
to have met them. The French were treated with great kindness 
and no war ever took place between the two peoples. The Taensa 
were subsequently visited by Tonti and by Iberville. When the 
latter was in their town in 1700 the temple was destroyed by fire, 
whereupon five infants were thrown into the flames to appease the 
supposedly offended deity. De Montigny undertook missionary 
work among them for a brief period but soon went to the Natchez 
as presenting a larger field and his place was never filled. In 1706 
the Taensa abandoned their villages on account of the threatening 
attitude of the Yazoo and Chickasaw and settled in the town of the 
Bayogoula whom they afterward destroyed or drove away in the 
tragic manner above described. (See Bayogoula.) The Taensa ap- 
pear to have moved shortly to a spot in the vicinity of Edgard, St. 
John Baptist Parish, and later to the Manchac. In 1715 they left 
this latter place and moved to Mobile, where they were assigned a 


210 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


townsite 2 leagues from the French post, at a place formerly occupied 
by the Tawasa. Before 1744 they had crossed the Tensaw River, to 
which they gave their name, and made a new settlement which they 
retained until Mobile was surrendered to the British in 1763. Soon 
after that event, they moved to Red River. In April 1764, they 
asked permission to establish themselves on the Mississippi River at 
the upper end of Bayou La Fourche, but they seem never to have 
gone there. For more than 40 years they occupied a tract of land 
on Red River adjoining that of the Apalachee. Early in the nine- 
teenth century both tribes sold their lands and moved to Bayou 
Boeuf. Still later the Taensa seem to have moved farther south to 
a small bayou at the head of Grand Lake which still bears their 
name, where they intermarried with the Chitimacha, Alabama, and 
Atakapa. Some Taensa blood is known to run in the veins of certain 
Chitimacha, but as a tribe they are entirely extinct. 

Population.—Mooney’s estimate (1928) for the Taensa and Avoyel 
in 1650 is 800, and my own for 1698 slightly greater or nearly the 
same, although De Montigny (an Shea, 1861), writing in 1699, gives 
only 700. In 1700 Iberville estimated 120 cabins and 300 warriors, 
but in 1702 allows them 150 families. Somewhat Jater Le Page du 
Pratz (1758) says they had about 100 cabins. In 1764 this tribe, 
with the Apalachee and Pakana Creeks, counted about 200 all told. 
Sibley (1832) places the number of Taensa warriors in 1805 at 25. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Taensa were 
noted for (1) the peculiarity of their customs, which were like those 
of the Natchez, (2) the tragic destruction of their temple in 1700 and 
the human sacrifices which followed, (3) the perpetuation of their 
name in Tensas Parish, Tensas River, and Tensas Bayou, La., and 
the Tensaw River and Tensaw Village in Baldwin County, Ala. 


Tangipahoa. Meaning probably “corncob gatherers,” or ‘‘corncob 
people.”’ 

Connections.—The name of this tribe and its affiliations with the 
Acolapissa indicate that it belonged to the southern division of the 
Muskhogean stock. 

Location.—Probably on the present Tangipahoa River, Tangipahoa 
Parish. 

History.—The original home of the Tangipahoa seems to have been 
as given above, and their relations with the Acolapissa must have been 
very close, for Iberville was informed by some Indians that they con- 
stituted a seventh Acolapissa town. In 1682 La Salle’s party dis- 
covered a town on the eastern side of the Mississippi, 2 leagues below 
the settlement of the Quinipissa, which had recently been destroyed, 
and one of his companions calls this “‘Tangibao,”’ while others speak 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA >All | 


of it as Maheouala or Mahehoualaima. The last two terms may 
refer to the name of the town and the first to that of the tribe which 
occupied it. Probably a part of the Tangipahoa only settled here, 
but, as we hear little of them after this period, we must assume that 
they had been absorbed by some other people, most likely the 
Acolapissa. 

Population.— (See Acolapissa.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Tangipahoa Parish, 
Tangipahoa River, in Amite and Pike Counties, Miss., and Tangi- 
pahoa Parish, La., and the post town of Tangipahoa preserve the 
name of the Tangipahoa. 


Tawasa. Some Tawasa accompanied the Alabama to Louisiana but 
not until after the separate existence of the tribe had been ended. 
(See Alabama.) 


Washa. Appearing oftenest in literature in the French form Ouacha, 
meaning unknown. 


Connections.—The nearest relations of the Washa were the Chawa- 
sha (q. v.) and both belonged to the Chitimachan branch of the 
Tunican linguistic family. 

Location.—Their earliest known location was on Bayou La Fourche, 
perhaps in the neighborhood of the present Labadieville, Assumption 
Parish. 

Villages 

None are known under any but the tribal name. 


History.—As stated in treating the Chawasha, this tribe and the 
one just mentioned may have been those which attacked Moscoso’s 
flotilla at the mouth of the Mississippi. Shortly after Iberville 
reached America in 1699, the Washa and three other tribes west of 
the Mississippi came to make an alliance with him and a little later, 
on his way up the great river, he fell in with some of them. He calls 
Bayou La Fourche “the River of the Washas.” In July 1699, 
Bienville made a vain attempt to establish friendly relations with 
them, but we hear little more of them until 1715 ® when Bienville 
moved them to the Mississippi and settled them 2 leagues above 
New Orleans on the south side of the Mississippi. In 1739 the 
Washa and Chawasha were found living together at Les Allemands, 
and they probably continued in the same neighborhood until a con- 
siderably later period. Sibley (1832) says the tribe in 1805 was 
reduced to 5 persons (2 men and 3 women) scattered in French 
families. 


6 So stated in a ms. by Bienville. In Swanton (1911) this date was given erroneously as 1718 on other 
authority. 


212 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Population.—A memoir attributed to Bienville states that in 1715 
the Washa numbered 50 warriors, having been reduced from 200. 
This is the only separate estimate of them. (See Chawasha for the 
combined population of the two tribes at other periods.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Washa is 
preserved in Washa Lake, near the seacoast of Terrebonne Parish, 
La., and it was formerly given to Lake Salvador, southeast of New 
Orleans. 


Yatasi. A tribe of the Natchitoches Confederacy (q. v.). 
ARKANSAS 


Caddo. These Indians are treated under the five following heads: 
Adai and the Natchitoches Confederacy in Louisiana, Eyeish and the 
Hasinai Confederacy in Arkansas, and Kadohadacho Confederacy 
in Texas. Tribes of the Kadohadacho Confederacy are the only 
ones known to have lived in Arkansas. 


Cahinnio. One of the tribes connected with the Kadohadacho 
Confederacy (q. v. under Texas). 


Cherokee. Some Cherokee lived in this State while they were on 
their way from their old territories to Oklahoma, and a tract of land 
in northwestern Arkansas was granted them by treaty in 1817, 
which in 1828 they re-ceded to the United States Government. 
(See Tennessee.) 


Chickasaw. Chickasaw passed through Arkansas on their way to 
Oklahoma but owned no land there. (See Mississippi.) 


Choctaw. The Choctaw had a village on the lower course of Arkansas 
River in 1805 and they owned a large strip of territory in the 
western part of the State, granted to them by the treaty of Doak’s 
Stand, October 18, 1820. They surrendered the latter in a treaty 
concluded at Washington, January 20, 1825. (See Mississippi.) 


Illinois. When Europeans first descended the Mississippi an Illinois 
division known as Michigamea, ‘‘Big Water’’, was settled in north- 
eastern Arkansas about a lake known by their name, probably the 
present Big Lake in Mississippi County. They had probably 
come from the region now embraced in the State of Illinois only a 
short time before, perhaps from a village entered on some maps as 
“the old village of the Michigamea.’”’ Toward the end of the 
seventeenth century they were driven north again by the Quapaw 
or Chickasaw and united with the cognate Kaskaskia. (See 
Illinois.) 


Kaskinampo. ‘This tribe appears to have been encountered by De 
Soto in what is now the State of Arkansas in 1541. (See Tennessee.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 213 


Michigamea. (See Illinois above.) 
Mosopelea, see Ofo. 


Ofo. If these are the Mosopelea, as seems assured, they appear to 
have lived for a short time near the end of the seventeenth century 
in the neighborhood of the Quapaw on the lower course of Arkansas 
River before moving farther south. (See Mississippi.) 


Osage. The Osage hunted over much of the northern, and particu- 
larly northwestern, part of Arkansas and claimed all lands now 
included in the State as far south as Arkansas River. They ceded 
most of their claims to these to the United States Government in a 
treaty signed at Fort Clark, Louisiana Territory, in 1808, and the 
remainder by treaties at St. Louis, September 25, 1818, and June 2, 
1825. (See Missouri.) 


Quapaw. Meaning “downstream people.’”’ They were known by 
some form of this word to the Omaha, Ponca, Kansa, Osage, and 
Creeks. Also called: 


Akansa, or Arkansas, by the Illinois and other Algonquian Indians, a 
name probably derived from one of the Quapaw social subdivisions. 

Beaux Hommes, a name given them by the French. 

Bow Indians, so-called probably because the bow wood from the Osage 
orange came from or through their country. 

Ima, by the Caddo, probably from one of their towns. 

Papikaha, on Marquette’s map (1673). 

UtsGshuat, Wyandot name, meaning ‘‘wild apple, 
fruit of the Carica papaya. 


” 


and referring to the 


Connections.—The Quapaw were one of the five tribes belonging to 
what J. O. Dorsey (1897) called the Zegiha division of the Siouan 
linguistic stock. 

Location.—At or near the mouth of Arkansas River. (See also 
Louisiana, Kansas, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Texas.) 


Villages 


Tongigua, on the Mississippi side of Mississippi River above the mouth of the 
Arkansas, probably in Bolivar County, Miss. 

Tourima, at the junction of White River with the Mississippi, Desha County, 
probably the town elsewhere called Imaha. 

Ukakhpakhti, on the Mississippi, probably in Phillips County. 

Uzutiuhi, on the south side of the lower course of Arkansas River not far from 
Arkansas Post. 


HHistory—Before the French became acquainted with this tribe (in 
1673) the Quapaw had lived on Ohio River above its junction with the 
Wabash, and that portion of the Ohio was known as Arkansas River 
by the Illinois from this circumstance. It was formerly thought that 
the Pacaha or Capaha met by De Soto in this part of Arkansas were 


Ay a BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


the tribe in question, but it is not probable that they had left the Ohio 
then, and the name Capaha, the form on which the relationship is 
supposed to be established, is probably incorrect. In 1673 Mar- 
quette visited them and turned back at their towns without descend- 
ing the Mississippi any farther. La Salle in 1682, Tonti in 1686, and all 
subsequent voyagers down and up the Mississippi mention them, 
and they soon became firm allies of the French. Shortly after Mar- 
quette’s visit they were ravaged by pestilence and the Ukakhpakhti 
village was moved farther downstream. A few years later and before 
1700 the people of Tongigua moved across and settled with those of 
Tourima, and still later all of the towns moved from the Mississippi 
to the Arkansas. Le Page du Pratz (1758) encountered them about 
12 miles above the entrance of White River. Sibley (1832) found 
them in 1805 on the south side of Arkansas River about 12 miles 
above Arkansas Post. By a treaty signed at St. Louis, August 24, 
1818, the Quapaw ceded all their claims south of Arkansas River except 
a small territory between Arkansas Post and Little Rock, extending 
inland to Saline River. The latter was also given up in a treaty 
signed November 15, 1824, at Harrington’s, Arkansas Territory, and the 
tribe agreed to live in the country of the Caddo Indians. They were 
assigned by the Caddo a tract on Bayou Treache on the south side of 
Red River, but it was frequently overflowed, their crops were often 
destroyed, and there was much sickness, and in consequence they 
soon returned to their old country. There they annoyed the white 
settlers so much that by a treaty signed May 13, 1833, the United 
States Government conveyed to them 150 sections of land in the ex- 
treme southeastern part of Kansas and the northeastern part of 
Indian Territory, to which they in turn agreed to move. February 
23, 1867, they ceded their lands in Kansas and the northern part of 
their lands in Indian Territory. In 1877 the Ponca were brought to 
the Quapaw Reservation for a short time, and when they removed 
to their own reservation west of the Osage most of the Quapaw went 
with them. Still later the lands of the Quapaw were allotted in 
severalty and they are now citizens of Oklahoma. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1650 the Quapaw 
numbered 2,500. In 1750 Father Vivier stated that they had about 
400 warriers or about 1,400 souls. In 1766, however, the British 
Indian Agent, John Stuart, reported that they had but 220 gunmen. 
Porter estimated that the total Quapaw population in 1829 was 500. 
In 1843 it was 476. In 1885 there were i20 on the Osage Reservation 
and 54 on the Quapaw Reservation, and in 1890, 198 on both. The 
census of 1910 gave 231, but the Indian Office Report of 1916, 333, 
and that of 1923, 347. The census of 1930 returned 222. 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA PAKS 


Connection in which they have become noted.—The native form of the 
name of this tribe, Quapaw, is but seldom used topographically, al- 
though there is a village of the name in Ottawa County, Okla., 
but Arkansas; the term applied to them by the Illinois Indians, has 
become affixed to one of the largest branches of the Mississippi and 
to one of the States of the American Union. It has also been given 
to a county and mountain in Arkansas and to cities in that State and 
in Kansas. 


Tunica. From some names given by the chroniclers of De Soto it is 
probable that the Tunica or some tribes speaking their language were 
living in Arkansas in his time. In fact it is not unlikely that the 
Pacaha or Capaha, who have often been identified with the Quapaw, 
were one of these. In later historic times they camped in the north- 
eastern part of Louisiana and probably in neighboring sections of 
Arkansas. (See Mississippi.) 


Yazoo. Like the Tunica this tribe probably camped at times in 
northeastern Louisiana and southeastern Arkansas, but there is no 
direct evidence of the fact. (See Mississippi.) 


TENNESSEE 


Catawba. For a brief period in their later history the Catawba lived 
among the Cherokee and they may have occupied lands in Tennessee 
at that time. There are indications that they may have been in 
eastern Tennessee at a more remote epoch. (See South Carolina.) 


Cherokee. Meaning unknown, but possibly from Creek tciloki, 
“people of a different speech.’”’ The middle and upper dialects sub- 
stitute / for r. Also called: 


Alligewi or Alleghanys, a people appearing in Delaware tradition who 
were perhaps identical with this tribe. 

Ani’-Kitu’hwag!, own name, from one of their most important ancient 
settlements, and extended by Algonquian tribes to the whole. 

Ani’-Y‘tin’-wiy4’, own name, meaning “‘real people.” 

Baniatho, Arapaho name (Gatschet, MS., B. A. E.). 

Entari ronnon, Wyandot name, meaning ‘‘mountain people.” 

M4*téra»’, Catawba name, meaning “‘coming out of the ground.” 

Ochie‘tari-ronnon, a Wyandot name. 

Oyata’ ge‘ronéfi, Iroquois name, meaning “inhabitants of the cave country.” 

Shdnaki, Caddo name. 

Shénnakiak, Fox name (Gatschet, Fox MS., B. A. E.). 

Talligewi, Delaware name (in Walam Olum), see Alligewi. 

Tcdlke, Tonkawa name. 

Tcerokiéco, Wichita name. 

Uwatdyo-r6no, Wyandot name, meaning “‘cave people.” 


Connections —The Cherokee language is the most aberrant form of 
speech of the Iroquoian linguistic family. 


216 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Location.—From the earliest times of which we have any certain 
knowledge the Cherokee have occupied the highest districts at the 
southern end of the Appalachian chain, mainly in the States of 
Tennessee and North Carolina, but including also parts of South 
Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Virginia. (See also Arkansas, 
Kansas, Kentucky, Oklahoma, and Texas.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


There were anciently three Cherokee dialects which probably corresponded in 
some measure to the three groups of towns into which early traders and explorers 
divided the tribe. These groups, with the towns belonging to each according to 
the Purcell map, but following as far as possible the Handbook (Hodge, 1907, 
1910) orthography, are as follows: 

Lower Settlements: 

Estatoee, 2 towns: Old Estatoee on Tugaloo River below the junction of 
Chattooga and Tullalah Rivers, in Oconee County, 8. C.; and Estatoee in 
the northwestern part of Pickens County. 

Keowee, 2 towns: Old Keowee on Keowee River near Fort George, Oconee 
County, S. C.; and New Keowee on the headwaters of Twelve-mile Creek in 
Pickens County, 8. C., the latter also called probably Little Keowee. 

Kulsetsiyi, 3 towns: (1) on Keowee River, near Fall Creek, Oconee County, 
S. C.; (2) on Sugartown or Cullasagee Creek near Franklin, Macon County, 
N. C.; (3) on Sugartown Creek, near Morganton, Fannin County, Ga. 

Oconee, on Seneca Creek near Walhalla, Oconee County, 8. C. 

Qualatchee, 2 towns: (1) on Keowee River, S. C.; (2) on the headwaters of 
Chattahoochee River, Ga. 

Tomassee, 2 towns: (1) on Tomassee Creek of Keowee River, Oconee County, 
S. C.; (2) on Little Tennessee River near the entrance of Burningtown Creek, 
Macon County, S. C. 

Toxaway, on Toxaway Creek, a branch of Keowee River, S. C. 

Tugaloo, on Tugaloo River at the junction of Toccoa Creek, Habersham 
County, Ga. 

Ustanali, several towns so called: (1) on Keowee River below the present Fort 
George, Oconee County, S. C.; (2) probably on the waters of Tuckasegee 
River in western North Carolina; (3) just above the junction of Coosawatee 
and Conasauga Rivers to form the Oostanaula River in Gordon County, 
Ga.; (4) perhaps on Eastanollee Creek of Tugaloo River, Franklin County, 
Ga.; (5) perhaps on Eastaunaula Creek flowing into Hiwassee River in Mc- 
Minn County, Tenn.; and (6) possibly another. 

Middle Settlements: 

Cowee, about the mouth of Cowee Creek of Little Tennessee River, about 10 
miles below Franklin, N. C. 

Coweeshee, probably between the preceding and Yunsawi. 

Ellijay, 4 towns: (1) on the headwaters of Keowee River, S. C.; (2) on Ellijay 
Creek of Little Tennessee River near Franklin, N. C.; (3) about Ellijay in 
Gilmer County, Ga.; and (4) on Ellejoy Creek of Little River near Marysville 
in Blount County, Tenn. 

Itseyi, 3 towns: (1) on Brasstown Creek of Tugaloo River, Oconee County, 
S. C.; (2) on Little Tennessee River near Franklin, N. C.; and (3) on upper 
Brasstown Creek of Hiwassee River, Towns County, Ga. 

Jore, on Iola Creek, an upper branch of Little Tennessee River, N. C. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA B17 


Kituhwa, on Tuckasegee River and extending from above the junction of the 
Oconaluftee nearly to the present Bryson City, Swain County, N. C. 

Nucassee, at the present Franklin, N. C. 

Stikayi, 3 towns: (1) on Sticoa Creek, near Clayton, Rabun County, Ga.; (2) 
on Tuckasegee River at the old Thomas homestead just above Whittier, 
Swain County, N. C.; and (3) on Stekoa Creek of Little Tennessee River, a 
few miles below the junction of Nantahala, Graham County, N. C. 

Tawsee, on Tugaloo River, Habersham County, Ga. 

Tekanitli, in upper Georgia. 

Tessuntee, on Cowee River, south of Franklin, N. C. 

Tikaleyasuni, on Burningtown Creek, an upper branch of Little Tennessee 
River, western North Carolina. 

Watauga, 2 towns: (1) on Watauga Creek, a branch of Little Tennessee River, 
a few miles below Franklin, N. C.; (2) traditionally located at Watauga Old 
Fields, about Elizabethtown, on Watauga River, in Carter County, Tenn. 

Yunsawi, on West Buffalo Creek of Cheowa River, Graham County, N. C. 

Over-the-Hills and Valley Settlements, or Overhill Settlements: 

Chatuga, 3 towns: (1) on Chattooga River, on the boundary between South 
Carolina and Georgia; (2) probably on upper Tellico River, Monroe County, 
Tenn.; (3) perhaps on Chattooga River, a tributary of the Coosa, in north- 
west Georgia. 

Chilhowee, on Tellico River in Monroe County, Tenn., near the North Carolina 
border. 

Cotocanahut, between Natuhli and Niowe. 

Echota, 5 towns: (1) Great Echota, on the south side of Little Tennessee 
River, a short distance below Citico Creek, Monroe County, Tenn.; (2) Little 
Echota on Sautee Creek, a head stream of the Chattahoochee west of Clarks- 
ville, Ga.; (3) New Echota, at the junction of Oostanaula and Conasauga 
Rivers, Gordon County, Ga.; (4) the old Macedonian Mission on Soco Creek, 
of the North Carolina Reservation; and (5) at the great Nacoochee mound. 
(See Naguchee below.) 

Hiwassee, 2 towns: (1) Great Hiwassee on the north bank of Hiwassee River 
at the present Savannah Ford, above Columbus, Polk County, Tenn.; (2) at 
the junction of Peachtree Creek with Hiwassee River, above Murphy, N. C., 
probably the Guasuli of the De Soto Chroniclers. 

Natuhli, on Nottely River, a branch of Hiwassee River at or near the site of 
the present Ranger, Cherokee County, N. C. 

Nayuhi, seems to have been the name of four towns: (1) probably of the Lower 
Settlements, on the east bank of Tugaloo River, S. C.; (2) on the upper waters 
of Tennessee River, apparently in North Carolina, and (3 and 4) in the same 
general region, the last three being mentioned by Bartram (1792). 

Sitiku, on Little Tennessee River at the entrance of Citico Creek, Monroe 
County, Tenn. 

Tahlasi, on Little Tennessee River about Talassee Ford in Blount County, 
Tenn. 

Tallulah, 2 towns: (1) on the upper Tallulah River, Rabun County, Ga.; (2) on 
Tallulah Creek of Cheowa River in Graham County, N. C. 

Tamahli, 2 towns: (1) on Valley River a few miles above Murphy, about the 
present Tomatola, Cherokee County, N. C.; (2) on Little Tennessee River 
about Tomotley Ford, a few miles above Tellico River in Monroe County, 
Tenn. 

Tellico, 4 towns: (1) Great Tellico, at Tellico Plains on Tellico River, Monroe 
County, Tenn.; (2) Little Tellico, on Tellico Creek of Little Tennessee River 


218 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


about 10 miles below Franklin, N. C.; (8) (also called Little Tellico at times) 
on Valley River about 5 miles above Murphy, N. C.; (4) Tahlequah, capital 
of the Cherokee Nation in what is now Oklahoma. 

Tennessee, 2 towns: (1) on Little Tennessee River a short distance above its 
junction with the main stream in east Tennessee; (2) on an extreme head 
branch of Tuckasegee River, above the present Webster, N. C. 

Toquo, on Little Tennessee River about the mouth of Toco Creek, Monroe 
County, Tenn. 

Tsiyahi, 3 towns: (1) on a branch of Keowee River, near the present Cheochee, 
Oconee County, 8. C.; (2) a modern settlement on Cheowa River about 
Robbinsville, N. C.; (3) a former settlement in Cades Cove, on Cover Creek, 
Blount County, Tenn. 

Ustanali; according to Purcell’s map, there was a town of this name different 
from those already given, on the upper waters of Cheowa River, Graham 
County, N. C. 


Besides the above, the following settlements are given by Mooney and other 
writers: 


Amahyaski, location unknown. 

Amkalali, location unknown. 

Amohi, location unknown. 

Anisgayayi, a traditional town on Valley River, Cherokee County, N. C. 

Anuyi, location unknown. 

Aquohee, perhaps at the site of Fort Scott, on Nantahala River, Macon County, 
N. C. 

Atsiniyi, location unknown. 

Aumuchee, location unknown. 

Ayahliyi, location unknown. 

Big Island, on Big Island, in Little Tennessee River a short distance below the 
mouth of Tellico River. 

Briertown, on Nantahala River about the mouth of Briertown Creek, Macon 
County, N. C. 

Broomtown, location unknown. 

Brown’s Village, location unknown. 

Buffalo Fish, location unknown. 

Canuga, 2 towns: (1)apparently on Keowee River, 8. C.; (2) a traditional town on 
Pigeon River probably near Waynesville, Haywood County, N. C. 

Catatoga, on Cartoogaja Creek of Little Tennessee River above Franklin, N. C. 

Chagee, near the mouth of Chatooga Creek of Tugaloo River at or near Fort 
Madison, southwest Oconee County, S. C. 

Cheesoheha, on a branch of Savannah River in upper South Carolina. 

Chewase, on a branch of Tennessee River in East Tennessee. 

Chicherohe, on War Woman Creek in the northwestern part of Rabun County, 
Ga. 

Chickamauga, a temporary settlement on Chickamauga Creek near Chattanooga. 

Conisca, on a branch of Tennessee River. 

Conontoroy, an “‘out town.” 

Conoross, on Conoross Creek which enters Keowee or Seneca River from the west 
in Anderson County, S. C. 

Coyatee, on Little Tennessee River about 10 miles below the Tellico, about the 
present Coytee, Loudon County, Tenn. 

Crayfish Town, in upper Georgia. 

Creek Path, with Creeks and Shawnee at Gunter’s Landing, Ala. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 219 


Crowmocker, on Battle Creek which falls into Tennessee River below Chatta- 
nooga, Tenn. 

Crow Town, on the left bank of Tennessee River near the mouth of Raccoon 
Creek, Cherokee County, Ala. 

Cuclon, an unidentified town. 

Cusawatee, on lower Coosawatee River in Gordon County, Ga. 

Dulastunyi, on Nottely River, Cherokee County, N. C., near the Georgia line. 

Dustayalunyi, about the mouth of Shooting Creek, an affluent of Hiwassee River, 
near Hayesville, Clay County, N. C. 

Ecochee, on a head stream of Savannah River in northwest South Carolina or 
northeast Georgia. 

Elakulsi, in northern Georgia. 

Etowah, 2 towns: (1) on Etowah River about the present Hightower, Forsyth 
County, Ga.; (2) a possible settlement on Hightower Creek of Hiwassee River, 
Towns County, Ga. 

Euforsee, location unknown. 

Fightingtown, on Fightingtown Creek, near Morgantown, Fannin County, Ga. 

Frogtown, on a creek of the same name, north of Dahlonega, Lumpkin County, 
Ga. 

Guhlaniyi, occupied by Cherokee and Natchez, at the junction of Brasstown 
Creek with Hiwassee River a short distance above Murphy, N. C. 

Gusti, traditional, on Tennessee River near Kingston, Roane County, Tenn. 

Halfway Town, about halfway between Sitiku and Chilhowee on Little Tennessee 
River about the boundary of Monroe and Loudon Counties, Tenn. 

Hemptown, on Hemptown Creek near Morgantown, Fannin County, Ga. 

Hickory Log, on Etowah River a short distance above Canton, Cherokee County, 
Ga. 

High Tower Forks, probably one of the places called Etowah. 

Ikatikunahita, on Long Swamp Creek about the boundary of Forsyth and Chero- 
kee Counties, Ga. 

Ivy Log, on Ivy Log Creek, Union County, Ga. 

Johnstown, on the upper waters of Chattahoochee River and probably in the 
northern part of Hall County, Ga. 

Kalanunyi, a district or town laid off on the Eastern Cherokee Reserve in Swain 
and Jackson Counties, N. C. 

Kanastunyi, on the headwaters of French Broad River near Brevard in Transyl- 
vania County, N. C., also possibly a second on Hiwassee River. 

Kansaki, 4 towns: (1) on Tuckasegee River a short distance above the present 
Webster in Jackson County, N. C.; (2) on the lower course of Canasauga Creek 
in Polk County, Tenn.; (8) at the junction of Conasauga and Coosawatee 
Rivers, the later site of New Echota, Gordon County, Ga.; (4) mentioned in 
the De Soto narratives but perhaps identical with No. 2. 

Kanutaluhi, in northern Georgia. 

Kawanunyi, about the present Ducktown, Polk County, Tenn. 

Kuhlahi, in upper Georgia. 

Kulahiyi, in northeastern Georgia near Currahee Mountain. 

Leatherwood, at or near Leatherwood in the northern part of Franklin County, 
Ga. 

Long Island, at the Long Island in Tennessee River on the Tennessee-Georgia 
line. 

Lookout Mountain Town, at or near the present Trenton, Dade County, Ga. 


930 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Naguchee, about the junction of Soquee and Sautee Rivers in Nacoochee Valley 
at the head of Chattahoochee River, Habersham County, Ga. 

Nanatlugunyi, traditional, on the site of Jonesboro, Washington County, Tenn. 

Nantahala (see Briertown). 

Nickajack, on the south bank of Tennessee River in Marion County, Tenn. 

Nununyi, on Oconaluftee River near Cherokee, Swain County, N. C. 

Ocoee, on Ocoee River near its junction with the Hiwassee, about Benton, Polk 
County, Tenn. 

Oconaluftee, probably at the present Birdtown, on the Eastern Cherokee Reser- 
vation. 

Ooltewah, about the present Ooltewah, on Ooltewah Creek, James County, Tenn. 

Oothcaloga, on Oothcaloga (Ougillogy) Creek of Oostanaula River near Calhoun, 
Gordon County, Ga. 

Paint Town, on lower Soco Creek, within the reservation in Jackson and Swain 
Counties, N. C. 

Pine Log, on Pine Log Creek in Bartow County, Ga. 

Quacoshatchee, in northwest Pickens County, S. C. 

Qualla, agency of the Eastern Cherokee on a branch of Soco River, Jackson 
County, N. C. 

Quanusee, location unknown. 

Rabbit Trap, in upper Georgia. 

Red Bank, on Etowah River, at or near Canton, Cherokee County, Ga. 

Red Clay, on Oconaluftee River in Swain County, N. C., Eastern Cherokee Reser- 
vation. 

Running Water, on the southeast bank of Tennessee River below Chattanooga, 
near the northwestern Georgia line and 4 miles above Nickajack. 

Sanderstown, in northeastern Alabama. 

Selikwayi, on Sallacoa Creek probably at or near the present Sallacoa, Cherokee 
County, Ga. 

Seneca, on Keowee River about the mouth of Conneross Creek in Oconee County, 
Sic, 

Setsi, traditional, on the south side of Valley River, about 3 miles below Valley- 
town, Cherokee County, N. C. 

Skeinah, on Toccoa River, Fannin County, Ga. 

Soquee, on Soquee River, near Clarksville, Habersham County, Ga. 

Spikebuck Town, on Hiwassee River at or near Hayesville, Clay County, N. C. 

Spring Place, a mission station in Murray County, Ga. 

Standing Peach Tree, on Chattahoochee River, at the mouth of Peachtree Creek, 
northwest of Atlanta, Ga. 

Sutali, on Etowah River, probably in southwestern Cherokee County, Ga. 

Suwanee, on Chattahoochee River about the present Suwanee, Gwinnett County, 
Ga. 

Tagwahi, 3 towns: (1) on Toccoa Creek east of Clarkesville, Habersham County, 
Ga.; (2) on Toccoa or Ocoee River about the present Toccoa in Fannin County, 
Ga.; (3) perhaps on Persimmon Creek which enters Hiwassee River some 
distance below Murphy, Cherokee County, N. C. 

Takwashnaw, a Lower Cherokee town. 

Talahi, location unknown. 

Talaniyi, in upper Georgia. 

Talking Rock, on Talking Rock Creek, an affluent of Coosawattee River, Ga. 

Tasetsi, on the extreme head of Hiwassee River in Towns County, Ga. 

Taskigi, 3 towns occupied originally by Tuskegee Indians (see Alabama): (1) on 
Little Tennessee River above the junction of the Tellico, Monroe County, 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 2931 


Tenn.; (2) on the north bank of Tennessee River just below Chattanooga, Tenn.; 
(3) perhaps on Tuskegee Creek of Little Tennessee River near Robbinsville, 
Graham County, N. C. 

Tikwalitsi, on Tuckasegee River at Bryson City, Swain County, N. C. 

Tlanusiyi, at the junction of Hiwassee and Valley Rivers on the site of Murphy, N. C. 

Tocax, location unknown, perhaps connected with Toxaway or Toccoa. 

Torsalla, one of the Keowee towns. 

Tricentee, one of the Keowee towns. 

Tsilaluhi, on a small branch of Brasstown Creek of Hiwassee River, just within 
the lines of Towns County, Ga. 

Tsiskwahi, a district or town in the Eastern Cherokee Reservation, Swain County, N.C. 

Tsistetsiyi, on South Mouse Creek, a branch of Hiwassee River in Bradley 
County, Tenn. 

Tsistuyi, on the north bank of Hiwassee River at the entrance of Chestua Creek, 
in Polk County, Tenn., at one time occupied by Yuchi. 

Tsudinuntiyi, on lower Nantahala River, in Macon County, N. C. 

Tucharechee, location unknown. 

Tuckasegee, 2 towns: (1) about the junction of the two forks of Tuckasegee 
River, above Webster, Jackson County, N. C.; (2) on a branch of Brasstown 
Creek of Hiwassee River, in Towns County, Ga. 

Turkeytown, on the west bank of Coosa River opposite the present Center, 
Cherokee County, Ala. 

Turniptown, on Turniptown Creek above Ellijay, Gilmer County, Ga. 

Turtletown, in upper Georgia. 

Tusquittah, on Tusquittee Creek near Hayesville, Clay County, N. C. 

Two Runs, on Etowah River at the crossing of the old Indian trail between Coosa 
and Tugaloo Rivers, Bartow County, Ga. 

Ustisti, one of the Lower Towns. 

Valleytown, at Valleytown on Valley River, Cherokee County, N. C. 

Wahyahi, on upper Soco Creek on the Eastern Cherokee Reservation, Jackson 
County, N. C. 

Wasasa’s Village, on Brown’s Creek, a southern affluent of Tennessee River in 
northern Alabama. 

Willstown, on Wills Creek, below Fort Payne, De Kalb County, Ala. 


Estory—There seems to have been a Cherokee migration legend 
something like that of the Creeks according to which the tribe entered 
their historic seats from some region toward the northeast. 

In 1540 De Soto seems to have passed through only one town that 
has a Cherokee name, but Pardo in 1566 learned of another, Tanasqui, 
which has a Cherokee appearance and may have given its name to 
Tennessee River. Continuous contact between the Cherokee and the 
Whites began after Virginia was settled, when traders from that 
colony commenced to work their way into the Appalachian Mountains. 
Contact became more intimate with the founding of the Carolina 
colonies, and a contingent of 310 Cherokee joined Moore in his attack 
on the Tuscarora in 1713. In 1730 Sir Alexander Cuming staged a 
personal embassy to the Cherokee and afterward took seven of the 
Indians to England with him. In 1738 an enemy more serious even 
than White men made its first appearance in this tribe, namely small- 


222 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


pox, which cut down their numbers by nearly 50 percent. In 1755 the 
Cherokee won a great victory over the Abihka Creeks, who forthwith 
withdrew from the Tennessee River. Relations with the Whites 
were upon the whole friendly until 1759 when the Indians refused to 
accede to the demand of the Governor of South Carolina that a number 
of Indians including two leading chiefs be turned over to him for 
execution under the charge that they had killed a Whiteman. He had 
asked also to have 24 other chiefs sent to him merely on suspicion 
that they entertained hostile intentions. War followed, and the 
Indians captured Fort Loudon, a post in the heart of their country, 
August 8, 1760, after having defeated an army which came to relieve 
it. The year following, however, the Indians were defeated on 
June 10, by a larger force under Col. James Grant, who laid the, 
greater number of the Middle Cherokee settlements in ashes, and 
compelled the tribe to make peace. In 1769 they are said to have 
suffered a severe defeat at the hands of the Chickasaw at the Chicka- 
saw Oldfields. On the outbreak of the American Revolution they 
sided with the British and continued hostilities after its close down 
to 1794. Meanwhile parties of Cherokee had pushed down Tennessee 
River and formed new settlements near the present Tennessee- 
Alabama boundary. Shortly after 1800 missionary work was begun 
among them, and in 1820 they adopted a regular form of government 
modeled on that of the United States. In the meantime large numbers 
of them, wearied of the encroachments of the Whites, had crossed the 
Mississippi and settled in the territory now included in the State of 
Arkansas. In 1821 Sequoya, son of a mixed-blood Cherokee woman by 
a White man, submitted a syllabary of his own devising to the chief 
men of the nation, and, on their approval, the Cherokee of all ages 
set about learning it with such zeal that in a few months numbers of 
them were able to read and write by means of it. In 1822 Sequoya 
went west to teach his alphabet to the Indians of the western: division, 
and he remained among them permanently. The pressure of the 
Whites upon the frontiers of the Eastern Cherokee was soon increased 
by the discovery of gold near the present Dahlonega, Ga., and after 
a few years of fruitless struggle the nation bowed to the inevitable 
and by the treaty of New Echota, December 29, 1835, sold all of their 
territories not previously given up and agreed to remove to the other 
side of the Mississippi to lands to be set apart for them. These lands 
were in the northeastern part of the present Oklahoma, and thither 
the greater part of the tribe removed in the winter of 1838-39, suffering 
great hardships and losing nearly one-fourth of their number on the 
way. Before the main migration took place one band of Cherokee 
had established themselves in Texas where they obtained a grant of 
land from the Mexican government, but the Texas revolutionists 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 223 


refused to recognize this claim although it was supported by Gen. 
Sam Houston. In consequence, the Cherokee chief Bow] was killed 
in 1839, along with many of his men, and the rest were expelled from 
the State. At the time of the great migration, several hundred 
Cherokee escaped to the mountains where they lived as refugees until 
in 1842, through the efforts of William H. Thomas, an influential 
trader, they received permission to remain on lands set apart for their 
use in western North Carolina, the Qualla Reservation, where their 
descendants still reside. The early years of the reestablished Cherokee 
Nation west of the Mississippi were troubled by differences between 
the faction that had approved removal and that which had opposed it. 
Afterward the tribal life was entirely disrupted for a few years by the 
Civil War. In 1867 and 1870 the Delaware and Shawnee were 
admitted from Kansas and incorporated into the nation. March 3, 
1906, the Cherokee government came to an end, and in time the lands 
were allotted in severalty, and the Cherokee people soon became 
citizens of the new State of Oklahoma. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1650 there was a 
total Cherokee population of 22,000. In 1715 a rather careful esti- 
mate, yet in all probability too low, gave a total of 11,210 (Lower 
Cherokee 2,100; Middle 6,350; Upper 2,760), including 4,000 warriors 
and distributed among 60 villages. In 1720 two estimates were 
made, of 10,000 and 11,500 respectively, but in 1729 the estimate 
jumps to 20,000, with 6,000 warriors, distributed in 64 towns. In 
1755 a North Carolina estimate gives 5 divisions of the tribe and a 
total of 2,590 men. In 1760 we find a flat figure of 2,000; in 1761, 
about 3,000. Even before this time the Cherokee are supposed to 
have lost heavily from smallpox, intoxicants, and wars with the 
colonists, but at the time of their forced removal to the west in 1838 
those in their old country had increased to 16,542. Those already in 
the west were estimated at about 6,000. The Civil War interfered 
with their growth but in 1885 they numbered 19,000, about 17,000 
being in the west. In 1902 there were officially reported in the west 
28,016 persons of Cherokee blood, including all degrees of admixture, 
but this includes several thousand persons repudiated by the tribal 
courts. The Census of 1910 returned 31,489 Cherokee, 29,610 of 
whom were in Oklahoma, 1,406 in North Carolina, and the rest 
scattered in 23 other States. In 1923 the report of the United States 
Indian Office gave 36,432 Cherokee “by blood” in Oklahoma, and 2,515 
in North Carolina: total 38,947. In 1930, 45,238 were returned: 
40,904 in Oklahoma, 1,963 in North Carolina, and the rest in more 
than 36 other States. In 1937 the number of eastern Cherokee was 
given as 3,327. 


224 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Connection in which they have become noted.—The Cherokee tribe is 
one of the most famous in all North America, (1) on account of its 
size and strength and the prominent part it played in the history of 
our country, (2) from the fact that the invention of the Cherokee 
alphabet by Sequoya was the only case of the adoption of a system 
of writing without immediate White prompting in the annals of our 
Indians, (3) from the perpetuation of numerous place names from 
Cherokee sources and of the name itself in counties in Alabama, 
Georgia, Iowa, Kansas, Oklahoma, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
and Texas, and places in some of these States and California, Ken- 
tucky, and Arkansas; in Colbért County, Ala.; Cherokee County, 
Iowa; Crawford County, Kans.; Lawrence County, Ky.; and the name 
of stations in Louisville, Ky.; Swain County, N. C.; Alfalfa County, 
Okla.; and San Saba County, Tex. There is a Cherokee City in 
Benton County, Ark.; Cherokee Dam at Jefferson City, Tenn.; and 
Cherokee Falls in Cherokee County, 8S. C. Several prominent Ameri- 
cans were descended from this tribe, including Senator Robert Owen 
and Will Rogers. 


Chiaha. A part of this tribe was encountered by De Soto in 1540, in 
the territory now forming this State, probably, as shown by Mr. 
J. Y. Brame, on what is now Burns Island. They are also men- 
tioned in connection with the explorations of Juan Pardo in 
1567. (See Georgia.) 


Chickasaw. In historic times the Chickasaw claimed the greater 
part of western Tennessee, and twice drove Shawnee Indians from 
the Cumberland Valley, the first time with the assistance of the 
Cherokee, according to the claim of the latter. At an early date 
they had a settlement on the lower Tennessee River but it is doubt- 
ful whether this was in Tennessee or Kentucky. (See Mississippi.) 


Kaskinampo. Meaning unknown, though -nampo may be the 
Koasati word for ‘“‘many.”’ 


Connections.—The Kaskinampo were probably closely related to 
the Koasati, and through them to the Alabama, Choctaw, and other 
Muskhogean people. 

Location.—Their best-known historic location was on the lower end 
of an island in the Tennessee River, probably the one now called 
Pine Island. (See also Arkansas.) 

History.—There is every reason to believe that this tribe constituted 
the Casqui, Icasqui, or Casquin “province” which De Soto entered 
immediately after crossing the Mississippi River, and it was probably 
in what is now Phillips County, Ark. We hear of the Kaskinampo 
next in connection with the expeditions of Marquette and Joliet but 
do not learn of their exact location until 1701, when they seem to 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 225 


have been on the lower end of the present Pine Island. . We are 
informed, however, by one of the French explorers that they had 
previously lived upon Cumberland River, and there is evidence that, 
when they first moved to the Tennessee, they may have settled for 
a short time nearits mouth. Both the Cumberland and the Tennessee 
were known by their name, and it stuck persistently to the latter 
stream until well along in the eighteenth century. After the early 
years of the eighteenth century we hear little more of them, but 
there is reason to believe that they united with the Koasati. 

Population.—Our only clue to the population of the Kaskinampo 
is in an unpublished report of Bienville, who estimates 150 men, or 
a total population of about 500. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The Kaskinampo are 
distinguished only for the prominent part they played in the De Soto 
narratives and for the application of their name for a time to Tennessee 
River. 


Mosopelia. This tribe probably established themselves on Cumber- 
land River and at one or two points on the Tennessee shore of the 
Mississippi on their way from Ohio to Mississippi. (See Ofo under 
Mississippi and Ohio.) 


Muskogee. Although we do not have records of any settlement in 
Tennessee by the true Muskogee, it is probable that some of them 
occupied part of its territory in prehistoric times, and at a later 
date their war parties constantly visited it. (See Alabama.) 


Natchez. After being driven from Mississippi and Louisiana, one 
band of Natchez lived among the Cherokee. (See Mississippi.) 


Ofo, see Mosopelia. 


Shawnee. Meaning “southerners,” the best-known variants of the 
name being the French form Chaouanons, and that which appears 
in the name of Savannah River. Also called: 

Ani’-Sawinu’g!i, by the Cherokee. 
Ontwagana, ‘“‘one who stutters,’’ “one whose speech is unintelligible,” 
applied by the Iroquois to this tribe and many others. 
Oshawanoag, by the Ottawa. 
Shawala, by the Teton Dakota. 
Connections—The Shawnee belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
stock, their closest relatives being the Fox, Sauk, and Kickapoo. 
Location.—There was scarcely a tribe that divided so often or moved 
so much as the Shawnee, but one of the earliest historic seats of the 
people as a whole was on Cumberland River. (See also Alabama, 

Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland and the Dis- 

trict of Columbia, Missouri, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South 

Carolina, Texas, Virginia.) 


226 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 145 


Subdivisions and Villages 


There were five subdivisions of long standing, Chillicothe, Hathawekela, Kis- 
pokotha, Mequachake, and Piqua. The Hathawekela, Kispokotha, and Piqua 
later formed one body known as Absentee Shawnee. The following names of 
villages have been preserved: 

Bulltown, or Mingo, on Little Kanawha River, W. Va. 

Chillicothe, 3 or 4 towns: (1) on Paint Creek on the site of Oldtown, near Chilli- 
cothe in Ross County, Ohio; (2) on the Little Miami about the site of Oldtown 
in Greene County, Ohio; (8) on the Great Miami River at the present Piqua in 
Miami County; (4) probably the native name of Lowertown (see below). 

Conedogwinit, location unknown. 

Cornstalk’s Town, on Scippo Creek opposite Squaw Town, Pickaway County, 
Ohio. 

Girty’s: Town, on St. Mary’s River, east of Celina Reservoir, Auglaize County, 
Ohio. 

Grenadier Squaw’s Town, on Scippo Creek, Pickaway County, Ohio. 

Hog Creek, on a branch of Ottawa River in Allen County, Ohio. 

Kagoughsage, apparently in Ohio or western Pennsylvania. 

Lewistown (and Seneca), near the site of the present Lewistown, Logan County, 
Ohio. 

Lick Town, probably Shawnee, on upper Scioto River, probably near Circleville, 
Ohio. 

Logstown, with Delaware, and later Iroquois, on the right bank of Ohio River 
about 14 miles below Pittsburgh, in Allegheny County, Pa. 

Long Tail’s Settlement, in Johnson County, Kans. 

Lowertown, 2 towns; (1) on Ohio River just below the mouth of the Scioto and 
later built on the opposite side of the river about the site of Portsmouth, Ohio; 
(2) in Ross County, also called Chillicothe. 

Mequachake: There were several towns of the name occupied by people of this 
division; they also had villages on the headwaters of Mad River, Logan County, 
Ohio. 

Old Shawnee Town, on Ohio River in Gallia County, Ohio, 3 miles above the 
mouth of the Great Kanawha. 

Peixtan (or Nanticoke), on or near the lower Susquehanna River in Dauphin 
County, Pa., possibly on the site of Paxtonville. 

Pigeon Town, Mequachake division, on Mad River, 3 miles northwest of West 
Liberty, Logan County, Ohio. 

Piqua, 4 towns: (1) Pequea on Susquehanna River at the mouth of Pequea Creek, 
in Lancaster County, Pa.; (2) on the north side of Mad River, about 5 miles 
west of Springfield, Clark County, Ohio; (3) Upper Piqua on Miami River 3 
miles north of the present Piqua in Miami County, Ohio, and (4) Lower Piqua, 
a smaller village on the site of the modern town of that name, Ohio. 

Sawanogi, on the south side of Tallapoosa River in Macon County, Ala.; but see 
Muskogee in Alabama. 

Scoutash’s Town (or Mingo), near Lewistown, Logan County, Ohio. 

Shawneetown, on the west bank of Ohio River about the present Shawneetown, 
Gallatin County, Ill. 

Sonnioto, at the mouth of Scioto River, Ohio, perhaps the same as Lowertown. 

Tippecanoe, on the west bank of the Wabash River, just below the mouth of 
Tippecanoe River in Tippecanoe County, Ind. 

Wapakoneta, on the site of the present Wapakoneta, Auglaize County, Ohio. 

Will’s Town, at the site of Cumberland, Md. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA VIM | 


History.—Tradition and the known linguistic connections of the 
Shawnee indicate that they had migrated to the Cumberland River 
Valley from the north not long previous to the historic period. They 
were on and near the Cumberland when French explorers first heard 
of them, although there are indications that they had been in part on 
the Ohio not long before. Shortly after 1674 the Hathawekela or 
that part of the Shawnee afterward so called, settled upon Savannah 
River, and in 1681 they proved of great assistance to the new colony 
of South Carolina by driving a tribe known as Westo, probably part 
of the Yuchi, from the middle Savannah. Early in the following 
century, or possibly very late in the same century, some of these 
Hathawekela began to move to Pennsylvania and continued to do so 
at intervals until 1731. Meanwhile, however, immediately after the 
Yamasee War, a part had retired among the Creeks, settling first on 
Chattahoochee River and later on the Tallapoosa, where they remained 
until some years before the removal of the Creeks to the west. Of the 
remaining bands of Shawnee—those which had stayed upon the 
Cumberland—part of the Piqua moved eastward into Pennsylvania 
about 1678, and more in 1694, so that they were able to welcome their 
kinsmen from the south a few years later. A French trader named 
Charleville established himself at Nashville among the rest of the 
tribe, but soon afterward they were forced out of that region by the 
Cherokee and Chickasaw. They stopped for a time at several points 
in Kentucky, and perhaps at Shawneetown, IIl., but about 1730, by 
permission of the Wyandot, collected along the north bank of the 
Ohio between the Allegheny and Scioto Rivers. Shortly after the 
middle of the eighteenth century they were joined by their kinsmen 
who had been living in Pennsylvania. One Pennsylvania band con- 
tinued on south to the Upper Creeks with whom they lived for several 
years before returning north. Their return must have occurred soon 
after 1760, and they are said to have settled for a time in the old 
Shawnee country on the Cumberland but were soon ejected by the 
Chickasaw, this time unassisted by the Cherokee. From the beginning 
of the French and Indian War to the treaty of Greenville in 1795 the 
main body of Shawnee were almost constantly fighting with the 
English or the Americans. They were the most active and perti- 
nacious foes of the Whites in that section. Driven from the Scioto, 
they settled upon the headwaters of the Miami, and later many of 
them assisted the Cherokee and Creeks in their wars with the Ameri- 
cans. In 1793, however, one considerable body, on invitation of the 
Spanish Government, occupied a tract of land near Cape Girardeau, 
Mo., along with some Delaware. After the treaty of Greenville, the 
Shawnee were obliged to give up their lands on the Miami, and part 
retired to the headwaters of the Auglaize, while the more hostile 


928 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


element swelled the numbers of those who had gone to Missouri. In 
1798 a part of the Shawnee in Ohio settled on White River, Ind., by 
invitation of the Delaware. Shortly afterward a Shawnee medicine 
man named Tenskwatawa, known to the Whites as ‘‘the Shawnee 
prophet,” began to preach a new doctrine which exhorted the Indians 
to return to the communal life of their ancestors, abandoning all cus- 
toms derived from the Whites. His followers increased rapidly in 
numbers and established themselves in a village at the mouth of 
Tippecanoe River, Ind. Their hostile attitude toward the Whites soon 
becoming evident, they were attacked here in 1811 by Gen. W. H. 
Harrison and totally defeated. While this war was going on 
Tecumseh, TenskwAtawa’s famous brother, was in the south endeavor- 
ing to bring about an uprising among the tribes in that section. In 
the war between the Americans and British which broke out in 1812 
Tecumseh acted as leader of the hostiles and was killed at the battle 
of the Thames in 1814. In 1825 the Shawnee in Missouri, who are 
said to have taken no part in these wars, sold their lands, and most of 
them moved to a reservation in Kansas, but a large part had pre- 
viously gone to Texas, where they remained until expelled by the 
American colonists in 1839. About 1831 the Shawnee still in Ohio 
joined those in Kansas, and about 1845 the Hathawekela, Kispokotha, 
and Piqua moved from Kansas to Oklahoma and established them- 
selves on Canadian River, becoming known later as the Absentee 
Shawnee. In 1867, a band which had been living with the Seneca 
also moved to what is now Oklahoma and came to be known as Eastern 
Shawnee; and still later the main body became incorporated with the 
Cherokee. One band, known as Black Bob’s band, at first refused to 
remove from Kansas, but later joined the rest. All have now become 
citizens of Oklahoma. 

Population.—Owing to the number of separate bodies into which 
this tribe became divided, and their complex history, estimates of 
Shawnee population in early times are difficult. Mooney (1928) 
places their entire number at 3,000 in 1650. Estimates made by 
various writers during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries 
vary between 1,000 and 2,000, 1,500 being the favorite figure. In 
1760 the Abihka and Tallapoosa bands numbered 100 warriors. In 
1909 the Eastern Shawnee numbered 107; the Absentee Shawnee, 481; 
and those incorporated with the Cherokee Nation, about 1,400. The 
census of 1910 returned only 1,338. In 1923, 166 Eastern Shawnee 
were enumerated and 551 Absentee, but no figures were given for that 
part of the tribe in the Cherokee Nation. The census of 1930 gave 
1,161, most of whom were in Oklahoma. There were 916 in Oklahoma 
in 1937. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 229 


Connection in which they have become noted.—Although prominent 
by virtue of its size, the Shawnee tribe is noteworthy rather on 
account of numerous migrations undertaken by its various branches 
and the number of contacts established by them, involving the 
history of three-quarters of our southern and eastern States. They 
constituted the most formidable opposition to the advance of settle- 
ments through the Ohio Valley, and under Tecumseh and Tenskw4- 
tawa attempted an extensive alliance of native tribes to oppose the 
Whites. The name Shawnee is preserved in various forms in Pennsyl- 
vania, Tennessee, Wisconsin, Kansas, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, 
Missouri, and Illinois, and most conspicuously of all, perhaps, in the 
name of the river Savannah and the city of Savannah, Ga. There 
are places called Shawnee in Park County, Colo.; Johnson County, 
Kans.; Perry County, Ohio; Pottawatomie County, Okla.; and Con- 
verse County, Wyo.; Shawnee-on-Delaware in Monroe County, Pa.; 
Shawanee in Claiborne County, Tenn.; Shawanese in Luzerne County, 
Pa.; Shawano in Shawano County, Wis.; Shawneetown in Gallatin 
County, Ill., and Cape Girardeau County, Mo. 


Tali. A tribe met by De Soto near the great bend of the Tennessee 
and found in the same region by the earliest English and French 
explorers, living in what is now northern Alabama and perhaps 
also in Tennessee. It is probable that they were a part of the 
Creeks (q. v.). 


Tuskegee. One band of Tuskegee formed a settlement or settlements 
in the Cherokee Nation. (See Cherokee, and Tuskegee under 
Alabama.) 


Yuchi. The greater part of the Yuchi probably lived at one period 
in and near the mountains of eastern Tennessee though one band of 
them was on the Tennessee River just above Muscle Shoals and 
there is evidence for an early occupation of the Hiwassee Valley. 
Some remained with the Cherokee until a very late date. (See 
Georgia.) 

KENTUCKY 


Cherokee. The Cherokee claimed some land in southeastern Ken- 
tucky and traces of culture of Cherokee type are said to be found 
in archeological remains along the upper course of the Cumberland, 
but no permanent Cherokee settlement is known to have existed in 
historic times within this State. (See Tennessee.) 


Chickasaw. The westernmost end of Kentucky was claimed by the 
Chickasaw, and at a very early period they had a settlement on the 
lower course of Tennessee River, either in Kentucky or Tennessee. 
(See Mississippi.) 


230 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


Mosopelea. This tribe may have lived within the boundaries of 
Kentucky for a brief time, perhaps at the mouth of the Cumberland 
River, when they were on their way from Ohio to the lower Missis- 
sippi. (See Ohio, and see also Ofo under Mississippi.) 


Shawnee. The Shawnee had more to do with Kentucky in early 
times than any other tribe, but maintained few villages in the State 
for a long period. Their more permanent settlements were farther 
south about Nashville. At one Shawnee town, located for a short 
time near Lexington, Ky., the noted Shawnee chief, Blackhoof, was 
born. The tribe crossed and recrossed the State several times in 
its history and used it still more frequently as a hunting ground. 
(See Tennessee.) 


Yuchi. According to some early maps, the Yuchi had a town in this 
State on a river which appears to be identical with Green River. 
(See Georgia.) 

Hunting bands of Illinois, Miami, Iroquois, and Delaware at times 
visited Kentucky, but these tribes can hardly be said to have played 
much of a part in Kentucky history. (See New York, New Jersey, 
Indiana, and Illinois.) 

OHIO 


Chippewa. Representatives of this tribe appear as parties to the 
Treaty of Greenville, 1795, and to treaties concluded in 1807 and 
1817 by which lands in this State were relinquished to the Whites. 
(See Minnesota.) 


Delaware. The Delaware lived in Ohio for a considerable period in 
the course of their migration west under White pressure (See New 
Jersey.) 


Erie. Meaning in Iroquois, “long tail,’ and referring to the panther, 
from which circumstance they are often referred to as the Cat 
Nation. Also called: 

Ga-qua’-ga-o-no, by L. H. Morgan (1851). 


Connection.—The Erie belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic family. 

Location.—All of northern Ohio, except possibly the northwestern 
corner, and in portions of northwestern Pennsylvania and western New 
York. In the southeastern part of the State they perhaps reached 
the Ohio River. (See also Indiana, New York, and Pennsylvania.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The names of but two villages are known, Gentaienton and Riqué. There are 
supposed to have been several subdivisions, but their names have not been 
preserved. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 231 


History.—Little is known of this tribe until the final struggle which 
resulted in its destruction as a nation at the hands of the Iroquois 
and the incorporation of most of the remnants among the conquerors. 
The war lasted from 1653 to 1656 and seems to have been unusually 
bloody, the victory of the Iroquois having been determined probably 
by the fact that they possessed firearms. Some of the so-called 
Seneca of Oklahoma may be descended from Erie refugees. 

Population.—Hewitt (1907) considers 14,500 a conservative esti- 
mate of Erie population at the time of the last war, but Mooney 
(1928) allows only 4,000. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The historical prom- 
inence of the Erie tribe itself is confined to the war in which it was 
destroyed. Its claim to present remembrance arises from the adoption 
of the name for one of the Great Lakes; for an important city in 
Pennsylvania upon its shores; counties in New York, Ohio, and 
Pennsylvania; places in Weld County, Colo.; Whiteside County, IIl.; 
Neosho County, Kans.; Monroe County, Mich.; Cass County, 
N. Dak.; Loudon County, Tenn.; Erieside in Lake County, Ohio; and 
Erieville in Madison County, N. Y., and some smaller settlements; 
also an important railroad. 


Honniasont. This tribe occupied parts of the eastern fringe of Ohio 
after it had been incorporated into the Iroquois and perhaps before. 
(See Pennsylvania.) 


Illinois. Representatives of the Illinois were parties to the Treaty of 
Greenville by which lands of the State of Ohio were relinquished to 
the Whites. (See Illinois.) 


Iroquois. After the destruction or dispersal of the Erie and other 
native tribes of Ohio, many Iroquois settlements were made in the 
State, particularly by the westernmost tribe, the Seneca. Some of 
these so-called Iroquois villages were no doubt occupied by people 
of formerly independent nations. (See New York.) 


Kickapoo. Representatives of this tribe were parties to the Treaty 
of Greenville by which Ohio lands were relinquished to the Whites. 
(See Wisconsin.) 


Miami. After the original tribes of Ohio had been cleared away, 
some Miami worked their way into the State, particularly into the 
western and northern parts, and they gave their name to three Ohio 
rivers, the Miami, Little Miami, and Maumee. (See Indiana.) 

Mosopelea. Significance uncertain, though probably from an Algon- 
quian language. Also called: 


Chonque, by Tonti in 1690, probably the Quapaw name. 
Ofo, own name, perhaps an abbreviation of the Mobilian term, Ofogoula, 
though this last may mean simply “Ofo people.”” Ofogoula may also be 


232 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


interpreted Ofi okla, ‘“‘Dog People.” They were, in fact, known to some 
of the other tribes as ‘‘Dog People.” 
Ouesperie, Ossipe, Ushpee, names by which they were known to other 
tribes and evidently shortened forms of Mosopelea, which has a variant 
DOW a 
Connections.—The Mosopelea spoke a Siouan dialect most closely 
related to Biloxi and Tutelo and secondarily to Dakota. 
Location—When the French first heard of them, they were in 
southwestern Ohio, but their best-known historical location was on the 
lower Yazoo, close to the Yazoo and Koroa Indians. (See also 
Arkansas, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee.) 


Villages 


Anciently they had eight villages, but none of the names of these have been 
preserved. 

Mistory.—After abandoning southwestern Ohio some time before 
1673, the Mosopelea appear to have settled on the Cumberland, driven 
thither probably by the Iroquois, and to have given it the name it 
bears in Coxe’s map (1741), Ouesperie, a corruption of Mosopelea. 
By 1673 they had descended to the Mississippi and established them- 
selves on its western side below the mouth of the Ohio. Later they 
appear to have stopped for a time among the Quapaw, but before 
1686 at least part of them had sought refuge among the Taensa. 
Their reason for leaving the latter tribe is unknown, but Iberville 
found them in the historic location above given in 1699. He inserts 
their name twice, once in the form Ofogoula and once as ‘“‘Ouispe,”’ 
probably a corruption of Mosopelea. When their neighbors, the 
Yazoo and Koroa, joined in the Natchez uprising, the Ofo refused 
to side with them and went to live with the Tunica, who were French 
allies. Shortly before 1739 they had settled close to Fort Rosalie, 
where they remained until after 1758. In 1784 their village was on 
the western bank of the Mississippi 8 miles above Point Coupée, but 
nothing more was heard of them until 1908, when I found a single 
survivor living among the Tunica just out of Marksville, La., and 
was able to establish their linguistic connections. 

Population.—In 1700 the Mosopelea are said to have occupied 10-12 
cabins, but some years later Le Page du Pratz (1758) gives 60. In 
1758 they are reported to have had 15 warriors and in 1784, 12. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The most noteworthy 
circumstance connected with this tribe is its romantic history and 
the recovery of the knowledge of the same. 


Neutrals. The Neutral Nation may have occupied a little territory 
in the extreme northwest of Ohio. (See New York.) 


Ofo, see Mosopelea. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 233 


Ottawa. In the eighteenth century, Ottawa worked into the northern 
part of Ohio and established settlements along the shore of Lake 
Erie. (See Michigan.) 


Potawatomi. Representatives of this tribe were parties to the Treaty 
of Greenville in 1795 and to treaties made in 1805, 1807, and 1817 
by which lands in this State were relinquished to the Whites. 
(See Michigan.) 


Seneca, see Iroquois, under New York. 


Shawnee. It is probable that some Shawnee were in Ohio at very 
early periods. After they had been driven from the Cumberland 
Valley by the Chickasaw and Cherokee shortly after 1714, they 
worked their way north into this State and, as they were joined by 
the former eastern and southern bands, Ohio became the Shawnee 
center for a considerable period, until after the Treaty of Green- 
ville. (See Tennessee.) 


Wyandot. Meaning perhaps ‘‘islanders,”’ or ‘dwellers on a penin- 
sula.”” Occasionally spelled Guyandot. At an earlier date usually 
known as Huron, a name given by the French from huré, “rough,”’ 
and the depreciating suffix -on. Also called: 


Hatindia8o0inten, Huron name of Huron of Lorette. 

Nadowa, a name given to them and many other Iroquoian tribes by 
Algonquians. 

Telamateno", Delaware name, meaning ‘‘coming out of a mountain or 
cave.” 

Thastchetci’, Onondaga name. 


Connection.—The Wyandot belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic 
family. 

Location.—The earliest known location of the Huron proper was 
the St. Lawrence Valley and the territory of the present province of 
Ontario from Lake Ontario across to Georgian Bay. The Tionontati 
were just west of them on Lake Huron. (See also IIlinois, Indiana, 
Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


There are said to have been four confederated Huron tribes in the time of 
Champlain. 
Cartier, who first met these people, gives the following town names: 
Araste, on or near St. Lawrence River below the site of Quebec. 
Hagonchenda, on St. Lawrence River not far from the point where it is joined by 
Jacques Cartier River. 
Hochelaga, on Montreal Island. 
Hochelay, probably near Point Platon, Quebec. 
Satadin, location uncertain. 
Stadacona, on the site of the present Quebec. 


234 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 145 


Starnatan, just below the site of Quebec. 

Tailla, near Quebec. 

Teguenondahi, location uncertain. 

Tutonaguay, 25 leagues above the site of Quebec. 


The following towns, some under their native names and others under the names 
of the missions established by the French Jesuits, existed in Ontario between Lake 
Simcoe and Georgian Bay in the first half of the seventeenth century: 


Andiata. 

Angoutenc, between the refugee Wenrohronon town and Ossossané and about 2 
miles from the latter. 

Anonatea, 1 league from [honatiria. 

Arendaonatia. 

Arente. 

Arontaen, near Point Cockburn, on the north shore of Nattawasaga Bay. 

Cahiague, where was the mission of St. John the Baptist. 

Carhagouha, in Tiny Township about 2 miles northwest of Lafontaine. 

Carmaron. 

Ekiodatsaan. 

Endarahy. 

Iahenhouton. 

Thonatiria, where was the mission of the Immaculate Conception. 

Karenhassa. 

Khinonascarant, the name of three small villages. 

Onentisati, in Tiny Township. 

Ossossané, where was the mission of the Immaculate Conception after it was 
moved from [honatiria. 

Ste. Agnes. 

Ste. Anne. 

St. Antoine. 

Ste. Barbe. 

Ste. Catherine. 

Ste. Cécile. 

St. Charles, 2 villages. 

St. Denys. 

St. Etienne. 

St. Francois Xavier. 

Ste. Geneviéve. 

St. Joachim. 

St. Louis. 

Ste. Madeleine. 

St. Martin. 

Ste. Marie, 2 villages. 

Ste. Térése. 

Scanonaerat, where was the mission of St. Michel. 

Taenhatentaron, where was the mission of St. Ignace. 

Teanaustayaé, whither the mission of St. Joseph was moved from Ihonatiria (?). 

Teandewiata. 

Tondakhra, on the west side of the northern peninsula of Tiny Township, 4 miles 
northwest of Lafontaine and about 1 mile southeast of Clover Point. 

Touaguainchain, perhaps where the mission of Ste. Madeleine was established. 


After the Huron had been broken up by the Iroquois there was for a time a 
Huron mission on Mackinac Island, called St. Ignace, which was soon moved to 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 935 


Point Ignace on the shore to the northward. A part of the tribe settled succes- 
sively in villages called Ancienne Lorette and Jeune Lorette, 8 miles northwest of 
Quebec. 

The following names of Huron or Wyandot towns are recorded in Ohio after the 
part of the tribe which moved west and south had collected there: 


Cranetown, 2 towns: (1) on the site of the present Royalton, Fairfield County; 
(2) in Crawford County, 8 or 10 miles northeast of the present Upper Sandusky. 

Junqueindundeh, on Sandusky River 24 miles above its mouth. 

Junundat, on a small creek that empties into a little lake below the mouth of 
Sandusky River, Seneca County. 

Sandusky, 2 towns: (1) Lower Sandusky on the site of Sandusky, Erie County; 
(2) Upper Sandusky near the present town of that name in Wyandot County. 


There was a Wyandot village in Wayne County, Mich., called Brownstown, 
occupied by people of this tribe from 1809 to 1818. 


History —The St. Lawrence territories seem to have been occupied 
by two of the four Huron tribes when Cartier explored the St. Lawrence 
River in 1534-43; at any rate Hurons were in occupancy. When 
Champlain came into the country in 1603, they were all living south 
of Georgian Bay. The French soon entered into amicable relations 
with them and, beginning in 1615, missionaries undertook to convert 
them to Christianity. These efforts were crowned with considerable 
success, but were brought to an end when the tribe was attacked and 
disrupted by the Iroquois in 1648-49. Part of the Huron were then 
adopted by their conquerors, while part placed themselves under the 
protection of the French at Quebec, their descendants being known 
today as the Hurons of Lorette, and others fled to the Neutrals, the 
Erie, the Tionontati, and other tribes. In 1649, however, the Tio- 
nontati were attacked in their turn and forced along with their 
Huron guests to take refuge on Christian Island in Lake Huron. 
Then followed a long course of wandering; to Michilimackinac; Mani- 
toulin Island; Green Bay; the Potawatomi; the Illinois; the neigh- 
borhood of the Ottawa on Chequamigon Bay, on the south shore of 
Lake Superior; and again to Michilimackinac. In the latter part of 
the seventeenth century some moved to Sandusky, Ohio, and Detroit, 
Mich. In 1745 a considerable party of Huron under the leadership 
of the war chief Orontony or Nicholas went from Detroit to the 
marshlands of Sandusky Bay, but in 1748, on the failure of a con- 
spiracy Orontony had attempted against the French, he abandoned 
his villages and removed to White River, Ind. After his death the 
Hurons seem to have returned to Detroit and Sandusky and gradually 
extended their claims over Ohio, so that it was by their permission 
that the Shawnee from the south and the Delaware from the east 
settled north of Ohio River. The Wyandot allied themselves with 
the British in the War of 1812. At its close a large tract of land in 


936 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Ohio and Michigan was confirmed to them, but they sold much of it 
in 1819, under treaty provisions, reserving a small portion near Upper 
Sandusky, Ohio, and a smaller area on Huron River, near Detroit, 
until 1842, when these tracts also were sold, and the tribe removed to 
Wyandotte County, Kans. In 1867 they were placed upon a small 
reservation in the northeastern part of the Indian Territory and are 
now citizens of the State of Oklahoma. 

Population —Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1600 there were 
10,000 Huron and 8,000 Tionontati. French estimates of the first 
half of the seventeenth century range from 20,000 to 30,000, the former 
figure being one that Hewitt (in Hodge, 1907) is inclined to accept. 
After the dispersal, the Hurons of Lorette were estimated at 300 in 
1736 but placed officially at 455 in 1904. The following figures are 
given for the other Huron: 1,000 in 1736; 500 and 850 in 1748; 1,250 
in 1765; 1,500 in 1794-95; 1,000 and 1,250 in 1812. In 1885 the 
Huron in Oklahoma numbered 251; in 1905, 378; and by the census 
of 1910, 353. In 1923 there were 502 in Oklahoma and in 1924, 399 
at Lorette, Canada: total 901. The census of 1930 returned exactly 
the same number in the United States as had the census of 1910. In 
1937, 783 were reported in Oklahoma. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The Wyandot tribe is 
famous, (1) from the fact that it was the chief tribe or group of tribes 
encountered by Cartier when he explored the St. Lawrence, (2) for the 
flourishing missions maintained among them by the French Jesuits, 
(3) for the tragic destruction of their confederacy by the Iroquois, 
(4) from the various applications of the names Huron and Wyandot, 
the former including one of the Great Lakes and also rivers and coun- 
ties in Michigan, Ohio, and Ontario; places in Fresno County, Calif.; 
Lawrence County, Ind.; Atchison County, Kans.; Erie County, Ohio; 
Beadle County, S. Dak.; Henderson County, Tenn.; and the Huron 
Mountains in Marquette County, Mich. Wyandot was applied in 
the forms Wyandot or Wyandotte to counties in Ohio and Kansas; 
to places in Wyandot County, Ohio; Crawford County, Ind.; Butte 
County, California; Ottawa County, Okla.; and Wayne County, 
Mich.; and a famous cave, Wyandotte Cave, 4 miles northeast of 
Leavenworth, Ind. In the form Guyandotte, the name of the Wyan- 
dot has been given to a river, mountains, and a town in West Virginia. 


INDIANA 


Chippewa. Representatives of this tribe appear as parties to the 
Treaty of Greenville in 1795 and treaties made in 1817 and 1821 
by which lands in Indiana were relinquished to the Whites. (See 
Minnesota.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 237 


Delaware. About 1770 the Delaware, most of whom were then living 
in Ohio, received permission from the Miami and Piankashaw to 
occupy that part of Indiana between the Ohio and White Rivers, 
where at one period they had six villages. In course of time, all 
moved west of the Mississippi to Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma. 
(See New Jersey.) 


Erie. Erie tribal territory may once have extended into the north- 
eastern part of the State, but this tribe played but little part in the 
known history of the region covered by it. (See Ohio.) 


Illinois. Representatives of this tribe appear as parties to the Treaty 
of Greenville in 1795, relinquishing land in Indiana to the Whites. 
(See Llinois.) 


Iroquois. The earlier Indian occupants of Indiana were largely 
driven out by the Iroquois, particularly by the westernmost of the 
Iroquois tribes, the Seneca, yet they seem to have had few settle- 
ments in the State. (See New York.) 


Kickapoo. When the Kickapoo were on Vermilion River, Ill., they 
undoubtedly occupied some of western Indiana for brief periods. 
(See Wisconsin.) 


Miami. The name is thought to be derived from the Chippewa word 
Omaumeg, signifying “people on the peninsula,’’ but according to 
their own traditions, it came from the word for pigeon. The name 
used by themselves, as recorded and often used by early writers, is 
Twightwees, derived from the cry of a crane. Also called: 

Naked Indians, a common appellation used by the colonists, from a con- 
fusion of twa"h, twa*h, the cry of a crane, with tawa, ‘‘naked.” 
Pkiwi-léni, by the Shawnee, meaning ‘‘dust or ashes people.” 
Sa*shkid4-a-rind, by the Wyandot, meaning ‘‘people dressing finely, or 
fantastically.” 
Tawatawas, meaning “naked.” (See Naked Indians above.) 
Wa-yi-ta-no’-ke, cited by Morgan (1851). 
Connections.—The Miami belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
stock, their nearest immediate connections being with the Illinois. 
Location.—For territory occupied in Indiana, see History. (See 
also Illinois, Kansas, Michigan, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


French writers divided the Miami into the following five bands: Piankashaw, 
Wea, Atchatchakangouen, Kilatika, Mengakonkia, and Pepicokia. The first 
two later became recognized as independent tribes, the last may have been ab- 
sorbed by the Piankashaw but this and the other three divisions are no longer 
recognized. The following villages are mentioned: 


238 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buy 145 


Chicago, on the site of the present city, probably occupied by Wea. 

Chippekawkay (Piankashaw), perhaps containing originally the Pepicokia band, 
on the site of Vincennes, Knox County, Ind. 

Choppatee’s Village, on the west bank of St. Joseph River, a few miles from Fort 
Wayne, Allen County, Ind. 

Flat Belly’s Village (see Papakeecha). 

Kekionga, on the east bank of St. Joseph River, in Allen County, Ind., opposite 
Fort Wayne. 

Kenapacomaqua, a Wea village on the west bank of Eel River, near its mouth, 
6 miles above Logansport, Cass County, Ind. 

Kokomo, on the site of the present Kokomo, Ind. 

Kowasikka or Thorntown, on Sugar Creek near the present Thornton, Boone 
County, Ind. 

Little Turtle’s Village, on Eel River, Ind., about 20 miles northwest of Fort 
Wayne. 

Meshingomesia, on a reservation on the northeastern side of Mississinewa River, 
in Liberty Township, Wabash County, Ind. 

Missinquimeschan, probably Piankashaw, near the site of Washington, Daviess 
County, Ind. 

Mississinewa, on the east side of Mississinewa River at its junction with the 
Wabash in Miami County, Ind. 

Osaga, location uncertain. 

Papakeecha, named from its chief, east of Turkey Lake at the present Indian 
village, Noble County, Ind. 

Piankashaw, occupied by Piankashaw, on Wabash River at the junction of the 
Vermilion. 

Pickawillanee, on Miami River at the site of the present Piqua, Miami County, 
Ohio. 

Saint Francis Xavier, mission for Miami and Mascouten on Fox River, Wis., 
near De Pere, Brown County. 

Seek’s Village, on Eel River about 3 miles from Columbia City, in Whitley County, 
Ind. 

Thornton (see Kowasikka). 

White Raccoon’s Village, near the present Aboite, Allen County, Ind. 


Historya—Miami were living in the neighborhood of Green Bay, 
Wis., when knowledge of the tribe first came to Europeans shortly 
after the middle of the seventeenth century. In 1670 they were at the 
headwaters of Fox River, but soon afterward they formed new settle- 
ments at the southern end of Lake Michigan and on Kalamazoo River, 
Mich. It is quite possible that bands of this tribe had moved from 
Wisconsin at a still earlier period and were in northern Indiana. Their 
first settlements at the lower end of Lake Michigan were at Chicago 
and on St. Joseph River. In 1703 there was a Miami village at De- 
troit, but the greater part of the tribe continued to live on St. Joseph 
River for a considerable period. By 1711 they had reached the Wa- 
bash, and presently they were forced from St. Joseph River by the 
Potawatomi, Kickapoo, and other northern tribes. In consequence 
they moved farther south and also eastward to Miami River, and 
perhaps as far as the Scioto. After the peace of 1763, they abandoned 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 239 


these eastern territories to the Shawnee and retired to Indiana. 
They took a prominent part in all subsequent wars in this section, but 
soon after the War of 1812 began to dispose of their lands and by 1838 
had parted with most of them, the United States Government agreeing 
to provide them with new lands west of the Mississippi. In 1840 all 
of their remaining territories were ceded except one tract reserved 
for a part of the tribe called Meshingomesia’s band, which had chosen 
to remain in their old country. In 1867 the rest accompanied the 
Illinois to Oklahoma, where they were given a reservation in the 
northeastern corner of the State. Their lands now have been allotted 
in severalty, and they are citizens of the State of Oklahoma. The 
lands of Meshingomesia’s band in Indiana were divided among the 
survivors in 1872 and their descendants are citizens of Indiana. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated 4,500 Miami, including the 
Wea and Piankashaw, in the year 1650. An estimate of 1764 
gives them 1,750, but a year later another substracts 500 from this 
figure. In 1825 the Miami, Wea, and Piankashaw, entered as tribes, 
were supposed to total about 1,400, of whom 327 were Wea. In 1885 
only 57 Miami proper were officially recognized in Indian Territory, 
while the Wea and Piankashaw were enumerated with the Illinois, the 
whole numbering 149. These last had increased to 191 in 1903. In 
1905 the total number of Miami in Indian Territory was 124. In 1900 
the Miami in Indiana, including many White-Indian mixed-bloods, 
numbered 243. The census of 1910 returned 226 Miami, of whom 123 
were in Oklahoma and 90 in Indiana. The United States Indian 
Office Report of 1923 gave 125 Indians in Indiana, most of whom 
certainly belonged to this tribe. The census of 1930 returned 284 
Miami and Illinois; the 47 reported from Indiana were, of course, all 
Miami. In 1937, 287 were reported from Oklahoma. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Historically the Miami 
were noted as one of those tribes which offered steady resistance to the 
westward movement of White population in the eighteenth century. 
Their name has been given to three Ohio rivers of some importance, the 
Great Miami, Little Miami, and Maumee; counties in Ohio, Indiana, 
and Kansas; and to places in California, Indiana, Oklahoma, Missouri, 
Ohio, Texas, and Manitoba, Canada; also to a creek in Missouri. 
There are places of the name in Gila County, Ariz.; Miami County, 
Ind.; Saline County, Mo.; Colfax County, N. Mex.; Ottawa County, 
Okla.; Roberts County, Tex.; Kanawha County, W. Va. Miamisburg 
is in Montgomery County, Miamitown in Hamilton County, and 
Miamiville in Clermont County, all in Ohio; and Miami Station is 
in Carroll County, Mo. The name of Miami, Fla., and the derived 
Miami Beach and Miami Springs, Fla., have a different origin. The 


240 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL, 145 


Miami tribe had a famous chief, Little Turtle, whose name often 
appears in historical narratives. 


Mosopelea. Before this tribe left its former territory north of the 
Ohio, it probably extended into the extreme southeastern part of 
Indiana. (See Ohio.) 


Neutrals. The Neutral Nation may have extended slightly into the 


northeastern portion of this State, though this is uncertain. (See 
New York.) 


Ottawa. Representatives of the Ottawa appear as parties to the 
Treaty of Greenville in 1795, relinquishing Indiana land to the 
Whites, and as parties to similar treaties in 1817 and 1821. (See 
Michigan.) 

Potawatomi. The Potawatomi pushed into the northern part of 
Indiana during the eighteenth century and were in occupancy until 
they ceded their lands to the United States Government in the first 
half of the nineteenth century. (See Michigan.) 


Seneca, see Iroquois. 


Shawnee. There was an ancient Shawnee town in Posey County, 
Ind., at the junction of the Wabash and Ohio. Ata later period the 
tribe had settlements along the southern and eastern borders, and 
the soil of Indiana was the scene of the activities of the Shawnee 
prophet and his brother Tecumseh until after Gen. Harrison’s 
victory at Tippecanoe. (See Tennessee.) 


Wyandot. Representatives of this tribe appear as parties to the 
Treaty of Greenville in 1795, relinquishing land in Indiana to the 
Whites. (See Wisconsin and Ohio.) 


ILLINOIS 


Chippewa. Representatives of this tribe appear in treaties made in 
1795, 1816, 1829, and 1833 relinquishing Illinois land to the Whites. 
(See Minnesota.) 


Delaware. While they were being slowly crowded west by the Whites, 
the Delaware passed across Illinois, and their connection with the 
State was transitory in both senses of the term. (See New Jersey.) 


Foxes. This tribe, together with the Sauk, drove the Illinois Indians 
from the northwestern part of the State of Illinois in the latter 
part of the eighteenth century and took their places, but ceded the 
territory to the United States Government by a treaty signed 
November 3, 1804. (See Wisconsin.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 241 


> «¢ 


Illinois. A native word signifying ‘‘men,” “people.” Also called: 


Chicktaghicks, Geghdageghroano, or Kighetawkigh Roanu, by the Iroquois. 

Oudataouatouat, applied by the Wyandot to the Ottawa and later to the 
Illinois. 

Witishaytdnu, the Huron name for the Illinois and Miami, from Ushaxtdno, 
“Tlinois River.” 


Connections.—The Illinois belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
family, and were more closely connected with the Chippewa than 
with any other Algonquian tribe, except the Miami. 

Location.—In historic times they lived principally along the Illinois 
and Mississippi Rivers, one division, the Michigamea, being as far 
south as northeastern Arkansas (q. v.). (See also Indiana, Iowa, 
Kansas, Missouri, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The [llinois were in reality a group of related tribes, of which the best known 

are the following: 

Cahokia, later home about Cahokia, Il. 

Kaskaskia, before 1700 near the present Utica, La Salle County, later at or near 
Kaskaskia, III. 

Michigamea, probably on Big Lake, between the St. Francis and Mississippi 
Rivers, Ark. 

Moingwena, in Iowa near the mouth of Des Moines River. 

Peoria, their early location probably in northeastern Iowa, later near the present 
Peoria. 

Tamaroa, on both sides of Mississippi River about the mouths of the Illinois 
and Missouri. 
The following were perhaps minor Illinois tribes: 

Albivi, given by only one writer and it is doubtful whether this was a true Illinois 
band. 

Amonokoa, mentioned by Hennepin, 1680. 

Chepoussa, probably ‘a band from Kaskaskia River connected with the Michi- 
gamea, 

Chinko, mentioned by Allouez and La Salle. 

Coiracoentanon, mentioned by La Salle. 

Espeminkia, mentioned by La Salle. 

Tapouaro, mentioned by La Salle. 


The villages noted in history are: 
Cahokia, near the present Cahokia, 
Immaculate Conception, a mission among the Kaskaskia, near Rockford. 
Kaskaskia, as given above. 
Matchinkoa, 30 leagues from Fort Crevecoeur, near the present Peoria. 
Moingwena, as given above. 
Peoria, as given above. 
Pimitoui, on Illinois River near the mouth of Fox River in La Salle County. 


942 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


History.—In 1667 the French priest Allouez met a party of Illinois 
Indians who had come to La Pointe on Lake Superior to trade. In 
1673 Marquette, while descending the Mississippi, found the Peoria 
and Moingwena west of the river near the mouth of the Des Moines, 
but before his return they had moved to the neighborhood of the 
present Peoria, and most of the other Illinois tribes, except the Mitchi- 
gamea, were then on Illinois River. In 1700 the Kaskaskia moved 
to southern Illinois and settled on Kaskaskia River. About the time 
of La Salle’s visit in 1682 the Illinois were at war with a number of 
neighboring peoples, and the Iroquois, who were then just beginning 
raids against them, caused them heavy losses in the succeeding years. 
The murder of Pontiac by a Kaskaskia Indian set the northern tribes 
in motion against the Illinois and in the ensuing wars the latter were 
reduced to a fraction of their former strength and the Sauk, Foxes, 
Kickapoo, and Potawatomi dispossessed them of the greater part of 
their territories. The remnant settled near the French at Kaskaskia, 
where they continued to decline in numbers until, in 1800, only about 
150 were left. In 1832 the survivors sold their lands and removed 
west of the Mississippi, to the present Kansas, whence they removed 
again in 1867 and became consolidated with the Wea and Piankashaw 
in the northeastern corner of the present State of Oklahoma. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1650 the MIlinois 
numbered about 8,000. About 1680 Hennepin gives 400 houses and 
1,800 warriors. Rasles estimated 300 cabins of 4 fires each, indicating 
a population of 9,000, which is probably excessive. About the year 
1750 there were supposed to be from 1,500 to 2,000 souls. In 1778 
the Kaskaskia numbered 210 and the Peoria and Michigamea together 
170. In 1800 all these were reduced to 150. In 1885 the mixed-blood 
remnant in Indian territory, including the Wea and Piankashaw, 
numbered 149, and in 1905, 195. The census of 1910 gave 128, of 
whom 114 were in Oklahoma, and the census of 1930, 284 Illinois and 
Miami. In 1937 there were 370 “Peoria’”’ in Oklahoma. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The chief claim of 
the Illinois to distinction is the adoption of its name for an important 
branch of the Mississippi and more particularly its later adoption as 
the name of the State of Illinois. The name is also given geographical 
application in Arkansas, Texas, Oregon, and Oklahoma. The name 
appears in Illinois Bend, Montague County, Tex.; Illinois City, Rock 
Island County, Ill.; and Ilhopolis, Sangamon County, Ill. 
Kickapoo. This tribe, after helping destroy the Illinois, settled on 

Vermilion River and extended its territories to Illinois River. It 

ceded this land to the United States Government July 30, 1819. 

(See Wisconsin.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 9ASZ8 


Miami. In very early times the Miami had a town where now stands 
Chicago, and later their territorial claims covered parts of the eastern 
sections of the State. (See Indiana.) 


Ottawa. Some Ottawa worked down to the northernmost part of the 
State in the eighteenth century. (See Michigan.) 


Potawatomi. This tribe succeeded the Miami in the region of Chicago, 
and, after the destruction of the Illinois, occupied still more territory 
in the northeastern part of the State. (See Michigan.) 


Sauk. The Sauk assisted their relatives the Foxes in expelling the 
Illinois tribes from the Rock River region, and they occupied it 
with them until the lands were ceded to the Whites and they 
moved farther west. (See Wisconsin.) 


Shawnee. There were Shawnee for a while in the southern part of 
Illinois. (See Tennessee.) 


Winnebago. Representatives of this tribe were parties to an Illinois 
land cession in 1829. (See Wisconsin.) 


Wyandot. Some Wyandot were parties to the Greenville Treaty in 
1795 relinquishing land in Illinois to the Whites. (See Ohio.) 


MICHIGAN 


Chippewa. At a very early period, Chippewa lived about the Sault 
St. Marie and on the northern shore of Lake Michigan. (See 
Minnesota. ) 


Foxes. Since the Sauk are known to have lived in Michigan at 
an early period, it is probable that the Foxes did also, but this is 
still uncertain. (See Wisconsin.) 


Hurons, see Wyandot. 


Kickapoo. The same probability of an early residence in Michigan 
applies to the Kickapoo as to the Foxes and for a similar reason. 
(See Wisconsin.) 


Menominee. This tribe ceded its claim to a portion of the upper 
peninsula of Michigan in 1836. (See Wisconsin.) 


Miami. The Miami, or a portion of them, at one time occupied the 
valley of St. Joseph River and other parts of the southern Michigan 
border. (See Indiana.) 


Neutrals. Bands of the Neutral Nation extended, in the seventeenth 
century, into what is now southeastern Michigan. (See New York.) 


Noquet. Meaning probably “bear foot,’’ another name for the Bear 
gens in Chippewa. The Bear gens may have been prominent in 
this tribe. 


244 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Connections.—The Noquet are thought to have been related to the 
Menominee of the Algonquian linguistic family. 

Location.—About Big Bay de Noquet and Little Bay de Noquet 
and extending across the northern peninsula of Michigan to Lake 
Superior. (See also Wisconsin.) 

History.—In 1659 the Noquet was one of the tribes attached to the 
mission of St. Michel. They were never prominent and were prob- 
ably absorbed at a very early date by the Menominee or Chippewa. 

Population. —Unknown. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Noquet is 
perpetuated in the two bays above mentioned. 


Ottawa. From a native word signifying ‘‘to trade,” because they 
were noted as middlemen. It occurs shortened to Tawa. Also 
called: 


Andatahouats, Ondatawawat, Huron name. 

Udawak, Penobscot name. 

Ukua’-yata, Huron name, according to Gatschet (1877). 

Waganha’s, Iroquois name, meaning “‘stammerers’’. 

Watawawininiwok, Chippewa name, meaning “men of the bulrushes’’, 
from the many bulrushes in Ottawa River. 

Wdowog, Abnaki name. 


Connections.—The Ottawa belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
stock and were related most closely with the Chippewa and Pota- 
watomi. 

Location.—The earliest known home of this tribe was Manitoulin 
Island and neighboring parts of the north shore of Georgian Bay. 
Their connection with Michigan came later. (See also TIllinois, 
Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Wisconsin, and 
Canada.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The following four main divisions are given by early writers: The Kishkakon 
or Bear Gens, the Nassauaketon, or Fork People, the Sable Gens and the Sinago 
or Gray Squirrel Gens, to which a fifth, the Keinouche or Pickerel Gens, is some- 
times added. The Kishkakon, Sinago, and Keinouche were closely associated. 
Villages: 

Aegakotcheising, in Michigan. 

Anamiewatigong, in Emmet County, lower Michigan. 

Apontigoumy, probably in Ontario. 

Machonee, near the mouth of Au Vaseau River which flows into Lake St. 

Clair, in lower Michigan. 
Manistee, in Michigan, perhaps near the village of Weganakisi on Little 
Traverse Bay. 

Menawzhetaunaung, on an island in the Lake of the Woods. 

Meshkemau, on Maumee Bay, Lucas County, Ohio. 

Michilimackinac, on Mackinac Island. 

Middle Village, location unknown. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 245 


Obidgewong, with Chippewa, on the western shore of Lake Wolseley, Mani- 
toulin Island, Ontario. 
Oquanoxa, on the west bank of the Little Auglaize, at its mouth, in Paulding 
County, Ohio. 
Roche de Boeuf, on the northwestern bank of Maumee River, near Waterville, 
Lucas County, Ohio. 
Saint Simon, a mission on Manitoulin Island. 
Shabawywyagun, apparently on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan. 
Tushquegan, on the south bank of Maumee River opposite Toledo, Ohio. 
Waganakisi, on the site of Harbor Springs, Emmet County, Mich. 
Walpole Island, on the island of that name, Ontario. 
Waugau, near the mouth of Maumee River, in Lucas County, Ohio. 
Wolf Rapids, on Maumee River, Ohio, about the boundary of Wood and Henry 
Counties. 
Additional bands: 
Maskasinik, position uncertain, mentioned in Jesuit Relation of 1657-58 with 
Nikikouek and Missisauga, 
Nikikouek, position uncertain, associated with Missisauga and dwelling east of 
them on the north shore of Lake Huron. 
Outaouakamigouk, on the northeast coast of Lake Huron in 1648, probably 
Ottawa. 
Sagnitaouigama, in 1640 southeast of Ottawa River, perhaps same as Sinago. 
History.—It is uncertain whether the Ottawa River in Ontario 
received its name because the Ottawa once lived upon it or because the 
Ottawa had obtained a monopoly of the trade passing up and down it. 
When the French actually came among them they were in the region 
above indicated. After the destruction of their allies, the Hurons, in 
1648-49, the Iroquois attacked the Ottawa in turn, who fled to the 
islands at the entrance of Green Bay, part of them later passing to 
Keweenaw Bay, while the rest accompanied the Hurons to an island 
near the entrance of Lake Pepin on the Mississippi. Harassed by the 
Dakota, the Ottawa settled on Chequamegon Bay but in 1670-71 were 
induced by the French to return to Manitoulin Island. By 1680 most 
of them had left Manitoulin Island and joined the Hurons about the 
mission station at Mackinaw. About 1700 the Hurons removed to 
Detroit, and a portion of the Ottawa seem to have obtained a foothold 
on the west shore of Lake Huron between Saginaw Bay and Detroit, 
but they returned to Mackinaw about 1706. Soon afterward the chief 
seat of a portion of the tribe was fixed at L’Arbre Croche in Emmett 
County, whence they spread down the east side of Lake Michigan to 
St. Joseph River, a few finding their way into Wisconsin and north- 
eastern Illinois. At the same time some of them were living in their 
old country on Manitoulin Island and about Georgian Bay, and others 
were scattered along the southern shore of Lake Erie from Detroit to 
the vicinity of Beaver Creek, Pa. They took part successively against 
the English and the American colonists in all wars during the latter 
half of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth 


246 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 145 


until the end of the War of 1812. The famous chief Pontiac was an 
Ottawa. The Canadian Ottawa are on Manitoulin and Cockburn 
Islands and the adjacent shores of Lake Huron. In 1831 two bands of 
Ottawa known as the Ottawa of Blanchard’s Fork of Great Auglaize 
River and the Ottawa of Roche de Boeuf on Maumee River were 
granted lands on Marais des Cygnes River, Kans., but they re-ceded 
the greater part of these lands in 1846, and in 1862 they agreed to 
allotment in severalty and to the relinquishment of their remaining 
territory. Further treaties regarding the disposal of their lands were 
made in 1867 and 1872. In 1867 they received a plot of land in Okla- 
homa which had been ceded by the Shawnee. A few Ottawa went 
west with the Prairie Potawatomi but were soon fused with them or 
scattered to other places. A few others have continued to occupy 
parts of Kansas down to the present day but after 1868 most of them 
removed to Oklahoma. A still larger body of Ottawa remained in 
Michigan, scattered among a number of small villages. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1600 there were of 
the combined Algonkin and Ottawa about 6,000. The scattered con- 
dition of the tribe during their earlier history prevented their contem- 
porary chroniclers from obtaining satisfactory figures. In 1906 the 
Chippewa and Ottawa on Manitoulin and Cockburn Islands numbered 
1,497, of whom about half were Ottawa; there were 197 under the 
Seneca School, Okla.; and in Michigan there were 5,587 in 1900 of 
whom about two-thirds were Ottawa. According to the census of 
1910, there were 2,717 Ottawa in the United States, 2,454 being in 
Michigan, 170 in Oklahoma, and the rest in Wisconsin, Nebraska, 
Kansas, and Pennsylvania. In 1923 there were 274 in Oklahoma 
and a much larger number in Michigan and Canada. The United 
States Census of 1930 gives 1,745, of whom 1,469 were in Michigan, 
167 in Oklahoma, and 84 in Wisconsin. In 1937 there were 422 in 
Oklahoma. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Although a prominent 
tribe in early times, the Ottawa will now be especially remembered 
from the fact that they have given their name to the most important 
branch of the St. Lawrence River and the city on its banks which 
became the capital of the Dominion of Canada. Their name is also 
borne by counties in Kansas, Michigan, and Ohio, and the province 
of Quebec; by important cities in La Salle County, Ill., and Franklin 
County, Kans.; and by smaller places and streams in Rockcastle 
County, Ky.; Waukesha County, Wis.; Le Sueur County, Minn.; 
Putnam County, Ohio; Boone County, Wis.; Boone County, Va.; and 
Ottawa Beach in Ottawa County, Mich., and Ottawa Lake in Monroe 
County in the same State. The tribe will be noted furthermore as 
that to which belonged the famous Indian patriot, Pontiac. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA OAT 


Potawatomi. Meaning “people of the place of the fire,” and hence 
sometimes known as the Fire Nation. Also called: 


Atsistarhonon, Huron name. 

Kiunu-hdyanu, Caddo name, meaning “watermelon people.” 
Ndaton8atendi, Undatomdatendi, Huron name. 

Peki’neni, Fox name, meaning “grouse people.” 
Tcashtaldlgi, Creek name, meaning ‘“‘watermelon people.” 
Wah-h6’-na-hah, Miami name, meaning “fire makers.”’ 
Wihiti¢axd, Omaha name. 

Wahityaha, Kansa name. 

Woraxa, Iowa, Oto, and Missouri name. 

Wordxé, Winnebago name. 


Connections.—The Potawatomi belonged to the Algonquian lin- 
guistic family, being most closely affiliated with the Chippewa and 
Ottawa. 

Location.—The ancient home of this tribe was evidently in the 
lower peninsula of Michigan. (See also Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kan- 
sas, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


In the course of their later history, the Potawatomi became separated into 
several distinct bands but these do not seem to have corresponded to any old, 
well-determined classification. 

Villages: 
Abercronk, not certainly Potawatomi, in northeastern Porter County, Ind. 
Ashkum’s Village, on the north side of Eel River, about Denver, Miami County, 
Ind. 

Assiminehkon, probably Potawatomi, in Lee County, IIl. 

Aubbeenaubbee’s Village, in Aubbeenaubbee Township in Fulton County, Ind. 

Checkawkose’s Village, on the south side of Tippecanoe River, about Harrison 

Township, Kosciusko County, Ind. 
Chekase’s Village, on the west side of Tippecanoe River between Warsaw and 
Monoquet, Kosciusko, Ind. 

Chichipé Outipé, near South Bend, St. Joseph County, Ind. 

Chippoy, on Big Shawnee Creek, in Fountain County, Ind. 

Comoza’s Village, on Tippecanoe River in Fulton County, Ind. 

Kinkash’s Village, on Tippecanoe River, Kosciusko County, Ind. 

Little Rock Village, on the north bank of Kankakee River about the boundary 

of Kankakee and Will Counties, IIl. 

Macon, location unknown. 

Macousin, on the west bank of St. Joseph River, Berrien County, Mich. 

Mangachqua, on Peble River in southern Michigan. 

Maquanago, probably Potawatomi, near Waukesha, in southeastern Wisconsin. 

Masac’s Village, on the west bank of Tippecanoe River in the northeastern part 

of Fulton County, Ind. 

Matchebenashshewish’s Village, on Kalamazoo River probably in Jackson 

County, Mich. 
Maukekose’s Village, near the head of Wolf Creek in Marshall County, Ind. 
Menominee’s Village, on the north side of Twin Lakes near the site of Plymouth, 
Marshall County, Ind. 


948 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (BULL, 145 


Menoquet’s Village, on Cass River, lower Michigan. 

Mesheketeno’s Village, on Kankakee River, a short distance above the present 
Kankakee in northeastern Illinois. 

Mesquawbuck’s Village, near Oswego, Kosciusko County, Ind. 

Mickkesawbee, at the site of the present Coldwater, Mich. 

Milwaukee, with Foxes and Mascouten, at or near the present Milwaukee, Wis. 

Minemaung’s Village, near Grantpark, Kankakee County, IIl. 

Mota’s Village, just north of Tippecanoe River near Atwood, Kosciusko County, 
Ind. 

Muskwawasepeotan, near Cedarville, Allen County, Ind. 

Natowasepe, on St. Joseph River about the present Mendon, St. Joseph 
County, Mich. 

Nayonsay’s Village, probably Potawatomi, in the northeastern part of Kendall 
County, Ill. 

Pierrish’s Village, on the north bank of Eel River, just above Laketon, Wabash 
County, Ind. 

Pokagon, in Berrien County, near the west bank of St. Joseph River just north 
of the Indiana line. 

Prairie Ronde, about the boundary of Cass and Van Buren Counties, Mich. 

Rock Village in northeastern Illinois. 

Rum’s Village, about 4 miles south of South Bend, St. Joseph County, Ind. 

Saint Joseph, a mission on St. Joseph River near the south end of Lake Michigan. 

Saint Michael, a mission in southern Wisconsin. 

Sawmehnaug, on Fox River, IIl. 

Seginsavin’s Village, on Rouge River near Detroit, Mich. 

Shaytee’s Village, probably Potawatomi on Fox River, III. 

Shobonier’s Village, near the present Shabbona, De Kalb County, Il. 

Soldier’s Village, in northern Illinois. 

Tassinong, probably Potawatomi, in Porter County, Ind. 

Toisa’s Village, on the west bank of Tippecanoe River, nearly opposite Bloom- 
ingsburg, Fulton County, Ind. 

Tonguish’s Village, near Rouge River in the southern part of Oakland County, 
or the northern part of Wayne County, Mich. 

Topenebee’s Village, on St. Joseph River opposite Niles, Berrien County, Mich. 

Waisuskuck’s Village, in northeastern, Illinois. 

Wanatah, in La Porte County, Ind., a short distance east of the present 
Wanatah. 

Wimego’s Village, on the north bank of Indian Creek, in the northern part of 
Cass County, Ind. 

Winamac’s Village, near the present Winamac, Pulaski County, Ind. 

Wonongoseak, probably Potawatomi, between the northern and southern 
branches of Elkhart River, apparently in Noble County, Ind. 


History.—Shortly before the Potawatomi were encountered by the 
French they seem to have been living in the lower peninsula of Mich- 
igan. According to native traditions, the Ottawa, Chippewa, and 
Potawatomi reached the upper end of Lake Huron in company from 
some region farther east, and the Potawatomi crossed from that point 
into the peninsula. By 1670 they had been driven to the neighborhood 
of Green Bay west of Lake Michigan, whence they slowly moved south 
until by the end of the century they had established themselves on Mil- 
waukee River, at Chicago, and on St. Joseph River. After the con- 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 249 


quest of the Illinois Indians about 1765, they took possession of still 
more of what is now the northern part of the State of Illinois and ex- 
tended their settlements eastward over southern Michigan as far as 
Lake Erie. After 1795, against the protests of the Miami, they moved 
down the Wabash and advanced their occupancy as far as Pine Creek. 
They sided actively first with the French against the English and then 
with the English against the Americans until a general peace was 
brought about in 1815. As White settlers increased in numbers in their 
neighborhood, the Potawatomi gradually parted with their lands, 
the greatest cessions being made between 1836 and 1841, and most of 
them retired beyond the Mississippi. Part of the Prairie band of 
Potawatomi returned to Wisconsin, while another band, the Potawa- 
tomi of Huron, are in lower Michigan. A few escaped into Canada and 
are now on Walpole Island in St. Clair County. Part of the Potawa- 
tomi living in Wisconsin sold their lands and received in exchange a 
reservation in southwestern Iowa. These received the name of Prairie 
Potawatomi. In 1846 they also disposed of their Iowa territory and 
in 1847-48 passed over into Kansas and established themselves just 
east of the Potawatomi of the Woods, who had come from Indiana 
in 1840 to occupy a reserve on Osage River, in Kansas. In 1846, 
however, the latter re-ceded this and settled the following year between 
the Shawnee and Delaware Indians in the present Shawnee County, 
Kans. The Potawatomi of the Prairie remained in Kansas and re- 
ceived allotments there, but the Potawatomi of the Woods went to a 
new reservation in Oklahoma in 1869-71 near the Kickapoo. <A few 
have accompaied the Kickapoo to Mexico. 

Population—Mooney’s (1928) estimate for the Potawatomi, as of 
the year 1650, is 4,000. Estimates made between 1765 and 1843 
vary from 1,200 to 3,400,but it would seem that they must have 
averaged 2,000 to 2,500. In 1908, 2,522 Potawatomi were reported in 
the United States, distributed as follows: Citizen Potawatomi in 
Oklahoma, 1,768; Prairie band in Kansas, 676; and Potawatomi of 
Huron, in Calhoun County, Mich., 78. A few besides these were 
scattered through their ancient territory and at various other points. 
Those in Canada are all in the Province of Ontario and number about 
220, of whom 176 are living with Chippewa and Ottawa on Walpole 
Island and the remainder, no longer officially reported, are divided 
between Caradoc and Riviére aux Sables, where they reside by per- 
mission of the Chippewa and Munsee. The United States Census of 
1910 returned 2,440, of whom 866 were living in Oklahoma, 619 in 
Kansas, 461 in Michigan, and 245 in Wisconsin, while the remainder 
were scattered in 11 other States. The United States and Canadian 
Indian Office Reports of 1923-24 give 2,227 in Oklahoma, 803 in 
Kansas, and 170 on Walpole Island, Ontario, but those in Michigan 


250 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


are not separately entered. The United States Census of 1930 re- 
turned 1,854, of whom 654 were in Kansas, 636 in Oklahoma, 425 in 
Wisconsin, and 89 in Michigan. In 1937 there were 142 in Michigan, 
311 in Wisconsin, 1,013 in Kansas, and 2,667 in Oklahoma: total 4,133. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—In the form Pottawa- 
tomie the name of this tribe is used as a designation of counties in 
Kansas and Oklahoma and a post township of Coffey County, Kans., 
and in the form Pottawattamie as the designation of a county in Iowa. 


Sauk. At some time shortly before European contact the Sauk lived 
about Saginaw Bay and the present name of the bay is derived from 
them. They were probably driven beyond Lake Michigan by the 
Ottawa allied with the Neutral Nation. (See Wisconsin.) 


Wyandot. After the disruption of their nation by the Iroquois these 
people lived for limited periods at several different points in the 
territory now included in the State of Michigan. They were 
temporarily at Michilimackinac, Detroit, and other places. (See 
Ohio.) 

WISCONSIN 


Chippewa. This tribe pushed its way west in the latter part of the 
seventeenth century as far as the territory lying within the present 
State of Wisconsin, and the trading post established by the French 
at La Pointe became an important Chippewa base. Early in the 
eighteenth century they are said to have driven the Foxes out of 
northern Wisconsin, and they have continued to occupy that part 
of the State until the present time, having two reservations there. 
(See Minnesota.) 


Dakota. In very early times the Dakota occupied a little of the 
northwestern margin of Wisconsin. (See South Dakota.) 


Foxes. A name thought to have been derived from that of the Fox 
clan and to have been applied to the tribe through a misunderstand- 
ing. Also called: 


Beshde’ke, Dakota name. 

Méshkwa kihigi, own name signifying “‘red earth people,’”’ from the kind 
of earth from which they are supposed to have been created. 

O-dug-am-eeg, Chippewa name, meaning ‘“‘those who live on the opposite 
side.” 

Skaxshurunu, Wyandot name, meaning ‘fox people.” 

Skuakfsagi, Shawnee name. 

To-che-wah-coo, probably the Arikara name. 

Wakushég, Potawatomi name, meaning ‘‘foxes.”’ 


Connections.—The Foxes belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
family and in one group with the Sauk and Kickapoo. 


SWaNTON]) INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 251 


Location.—In the vicinity of Lake Winnebago or along Fox River. 
(See also Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, 
Nebraska, and Oklahoma.) 

History.—Since the closely related Sauk Indians came to Wisconsin 
from Saginaw Bay, Mich., it is probable that the Foxes once lived in 
that region as well, but it is uncertain. There is also a tradition that 
they were in northern Wisconsin and were driven south by the Chip- 
pewa. The French missionaries heard of them as early as 1640, and in 
1670 found them in the location above given, where they remained for 
a long period. They were constantly at war with the Chippewa, and 
though they received aid from the Dakota, obtained little advantage 
in these contests. It was on account of assistance rendered the 
Chippewa by the French that the Foxes came to assume a hostile 
attitude toward the latter and finally went to war with them. In 
1712 they planned an attack on the French fort at Detroit which 
nearly succeeded. Between 1729 and 1733 occurred a bitter war with 
the French in which the Foxes, though assisted by some Sauk, lost 
heavily. Before 1746 they were in the habit of exacting a toll from all 
white traders passing up Fox River, and for this reason they were 
attacked by a band of French, defeated, and driven down Wisconsin 
River, settling on the north bank of that stream about 20 miles from 
its mouth. In 1780, in alliance with the Dakota, they attacked the 
Chippewa at St. Croix Falls and were defeated. Shortly before this 
they had assisted the Sauk in driving the Illinois tribes from the 
northwestern part of the Rock River country, and they occupied 
these territories, but early in the nineteenth century they drew away 
from the Sauk and settled in Iowa. In 1842 the Foxes and the Sauk, 
who had taken refuge with them after the Black Hawk War, sold their 
lands in Iowa and were given in exchange a tract across the Missouri 
in Kansas. About 1857-59 the Foxes became angered at the Sauk for 
entering into an agreement for the disposition of the lands of the two 
tribes during the absence of the former, and they returned to Iowa 
where a few of their people had always remained. There they bought 
land near Tama City on Iowa River, which they increased by purchase 
until they had more than 3,000 acres. They have remained on this 
reservation down to the present day. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1650 there must 
have been about 3,000 Foxes, but this figure seems to be somewhat too 
high. In 1728 Guignes stated that they had 200 warriors, probably 
an underestimate, but most of the figures before 1850 fall between 
1,500 and 2,500. Michelson (1919) says that the most reliable early 
estimate is that of Lewis and Clark in 1805, which gives 1,200. Since 
that date they have usually been enumerated with the Sauk. In 


252 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy, 145 


1885 the Indians at Tama, most of whom were Foxes, numbered 380. 
In 1909 the United States Indian Office gives 352 (nearly all Foxes) 
in Iowa, besides the bands in Oklahoma and Kansas, most of whom 
were Sauk. The United States Census of 1910 gives only 257 in 
Iowa, but the Indian Office Report of 1923 raises this again to 354. 
In 1930 there were 887 Sauk and Fox, and it is assumed that the 344 
returned from Iowa were nearly all Fox. In 1937, 441 were returned 
from Iowa. (See Sauk.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Historically this tribe 
is remarkable (1) as having been almost the only Algonquian tribe of 
consequence to undertake a serious war with the French, and (2) from 
its connection with the Sauk at the time of the uprising of the latter 
under Black Hawk. It has given its name to Fox River, Wis., and to 
a second Fox River, also called Pishtaka, which rises in Wisconsin 
and flows through Illinois, into the Illinois River. Some small places 
have also been named from it. 


Housatonic, see Stockbridges. 


Illinois. At one time Illinois Indians probably occupied some of the 
southern and southwestern sections of Wisconsin. (See Illinois.) 


Iowa. A rather pronounced tradition points to the Winnebago as the 
mother tribe of the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, and the latter are 
supposed to have stopped at certain places within the State of 
Wisconsin during their migration to the southwest. (See Iowa.) 


Iroquois. The Iroquois anciently played an important part in the 
aboriginal history of the Indian tribes of Wisconsin, usually as 
enemies. In very late times the Oneida were given a reservation 
here where their descendants still live. (See New York.) 


Kickapoo. From Kiwégapaw’*, “he stands about,” “he moves about, 
standing now here, now there.” Also called: 


A’-uya,, Tonkawa name, meaning “‘deer eaters.” 

Higabu, Omaha and Ponca name. 

I’-ka-dti’, Osage name. 

Shake-kah-quah, Wichita name. 

Shigapo, Shikapu, Apache name. 

Sik’-a-pu, Comanche name. 

Tékapu, Huron name. 

Yu"tara’ye-ru’nu, a second Huron name, meaning ‘“‘tribe living around 
the lakes.” 


Connections.—The Kickapoo belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
stock, and in a special group with the Foxes and Sauk. 
Subdivisions and Villages 


The villages were: Etnataek (shared with the Foxes), rather a fortification 
than a village, near the Kickapoo village on Sangamon River, Ill., and Kicka- 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 253 


pougowi, on the Wabash River in Crawford County, Ill., about opposite the 
mouth of Turman Creek. 

Location.—For territory occupied in Wisconsin, see History. (See 
also Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, and 
Oklahoma. ) 

History.—As suggested in the case of the Foxes, the Kickapoo may 
once have lived near the Sauk in the lower peninsula of Michigan 
but such a residence cannot be proven. If the name Outitchakouk 
used by the Jesuit missionary Druillettes refers to this tribe, as seems 
probable, knowledge of them was brought to Europeans in 1658. At 
any rate they were visited by Allouez about 1667-70 and were then 
near the portage between Fox and Wisconsin Rivers, perhaps about 
Alloa, Columbia County, Wis. Early in the eighteenth century a 
part of them settled somewhere near Milwaukee River, and after the 
destruction of the Illinois about 1765, they moved still farther south 
and lived about Peoria. One portion then pushed down to the 
Sangamon, while another worked east to the Wabash, and made their 
headquarters on Vermilion River. The former became known as 
the Prairie band and the latter as the Vermilion band. They took 
part against the colonists in the War of 1812 and the Black Hawk War, 
but in 1837 a hundred of them were engaged to assist the United 
States Government against the Seminole. In 1809 and 1819 they 
ceded their lands in Illinois and soon removed to Missouri and thence 
to Kansas. About 1852 a large party of Kickapoo, along with some 
Potawatomi, went to Texas and thence to México, where they became 
known as ‘‘Mexican Kickapoo.” In 1863 another dissatisfied band 
joined them, and though in 1873 part were induced to return to 
Indian Territory, and others afterward followed, nearly half the 
tribe remained and were granted a reservation in the Santa Rosa 
Mountains of eastern Chihuahua. The remainder are divided between 
Oklahoma and Kansas. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1650 there were 2,000 
Kickapoo. In 1759 they were estimated at 3,000; in 1817, at 2,000; 
and in 1825, at 2,200. In 1875 those in the United States were officially 
estimated at 706 and there were supposed to be about 100 more in 
México. In 1885 those in the United States were estimated at 500 
and those in México at 200. In 1905, 247 were reported in Oklahoma 
and 185 in Kansas, a total of 432, and almost as many more were 
thought to be in México. The census of 1910 returned 348 in the 
United States, of whom 211 were in Kansas and 135 in Oklahoma. 
In 1923 the United States Indian Office gave 277 in Kansas and 200 
in Oklahoma, total 477. In 1930 there were 523, half in Kansas and 
half in Oklahoma. In 1937, 332 were returned from Kansas and 260 
from Oklahoma. 


254 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Connection in which they have become noted—The Kickapoo have 
given their name to a river in Wisconsin, creeks in Illinois and Texas, 
and some small places in these States and Kansas. 


Mahican, see Stockbridges. 


Mascouten. A name applied at times to the Prairie band of the 
Potawatomi, but more often to the Peoria band of Illinois who, in 
early days, lived with or near the Kickapoo. 


Menominee. Meaning “Wild Rice Men,” because they lived largely 
upon the wild rice of the lakes in and near their country. Hence 
the French ‘‘Nation de la Folle Avoine,” and English ‘‘Wild Rice 
Men.” Also called: 


Addle-Heads, a misinterpretation of Folles Avoines. 
Omanomini, Chippewa name. 
White Indians, so given by Long (in Keating, 1824). 


Connections—The Menominee belonged to the Algonquian lin- 
quistic family and to the same section as the Cree and Foxes. 

Location.—On and near the Menominee River, Wis. (See also 
Michigan.) 


Subdivisions 
(As given by Skinner, 1921) 


Kaka’pa’kato’ Wini’niwtk, “Barricade Falls people,’ at Keshena Falls of Wolf 
River. 

Kaka’nikone Tusi’-niniwdg, ‘“‘Portage people,” at Portage, Wis. 

Kipisa’ ‘kia Wini’ wiwdk, ‘River Mouth people,” at Prairie du Chien. 

Mani‘towik Tusi’niniwdg, “Manitou Place people,” at Manitowoc, Wis. 

Mate Sua’miko Tusi‘nini", ‘Great Sand Bar people,”’ on the sand dunes at what 
is now called Big Suamico, on Green Bay. 

Minika’ni Wini’niwuk, ‘‘Village people,’”’ at the mouth of Menominee River. 

Misi‘nimak Kimiko Wini’niwtk, ‘‘Michilimackinac People,” near the old fort at 
Mackinac, Mich. 

MuhwA’o Se’peo Wini’niwdk, ‘‘Wolf River people, 
Wolf River. 

Nam§é’o Wikito’ Tusi‘ni®, ‘‘Sturgeon Bay people,” at Sturgeon Bay. 

NomA&’‘kokon Se’peo Tusi’niniwfig, ‘‘Beaver River people,” near Winneconne, 
Fond du Lac, and Oshkosh. 

Oka’to Wini’niwtk, ‘‘Pike Place people,” at the mouth of the Oconto River. 

Pa’sa'tiko Wininiwtk, ‘‘Peshtigo River people,’’ at the mouth of Peshtigo River. 

Powahe’kune Tusi‘niniwtg, ‘‘Rice-gathering-place people,’’ on Lake Poygan. 

Sua’makosa Tusi’ninit, “Little Sand Dune people,” on the sandhills of Little 
Suamico. 

Wi’skos Se’peo Wini’niwfik, ‘‘Wisconsin River people’—the name Wisconsin 
being derived from wi’skos or wi’sko®s, ‘‘muskrat’”—on the Mississippi near 
Wisconsin River. 


There were other settlements of Menominee at Milwaukee and at Fort Howard 
in the present city of Green Bay. 


” 


on the upper stretches of 


SWANTON} INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 255 


About the time of the arrival of the Whites the old bands were broken up or 
renamed after their chiefs, and the following bands of this kind are recorded by 
Hoffman: 


Aia’miqta. Osh’kosh. 

Aqk&’mot. Pésh’tiko, evidently one of the old local 
Késhok, or Ké’so. groups. 

Le Motte. Piwa' qtinet. 

Miéa’nabii’sh6 Sha’kitdk. 

O’hopé’sha. Shu’nu’ ni’t or Shu’nien. 


History.—Tradition says that the Menominee were driven into the 
region later identified with them, from the neighborhood of Michili- 
mackinac, but when they were first known to white men they were 
already there, and they remained there until 1854, though their villages 
sometimes extended to Fox River and their later claims reached to the 
mouth of Milwaukee River on Lake Michigan and on the west side 
of Green Bay to the headwaters of Menominee and Fox Rivers. 
Westward they claimed the height of land between Green Bay and 
Lake Superior. In 1854 they ceded all their lands except a reserve 
on Wolf River, where they have continued to the present day. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 3,000 
Menominee in 1650. The most conservative estimates made during 
the nineteenth century range from 1,600 to 1,900. In the first decade 
of the twentieth century their numbers were placed at 1,600, of whom 
1,370 were under the Green Bay School superintendency, Wisconsin. 
The census of 1910 returned 1,422; 1,350 in Wisconsin and the rest 
scattered over 8 States. The United States Indian Office Report for 
1923 gave 1,838. The census of 1930 returned 1,969, and the United 
States Indian Office Report of 1937, 2,221. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Menominee 
has become applied to a county in Michigan and a city of some size 
in the same State, also to a small place in Illinois. In the form Meno- 
monee, it is given to a considerable river of Wisconsin which flows 
into Green Bay, and to various other places in Wisconsin. A city in 
the same State, capital of Dunn County, bears the name Menomonie. 
Menomonee Falls are in Waukesha County, Wis. There is a place 
called Menominee in Menominee County, Mich. 


Miami. This tribe, or at least portions of it, lived in southern Wis- 
consin when it was first known to French explorers and missionaries 
but later it moved south entirely out of the State. (See Indiana.) 


Missouri. (See Iowa.) 


Munsee. Some Munsee moved into Wisconsin with the Stockbridges 
(Ge V.)). 


256 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Noquet. This tribe may have been related to the Menominee or the 
Chippewa. At times it probably overlapped the northeastern 
border of Wisconsin. (See Michigan.) 


Oneida, see Iroquois. 
Oto. (See Iowa.) 


Ottawa. Some Ottawa lived in Wisconsin temporarily after they 
had been driven from their old homes by the Iroquois. They 
settled first on the islands at the mouth of Green Bay, and a part 
of them lived later upon Black River and at Chequamegon Bay 
before returning to their old country. (See Michigan.) 


Potawatomi. When first encountered by the French the Potawatomi 
were on the islands at the mouth of Green Bay. Later they pushed 
down the coast of Lake Michigan to Milwaukee River and thence 
to Chicago after which they drew further south into Illinois, Indiana, 
and southern Michigan. (See Michigan.) 


Sauk. From Osa’kiwiig, meaning ‘‘people of the outlet,” or “people 
of the yellow earth.”’ Also called: 
Hoti’nestako”’, Onondaga name. 
Satoeronnon, Huron name. 
Quatokeronon, Huron name. 
Za’-ke, Santee and Yankton Dakota name. 

Connections.—The Sauk belonged to the Algonquian linguistic stock 
and the same subdivision as that embracing the Foxes and Kickapoo. 

Location.—On the upper part of Green Bay and lower course of 
Fox River. (See also Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, 
Missouri, and Oklahoma.) 

History.—The earliest known home of the Sauk was about Saginaw 
Bay, Mich., which still bears their name. Shortly before the appear- 
ance of the Whites they were expelled from this country by the Ottawa 
and the Neutral Nation, and settled in the region above indicated 
where they remained for a considerable period. In 1766 Carver 
(1796) found their chief villages on Wisconsin River. After the de- 
struction of the Illinois they extended their territories over the Rock 
River district of northwestern Illinois. In 1804 a band of Sauk winter- 
ing near St. Louis were induced to enter into a treaty ceding to the 
United States Government the Sauk territories in Illinois and Wis- 
consin, but this transaction created so much indignation among the 
rest of the tribe when it became known that the band who made the 
treaty never returned to the rest and they have received independent 
recognition as the Missouri River Sauk. As the rest of the Sauk 
refused to move, other negotiations were entered into which were 
broken off in 1832 by the Indian outbreak known as the Black Hawk 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA PAT | 


War. Asa result of this struggle, the Sauk abandoned their country 
east of the Mississippi and sought refuge with the Foxes, already 
established in Iowa. In 1842 the Sauk, with the Foxes, ceded their 
lands in Jowa also in exchange for a tract in Kansas. About 1857-59, 
in the absence of the Foxes, the Sauk agreed to take up land in severalty 
and cede the remainder of this Kansas territory, and the Foxes, when 
they learned of this, returned to Iowa. In 1867 the Sauk ceded their 
lands in Kansas and removed to the Indian territory, and in 1889 they 
took up land in severalty and sold their surplus territorics to the 
government. 

Population —Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 3,500 Sauk 
in 1650. The principal early estimates of the Sauk are: in 1736, 
750 persons; in 1759, 1,000; in 1766, 2,000; in 1783, 2,250; in 1810, 
2,850; in 1825, 4,800; in 1834, 2,500. Michelson (1919) states, how- 
ever, that the best was that of Lewis and Clark, which would make 
them about 2,000 in 1805. In 1885 there were 457 in Indian Terri- 
tory, including a few Foxes, and 87 in southeastern Nebraska. The 
Indian Office Report for 1909 gives 536 (chiefly Sauk) in Oklahoma, 
and 87 (chiefly Sauk) in Kansas. The census of 1910 gives 347 in 
Oklahoma and 69 in Kansas, Sauk and Fox not being discriminated. 
It also records a number of individuals of both tribes scattered over 
nine other States. In 1923 the United States Report on Indian Affairs 
gave 673 in Oklahoma, and 93 in Kansas; total 766. The census of 
1930 returned 887 Sauk and Fox, rather more than two-thirds being 
Sauk. In 1937 the United States Indian Office reported 126 ‘Sac 
and Fox” in Kansas and 861 in Oklahoma, principally Sauk. 

Connection in which they have become noted —Whatever prominence 
the Sauk have attained they owed almost entirely to the war which, 
under Black Hawk, they sustained against the Whites. Their name 
is perpetuated in Sauk River, Minn.; Sauk County, Wis.; and places 
in these two States. In the form Sac, it has been applied to a county 
and its capital in Iowa, a river in Missouri, and a small place in 
Tennessee. There is a post village called Sauk in Skagit County, 
Wash.; a Sauk City in Sauk County, Wis.; a Saukville in Ozaukee 
County in the same State; Sauk Rapids in Benton County, Minn.; 
and in the same State but in Stearns County, Sauk Centre which has 
a reputation all its own. 


Stockbridges. This name was given to a body of Indians most of 
whom belonged to the Housatonic and other tribes of the Mahican 
group, who in 1833 were placed upon a reserve in the neighborhood 
of Green Bay, along with the Oneida Indians and some Munsee. 
In 1856 all but a few who desired to become citizens removed to 


258 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


a reservation west of Shawano, Shawano County, Wis., where 
they still live. (See New York.) 


Tionontati. Remnants of this tribe were in Wisconsin as part of the 
Wyandot (q. v.). 


Winnebago. Signifying in the Fox and the Sauk languages ‘‘people of 
the filthy water,’’ for which reason they were sometimes known to the 
French as Puants and to the English as Stinkards. Also called: 

Aweatsiwaenhronon, a form of the Huron name (see below). 

Banabeouiks, a shortened form of Winnebago. 

Bay Indians, so called by Lapham, Blossom, and Dousman (1870). 

Hati’hshi’rf’nt, Huron name, meaning “afraid of sticking in the mire.” 

Hotanka, Dakota name. 

Hotcangara, own name, signifying “(people of the) big or real speech,” 
but, through a confusion of words, often misinterpreted “fish eaters.” 

Nipegon, so called by Long (in James (1823)). 

Connections—The Winnebago belong to the Siouan linguistic fam- 
ily, and to a subdivision comprising also the group called by J. O. 
Dorsey (1897) Chiwere, which includes also the Iowa, Oto, and 
Missouri. 

Location.—The most ancient known habitat of this tribe was on 
the south side of Green Bay extending inland as far as Lake Winne- 
bago. (See also Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and South Dakota.) 


Villages 


Those that are known by name are: 
Prairie la Crosse, in southeastern Wisconsin. 
Sarrochau, on the site of Taycheeday, Fond du Lac County, Wis. 
Spotted Arm’s Village, near Exeter, Green County, Wis. 
Village du Puant, on Wildcat Creek about a mile above its junction with the 

Wabash, above Lafayette, in Tippecanoe County, Ind. 

Wuckan, on Lake Poygan, Winnebago County, Wis. 
Yellow Thunder, at Yellow Banks, Green Lake County, Wis. 

History—The Winnebago were occupants of the territory above 
mentioned from the earliest times of which we have any record. Dur- 
ing the eighteenth century they spread up Fox River and still later 
extended their villages to Wisconsin and Rock Rivers. It is reported 
that they were nearly destroyed by the Illinois some time before 
1671 but, if so, they soon recovered entirely from this shock. They 
managed to remain on better terms with the surrounding tribes than 
most of their neighbors. By treaties made in 1825 and 1832 they 
ceded all of their lands south of Wisconsin and Fox Rivers to the 
United States Government in return for a reservation on the west 
side of the Mississippi above upper Iowa River. In 1836 they suffered 
severely from the smallpox. In 1837 they relinquished the title to 
their old country east of the Mississippi, and in 1840 they removed 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 259 


to the Neutral Ground in the territory of Iowa. Many, however, 
remained in their old lands. In 1846 the rest surrendered their 
reservation for one in Minnesota north of Minnesota River, and in 
1848 removed to Long Prairie Reservation, bounded by Crow Wing, 
Watab, Mississippi, and Long Prairie Reservations, Minn. In 1853 
they removed to Crow River and in 1856 to Blue Earth, Minn., where 
they remained until the Dakota outbreak of 1862, when the Whites 
in the section demanded their removal. In consequence they were 
taken to Crow Creek Reservation, S. Dak., but suffered so much from 
sickness, and in other ways, that they escaped to the Omaha for pro- 
tection. There a new reservation was assigned to them on the 
Omaha lands, where they have since been allotted Jand in severalty. 
Some however, remained in Minnesota when the tribe was removed 
from that State and a larger number did not leave Wisconsin. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 3,800 
individuals belonging to the Winnebago tribe in 1650. The following 
figures have been given from time to time: In 1806, 1,750; in 1820, 
5,800; in 1837 and 1843, 4,500; in 1867, 1,750 in Nebraska and 700 in 
Wisconsin. In 1876 there were 1,463 on the Nebraska Reservation 
and 860 in Wisconsin, but 204 of the latter removed to Nebraska in 
1877. In 1886 there were 1,222 in Nebraska and 930 in Wisconsin. 
In 1910 the United States Indian Office gave 1,063 in Nebraska and 
1,270 in Wisconsin, but the United States Census of the same date 
gave a total Winnebago population of 1,820, of whom 1,007 were in 
Nebraska, 735 in Wisconsin, and the remainder scattered among 10 
other States. In 1923 the Report of the United States Commissioner 
of Indian Affairs gave 1,096 in Nebraska. In 1930 the figure was 
1,446, of whom 937 were in Wisconsin and 423 in Nebraska. In 1937 
the United States Indian Office reported 1,456 in Wisconsin, and 
1,212 in Nebraska: total, 2,668. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Winnebago tribe is 
noted for the unique position it occupied, as a Siouan tribe surrounded 
by Algonquian peoples, probably having been left behind in the 
general Siouan movement west, and its reputation as one of the 
mother tribes of the Siouan stock. Its name is perpetuated in that 
of Winnebago Lake, Wis.; the names of counties in Iowa, Illinois, and 
Wisconsin; and places in Winnebago County, Ill.; Faribault County, 
Minn.; Winnebago County, Wis.; and Thurston County, Nebr. 


Wyandot. After being driven out of Ontario by the Iroquois, part of 
the Wyandot, along with some Ottawa, went to Michilimackinac and 
from there to Green Bay, after which they lived successively at 
several different points within the boundaries of the present State 
of Wisconsin until they finally removed to Detroit. (See Ohio.) 


260 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLn. 145 


MINNESOTA 


Arapaho. There are traditions that they once lived along Red River, 
in the present North Dakota and Minnesota, (See Wyoming.) 


Cheyenne. ‘The earliest known home of this tribe was in that part of 
Minnesota bounded roughly by the Mississippi, Minnesota, and 
upper Red Rivers. From here they moved to the Sheyenne branch 
of Red River, North Dakota. (See South Dakota.) 


Chippewa or Ojibwa. ‘Traditional significance of name in their own 
language, ‘‘to roast until puckered up,” referring to the puckered 
seam in their moccasins. Also called: 


An-ish-in-aub-ag, another native term meaning “spontaneous men.” 

Axshissayé-rinu, Wyandot name. 

Bawichtigouek, name in Jesuit Relations. 

Bedzaqetcha, Tsattine name, meaning “long hairs.” 

Bedzietcho, Kawchodinne name. 

Bungees, so called by Hudson Bay traders. 

Cabellos realzados, the Spanish translation of French Cheveux-relevés. 

De-wi-ki-nha’, Mohawk name. 

Dshipowé-haga, Caughnawaga name. 

Dwi-ki-né2, Onondaga name. 

Eskiaeronnon, Huron name, meaning “‘people of the falls.” 

Hahatonwan, Dakota name. 

Hahatonway, Hidatsa name, meaning “‘leapers.”’ 

Jumpers, incorrect rendering of Saulteurs. 

Kitaki, Fox name. 

Leapers, same as Jumpers. 

Né-a-ya-og, Cree name, meaning ‘‘those speaking the same language.” 

Ne-gd-tcé, Winnebago name. 

Nwi’-ka, Tuscarora name. 

Ostiagahoroones, Iroquois name. 

Paouichtigouin, name in Jesuit Relations. 

Saulteurs, or Saulteaux, given to part of the tribe from the falls at Sault 
Sainte Marie. 

Sotoes, Anglicization of above. 

Wah-kah-towah, Assiniboin name, according to Tanner. 


Connections—The Chippewa are the type tribe of one of the two 
largest divisions of the Algonquian linguistic stock. 

Location.—The earliest accounts of the Chippewa associate them 
particularly with the region of Sault Sainte Marie, but they came 
in time to extend over the entire northern shore of Lake Huron and 
both shores of Lake Superior, besides well into the northern interior 
and as far west as the Turtle Mountains of North Dakota. (See also 
Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Montana, North Dakota, 
Ohio, Wisconsin, and Canada.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 261 


Subdivisions 


There were a number of major and numerous minor divisions of this tribe. 
According to Warren, there were 10 major divisions, as follows: 


Betonukeengainubejig, in northern Wisconsin. 

Kechegummewininewug, on the south shore of Lake Superior. 

Kechesebewininewug, on the upper Mississippi in Minnesota. 

Kojejewininewug, on Rainy Lake and River, about the northern boundary 
of Minnesota. 

Mukmeduawininewug, or Pillagers, on Leech Lake, Minn. 

Munominikasheenhug, at the headwaters of St. Croix River in Wisconsin and 
Minnesota. 

Ottawa Lake Men, on Lac Courte Oreilles, Wis. 

Sugwaundugahwininewug, north of Lake Superior. 

Wahsuahgunewininewug, at the head of Wisconsin River. 

Wazhush, on the northwest side of Lake Superior at the Canadian border. 


Villages and Small Bands 


Amikwa, on the north shore of Lake Huron, opposite Manitoulin Island, 

Angwassag, near St. Charles, Saginaw County, Mich. 

Anibiminanisibiwininiwak, a band, on Pembina River in the extreme northern 
part of Minnesota and the adjacent part of Manitoba. 

Bagoache, a band, about the northern shore of Lake Superior. 

Bay du Noc, perhaps Chippewa, probably on Noquet Bay in upper Michigan. 

Beaver Island Indians, on the Beaver Islands of Lake Michigan, at the outlet. 

Big Rock, the location of a reservation in lower Michigan. 

Blackbird, on Tittibawassee River, Saginaw County, Mich. 

Burnt Woods, Chippewa, on Bois Brulé River near the west end of Lake Superior, 
northern Wisconsin. 

Chetac Lake, on the lake of the same name in Sawyer County, Wis. 

Crow Wing River, at the mouth of Crow Wing River in north central Minnesota. 

Doki’s Band, at the head of French River where it leaves Lake Nipissing, Ont. 

Epinette, on the north shore of Lake Superior, east of Michipicoton River, Ont. 

Flying Post, about the post of that name in Ontario. 

Fond du Lac, on St. Louis River near Fond du Lac, Minn. 

Gamiskwakokawininiwak, about Cass Lake, near the head of the Mississippi, 
in Minn. 

Gasakaskuatchimmekak, location uncertain. 

Gatagetegauning, on Lac (Vieux) Desert or Gatagetegauning on the Michigan- 
Wisconsin State line. 

Gawababiganikak, about White Earth Lake, Minn. 

Grand Portage, at Grand Portage on the northern shore of Lake Superior in Minn. 

Gull Lake Band, on Gull Lake on the upper Mississippi, in Cass County, Minn. 

Kahmetahwungaguma, on Sandy Lake, Cass County, Minn. 

Kawkawling, location uncertain. 

Kechepukwaiwah, on the lake of the same name near Chippewa River, Wis. 

Ketchewaundaugenink, on Shiawassee River on the trail between Detroit and 
Saginaw Bay, Mich. 

Kishkawbawee, on Flint River in lower Michigan. 

Knife Lake, location uncertain. 

Lac Courte Oreilles, on the lake of the same name at the headwaters of Chippewa 
River, in Sawyer County, Wis. 


262 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLu. 145 


Little Forks, a reservation on Tittibawassee River, in lower Michigan. 

Long Lake, on Long Lake north of Lake Superior, between Nipigon and Pic 
River, Ont. 

Matawachkirini, Matachewan, about Fort Matachewan, Ont. 

Mattagami, about Mattagami Lake. 

Mekadewagamitigweyawininiwak, on Black River, Mich. 

Menitegow, on the east bank of Saginaw River in lower Michigan. 

Menoquet’s Village, on Cass River, lower Michigan. 

Michilimackinac, on Mackinac Island, Mich. 

Michipicoten, a band on Michipicoten River, Ont. 

Midinakwadshiwininiwak, a band in the Turtle Mountain region, N. Dak. 

Misisagaikaniwininiwak, a band on Mille Lacs, Minn. 

Miskwagamiwisagaigan, a band about Red Lake River, Minn. 

Nabobish, at the mouth of Saginaw River, Mich. 

Nagonabe, in lower Michigan. 

Nameuilni, a band northwest of Lake Superior, between Rainy Lake and Lake 
Nipigon in Algoma, Ont. 

Nibowisibiwininiwak, in Saskatchewan north of Lake Winnipeg. 

Nipissing, about Lake Nipissing. 

Obidgewong, with Ottawa, on the west shore of Lake Wolseley, Manitoulin 
Island, Ont. 

Ommunise, or Ottawa, on Carp River, Mich. 

Onepowesepewenenewak, in Minnesota. 

Ontonagon, a band on Ontonagon River in upper Michigan. 

Oschekkamegawenenewak, 2 bands: (1) near Rainy Lake (1753); (2) east of Mille 
Lacs. 

Ouasouarini, on Georgian Bay, Ont. 

Oueschekgagamiouilimy, the Caribou gens of Rainy River, Minn. 

Outchougai, on the east side of Georgian Bay and probably south of French River, 
connected with the Amikwa. 

Otusson, on upper Huron River in Sanilac County, Mich. 

Pawating, at Sault Ste. Marie, on the south bank of St. Mary’s River, Chippewa 
County, Mich. 

Pic River, at the mouth of Pic River on the north shore of Lake Superior, Ont. 

Pokegama, on Pokegama Lake, Pine County, Minn. 

Portage du Prairie, in Manitoba. 

Rabbit Lake Chippewa, a band on Rabbit Lake, Minn. 

Reaum’s Village, in Flint River, Mich., about the boundary of Genesee and 
Saginaw Counties. 

Red Cedar Lake, on Red Cedar Lake, Barron County, Wis. 

Red Cliff, near the west end of Lake Superior, in Wisconsin or Minnesota. 

Rice Lake Band, on Rice Lake, Barron County, Wis. 

Saginaw, with Ottawa, near Saginaw, Mich. 

Saint Francis Xavier, a mission, on Mille Lacs, Aitkin County, Minn. 

Shabwasing, a band, probably in lower Michigan. 

Shaugawaumikong, on Long Island, on the west coast of Lake Superior, in Ash- 
land County, Wis. 

Sukaauguning, on Pelican Lake, Oneida County, Wis. 

Thunder Bay, Chippewa or Ottawa, a band on Thunder Bay, Alpena County, 
Mich. 

Timagimi, about Lake Timagimi. 

Trout Lake, location uncertain. 

Turtle Portage, in Wisconsin. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 263 


Wabasemowenenewak, near a white rock perhaps in Minnesota. 

Walpole Island, with other tribes, Ontario. 

Wanamakewajejenik, near the Lake of the Woods. 

Wapisiwisibiwininiwak, a band, on Swan Creek, near Lake St. Clair, Mich. 
Wauswagiming, on Lac du Flambeau, Lac du Flambeau Reservation, Wisconsin. 
Wequadong, near L’Anse at the head of Keweenaw Bay, Baraga County, Mich. 
Whitefish, on Sturgeon River. 

Wiaquahhechegumeeng, at the head of Lake Superior in Douglass County, Wis. 
Winnebegoshishiwininewak, a band on Lake Winnibigashish, Minn. 

Yellow Lake, on Yellow Lake, Burnett County, Wis. 

History.—According to tradition, the Chippewa were part of a 
large body of Indians which came from the east—how much east of 
their later homes is uncertain—and after reaching Mackinaw sep- 
arated into the Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi. The Chippewa 
afterward pushed their way west along both shores of Lake Superior, 
and in the eighteenth century, assisted by the adoption of firearms, 
drove the Dakota from Mille Lacs, and spread over the northern part 
of Minnesota and southern Manitoba as far as the Turtle Mountains. 
They also flowed back around Lake Huron. During the nineteenth 
century they were gradually gathered into reservations on both sides 
of the International Boundary, but none were ever removed from their 
original country except two small bands and some scattered families 
which went to Kansas early in 1839, and in 1866 agreed to settle among 
the Cherokee in Oklahoma. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) considered that there were 35,000 
Chippewa in 1650. The tribe was so large and has so many rami- 
fications that few early estimates are very close to the truth. The 
principal are: In 1764, about 25,000; in 1783 and 1794, about 15,000; 
in 1843, about 30,000; in 1851, about 28,000. In 1884 there were in 
Dakota 914; in Minnesota, 5,885; in Wisconsin, 3,656; in Michigan, 
3,500 returned separately and 6,000 combined Chippewa and Ottawa, 
of whom perhaps one-third were Chippewa; in Kansas, 76 Chippewa 
and Munsee. In Canada the Chippewa of Ontario, including the 
Nipissing, numbered at the same time about 9,000, while in Manitoba 
and the Northwest Territories there were 17,129 Chippewa and Cree 
on reservations under the same agencies. The census of 1910 gave 
20,214 in the United States, of whom 8,234 were in Minnesota, 4,299 in 
Wisconsin, 3,725 in Michigan, 2,966 in North Dakota, and the balance 
scattered among 18 States. The United States Indian Office Report 
for 1923 gave 22,599. In Canada there were probably somewhat less 
than 25,000, giving a total for the tribe of about 45,000. It must, 
however, be remembered that the present population of Chippewa 
includes thousands of mixed-bloods, partly representing mixtures with 
other tribes and partly mixtures with Whites. The United States 
Census of 1930 gives 21,549, including 9,495 in Minnesota, 4,437 in 


264 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Buu, 145 


Wisconsin, 3,827 in North Dakota, 1,865 in Michigan, and 1,549 in 
Montana. In 1937, 15,160 were returned from Minnesota, 4,303 
from Wisconsin, 6,513 from North Dakota, and 481 from Montana; a 
total in the United States of 26,457. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—I’'rom early times the 
Chippewa were one of those tribes most prominent in the minds of 
writers on American Indians. This fact they owed in the first place 
to their numbers and the extent of country covered by their bands; 
secondly, to their central position and the many White men who became 
acquainted with them; and, thirdly, to the popularization given them 
by Henry M. Schoolcraft (1851-57), and the still wider popularity 
which they and their myths attained through the use of Schoolcraft’s 
material by Longfellow in his famous poem of Hiawatha, for while the 
name Hiawatha is drawn from Iroquois sources, the stories are nearly 
all Chippewa. The name is preserved by streams in Wisconsin, Ohio, 
Michigan, Minnesota, and Ontario; by counties in Michigan, Wis- 
consin, and Minnesota; by various places in Pennsylvania, New York, 
Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, and Ontario; and by Chippewa Bay, St. 
Lawrence County, N. Y.; Chippewa Falls, Chippewa County, Wis.; 
Chippewa Lake, Mecosta County, Mich.; Chippewa Lake, Medina 
County, Ohio; and Ojibwa in Sawyer County, Wis. 


Dakota. When first known to Europeans the Dakota were mainly 
in southern Minnesota. They gradually moved westward but 
did not cede all of their lands in Minnesota until 1863, and even 
then retained rights to the famous Red Pipestone Quarry. (See 
South Dakota.) 


Foxes. In 1830 representatives of this tribe were a party to a treaty 
ceding Minnesota lands to the Whites. (See Wisconsin.) 


Iowa. According to tradition, this tribe lived for a time near the 
famous Red Pipestone Quarry in southwestern Minnesota, and were 
at the mouth of Minnesota River when the Dakota reached that 
country. They appear to have been near the mouth of Blue Earth 
River just before Le Sueur arrived there in 1701. Dakota informed 
him that Blue Earth River belonged to the Dakota of the West, the 
Iowa, and the Oto. (See Iowa.) 


Missouri. Representatives of this tribe were a party to the treaty of 
1830, ceding Minnesota lands to the Whites. (See Missouri.) 

Omaha. At one time the Omaha lived about the Red Pipestone 
Quarry in Minnesota. (See Nebraska.) 


Oto. As noted above (under Iowa), the Oto are reported to have 
shared at one time the ownership of Blue Earth River with the 
Iowa and the Western Dakota. (See Nebraska.) 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 265 


Ottawa. A band of Ottawa, in company with some Wyandot, once 
wintered on Lake Pepin. (See Michigan.) 


Ponca. This tribe was probably in southwestern Minnesota at the 
same time as the Omaha. (See Nebraska.) 


Sauk. In 1830 Sauk representatives were a party to a treaty ceding 
Minnesota lands to the Whites. (See Wisconsin.) 


Winnebago. A part of the Winnebago lived in Minnesota from 1848 
to 1862 after surrendering their reservation in Iowa Territory. 
(See Wisconsin. ) 


Wyandot. This tribe visited the borders of Minnesota for a short 
period in company with the Ottawa. (See Ottawa, above, and 
Ohio.) 

IOWA 


Chippewa. Part of the Chippewa, together with the Potawatomi 
and Ottawa, ceded lands in this State in 1846. (See Minnesota.) 


Dakota. After the Iowa Indians moved from the northern part of the 
present State of Iowa, the Dakota occupied much of the territory 
they had abandoned until the Sauk and Fox settled in their 
neighborhood shortly before and immediately after the Black Hawk 
War of 1832 and harassed them so constantly that they withdrew. 
(See South Dakota.) 


Foxes. This tribe began moving into Iowa sometime after 1804 and 
by the end of the Black Hawk War all were gathered there. In 
1842 they parted with their Iowa lands and most of them removed 
to Kansas with the Sauk, but shortly after the middle of the nine- 
teenth century some began to return to the State and by 1859 
nearly all had come back. They bought a tract of land near Tama 
City to which they added from time to time and where they have 
lived ever since. (See Wisconsin.) 


Illinois. Franquelin (1688) seems to locate the Peoria on the upper 
Iowa River, but Marquette, on his descent of the Mississippi in 
1673, found that tribe and the Moingwena near the mouth of the 
Des Moines. When he returned he found that they had moved 
to the neighborhood of Peoria, Ill. The name Des Moines is 
derived from that of the Moingwena. (See Illinois.) 


Iowa. Apparently borrowed by the French from Ayuhwa, the 
Dakota term applied to them, which, according to Riggs, signifies 
“sleepy ones.”” Skinner (1926) states that Iowa is their own name, 
but I feel sure that it has been borrowed in later years. Also called: 


Nadouessioux Maskoutens, Algonkin name meaning ‘‘Dakota of the Prairies.” 
Nez Percés, a traders’ nickname. 


266 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [But 145 


Pahodja, own name, meaning ‘‘dusty noses.’’ Skinner (1926) gives a different 
translation, but I am inclined to accept that furnished by J. O. Dorsey. 

Pashéhan, Pawnee name. 

Pierced Noses, traders’ name. 

Wa-dte’, Winnebago name. 

Connections.—The Iowa were a tribe of the Siouan linguistic stock 
and of the Chiwere subdivision, which included also the Oto, and 
Missouri. 

Location.—The Iowa moved about a great deal but mainly within 
the boundaries of the State which bears theirname. (See also Kansas, 
Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The only subdivisions mentioned are those of the moieties and gentes. But 
one village, the Wolf village, appears in the historical narratives. 

History.—In the earliest historical period the Iowa were living on 
a western affluent of the Mississippi conjectured by Mott (1938) to 
have been the Upper Iowa. Later they moved into the northwestern 
part of the present State of Iowa about the Okoboji Lakes and prob- 
ably extended into southwestern Minnesota to the neighborhood of 
the Red Pipestone Quarry and to the Big Sioux River. In the latter 
part of the eighteenth century they passed over to the Missouri and 
settled south of the spot where Council Bluffs now stands and on the 
east side of the river. About 1760 they moved east and came to live 
along the Mississippi between the Iowa and Des Moines Rivers. 
Their principal town was on the Des Moines River and for a long 
time at a spot in the northwestern part of Van Buren County. Early 
in the nineteenth century part of them seem to have moved farther 
up the Des Moines while others established themselves on Grand and 
Platte Rivers, Mo. At this time they seem to have come into contact 
with the Dakota and to have suffered considerably in consequence. 
There is a tradition that they were defeated by Black Hawk in 1821. 
In 1814 they were allotted lands in what was known as “‘the Platte 
Purchase” extending from the Platte River of Missouri through 
western Iowa even to the Dakota country. By treaties signed 
August 4, 1824, July 15, 1830, September 17, 1836, and November 
23, 1837, they ceded all of their claims to lands in Missouri and Iowa, 
and by that of Prairie du Chien, signed August 19, 1825, they sur- 
rendered all claims to land in Minnesota. The treaty of 1836 assigned 
part of them a reservation along Great Nemaha River, in the present 
Richardson County, Nebr., and Brown County, Kans., but it was 
considerably reduced by treaties of May 17, 1854, and March 6, 1861. 
Later part removed to Oklahoma to find homes in the present Lincoln 
and Noble Counties. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 267 


Tradition assigns to this tribe a single origin with the Winnebago, 
Oto, and Missouri, and it is borne out by the close linguistic relation- 
ship between them. Rather specific migration legends have been 
preserved giving an account of the movements of this tribal complex 
and the time and circumstances of the separation. If we are to be- 
lieve these traditions, after separation from the Winnebago, the 
Iowa-Oto-Missouri mother tribe moved first to Rock River, Ill., near 
its junction with the Mississippi, and thence to the Des Moines River 
some distance above its mouth, after separating at the Iowa River into 
two bands, the one which became the Iowa moving to the northwest 
while the Oto-Missouri went on to the mouth of Grand River, where 
part remained becoming the Missouri while the rest, the Oto, went 
on westward up the Missouri. The historical documents do not 
bring the Iowa so far south and they also seem to link the Oto and Iowa 
closely together. We should, therefore, be inclined to dismiss the 
native traditions altogether were it not that we have to account for 
the Missouri who are not mentioned in early times in close conjunc- 
tion with the other two but had reached the mouth of Grand River 
as early as 1687. It is, of course, possible that the Missouri separated 
from the Iowa-Oto or Iowa at Upper Iowa River instead of Iowa 
River, but it is also possible that the entire tribal complex moved 
somewhat farther south before their separation. The later stages of 
Iowa history given in the tradition already noted conform sufficiently 
well with the known historical facts to give us some confidence regard- 
ing the rest of the story though it varies in details. According to 
this, the Iowa went from the neighborhood of the Red Pipestone 
Quarry to the mouth of the Platte, and then in succession to the 
headwaters of the Little Platte River, Mo., to the west bank of the 
Mississippi slightly above the mouth of the Des Moines, to a point a 
little higher up on the same side of the Mississippi, southwestwardly 
to Salt River and up it to its extreme headwaters, to the upper part 
of Chariton River, to Grand River, and thence to Missouri River 
opposite Fort Leavenworth, where they lived in 1848 at the time 
when this narrative was related and the map accompanying it drawn. 

By agreement, the Oklahoma tract held by the Iowa was granted 
to its occupants in severalty. 

Population.—In 1702 Iberville estimated that the war power of the 
Iowa was about 300 ‘good men.” In 1736 Chauvignerie placed it as 
low as 80. An estimate made in 1760 gives the total population as 
1,100 souls. In 1777 Cruzat reported that there were 250 warriors, 
and Lewis and Clark, in 1804, 200 warriors and a total population of 
800. In 1829 we find an estimate of 1,000, and in 1832 Catlin gives 
one of the highest, 1,400. In 1836, however, an attempted census 


268 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuULL. 145 


returned 992 but only 7 years later the United States Indian Office 
reported only 470. In 1885 there were 138 in Kansas, and 88 in 
Oklahoma. In 1905 the figures were 225 and 89 respectively. The 
census of 1910 returned 244 of whom 124 were in Kansas, 79 in Okla- 
homa, and 38 in Nebraska. The United States Indian Office Report 
of 1923 gave 338 in Kansas and 82 in Oklahoma, a total of 420. The 
census of 1930 returned 10 in Brown County, Kans.; 83 in Richardson 
County, Nebr.; 32 in Lincoln County, Okla.; 24 in Noble County, 
Okla.; and 5 in other States, or a total of 154. In 1937 there were 
112 in Oklahoma. Although we have estimates of Iowa population 
higher than any above given, in one case as high as 8,000, it is evident 
that the figure suggested by Mooney (1928) as giving the probable 
population in 1780, i. e., 1,200, is nearer the truth—too high if 
anything. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Iowa were rela- 
tively inconspicuous in the early days, but their name will always be 
prominent because it was adopted as that of one of the great agricul- 
tural States of the Middle West. Iowa City, two rivers, a county, 
and several smaller places in the same State bear the name. There 
is also a county so designated in Wisconsin and villages in Kansas 
and California. 

There is a place of the name in Calcasieu Parish, La.; Iowa Falls in 
Hardin County, Iowa; Iowa Colony in Brazoria County, Tex.; Iowa 
Park in Wichita County in the same State, and Iowa Hill in Placer 
County, Calif. 


Missouri. ‘This tribe is said to have had the same origin as the Iowa 
and to have moved with them and the Oto to Iowa River, where 
the Iowa remained while the others continued on to the Missouri. 
(See Missouri.) 

Moingwena. (See Illinois above.) 


Omaha. While the Omaha usually lived west of the Missouri, they 
wandered for a time in western Iowa before moving over into 
Nebraska. (See Nebraska.) 

Oto, see Missouri above, and Missouri, page 269.) 

Ottawa. Representatives of this tribe were a party to a treaty made 
in 1846, ceding Iowa lands to the Whites. (See Michigan.) 

Peoria. (See Illinois above.) 

Ponca. The Ponca accompanied the Omaha while they were in 
western Iowa. (See Nebraska.) 


Potawatomi. The Prairie Potawatomi settled in western Iowa before 
removing to Kansas. They ceded their lands in 1846. (See 
Michigan.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 269 


Sauk. The Sauk moved into Iowa after the Black Hawk War and 
from there to Kansas in 1842. (See Wisconsin.) 


Winnebago. In 1840 this tribe went to the Neutral Ground in Iowa 
assigned to them by treaty of September 15, 1832, whence they 
removed in 1848 to Minnesota. (See Wisconsin.) 


MISSOURI 


Caddo. Within historic times no Caddoan tribe is known to have 
lived within the limits of the present State of Missouri, but occu- 
pancy by Caddo is indicated by certain archeological remains in 
the extreme southwestern section. (See Texas.) 


Dakota. Representatives of this tribe were a party to a treaty made 
in 1830, relinquishing lands in Missouri to the Whites. (See South 
Dakota.) 


Delaware. In 1818 a grant of land in southern Missouri was made to 
some of the Delaware Indians but it was re-ceded by them in 1829. 
(See New Jersey.) 


Foxes. Representatives of this tribe were a party to treaties with the 
United States Government concerning Missouri lands made in 1804 
and 1830. (See Wisconsin.) 


Illinois. Some of the tribes of the Illinois group at one time lived close 
to, and probably for a short time within, the eastern boundaries of 
Missouri. (See Illinois.) 


Iowa. The Iowa perhaps lived for a time in that part of Missouri 
north of Missouri River. (See Iowa.) 


Kickapoo. The Kickapoo lived in Missouri for awhile after they 
had sold their lands in Illinois but soon passed on to Kansas. (See 
Wisconsin.) 


Missouri. Meaning either ‘(people having) dugout canoes,’ or 
‘(people having) wooden canoes,”’ which amounts to the same thing. 
Through a misunderstanding, the name has been supposed to apply 
to the river which now bears the name, and it has been interpreted 
as meaning “big muddy.” They were also called: 

Nidtachi, their own name. 
Wacux¢a, by the Osage. 
Wa-ju’-xd¢i, by the Quapaw. 

Location.—The best-known historical location of the Missouri was 
on the river which bears their name on the south bank near the mouth 
of Grand River. Berry and Chapman (1938) have recently sought to 
identify this site, and probably correctly, with what they call the Utz 
site at a place called The Pinnacles in Saline County, Mo., a few 


270 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (BuLL. 145 


miles above the mouth of the Grand. (See also Iowa, Kansas, 
Minnesota, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.) 

Connection.—The Missouri belonged to the Chiwere division of the 
Siouan linguistic family, the other tribes under this head being the 
Iowa and Oto. 

According to tradition, the Missouri, Iowa, and Oto separated from 
the Winnebago at some indefinite period in the past and moved south- 
west to Iowa River where the Iowa remained, the others continuing 
to the Missouri, which they reached at the mouth of Grand River. 
Here, in consequence of a dispute between two chiefs, the tribe split 
again, the Missouri remaining where they were, while the Oto con- 
tinued on up the Missouri River. From what we know of the rela- 
tionship between the tribes in question, such successive fissions are 
not inherently improbable, though they may not have occurred at 
the places indicated. No doubt, events that happened gradually have 
been represented as occurring abruptly within limited periods. (For 
a further discussion of the Chiwere migration legends, see Iowa under 
Iowa and Oto under Nebraska.) Whatever their earlier history Mar- 
quette (1698) reported their presence on the Missouri River in 1673, 
and they were probably at the point above indicated, though his map 
is too inaccurate to place this beyond question. Here, or in the imme- 
diate neighborhood, they remained until 1798, when they suffered a 
terrible defeat at the hands of the Sauk and Fox Indians and scattered 
to live for a time among the Osage, Kansa, and Oto. By 1805 they 
had recovered to some extent, and Lewis and Clark found them in 
villages south of the River Platte. As a result of another unfortunate 
war, however, this time with the Osage, part joined the Iowa but the 
greater part went to the Oto to live, and followed their fortunes, par- 
ticipating with them in all treaties from 1830 onward. 

Population —Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,000 Mis- 
souri in 1780. In 1702 there were supposed to be 200 families. In 
1805 Lewis and Clark placed the entire population of the tribe at 
300 souls, but in 1829, when they were with the Oto, they counted 
but 80. Only 13 Indians of the Missouri tribe were returned by the 
census of 1910, and in 1930 they were not separated from the Oto 
(q. V.). 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Historically the Mis- 
souri tribe itself is remembered particularly for the tragic manner in 
which it was almost destroyed, but, as in many other cases, its name 
has attained a distinction out of all proportion to the aboriginal 
standing of the people. It is associated with that of the largest 
branch of the largest river of North America and to one of the great 
States of the American Union. There is a post town in Clay County, 
Mo., called Missouri City; another Missouri City in Fort Bend 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA v1 


County, Tex.; and a city in Harrison County, Iowa, known as Missouri 
Valley, besides a Missouri Branch in Wayne County, W. Va. 


Omaha. Representatives of this tribe were party to a treaty made 
in 1830 relinquishing lands in Missouri to the United States Gov- 
ernment. (See Nebraska.) 


Osage. A corruption of their own name Wazhazhe, which in turn is 
probably an extension of the name of one of the three bands of 
which the tribe is composed. Also called: 


Anahou, a name used by the French, perhaps the Caddo name. 
Bone Indians, given by Schoolcraft. 


Connections—The Osage were the most important tribe of the 
division of the Siouan linguistic stock called by J. O. Dorsey (1897) 
Dhegiha, which included also the Omaha, Ponka, Kansa, and Quapaw. 

Location—The greater part of this tribe was anciently on Osage 
River, Mo., but from a very early period a smaller division known as 
Little Osage was on the Missouri River near the village of the Mis- 
souril Indians (q. v.). (See also Arkansas, Kansas, and Oklahoma.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The two principal local divisions were the Great and Little Osages, mentioned 
above. About 1802 a third division, the ‘“Arkansas Band,’’ was created by the 
migration of nearly half of the Big Osage to Arkansas River under a chief known 
as Big-Track. The names of the following Osage villages, some of them having 
the names of their chiefs, have been recorded: 


Big Chief, 4 miles from the Mission in Indian Territory in 1850. 

Black Dog, 60 miles from the Mission in Indian Territory in 1850. 

Heakdhetanwan, on Spring Creek, a branch of Neosho River, Indian Territory. 

Intapupshe, on upper Osage River about the mouth of Sac River, Mo. 

Khdhasiukdhin, on Neosho River, Kans. 

Little Osage Village, on Osage Reservation, Okla., on the west bank of Neosho 
River. 

Manhukdhintanwan, on a branch of Neosho River, Kans. 

Nanzewaspe, in Neosho valley, southeastern Kansas. 

Nikhdhitanwan, at the junction of the Sac and Osage Rivers, Mo. 

Paghuukdhinpe, on the east side of Verdigris River, Okla. 

Pasukdhin, an ancient village name and also name of a late village on Verdigris 
River, Okla. 

Santsepasu, location uncertain. 

Santsukhdhin, native name of the Arkansas band, the village being located on 
Verdigris River, Okla., 60 miles above its mouth. 

Takdheskautsiupshe, unidentified. 

Tanwakanwakaghe, at the junction of Grand and Osage rivers, Mo. 

Tanwanshinka, on Neosho River, Okla. 

Wakhakukdhin, on Neosho River, Okla. 

White Hair’s Village, on the east side of Little Osage River in the northern part 
of the present Vernon County, Mo. 


272 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuuL. 145 


History.—Tradition indicates a prehistoric seat of the Osage on the 
Ohio River, but the first historical notice of them appears to be on 
Marquette’s autograph map of 1673, where they are located in the 
region with which they are usually associated. They continued there 
until the separation of the Arkansas band already mentioned. By 
that time the Little Osage had moved from the Missouri to a position 
within 6 miles of the Great Osage. During the eighteenth century 
and the first part of the nineteenth, the Osage were at war with 
practically all the other tribes of the Plains and a large number of 
those of the woodlands, to many of which their name was a synonym 
for enemy. On November 10, 1808, the Osage signed a treaty ceding 
all their territorial claims in the present States of Missouri and Arkan- 
sas to‘the United States. The remainder was further curtailed by 
treaties signed in 1825, 1839, and 1865, and the limits of their later 
reservation were established by act of Congress of July 15, 1870. 
They have since been allotted land in severalty and are now citizens 
of Oklahoma. 

Population.—Mooney’s (1928) estimate of Osage population as of 
the year 1780 is 6,200. In 1804 Lewis and Clark estimated 500 
warriors in the Great Osage band, nearly half as many Little Osages, 
and 600 in the Arkansas band. Sibley (1832), about the same time, 
gave 1,250 warriors. Morse (1822) estimated that there was an 
Osage population of 5,200; in 1829 Porter gave 5,000; in 1843 the 
United States Indian Office enumerated 4,102; Schoolcraft (1851-57) 
records 3,758 exclusive of an important division known as Black Dog’s 
band; in 1877 the United States Indian Office had 3,001; in 1884, 
1,547; in 1886, 1,582; and in 1906, 1,994. The census of 1910 gives 
1,373, all but 28 in Oklahoma, but the United States Indian Office 
Report for 1923 has 2,099. In 1930, 2,344 were reported, and in 1937, 
3,649. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—As above stated, the 
Osage attained a high reputation as fighters among all the tribes of 
the southern Plains and many of those of the Gulf region. They are 
also remarkable for their social organization as set forth in the reports 
of Dr. Francis La Flesche (1921, 1925, 1928). The name became 
affixed to the Osage River, a considerable branch of the Missouri, 
which rises in Kansas but flows principally through the State of 
Missouri; also to counties in Kansas and Missouri; a fork of the 
Gasconade River, Mo.; a creek in Arkansas; and to places in Carroll 
County, Ark.; Franklin County, Ill.; Mitchell County, Iowa; 
Becker County, Minn.; Osage County, Okla.; Coryell County, Tex.; 
Monongalia County, W. Va.; Weston County, Wyo.; Osage Beach in 
Camden County, Mo.; Osage City in Cole County, Mo.; and. Osage 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 273 


City in Kansas. Indirectly they have also furnished one of the popular 
names of the bois d’arc, Osage orange, the favorite wood for making 
bows among the tribes of the southern Plains between the lower 
Mississippi and the Pueblo country. 


Oto. As stated in treating of the Missouri (q. v.), the Oto accom- 
panied that tribe into this State, left them when they were both on 
the Missouri River near Grand River, and moved northeast into 
Kansas. (See Nebraska.) 


Sauk. Representatives of this tribe were parties to the treaties 
involving Missouri land cessions made in 1804 and 1830. (See 
Wisconsin.) 


Shawnee. A part of the Shawnee Indians settled about Cape Girar- 
deau in southeastern Missouri early in the nineteenth century. 
They ceded their lands to the U. S. Government in 1825. (See 


Tennessee.) 
NORTH DAKOTA 


Arapaho. Certain traditions indicate that the Arapaho at one time 
lived in the Red River Valley in what is now Minnesota and North 
Dakota, but they had left before the historic period. (See Wyo- 
ming.) 

Arikara. Signifying “horns,” or “elk,” and having reference to their 
ancient manner of wearing the hair with two pieces of bone stand- 
ing up, one on each side of the crest; -ra is the plural suffix. Also 
called: 


A da ka’ da ho, Hidatsa name. 

Ah-pen-ope-say, or A-pan-to’-pse, Crow name. 

Corn eaters, given as their own name. 

Ka’-nan-in, Arapaho name, meaning ‘‘people whose jaws break in pieces.”’ 

O-no’-ni-o, Cheyenne name. 

Padani, Pani, applied to them by various tribes. 

Ree, abbreviation of Arikara. 

Sanish, “person,” their own name, according to Gilmore (1927). 

S’qiiles’tshi, Salish name. 

Star-rah-he’ [tstarahi], their own name, according to Lewis and Clark 
(1904-05). 

Tanish, their own name, meaning ‘“‘the people,’”’ according to Hayden (1862). 
Perhaps a misprint of Sanish. 

Wa-zi’-ya-ta Pa-da’-nin, Yankton name, meaning ‘“‘northern Pawnee.”’ 


Connections.—The Arikara belonged to the Caddoan linguistic stock 
and were a comparatively recent offshoot of the Skidi Pawnee. 

Location.—In historic times they have occupied various points on 
the Missouri River between Cheyenne River, South Dakota, and Fort 
Berthold, North Dakota. (See also Montana and Nebraska.) 


974 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY {[BuLy, 145 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The Arikara are sometimes spoken of as a confederacy of smaller tribes each 
occupying its own village, and one account mentions 10 of these, while Gilmore 
(1927) furnishes the names of 12, including 4 of major importance under which 
the others were grouped. These were as follows: 


Awahu, associated with which were Hokat and Scirihauk. 
Hukawirat, with which were associated Warihka and Nakarik. 
Tukatuk, with which were associated Tsininatak and Witauk. 
Tukstanu, with which were associated Nakanusts and Nisapst. 


Earlier sources give other names which do not agree with these: 

Hachepiriinu. 

Hia. 

Hosukhaunu, properly the name of a dance society. 
Hosukhaunukarerihu, properly the name of a dance society. 
Kaka. 

Lohoocat, the name of a town in the time of Lewis and Clark. 
Okos. 

Paushuk. 

Sukhutit. 

History.— After parting from the Skidi in what is now Nebraska, 
the Arikara gradually pushed north to the Missouri River and on up 
that stream. 

In 1770 when French traders opened relations with them they were 
a little below Cheyenne River. Lesser and Weltfish (1932) suggest 
that they may have been the Harahey or Arahey of whom Coronado 
was told rather than the Pawnee (q. v.). Lewis and Clark found them, 
reduced considerably in numbers, between Grand and Cannonball 
Rivers. In 1823 they attacked the boats of an American trader, 
killing 13 men and wounding others, and in consequence of this 
trouble they abandoned their country and went to live with the 
Skidi on Loup River. Two years later they returned to the Missouri, 
and by 1851 they had pushed as far north as Heart River. Meantime 
wars with the Dakota and the smallpox had reduced them so much 
that they were glad to open friendly relations with two other tribes, 
similarly reduced, the Hidatsa and Mandan. In 1862 they moved to 
Fort Berthold. In 1880 the Fort Berthold Reservation was created 
for the three tribes, and the Arikara have ever since lived upon it, 
though they are now allotted land in severalty, and on the approval 
of the allotments, July 10, 1900, they became citizens of the United 
States. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1780 there were 
about 3,000 Arikara. In 1804 Lewis and Clark gave 2,600. In 1871 
they numbered 1,650; in 1888 only 500; and in 1904, 380. The census 
of 1910 returned 444 of whom 425 were in North Dakota. In 1923 
the United States Indian Office gave 426. The census of 1930 re- 
turned 420, and the United States Indian Office in 1937, 616. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 275 


Connection in which they have become noted—The Arikara are noted 
merely as the most northerly of the Caddoan tribes and from their 
probable influence in introducing a knowledge of agriculture to the 
people of the upper Missouri. Arickaree in Washington County, 
Colo., perpetuates the name. 


Assiniboin. In early days the Assiniboin were constantly coming 
across from Canada to fight and trade with the tribes of the upper 
Missouri, but they did not settle within the limits of North Dakota 
for any considerable period. (See Montana, and also Dakota under 
South Dakota.) 


Cheyenne. When they left Minnesota the Cheyenne settled for a 
while on the Sheyenne fork of Red River after which they moved 
beyond the limits of the State of North Dakota. (See South 
Dakota.) 


Chippewa. After they had obtained guns the Chippewa pushed 
westward as far as the Turtle Mountains which gave their name to 
a Chippewa band. There were 2,966 Chippewa in North Dakota 
in 1910. (See Minnesota.) 


Dakota. While working their way west from Minnesota, bands of 
Dakota occupied at various times parts of the eastern, southern, 
and southwestern margins of North Dakota and a part of the 
Standing Rock Agency is within the limits of the State. In 1910 
1,190 Dakota were making their homes on its soil. (See South 
Dakota.) 


Hidatsa. Derived from the name of a former village and said, on 
somewhat doubtful authority, to signify “willows.” Also called: 


A-gutch-a-ninne-wug, Chippewa name, meaning “‘the settled people.’’ 

A-me-she’, Crow name, meaning “‘people who live in earth houses.” 

Gi-aucth-in-in-e-wug, Chippewa name, meaning ‘‘men of the olden time.” 

Gros Ventres of the Missouri, traders’ name, probably derived from the 
sign for them in the sign language. 

Hewaktokto, Dakota name. 

Minitari, meaning ‘‘they crossed the water,’”’ said to have been given to 
them by the Mandan, from the tradition of their first encounter with 
the tribe on the Missouri. 

Wa-nuk’-e-ye’-na, Arapaho name, meaning ‘‘lodges planted together.” 

Wetitsadn, Arikara name. 


, 


Connections.—The Hidatsa belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock, 
their closest relations within it being the Crow. 

Location.—They lived at various points on the Missouri between 
the Heart and Little Missouri Rivers. (See also Montana and 
Canada.) 


276 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Villages 
Lewis and Clark (1804-5) give the following three names: 


Amahami or Mahaha, on the south bank of Knife River, formerly an independent 
but closely related tribe. 

Amatiha, on the south bank of Knife River. 

Hidatsa, on the north bank of Knife River. 


The band names given by Morgan are rather those of social divisions. 


History.—<According to tradition, the Hidatsa formerly lived by a 
lake northeast of their later country, one sometimes identified with 
Devil’s Lake. They moved from there to the mouth of Heart River, 
where they met and allied themselves with the Mandan, and from 
them they learned agriculture. As we have seen, Lewis and Clark 
found them on Knife River. In 1837 a terrible smallpox epidemic 
wasted them so completely that the survivors consolidated into one 
village which was moved in 1845 to the neighborhood of Fort Berthold, 
where the tribe has ever since continued to reside. They have now 
been allotted lands in severalty and are citizens of the United States. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates the Hidatsa and Amahami 
together as numbering 2,500 in 1780. Lewis and Clark give 600 
warriors, or about 2,100 people. In 1905 they totaled 471, and the 
census of 1910 gives 547, a figure repeated by the United States 
Indian Office in 1923. In 1930, 528 were returned and in 1937, 731. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The Hidatsa appear 
most prominently, along with the Mandan, in connection with the 
ascent of the Missouri by Lewis and Clark and later expeditions into 
the same region. The name of Minatare, Scotts Bluff County, 
Nebr., probably refers to this tribe. 


Mandan. Probably a corruption of the Dakota word applied to 
them, Mawatani. Also called: 


A-rach-bo-cu, Hidatsa name (Long, 1791). 

As-a-ka-shi, Us-suc-car-shay, Crow name. 
How-mox-tox-sow-es, Hidatsa name (?). 

Kanit’, Arikara name. 

Kwowahtewug, Ottawa name, 

Métutahanke, own name since 1837, after their old village. 
Mo-no’-ni-o, Cheyenne name. 

Numakaki, own name prior to 1837, meaning ‘‘men, 
U-ka’-she, Crow name, meaning ‘“‘earth houses.”’ 


a” 66 


people.” 


Connections.—The Mandan belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock. 
Their connections are with the Tutelo and Winnebago rather than 
the nearer Siouan tribes. 

Location.—When known to the Whites, the Mandan were on the 
same part of the Missouri River as the Hidatsa, between Heart and 
Little Missouri Rivers. (See also South Dakota.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA Par ir 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The division names given by Morgan (1851) appear to have been those of their 
former villages and are as follows: Horatamumake, Matonumake, Seepoosha, 
Tanatsuka, Kitanemake, Estapa, and Neteahke. In 1804 Lewis and Clark found 
two villages in existence, Metutahanke and Ruptari, about 4 miles below the 
mouth of Knife River. 

They were divided socially into two moieties named like those of the Hidatsa, 
the Four-Clan Moiety and Three-Clan Moiety, and many of the clans constituting 
these bear village names. One of Dr. Lowie’s (1917) informants gave the Prairie- 
chicken people, Young white-headed Eagle, People all in a bunch, and Crow 
people, as clans of the first Moiety; and the Maxi’‘kina, Tami’sik, and Nii’pta as 
clans of the second. Another informant gave the following clans altogether: 
Si’pucka, Xtaxta’nii’m*k*, Village above, Maxdhe, Tami’sik, Seven-different- 
kinds, Hilltop village, Scattered village, White-bellied mouse people, and Niptare. 
Curtis (1907-9) and Maximilian (1843) give a Badger clan; Curtis, Red Butte and 
Charcoal clans; Maximilian, Bear and Cactus villages, perhaps intended for 
clans; and Morgan, Wolf, Good Knife, Eagle, and Flathead clans. Some of 
Lowie’s informants substituted other names for Ni’pta, which latter is also the 
name of a village. 


History. —When first visited by the Whites, the Mandan had distinct 
traditions of an eastern origin, and they may have come from the 
neighborhood of the Winnebago or from the Ohio country. Tradition 
also affirms that they first reached the Missouri at the mouth of White 
River, South Dakota, whence they moved to Moreau River and thence 
to Heart River, where the Whites found them. The first recorded 
visit to them was by Varendrye in 1738. The nine villages which 
they had in 1750 were merged into two by 1776 which were about 4 
miles below the mouth of Knife River when Lewis and Clark visited 
them in 1804. In 1837 they were almost destroyed by smallpox, 
only 31 souls being left out of 1,600, according to one account. In 
1845 some Mandan accompanied the Hidatsa to Fort Berthold, 
others followed at intervals, and the tribe has continued to reside 
there down to the present time, though lands are now allotted to them 
in severalty and they are citizens of the United States. 

Population—Mooney’s (1928) estimate of Mandan population for 
1780 is 3,600. In 1804 Lewis and Clark estimated there were 1,250, 
and in 1837, just before the great smallpox epidemic, there were 
supposed to be 1,600. In 1850 the total number was said to be 150, 
but in 1852 it had apparently increased to 385. In 1871 there were 
450; in 1877, 420; in 1885, 410; and 1905, 249; while the census of 
1910 returned 209, and the United States Indian Office Report of 
1923, 273. The census of 1930 gives 271, and the Indian Office Report 
for 1937, 345. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Mandan attained 
wide notoriety among the Whites (1) from their intimate dealings 
with the early White explorers and traders in the upper Missouri 


278 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLu. 146 


region; (2) from the fact that their customs and ceremonies were made 
particular matters of record by Maximilian (1843), Catlin (1844), and 
other White visitors; (3) from the reputation these Indians acquired 
of an unusually light skin color and theories of Welsh or, at least 
European, origin based upon these characters; and (4) from the tragic 
decimation of the tribe by smallpox as above mentioned. The name 
has been adopted as that of a city in North Dakota, the capital of 
Morton County. 
SOUTH DAKOTA 


Arapaho. According to tradition, the Arapaho at one time lived in 
the neighborhood of the Black Hills and warriors of the tribe often 
traversed the western parts of this State. (See Wyoming.) 


Arikara. The Arikara lived at various points on the Missouri River in 
South Dakota during their migration northward after separating 
from the Skidi Pawnee. (See North Dakota.) 


Cheyenne. From a Dakota term applied to them meaning “people 
of alien speech,”’ literally, ‘red talkers.” Also called: 


A-was-she-tan-qua, Hidatsa name (Long, 1791). 

Bahakosin, Caddo name, meaning “striped arrows.” 

Dog Indians, so called sometimes owing to a confusion of the name with 
the French word chien. 

Dzitsi’stis, own name. 

Gatsalghi, Kiowa Apache name. 

Hitasi’na or It&si’n’. Arapaho name, meaning “scarred people.” 

I-sdnsh’-pu-she, Crow name. 

Itah-Ischipahji, Hidatsa name (Maximilian, 1843). 

I-ta-su-pu-zi, Hidatsa name, meaning ‘“‘spotted arrow quills.” 

Ka’neaheiwastsik, Cree name, meaning ‘‘people with a language somewhat 
like Cree.” 

Nanontks-karé/niki, Kichai name. 

Niere’rikwats-kini’ki, Wichita name. 

Paginivo, Shoshoni and Comanche name, meaning “striped arrows.” 

Sik’o’ta, Kiowa name. 

Scarred Arms, from a misinterpretation of the tribal sign. 

Sha-hé, Pawnee name. 


Connections.—Cheyenne was one of the three most aberrant 
languages of the Algonquian linguistic family, and was shared by no 
other tribe except the Sutaio, whose speech differed only in minor 
points. 

Location.—This tribe moved frequently; in South Dakota they were 
associated with the Cheyenne River and the Black Hills. (See also 
Colorado, Kansas, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, 
Oklahoma, and Wyoming.) 


SWANTON) INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 979 


Subdivisions 

Following are the bands which had a well-recognized place in the camp circle, 
as given by Mooney (1928) ; Heviqs’-n!’’pahis, Méliséyu, Wii’tapfu, Hévhaita’nio, 
O!’vimdna, Hisfometa’nio, Sitdio (formerly a distinct tribe; see below), Oqtdgiin&, 
H6é’nows, Miasi’’kot&, O’mi’s!s. Other band names not commonly recognized 
as divisional names, are these: Moqtdvhaiti’niu, Ndé’kuimdna, Anskéwinls, 
PY’nditgi’, Maéhoyum, Wéopots!’t, Totoimana (on Tongue River), Black Lodges 
(near Lame Deer), Ree Band, Yellow Wolf Band, Half-breed Band. 

History.—Before 1700 the Cheyenne lived in what is now the State 
of Minnesota. There are very definite traditions of a time when they 
were on Minnesota River, from which region the Cheyenne who 
visited La Salle’s fort in Illinois in 1680 probably came. A little 
later they seem to have moved to the neighborhood of Lake Traverse 
and still later part of them occupied a stockaded town on the Sheyenne 
River of North Dakota near the present Lisbon, N. Dak. Some years 
before 1799, perhaps in the decade 1780 to 1790, this town was sur- 
prised by Chippewa Indians and destroyed while most of the men 
were off hunting. The Cheyenne who escaped first settled along the 
Missouri where other bands of Cheyenne seem to have preceded them. 
There were a number of villages belonging to the tribe along the 
Missouri near the point where the boundary line between North and 
South Dakota crosses it until just before the time of Lewis and Clark, 
or, as Grinnell (1923) believes, for a number of years after the date 
of their expedition (1804-1806). However, they accustomed them- 
selves more and more to a nomadic life and moved on toward the 
Black Hills whither they had been preceded by a cognate tribe known 
as the Sutaio. It is very probable that the Cheyenne had met the 
Sutaio east of the Missouri. At first the attitude of the two people 
toward each other is said to have been hostile, but presently they 
became friendly and finally united. On leaving the Missouri, the 
Cheyenne seem to have given up raising corn and making pottery. 
During the early part of the nineteenth century they moved to the 
headwaters of the Platte. When Bent’s Fort was built on the upper 
Arkansas in 1832 a large part decided to establish themselves near it 
but the rest continued to rove about the headwaters of the North 
Platte and the Yellowstone. This separation in the tribe was made 
permanent by the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1851, the two sections 
being known respectively as Southern Cheyenne and Northern Chey- 
enne. In the meantime they had met and formed an alliance with 
the Arapaho, though there is no memory of the date or the circum- 
stances. 

They were at war with the Kiowa from the time of their settlement 
on the upper Arkansas until 1840, but afterward acted with them 


280 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn 145 


against other tribes and the Whites. In 1849 they suffered severely 
in the cholera epidemic, and later between 1860 and 1878, in wars 
with the Whites. The southern division took a leading part in the 
general outbreak of 1874-75, and the Northern Cheyenne joined the 
hostile Dakota in 1876 and shared in the Custer massacre. Finally, 
the Northern Cheyenne were assigned a reservation in Montana. 
The Southern Cheyenne were similarly assigned to a reservation in 
the present Oklahoma in 1867 but could not be induced to remain 
upon it until after the general surrender of 1875. In 1901-02 the 
lands of the Southern Cheyenne were allotted in severalty. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) places the number of Cheyenne and 
Sutaio at 3,500 in 1780. In 1904 the number of Southern Cheyenne 
was given as 1,903, and the Northern Cheyenne as 1,409, a total of 
3,312. The census of 1910 returned 3,055, of whom 1,522 were in 
Oklahoma and 1,346 in Montana, but the United States Indian Office 
Report of 1923 gives 3,248, composed of 1,831 Southern Cheyenne, 
and 1,417 Northern Cheyenne. The census of 1930 returned 2,695, 
the Northern Cheyenne being slightly more numerous then the 
Southern division. In 1937 there were 1,561 Northern Cheyenne 
and 2,836 Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho together. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—This Cheyenne tribe 
was one of the most famous of the Plaitis, and was conspicuous on 
account of the frequent wars which it waged against other tribes, as 
well as against the Whites. It is also noted on account of its romantic 
history, having originally been a corn-raising tribe in southern Min- 
nesota and later having become thoroughly adjusted to Plains life. 
The name is preserved by the State Capital of Wyoming; by a river 
in South Dakota; by counties in Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas; 
by the Cheyenne Mountains and Cajfions in Colorado; by a river of 
North Dakota (spelled Sheyenne); and by Cheyenne Wells in Colo- 
rado, and Sheyenne in Eddy County, N. Dak. There is also a place 
of the name in Roger Mills County, Okla.; and another in Winkler 
County, Tex. 


Dakota. Signifying ‘‘allies’’ in the Santee or eastern dialect; in 
Yankton and in Assiniboin it is Nakota; in Teton, Lakota. They 
are more often known as Sioux, an abbreviation of Nadouessioux, 
the name applied to them by the Chippewa, as transmitted through 
French; it signifies ‘‘adders,’’ and by derivation ‘‘enemies.”’ Also 
called: 


Ab-boin-ug, Boinug or Obwahnug, Wanak, Chippewa name, meaning 
“Toasters” from their custom of torturing foes. 

Ba-akush’, Caddo name. 

Ba-ra-shiip’-gi-o, Crow name. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 281 


Chah’-ra-rat, Pawnee name. 

Coupe-gorges, French rendering of a name given them in the sign language. 
Cut-throats, English equivalent of same. 

Hand Cutters, translation of Ute name. 

Ita ha’tski, Hidatsa name, meaning “long arrows.” 

Kaispa, Sarsi name. 

K‘odalpa-Kifiago, Kiowa name, meaning ‘‘necklace people.” 
Mar-an-sho-bish-ko, Crow name, meaning ‘“‘cutthroats.” 
Minishipsko, Crow name of opprobrious meaning. 

Nadouessioux, general Algonquian name received through the French. 
Natni or Natnihina, Arapaho, meaning ‘“‘cutthroats.” 

Na’-to-wo-na, Cheyenne name for easternmost bands of Sioux. 
Nuktusem or Nktusem, Salish name. 

Ocheti shakowin, own name, meaning “the seven council fires.” 
O-o’-ho-mo-i’-o, Cheyenne name, meaning “those on the outside.” 
Oshahak, Fox name. 

Pambizimina, Shoshoni name, meaning “‘beheaders.”’ 

PAmpe Chyimina, Ute name, meaning “Hand Cutters.” 

Papitsinima, Comanche name, meaning ‘‘beheaders.”’ 

Pishakulk, Yakima name, meaning ‘‘beheaders.”’ 

Poualak or Pouanak, name given in early French records, for Ab-boin-ug. 
Séhagi, Shawnee name. 

Shahai, Osage, Kansa, and Oto name. 

Shdénana, Kiowa Apache name. 

Tsaba’kosh, or Ba-akush’, Caddo name, meaning ‘‘cutthroats.”’ 
Tuyétchiské, Comanche name, meaning ‘‘cutthroats.”’ 

Wai+-si-sa-o-no, Iroquois name. 

Yu*sséha, Wyandot name, meaning “‘birds.”’ 

Connections. —The Dakota belonged to the Siouan linguistic family, 
their closest relations being the Hidatsa. 

Location.—The earliest known home of this tribe was on and near 
the Mississippi in southern Minnesota, northwestern Wisconsin, and 
neighboring parts of Iowa. In 1825, after they had spread somewhat 
farther west, Long (1791) gives their boundaries thus: They were 
bounded by a curved line extending east of north from Prairie du Chien 
on the Mississippi, so as to include all the eastern tributaries of the 
Mississippi, to the first branch of Chippewa River; thence by a line 
running west of north to Spirit Lake; thence westwardly to Crow 
Wing River, Minn., and up that stream to its head; thence westwardly 
to Red River and down that stream to Pembina; thence southwest- 
wardly to the eastern bank of the Missouri near the Mandan villages; 
thence down the Missouri to a point probably not far from Soldiers 
River; thence east of north to Prairie du Chien. At a later time 
they occupied less territory toward the east but extended much farther 
westward between the Yellowstone and Platte Rivers. (See also 
Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, 
Wisconsin, Wyoming, and Canada.) 


282 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bown 145 


Subdivisions 

Early explorers usually distinguished an Eastern or Forest and a Western or 
Prairie division, but the following is a more accurate classification: (1) Mdewkan- 
ton, (2) Wahpeton, (3) Wahpekute, (4) Sisseton, (5) Yankton, (6) Yanktonai, in- 
cluding (a) Upper Yanktonai, and (b) Lower Yantonai or Hunkpatina, from 
whom also the Assiniboin are said to have separated, and (7) Teton, including 
(a) the Brulé (Upper and Lower), (b) Hunkpapa, (ce) Miniconjou, (d) Oglala, (e) 
Oohenonpa or Two Kettle, (f) San Arcs, (g) Sihasapa or Blackfoot. Numbers 1 
to 4 constituted the Santee or Eastern division. 


Minor Bands, Villages, Etc. 


Black Tiger, near Fort Peck Agency. 

Broken Arrows, possibly the Cazazhita. 

Casarba, 35 leagues up St. Peters River in 1804. 

Cazazhita, probably Tetons and perhaps the same as the Wannawega. 

Chansuushka, unidentified. 

Chasmuna, unidentified. 

Cheokhba, a band of the Hunkpapa Teton. 

Congewichacha, a Dakota division, perhaps Teton. 

Farmers Band, probably a band of the Mdewakanton, below Lake Traverse, 
Minn. 

Fire Lodge, below Lake Traverse. 

Flandreau Indians, a part of the Santee who settled at Flandreau, S. Dak. 

Grey Eagle Band, below Lake Traverse, Minn. 

Lake Comedu, unidentified. 

Lean Bear, below Lake Traverse, Minn. 

Long Sioux, near Fort Peck. 

Magayuteshni, a Mdewakanton division. 

Menostamenton, unidentified. 

Micacoupsiba, on the upper St. Peters, Minn. 

Minisha, an Oglala band. 

Neecoweegee, unidentified, possibly Minneconjou. 

Nehogatawonahs, near St. Croix River in Minnesota or Wisconsin. 

Newastarton, an unidentified band on the Mississippi above the St. Peters (Minne- 
sota) River; probably the Mdewakanton. 

Ocatameneton, an eastern Dakota band. 

Ohanhanska, a band of the Magayuteshni division of the Mdewakanton on 
Minnesota River. 

Oughetgeodatons, a village or subdivision of one of the western bands. 

Oujatespouitons, west of the Mississippi. 

Peshlaptechela, an Oglala Teton band. 

Pineshow, a band of Wahpeton, on Minnesota River, 15 miles from its mouth. 

Psinchaton, belonging to the Western Dakota in Minnesota. 

Psinoumanitons, a division of the Eastern Dakota, probably in Wisconsin. 

Psinoutanhinhintons, a band of Western Dakota in Minnesota. 

Rattling Moccasin Band, a band of Mdewakanton Dakota on Minnesota River 
below Lake Traverse, Minn. 

Red Leg’s Band, a Wahpekute band in Minnesota. 

Redwood, location uncertain. 

Star Band, a band of Mdewakanton. 

Takini, an Upper Yanktonai band. 

Talonapin, a Hunkpapa band. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 2838 


Tashunkeota, a Sihasapa band. 

Tateibombu’s Band, location uncertain. 

Touchouasintons, a band of the Western Dakota, perhaps the Wazikute. 
Traverse de Sioux, a part of the Sisseton formerly on Minnesota River, Minn. 
Waktonila, unidentified. 

Wazikute, a band of Upper Yanktonai. 

White Cap Indians, on the south Saskatchewan River, in Assiniboia, Canada. 
White Eagle Band, location unknown. 

Wiattachechah, an unidentified village. 

History.—The first historical mention of the Dakota is in the Jesuit 
Relation for 1640 when they were probably in the eastern part of the 
territory indicated above. Rev. A. L. Riggs, for many years a 
missionary among them, claims that their traditions pointed to the 
northeast as the place of their origin and that they once lived about 
the Lake of the Woods. There are, however, strong grounds for believ- 
ing that they pushed their way up into the present Minnesota from 
the southeast, though there is no doubt that the Chippewa forced 
them back in later times from some of the most easternmost lands 
they occupied and their expulsion from Mille Lacs is an historical 
event. It is thought that few Dakota crossed the Missouri before 
1750, yet it is claimed that some of them reached the Black Hills by 
1765. In 1862 the Eastern Dakota under Little Crow rose upon the 
Whites and in the war which followed 700 settlers and 100 soldiers 
were killed, while the hostile bands lost all of the rest of their lands in 
Minnesota and were forced to move to Dakota and Nebraska. On the 
discovery of gold in the Black Hills the rush of miners to that region 
became the occasion for a war with the Western Dakota rendered 
famous by the cutting off of General Custer and five companies of 
cavalry on the Little Bighorn, June 25, 1876. An incipient rising at 
Wounded Knee Creek, resulting from the spread of the Ghost Dance 
religion, was the last scene of the struggles between the Dakota and 
the Whites, and the tribe is now allotted lands in severalty, principally 
in South Dakota, but in part in North Dakota and Nebraska. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were 
25,000 Dakota of all divisions, exclusive of the Assiniboin (q. v. under 
Montana). In 1904 their distribution on agencies and their numbers 
were as follows: Cheyenne River (Minniconjou, Sans Arcs, and Oohe- 
nonpa), 2,477; Crow Creek (Lower Yanktonai), 1,025; Fort Totten 
School (Sisseton, Wahpeton, and Yanktonai), 1,013; Riggs Institute 
(Santee), 279; Fort Peck (Yankton), 1,116; Lower Brulé (Lower 
Brulé), 470; Pine Ridge (Oglala), 6,690; Rosebud (Brulé, Waglukhe, 
Lower Brulé, Northern, Oohenonpa, and Wazhazha), 4,977; Santee 
(Santee), 1,075; Sisseton (Sisseton and Wahpeton), 1,908; Standing 
Rock (Sihasapa, Hunkpapa, and Yanktonai), 3,514; Yankton (Yank- 


284 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


ton), 1,702; under no agency (Mdewakanton in Minnesota) 929; 
total, 27,175. The census of 1930 returned 25,934, of whom 20,918 
were in South Dakota, 2,307 in North Dakota, 1,251 in Montana, 
690 in Nebraska, and the remainder in more than 22 other States. 
The Report of the United States Office of Indian Affairs for 1937 
gave 33,625, including 27,733 in South Dakota, 2,797 in North 
Dakota, 1,292 in Nebraska, 1,242 in Minnesota, and 561 in Montana. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Dakota are one 
of the most famous tribes of North America, thanks to their numbers 
and prowess, their various wars with the Whites. and the spectacular 
character of one of the last encounters with them, the celebrated 
“Custer massacre,’ not to mention the conspicuous nature of their con- 
nection with the Ghost Dance cult and the tragic affray at Wounded 
Knee Creek which grew out of it. The name is preserved in two of 
the States of our Union, North and South Dakota; by a river which 
flows through them; by counties in Minnesota and Nebraska; and by 
places in Stephenson County, Ill.; Winona County, Minn.; in Wis- 
consin and Nebraska; and as Dakota City in Humboldt County, Iowa, 
and Dakota County, Nebr. The other popular name for this tribe, 
Sioux, has been given to Sioux City, Iowa, and Sioux Falls, S. Dak.; to 
counties in Iowa and Nebraska; and small places in Nebraska, Iowa, 
and Minnesota; as Sioux in Yancey County, N. C.; Sioux Center in 
Sioux County, Iowa; Sioux Rapids in Buena Vista County, Iowa; and 
Sioux Pass in Richland County, Mont. It appears as Lacota (the 
Teton form of the name) in Marion County, Fla., and Van Buren 
County, Mich., and with the spelling Lakota in Kossuth County, 
Iowa; Nelson County, N. Dak.; and Culpeper County, Va. 


Kiowa. The Kiowa lived in and about the Black Hills for a time 
before they were succeeded by the Sutaio and Cheyenne. (See 
Oklahoma.) 


Mandan. According to tradition, this tribe reached the Missouri 
River near the mouth of White River, and settled at several places 
along the former within the borders of this State before passing out 
of it into North Dakota. (See North Dakota.) 


Omaha. After having been driven from the region of the Pipestone 
Quarry in Minnesota, the Omaha settled on the Missouri in the 
territory of South Dakota and later moved downstream under 
pressure from the Dakota to their later seats in Nebraska. (See 
Nebraska.) 


Ponca. This tribe was with the Omaha when it left the region of the 
Pipestone Quarry, but separated from it on the Missouri and went 
into the Black Hills for a time, after which it retired to the Missouri 
and settled in the present Nebraska. (See Nebraska.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA I85 


Sutaio. Significance uncertain. A Cheyenne informant of Grinnell 
(1923) believed it was derived from isswht’, “ridge.” 
Connection—The Sutaio belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 

stock, their nearest relatives being the Cheyenne. 

Location.—When first brought distinctly to the knowledge of Whites, 
this tribe was west of Missouri River, between it and the Black Hills. 

History —The Sutaio may have been the “‘Chousa”’ band of Chey- 
enne of whom Perrin du Lac (1805) heard. At any rate they were 
probably not far distant from the Cheyenne during their migrations 
from Minnesota to the Missouri River and beyond, though whether 
in front of them, or to one side, it is impossible to tell. According 
to Cheyenne tradition as reported by Grinnell (1923), the two tribes 
met three different times. At any rate we know that they lived side 
by side in the region eastward of the Black Hills for some time and 
that they finally united there into one body, the Sutaio taking their 
place as one band in the Cheyerne tribal camping circle. 

Population Unknown. (See Cheyenne.) 


Winnebago. After leaving Minnesota in 1862 and before they took 
refuge with the Omaha, part of this tribe lived for a while on the 
Crow Creek Reservation. (See Wisconsin.) 


NEBRASKA 


Arapaho. The Arapaho ranged for a considerable period over the 
western part of this State. (See Wyoming.) 

Arikara. This tribe lived in the territory now included in Nebraska 
with the Skidi Pawnee at some prehistoric period, and after 1823 
they returned to the same tribe for 2 years. (See North Dakota.) 

Cheyenne. Like the Arapaho, the Cheyenne ranged to some extent 
over the western territories of the State. (See South Dakota.) 

Comanche. At an early day the Comanche must have lived in or 
near the western part of Nebraska, before moving south. (See 
Texas.) 

Dakota. The Dakota had few settlements of any permanency in the 
territory of Nebraska but they were constantly raiding into and 
across it from the north. (See South Dakota.) 

Foxes. The Foxes were parties to a land cession made in 1830. (See 
Wisconsin.) 

Iowa. When the Omaha lived about the Pipestone Quarry in Minne- 
sota, they were accompanied by the Iowa, who afterward went 
with them to South Dakota and thence to Nebraska. They, 
however, continued southeast into the territory of the present 
State of Iowa (q. v.). 


286 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn 145 


Kansas. They were parties to a cession of Nebraska land made in 
1825. (See Kansas.) 

Kiowa. The Kiowa were at one time on the western margin of 
Nebraska and later followed the Comanche south. (See Oklahoma.) 

Missouri. After they had been driven from Missouri by the Sauk 
and Fox, the remnant of this tribe lived for a while in villages south 
of Platte River. (See Missouri.) 


Omaha. Meaning ‘‘those going against the wind or current’; some- 
times shortened to Maha. Also called: 
Ho’-m&®-hi", Winnebago name. 
Hu-timdi, Cheyenne name. ~ 
Oni’h&i°, Cheyenne name, meaning “‘drum beaters”’ (?). 
Pik-tis, Pawnee name. 
U’-aha, Pawnee name. 

Connections.—The Omaha belonged to that section of the Siouan 
linguistic stock which included also the Ponca, Kansa, Osage, and 
Quapaw, and which was called by J. O. Dorsey (1897) Dhegiha. 

Location.—Their principal home in historic times was in north- 
eastern Nebraska, on the Missouri River. (See also Iowa, Minnesota, 
Missouri, and South Dakota.) 

History.—According to strong and circumstantial traditions, the 
Omaha and others belonging to the same group formerly lived on the 
Ohio and Wabash Rivers. It is usually said that the Quapaw sepa- 
rated from the general body first, going down the Mississippi, but it is 
more likely that they were left behind by the others and later moved 
out upon the great river. The Osage remained on Osage River, and 
the Kansa continued on up the Missouri, but the Omaha, still including 
the Ponca, passed north inland as far as the Pipestone Quarry in 
Minnesota, and were afterward forced west by the Dakota, into what 
is now the State of South Dakota. There the Ponca separated from 
them and the Omaha settled on Bow Creek, in the present Nebraska. 
They continued from that time forward in the same general region, 
the west side of the Missouri River between the Platte and the Nio- 
brara, but in 1855 made their last movement of consequence tothe 
present Dakota County. In 1854 they sold all of their lands except 
a portion kept for a reserve, and they gave up the northern part of this 
in 1865 to the Winnebago. (See Wisconsin.) In 1882, through the 
efforts of Miss Alice C. Fletcher, they were granted lands in severalty 
with prospects of citizenship, and Miss Fletcher was given charge of 
the ensuing allotment. Citizenship has now been granted them. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were about 
2,800 Omaha in 1780. In 1802 they were reduced by smallpox to 
about 300. In 1804 the estimated number was 600; in 1829, 1,900; 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 287 


in 1843, 1,600. Schoolcraft (1851-57) gives 1,349 in 1851; Burrows, 
1,200 in 1857; and the same number appears in the census returns for 
1880. In 1906 the United States Indian Office returned 1,228, and 
the census of 1910 gave 1,105. The Report of the United States In- 
dian Office for 1923 showed an increase to 1,440. The census of 1930 
gave 1,103, principally in Nebraska. The United States Indian 
Office reported 1,684 in 1932. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The Omaha will be 
remembered particularly from the fact that its name has been adopted 
by the City of Omaha, Nebr. It has also been given to small places 
in Boone County, Ark.; Stewart County, Ga.; Gallatin County, IIL; 
Morris County, Tex.; Knott County, Ky.; and Dickenson County, 
Va. 

It will be remembered furthermore as the scene of the humanitarian 
labors of Miss Alice C. Fletcher and the ethnological studies of Miss 
Fletcher and Dr. Francis La Flesche. 


Oto. From Wat‘ota, meaning “lechers.”” It often appears in a 
lengthened form such as Hoctatas or Octoctatas. Also called: 
Che-wae-rae, own name. 
Matokatagi, Shawnee name. 
Motdtatak, Fox name. 
Wacttada, Omaha and Ponca name. 
Wadétata, Kansa name. 
Watohtata, Dakota name. 
Watidtata, Osage name. 

Connections.—The Oto formed, with the Iowa and Missouri, the 
Chiwere group of the Siouan linguistic family and were closely con- 
nected with the Winnebago. 

Location.—The Oto moved many times, but their usual location in 
the historic period was on the lower course of the Platte or the neigh- 
boring banks of the Missouri. (See also Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, 
Missouri, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.) 

History —From the maps of the Marquette expedition it would 
seem that at the time when they were drawn, 1673, the Oto were some 
distance up Des Moines River. Their name was often coupled with 
that of the related Iowa who lived north of them, but they always 
seem to have occupied a distinct area. Shortly after this time they 
moved over to the Missouri and by 1804 had established their town 
on the south side of the Platte River not far from its mouth. Accord- 
ing to native traditions, this tribe, the Iowa, and the Missouri were 
anciently one people with the Winnebago, but moved southwest from 
them, and then separated from the Iowa at the mouth of Iowa River 
and from the Missouri at the mouth of Grand River. Their language 
proves that they were closely related to these tribes whether or not 


288 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bonu, 145 


the separations occurred in the manner and at the places indicated. 
Their split with the Missouri is said to have been brought about by a 
quarrel between two chiefs arising from the seduction of the daughter 
of one by the son of the other, and from this circumstance the Oto are 
supposed to have derived their name. In 1700 they were, according 
to Le Sueur, on Blue Earth River near the Iowa, and it is probable 
that they moved into the neighborhood of the Iowa or Missouri at 
several different times, but their usual position was clearly inter- 
mediate along a north-south line. In 1680 two Oto chiefs came to 
visit La Salle in Illinois and reported that they had traveled far 
enough west to fight with people using horses, who were evidently 
the Spaniards, a fact which proves their early westward range. 

By treaties signed July 15, 1830, and October 15, 1836, they and 
the Missouri ceded all claims to land in Missouri and Iowa, and by 
another signed September 21, 1833, the two ceded all claims to land 
south of the Little Nemaha River. By a treaty signed March 15, 
1854, they gave up all their lands except a strip 10 miles wide and 25 
miles long on the waters of Big Blue River, but when it was found that 
there was no timber on this tract it was exchanged on December 9 for 
another tract taken from the Kansas Indians. In a treaty signed 
August 15, 1876, and amended March 3, 1879, they agreed to sell 
120,000 acres off the western end of their reserve. And finally, a 
treaty signed on March 3, 1881, provided, the consent of the tribe 
being obtained, for the sale of all of the remainder of their land in 
Kansas and Nebraska, and the selection of a new reservation. Consent 
to the treaty was recorded May 4 following, and the tribe removed the 
following year to the new reservation which was in the present 
Oklahoma southwest of Arkansas River on Red Rock and Black Bear 
Creeks, west of the present Pawnee. The first removal to Oklahoma 
is said to have been due to a fission in the tribe resulting in the forma- 
tion of two bands, a conservative band called Coyotes and the 
Quakers, who were progressives. The Coyotes moved in 1880 and 
the Quakers joined them 2 years later. 

Population —Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 the Oto 
numbered about 900. In 1805 Lewis and Clark estimated 500 then 
living, but Catlin in 1833 raised this to 1,300, a figure which includes 
the Missouri. Burrows in 1849 gives 900, and the United States 
Indian Office in 1843, 931. This and all later enumerations include 
both the Oto and the Missouri. In 1862 they numbered 708; in 
1867, 511; in 1877, 457; in 1886, 334; in 1906, 390; and by the census 
of 1910, 332. The census of 1930, however, showed a marked increase 
to a total of 627, all but 13 of whom were in Oklahoma, 376 in Noble 
County, 170 in Pawnee, 34 in Kay, and 17 in Osage. There were 7 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 289 


in California, 1 in Kansas, and 1 in Nebraska. In 1937, 756 were 
reported in Oklahoma. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Oto has been 
applied to some small settlements in Woodbury County, Iowa, and in 
Missouri, and in the form Otoe to a county and post village in 
Nebraska. 


Pawnee. The name is derived by some from the native word pariki, 
‘“‘a horn,’”’ a term said to be used to designate their peculiar manner 
of dressing the scalp lock; but Lesser and Weltfish (1932) consider 
it more likely that it is from parisu, “hunter,’’ as claimed by 
themselves. They were also called Padani and Panana by various 
tribes. Also known as: 


Ahihinin, Arapaho name, meaning ‘‘wolf people.” 

Awahi, Caddo and Wichita name. 

Awahu, Arikara name. 

Awé, Tonkawa name, originally used by the Wichita. 

Chahiksichahiks, meaning ‘‘men of men,’ applied to themselves but also 
to all other tribes whom they considered civilized. 

Darazhazh, Kiowa Apache name. 

Harahey, Coronado documents (somewhat uncertain). 

Ho-ni’-i-tani-o, Cheyenne name, meaning “little wolf people.” 

Kuitare-i, Comanche name, meaning “‘wolf people.” 

Paoneneheo, early Cheyenne name, meaning “‘the ones with projecting front 
teeth.” 

Pdyi*, Kansa form of the name. 

Pi-ta’-da, name given to southern tribes (Grinnell, 1923). 

Tse-sa do hpa ka, Hidatsa name meaning ‘“‘wolf people.”’ 

Wohesh, Wichita name. 

Xaratenumanke, Mandan name. 


Connections —The Pawnee were one of the principal tribes of the 
Caddoan linguistic stock. The Arikara (q. v.) were an offshoot, and 
the Wichita were more closely related to them than were the Caddo. 

Location.—On the middle course of Platte River and the Republican 
fork of Kansas River. (See also Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming.) 


Subdivisions 


The Pawnee consisted in reality of four tribes, or four known in historic times, 
viz: The Chaui or Grand Pawnee, the Kitkehahki or Republican Pawnee, the 
Pitahauerat or Tapage Pawnee, and the Skidi or Skiri Pawnee, the first three 
speaking the same dialect and being otherwise more closely connected with one 
another than with the last. The Kitkehahki embraced two divisions, the Kitke- 
hahki proper and the Little Kitkehahki. Murie gives two others, the Black Heads 
and Karikisu, but Lesser and Weltfish (1932) state that the first was a society and 
the second the name of the women’s dance or ceremony before corn planting. 
The Pitahauerat consisted of the Pitahauerat proper and the Kawarakis, some- 
times said to be villages. 


290 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy, 145 


History.—Some of the Pawnee trace their origin to the southwest, 
some to the east, and some claim always to have lived in the country 
with which later history associates them. The first White men to 
meet any members of these tribes were the Spaniards under Coronado 
in 1541. French explorers heard of them again early in the eighteenth 
century and French traders were established among them before the 
middle of it. The Spaniards of New Mexico became acquainted with 
them at about the same time on account of the raids which they con- 
ducted in search of horses. They lay somewhat out of the track of 
the first explorers from the east, and in consequence suffered less 
diminution in numbers through White influences than did many of 
their neighbors, but they were considerably reduced through wars 
with the surrounding tribes, particularly with the Dakota. Although 
some of the early traders and trappers were treated harshly by them, 
their relations with the United States Government were friendly from 
the first, and they uniformly furnished scouts for the frontier armies. 
By treaties negotiated in 1833, 1848, and 1857, they ceded all of 
their lands in Nebraska except one reservation and in 1876 this tract 
was also surrendered and the entire tribe given new lands in Okla- 
homa, where they still live. The land has been allotted to them in 
severalty and they are now citizens of the United States. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates 10,000 Pawnee in 1780. In 
1702 Iberville estimated 2,000 families. In 1838 they numbered 
about 10,000 according to an estimate of Dunbar and Allis (1880-82), 
and one authority places the figure as high as 12,500. In 1849, after 
the cholera epidemic, they were reported at 4,500; in 1856, 4,686 
were returned, but in 1861, only 3,416. In 1879, after suffering 
severely in consequence of the removal to Indian Territory, they had 
dropped to 1,440, and by 1906 they had fallen to 649. The census 
of 1910 returned 633, but according to the Report of the United States 
Indian Office for 1923, they had then increased to 773. The census 
of 1930 gave 730. In 1937, 959 were reported. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Pawnee tribe is 
distinguished (1) for its peculiar language and culture; (2) because of 
its numbers and warlike prowess, its constant hostility to the Dakota, 
and consistent assistance to the American forces operating upon the 
Plains; and (3) as having given its name to a city in Oklahoma; to 
counties in Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; to streams in Colorado 
and Kansas; and to places in Morgan County, Colo.; Sangamon 
County, Ill.; Montgomery County, Ind.; Pawnee City in Pawnee 
County, Nebr.; Pawnee Rock in Barton County, Kans.; Pawnee 
Station in Bourbon County, Kans.; and a creek and buttes in north- 
eastern Colorado. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 291 


Ponca. Own name, meaning unknown. Also called: 


Dfhit, Li-hit’ or Rfhit, Pawnee name. 
Kan’ka®, Winnebago name. 
Tchidéxsokush, Caddo name. 

Connections.—The Ponca spoke practically the same language as 
the Omaha and formed with them, the Osage, Kansa, and Quapaw, 
the Dhegiha group of the Siouan linguistic family. 

Location.—On the right bank of the Missouri at the mouth of the 
Niobrara. (See also Iowa, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and South Dakota.) 

History.—The early life of the Ponca seems to have run parallel 
with that of the Omaha (q. v.). They are said to have separated from 
the latter at the mouth of White River, S. Dak., and to have moved 
west into the Black Hills but to have rejoined the Omaha a little later. 
These two tribes and the Iowa then descended the Missouri together 
as far as the mouth of the Niobrara, where the Ponca remained while 
the Omaha established themselves below on Bow Creek. They 
remained in approximately the same situation until 1877 when the 
larger part of them were forcibly removed to Indian Territory. This 
action was the occasion for a special investigation, as a result of which 
about three-quarters continued in the Territory while the remainder 
preferred to remain in their old country. Their lands have now been 
allotted to them in severalty. 

Population —Mooney (1928) gives 800, as the probable size of the 
Ponca tribe in 1780. In 1804 Lewis and Clark estimate only 200 but 
they had been greatly reduced just before by smallpox. In 1829 they 
had increased to 600 and in 1842 to about 800. In 1871 they num- 
bered 747. In 1906 the Ponca in Oklahoma numbered 570 and those 
in Nebraska 263; total, 833. The census of 1910 gave 875 in all, 
including 619 in Oklahoma and 193 in Kansas. The Report of the 
United States Indian Office for 1923 was 1,381, evidently including 
other tribes. The census of 1930 returned 939. In 1937 the United 
States Indian Office gave 825 in Oklahoma and 397 in Nebraska. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The name Ponca is 
preserved by a river in South Dakota, Ponca City in Kay County, 
Okla., and places in Newton County, Ark., and Dixon County, Nebr. 


Sauk. Like the Foxes, they were parties to the land cession of 1830 
involving territories in this State. (See Wisconsin.) 


Winnebago. Part of the Winnebago settled close to the Omaha 
after they had been driven from Minnesota following the Dakota 
outbreak of 1862. A reservation was later assigned them there 
and in course of time they were allotted land in severalty upon it. 
(See Wisconsin.) 


292 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


KANSAS 
Apache, see Jicarilla. 


Arapaho. The Arapaho ranged at one time over much of the western 
part of this State. (See Wyoming.) 


Cherokee. By the terms of the Treaty of New Echota, the Cherokee 
obtained title to lands in southeastern Kansas, part in one block 
known as the ‘Neutral land,’ and the rest in a strip along the 
southern boundary of the State. These were re-ceded to the United 
States Government in 1866. (See Tennessee.) 


Cheyenne. Like the Arapaho they at one time ranged over the 
western part of the State. (See South Dakota.) 


Chippewa. In 1836 two bands of Chippewa living in Michigan and 
known as the Swan Creek and Black River bands were given a tract 
of territory on Osage River, Kans. They arrived in 1839. In 
1866 they agreed to remove to the Cherokee country in what is now 
Oklahoma and to unite with that tribe. A small number of families 
of Chippewa living west of Lake Michigan accompanied the Prairie 
Potawatomi to southwestern Iowa, but they were either absorbed 
by the Potawatomi or subsequently separated from them. (See 
Minnesota.) 


Comanche. They ranged over the western part of the State. (See 
Texas.) 


Delaware. A strip of land in northeastern Kansas was granted to 
the Delaware in 1829 and was again surrendered by treaties made 
in 1854, 1860, and 1886. In 1867 they agreed to take up their 
residence with the Cherokee in Oklahoma. Four sections of land 
were, however, confirmed to a body of Munsee (‘‘Christian Indians’’), 
who in turn sold it in 1857. This sale was confirmed by the United 
States Government in 1858, and a new home was found for these 
Indians among the Swan Creek and Black River Chippewa whom 
they accompanied to the Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma in 1866. 
Nevertheless, a few Munsee have remained in the State. (See 
New Jersey.) 


Foxes. The Foxes lived for a time on a reservation in eastern Kansas 
but about 1859 returned to Iowa. (See Wisconsin.) 


Illinois. The remnants of these people were assigned a reservation 
about the present Paola in 1832. In 1867 they removed to the 
northeastern corner of the present Oklahoma, where they received 
lands which had formerly belonged to the Quapaw. (See Llinois.) 


Iowa. This tribe was placed on a reservation in northeastern Kansas 
in 1836, and part of them continued in this State and were allotted 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 293 


land here in severalty, while the rest went to Oklahoma. (See 
Iowa.) 


Iroquois. Lands were set aside in Kansas in 1838 for some Iroquois, 
part of the Munsee, and remnants of Mahican and southern New 
England Indians but only a few of the Indians involved moved to 
them. They were later declared forfeited, and the rights of 32 bona 
fide Indian settlers were purchased in 1873. (See Seneca and also 
New York, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.) 


Jicarilla. This was one of the so-called Apache tribes. They lived 
in Colorado and New Mexico and ranged over parts of Texas, 
Oklahoma, and Kansas. (See Colorado.) 


Kansa. Name derived from that of one of the major subdivisions; a 
shortened form Kaw is about equally current. Also called: 


Alahé6, Kiowa name. 

Guaes, in Coronado narratives, thought to be this tribe. 

Hitaiga, own name. 

Méhtawas, Comanche name, meaning “without a lock of hair on the fore- 
head.” 

Ukase, Fox name. 


Connections.—The Kansa belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock 
and constituted, with the Osage, Quapaw, Omaha, and Ponca a 
distinct subgroup called by Dr. J. O. Dorsey (1897) Dhegiha. 

Location.—They were usually on some part of the Kansas River, 
which derives its name from them. (See also Nebraska and Okla- 
homa.) 

Villages 


Bahekhube, near a mountain south of Kansas River, Kans. 

Cheghulin, 2 villages; (1) on the south side of Kansas River, and (2) on a tributary 
of Kansas River, on the north side east of Blue River. 

Djestyedje, on Kansas River near Lawrence. 

Gakhulin, location uncertain. 

Gakhulinulinbe, near the head of a southern tributary of Kansas River. 

Igamansabe, on Big Blue River. 

Inchi, on Kansas River. 

Ishtakhechiduba, on Kansas River. 

Manhazitanman, on Kansas River near Lawrence. 

Manhazulin, on Kansas River. 

Manhazulintanman, on Kansas River. 

Manyinkatuhuudje, at the mouth of Big Blue River. 

Neblazhetama, on the west bank of the Mississippi River a few miles above the 
mouth of Missouri River, in the present Missouri. 

Niudje, on Kansas River, about 4 miles above the site of Kansas City, Mo. 

Padjegadjin, on Kansas River. 

Pasulin, on Kansas River. 

Tanmangile, on Big Blue River. 

Waheheyingetseyabe, location uncertain. 

Wazhazhepa, location uncertain. 


294. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuy. 145 


Yuzhemakancheubukhpaye, location uncertain. 
Zandjezhinga, location uncertain. 

Zandzhulin, at Kaw Agency, Indian Territory, in 1882. 
Zhanichi, on Kansas River. 

History.—According to tradition, the Kansa and the others of the 
same group originated on Ohio River, the Kansa separating from the 
main body at the mouth of Kansas River. If the Guaes of Coronado 
were the Kansa, the tribe was first heard of by white men in 1541. 
During at least a part of the eighteenth century, they were on Mis- 
souri River above the mouth of the Kansas, but Lewis and Clark 
met them on the latter stream. They occupied several villages in 
succession along Kansas River until they settled at Council Grove, 
on Neosho River, in the present Morris County, where a reservation 
was set aside for them by the United States Government in 1846, 
when they ceded the rest of their lands. They remained on this 
reservation until 1873 when it was sold and another reserve purchased 
for them in Oklahoma next to the Osages. Their lands have now 
been allotted to them in severalty. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates a Kansa population of 3,000 
in 1780. In 1702 Iberville estimated 1,500 families. Lewis and Clark 
(1804) give 300 men. In 1815 there were supposed to be about 1,500 
in all, and in 1822, 1,850. In 1829 Porter estimated 1,200, but the 
population as given by the United States Indian Office for 1843 was 
1,588. After this time, however, the tribe lost heavily through 
epidemics and in 1905 was returned at only 209. The census of 1910 
gave 238, but the United States Indian Office Report of 1923 gave 
420. The census of 1930 returned 318. In 1937 the number was 
given as 515. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Kansa will be 
remembered particularly from the fact that they have given their 
name to Kansas River and the State of Kansas, and secondarily to 
Kansas City, Mo., and Kansas City, Kans. It is also applied to 
places in Walker County, Ala.; Edgar County, Ill.; Seneca County 
Ohio; Seneca and Delaware Counties, Okla.; and in the form Kaw, 
to a village in Kay County, Okla., and a station out of the Kansas 
City, Mo., P. O. Kansasville is in Racine County, Wis. 


Kickapoo. A reservation was granted this tribe in southeastern 
Kansas in 1832, and though it was progressively reduced in area, 
part of them have continued to live there down to the present time. 
(See Wisconsin.) 

Kiowa. Signifying (in their own language) ‘“‘principal people.”’ Also 

called: 


Be’shiitch’, Kiowa Apache name. 
Datiimpa’ta, Hidatsa name, perhaps a form of Wi’tapaha’tu below. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 295 


Gahe’wa, Wichita and Kichai name. 

Ko’/mpabi’ainta, Kiowa name, meaning “large tipi flaps.’ 

Kwii'da, old name for themselves, meaning ‘‘going out.” 

Manrhoat, mentioned by La Salle, perhaps this tribe. 

Na’la’ni, Navaho name, including southern plains tribes generally, but par- 
ticularly the Comanche and Kiowa. 

Ni’chihiné’na, Arapaho name, meaning “river man.” 

Quichuan, given by La Harpe (1831) and probably this tribe. 

Te’pd&’, ancient name for themselves, meaning ‘‘coming out.” 

Tepki’nigo, own name, meaning “people coming out.” 

Tideing Indians, Lewis and Clark (1904-5). 

Vi’tapaitdi, name used by the Sutaio. 

Wi’tapahatu, Dakota name, meaning “‘island butte people.” (The Chey- 
enne name was similar.) 

Connections.—Though long considered a separate linguistic stock, 
the researches of J. P. Harrington make it evident that the Kiowa 
were connected with the Tanoan stock as the Kiowa-Tanoan stock 
and probably with the Shoshonean stock also. 

Location.—The best-known historic location of these people was a 
plot of territory including contiguous parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, 
Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. (See also Montana, Nebraska, 


South Dakota, and Wyoming.) 
Subdivisions 

The bands constituting their camp circle, beginning on the east and passing 
round by the south were: Kata, Kogui, Kaigwu, Kingep, Semat (i. e., Apache), 
and Kongtalyui. 

History.—According to tradition, the Kiowa at one time lived at the 
head of Missouri River near the present Virginia City. Later they 
moved down from the mountains and formed an alliance with the 
Crows but were gradualy forced south by the Arapaho and Cheyenne, 
while the Dakota claim to have driven them from the Black Hills. 
They made peace with the Arapaho and Cheyenne in 1840 and after- 
ward acted with them. When they reached the Arkansas, they found 
the land south of it claimed by the Comanche. These people were at 
first hostile, but after a time peace was made between the two tribes, 
the Kiowa passed on toward the south, and the two ever after acted as 
allies. Together they constantly raided Mexican territory, advancing 
as far south as Durango. The Kiowa were among the most bitter 
enemies of the Americans. They were placed on a reservation in 
southwestern Oklahoma in 1868 along with the Commanche and 
Kiowa Apache and have now been allotted lands in severalty. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 2,000 in 
1780. In 1905 their population was 1,165; the census of 1910 gave it 
as 1,126, and the United States Indian Office Report for 1923, 1,679, 
including the Kiowa Apache. The census of 1930 returned 1,050, but 
in 1937 the United States Office of Indian Affairs reported 2,263. 


296 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Connection in which they have become noted.—The Kiowa were one 
of the leading tribes on the southern Plains and were surpassed only 
by the Comanche and Apache in the raids which they undertook into 
México. The name has become affixed to counties in Colorado and 
Kansas, a creek in Colorado; and small places in Barber County, 
Kans.; Pittsburg County, Okla.; and Elbert County, Colo. 


Kiowa Apache. The name is derived from that of the Kiowa and from 
the circumstance that they spoke a dialect related to those of the 
better-known Apache tribes, though they had no other connection 
with them. Also called: 


Bad-hearts, by Long (1823). (See Kaskaias.) 

Cancey or Kantsi, meaning ‘“‘liars,’’ applied by the Caddo to all Apache of 
the Plains, but oftenest to the Lipan. 

Essequeta, a name given by the Kiowa and Comanche to the Mescalero 
Apache, sometimes, but improperly, applied to this tribe. 

GAdta’ka, Pawnee name. 

Gina’s, Wichita name. 

Gi’ta’k, Omaha and Ponca name. 

K’4-patop, Kiowa name, meaning ‘‘knife whetters.” 

Kaskaias, possibly intended for this tribe, translated “‘bad hearts.” 

Kisinahis, Kichai name. 

Miatsfaind-tiniu, Cheyenne name, meaning “whetstone people.”’ 

Nadfisha-déna, own name, meaning ‘‘our people.” 

Pacer band of Apache, H. R. Doc. 

Prairie Apaches, common name. 

Sddalsémte-k‘figo, Kiowa name, meaning ‘‘weasel people.” 

TA’gugdla, Jemez name for Apache tribes including Kiowa Apache. 

Tagti, an old Kiowa name. 

Tdgukerish, Pecos name for all Apache. 

Tashin, Comanche name for all Apache. 

Tha‘k4-hiné’na, Arapaho name, meaning “‘saw-fiddle man.” 

Yabipais Natagé, Garcés Diary (1776). 


Connections.—The Kiowa Apache belonged to the Athapascan 
linguistic family, their nearest relatives being the Jicarilla and Lipan 
(Hoijer). 

Location.—They have been associated with the Kiowa from the 
earliest traditional period. (See also Colorado, New Mexico, Okla- 
homa, and Wyoming.) 

Mistory.—The first historical mention of the Kiowa Apache is by 
La Salle in 1681 or 1682, who calls them Gattacka, the term by which 
they are known to the Pawnee. As intimated above, their history 
was in later times the same as that of the Kiowa, and they occupied 
a definite place in the Kiowa camp circle. For 2 years only, 1865-67, 
they were at their own request detached from the Kiowa and adjoined 
to the Cheyenne and Arapaho, on account of the unfriendly attitude 
of the Kiowa toward the Whites. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 297 


Population —Mooney (1928) gives an estimate of 300 Kiowa 
Apache as of 1780, adopting the estimate made by Lewis and Clark in 
1805. In 1891 their population was 325, but like the associated 
tribes they suffered heavily from measles in 1892 and in 1905 there 
were only 155 left. The census of 1910 returned 139, that of 1930, 
184, and in 1937 they appear to have increased to 340 but other 
Apache may be included. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Kiowa Apache 
are remarkable merely as an example of a tribe incorporated into the 
social organism of another tribe of entirely alien speech and origin. 


Miami. In 1832 the Miami subdivisions known as Piankashaw and 
Wea were assigned lands along with the Illinois in Eastern Kansas. 
In 1840 the rest of the Miami were granted lands in the immediate 
neighborhood but just south, and all but one band removed there 
from Indiana. In 1854 they ceded part of this territory and in 
1867 accompanied the Illinois to the present Oklahoma. (See 
Indiana.) 


Missouri. The remnant of this tribe accompanied the Oto when 
they lived in this State. (See Missouri.) 


Munsee. A band of Munsee or “Christian Indians’? owned land in 
Kansas between 1854 and 1859. (See Delaware in New Jersey, 
etc.) 


Osage. The southeastern part of Kansas was claimed by the Osage 
and was ceded by them to the United States Government in 
treaties made in 1825, 1865, and 1870. (See Missouri.) 


Oto. The Oto were on the eastern border of Kansas several times dur- 
ing their later history. (See Nebraska.) 


Ottawa. In 1831 two bands of Ottawa were granted lands on Marais 
des Cygnes or Osage River. They relinquished these in 1846 and 
in 1862 agreed to allotment of land in severalty, giving up their 
remaining lands. Further treaties regarding these were made in 
1867 and 1872. <A few families of Ottawa accompanied the Prairie 
Potawatomi when they removed from Wisconsin to Iowa, but they 
were soon absorbed or else scattered. Ottawa bands called Ottawa 
of Blanchard’s Fork and Ottawa of Roche de Boeuf occupied lands 
in Kansas between 1832 and 1865 when they moved to Oklahoma. 
(See Michigan.) 


Pawnee. A part of the Pawnee occupied the valley of the Republican 
Fork of Kansas River. (See Nebraska.) 


Potawatomi. In 1837 the United States Government entered into a 
treaty with five bands of Potawatomi living in the State of Indiana 


298 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


by which it was agreed to convey to them by patent a tract of coun- 
try on Osage River, southwest of the Missouri, in the present State 
of Kansas. This was set apart the same year and the Indians, the 
Potawatomi of the Woods, moved into it in 1840, but they ceded 
it back in 1846 and were given a reserve between the Shawnee and 
the Delaware, in the present Shawnee County, which they occupied 
in 1847. By a series of treaties, culminating in the Treaty of 
Chicago, 1833, the Potawatomi west of Lake Michigan surrendered 
their lands and received a large tract in southwestern Iowa. They 
were accompanied by a few Chippewa and Ottawa. In 1846 this 
reserve was re-ceded to the United States Government and in 
1847-48 the Indians, now known as the Prairie Potawatomi, 
moved to lands in Kansas just east of the lands of the Potawatomi 
of the Woods. Michigan Potawatomi did not come to this place 
until 1850. About the end of the Civil War some of the Prairie 
band moved back to Wisconsin but the greater part of them re- 
mained and accepted lands in severalty. In 1869 the Potawatomi 
of the Woods began a movement to secure lands in Oklahoma, and 
by 1871 most of them had gone thither. (See Michigan.) 


Quapaw. Between 1833 and 1867 lands in the southeastern tip of 
Kansas belonged to their reserve in Indian Territory (Oklahoma), 
but in the latter year they ceded this back to the Government. 
(See Arkansas.) 


Sauk. After leaving Iowa, the Sauk and Fox Indians occupied a 
reserve in the eastern part of Kansas, but about 1859 the Foxes 
returned to Iowa, and in 1867 the Sauk ceded their Kansas terri- 
tories and moved to Oklahoma. (See Wisconsin.) 


Seneca. Seneca Indians were joint owners with other tribes of land 
in the extreme southwestern part of Kansas. They ceded this to 
the United States Government in 1867. (See New York.) 


Shawnee. In 1825 the Shawnee residing in Missouri received a grant 
of land along the south side of Kansas River, west of the boundary 
of Missouri. In 1831 they were joined by another body of Shawnee 
who had formerly lived at Wapaghkonnetta and on Hog Creek, 
Ohio. In 1854 nearly ail of this land was re-ceded to the United 
States Government and the tribe moved to Indian Territory, the 
present Oklahoma. (See Tennessee.) 


Wyandot. The Wyandot purchased land in eastern Kansas on Mis- 
souri River from the Delaware in 1843 and parted with it again in 
1850. A few Wyandot also held title to land along with other 
tribes on the border of Oklahoma and re-ceded it along with them 
in 1867. (See Ohio.) 


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SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 299 
OKLAHOMA 


Alabama. This was one of the tribes of the Creek Confederacy, part 
of which accompanied the Creeks to Oklahoma early in the nine- 
teenth century and settled near Weleetka, where a small station 
on the Frisco Railway bears their name. (See Alabama.) 


Apache. The name was given to a tribe or rather a group of tribes. 
(See Jicarifla under Colorado; Kiowa Apache, under Kansas; 
Lipan under Texas; also Apache under New Mexico.) 


Apalachee. A few individuals of this tribe removed to Oklahoma 
from Alabama or Louisiana. Dr. Gatschet learned the names of 
two or three individuals about 1884. (See Florida.) 


Arapaho. In early times the Arapaho ranged to some extent over the 
western sections of Oklahoma, and part of them (the Southern 
Arapaho) were finally given a reservation and later allotted land 
in severalty in the west central part along with the Southern 
Cheyenne. (See Wyoming.) 


Biloxi. A few Biloxi reached Oklahoma and settled with the Choctaw 
and Creeks. (See Mississippi.) 


Caddo. The Caddo moved to Oklahoma in 1859 and were given a 
reservation in the southwestern part about Anadarko, where they 
were allotted land in severalty. (See Texas.) 


Cherokee. The Cherokee were moved to a large reservation in the 
northeastern part of Oklahoma in the winter of 1838-39. After 
nearly 70 years of existence under their own tribal government they 
were allotted land in severalty and became citizens of the United 
States. (See Tennessee.) 


Cheyenne. The history of the Southern Cheyenne parallels that of 
the Southern Arapaho as given above. (See South Dakota.) 


Chickasaw. ‘The Chickasaw moved to the present Oklahoma between 
1822 and 1840. They had their own government for many years 
but are now citizens. (See Mississippi.) 


Choctaw. This tribe moved to Oklahoma about the same time as the 
Chickasaw though several thousand remained in their old country. 
Like the Chickasaw they had their own national government for a 
long time but are now citizens at large of Oklahoma. (See 
Mississippi.) 

Comanche. The western part of Oklahoma was occupied by the 
Comanche during their later history, and they were finally given 
a reservation in the southwestern part of it, where they were al- 


300 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


lotted land in severalty and given the privileges of citizenship. 
(See Texas.) 

Creeks. The tribes constituting the Creek Confederacy came to 
Oklahoma between 1836 and 1841 and were given a reservation in 
the northeastern part, where they maintained a national govern- 
ment until early in the present century when their lands were 
allotted in severalty, and they became citizens. (See Alabama, 
Florida, and Georgia.) 


Delaware. In 1867 a part of the Delaware were removed from 
Kansas to the northeastern part of what is now Oklahoma and 
incorporated with the Cherokee Nation. Another band of Dela- 
ware is with the Caddo and Wichita in southwestern Oklahoma. 
(See New Jersey.) 


Foxes. A few Fox Indians accompanied the Sauk (q. v.) to Oklahoma 
in 1867. (See Wisconsin.) 


Hitchiti. This is a subtribe of the Creek Confederacy. (See Georgia; 
also Creeks and Creek Confederacy above and under Alabama, 
Florida, and Georgia.) 


Illinois. In 1868 the surviving Illinois Indians, principally Peoria 
and Kaskaskia, previously united with the Miami bands, Wea and 
Piankashaw, moved to Oklahoma and occupied a reserve in the 
northeastern part of the State under the name Peoria. (See 
Illinois.) 


Iowa. Part of the Iowa were moved from Kansas to a reserve in 
central Oklahoma set apart in 1883; they were allotted land in 
severalty in 1890. (See Iowa.) 


Iroquois. Some Iroquois Indians, together with the Tuscarora, some 
Wyandot, and probably Indians of the former Erie Nation, all under 
the name of Seneca Indians, were given a reservation in northeastern 
Oklahoma, where their descendants still live, now as citizens of the 
United States. (See New York and Ohio.) 


Jicarilla. This was one of those Athapascan tribes known as Apache. 
In early times they ranged over parts of western Oklahoma. (See 
Colorado.) 


Kansa. In 1873 the Kansa were moved to Oklahoma and given a 
reservation in the northeastern part of the State. (See Kansas.) 


Kichai. In very early times this tribe lived on, or perhaps north of, 
Red River, but later they worked their way south to the head- 
waters of the Trinity. In 1859 they returned to the north side of 
the river in haste in fear of attack by the Texans and have since 
lived with the Wichita in the neighborhood of Anadarko. (See 
Texas.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 301 


Kickapoo. In 1873 some Kickapoo were brought back from México 
and settled in the central part of Oklahoma, where all but a certain 
portion of the Mexican band were afterward gathered. (See 
Wisconsin.) 

Kiowa and Kiowa Apache. These tribes formerly ranged over much 
of the western part of this State. (See Kansas.) 


Koasati. The Koasati were one of the tribes of the Creek Confederacy. 
They removed to northeastern Oklahoma with the rest of the 
Creeks and settled in the western part of the Creek territory. (See 
Alabama and Louisiana.) 


Lipan. The Lipan were the easternmost band of Apache; some of 
them are with the Tonkawa. (See Texas.) 


Miami. Part of the Miami were brought from Indiana and given a 
reservation in the extreme northeastern part of Oklahoma along 
with the Illinois (q. v.). (See Indiana.) 


Mikasuki. Some of these Indians accompanied the Seminole to 
Oklahoma and as late as 1914 had a Square Ground of their own. 
(See Florida.) 


Missouri. The remnant of the Missouri came to Oklahoma with the 
Oto in 1882 and shared their reservation. (See Missouri.) 


Modoc. In 1873, at the end of the Modoc War, a part of the defeated 
tribe was sent to Oklahoma and placed on the Quapaw Reservation 
where a few yet remain. (See Oregon.) 


Muklasa. A small Creek division said to have kept its identity in 
Oklahoma. (See Alabama.) 


Munsee. A few Munsee accompanied the Delaware proper to 
Oklahoma and 21 were reported there in 1910. (See New Jersey.) 


Muskogee. This was the name of the principal tribe or group of 
tribes of the Creeks (q. v.). 

Natchez. A small band of Natchez accompanied the Creeks to Okla- 
homa and settled near Eufaula, where they later became merged in 
the rest of the Creek population. Another band of Natchez settled 
in the Cherokee Nation, near Illinois River, and a very few still 
preserve something of their identity. (See Mississippi.) 

Nez Percé. Chief Joseph’s band of Nez Percé were sent to Oklahoma 
in 1878, but they suffered so much from the change of climate that 
they were transferred to Colville Reservation in 1885. (See Idaho.) 


Okmulgee. A Creek tribe and town belonging to the Hitchiti division 
of the Nation. Its name is perpetuated in the city of Okmulgee, 
former capital of the Creek Nation in Oklahoma. (See Georgia.) 


302 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLn, 145 


Osage. The Osage formerly owned most of northern Oklahoma and 
after they had sold the greater part of it still retained a large reser- 
vation in the northeast, which they continue to occupy, though they 
have now been allotted land in severalty. (See Missouri.) 


Oto. In 1880 a part of the Oto moved to the lands of the Sauk and 
Fox Indians in Oklahoma and in 1882 the rest followed. (See 
Nebraska.) 


Ottawa. When they surrendered their lands in Michigan and Ohio, 
some Ottawa bands including those of Blanchard’s Fork and Roche 
de Boeuf migrated to Kansas, and about 1868, to Oklahoma, settling 
in the northeastern part of the State. (See Michigan.) 


Pawnee. The Pawnee moved to Oklahoma in 1876 and were given 
@ reservation in the north central part of the State, where they have 
now been allotted land in severalty. (See Nebraska.) 


Peoria. (See Illinois.) 
Piankashaw, see Miami. 


Ponca. In 1877 the Ponca were moved by force to Oklahoma and, 
though some individuals were finally allotted land in severalty in 
their old country, the greater part settled permanently near the 
Osage in northeastern Oklahoma. 


Potawatomi. The Potawatomi of the Woods were moved from Kansas 
to Oklahoma in 1867-81 and given a reservation in the central part 
of the State. (See Michigan.) 


Quapaw. Lands were granted to the Quapaw in the extreme south- 
eastern part of Kansas and the extreme northeastern part of Okla- 
homa in 1833. In 1867, they ceded all their lands in Kansas and 
have since confined themselves within the limits of Oklahoma, though 
a large part have removed to the reservation of the Osage. (See 
Arkansas.) 


Sauk. In 1867 the Sauk ceded their lands in Kansas in exchange for 
a tract in the central part of Oklahoma, where they have continued 
to live down to the present time. (See Wisconsin.) 


Seminole. The greater part of the Seminole were removed to Okla- 
homa after the Seminole War in Florida. (See Florida.) 
Seneca, see Iroquois. 


Shawnee. The Absentee Shawnee moved from Kansas to what is 
now central Oklahoma about 1845; in 1867 a second band, which had 
been living with the Seneca in Kansas, also moved to Oklahoma but 
settled in the extreme northeastern part of the State; and in 1869 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 303 


the third and largest section removed to the lands of the Cherokee 
by agreement with that tribe. (See Tennessee.) 


Tawakoni. Said to refer to ‘‘a river bend among red hills,” or “neck 
of land in the water.”” The synonyms should not be confounded 
with those of the Tonkawa. Also called: 

Three Canes, an English form resulting from a mistaken attempt to trans- 
late the French spelling of their name, Troiscannes. 
Connections.—The Tawakoni belonged to the Caddoan linguistic 
stock and were most closely connected with the Wichita, the two 
languages differing but slightly. 
Location.—They were on the Canadian River about north of the 
upper Washita. (See also Texas.) 


Villages 


Flechazos, on the west side of Brazos River near the present Waco. 


History.—The Tawakoni were first met in the above location in 
company with the Wichita and other related tribes. Within the next 
50 years, probably as a result of pressure on the part of more northerly 
peoples, they moved south and in 1772 they were settled in two groups 
on Brazos and Trinity Rivers, about Waco and above Palestine. By 
1779 the group on the Trinity had rejoined those on the Brazos. In 
1824 part of the Tawakoni were again back on Trinity River. In 
1855 they were established on a reservation near Fort Belknap on the 
Brazos, but in 1859 were forced, by the hostility of the Texans, to move 
north into southwestern Oklahoma, where they were officially incor- 
porated with the Wichita. 

Population—Mooney (1928) includes the Tawakoni among the 
Wichita (q. v.). In 1772 Méziéres reported 36 houses and 120 
warriors in the Trinity village and 30 families in the Brazos village, 
perhaps 220 warriors in all. In 1778-79 he reported that these two 
towns, then on the Brazos, contained more than 300 warriors. Sibley 
(1832) reported that in 1805 the Tawakoni, probably including the 
Waco, numbered 200 men. In 1859 they were said to number 204 
exclusive of the Waco. The census of 1910 records only a single 
survivor of this tribe. 


Tawehash. Meaning unknown. Lesser and Weltfish (1932) suggest 
that this group was identical with a Wichita band reported to them 
as Tiwa. They have been given some of the same synonyms as 
the Wichita (q. v.). 

Connections—The Tawehash belonged to the Caddoan linguistic 
stock and were related closely to the Wichita, Tawakoni, Waco, and 

Yscani. 


304 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Location.—Their earliest known home was on Canadian River 
north of the headwaters of the Washita. 


Villages 


In 1778 Méziéres found two native villages to which he gave the names San 
Teodoro and San Bernardo. 

History—The Tawehash were encountered in the above situation 
by La Harpe in 1719. They moved south about the same time as the 
Tawakoni and other tribes of the group and were found on Red River 
in 1759, when they defeated a strong Spanish force sent against them. 
They remained in this same region until in course of time they united 
with the Wichita and disappeared from history. Their descendants 
are among the Wichita in Oklahoma. 

Population—Most writers give estimates of the Tawehash along 
with the Wichita and other related tribes. In 1778 they occupied 
two villages aggregating 160 lodges and numbered 800 fighting men 
and youths. 


Tonkawa. In 1884 the remnant of the Tonkawa were removed to 
Oklahoma and the next year settled on a reservation near Ponca, 
where they were finally allotted land in severalty. (See Texas.) 


Tuskegee. A Creek division believed to be connected linguistically 
with the Alabama Indians. It removed to Oklahoma with the other 
Creeks and established itself in the northwestern part of the allotted 
territory. (See Alabama.) 


Waco. According to Lesser and Weltfish (1932), from Wehiko, a 
corruption of México, and given the name because they were always 
fighting with the Mexicans. The same authorities report that the 
Waco are thought to have been a part of the Tawakoni without an 
independent village but separated later. Also called: 

Gentlemen Indians, by Bollaert (1850). 
Houechas, Huanchané, by French writers, possibly intended for this tribe. 
Connections —The Waco were most closely related to the Tawakoni 
of the Wichita group of tribes belonging to the Caddoan Stock. 
Location —They appear first in connection with their village on the 
site of the present Waco, Tex., though their original home was in 
Oklahoma with the Wichita. 


Villages 


Quiscat, named from its chief, on the west side of the Brazos on a bluff or 
plateau above some springs and not far from the present Waco. 


History—According to native informants as reported by Lesser 
and Weltfish (1932), the Waco are formerly supposed to have con- 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 305 


stituted a part of the Tawakoni without an independent village. It 
has also been suggested that they may have been identical with the 
Yscani, but Lesser and Weltfish identify the Yscani with another 
band. Another possibility is that the Waco are descendants of the 
Shuman tribe. (See Texas.) In later times the Waco merged with 
the Tawakoni and Wichita. 

Population.—In 1824 the Waco had a village of 33 grass houses and 
about 100 men, and a second village of 15 houses and an unnamed 
number of men. In 1859, just before their removal from Texas, they 
numbered 171. They are usually enumerated with the Wichita (q. v.), 
but the census of 1910 returned 5 survivors. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Almost the sole claim 
to special remembrance enjoyed by the Waco is the fact that its name 
was adopted by the important city of Waco, Tex. It also appears as 
the name of places in Sedgwick County, Kans.; Madison County, 
Ky.; Jasper County, Mo.; Smith County, Miss.; Haralson County, 
Ga.; York County, Nebr.; Cleveland County, N. C.; Stark County, 
Ohio; and in Tennessee; but it is uncertain whether the designations 
of all these came originally from the Waco tribe. 


Wea, see Miami. 


Wichita. From wits, ‘‘man.’’ Also known as: 

Black Pawnee, common early name. 

Do’gu’at, Kiowa name, meaning ‘“‘tattooed people.”’ 

Do’kin&, Comanche name, meaning “‘tattooed people.”’ 

Freckled Panis, from above. 

Guichita, Spanish form of the name. 

Hindsso, Arapaho name. 

Héxstwitan, Cheyenne name. 

Ki’-¢i-ku’-¢uc, Omaha name. 

Kirikiris, Kirikurus, or Kitikitish, reported as own name but properly the 
name of one of their bands. 

Mitsité, Kansa name. 

P4é¢i® wasdbé, Ponca and Omaha name, meaning ‘Black bear Pawnee.” 

Paneassa, various early writers. 

Panis noirs, early French name. 

Panis piqués, early French name. 

Panyi Wacéwe, Iowa, Oto, and Missouri name. 

Picks, from Panis piqués. 

Pitchindvo, Comanche name, meaning ‘‘painted breasts.” 

Prickled Panis, referring to their tattooing. 

Quirasquiris, French form of native name. 

Quivira, from chronicles of Coronado expedition. 

Sénik’ni, Comanche name, meaning “grass lodges.” 

Speckled Pawnee, referring to their tattooing. 

Tuxquét, see Do’gu’at. 


Connections.—The Wichita were one of the principal tribes of the 
Caddoan linguistic family. 


306 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLn, 145 


Location.—Their earliest certain location was on Canadian River 
north of the headwaters of the Washita. (See also Texas.) 


Subdivisions 


Most of the so-called subdivisions of the Wichita were independent tribes, 
some of which, including the Tawakoni, Waco, Tawehash, and Yscani, have been 
treated separately. The others—Akwits or Akwesh, Kirikiris, Isis (see Yscani), 
Tokane (see Yscani), and Itaz—were probably only temporary bands. Mooney 
(1928) also mentions the Kirishkitsu (perhaps a Wichita name for the Kichai) 
and the Asidahetsh and Kishkat, which cannot be identified. 

History—The Wichita rose to fame at an early period owing to the 
fact that they were visited by Coronado in 1541, the Spaniards calling 
the Wichita country the province of Quivira. They were then farther 
north than the location given above, probably near the great bend 
of the Arkansas and in the center of Kansas. A Franciscan missionary, 
Juan de Padilla, remained 3 years among them in the endeavor to 
convert them to Christianity, but he was finally killed by them through 
jealousy on account of his work for another tribe. In 1719 La Harpe 
found the Wichita and several allied tribes on the south Canadian 
River in the territory later embraced in the Chickasaw Nation. 
Within the next 50 years they were forced south by hostile northern 
and eastern tribes and by 1772 were on the upper courses of the Red 
and Brazos Rivers. In 1835 they made their first treaty with the 
United States Government. They continued to live in southwestern 
Oklahoma until the Civil War, when they fled to Kansas until it was 
over. In 1867 they returned and were placed on a reservation in 
Caddo County, Okla., where they have since remained. 

Population.—In 1772 the Wichita and the Tawehash seem to have 
had about 600 warriors. Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1780 the 
confederated Wichita tribes had a population of about 3,200. Bolton 
(1914), on information derived from Méziéres, estimated about 3,200 
for the Wichita proper in 1778. In 1805 Sibley estimated the Wichita 
at 400 men. In 1868, 572 were reported in the confederated tribes. 
The census of 1910 gives 318, including the remnant of the Kichai. 
In 1937 there were 385. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Although a tribe of 
considerable power in early days, the Wichita will be remembered in 
future principally from the prominence of the city of Wichita, Kans., 
which bears their name. It is also the name of counties in Kansas and 
Texas, a ridge of hills in southwestern Oklahoma called the Wichita 
Mountains, a river in Texas, and places in Oklahoma, besides Wichita 
Falls in Wichita County, Tex. The identification of this tribe with 
the Province of Quivira gives it additional interest. 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 307 


Wyandot. In 1867 a part of the Wyandot who had been living in 
Kansas was removed to the northeastern corner of Oklahoma where 
they have since remained. It is probable that this body includes 
more of the old Tionontati than of the true Wyandot. (See Ohio.) 


Yscani. Meaning unknown. Also spelled Ascani, Hyscani, Ixcani. 

Connections.—This was one of the confederated Wichita tribes and 
therefore without doubt related to them in speech, and thus of the 
Caddoan linguistic family. 

Location.—The Yscani are first mentioned in connection with the 
Wichita and allied tribes on the South Canadian in the territory later 
assigned to the Chickasaw Nation. Part, however, were reported to 
be living 60 leagues farther toward the northwest. 

History—The Yscani evidently moved south from the above- 
mentioned location at the same time as the other tribes. They kept 
particularly close to the Tawakoni, with whose history their own is 
almost identical. As the name Yscani disappears from the early 
annals shortly before the name Waco appears in them, it has been 
thought that the Waco were the Yscani under a new name, but Lesser 
and Weltfish (1932) identify the Waco with the Isis or Tokane, 
perhaps both. (See Waco above.) 

Population—In 1772 their village was reported to contain 60 
walriors, and about 1782 the entire tribe was said to have about 
90 families. 


Yuchi. Although originally an independent tribe, the Yuchi united 
with the Creeks before coming west, and they settled in the Creek 
Nation, in the northwestern part of that territory, where their 
descendants still live. (See Georgia.) 


TEXAS 


Akokisa. The name Akokisa, spelled in various ways, was given 
by the Spaniards to those Atakapa living in southeastern Texas, 
between Trinity Bay and Trinity River and Sabine River. (See 
Atakapa under Louisiana.) 


Alabama. Alabama Indians came to Texas early in the nineteenth 
century, and the largest single body of Alabama still lives there on 
a State reservation in Polk County. (See Alabama.) 


Anadarko. The name of a tribe or band belonging to the Hasinai 
Confederacy (q. v.). 


Apache. The Jicarilla and other Apache tribes raided across the 
boundaries of this State on the northwest and west in early times, 
but the only one of them which may be said to have had its head- 
quarters inside for any considerable period was the Lipan (q. v.). 


308 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuy, 145 


Aranama. The Aranama were associated sometimes with the Karan- 
kawa in the Franciscan missions but were said to be distinct from 
them. Although a small tribe during all of their known history, 
they held together until comparatively recent times, and Morse 
(1822) gives them a population of 125. They were remembered by 
the Tonkawa, when Dr. A. S. Gatschet visited the latter, and he 
obtained two words of their language, but they are said to have 
been extinct as a tribe by 1843. While their affiliations are not 
certainly known, they were undoubtedly with one of the three 
stocks, Karankawan, Tonkawan, or Coahuiltecan, probably the 
last mentioned, and will be enumerated provisionally with them. 
(See Coahuiltecan Tribes.) 


Atakapa, see Akokisa above and under Louisiana. 


Bidai. Perhaps from a Caddo word signifying “‘brushwood,” and 
having reference to the Big Thicket near the lower Trinity River 
about which they lived. Also called: 

Quasmigdo, given as their own name by Ker (1816). 
Spring Creeks, the name given by Foote (1841). 

Connections.—From the mission records it appears that the Bidai 
were of the Atakapan linguistic stock. 

Location.—On the middle course of Trinity River about Bidai 
Creek and to the westward and southwestward. 

History.—The Bidai were living in the region above given when first 
known to the Europeans and claimed to be aborigines of that territory. 
The Franciscan mission of San Ildefonso was founded for them and the 
Akokisa, Deadose, and Patiri. In the latter part of the eighteenth 
century they are said to have been chief intermediaries between the 
Spaniards and Apache in the sale of firearms. The attempt to mis- 
sionize them was soon abandoned. In 1776-77 an epidemic carried 
away nearly half their number, but they maintained separate existence 
down to the middle of the nineteenth century, when they were in a 
village 12 miles from Montgomery. They have now entirely 
disappeared. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates for them a population of 
500 in 1690. In 1805 there were reported to be about 100. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name is perpetuated 
in that of a small creek flowing into Trinity River from the west and 
in a village known as Bedias or Bedais in Grimes County, Tex. 


Biloxi. Some Biloxi entered Texas before 1828. In 1846 a band was 
camped on Little River, a tributary of the Brazos. Afterward 
they occupied a village on Biloxi Bayou in the present Angelina 
County, but later either returned to Louisiana or passed north to 
the present Oklahoma. (See Mississippi.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 309 


Caddo Tribes. Under this head are included the Adai and the Natchi- 
toches Confederacy (see Louisiana); and the Eyeish, the Hasinai 
Confederacy, and the Kadohadacho Confederacy in Texas. 


Cherokee. A band of Cherokee under a chief named Bowl settled in 
Texas early in the nineteenth century, but they were driven out by 
the Texans in 1839 and their chief killed. (See Tennessee.) 


Choctaw. (Morse (1822) reported 1,200 Choctaw on the Sabine and 
Neches Rivers, and some bands continued to live for a while in 
eastern Texas. One band in particular, the Yowani Choctaw, was 
admitted among the Caddo there. All the Choctaw finally re- 
moved to Oklahoma. (See Mississippi.) 


Coahuiltecan Tribes. The name was derived from that of the Mexican 
State of Coahuila, the tribes of this group having extended over 
the eastern part of that province as well as a portion of Texas. 
Also called: 

Tejano, an alternative name for the group. 

Connections.—As Coahuiltecan are included all of the tribes known 
to have belonged to the Coahuiltecan linguistic family and some 
supposed on circumstantial evidence to be a part of it. It is probable 
that most of the so-called Tamaulipecan family of México were really 
related to this, and that the Karankawan and Tonkawan groups were 
connected as well, though more remotely. 

Location.—The Coahuiltecan tribes were spread over the eastern 
part of Coahuila, México, and almost all of Texas west of San Antonio 
River and Cibolo Creek. The tribes of the lower Rio Grande may 
have belonged to a distinct family, that called by Orozco y Berra 
(1864) Tamaulipecan, but the Coahuiltecans reached the Gulf coast 
at the mouth of the Nueces. Northeast of that point they were 
succeeded by Karankawan tribes. Toward the north it is probable 
that the Coahuiltecans originally extended for a long distance before 
they were displaced by the Apache and Comanche. (See also México.) 


Subdivisions 


In considering the Coahuiltecan stock it has been found necessary to change 
the original plan of giving separate consideration to each tribe because we are 
here confronted by an enormous number of small tribal or band names, of many 
of which we do not know even the location. In lieu of subdivisions, therefore, 
we shall give as complete a list as possible of these small tribes or bands, as far as 
they are known. They are as follows: 


Aguastayas. Asan. 
Alasapas. Atajal. 
Andacuminos. Atastagonies. 
Annas. Borrados. 
Apayxam., Cabia. 


Aranama (see above). Cacafes. 


310 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


Cachopostales, 
Camai. 
Cantunas. 

Casas Chiquitas. 
Casastles. 
Chaguantapam. 
Chagustapa. 
Chapamaco. 
Chemoco. 


Choyapin (perhaps Tonkawan). 


Chuapas. 
Cimataguo. 
Cluetau. 
Cocomeioje. 
Comecrudo. 
Cotonam. 
Cupdan. 
Escaba. 
Espopolames. 
Gabilan. 
Geies. 
Guanipas. 
Gueigquesales. 
Guerjuatida. 
Guisoles. 
Haeser. 
Hapes. 
Harames. 
Heniocane. 
Hiabu. 
Hihames. 
Huacacasa. 
Huanes. 
Hume. 
Juamaca. 
Jueinzum, 
Juncatas. 
Junced. 
Macapao. 
Macocoma. 
Mallopeme. 
Mamudgqui. 
Manam. 
Manico. 
Manos Colorados. 
Manos de Perro. 
Manos Prietas. 
Maquems. 
Maraquites. 
Matucar. 
Matuime. 
Maubedan. 
Mauyga. 


Mazapes. 
Menenquen. 
Mescales. 
Mesquites. 
Miilijaes. 
Morbanas. 
Mulatos. 
Muruam (perhaps Tonkawan). 
Narices. 
Natao. 
Nazas. 
Necpacha. 
Nigceo (probably meant for Sinicu). 
Nonapho (perhaps Tonkawan). 
Obozi (?). 
Ocana. 
Odoesmades. 
Ohaguames. 
Orejones. 
Oydican. 
Paac. 
Paachiqui. 
Pabor. 
Pacaruja (given by Uhde, 1861). 
Pachal. 
Pachalaque. 
Pachaloco. 
Pachaquen. 
Pachaug. 
Pacpul. 
Pacuaches. 
Pacuachiam. 
Paguan. 
Paguanan. 
Pajalat. 
Pajarito. 
Pakawa. 
Pamaque. 
Pamaya. 
Pamoranos. 
Pampopas. 
Papanac. 
Paquache. 
Parantones. 
Parchaque. 
Parchinas. 
Pasalves. 
Pasnacanes. 
Pasqual. 
Pastaloca. 
Pastancoyas. 
Pasteal. 
Patague. 


{BuLL. 145 


Swanton] 


Patan. 
Patanium. 
Pataquilla (perhaps Karankawan). 
Patou. 

Patzau. 
Pausanes. 
Pausaqui. 
Pausay. 
Payaya. 
Payuguan. 
Peana. 

Pelones. 
Pescado (7). 
Piedras Blancas. 
Piquique. 
Pinanaca. 
Piniquu. 

Pintos. 

Pita. 

Pitahay. 
Pomuluma. 
Prietos. 
Psaupsau. 
Pulacuam (perhaps Tonkawan). 
Putaay. 
Quanataguo. 
Quems. 
Quepanos. 
Quesal. 

Quide (?). 
Quioborique (?). 
Quisabas (?). 
Quitacas. 

Quivi (?). 
Salapaque (?). 
Salinas (?). 
Samampac. 
Sampanal. 
Sanipao. 
Saracuam (?). 
Secmoco. 
Semonan (?). 
Senisos. 
Siaguan. 

Siansi. 

Sijame (perhaps Tonkawan). 
Sillanguayas. 
Simaomo (perhaps Tonkawan). 
Sinicu. 

Siupam. 
Sonaque. 
Sonayan. 
Suahuaches (7). 


INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 311 


Suanas. 
Sulujame. 
Tacame. 
Taimamares. 
Tamcan (7). 
Tamique (?). 
Tanpacuazes. 
Tarequano. 
Teana. 
Tecahuistes. 
Tejones. 
Teneinamar. 
Tenicapeme. 
Tepachuaches. 
Tepemaca. 
Terocodame. 
Tet. 
Tetanauoica. 
Tetecores. 
Tetzino (perhaps Tonkawan). 
Tilijaes. 
Tinapihuayas. 
Tiopane (perhaps Karankawan). 
Tiopines. 
Tishim.(perhaps Tonkawan). 
Tocas. 
Tonzaumacagua. 
Tripas Blancas. 
Tuancas. 
Tumamar. 
Tumpzi. 
Tusanes. 
Tusonid. 
Tuteneiboica. 
Unojita (?). 
Uracha. 

Utaca (?). 
Venados. 
Vende Flechas. 
Viayam. 
Viddaquimamar. 
Xarame. 
Xiabu. 
Yacdossa. 
Ybdacax. 
Yemé. 

Yman. 

Ymic. 

Yoricas. 
Ysbupue. 

Yué. 
Yurguimes. 
Zorquan. 


sie BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


As indicated, some of these were perhaps Tonkawan, Karankawan, or of other 
affiliations. Some were represented by single individuals and no doubt many of 
the names are synonyms or have become distorted in the process of recording. 
The exact nature of these groups can now never be known. The above list does 
not include a great many names given only by Cabeza de Vaca or La Salle and 
his companions in the same region. The multiplicity of tribes and confusion in 
names is not so serious in any other region north of México. 


History. — The Coahuiltecan tribes were first encountered by Cabeza 
de Vaca and his companions who passed through the heart of their 
country, and by the Spaniards when they invaded Coahuila and 
founded Parral. From the early part of the seventeenth century 
onward, their country was traversed repeatedly. In 1675 the Coa- 
huiltecan country on both sides of the Rio Grande was invaded by 
Fernando del Bosque, and in 1689 and 1690 the Texas portion was 
again traversed by De Leon and Manzanet. In 1677 a Franciscan mis- 
sion for Coahuiltecan tribes was established at Nadadores and before 
the end of the century others were started «long the Rio Grande and 
near San Antonio. Great numbers of Indians were gathered into 
these missions during the first part of the eighteenth century but the 
change of life entailed upon roving people, disease, and the attacks of 
hostile tribes from the north reduced their numbers rapidly. Today 
none of these Indians are known to survive in Texas. In 1886 Dr. 
A. S. Gatschet found remnants of two or three tribes on the south 
side of the Rio Grande and some of their descendants, survive, but 
they are no longer able to speak their ancient language. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1690 the Coahuiltec- 
an peoples totaled 15,000; no figures embracing all of them occur in 
the various narratives. 


Comanche. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Allebome, given by Lewis and Clark as the French:name. 

Bald Heads, so called by Long (1823). 

Bo’dalk‘ ifiago, Kiowa name, meaning ‘‘reptile people, 

Ca’-tha, Arapaho name, meaning ‘“‘having many horses.” 

Cintu-aluka, Teton Dakota name. 

Datsé-a", Kiowa Apache name (Gatschet, MS, BAE). 

Gyai’-ko, Kiowa name, meaning “enemies.” 

Idahi, Kiowa Apache name (Mooney, 1896). 

Ind4, Jicarilla name. 

La Plais, French traders’ name, perhaps corrupted from Téte Pelée. 

La’-ri’hta, Pawnee name. 

Los Mecos, Mexican name. 

Mah4n, Isleta name. 

Méhana, Taos name. 

Na’‘lani, Navaho name, meaning ‘‘many aliens,”’ or ‘‘many enemies” (col- 
lective for Plains tribes). 

Na/nita, Kichai name. 

Nar-a-tah, Waco name. 


”” “snake men.” 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 313 


Na’tia, Wichita name, meaning “snakes,” i. e., ‘“enemies.”’ 

Ne’me né, or Niménim, own name, or Niima, meaning “‘people.”’ 

Padouca, common early name, evidently from the name vf the Penateka 
band. 

Sanko, obsolete Kiowa name. 

Sau’hto, Caddo name. 

Selakampém, Comecrudo name for all warlike tribes but especially for the 
Comanche. 

Shishinéwititz-hitaé’neo, Cheyenne name meaning “snake people.”’ 

Snake Indians, common name. 

Téte Pelée, French traders’ name, identification somewhat doubtful. 

Yampah or Yi’mpaini, Shoshoni name, meaning ‘‘Yampa people,’ or 
‘‘Yampa eaters.” 

Connections.—The Comanche belonged to the Shoshonean linguistic 
family, a branch of Uto-Aztecan, its tongue being almost identical 
with that of the Shoshoni. 

Location.—In northwestern Texas and the region beyond as far 
as Arkansas River. (See also Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New 
Mexico, Oklahoma, and Wyoming.) 


Subdivisions 


The following are the names of Comanche bands so far as these are known: 


Detsanayuka or Nokoni. Pagatsu. 
Ditsakana, Widyu, Yapa or Yamparika. Penateka or Penande. 
Kewatsana. Pohoi (adopted Shoshoni). 
Kotsai. Tanima, Tenawa or Tenahwit. 
Kotsoteka, Kwahari or Kwahadi. Waaih. 
Motsai. 

Various writers also mention the following: 
Guage-johe. Muvinabore. 
Ketahto. Nauniem. 
Kwashi. Parkeenaum, 


History.— Although differing today in physical type, on account of 
their close linguistic relationship it is supposed that the original 
Comanche must have separated from the Shoshoni in the neighbor- 
hood of eastern Wyoming. The North Platte was known as Padouca 
Fork as late as 1805. In 1719, however, the Comanche are placed 
by early writers in southwestern Kansas. For a long time the Arkan- 
sas River was their southern boundary, but finally they moved below 
it attracted by opportunities to obtain horses from the Mexicans and 
pushed on by other peoples. The Apache, who were in the country 
invaded, attacked them but were defeated. In this movement the 
Penateka Comanche were in advance and from the name of this band 
comes Padouca, one of the old terms applied to the entire people. 
For a long time the Comanche were at war with the Spaniards and 


314 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY {BuLL, 145 


the Apache, and later with the Americans. Texas suffered so much 
from their depredations that the famous Texas Rangers were organ- 
ized as a protection against them and proved extremely effective. In 
1854, by permission of the State of Texas, the Federal Government 
established two reservations upon Brazos River and some of the 
Comanche and Kiowa were placed upon the upper reserve. Friction 
with the settlers, however, continued and compelled the abandonment 
of these reserves in 1859 and the removal of the Indians to the terri- 
tory embraced in the present State of Oklahoma. By a treaty con- 
cluded October 18, 1865, a reservation was set apart for the Comanche 
and Kiowa consisting of the Panhandle of Texas and all of Oklahoma 
west of Cimarron River and the 98th meridian of west longitude. By 
a treaty concluded October 21, 1867, they surrendered all of this except 
a tract of land in southwestern Oklahoma between the 98th meridian, 
Red River, the North Fork of Red River, and Washita River. They 
did not settle finally upon this land, however, until after the last 
outbreak of the southern prairie tribes in 1874-75. Their descendants 
continue to live in the same territory. 

Population —Mooney (1928) estimated that there must have been 
7,000 Comanche about 1690. The census of 1904 gives 1,400; the 
census of 1910, 1,171; and the United States Indian Office Report for 
1923 shows a total of 1,697. The census of 1930 returned 1,423. In 
1937 the figure given is 2,213. 

Connection in which they have become noted —The Comanche were one 
of the most famous tribes of the Plains, particularly the southern 
Plains. They were remarkable (1) for their numbers, horsemanship, 
and warlike character; (2) for the frequent clashes between them and 
the White expeditions or bodies of emigrants; (3) as largely instru- 
mental in introducing horses to the Indians of the northern Plains. 
They gave place names to counties in Kansas and Texas; a mountain 
in Texas; and places in Yellowstone County, Mont.; Comanche 
County, Tex.; and Stephens County, Okla. There is a Comanche 
River in Colorado. 


Creeks, see Muskogee, under Alabama. 


Deadose. An Atakapa tribe or subtribe in south central Texas. 
(See Louisiana.) 


Eyeish, or Haish. Meaning unknown. Also called Aays, Aix, 
Aliche, Yayecha, etc. 


Connections.—The Eyeish belonged to the Caddoan linguistic stock, 
their closest relatives probably being the Adai, and next to them the 
peoples of the Kadohadacho and Hasinai Confederacies, with which, 
in fact, Lesser and Weltfish (1932) classify them. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 315 


Location.—On Ayish Creek, northeastern Texas, between the Sabine 
and Neches Rivers. 

History.—In 1542 the Eyeish were visited by the Spaniards under 
Moscoso, De Soto’s successor. They are next noted in 1686-87 by 
the companions of La Salle. In 1716 the mission of Nuestra Sefiora 
de los Dolores was established among them by the Franciscans, 
abandoned in 1719, reestablished in 1721, and finally given up in 1773, 
the success of the mission having been very small. Their proximity 
to the road between the French post at Natchitoches and the Spanish 
post at Nacogdoches seems to have contributed to their general 
demoralization. Sibley (1832) reported only 20 individuals in the 
tribe in 1805 but in 1828 there were said to be 160 families. Soon 
afterward they joined the other Caddo tribes and followed their for- 
tunes, and they must have declined very rapidly for only a bare 
memory of them is preserved. 

Population —In 1779, 20 families were reported; in 1785, a total 
population of 300; in 1805, 20 individuals; in 1828, 160 families. (See 
Caddo Confederacy, under Louisiana.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Ayish Bayou, a tribu- 
tary of the Angelina River on which they formerly lived, perpetuates 
the name of the Eyeish. 


Guasco. A tribe or band which attained some prominence from the 
importance attached to jt in the narratives of the De Soto expedi- 
tion. (See Hasinai Confederacy.) 


Hainai. An important band of the Hasinai Confederacy (q. v.). 


Hasinai Confederacy. Hasinai signifies ‘our own folk.’”’ The name 
often occurs in the forms Assinay or Cenis. 

Connections.—The Hasinai Confederacy constituted one of the 
major divisions of the Caddo, the others being the Kadohadacho 
Confederacy, the Natchitoches Confederacy, and the Adai and Eyeish, 
the two last probably connected but not confederated. All belonged 
to the Caddoan linguistic stock. 

Location.—In northeastern Texas between the headwaters of the 
Neches and Trinity Rivers. 


Subdivisions 


The following tribes or bands were included: 
Anadarko, northwest of Nacogdoches in the present Rusk County. 
Guasco, position unknown. 
Hainai, 3 leagues west of Nacogdoches. 
Nabedache, 3 to 4 leagues west of Neches River and near Arroyo San Pedro, at a 
site close to the old San Antonio road, which became known as San Pedro. 
Nacachau, just north of the Neches tribe and on the east side of Neches River. 


316 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn 145 


Nacanish, north of the Hainai. 

Nacao, probably part of the Nacanish. 

Nacogdoche, at the present Nacogdoches. 

Nacono, southeast of the Neches and Nabedache and 5 leagues from the former. 

Namidish or Nabiti, on Angelina River north of the Hainai. 

Nasoni, two towns: (1) about 27 miles north of Nacogdoches near the Anadarko; 
(2) in the Kadohadacho Confederacy. 

Nechaui, southeast of the Nabedache, half a league from the Nacono, and 5 
leagues from the crossing of the Neches at the Neches village. 

Neches, the main village 1 league or more east of Neches River, nearly west of the 
present Nacogdoches and near the mounds southwest of Alto, Cherokee County. 
The following names may belong to other allied tribes but next to nothing is 

known of them: 

Naansi. Nadamin. Neihahat. 
Nabeyeyxa. Natsshostanno. Tadiva. 
Lesser and Weltfish (1932) speak of a tribe called Kayamaici, but this was 
probably a local group on Kiamichi River. 


Villages 


As recorded by our authorities, these almost always bore the names of the 
tribes occupying them. 

History—On their way west in 1542 after the death of De Soto, in 
an endeavor to reach México overland, the Spaniards who had followed 
him passed through the Caddo country, and the names of the Nabe- 
dache, Nasoni, Anadarko, and Nacanish seem to be recognizable. In 
1686-87 La Salle and his companions spent some time in their villages, 
and it was near one of them that La Salle was murdered by his own 
people. In 1690 the Spaniards entered their country and opened the 
first mission among them at the Nabedache village in May of that 
year. A number of missions were established in the other villages. 
All were abandoned in 1719 in expectation of a French attack, but 
they were reestablished in 1721. They did not prove successful, how- 
ever, and were gradually removed to the neighborhood of San Antonio. 
Early in the nineteenth century the Hasinai were joined by the 
Louisiana Caddo, and all were placed upon a reservation on the Brazos 
River in 1855. Threatened with massacre by some of their White 
neighbors, they fled to Oklahoma 4 years later, were granted new lands 
near the present Anadarko, and finally allotted land in severalty. 

Population Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1690 the entire Caddo 
population, including the Hasinai, the Kadohadacho and Natchitoches 
Confederacies, and the Adai and Eyeish tribes, amounted to 8,500, 
700 more than the number I arrived at. He does not give figures for 
the Hasinai by themselves, but it is probable that he would have al- 
lowed between 4,000 and 5,000. The former figure is the one I sug- 
gested (see Swanton, 1942). 

Referring to earlier estimates, we are told that a Canadian who had 
lived for several years among the Hasinai stated in 1699 that they had 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 317 


between 600 and 700 warriors, which would indicate a population of 
2,500-3,000. In 1716 Don Diego Ramon, under whom the missions 
were established, gave it as his opinion that they were serving a popu- 
lation of 4,000—-5,000. When Aguayo reestablished them in 1721 he 
distributed presents to the inhabitants of the principal towns. His 
figures are evidently incomplete, but even so they suggest some falling 
off in the 5 years that had elapsed. At any rate it is evident that 
these Indians lost very heavily during the eighteenth century and that 
their numbers did not exceed 1,000 at the opening of the nineteenth 
century. A rather careful estimate by Jesse Stem in 1851 would 
indicate a population of about 350. In 1864 the United States Indian 
Office reported 150, and in 1876 and subsequent years still smaller 
figures appear which are evidently incomplete. The first seemingly 
accurate census taken by the Indian Office was in 1880, when the figure 
for the united Caddo people was given as 538. It varied little from 
this until after 1910 when it showed steady gains. In 1937, 967 
Caddo were reported. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Hasinai are noted 
as the Indians among whom La Salle came to his untimely end, and 
along with the Kadohadacho and Natchitoches as makers of the beau- 
tiful Caddo pottery. (See Kadohadacho Confederacy.) Texas, a 
common name applied to them, was adopted as the designation of a 
Republic and later State of the American Union. It has been given 
to places in Washington County, Ky., and Baltimore County, Md.; 
to Texas City, Galveston County, Tex.; Texas Creek, Fremont 
County, Colo.; and in the combined form Texarkana to a city on the 
boundary line between Texas and Arkansas, entering also into Tex- 
homa, Texas County, Okla., and Sherman County, Tex. 


Isleta del Sur, see Pueblos under New Mexico. 


Jicarilla. The Jicarilla ranged into this State (Texas) at times. 
(See Colorado.) 


Kadohadacho Confederacy. The word Kadohadacho signifies in the 
native language “real chiefs,’ kadi being the word for “chief,” and 
it is from an abbreviation of this term that we get the word Caddo. 
They were also called: 


At’-ta-wits, by the Comanche, according to Ten Kate (1907). 
Da’sha-i, or Tdshash, by the Wichita. 

Erawika, by the Pawnee. 

’H’-doum-dei-kin, by the Kiowa. 

Ka-l6X-la’-tce, by the Choctaw. 

Kalu-xnddshu or Kasseye’i, by the Tonkawa. 

Kul-hil-ats!, by the Creeks. 

Ma’-seip’-kia, by the Kiowa, signifying ‘‘pierced noses.” 
Ni’ris-h&ri’s-ki’riki, another Wichita name. 


318 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


Ota’s-ita’niuw’, Cheyenne name, signifying “pierced nose people” (or 
Utdséta). 
Su’-d¢é, by the Quapaw. 
Tani’banén, by the Arapaho, signifying ‘‘pierced nose people.” 
Wittine, by the Comanche, according to Gatschet (MS., B. A. E.). 
Connections —The Kadohadacho belonged to the Caddo division 
of the Caddoan linguistic stock, the other members being the closely 
related Hasinai (q. v.) and Natchitoches (see under Louisiana), and 
the more remotely connected Adai of Louisiana and Eyeish of Texas. 
Location.—The Kadohadacho lived in northeastern Texas and 
southwestern Arkansas at the Great Bend of Red River, though they 
are usually associated with the region around Caddo Lake which they 
occupied at a later period. (See also Arkansas and Louisiana.) 


Subdivisions 


Cahinnio, near Ouachita River, Ark. 
Kadohadacho, on the north side of Red River near the point where the present 
Arkansas-Texas boundary line reaches it. 
Nanatsoho, on the south side of Red River not far from the point reached by the 
present Arkansas-Oklahoma State line. 
Upper Nasoni, on the south side of Red River nearly opposite the present Ogden. 
Upper Natchitoches, on the south side of Red River between the Nanatsoho and 
Nasoni. 
Upper Yatasi, a part of the Yatasi which joined them in very late times. 
History.—In October 1541, De Soto and his army entered a province 
called Tula believed to be the country of the Indians later known as 
Cahinnio, a tribe for whose bravery the Spaniards came to have a 
wholesome respect. The next encounter between these people and 
white men was in the summer of 1687 when, after the murder of the 
Sieur de la Salle, six survivors of his expedition, including Joutel 
and Father Anastasius Donay, passed through the Kadohadacho 
towns on their way to the Mississippi, visiting the Nasoni, Kadohada- 
cho, and Cahinnio. Tonti visited them also 4 yearslater. In’Novem- 
ber and December 1691, Domingo Teran (Castaneda, 1936) spent a 
miserable week in this country exploring it and taking soundings of 
Red River, and we owe to him the first map of the region. In 1700 
Bienville undertook to reach them but got no farther than the Yatasi 
village halfway between the Natchitoches and Kadohadacho. In 
1719 the French officer Bernard de la Harpe (1831) spent some time 
among them and established a trading post which endured for a con- 
siderable period. French traders quickly monopolized the Kadohada- 
cho trade, the principal trading point being Natchitoches, but no 
missions were established. This group of tribes proved to be a strong 
bulwark against the warlike northern Indians, particularly the Osage, 
but they suffered much in consequence, and late in the eighteenth 
century the Kadohadacho or a part of them moved to another location 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 319 


some miles below their ancient village. The town established in the 
new location, however, was also attacked by the Osages, who inflicted 
such losses upon its inhabitants that they removed again about 1800 
and established themselves on Sodo Creek northwest of the present 
Shreveport. In 1824 a treaty was signed between the United States 
Government and the Quapaw Indians by which the latter agreed to 
give up their lands on the Arkansas and remove to the country of the 
Caddo Indians. The Quapaw removed the year following but suffered 
such losses on account of floods in Red River that in 1833 they sur- 
rendered these lands and removed to Oklahoma. Two years later the 
Kadohadacho and their allies also subscribed to a treaty by which 
they surrendered all of their lands within the territory of the United 
States. In consequence, they removed to Texas and settled near their 
Hasinai kindred, whose fortunes they afterward followed although the 
two parties remained distinct for a considerable period. Some united 
themselves for a time with the Cherokee under Chief Bowl. Some 
also took up their residence with the Chickasaw in the Indian Terri- 
tory. Those who remained in Texas were fellow victims with the 
Hasinai of the increasing friction with their white neighbors embittered 
by Comanche and Apache depredations for which they were in no 
way responsible. We may now call these united peoples by the simple 
term ‘‘Caddo.”” In an endeavor to end these difficulties a reservation 
was set apart for the Caddo on Brazos River in 1852 but trouble arose 
again of such a violent character that in 1859 the Caddo abandoned 
Texas and were assigned a new reservation in the southwestern part 
of the present State of Oklahoma, where their descendants still live, 
most of the scattered bands having been gathered into one section. 
Most of the Caddo sided with the Federal Government during the 
Civil War and went to Kansas, where they remained until it was over, 
though experiencing many hardships in consequence and losing many 
of their people in epidemics. They took considerable interest in the 
Ghost Dance Religion and still more in the Peyote Cult, John Wilson, 
a mixed-blood Caddo and Delaware, being one of the prominent 
leaders. The fact that they had always cultivated the ground has 
made their adjustment to the new economic system fairly easy. In 
1902 they were allotted land in severalty. 

Population—My estimate for the Kadohadacho division of the 
Caddo before White contact is 2,000. Bienville and La Harpe place 
it in 1700-1709 between 2,000 and 2,500. In 1718, however, Bienville 
asserts that it had fallen to 200 warriors, which would mean about 800 
people, and Sibley (1832) indicates the same figures as late as 1805. 
In 1829 Porter (in Schoolcraft, vol. 3) gives an estimate of 450, and 
in 1851 Stem (1851) who is likely to be reliable, places it at 476. In 
1857 Neighbors returns a partial enumeration of 235, and in 1876, 


320 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


the last time they were returned separately from the Hasinai, the 
Indian Office reported 467. It is evident, however, that this also 
includes part of the Hasinai and all of the Adai and Eyeish besides the 
remnants of the Natchitoches group. After this date the population 
of the united Caddo group remained around 500, but during the 
present century it has been steadily increasing and in 1937, 967 were 
reported. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The Kadohadacho 
group is noted as containing the tribe which ultimately gave the name 
Caddo to the linguistic family of which it isa part. The name Caddo 
has been applied to a parish and lake in Louisiana; a county in Okla- 
homa; a creek and gap in Arkansas; to the village of Caddo Gap, 
Montgomery County, Ark.; and to villages in Bryan County, Okla., 
and Stephens County, Tex.; and in Hunt County, Tex., is Caddo Mills. 


Karankawan Tribes. The name Karankawa is derived from one of 
the constituent tribes, but the significance is unknown. 
Nda kun-dadéhe, Lipan name, meaning “‘people walking in the water.” 
Quélancouchis, Clamcoets, names given by the French. 
Y4kokon kdpai, Tonkawa, meaning “without moccasins,” but this name 
includes the coast Coahuiltecan tribes. 


Connections.—The Karankawan tribes are placed in an independent 
linguistic stock, which was connected most closely, it would seem, 
with the Coahuiltecan group. 

Location.—On the coast of the Gulf of México between Trinity and 
Aransas Bays. 

Subdivisions 

Five principal tribes constituted the Karankawan stock. They were as follows: 
Coapite. 

Coaque or Coco, on Galveston Island and at the mouth of Brazos River. 
Karankawa, on Matagorda Bay. 

Kohani, near the mouth of Colorado River. 

Kopano, on Copano Bay. 

To these should perhaps be added the Tiopane and Tups, and perhaps also the 
Pataquilla, and the Quilotes mentioned by Cabeza de Vaca (1851). 

History —The Karankawan coast was skirted by a number of early 
voyagers but the first contact with its inhabitants worth noting was 
by Cabeza de Vaca and other shipwrecked members of Pamphilo de 
Narvaez’s expedition. There is little doubt that the people among 
whom Cabeza de Vaca was cast away in 1528 were the Coaque or 
Coco. In 1685 La Salle landed in their country supposing that he 
was near the mouth of the Mississippi, and he built a fort (Fort St. 
Louis) in which the French maintained themselves for 2 years. In 
1689 the region was visited by a Spanish expedition under De Leon 
intent upon driving the Frenchmen out of the country. Shortly 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA ook 


afterward the Spaniards began to colonize Texas and, though few 
settlements were made near the coast, missions were established from 
time to time to gather in the Karankawan Indians. The neophytes 
could never be induced to remain long at these missions, however, 
and continued during the Spanish period in about the same condition 
of savagery in which they had been found, though they decreased 
steadily in numbers. After the American settlements had begun, the 
coast tribes annoyed them by constant pilfering, and the reprisals 
which the Karankawans suffered finally destroyed them entirely. 
The last are said to have perished shortly before the Civil War. The 
only Karankawan vocabulary of undoubted purity was recorded in 
1720 by the French Captain Beranger. In 1891 Dr. A. S. Gatschet 
published two others, one obtained from Tonkawa Indians and the 
other, much longer, from a white woman named Oliver who had lived 
near the last band of Karankawa in her girlhood and had learned a 
considerable number of words. But this band is said to have been 
much mixed with Coahuiltecan, a contention which an examination 
of the material seems to confirm. 

Population.—Mooney’s (1928) estimate of 2,800 for the Karankawan 
tribes in 1690 appears to me decidedly too high, but there are prac- 
tically no data upon which to make a satisfactory determination. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Karankawan 
tribes will be longest remembered as those among which Cabeza de 
Vaca and his companions were cast away in 1528, and where La Salle’s 
colony was established in 1685. The name of one Karankawan 
tribe (Kopano) is preserved by Copano Bay. 


Kichai or (more phonetically) Kitsei. Their own name and said to 
mean “‘going in wet sand,” but the Pawnee translate their rendering 
of it as “water turtle.”” Also called: 

Gits’ajf, Kansa name. 

Ki-¢i’-tcac, Omaha name. 

Kiétsash, Wichita name. 

Ki’-tchésh, Caddo name. 

Quichais, Spanish variant. 

Quidehais, from French sources (La Harpe, 1831). 

Connections —The Kichai were a tribe of the Caddoan stock whose 
language lay midway between Wichita and Pawnee. 

Location.—On the upper waters of Trinity River, and between that 
stream and Red River. (See also Oklahoma.) 

History.—It is probable that in the prehistoric period the Kichai 
lived north of Red River but they had gotten south of it by 1701 when 
the French penetrated that country and they continued in the same 
general region until 1855. They were then assigned to a small 
reservation on Brazos River, along with several other small tribes. 


322 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


In 1858, however, alarmed at threats of extermination on the part of 
the neighboring Whites, they fled to the present Oklahoma, where they 
joined the Wichita. They have remained with them ever since. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates a total Kichai population of 
500 in 1690. In 1772 the main Kichai village contained 30 houses 
and there were estimated in it 80 warriors, most of whom were young. 
In 1778 the number of Kichai fighting men was estimated at 100. 
The census of 1910 returned a total population of only 10, and that 
of 1930 included them with the Wichita, the figure for the two tribes, 
nearly all Wichita however, being 300. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Their name Kichai is 
perpetuated in the Keeche Hills, Okla.; Keechi Creek, Tex.; a branch 
of the Trinity, Keechi; a post hamlet of Leon County, Tex.; and per- 
haps Kechi, a post township of Sedgwick County, Kans. 


Kiowa. This tribe hunted in and raided across northern Texas. 
(See Kansas.) 


Koasati. Early in the nineteenth century bands of Koasati had 
worked over from Louisiana into Texas, settling first on the Sabine 
and later on the Neches and the Trinity. In 1850 the bulk of the 
entire tribe was in Texas but later, partly it is said on account of 
a pestilence, they suffered heavy losses and most of the survivors 
returned to Louisiana, where the largest single body of Koasati is 
living. Among the Alabama in Polk County, Tex., there were in 
1912 about 10 of this tribe. (See Alabama and Louisiana.) 


Lipan. Adapted from Ipa-n’de, apparently a personal name; n’de 
meaning ‘‘people.’’ Also called: 


A-tagui, Kiowa name, meaning ‘‘timber Apache’’; used also for Mescalero. 

Cances, Caddo name, meaning ‘‘deceivers.”’ 

Hu-ta’-ci, Comanche name, meaning ‘forest Apache” (Ten Kate, 1884, in 
Hodge, 1907). 

Huxul, Tonkawa name. (See Uxul.) 

Na-izha’f, own name, meaning “‘ours,’”’ ‘‘our kind.” 

Navéne, Comanche name (Gatschet, MS., B. A. E.). 

Shi’Ini, former Mescalero name, meaning ‘‘summer people’’(?). 

Tu-tsin-nde, Mescalero name, meaning “great water people.” 

Uxul, Tonkawa name, meaning a spiral shell and applied to this tribe 
because of their coiled hair. 

Yabipai Lipan, so called by Garcés in 1776. 


2 66 


Connections.—This is one of the tribes of the Athapascan linguistic 
stock to which the genera] name Apache was applied. Their closest 
relations politically were with the Jicarilla, with whom they formed 
one linguistic group. 

Location.—The Lipan formerly ranged from the Rio Grande in 
New Mexico over the eastern part of the latter State and western 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 323 


Texas southeastward as far as the Gulf of México. (See also New 
Mexico and Oklahoma.) 
Subdivisions 

The Lipan were reported during the early part of the nineteenth century to 
consist of three bands, probably the same which Orozco y Berra (1864) calls 
Lipanjenne, Lipanes de Arriba, and Lipanes Abajo. 

History.—The position of the Lipan prior to the eighteenth century 
is somewhat obscure, but during that century and the early part of 
the nineteenth they ranged over the region just indicated. In 1757 
the San Saba mission was established for them, but it was broken up 
by their enemies, the Comanche and Wichita. In 1761-62 the mis- 
sions of San Lorenzo and Candelaria were organized for the same 
purpose but met a similar fate in 1767. In 1839 the Lipan sided 
with the Texans against the Comanche but suffered severely from the 
Whites between 1845 and 1856, when most of them were driven into 
Coahuila, México. They remained in Coahuila until October 1903, 
when the 19 survivors were taken to northwest Chihauhua, and re- 
mained there until 1905. In that year they were brought to the 
United States and placed on the Mescalero Reservation, N. Mex., 
where they now live. A few Lipan were also incorporated with the 
Tonkawa and the Kiowa Apache. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that the Lipan numbered 
500 in 1690. In 1805 the three bands were reported to number 300, 
350, and 100 men respectively, which would seem to be a too liberal 
allowance. The census of 1910 returned 28. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Lipan were noted 
as persistent raiders into Texas, New Mexico, and México. Their 
name has been given to a post village in Hood County, Tex. 


Muskogee. A few Muskogee came to Texas in the nineteenth century, 
most belonging to the Pakana division. Two or three individuals 
lived until recently near Livingston, Tex. (See Alabama.) 


Nabedache, Nacachau, Nacanish, Nacogdoche, Nadaco, Namidish, 
Nechaui, Neches, and one section of the Nasoni. Small tribes 
or bands belonging to the Hasinai Confederacy (q. v.). 


Nanatsoho, Nasoni (Upper). Small tribes or bands connected with 
the Kadohadacho Confederacy (q. v.). 


Pakana. A Muskogee division. (See Muskogee above and also under 
Alabama.) 


Pascagoula. Bands belonging to the Pascagoula, entered Texas from 
Louisiana early in the nineteenth century, and one band lived on 
Biloxi Bayou, a branch of the Neches, for a considerable period, 
together with some Biloxi Indians. All had disappeared in 1912 


324 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


except two Indians, only half Pascagoula, living with the Alabama 
in Polk County. (See Mississippi). 


Patiri. A tribe associated with the Akokisa, Bidai, and Deadose in 
the mission of San Ildefonso west of Trinity River. Since related 
tribes are said to have been put in the same mission in that period 
(1748-49), it is believed that the Patiri spoke an Atakapan language. 
Their former home is thought to have been along Caney Creek. 


Pueblos. There were two late settlements of Pueblo Indians, Isleta 
del Sur and Senect del Sur, near El Paso, Tex., composed principally 
of Indians brought back by Governor Otermin in 1681 after an 
unsuccessful attempt to subdue the Pueblo Indians of the Rio 
Grande. Senect del Sur was, however, actually in Chihuahua, 
México. The people of these pueblos are now almost completely 
Mexicanized. (See New Mexico.) 


Quapaw. Between 1823 and 1833 the Quapaw lived with the Caddo 
Indians in northwestern Louisiana and northeastern Texas,and one 
band of them known as Imaha were reckoned as a constituent ele- 
ment of the Caddo Confederacy. (See Arkansas.) 


Senecfi del Sur. (See Pueblos above.) 


Shawnee. A band of Shawnee entered eastern Texas for a brief 
period during the middle of the nineteenth century. They were 
afterward moved to Oklahoma. (See Tennessee.) 


Shuman. More often known as Jumano or Humano, significance 
unknown. Also called: 
Borrados, from Spanish sources, “‘striped’’(?). 
Chouman, French form of name. 
Humanas, Jumanas, Xumanas, Spanish forms of name. 
Ipataragiiites, from Mota-Padilla, probably intended for this tribe. 
Patarabueyes, given by Espejo in 1582. 
Suma, sometimes regarded as a separate tribe but considered by Sauer 
merely as a Synonym. 

Connections.—The eastern division of the Shuman, that to which 
the name Jumano is oftenest applied, was once thought to have be- 
longed to the Caddoan stock, but Sauer (1934) appears to have shown 
that in all probability it was Uto-Aztecan. The western section, 
oftener called Suma, has been classed, erroneously of course, as Tanoan. 

Location.—In early times most of the Shuman lived along the Rio 
Grande between the mouth of the Concho and the present El Paso but 
extending westward as far as the Casas Grandes in Chihuahua. Later 
a part of them entered the Plains in western Texas and eastern New 
Mexico. (See also New Mexico.) 


-_ LIE 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 325 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Besides the two main divisions to which the names Shuman or Jumano and Suma 
have been applied respectively, the Suma later became separated into two groups, 
one about El Paso and the other in the region of the Casas Grandes. The only 
villages named are: Atripuy, Genobey, Quelotetrey, and Pataotrey. 

History.—The Shuman were first met by Cabeza de Vaca and his 
companions about the beginning of the year 1536 although De Vaca 
does not mention them by name. In 1582 they were visited by 
Antonio de Espejo and in 1598 by Juan de Ofiate. At the latter date 
a part of them at least were near the Salinas, east of the Rio Grande in 
what is now New Mexico. About 1622 they were visited by the 
Franciscan missionary of the Pueblo of Isleta, and in 1629 an independ- 
ent mission was established for them. By this time, the eastern sec- 
tion of the tribe had gotten as far east as the Conchos, a headstream of 
the Nueces. About 1670 there were Shuman not far from Pecos 
River, and from that time through the eighteenth century they seem 
to have resided principally in the region indicated. As late as the 
middle of the nineteenth century they are mentioned in connection 
with the Kiowa, and again as living near Lampazas, Nuevo Leon, 
México. Possibly they were the tribe later known as Waco. The 
name of the western Shuman appears in the form Suma as early as 
1630 when it was used by Benavides, and in 1659 some of the northern 
Suma were at San Lorenzo. During the Pueblo revolt of 1680 they 
became hostile and united with the Manso and Jano in an outbreak in 
1684, but they were reduced 2 years later and formed into several 
settlements about El Paso, San Lorenzo being the only one to endure. 
They declined steadily in numbers until in 1897 only one was known to 
be living, at Seneci. The mission of Casas Grandes was established 
among the southern branch of the Suma in 1664. Then and for some 
years afterward they were allied with the Apache and Jocome in raids 
against the Piman tribes west of them, particularly the Opata, but are 
supposed to have been destroyed ultimately by the Apache. 

Population.—In 1582 Espejo believed that the Shuman numbered 
10,000, probably an overestimate. Mooney (1928) does not give 
them separate entry in his estimates} of population. In 1744 the 
northern branch of that part of the tribe called Suma had become re- 
duced to 50 families; in 1765 there were only 21 families; and in 1897 
only one individual was supposed to be left. 


Soacatino, or Xacatin. A tribe met by the companions of De Soto in 
northwestern Louisiana or northeastern Texas. It was undoubtedly 
Caddo but has not been identified satisfactorily with any known 
Caddo tribe. 

Tawakoni. The Tawakoni were a subdivision of the Wichita, or at 
least a tribe closely affiliated with them. (See Oklahoma.) 


326 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


Tonkawan Tribes. The name derived from the most important and 
only surviving tribe of the family. Gatschet (1891 a) says that 
Tonkawa is a Waco word, Tonkaweya, meaning “they all stay 
together.’”” The synonyms are not to be confounded with those of 
the Tawakoni. Also called: 

Kadiko, Kiowa name, probably a corruption of Ktiikogo, ‘‘man-eating men’’ 
(Gatschet, MS., B. A. E.). 

Kariko, Comanche name, from above. 

K‘inahi-pfako, Kiowa name, meaning ‘“‘maneaters’”’ (Mooney, 1898). 

Konkoné or Komkomé, early French name. 

Maneaters, common translation of some of above synonyms. 

Mitxsén, Cheyenne name. 

Némeréxka, Comanche name (Gatschet, MS., B. A. E.). 

Titskan wAtitch, own name. 

Connections.—The Tonkawan tribes constitute a distinct linguistic 
family but with affinities for the Coahuiltecan and probably Karan- 
kawan and Tunican groups. 

Location.—In central Texas from Cibolo Creek on the southwest to 
within a few miles of Trinity River on the northeast. (See also 
Oklahoma.) 


Subdivisions 


The tribes or bands certainly included under this head were the Tonkawa, 
Yojuane, Mayeye, and Ervipiame, but there should probably be added the Sana, 
Emet, Cava, Toho, Tohaha, Quiutcanuaha, Tenu, Tetzino, Tishin, Tusolivi, and 
Ujuiap, and perhaps also the Nonapho, Sijame, Simaomo, Muruam, Pulacuam, 
and Choyapin, though the last three at least were probably Coahuiltecan. 

History.—Tribes of Tonkawan stock were undoubtedly encountered 
by Cabeza de Vaca early in the sixteenth century; certainly so if the 
Muruam were Tonkawan for they are evidently his Mariames. In 
1691 the Tonkawa and Yojuane are mentioned by Francisco Casafias 
de Jesus Maria as enemies of the Hasinai (Swanton, 1942, p. 251), and 
in 1714 the Yojuane destroyed the main fire temple of the Hasinai. 
Between 1746 and 1749 the Tonkawa were gathered into missions on 
San Xavier (San Gabriel) River but these were given up in 1756, and 
2 years later the Tonkawa assisted in the destruction of the San Saba 
Mission established for the Apache. From that time until well into 
the nineteenth century the tribe continued to reside in the same 
section, rarely settling down for any considerable period. In 1855 
they and several other Texas tribes were gathered by the United States 
Government on two small reservations on Brazos River. In 1859 
however, the threatening attitude of their white neighbors resulted in 
their removal to Washita River in what is now Oklahoma. On the 
night of October 25, 1862, the Tonkawa camp there was fallen upon 
by a body of Delaware, Shawnee, and Caddo Indians desiring to pay 
off old scores but pretending that the Tonkawa and their agent were 
in sympathy with the Southern Confederacy. Out of about 300 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 327 


Tonkawa 137 were massacred, and the survivors, after some years of 
miserable wandering, were gathered into Fort Griffin, Tex., where they 
might be protected from their enemies. In 1884 all that were left 
were given a small reservation in northern Oklahoma, near the Ponca, 
where their descendants still live. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1690 there were 
about 1,600 Tonkawa. A Spanish estimate of 1778 gives 300 warriors 
but the following year, after an epidemic of smallpox, this is cut in 
half. In 1782, 600 were said to have attended a certain meeting and 
this was only a portion of the tribe. Sibley (1832) estimated that in 
1805 they had 200 men. In 1809 there were said to be 250 families 
and in 1828, 80. In 1847 the official estimate was 150 men. Before 
the massacre of 1862 there were supposed to be about 300 all told, but 
when they were placed on their reservation in 1884 there were only 92. 
In 1908 there were 48 including a few intermarried Lipan; the census 
of 1910 gave 42, but that of 1930 restores the figure to 48, and in 1937 
there were said to be 51. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Tonkawan tribes 
have the following claims to remembrance: (1) On account of the 
uniqueness of their language, (2) for their reputed addiction to can- 
nibalism, (3) on account of the massacre perpetrated upon them 
partly in consequence of this reputation, as above described. The city 
of Tonkawa in Kay County, Okla., perpetuates the name. 


Waco. The Waco were a subtribe or tribe of the Wichita group which 
lived near the present Waco for a limited period before removal to 
Oklahoma (q. v.). 


Wichita. The Wichita lived for a time along both sides of Red River 
in northern Texas. (See Oklahoma.) 


NEW MEXICO 


Apache. Probably from 4pachu, “enemy,” the Zufii name for the 
Navaho who were designated ‘‘Apaches de Nabaju” by the early 
Spaniards in New Mexico. The name has also been applied to 
some Yuman tribes, the Apache Mohave (Yavapai) and the Apache 
Yuma. Also called: 


Ahuddjé, Havasupai name for at least Tonto and White Mountain Apache, 
Ai-a’-ta, Panamint name. 

Atoktiwe, Kiowa name. 

Awatch or Awdtche, Ute name. 

Chah’-shm, Santo Domingo Keres name. 

Chishyé, Laguna name. 

Ha-ma-kaba-mitc kwa-dig, Mohave name, meaning ‘‘far-away Mohave.” 
H’iwana, Taos name. 

Igihua’-a, Havasupai name. 


328 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy, 145 


Inde or Nde, own name. 

Jarosoma, Pima name (from Kino). 

Mountain Comanche, by Yoakum (1855-56). 

Muxtsuhintan, Cheyenne name. 

Oop, Papago name. 

Op, or Awp, Pima name. 

Péanin, Sandia and Isleta name (Hodge, 1895). 

P’é6nin, Isleta name (Gatschet, MS., B. A. E.). 

Shis-Inday, own name meaning “‘men of the woods,” because their winter 
quarters were always in the forest. 

Ta-ashi, Comanche name, meaning “turned up,” and having reference to 
their moccasins. 

Tagui, Old Kiowa name. 

Tagukerésh, Pecos name. 

Tashin, Comanche name (Mooney, 1898). 

Taxkdéhe, Arapaho name. 

Thah-a-i-nin’, Arapaho name, meaning ‘‘people who play on bone instru- 
ments,’’ meaning two bison ribs, one notched, over which the other is 
rubbed. 

Tinna’-ash, Wichita name. 

Tshishé, Laguna name. 

Utce-cf-nyu-mth or Utsaamu, or Yotché-eme, Hopi name. 

Xa-hé’-ta-fio’, Cheyenne name meaning ‘‘those who tie their hair back.” 


Connections.—Together with the Navaho, the Apache constituted 
the western group of the southern division of the Athapascan linguistic 
stock (Hoijer, 1938). 

Location.—In southern New Mexico and Arizona, western Texas, 
and southeastern Colorado, also ranging over much of northern 
Mexico. (See also Kansas, Oklahoma, and México.) 


Subdivisions 


On linguistic grounds Hoijer (1938) divides the southern Athapascans into two 
main groups, a western and an eastern. The latter includes the Jicarilla, Lipan, 
and Kiowa Apache, the two former being more closely related to each other than 
either is to the Kiowa Apache. In the western group Hoijer again distinguishes 
two major subdivisions, the Navaho, and the San Carlos-Chiricahua-Mescalero. 
The Navaho are always regarded as a distinct tribe and will be so treated here. 
Separate treatment is also being given to the Jicarilla, Lipan, and Kiowa Apache. 
The rest of the southern Athapascans will be placed under the present head, it 
being freely admitted at the same time that such treatment is mainly a matter of 
convenience and that it is impossible to say how many and what southern 
Athapascan divisions should be given tribal status. What is here called the 
Apache Tribe may be classified as follows with the locations of the divisions, 
basing the scheme on the classifications of Hoijer and Goodwin (1935): 


1. San Carlos Group: 
San Carlos proper: 
Apache Peaks Band, in the Apache Mountains, northeast of Globe. 
Arivaipa Band, on Arivaipa Creek. 
Pinal Band, between Salt and Gila Rivers in Gila and Pinal Counties. 
San Carlos Band, in the region of San Carlos River between Gila and 
Salt Rivers. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 329 


1. San Carlos Group—Continued. 
White Mountain Group: 

Eastern White Mountain Band, in the region of the upper Gila and Salt 
Rivers in southeastern Arizona. 

Western White Mountain Band, in the same region between the Eastern 
Band and the San Carlos Band. 

Cibecue Group: 

Canyon Creek Band, centering on Canyon Creek in Gila and Navajo 
Counties. 

Carrizo Band, on Carrizo Creek in Gila County. 

Cibicue Band, on Cibecue Creek between the two last. 

Southern Tonto Group: 

Mazatzal Band, about the Mazatzal Mountains. 

Six semibands: north of Roosevelt Lake; on the upper Tonto Creek; 
between the upper Tonto and the East Verde; west of the preceding 
between the East Verde, Tonto, and Verde; north of the East Verde; 
and from Cherry Creek to Clear Creek. 

Northern Tonto Group: 

Bald Mountain Band, about Bald Mountain, south of Camp Verde. 

Fossil Creek Band, on Fossil Creek between Gila and Yavapai Counties. 

Mormon Lake Band, centering on Mormon Lake south of Flagstaff. 

Oak Creek Band, about Oak Creek south of Flagstaff. 

2. Chiricahua-Mescalero Group: 
Gilefios Group: 

Chiricahua Band, about the Chiricahua Mountains in southeastern 
Arizona. 

Mimbrefio Band, centered in the Mimbres Mountains in southwestern 
New Mexico. 

Mogollon Band, about the Mogollon Mountains in Catron and Grant 
Counties, N. Mex. 

Warm Spring Band, at the head of Gila River. 

Mescalero Group: 

Faraon or Apache Band of Pharaoh, a southern division of the Mescalero. 

Mescalero Band, mainly between the Rio Grande and Pecos Rivers, 
N. Mex. 


The term Querecho, as well as Vaquero, was applied rather generally to Apache 
by the Spaniards but probably more particularly to the Mescalero and their 
allies. Under Llanero were included Mescalero, Jicarilla, and even some Coman- 
che. The term Coyotero has been applied to some of the San Carlos divisions 
and recently by Murdock (1941) to all. 

History—The Apache tribes had evidently drifted from the north 
during the prehistoric period, probably along the eastern flanks of 
the Rocky Mountains. When Coronado encountered them in 1540 
under the name Querechos, they were in eastern New Mexico and 
western Texas, and they apparently did not reach Arizona until after 
the middle of the sixteenth century. They were first called Apache 
by Ofiate in 1598. After that time their history was one succession 
of raids upon the Spanish territories, and after the United States 
Government had supplanted that of México in the Southwest, the 
wars with the Apache constituted some of the most sensational 


330 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


chapters in our military annals. Except for some Apache in México 
and a few Lipans with the Tonkawa and Kiowa in Oklahoma, these 
people were finally gathered into reservations in New Mexico and 
Arizona. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that all of the Apache 
proper numbered 5,000 in 1680. The census of 1910 gives 6,119 
Apache of all kinds, excluding only the Kiowa Apache, and the 
Report of the United States Indian Office for 1923 enumerates 6,630. 
If an increase has actually occurred, it is to be attributed to the 
captives taken by these people from all the surrounding tribes and 
from the Mexicans. The census of 1930 returned 6,537 but this 
includes the Jicarilla and Lipan. The Apache proper would number 
about 6,000. However, the Indian Office Report for 1937 gives 
6,916 exclusive of the Jicarilla. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Apache is one of the 
best-known Indian tribal names. This is due (1) to the warlike 
character of the people bearing it, (2) to their constant depredations 
along the Spanish and American frontiers, and (3) to the severe and 
difficult fighting made necessary before they were forced to give up 
their ancient raiding proclivities. The word has, therefore, been 
taken over to some extent into literature when it is desired to describe 
fierce and ruthless individuals, and in this sense it has been given 
local application to some of the criminal elements of Paris. The 
name Apache is given to villages in Cochise County, Ariz., and Caddo 
County, Okla., and Apache Creek is a place in Catron County, N. Mex. 


Comanche. In the Spanish period, the Comanche raided into and 
across the territory of New Mexico repeatedly. (See Texas.) 


Jemez. Corrupted from Ha’-mish or Hae’-mish, the Keresan name 
of the pueblo. Also spelled Amayes, Ameias, Amejes, Emeges, 
Gemes, etc. Also called: 

Maf-déc-kiz-ne, Navaho name, meaning ‘‘wolf neck.’ 
Tu’-wa, own name of pueblo. 
Uala-to-hua or Walatoa, own name of pueblo, meaning “‘village of the 
bear.” 
Wong’-ge, Santa Clara and Ildefonso name, meaning ‘‘Navaho place.” 
Connections.—With the now extinct Pecos, the Jemez constituted 
a distinct group of the Tanoan linguistic family now a part of the 
Kiowa-Tanoan stock. 
Location.—On the north bank of Jemez River, about 20 miles north- 
west of Bernalillo. 
Villages 
The following names of villages have been recorded as formerly occupied by 
the Jemez but the list may contain some duplication: 

Amushungkwa, on a mesa west of the Hot Springs, about 12 miles north of Jemez 

pueblo. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 331 


Anyukwinu, north of Jemez pueblo. 

Astialakwa, on the summit of a mesa that separates San Diego and Guadalupe 
Canyons at their mouths. 

Bulitzequa, exact site unknown. 

Catréo, site not identified. 

Ceca, not identified. 

Guatitruti, not identified. 

Guayoguia, not identified. 

Gyusiwa, one-half mile north of Jemez Hot Springs, on a slope descending to the 
river from the east in Sandoval County. 

Hanakwa, not identified. 

Kiashita, in Guadalupe Canyon, north of Jemez pueblo. 

Kiatsukwa, not identified. 

Mecastria, not identified. 

Nokyuntseleta, not identified. 

Nonyishagi, not identified. 

Ostyalakwa, not identified. 

Patoqua, on a ledge of the mesa which separates Guadalupe and San Diego 
Canyons, 6 miles north of Jemez pueblo. 

Pebulikwa, not identified. 

Pekwiligii, not identified. 

Potre, not identified. 

Seshukwa, not identified. 

Setokwa, about 2 miles south of Jemez pueblo. 

Towakwa, not identified. 

Trea, not identified. 

Tyajuindena, not identified. 

Ushatzae, not identified. 

Wabakwa, on a mesa north of Jemez pueblo. 

Yjar, not identified. 

Zolatungzezhii, not identified. 


Hisiory.—The Jemez came from the north, according to tradition, 
settling in the valleys of the upper tributaries of the Jemez River 
and at last in the sandy valley of the Jemez proper. Castafieda, 
the chronicler of Coronado’s expedition, mentions seven towns be- 
longing to the Jemez tribe besides three in the region of Jemez Hot 
Springs. After they had been missionized they were induced to 
abandon their towns by degrees until about 1622 they became con- 
centrated into the pueblos of Gyusiwa and probably Astialakwa. 
Both pueblos contained chapels, probably dating from 1618, but 
before the Pueblo revolt of 1680 Astialakwa was abandoned and 
another pueblo, probably Patoqua, established. About the middle 
of the seventeenth century, in conjunction with the Navaho, the 
Jemez twice plotted insurrection against the Spaniards. After the 
insurrection of 1680 the Jemez were attacked by Spanish forces led 
successively by Otermin, Cruzate, and Vargas, the last of whom 
stormed the mesa in July 1694, killed 84 Indians, and after destroying 
Patoqua and two other pueblos, returned to Santa Fé with 361 pris- 


332 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


oners and a large quantity of stores. Gyusiwa was the only Jemez 
pueblo reoccupied, but in 1696 there was a second revolt and the 
Jemez finally fled to the Navaho country, where they remained for 
a considerable time before returning to their former home. Then 
they built their present village, called by them Walatoa, ‘Village of 
the Bear.” In 1728, 108 of the inhabitants died of pestilence. In 
1782 Jemez was made a visita of the mission of Sia. In 1838 they 
were joined by the remnant of their relatives, the Pecos Indians from 
the upper Rio Pecos. Their subsequent history has been uneventful. 
Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the Jemez population at 
2,500 in 1680. In 1890 it was 428; in 1904, 498, including the remnant 
of Pecos Indians; in 1910, 499. In 1930 the entire Tanoan stock 
numbered 3,412. In 1937 the Jemez Indians numbered 648. 


Jicarilla. An Apache tribe which ranged over the northeastern 
corner of New Mexico. (See Colorado.) 


Keresan Pueblos. Keresan is adapted from K’eres, their own desig- 
nation. Also called: 


Biernt’n, Sandia name. 

Cherechos, Ofiate in 1598. 

Drinkers of the Dew, Zufii traditional name. 
Ing-wé-pi’-ra®-di-vi-he-ma*, San Ildefonso Tewa name. 
Pabiern!’n, Isleta name. 


Connections.—These Indians constituted an independent stock 
having no affiliations with any other. 

Location.—On the Rio Grande, in north central New Mexico, 
between the Rio de los Frijoles and the Rio Jemez, and on the latter 
stream from the pueblo of Sia to its mouth. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The Keresan Indians are divided dialectically into an Eastern (Queres) Group 
and a Western (Sitsime or Kawaiko) Group, comprising the following ptieblos: 


Eastern (Queres) Group: 
Cochiti, on the west bank of the Rio Grande, 27 miles southwest of Santa Fé. 
San Felipe, on the west bank of the Rio Grande about 12 miles above Ber- 
nalillo. 
Santa Ana, on the north bank of the Rio Jemez. 
Santo Domingo, on the east bank of the Rio Grande about 18 miles above 
Bernalillo. 
Sia, on the north bank of Jemez River about 16 miles northwest of Bernalillo. 
Western (Sitsime or Kawaiko) Group: 
Acoma, on a rock mesa or pefiol, 357 feet in height, about 60 miles west of the 
Rio Grande, in Valencia County. 
Laguna, on the south bank of San José River, in Valencia County. 


In addition to the above principal towns, we have the following ancient towns 
and later out-villages recorded: 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 333 


Former towns of Cochiti and San Felipe: 
At the Potrero de las Vacas. 
At Tyuonyi or Rito de los Frijoles. 
Haatze, near the foot of the Sierra San Miguel, about Cochiti Pueblo. 
Hanut Cochiti, about 12 miles northwest of Cochiti Pueblo. 
Kuapa, in the Cafiada de Cochiti, 12 miles northwest of Cochiti Pueblo. 
Former towns of Santo Domingo: 
At the Potrero de la Cafiada Quemada. 
Gipuy, two towns: (1) on the banks of the Arroyo de Galisteo, more than a 
mile east of the present station of Thornton; (2) west of No. 1. 
Huashpatzena, on the Rio Grande. 
Former towns of Sia: 
Opposite Sia are the ruins of a town called Kakanatzia and south of it another 
called Kohasaya which may have been former Sia settlements. 
Former towns of Acoma: 
Kashkachuti, location unknown. 
Katzimo or the Enchanted Mesa, about 3 miles northeast of the present Acoma 
Pueblo. 
Kowina, on a low mesa opposite the spring at the head of Cebollita Valley, 
about 15 miles west of Acoma. 
Kuchtya, location unknown. 
Tapitsiama, on a mesa 4 or 5 miles northeast of their present pueblo. 
Tsiama, the ruins are situated at the mouth of Cafada de la Cruz, at or near 
the present Laguna village of Tsima. 
Later villages: 
Acomita, about 15 miles north of Acoma. 
Heashkowa, about 2 miles southeast of Acoma, 
Pueblito, about 15 miles north of Acoma. 


History.—Like the other Pueblo peoples of New Mexico, the Kere- 
sans traced their origin to the underworld, whence they had emerged 
at an opening called Shipapu. According to the tradition, they after- 
ward drifted south slowly to the Rio Grande, where they took up 
their residence in the Rito de los Frijoles, or Tyuonyi, and constructed 
the cliff dwellings found there today excavated in the friable volcanic 
tufa. Long before the coming of Europeans, they had abandoned 
the Rito and moved farther south, separating into a number of au- 
tonomous village communities. Coronado, who visited them in 1540, 
reported seven of these. In 1583 Espejo encountered them and in 
1598 Ofiate. Missions were established in most of the principal towns 
early in the seventeenth century, but they were annihilated and 
Spanish dominion temporarily brought to an end by the great Pueblo 
rebellion of 1680, which was not finally quelled until about the end of 
the eighteenth century. Afterward, missionary work was resumed but 
without pronounced success, while the native population itself grad- 
ually declined in numbers. Although some of the most conservative 
pueblos belong to this group, they will not be able indefinitely to resist 
the dissolving force of American civilization in which they are 
immersed, 


334 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy, 145 


Population.—In 1760 there were 3,956 Keresans;1n 1790-93, 4,021; 
in 1805, 3,653; in 1850, 3,342; in 1860, 2,676; in 1871, 3,317; in 1901-5, 
4,249; in 1910, 4,027; in 1930, 4,134; in 1937, 5,781. 


Kiowa. The Kiowa raided into and across New Mexico in the Spanish 
and early American period. (See Oklahoma.) 


Kiowa Apache. The Kiowa Apache were an Athapascan tribe in- 
corporated into and accompanying the Kiowa. (See Oklahoma.) 


Lipan. The Lipan were the easternmost of the Apache tribes. (See 
Apache and also Texas.) 


Manso. A Spanish word meaning ‘‘mild.’’ Also called: 
Gorretas, by Zarate-Salmeron. 
Lanos, by Perea (1632-33). 
Connections.—The Manso belonged to the Tanoan division of the 
Kiowa-Tanoan linguistic stock. 
Location.—About Mesilla Valley, in the vicinity of the present Las 
Cruces, N. Mex. 
Villages 


The mission of Nuestra Sefiora de Guadalupe de los Mansos was founded among 
them but none of the native names of their villages are known. 

History.—Shortly before the appearance of the Spaniards in their 
country, the Manso lived in substantial houses like the Pueblo Indians 
generally but changed these to dwellings of reeds and wood. They 
were relocated at a spot near El] Paso in 1659 by Fray Garcia de San 
Francisco, who established the above-mentioned mission among them. 
The remnant of the Manso are now associated in one town with the 
Tiwa and Piro. 

Population.—In 1668, when the mission of Nuestra Sefiora de Gua- 
dalupe de los Mansos was dedicated, Vetancourt states that it con- 
tained upward of 1,000 parishioners. Very few of Manso blood 
remain, 


Navaho, Navajo. From Tewa Navahi, referring to a large area of cul- 
tivated land and applied to a former Tewa pueblo, and by extension 
to the Navaho, known to the Spaniards as ‘‘Apaches de Navajé,”’ 
who intruded on the Tewa domain or who lived in the vicinity, to 
distinguish them from other so-called Apache bands. Also called: 


Bagowits, Southern Ute name. 
Dacdbimo, Hopi name. 
Davaxo, Kiowa Apache name. 
Diné‘, own name. 

Djéné, Laguna name. 
Hua’amt’u, Havasupai name. 
I‘hl-déné, Jicarilla name. 
Moshome, Keresan name. 
Oop, Oohp, Pima name. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 335 


PdAgowitch, southern Ute name, meaning “‘reed knives.” 

Ta-cdb-cf-nyu-mth, Hopi name. 

Ta‘hli’mnin, Sandia name. 

Tasdmewé, Hopi name (Ten Kate, 1885) meaning ‘‘bastards.”’ 

Te‘liémnim, Isleta name. 

Tenyé, Laguna name. 

Wild Coyotes, Zufii nickname translated. 

Yabipais Nabajay, Garcés (1776). 

YAtilatldvi, Tonto name. 

Yoetahd or Yutahd4, Apache name, meaning ‘‘those who live on the border 
of the Ute.” 

Yu-i’-ta, Panamint name. 

Yutflapd, Yavapai name. 

Yutilatliwi, Tonto name. 


Connections.—With the Apache tribes, the Navaho formed the 
southern division of the Athapascan linguistic family. 

Location.—In northern New Mexico and Arizona with some exten- 
sion into Colorado and Utah. 

History.—Under the loosely applied name Apache there may be a 
record of this tribe as early as 1598 but the first mention of them by 
the name of Navaho is by Zarate-Salmeron about 1629. Missionaries 
were among them about the middle of the eighteenth century, but 
their labors seem to have borne no fruits. For many years previous 
to the occupation of their country by the United States, the Navaho 
kept up an almost constant predatory war with the Pueblo Indians 
and the White settlers. A revolution in their economy was brought 
about by the introduction of sheep. Treaties of peace made by them 
with the United States Government in 1846 and 1849 were not ob- 
served, and in 1863, in order to put a stop to their depredations, Col. 
“Kit” Carson invaded their country, killed so many of their sheep as to 
leave them without means of support, and carried the greater part of 
the tribe as prisoners to Fort Sumner and the Bosque Redondo on the 
Rio Pecos. They were restored to their country in 1867 and given 
a new supply of sheep and goats, and since then they have remained 
at peace and prospered greatly, thanks to their flocks and the sale of 
their famous blankets. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 8,000 
Navaho in 1680. In 1867 an incomplete enumeration gave 7,300. 
In 1869 there were fewer than 9,000. The census of 1890, taken on 
a faulty system, gave 17,204. The census of 1900 returned more than 
20,000 and that of 1910, 22,455. The report of the United States 
Indian Office for 1923 gives more than 30,000 on the various Navaho 
reservations, and the 1930 census 39,064, while the Indian Office 
Report for 1937 entered 44,304. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—This tribe has acquired 
considerable fame from its early adoption of a shepherd life after the 


336 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


introduction of sheep and goats, and from the blankets woven by 
Navaho women and widely known to collectors and connoisseurs. 
The name has become affixed, in the Spanish form Navajo, to a county, 
creek, and spring in Arizona; a post village in Apache County, Ariz.; 
a mountain in New Mexico; and a place in Daniels County, Mont. 
In southwestern Oklahoma is a post village known as Navajoe. The 
tribe has attracted an unusual amount of attention from ethnologists 
and from writers whose interests are purely literary. 


Pecos. From P’e’-a-ku’, the Keresan name of the pueblo. Also 
called: 


Acuyé, Cicuyé, probably the name of a former pueblo, Tshiquité or 
Tziquité. 

Aqiu, Pecos and Jemez name. 

Hiokiio’k, Isleta Tiwa name. 

K’ok’-o-ro-t’ti’-yu, Pecos name of pueblo. 

Los Angeles, mission name. 

Nuestra Sefiora de los Angeles de Porcitincula, full church name. 

Paego, Keresan name of Pueblo. 

Paequiu or Paequiuala, Keresan name of tribe. 

P’a-qu-lih, Jemez name. 

Péahko, Santa Ana name. 

Peakinf, Laguna name of Pueblo. 

Tamos, from Espejo. 


Connections.—The Pecos belonged to the Jemez division of the 
Tanoan linguistic family, itself a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock. 
Location.—On an upper branch of Pecos River, about 30 miles 


southeast of Santa Fé. 
Villages 


The following are names of ruined Pecos villages: 

Kuuanguala, a few miles southeast of Pecos, near Arroyo Amarillo, at the present 
site of Rowe. 

Pomojoua, near San Antonio del Pueblo, 3 miles southeast of San Miguel, San 
Miguel County. 

San Jose, modern Spanish name of locality. 

Seyupa, a few miles southeast of Pecos, at the site of the village of Fulton, San 
Miguel County. 

Tonchuun, 5 miles southeast of Pecos Pueblo. 


History—According to tradition, the Pecos came originally from 
some place to the north of their historic seats, but their last migration 
was from the southeast where they occupied successively the now 
ruined pueblos at San José and Kingman before locating at their 
final settlement. Pecos was first visited by Coronado in 1540 and 
afterward by Espejo in 1583, Castafio de Sosa in 1590-91, and Ofiate 
in 1598. During the governorship of Ofiate, missionaries were 
assigned to Pecos, and the great church, so long a landmark of the 
Santa Fé Trail, was erected about 1617. The town suffered severely 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 337 


from attacks of the Apache of the Plains and afterward from the 
Comanche. In the Pueblo revolts of 1680-96 it took an active part 
and suffered proportionately. In 1782 the Pecos mission was aban- 
doned, the place becoming a visita of Santa Fé. A few years later 
nearly every man in the Pecos tribe is said to have been killed in a 
raid by the Comanche, epidemics decreased the numbers of the 
remainder, and in 1838 the old town of Pecos was abandoned. The 
17 surviving Pecos Indians moved to Jemez, where their descendants 
still live. 

Population.—At the time of Coronado’s visit in 1540 the population 
was estimated as 2,000-2,500. In 1630 and 1680 there were 2,000 
Pecos; in 1760, 599 (including Galisteo); in 1790-93, 152; in 1805, 
104; in 1838, 17; in 1910, 10. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Pecos seems 
assured of permanent preservation as applied to Pecos River, Tex., 
the largest branch of the Rio Grande, as well as to Pecos County, 
Tex., and its principal town, and also to a place in San Miguel County, 
New Mex., adjacent to the ruins of the aboriginal viliage. The 
latter are well known as a result of the archeological work done there 
by Dr. A. V. Kidder for the Department of Archeology, Phillips 
Academy, Andover, Mass. 


Piro Pueblos. Significance of Piro unknown. Also called: 


Nortefios, “northerners” in Spanish, because inhabiting the region of 
El Paso del Norte (may also refer to Tiwa). 

Tiikahun, Isleta Tiwa name for all pueblos below their village, meaning 
“southern pueblos.” 


Connections.—They were a division of the Tanoan linguistic family, 
which in turn is a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock. 

Location and major subdivisions.—In the early part of the seven- 
teenth century the Piro comprised two divisions, one inhabiting the 
Rio Grande Valley from the present town of San Marcial, Socorro 
County, northward to within about 50 miles of Albuquerque, where 
the Tiwa settlements began; and the other, sometimes called Tompiros 
and Salineros, occupying an area east of the Rio Grande in the 
vicinity of the salt lagoons, or salinas, where they adjoined the eastern 
group of Tiwa settlements on the south. 


Towns 


Abo, on the Arroyo del Empedradillo, about 25 miles east of the Rio Grande and 
20 miles south of Manzano, in Valencia County. 

Agua Nueva, on the Rio Grande between Socorro and Servilleta. 

Alamillo, on the Rio Grande about 12 miles north of Socorro. 

Barrancas, on the Rio Grande near Socorro. 

Qualacu, on the east bank of the Rio Grande near the foot of the Black Mesa, 
on or near the site of San Marcial. 


338 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


San Felipe, on the Rio Grande, probably near the present San Marcial, Socorro 
County. 

San Pascual, on the east bank of the Rio Grande, opposite the present San 
Antonio village, Socorro County. 

Senecu, on the west bank of the Rio Grande, at the site of the present village of 
San Antonio, 13 miles below Socorro. 

Senecu del Sur (also Tiwa), on the southeast bank of the Rio Grande, a few miles 
below El Paso, in Chihuahua, México. 

Sevilleta, on the east bank of the Rio Grande about 20 miles above Socorro. 

Socorro or Pilabo, on the site of the present Socorro. 

Socorro del Sur, on both sides of the Rio Grande a few miles below El Paso, Tex. 

Tabira, at the southern apex of the Mesa de los Jumanos, northeast of the present 
Socorro. 

Tenabo, probably at the Siete Arroyos, northeast of Socorro and east of the Rio 
Grande. 

Teypana, nearly opposite the present town of Socorro, on the east bank of the 
Rio Grande, in Socorro Couuty. 

Tenaquel (?). 
Following are names of deserted pueblos near the lower Rio Grande which were 

also in all probability occupied by the Piro: 


Amo. Pueblo de la Parida, same location as 
Aponitre. Pueblos Blanco and Colorado. 
Aquicabo. Pueblo del Alto, on the east side of the 
Atepua. Rio Grande, 6 miles south of Belen. 
Ayqui. Queelquelu. 
Calciati. Quialpo. 
Canocan. Quiapo. 
Cantensapué. Quiomaquf, 
Cunquilipinoy. Quiubaco. 
Encaquiagualcaca, Tecahanqualahémo. 
Huertas, 4 miles below Socorro. Teeytraan. 
Peixolée. Tercéo. 
Pencoana. Texa, 
Penjeact. Leyists 
é Tohol. 
Pesquis. Trelact 
relagu. 
Peytre. Trelaquepu. 
Polooca. Treyéy. 
Preguey. Treypual. 


Pueblo Blanco, on the west rim of the Trula. 
Médano, or great sand-flow, east of Tuzahe. 


the Rio Grande. Vumahein. 
Pueblo Colorado, same location as Yancomo. 
Pueblo Blanco. Zumaque. 


The following deserted pueblos were inhabited either by the Piro or the Tiwa: 


Acoli. Axauti. 
Aggey. Chein. 
Alle. Cizentetpi. 
Amaxa. Couna. 
Apena. Dhiu. 


Atuyama, Hohota. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 339 


Mejia, 5 leagues below Isleta. San Francisco, on the lower Rio Grande 
Quanquiz. between El Paso, Tex., and San 
Salineta, 4 leagues from Guadelupe Lorenzo. 

Mission at El] Paso, Tex. Xatoe. 
San Bautista, on the Rio Grande, 16 Xiamela (?). 

miles below Sevilleta. Yonalus. 


All the above pueblos not definitely located were probably situated in the 
Salinas in the vicinity of Abo. 

History.—The western or Rio Grande branch of the Piro was visited 
by members of Coronado’s Expedition in 1540, by Chamuscado in 
1580, by Espejo in 1583, by Ofiate in 1598, and by Benavides in 
1621-30. The establishment of missionaries among them began in 
1626, and the efforts of the monks combined with the threats of 
Apache raids to induce the Indians to concentrate into a smaller 
number of towns. The first actual mission work among the Piros 
of the Salinas began in 1629 and was prosecuted rapidly, but before 
the Pueblo rebellion of 1680 Apache raids had become so numerous 
that all of the villages of the Salinas region and Senecu on the Rio 
Grande were abandoned. The Piro were not invited to take part in 
the great rebellion and when Governor Otermin retreated to El Paso 
nearly all of them joined him, while the few who remained subse 
quently scattered. Those who accompanied the governor were 
settled at Senecu del Sur and Socorro del Sur, where their descendants 
became largely Mexicanized. 

Population.—The Piro population was estimated at 9,000 early in 
the sixteenth century, but isnow about 60. (See Tewa.) 


Pueblo Indians. A general name for those Indians in the Southwest 
who dwelt in stone buildings as opposed to the tribes living in more 
fragile shelters, pueblo being the word for ‘‘town”’ or “village” in 
Spanish. It is not a tribal or even a stock name, since the Pueblos 
belonged to four distinct stocks. Following is the classification of 
Pueblos made by F. W. Hodge (1910) except that the Kiowa have 
since been connected with the Tanoans and a few minor changes 
have been introduced: 


Kiowa-Tanoan linguistic stock: 
Tewa Group: 
Northern Division: Nambe, Tesuque, San Ildefonso, San Juan, Santa 
Clara, Pojoaque (recently extinct), Hano. 
Southern Division: Tano (practically extinct). 
Tiwa Group: Isleta, Isleta del Sur (Mexicanized), Sandia, Taos, Picuris. 
Jemez Group: Jemez, Pecos (extinct). 
Piro Group: Senecu, Senecu del Sur (Mexicanized). 
Keresan linguistic stock: 
Eastern Group: San Felipe, Santa Ana, Sia, Cochiti, Santo Domingo. 
Western Group: Acoma, Laguna, and outlying villages. 


340 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 145 


Zufiian linguistic stock: 
Zuni Group: Zui and its outlying villages. 
Shoshonean linguistic stock, part of the Uto-Aztecan stock: 
Hopi Group: Walpi, Sichomovi, Mishongnovi, Shipaulovi, Shongopovi, 
Oraibi. 

The Pueblo Indians in New Mexico are being considered at length 
under the following heads: Jemez, Keresan Pueblos, Piro Pueblos, 
Tewa Pueblos, Tiwa Pueblos, and Zuni; the Hopi are considered under 
Arizona. (See also Colorado, Nevada, and Texas.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Pueblo Indians 
have become famous from the fact that, unlike all of their neighbors, 
they lived in communal stone houses and in stone dwellings perched 
along the canyon walls; from their peculiar customs and ceremonies, 
such as the Snake Dance; and from their real and supposed connection 
with the builders of the stone ruins with which their country and 
neighboring parts of the Southwest abound. In recent years they 
have been subjects of interest to artists and writers and an attempt 
has been made to base a style of architecture upon the type of their 
dwellings. They are of historic interest as occupants of one of the 
two sections of the United States first colonized by Europeans. 


Shuman. The Shuman lived at various times in or near the southern 
and eastern borders of New Mexico. (See Texas.) 


Tewa Pueblos. The name Tewa is from a Keres word meaning 
“moccasins.”’ Also called: 


Tut’-ba-na, Taos name. 
Tu’-vén, Isleta and Sandia name. 


Connections.—They constituted a major division of the Tanoan 
linguistic family, itself a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock. 
Location.—Along the valley of the Rio Grande in the northern part 
of New Mexico, except for one pueblo, Hano, in the Hopi country, 
Arizona. 
Subdivisions 


They consisted of two main branches, the Northern Tewa, from near Santa 
Fé to the mouth of the Rio Chama, including also Hano; and the Southern Tewa 
or Tano, from Santa Fé to the neighborhood of Golden, back from the Rio Grande. 


Towns 


Northern Tewa towns and villages still occupied: 


Hano, the easternmost pueblo of Tusayan, Ariz. 

Nambe, about 16 miles north of Santa Fé, on Nambe River, a small tributary 
of the Rio Grande. 

San Ildefonso, near the eastern bank of the Rio Grande, about 18 miles northwest 
of Santa Fé. 

San Juan, near the eastern bank of the Rio Grande 25 miles northwest of Sante Fé. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 341 


Santa Clara, on the western bank of the Rio Grande, about 30 miles above 
Santa Fé. 
Tesuque, 8 miles north of Santa Fé. 


Towns and villages formerly occupied by the Northern Tewa: 


Abechiu, at a place called Le Puente, on a bluff close to the southern bank of 
Rio Chama, 3 miles southeast of the present town of Abiquiu, Rio Arriba 
County. 

Agawano, in the mountains about 7 miles east of the Rio Grande, on Rio Santa 
Cruz. 

Analco, at the place where there is now the so-called “‘oldest house,” adjacent to 
San Miguel Chapel, in Santa Fé. 

Axol, location uncertain. 

Camitria, in Rio Arriba County. 

Chipiinuinge, on a small but high detached mesa between the Cafiones and 
Polvadera Creek, 4 miles south of Chama and about 14 miles southwest of Abi- 
quiu, Rio Arriba County. 

Chipiwi, location uncertain. 

Chupadero, location uncertain. 

Cuyamunque, on Tesuque Creek, between Tesuque and Pojoaque, about 15 miles 
northwest of Santa Fé. 

Fejiu, at the site of the present Abiquiu on the Rio Chama, Rio Arriba County. 

Fesere, on a mesa west or south of the Rio Chama, near Abiquiu, Rio Arriba 
County. 

Homayo, on the west bank of Rio Ojo Caliente, a small western tributary of the 
Rio Grande, in Rio Arriba County. 

Howiri, at the Rito Colorado, about 10 miles west of the Hot Springs, near Abiquiu, 
Rio Arriba County. 

Ihamba, on the south side of Pojoaque River, between Pojoaque and San Ildefonso 
Pueblos. 

Jacona, a short distance west of Nambe, on the south side of Pojoaque River, 
Santa Fé County. 

Junetre, in Rio Arriba County. 

Kaayu, in the vicinity of the “Santuario” in the mountains about 7 miles east 
of the Rio Grande, on Rio Santa Cruz, Santa Fé County. 

Keguayo, in the vicinity of the Chupaderos, a cluster of springs in a mountain 
gorge, about 4 miles east of Nambe Pueblo. 

Kuapooge, with Analco occupying the site of Santa Fé. 

Kwengyauinge, on a conical hill about 15 feet high, overlooking Chama River, 
at a point known as La Puenta, about 3 miles below Abiquiu, Rio Arriba 
County. 

Luceros, partially Tewa. 

Navahu, in the second valley south of the great pueblo and cliff village of Puye, 
west of Santa Clara Pueblo, in the Pajarito Park. 

Navawi, between the Rito de los Frijoles and Santa Clara Canyon, southwest 
of San Ildefonso. 

Otowi, on a mesa about 5 miles west of the point where the Rio Grande enters 
White Rock Canyon, between the Rito de los Frijoles and Santa Clara Canyon, 
in the northeastern corner of Sandoval County. 

Perage, a few rods from the west bank of the Rio Grande, about 1 mile west 
of San Ildefonso Pueblo. 

Pininicangui, on a knoll in a valley about 2 miles south of Puye and 3 miles south 
of Santa Clara Creek, on the Pajarito Plateau, Sandoval County. 


342 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu, 145 


Pojiuuingge, at La Joya, about 10 miles north of San Juan Pueblo. 

Pojoaque, on a small eastern tributary of the Rio Grande, about 18 miles north- 
west of Santa Fé. 

Ponyinumbu, near the Mexican settlement of Santa Cruz, in the northern part 
of Santa Fé County. 

Ponyipakuen, near Ojo Caliente and El Rito, about the boundary of Taos and 
Rio Arriba Counties. 

Poseuingge, at the Rito Colorado, about 10 miles west of the hot springs near 
Abiquiu. 

Potzuye, on a mesa west of the Rio Grande in northern New Mexico, between 
San Ildefonso Pueblo on the north and the Rito de los Frijoles on the south. 

Pueblito, opposite San Juan Pueblo, on the west bank of the Rio Grande in 
Rio Arriba County. 

Pueblo Quemado (or Tano), 6 miles southwest of Santa Fé. 

Puye, on a mesa about 10 miles west of the Rio Grande and a mile south of 
Santa Clara Canyon, near the intersection of the boundaries of Rio Arriba, 
Sandoval, and Santa Fé Counties. 

Sajiuwingge, at La Joya, about 10 miles north of San Juan Pueblo, Rio Arriba 
County. 

Sakeyu on a mesa west of the Rio Grande in northern New Mexico, between 
San Ildefonso Pueblo and Rito de los Frijoles. 

Sandia, not the Tiwa pueblo of that name. 

Santa Cruz, east of the Rio Grande, 30 miles northwest of Santa Fé, at the site 
of the present town of that name. 

Sepawi, in the valley of El Rito Creek, on the heights above the Ojo Caliente 
of Joseph, and 5 miles from the Mexican settlement of El Rito. 

Shufina, on a castlelike mesa of tufa northwest of Puye and separated from it by 
Santa Clara Canyon. 

Teeuinge, on top of the mesa on the south side of Rio Chama, about % mile 
from the river and an equal distance below the mouth of Rio Oso, in Rio Arriba 
County. 

Tejeuingge Ouiping, on the southern slope of the hills on which stands the present 
pueblo of San Juan, on the Rio Grande. 

Tobhipangge, 8 miles northeast of the present Nambe Pueblo. 

Triapf, location uncertain. 

Triaque, location uncertain. 

Troomaxiaquino, in Rio Arriba County. 

Tsankawi, on a lofty mesa between the Rito de los Frijoles on the south and Los 
Alamos Canyon on the north, about 5 miles west of the Rio Grande. 

Tsawarii, at or near the present hamlet of La Puebla, or Pueblito, a few miles 
above the town of Santa Cruz, in southeastern Rio Arriba County. 

Tseweige, location uncertain. 

Tshirege, on the northern edge of the Mesa del Pajarito about 6 miles west of 
the Rio Grande and 7 miles south of San Ildefonso Pueblo. 

Yugeuingge, on the west bank of the Rio Grande, opposite the present pueblo 
of San Juan, near the site of the village of Chamita. 


The following extinct villages are either Tewa or Tano: 


Chiuma, location uncertain. 

Guia, on the Rio Grande in the vicinity of Albuquerque. 

Guika, on the Rio Grande near Albuquerque. 

Pefias Negras, on an eminence west of Pecos Road, near the edge of a forest, 8 
miles south-southeast of Santa Fé. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 343 


The following were inhabited by either the Tiwa or the Tewa: 


Axoytre, perhaps the same as Axol above? 
Camitre, perhaps the same as Camitria above? 
Paniete, location uncertain. 

Piamato, location uncertain. 

Quiotrdco, probably in Rio Arriba County. 


So far as known the following pueblos belonged to the Southern Tewa: 


Ciénega (also contained Keresan Indians), in the valley of Rio Santa Fé, 12 miles 
southwest of Santa Fé. 

Dyapige, southeast of Lamy, ‘‘some distance in the mountains.” 

Galisteo, 1% miles southeast of the present hamlet of the name and about 22 miles 
south of Santa Fé. 

Guika (or Tewa), on the Rio Grande near Albuquerque. 

Kayepu, about 5 miles south of Galisteo, Santa Fé County. 

Kipana, south of the hamlet of Tejon, in Sandoval County. 

Kuakaa, on the south bank of Arroyo Hondo, 5 miles south of Santa Fé. 

Ojana, south of the hamlet of Tejon, Sandoval County. 

Paako, south of the mining camp of San Pedro, Santa Fé County. 

Pueblo Blanco, on the west rim of the Médano, or great sand-flow, east of the 
Rio Grande. 

Pueblo Colorado, on the south border of the Galisteo plain. 

Pueblo de los Silos, in the Galisteo Basin, between the Keresan pueblos of the 
Rio Grande and Pecos. 

Pueblo Largo, about 5 miles south of Galisteo. 

Pueblo Quemado (or Tewa), 6 miles Southwest of Santa Fé. 

Puerto (or Keresan). 

San Cristébal, between Galisteo and Pecos. 

San Lazaro, 12 miles southwest of the present Lamy, on the south bank of the 
Arroyo del Chorro, Santa Fé County. 

San Marcos, 18 miles south-southwest of Santa Fé. 

Sempoai, near Golden, Santa Fé County. 

She, about 5 miles south of Galisteo in Santa Fé County. 

Tuerto, near the present Golden City, Santa Fé County. 

Tungge, on a bare slope near the banks of a stream called in the mountains farther 
south Rio de San Pedro; lower down, Uiia de Gato; and in the vicinity of the 
ruins Arroyo del Tunque, at the northeastern extremity of the Sandia Moun- 
tains, in Sandoval County. 

Tzemantuo, about 5 miles south of Galisteo, Santa Fé County. 

Tzenatay, opposite the little settlement of La Bajada, on the declivity sloping 
from the west toward the bed of Santa Fé Creek, 6 miles east of the Rio Grande 
and 20 miles southwest of Santa Fé. 

Uapige, east of Lamy Station on the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé Railway, 
some distance in the mountains. 


History.—When Coronado passed through the southern end of 
Tewa territory in 1540, he found it had been nearly depopulated by 
the Teya, a warlike Plains tribe, perhaps Apache, about 16 years before. 
The Tewa were next visited by Espejo. In 1630 there were but five 
Southern Tewa towns remaining and those were entirely broken up 
during the Pueblo revolts of 1680-96, most of the Indians removing 


344 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


to the Hopi in Arizona, after 1694. The greater part of the remainder 
were destroyed by smallpox early in the nineteenth century, though 
there are still a few descendants of this group living in the other pueblos 
along the Rio Grande, particularly Santo Domingo. The history of 
the Northern Tewa was similar to that of the Southern but they suffered 
much less and remain a considerable body at the present day though 
with a stationary population. The Pueblo of Hano was established 
among the Hopi as a result of the rebellion of 1680-92. 

Populations.—The population of the Northern Tewa is given as 
follows: In 1680, 2,200; in 1760, 1,908; in 1790-93, 980; in 1805, 929; 
in 1850, 2,025; in 1860, 1,161; in 1871, 979, in 1901-05, 1,200; in 1910, 
968. In 1930 the entire Tanoan stock numbered 3,412. In 1937, 
1,708 were returned from the Tewa excluding the Hano, which were 
enumerated with the Hopi. 

In 1630 Benavides estimated the Southern Tewa population at 
4,000; in 1680 Galisteo, probably including San Cristébal, had an 
estimated population of 800 and San Marcos of 600. No later separate 
figures are available. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Tano, the alternative 
name of the Southern Tewa, has been used as a designation of the stock 
to which the entire group—Tewa, Tiwa, Piro, Pecos, and Jemez— 
belong, a stock now merged with the Kiowa-Tanoan. 


Tiwa Pueblos. The name Tiwa is from Ti’wan, pl. Tiwesh’, their 
own name. Also spelled Tebas, Tigua, Tiguex, Tihuas, Chiguas. 
Also called: 


E-nagh-magh, a name given by Lane (in Schoolcraft, 1851-57) to the 
language of ‘‘Taos, Picuris, Tesuqua, Sandia,”’ etc. 

Connections.—The Tiwa Pueblos are a division of the Tanoan lin- 
guistic family, itself a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock. 

Location and Subdivisions —The Tiwa Pueblos formed three geo- 
graphic divisions, one occupying Taos and Picuris (the most northerly 
of the New Mexican Pueblos), on the upper waters of the Rio Grande; 
another inhabiting Sandia and Isleta, north and south of Albuquerque 
respectively; and the third living in the pueblos of Isleta del Sur and 
Senecu del Sur, near El Paso, Tex., in Texas and Chihuahua, México, 
respectively. 

Towns and Villages 
(As far as known) 


Alameda, on the east side of the Rio Grande about 10 miles above Albuquerque. 

Bejuituuy, near the southern limit of the Tiwa habitat on the Rio Grande, at the 
present Los Lunas. 

Carfaray, supposed to have been east of the Rio Grande beyond the saline lakes. 

Chilili, on the west side of the Arroyo de Chilili, about 30 miles southeast of 
Albuquerque. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 345 


Isleta, on the west bank of the Rio Grande about 12 miles south of Albuquerque. 

Isleta del Sur, on the northeast side of the Rio Grande, a short distance below 
El Paso, Tex. 

Kuaua, north of the present bridge across the Rio Grande above Bernalillo. 

Lentes, on the west bank of the Rio Grande near Los Lunas. 

Manzano, near the present village so called, 6 miles northwest of Quarai and about 
25 miles east of the Rio Grande. 

Mojualuna, in the mountains above the present Taos Pueblo. 

Nabatutuei, location unknown. 

Nachurituei, location unknown. 

Pahquetooai, location unknown. 

Picuris, inhabited, about 40 miles north of Santa Fé. 

Puaray, on a gravelly bluff overlooking the Rio Grande in front of the southern 
portion of the town of Bernalillo. 

Puretuay, on the summit of the round mesa of Shiemtuai, or Mesa de las Padillas, 
3 miles north of Isleta. 

Quarai, about 30 miles straight east of the Rio Grande, in the eastern part of Valen- 
cia County. 

San Antonio, east of the present settlement of the same name, about the center 
of the Sierra de Gallego, or Sierra de Carnué, between San Pedro and Chilili, 
east of the Rio Grande. 

Sandia, inhabited, on the east bank of the Rio Grande, 12 miles north of Albu- 
querque. 

Santiago, probably about 12% miles above Bernalillo, on the Mesa del Cangelon. 

Senecu del Sur, including Piro Indians, on the southeastern bank of the Rio Grande, 
a few miles below El Paso, in Chihuahua, México. 

Shumnac, east of the Rio Grande in the vicinity of the present Mexican settle- 
ments of Chilili, Tajique, and Manzano. 

Tajique, about 30 miles northeast of Belen, close to the present settlement of the 
same name, on the southern bank of the Arroyo de Tajique. 

Taos, inhabited, on both sides of Taos River, an eastern tributary of the Rio 
Grande, in Taos County. 


The following pueblos now extinct were probably also Tiwa: 


Locations entirely unknown: Locations known: 
Acacafui. Ranchos, about 3 miles from Tavs 
Guayotri. Pueblo. 
Henicohio. Shinana, on the Rio Grande near 
Leyvia. Albuquerque. 
Paniete. Tanques, also on the Rio Grande near 
Poxen. Albuquerque. 
Trimati. Torreon, at the modern town of the 
Tuchiamas. same name, about 28 miles east of 
Vareato. Belen. 


History.—The first two Tiwa divisions above mentioned occupied 
the same positions when Coronado encountered the Tiwa in 1540-42. 
Relations between his followers and the Indians soon became hostile 
and resulted in the capture of two pueblos by his army. In 1581 
three missionaries were sent to the Tiwa under an escort but all were 
killed as soon as the escort was withdrawn. In 1583 Espejo approached 
Puaray, which Coronado had attacked, but the Indians fled. Cas- 


346 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


tafio de Sosa visited the Tiwa in 1591 and Ofiate in 1598. Missionary 
work was begun among them early in the seventeenth century, and the 
Indians were withdrawn progressively until only four pueblos were 
occupied by them at the time of the great rebellion of 1680, in which 
they took part. In 1681 Governor Otermin stormed Isleta and cap- 
tured 500 Indians most of whom he settled near El Paso. Part of the 
Isleta fled to the Hopi country and remained there until 1709 or 1718, 
when the people of Isleta returned and reestablished their town. The 
Sandia Indians, however, remained away until 1742, when they were 
brought back by some missionaries and settled in a new pueblo near 
their former one. Since then there have been few disturbances of 
importance, but the population until very lately slowly declined. 

Population.—In 1680 there were said to be 12,200 Tiwa; in 1760, 
1,428 were reported; in 1790-93, 1,486; in 1805, 1,491; in 1850, 1,575; 
in 1860, 1,163; in 1871, 1,478; in 1901-5, 1,613; in 1910, 1,650; in 1937, 
2,122. (See Tewa Pueblos.) 


Ute. The Ute were close to the northern border of New Mexico, 
extending across it at times and frequently raiding the tribes of the 
region and the later white settlements. (See Utah.) 


Zuni. A Spanish adaptation of the Keresan Siinyyitsi, or St’nyitsa 
of unknown meaning. Also spelled Jufi. Synonyms are: 


A’shiwi, own name, signifying “‘the flesh.” 

Cibola, early Spanish rendering of A’swiwi. 

La Purfsima de Zufi, mission name. 

Nai-té’-zi, Navaho name. 

Narsh-tiz-a, Apache name. 

Nashtezhé, Navaho name. 

Nuestra Sefiora de Guadalupe de Zuiii, mission name. 

Saraf, Isleta and Sandia name of the pueblo; Saran, Isleta name of the 
people. 

Saray, Tiwa name of the pueblo. 

Sa’u’u, Havasupai name. 

Siete Ciudades de Cibola, or Seven Cities of Cibola. 

St’nyitsa, Santa Ana name of the pueblo. 

Siinyftsi, Laguna name. 

Téa Ashiwani, sacred name of tribe, signifying ‘‘corn peoples.” 

Xaray, the Tiwa name. 

Ze-gar-kin-a, given as Apache name. 


Connections.—The Zufi constitute the Zufian linguistic stock. 
Location.—On the north bank of upper Zufi River, Valencia 
County. 
Villages 
Halona (extinct), on both sides of Zuii River, on and opposite the site of Zui 
Pueblo. 
Hampasawan (extinct), 6 miles west of Zufii Pueblo. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 347 


Hawikuh (extinct), about 15 miles southwest of Zufi Pueblo, near the summer 
village of Ojo Caliente. 
Heshokta (extinct), on a mesa about 5 miles northwest of Zuii Pueblo. 
Heshota Ayathltona (extinct), on the summit of Taaiyalana, or Seed Mountain, 
commonly called Thunder Mountain, about 4 miles southeast of Zufi Pueblo. 
Heshota Hluptsina (extinct), between the “‘gateway”’ and the summer village of 
Pescado, 7 miles east of Zuni Pueblo. 

Heshota Imkoskwin (extinct), near Tawyakwin, or Nutria. 

Heshotapathltaie, or Kintyel, on Leroux Wash, about 23 miles north of Navaho 
Station, on the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé Railway, Ariz. 

Heshota Uhla (extinct), at the base of a mesa on Zufii River, about 5 miles west of 
the summer village of Ojo Pescado, or Heshotatsina. 

Kechipauan (extinct), on a mesa east of Ojo Caliente, or Kyapkwainakwin, 15 
miles southwest of Zuii Pueblo. 

Kiakima (extinct), at the southwestern base of Thunder Mountain, 4 miles south- 
east of Zuni Pueblo. 

Kwakina (extinct), 7 miles southwest of Zufi Pueblo. 

Kwakinawan (extinct), south-southeast of Thunder Mountain, which lies 4 miles 
east of Zuni Pueblo. 

Matsaki (extinct), near the northwestern base of Thunder Mountain and 3 miles 
east of Zuni Pueblo. 

Nutria, at the headwaters of an upper branch of Zuni River, about 23 miles north- 
east of Zuni Pueblo. 

Ojo Caliente, about 14 miles southwest of Zuni Pueblo. 

Pescado, about 15 miles east of Zufi Pueblo. 

Pinawan (extinct), about 14% miles southwest of Zufii Pueblo, on the road to Ojo 
Caliente. 

Shopakia (extinct), 5 miles north of Zufii Pueblo. 

Wimian (extinct), 11 miles north of Zuni Pueblo. 


History.—According to Cushing (1896), the Zufii are descended from 
two peoples, one of whom came originally from the north and was 
later joined by the second, from the west or southwest (from the 
country of the lower Colorado), who resembled the Yuman and Piman 
peoples in culture. Although indefinite rumors of an Indian province 
in the far north, containing seven cities, were afloat in Mexico soon 
after its conquest, the first definite information regarding the Zufi 
was supplied by Fray Marcos de Niza, who set out in 1539, with a 
Barbary Negro named Estevanico as guide, to explore the regions of 
the northwest. In the present Arizona he learned that Estevanico 
who, together with some of his Indian companions, had been sent on 
ahead, had been killed by the natives of ‘‘Cibola,” or Zufii. After 
approaching within sight of one of the Zufi pueblos, Fray Marcos 
returned to México with such glowing accounts of the “Kingdom of 
Cibola” that the expedition of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was 
fitted out the next year. The first Zufi Indians were encountered near 
the mouth of Zufi River, and the Spaniards later carried the Zufi 
pueblo of Hawikuh by storm, but it was discovered that the Indians 
had already moved their women and children, together with the 


348 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


greater part of their property, to their stronghold on Taaiyalone Mesa. 
Thither the men also escaped. The invaders were bitterly dis- 
appointed in respect to the riches of the country, and, after the arrival 
of the main part of the army, they removed to the Rio Grande to go 
into winter quarters. Later, Coronado returned and subjugated the 
Zuni. 

In 1580 the Zufii were visited by Francisco Sanchez Chamuscado, 
and in 1583 by Antonio de Espejo, the first to call them by the 
name they commonly bear. By this time one of the seven original 
pueblos had been abandoned. In 1598, the Zufi were visited by 
Juan de Ofiate, the colonizer of New Mexico. The first Zufi mission 
was established by the Franciscans at Hawikuh in 1629. In 1632 the 
Zui murdered the missionaries and agdin fled to Taaiyalone Mesa, 
where they remained until 1635. On August 7, 1670, the Apache or 
Navaho raided Hawikuh, killed the missionary, and burned the 
church. The mission was not reestablished, and it is possible that the 
village itself was not rebuilt. In 1680 the Zui occupied but three 
villages, excluding Hawikuh, the central mission being at Halona, on 
the site of the present Zufii pueblo. They took part in the great re- 
bellion of 1680 and fled to Taaiyalone Mesa, where they remained until 
their reconquest by Vargas in 1692. From this time on the people 
were concentrated in the single village now known as Zufi, and a 
church was erected there in 1699. In 1703 they killed the missionary 
and again fled to their stronghold, returning in 1705. A garrison was 
maintained at Zufii for some years after this, and there were troubles 
with the Hopi, which were finally composed in 1713. The mission 
continued well into the nineteenth century, but the church was visited 
only occasionally by priests and gradually fell into ruins. In recent 
years the United States Government has built extensive irrigation 
works and established a large school, where the younger generation are 
being educated in the ways of civilization. 

Population.—In 1630 the Zuiii population was estimated at 10,000, 
probably much too high a figure; and in 1680, at 2,500. In 1760 it was 
given as 664; in 1788, 1,617; in 1797-98, 2,716; in 1805, 1,470; in 1871, 
1,530; in 1889, 1,547; in 1910, 1,667; in 1923, 1,911; in 1930, 1,749; 
in 1937, 2,080. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Zui have become 
widely known (1) from their association with the “Kingdom of Ci- 
bola”; (2) from the size of the pueblo and the unique character of the 
language spoken there; and (3) from the close study made of them by 
Cushing, Mrs. Stevenson, Kroeber, and others. The name Zuii is 
borne by a detached range of mountains in the northwestern part of 
New Mexico. Besides Zufi post village in McKinley County, N. Mex., 
there is a place named Zufi in Isle of Wight County, Va. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 349 


ARIZONA 


Apache. Bands of Apache occupied the Gila River region in Arizona 
within historic times and periodically overran much of the territory 
of the State. (See New Mexico.) 

Cocopa. Significance of name unknown. 

Connections.—The Cocopa belong to the Yuman linguistic family, 

a branch of the Hokan stock. 

Location.—About the mouth of Colorado River. (See also México.) 


Subdivisions 
River Cocopa and Mountain Cocopa. Cuculato and Llagas are also men- 
tioned, the latter a name applied by the Spaniards to a group of villages. 
Villages 


Gifford (1923) reports as follows: ‘‘Settlement sites on W. bank of Colorado 
from Hardy confluence N. (when river flowed near Colonia Lerdo): 1, A’u’ewawa; 
2, Kwinyakwa’a; 3, Yishiyul, settlement of Halyikwamai in 1848; 4, Heyauwah, 
5 miles N. of Yishiyul and opposite Colonia Lerdo (8 hours’ slow walk from 
Colorado-Hardy confluence); 5, Amanyochilibuh; 6, Esinyamapawhai (Noche Buena 
of the Mexicans).’”’ There was also a town called Hauwala below or above No. 5. 

“Settlement sites on W. bank of Hardy from confluence N.: 1, Karukhap; 2, 
Awiahamoka; 3, Niimischapsakal; 4, Eweshespit; 5, Tamanikwawa, (meaning 
‘mullet (tamanik) place’) on lagoon 4 or 5 miles SE of Cocopah mts; 6, *wikukapa 
(Cocopa mt.); 10, Wetsu; 11, Awisinyai, northernmost Cocopa village, about 5 
miles 8. of Mexicali. 

“Lumholtz (p. 251) lists following Cocopa settlements in the first decade of 
20th century; Noche Buena (20 families), Mexical (40-50 families), Pescador (15 
families), Pozo Vicente (more than 100 families) .” 


History.—Without question this tribe was first met by Hernando de 
Alarcén in 1540. They are mentioned by Ofiate in 1604-5, by Kino 
in 1701-2 under the name “Hogiopas,” and by Francisco Garcés in 
1776. Most of their territory was outside of the limits of the United 
States, but a small part of it passed under United States Government 
control with the Gadsden Purchase. Those Cocopa who remained on 
the northern side of the International Boundary were placed on the 
Colorado River Reservation. 

Population.—Garcés estimated 3,000in 1776. In 1857 Heintzelman 
placed the former strength of the tribe at about 300 warriors. There 
are now said to be 800 in northern Baja California. There were 99 
in the United States in 1930, and 41 in 1937. 


Halchidhoma. Significance unknown. 


Connections —The Halchidhoma belonged to the Yuman branch of 
the Hokan linguistic stock and are said to have spoken the same 
language as the Yuma tribe and to have been closely connected also 
with the Maricopa. 

Location.—At various points on the Colorado River near the mouth 
of the Gila. (See also California.) 


350 BUREAU»OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


Villages 

Asumpcién, a group of villages on or near the Colorado River, in California, more 
than 50 miles below the mouth of Bill Williams Fork. 

Lagrimas de San Pedro, a group of villages in the neighborhood of Asumpcién. 

San Antonio, in the same general location as Lagrimas but only 35 or 40 miles 
below the mouth of Bill Williams Fork. 

Santa Coleta, a group of villages in the same region as Asumpcién and Lagrimas 
de San Pedro. 

History.—The Halchidhoma were probably encountered by Alarcén 
in 1540, though he does not mention them. In 1604-5 Ofiate found 
them occupying eight villages on the Colorado below the mouth of the 
Gila; Father Eusebio Kino in 1701-2 came upon them above the 
Gila, and by Garcés’ time (1776) their villages were scattered on both 
sides of the Colorado, beginning about 38 miles below Bill Williams’ 
Fork and extending the same distance downstream. Later they 
moved farther north, along with the Kohuana, but were soon forced 
downstream again by the Mohave and ultimately took refuge with 
the Maricopa on Gila River, by whom they were ultimately absorbed. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates 3,000 in 1680, but this is 
evidently based on Garcés’ figure of 2,500 in 1776, which Kroeber 
(1920) believes much too high. Kroeber suggests about 1,000 as of 
the year 1770. 


Halyikwamai. Significance unknown. Also spelled Jallicumay, 
Quigyuma, Tlalliguamayas, Kikima (by Mason, 1940), and in 
various other ways. 

Connections—The Halyikwamai belonged to the Yuman linguistic 
stock, their dialect being reported as close to Cocopa and Kohuana. 
Location.—(See History.) 


Villages 


Presentacion, probably Quigyuma, on the west side of the Colorado River, in 
Baja California. 

San Casimiro, probably on the east bank of the Colorado River, above tidewater, 
in northwest Sonora, México. 

San Felix de Valois, apparently on the east bank of the Rio Colorado, between its 
mouth and the junction of the Gila, probably about the present Arizona-Sonora 
boundary line. 

San Rudesindo, probably on the east bank of the Colorado River, just above its 
mouth, in northwestern Sonora, México. 

Santa Rosa, a group of villages on the eastern side of the lower Rio Colorado, 
about latitude 32°18’ N., in northwestern Sonora, México. 


History —The Halyikwamai were discovered in 1540 by Alarcén, 
who calls them Quicama. In 1604-5 Ofiate found them in villages on 
the Colorado River below the mouth of the Gila River and above the 
Cocopa Indians. In 1762 they dwelt in a fertile plain, 10 or 12 leagues 
in length, on the eastern bank of the Colorado, and here they were 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 351 


found by Father Garcés in 1771 in a group of villages which he named 
Santa Rosa. By 1775, when he revisited the tribe, they had moved to 
the west side of the river, their first villages on the north being in the 
vicinity of Ogden’s Landing, about latitude 32°18’ N., adjacent to the 
Kohuana. It is probable that they were finally absorbed by the 
Cocopa or some other Yuman people. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates a population for the Halyik- 
wamai in 1680 of 2,000, which is Garcés’ estimate in 1775. Onate esti- 
mated 4,000—5,000 in 1605, but all of these figures are probably much 
too high. 


Havasunai. Signifying ‘‘blue (or green) water people,” abbreviated 
into Supai. Also called: 
Ak’-ba-sii’-pai, Walapai form of name. 
Ka’nfna, Coconino, Cosnino, Kokonino, Zui name said to have been 
borrowed from the Hopi and to signify “‘pifion nut people.” 
Nation of the Willows, so called by Cushing. 
Yabipai Jabesua, so called by Garcés in 1776. 


Connections.—The Havasupai belong to the Yuman branch of the 
Hokan linguistic stock, being most closely connected with the Walapai, 
and next with the Yavapai. 

Location.—They occupy Cataract Canyon of the Colorado River, 
northwestern Arizona. 

History—The nucleus of the Havasupai Tribe is believed to have 
come from the Walapai. ‘The Cosnino caves on the upper Rio Verde, 
near the northern edge of Tonto Basin, central Arizona, were named 
for them, from a traditional former occupancy. Garcés may have met 
some of these Indians in 1776, but definite notices of them seem to be 
lacking until about the middle of the last century. Leroux (1888) 
appears to have met one of this tribe in 1851, and since then they 
have come increasingly to the knowledge of the Whites. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates about 300 Havasupai in 
1680, but Spier (1928) believes this figure somewhat too high. In 
1869, 300 were reported; in 1902, 233; in 1905, 174; in 1910, 174; and 
in 1923, 184. In 1930, with the Walapai and Yavapai, they num- 
bered 646. In 1937 the number estimated was 208. 


Hopi. Contracted from their own name Hépitu, “peaceful ones,’’ 
or Hépitu-shinumu, “‘peaceful all people.’’ Also called: 


A-ar-ke, or E-ar’-ke, Apache name, signifying “live high up on top of the 
mesas.”’ 

Ah-mo-kdi, Zufi name. 

Ai-yah-kin-nee, Navaho name. 

A’-mu-kwi-kwe, Zufi name, signifying ‘‘smallpox people.” 

Asay or Osay, by Bustamante and Gallegos (1582). 

Bokeaf, Sandia Tiwa name. 


352 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy, 145 


Buhk’hérk, Isleta Tiwa name for Tusayan. 

Bukin, Isleta name for the people. 

Eyanini diné, Navaho name (Gatschet). 

Hapeka, a Zuni name, referring to excrement. 

Joso, Tewa name. 

Khoso, Santa Clara name. 

Kosho, Hano Tewa name. 

K’o-so-o, San Ildefonso Tewa name. 

Maastoetsjkwe, given by Ten Kate, signifying ‘‘the land of Mdsawé,” god 
of the earth, given as the name of their country. 

Mastute’kwe, same as preceding. 

Moki, signifying ‘‘dead’”’ in their own language, but probably from some 
other, perhaps a Keresan dialect. 

Topin-keua, said to be a Zufii name of which Tontonteac is a corruption. 

Tusayan, name of the province in which the Hopi lived, from Zufii Usaya- 
kue, “people of Usaya,’”’ Usaya referring to two of the largest Hopi 
villages. 

Whiwunai, Sandia Tiwa name. 


Connections.—The Hopi constitute a peculiar dialectic division of 
the Shoshonean branch of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic family, and they 
are the only Shoshonean people, so far as known, who ever took on a 
Pueblo culture, though the Tanoans are suspected of a remote 
Shoshonean relationship. 

Location.—On Three Mesas in northeastern Arizona. 


Towns 


Awatobi (destroyed), on a mesa about 9 miles southeast of Walpi. 

Hano, occupied by Tewa (see Tewa Pueblos under New Mexico). 

Homolobi, near Winslow, was formerly occupied by the ancestors of various Hopi 
clans. 

Kisakobi, at the northwest base of the East Mesa. 

Kuchaptuvela, on the terrace of the First or East Mesa below the present Walpi 
village. 

Mishongnovi, on the Second or Middle Mesa. 

Moenkapi, about 40 miles northwest of Oraibi, a farming village of Oraibi. 

Oraibi, on the Third or West Mesa. 

Shipaulovi, on the Second or Middle Mesa. 

Shongopovi, on the Second or Middle Mesa. 

Sichomovyi, on the First or East Mesa. 

Walpi, on the First or East Mesa. 


Kisatobi and Kuchaptuvela were successively occupied by the ancestors of the 
Walpi before the later Walpi was built. 


History.—According to tradition, the Hopi are made up of peoples 
who came from the north, east, and south. Their first contact with 
Europeans was in 1540, when Coronado, then at Zufi, sent Pedro de 
Tobar and Fray Juan de Padilla to visit them. They were visited 
by Antonio de Espejo in 1583, and in 1598 Juan de Oftate, governor 
and colonizer of New Mexico, made them swear fealty and vassalage 
to the King of Spain. In 1629 a Franciscan mission was established 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 353 


at Awatobi, followed by others at Walpi, Shongopovi, Mishongnovi, 
and Oraibi. These were destroyed in the general Pueblo outbreak of 
1680, and an attempt to reestablish a mission at Awatobi in 1700 led 
to its destruction by the other pueblos. The pueblos of Walpi, Mish- 
ongnovi, and Shongopovi, then situated in the foothills, were prob- 
ably abandoned about the time of the rebellion, and new villages were 
built on the adjacent mesas for defense against a possible Spanish 
attack which did not materialize. After the reconquest of the Rio 
Grande pueblos by Vargas, some of the people who formerly occupied 
them fled to the Hopi and built a pueblo called Payupki on the Middle 
Mesa. About the middle of the eighteenth century, however, they 
were taken back and settled in Sandia. About 1700 Hano was 
established on the East Mesa, near Walpi, by Tewa from near Abi- 
quiu, N. Mex., on the invitation of the Walpians. About the time 
when the Payupki people returned to their old homes, Sichomovi was 
built on the First Mesa by clans from the Rio Grande, and Shipaulovi 
was founded by a colony from Shongopovi. The present Hopi 
Reservation was set aside by Executive order on December 16, 1882. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates a Hopi population of 2,800 
in 1680. In 1890 the population of Oraibi was 905, and in 1900 the 
other pueblos (exclusive of Hano) had 919. In 1904 the total Hopi 
population was officially given as 1,878. The Census of 1910 re- 
turned 2,009, apparently including Hano, and the Report of the 
United States Indian Office for 1923 gave 2,336. The United States 
Census of 1930 returned 2,752. In 1937 there were 3,248, including 
the Tewan Hano. 

Connections in which they have become noted—The Hopi are noted 
as a tribe Shoshonean in language but Puebloan in culture, and also 
deserve consideration as one of the Pueblo divisions to which particular 
attention has been paid by ethnologists, including Fewkes, the Steven- 
sons, Hough, Voth, Forde, Lowie, etc. Great popular attention has 
been drawn to them on account of the spectacular character of the 
Snake Dance held every 2 years. 


Kohuana. Significance unknown. Also given as Cajuenche, Cawina, 
and Quokim. 

Connections—The Kohuana belonged to the Yuman branch of the 
Hokan linguistic stock, spoke the Cocopa dialect, and were also closely 
connected with the Halyikwamai. 

Location.—In 1775-76 the Kohuana lived on the east bank of the 
Colorado River below the mouth of the Gila, next to the Halyik- 
wamai, their villages extending south to about latitude 32°33’ N., and 
into southern California, at about latitude 33°08’ N., next to the 
eastern Diegueno. (See also México.) 


354 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 145 


Villages 


Merced, a group of rancherias in northeastern Baja California, west of the 

Colorado and 4 leagues southwest of Santa Olalla, a Yuma village. 

San Jacome, probably Cajuenche, near the mountains, about latitude 33°8’ N., 
in southern California. 

San Sebastian, Cajuenche or Dieguefio, in southern California, latitude 33°8’ N., 
evidently at Salton Lake. 

History.—The Kohuana are the Coana mentioned by Hernando de 
Alarcén, who ascended the Colorado River in 1540. Juan de Ofiate 
visited them in 1604—5, and they are probably the Cutganas of Kino 
(1701-2), while Francisco Garcés in 1776 reported that they were 
numerous and at enmity with the Cocopa. From Mohave tradition, 
it appears that at a somewhat later period they lived along the river 
near Parker together with the Halchidhoma, whom they followed to 
the fertile bottom lands higher up. Later the Mohave crowded them 
southward but still later compelled them to return to the Mohave 
country where they remained for 5 years. At the end of that period 
they determined to go downstream again to live with the Yuma; but, 
one of their number having been killed by the Yuma, they joined the 
Maricopa, with whom they ultimately became merged. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 3,000 
Kohuana in 1680, the figure given by Garcés in 1775-76. Kroeber 
(1920) believes these estimates are too high. In 1851 Bartlett re- 
ported 10 of this tribe living with the Maricopa, and, according to a 
Mohave informant of Kroeber’s, there were 36 about 1883. 


Maricopa. Significance of the name unknown. Also called: 


Atchihwa’, Yavapai name (Gatschet 1877-92). 

Cocomaricopa, an old form. 

Cohp4p, or Awo-pa-pa, Pima name. 

Pipatsje, own name, signifying ‘‘people.” 

Si-ke-na, Apache name for Pima, Papago, and Maricopa, signifying “‘liv- 
ing in sand houses.” 

Ta&’hba, Yavapai name (Gatschet, 1877-92). 

Tchihogdésat, Havasupai name. 

Widshi itfkapa, Tonto name, also applied to Pima and Papago. 


Connections.—The Maricopa belong to the Yuman linguistic stock, 
a part of the Hokan family, and are said to be related most closely 
to the Yuma tribe proper and the Halchidhoma. 

Location.—On Gila River, with and below the Pima, to the mouth 
of the river. Anciently they are said to have had some rancherias in 
a valley west of the Colorado. 


SWANTON] 


INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 


300 


Villages 


The following villages were all on the Gila River unless otherwise specified: 


Aicatum, 

Amoque. 

Aopomue. 

Aqui. 

Aquimundurech. 

Aritutoc, on the north side at or near 
the present Oatman flat and the 
Great Bend of the river. 

Atishigui. 

Aycate. 

Baguiburisac, probably Maricopa, near 
the Gila River. 

Caborh. 

Caborica. 

Cant, probably Maricopa, not far below 
the mouth of Salt River. 

Choutikwuchik. 

Coat, probably Maricopa, location un- 
certain. 

Cocoigui. 

Cohate. 

Comarchdut. 

Cuaburidurch, 

Cudurimuitac. 

Dueztumac, about 120 miles above the 
mouth of the Gila. 

Gohate. 

Guias. 

Hinama, its people now on the south 
bank of Salt River east of the Mor- 
mon settlement of Lehi, Maricopa 
County. 

Hiyayulge. 

Hueso Parado, with Pima, on the Pima 
and Maricopa Reservation. 

Khauweshetawes. 

Kwatchampedau. 

Norchean. 

Noscario. 

Oitac. 

Ojiataibues. 

Pipiaca, 

Pitaya. 

Sacaton, mainly Pima, on the Gila River 
about 22 miles east of Maricopa Sta- 
tion. 


San Bernadino, at Agua Caliente, near 
the Gila River; another place on the 
river was called by the same name. 

San Geronimo, 20 leagues from Merced 
and 27 leagues from the Gila River. 

San Martin, on the Gila River west of 
the Great Bend. 

San Rafael, probably Maricopa, 
southern Arizona. 

Sasabac. 

Shobotarcham. 

Sibagoida, probably Maricopa, location 
uncertain. 

Sibrepue. 

Sicoroidag, on the Gila River below 
Tucsani. 

Soenadut. 

Stucabitic. 

Sudae. 

Sudacsasaba. 

Tadeovaqui. 

Tahapit. 

Toa. 

Toaedut. 

Tota, probably Maricopa. 

Tuburch. 

Tuburh, location uncertain. 

Tubutavia. 

Tucavi, perhaps identical with Tucsani. 

Tucsani. 

Tucsasic. 

Tuesapit. 

Tumac, said to have been the western- 
most Maricopa village on the Gila 
River. 

Tuquisan. 

Tutomagoidag. 

Uitorrum, a group of rancherias on the 
south bank of the Gila River not far 
west of the Great Bend. 

Uparch. 

Upasoitac, near the Great Bend of the 
Gila River. 

Urchaoztac. 

Yayahaye. 


in 


356 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


History.—The Maricopa are thought to have separated from the 
Yuma and to have moved slowly up the Colorado River to the lower 
Gila River; or, as later history would indicate, they may have been 
forced into this region by hostile tribes. They were encountered by 
Juan de Ofiate in 1604-5, and by Kino in 1701-2. From 1775 until 
recent times they were at war with the Yuma, and in 1857, in alliance 
with the Pima, they inflicted a severe defeat upon the Yuma near 
Maricopa Wells. A reservation was set apart for the Maricopa and 
Pima by Act of Congress February 28, 1859; it was enlarged by Execu- 
tive order of August 31, 1876, but was revoked and other lands were 
set apart by Executive order of June 14, 1879. This was again 
enlarged by Executive orders May 5, 1882, and November 15, 1883. 
No treaty was ever made with them. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 2,000 Mari- 
copa in 1680. Venegas (1758) says that in 1742 there were about 
6,000 Pima and ‘‘Cocomaricopa”’ on Gila River, and in 1775 Garcés 
estimates a population of 3,000 Maricopa. In 1905 there were 350 
under the Pima School Superintendent. The census of 1910 gives 
386, and the Report of the United States Indian Office for 1923, 394. 
The census of 1930 returned 310, and the Report of the United States 
Indian Office of 1937, 339. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name of the 
Maricopa is preserved in that of Maricopa County, Ariz., and in the 
name of a post village in Pinal County and another in Kern County, 
Calif. 


Mohave. From a native word “hamakhava,” referring to the Needles 
and signifying ‘‘three mountains.’”’ Also given as Amojave, 
Jamajabs. Synonyms are: 

Naks’-it, Pima and Papago name. 

Soyopas, given by Font (1775). 

Tzi-na-ma-a, given as their own name ‘“‘before they came to the Colorado 
River.” 

Wamakava, Havasupai name. 

Wili idahapd, Tulkepaya name. 


Connections.—The Mohave belonged to the Yuman linguistic 
family. 

Location.—On both sides of the Colorado River—though chiefly 
on the east side—between the Needles and the entrance to Black 


Canyon. 
Villages 


Pasion, a group of rancherias on the east bank of the Colorado, below the present 
Fort Mohave. 

San Pedro, on or near the west bank of the Colorado, about 8 miles northwest of 
Needles, Calif. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 357 


Santa Isabel, a group of rancherias situated at or in the vicinity of the present 

Needles. 

History.—Possibly Alarcén may have reached the Mohave territory 
in 1540. At any rate, Ofate met them in 1604, and in 1775-76 Garcés 
found them in the above-named villages. No treaty was made with 
them by the United States Government, but by Act of March 3, 1865, 
supplemented by Executive orders in 1873, 1874, and 1876, the Colo- 
rado River Reservation was established and it was occupied by the 
Mohave, Chemehuevi, and Kawia. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) gives 3,000 Mohave in 1680, and 
Kroeber (1925) the same as of 1770, the estimate made by Garcés 
in 1775-76. About 1834 Leroux estimated 4,000. In 1905 their 
number was officially given as 1,589, of whom 508 were under the 
Colorado River School Superintendent, 856 under the Fort Mohave 
School Superintendent, 50 under the San Carlos Agency, and about 
175 at Camp McDowell, on the Verde River. The Indians at Fort 
Mohave and Camp McDowell, however, were apparently Yavapai, 
commonly known as Apache Mohave. The census of 1910 gives 
1,058 true Mohave. The United States Indian Office Report for 
1923 seems to give 1,840, including Mohave, Mohave Apache, and 
Chemehuevi. The census of 1930 returned 854, and the Report of 
the United States Office of Indian Affairs for 1937, 856. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Mohave has 
been preserved in the designation of the Mohave Desert and Mohave 
River in California, and Mohave County, Ariz., and also in the name 
of a post-village in Arizona. There is also a post village named 
Mojave in Kern County, Calif. 


Navaho. The Navaho occupied part of the northeastern section of 
Arizona. (See New Mexico.) 


Paiute. The southern or true Paiute occupied or hunted over some 
of the northernmost sections of Arizona. (See Nevada.) 


Papago. Signifying “bean people,” from the native words pap4h, 
‘“‘beans,’”’ and éotam, ‘‘people.’”’ Also called: 
Saikinné, Si’-ke-na, Apache name for Pima, Papago, and Maricopa. 
Tadh’ba, Yavapai name. 
Texpamais, Maricopa name. 
Téno-odhtam, own name, signifying ‘“‘people of the desert.” 
Vidshi itikapa, Tonto name. 
Connections.—The Papago belong to the Piman branch of the Uto- 
Aztecan linguistic stock and stand very close to the Pima. 
Location.—In the territory south and southeast of the Gila River, 
especially south of Tucson; in the main and tributary valleys of the 


358 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Santa Cruz River; and extending west and southwest across the 
desert waste known as the Papagueria, into Sonora, México. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Acachin, location uncertain. 

Alcalde, probably in Pima County. 

Ana, probably in Pima County. 

Anicam, probably in Pima County. 

Areitorae, south of Sonorita, Sonora, México. 

Ati, on the west bank of Rio Altar, between Uquitoa and Tubutama, just south 
of the Arizona boundary. 

Babasaqui, probably Papago, 3 miles above Imuris, between Cocospera and 
Magdalena, Sonora, México. 

Bacapa, in northwestern Sonora, México, slightly southeast of Carrizal. 

Baipia, slightly northwest of Caborca, probably on the Rio Altar, northwestern 
Sonora, México. 

Bajfo, location uncertain. 

Batequi, east of the Rio Altar in northwestern Sonora, México. 

Boca del Arroyo, probably in Pima County. 

Caborica, on the Gila River. 

Caca Chimir, probably in Pima County. 

Cahuabi, in Arizona near the Sonora border. 

Canoa, between Tubac and San Xavier del Bac, on Rio Santa Cruz. 

Casca, probably in Pima County. 

Charco, probably identical with Chioro. 

Chiora, probably in Pima County. 

Chuba, location uncertain. 

Coca, location uncertain. 

Comohuabi, in Arizona on the border of Sonora, México. 

Cops, west of the Rio San Pedro, probably in the vicinity of the present Arivaca, 
southwest of Tubac. 

Cubac, in the neighborhood of San Francisco Atf, west from the present Tucson. 

Cuitoat, between San Xavier del Bac and the Gila River. 

Cujant, in northwest Sonora, between the mouth of the Rio Gila and Sonorita. 

Cumaro, southern Arizona near the Sonora border. 

Elogio, probably in Pima County. 

Fresnal, probably in Pima County. 

Guadalupe, about 10 leagues south of Areitorae. 

Gubo, probably Papago, 13 leagues east of Sonorita, just below the Arizona 
boundary. 

Guitciabaqui, on the west bank of the Santa Cruz River, near the present Tucson. 

Juajona, near San Xavier del Bac, southern Arizona. 

Junostaca, near San Xavier del Bac. 

Macombo, probably in Pima County. 

Mata, probably Papago, north of Caborica. 

Mesquite, probably in Pima County. 

Milpais, location uncertain. 

Nariz, probably in Pima County. 

Oapars, in Arizona between San Xavier del Bac and the Gila River. 

Ocaboa, location uncertain. 

Oisur, on the Santa Cruz River, 5 or 6 leagues north of San Xavier del Bac, south- 
ern Arizona. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 359 


Onia, probably in Pima County. 

Ooltan, in northwest Sonora, México, 3 leagues northwest of Busanic. 

Otean, location uncertain. 

Perigua, Arizona, south of the Gila River. 

Perinimo, probably in Pima County. 

Piato, probably the same as Soba, in the region of Tubutama and Caborica, 
Sonora, México. 

Pitic, on the Rio Altar, northwest Sonora. 

Poso Blanco, in Arizona south of the Gila River. 

Poso Verde, south of the Arizona-Sonora boundary, opposite Oro Blanco, Ariz. 

Purificaci6n, probably Papago, near the Arizona-Sonora boundary, 12 leagues 
from Agua Escondida, probably in a southeasterly direction. 

Quitovaquita, on the headwaters of Rio Salado of Sonora, near the Arizona- 
Sonora boundary line. 

Raton, location uncertain. 

San Bonifacio, probably Papago, south of the Gila River between San Angelo 
and San Francisco, in the present Arizona. 

San Cosme, probably Papago, directly north of San Xavier del Bac, on the Santa 
Cruz River, Ariz. 

San Ignacio, with Pima, on the north bank of Rio San Ignacio, latitude 30°45’ N., 
longitude 111° W., Sonora, México. 

San Ildefonso, 4 leagues northwest of Caborica, Sonora, México. 

San Lazaro, probably Papago, on the Rio Santa Cruz in longitude 110°30’ W., 
just below the Arizona-Sonora boundary. 

San Luis Babi, in northwest Sonora, México, between Busanie and Cocospera. 

San Martin, probably Papago, on the Gila River, west of the Great Bend of the 
Colorado. 

San Rafael, in southern Arizona near the headwaters of the Rio Salado of Sonora. 

Santa Barbara, probably Papago, 4 miles southwest of Busanic, near the head- 
waters of the north branch of the Rio Altar, in Sonora, México. 

Santa Rosa, south of the Gila River and west of Tucson. 

Saric, probably Papago, on the west bank of Rio Altar, in northern Sonora, México. 

Saucita, in southern Arizona, 

Shuuk, or Pima, on the Gila River Reservation, southern Arizona. 

Sierra Blanca, probably in Pima County. 

Soba, a large body of Papago, including the villages of Carborica, Batequi, Mata, 
Pitic, and San Ildefonso. 

Sonoita, on the headwaters of the Rio Salado of Sonora, just below the Arizona- 
Sonora boundary. 

Tachilta, in southern Arizona or northern Sonora. 

Tacquison, on the Arizona-Sonora boundary. 

Tecolote, in southwestern Pima County, Ariz., near the Mexican border. 

Tubasa, probably on the Rio Santa Cruz River between San Xavier del Bac 
and the Gila River, southern Arizona. 

Tubutama, on the eastern bank of the northern branch of the Rio Altar, in north- 
west Sonora, México. 

Valle, probably in Pima County. 

Zufiiga, probably Papago, in northwest Sonora, México. 


History —Father Eusebio Kino was probably the first white man 


to visit the Papago, presumably on his first expedition in 1694. Their 
subsequent history has been nearly the same as that of the Pima, 


360 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


except that they were not brought quite as much in contact with the 
Whites. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) places the number of Papago at 6,000 
in 1680. In 1906 they were reported as follows: Under the Pima 
School Superintendent, 2,233; under the farmer at San Xavier, 523 
allottees on the reservation and 2,225 in Pima County. In addition, 
859 Papago were officially reported in Sonora, México, in 1900, prob- 
ably an underestimate. In 1910, 3,798 were reported in the United 
States, but the Report of the United States Indian Office for 1923 
gives 5,672; the 1930 census, 5,205; and the Indian Office Report 
for 1937, 6,305. 


Pima. Signifying ‘‘no” in the Nevome dialect and incorrectly applied 
through misunderstanding by the early missionaries. Also called: 


A’-4’tam, own name, signifying “‘people,” or, to distinguish them from the 
Papago, A’-4’tam &’kimilt, “river people.” 

Nashtefse, Apache name, signifying ‘‘live in mud houses.”’ 

Painyd, probably name given by Havasupai. 

Saikiné, Apache name, signifying “‘living in sand (adobe) houses,’’ also 
applied to Papago and Maricopa. 

Tex-pis, Maricopa name. 

Tihokahana, Yavapai name. 

Widshi !ti’kapa, Tonto-Yuma name, 


Connections.—The Pima gave their name to the Piman linguistic 
stock of Powell, which is now recognized to be a subdivision of the 
great Uto-Aztecan stock, also including the Nahuatlan and Shoshonean 
families. The tribes connected most intimately with the Pima were 
the Papago (see above) and the Quahatika (q. v.), and after them 
the so-called Pima Bajo or Nevome of México. 

Location.—In the valleys of the Gila and Salt Rivers. (See also 
México.) 

Subdivisions 


Formerly the name Pima was applied to two tribes called respectively tne 
Pima Bajo and Pima Alto, but the former, living chiefly in Sonora, México, are 
now known as Nevome, the term Pima being restricted to the Pima Alto. 


Villages 


Agua Escondida, probably Pima or Papago, southwest of Tubac, southwestern 
Arizona. 

Agua Fria, probably Pima, on Gila River Reservation. 

Aquitun, 5 miles west of Picacho, on the border of the sink of the Santa Cruz 
River. 

Aranca, two villages, location unknown. 

Arenal, probably Pima, on the Pima and Maricopa Reservation, Gila River. 

Arivaca, west of Tubac. 

Arroyo Grande, southern Arizona, 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 361 


Bacuancos, 7 leagues south of the mission of Guevavi, northwestern Sonora, 
México. 

Bisani, 8 leagues southwest of Caborica, Sonora, México. 

Blackwater. 

Bonostac, on the ypper Santa Cruz River, below Tucson. 

Busanic, southwest of Guevavi, near the Arizona-Sonora boundary, latitude 
31°10’ N. longitude 111°10’ W. 

Cachanila, probably Pima, on the Pima and Maricopa Reservation, Ariz. 

Casa Blanca, on the Gila. 

Cerrito, probably Pima, on the Pima and Maricopa Reservation, Ariz. 

Cerro Chiquito, probably Pima, on the Pima and Maricopa Reservation, Ariz. 

Chemisez, on the Gila. 

Chupatak, in southern Arizona. 

Chutikwuchik. 

Chuwutukawutuk, in southern Arizona. 

Cocospera, on the headwaters of the Rfo San Ignacio, latitude 31° N., Sonora, 
México. 

Comac, on the Gila River, 3 leagues (miles?) below the mouth of Salt River, Ariz. 

Estancia, 4 leagues south of the mission of Saric, which was just south of the 
Arizona boundary. 

Gaibanipitea, probably Pima, on a hill on the west bank of the San Pedro River, 
probably identical with the ruins known as Santa Cruz, west of Tombstone, Ariz. 

Gutubur, locality unknown. 

Harsanykuk, at Sacaton Flats, southern Arizona. 

Hermho, on the north side of Salt River, 3 miles from Mesa, Maricopa County, 
Ariz. 

Hiatam, north of Maricopa Station on the Southern Pacific R. R., southern 
Arizona. 

Hormiyuero, probably Pima, on the Pima and Maricopa Reservation, Ariz. 

Huchiltchik, below Santa Ana, on the north bank of the Gila. 

Hueso Parado, with Maricopa, on the Pima and Maricopa Reservation, Ariz. 

Imuris, near the eastern bank of Rfo San Ignacio, or Magdalena, latitude 30°50’ N. 
longitude 110°50’ W., in the present Sonora, México. 

Judac, on the Gila. 

Kamatukwucha, at the Gila crossing. 

Kamit, in southern Arizona. 

Kawoltukwucha, west of the Maricopa and Phoenix R. R., in Maricopa County, 
Ariz. 

Kikimi, on the Gila River Reservation. 

Kookupvansik, in southern Arizona. 

Mange, on the Gila. 

Merced, northeast of San Rafael, in what is now southern Arizona. 

Nacameri, on the east bank of Rfo Horcasitas, Sonora, México. 

Napeut, on the north bank of the Gila. 

Ocuca, in Sonora, México, near the Rio San Ignacio, northwest of Santa Ana. 

Oquitoa, on the Rio del Altar, northwestern Sonora, México. 

Ormejea, in southern Arizona. 

Oskakumukchochikam, in southern Arizona. 

Oskuk, on the Gila. 

Peepchiltk, northeast of Casa Blanca, southern Arizona. 

Pescadero, in northern Sonora, México. 

Petaikuk, in southern Arizona. 

Pitac, on the Gila. 


362 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Potlapigua, about Babispe, Baserac, and the frontier in Sonora, México, but this 
was Opata territory. 

Remedios, a mission on the San Ignacio branch of the Rfo Asuncién, in Sonora, 
Mexico. 

Rsanuk, about 1 mile east of Sacaton Station, on the Maricopa and Phoenix R. R., 
southern Arizona. 

Rsotuk, northwest of Casa Blanca, southern Arizona. 

Sacaton, on the Gila, about 22 miles east of Maricopa Station and 16 miles north 
of Casa Grande Station on the Southern Pacific R. R., Ariz. 

San Andrés Coata, near the junction of the Gila and Salado Rivers, Ariz. 

San Fernando, 9 leagues east of the ruins of Casa Grande, near the Gila. 

San Francisco Ati, west of the Santa Cruz River, Ariz., 

San Francisco de Pima, 10 or 12 leagues above the Rio Asuncién from Pitic, about 
latitude 31° N., Sonora, México. 

San Serafin, northwest of San Xavier del Bac, southern Arizona. 

Santan, on the north bank of the Gila, opposite the Pima Agency. 

Santos Angeles, in Sonora, México. 

Saopuk, at The Cottonwoods, on the Gila River. 

Sepori, south of the Gila River, Ariz. 

Shakaik, on the north side of the Gila, northwest of Casa Blanca. 

Statannyik, on the south bank of the Gila, between Vaaki (Casa Blanca) and 
Huchiltchik. 

Stukamasoosatick, on the Gila River Reservation. 

Sudacson, on the Gila River, Pinal County, Ariz., between Casa Grande and a 
point 10 leagues below. 

Tatsituk, about Cruz’s store in southern Arizona. 

Taumaturgo. 

Tubuscabors, on or near the Gila River, southern Arizona. 

Tucson, probably with Papago and Sobaipuri, on the site of modern Tucson. 

Tucubavia, on the headwaters of Rio Altar, northern Sonora, Mexico. 

Tutuetac, about 16 miles northwest of Tucson and west of the Santa Cruz River, 
in southern Arizona. 

Uturituc, on the Gila and probably on the site of the present Sacaton. 

Wechurt, at North Blackwater, southern Arizona. 


History —According to native tradition, the Pima originated in the 
Salt River Valley and spread later to the Gila River. They attribute 
the large adobe ruins in their country, including the Casa Grande, to 
their ancestors, and tell stories of their occupancy of them, but the con- 
uection is still in doubt. The Nevome and Opata of the Altar, Mag- 
dalena, and Sonora Rivers are said to have sprung from Pima colonies. 
They claim that their old manner of life was ended by three bands of 
foreigners from the east, who destroyed their pueblos, devastated their 
fields, and killed or enslaved many of their people. The rest fled to 
the mountains, and when they returned they did not rebuild the sub- 
stantial adobe structures which they had formerly occupied, but lived 
in dome-shaped lodges of pliable poles covered with thatch and mud. 
Russell (1908) considers it unlikely that Coronado encountered the 
Pima, but in 1694 Father Eusebio Francisco Kino reached the Casa 
Grande and undoubtedly met them. Under his inspiration, an ex- 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 363 


pedition was sent to the Gila in 1697 to ascertain the disposition of the 
tribe. In 1698 he again visited them and between that date and 1702 
entered their country four times more. In 1731 Fathers Felipe 
Segresser and Juan Bautista Grashoffer took charge of the missions 
of San Xavier del Bac and San Miguel de Guevavi and became the 
first permanent Spanish residents of Arizona. Padre Ignacio Javier 
Keller visited the Pima villages in 1736-37 and in 1743, and Sedelmayr 
reached the Gila in 1750. The first military force to be stationed 
among the Pima was a garrison of 50 men at Tubac on the Santa Cruz. 
The presidio was moved to Tucson about 1776 and in 1780 it was in- 
creased to hold 75 men. Between 1768 and 1776 Father Francisco 
Garcés made five trips from Xavier del Bac to the Pimas and beyond. 
In 1851 parties of the Boundary Survey Commission passed down the 
Gila River, and J. R. Bartlett, the American Commissioner, has left 
an. excellent description of the Pima Indians (Bartlett, 1854). After 
the California gold rush began, the Pima frequently assisted parties 
of explorers and travelers who were making the southern route, and 
they often protected them from the Apache. In 1853 the Gadsden 
Purchase transferred the Pima to the jurisdiction of the United States. 
Surveys for a railroad through Pima territory were made in 1854 and 
1855, but it was not constructed until 1879. In the meantime the 
Pima were subjected to contact with White outlaws and border ruffians 
of the worst description, and White settlers threatened to absorb their 
supplies of water. In 1857 the first United States Indian Agent for 
the territory acquired by the Gadsden Purchase was appointed. In 
1871 the first school among them was opened. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 4,000 Pima 
in 1680. In 1775 Garcés placed the number of those on the Gila River 
at 2,500. In 1906 there were 3,936 in all; in 1910, according to the 
United States Census, 4,236; and in 1923, according to the Report of 
the United States Indian Office, 5,592. The 1930 census returned 
4,382. The Indian Office reported 5,170 in 1937. 

Connections in which they have become noted——Pima County, Ariz., 
and a post town in Graham County, Ariz., preserve the name of the 
Pima, which has also been made familiar to ethnographers and geog- 
raphers by the use to which it has been put in the Powell classification 
to cover a supposed linguistic stock. There is little doubt, however, 
that this supposed stock is merely a part of a much larger stock, the 
Uto-Aztecan. 


Quahatika. Significance unknown. Also spelled Kohatk. 

Connections —The Quahatika belonged to the Piman division of the 
Uto-Aztecan stock, and were most closely related to the Pima, of which 
tribe they are said to have been a branch. 


364 BUREAU QF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Location.—In the desert of southern Arizona, 50 miles south of the 


Gila River. 
Villages 


The chief Quahatika settlement is Quijotoa, in the western part of Pima 
County, southern Arizona. Early in the eighteenth century they are said to have 
shared the village of Aquitun with the Pima. (See Pima.) 


History.—The history of the Quahatika has, in the main, been paral- 
lel with that of the Pima and Papago (q. v.). They are said to have 
left Aquitun about 1800, and to have introduced cattle among the 
Pima from the Mexicans about 1820. 

Population.—The Quahatika seem to have been enumerated with 
the Pima. 


Sobaipuri. Significance unknown. Also called: 
Rsdrsavind, Pima name, signifying ‘‘spotted.” 


Connections.—The Sobaipuri were intimately connected with, if not 
a part of, the Papago, of the Piman division of the Uto-Aztecan 
linguistic stock. 

Location.—In the main and tributary valleys of the San Pedro and 
Santa Cruz Rivers, between the mouth of the San Pedro River and 
the ruins of Casa Grande, and possibly eastward of thisarea in southern 
Arizona. 


Villages 


Alamos. on Rio Santa Cruz, southern Arizona. 

Aribaiba, on the San Pedro River, not far from its junction with the Gila. 

Babisi, probably Sobaipuri, at the southern boundary near Suamca. 

Baicadeat, on the San Pedro River, Ariz. 

Busac, probably Sobaipuri, apparently on Arivaipa Creek, a tributary of the San 
Pedro, east of old Camp Grant, Ariz. 

Camani, probably Sobaipuri, on the Gila River, not far from Casa Grande, Ariz. 

Causac, on the San Pedro. 

Comarsuta, on the San Pedro, between its mouth and its junction with Arivaipa 
Creek. 

Esqugbaag, probably Sobaipuri, on or near the San Pedro, near the Arizona- 
Sonora boundary. 

Guevavi, on the west bank of the Santa Cruz, below Tubac, at or near the present 
Nogales. 

Jiaspi, on the western bank of San Pedro, probably near the present Prospect, Ariz. 

Juamalturgo, or Pima, in Arizona south of the ruins of Casa Grande. 

Muiva, on the San Pedro, probably near the mouth of Arivaipa Creek. 

Ojio, on the eastern bank of the San Pedro River, near its junction with the Gila 
River and not far from the present Dudleyville, Ariz. 

Optuabo, probably Sobaipuri, near the present Arizona-Sonora boundary and 
probably in Arizona. 

Quiburi, on the western bank of the San Pedro, perhaps not far from the present 
Benson, Ariz. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 365 


Quiquiborica, on the Santa Cruz, 6 leagues south of Guevavi, near the Arizona- 
Sonora boundary. 

Reyes, probably Sobaipuri, on the Santa Cruz, in the present southern Arizona. 

San Angelo, near the western bank of the Santa Cruz, below its mouth, in southern 
Arizona. 

San Clemente, probably Sobaipuri, on the western bank of the Santa Cruz, north 
of the present Tucson, Ariz. 

San Felipe, at the junction of the Santa Cruz and Gila Rivers. 

San Salvador, on the San Pedro River, above Quiburi, southern Arizona. 

San Xavier del Bac, on Santa Cruz, 9 miles south of Tucson in the northeast 
corner of what is now the Papago Reservation. 

Santa Eulalia, probably Sobaipuri, slightly northwest of Busanic, just south of 
the Arizona-Sonora boundary line. 

Sonoita, on the Santa Cruz, north of the present Nogales and 7 leagues east north- 
east of Guevavi. 

Suamca, on the headwaters of the Santa Cruz, in the vicinity of Terrenate, Sonora, 
México, just below the Arizona-Sonora boundary line. 

Tubo, probably Sobaipuri, apparently on Arivaipa Creek, a tributary of the San 
Pedro River, east of old Camp Grant, Ariz. 

Tumacacori, probably Sobaipuri, on the Santa Cruz, south of Tubac and 8 leagues 
north northwest of Guevavi. 

Turisai, probably Sobaipuri, probably on or near the Santa Cruz River, southern 
Arizona. 

Tusonimon, about 4 leagues west of Casa Grande, near the Gila River. 

Tutoida, on the San Pedro, probably between Arivaipa Creek and the Gila. 


History.—The Sobaipuri were visited by Kino, 1694-1702, and 
missions were established among them, but at a later period the tribe 
was broken up by the Apache and seems to have sought refuge among 
the Papago, with whom it became merged. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 600 Sobai- 
puri in 1680. They are now extinct as an independent tribe. 


Tonto. This name has been applied to a number of distinct groups 
of Apache and Yuman peoples. It is said to have been given to a 
mixture of Yavapai, Yuma, and Maricopa, with some Pinalefio 
Apache, placed on the Verde River Reservation, Ariz., in 1873, and 
transferred to the San Carlos Reservation in 1875; also to a body 
of Indians, descended mostly from Yavapai men and Pinalefio 
women. (See New Mexico.) 


Walapai. From the native word XawAlapdiy*, “pine-tree folk” (fide 
J. P. Harrington). Also called: 


E-pa, by A. Hrdli¢ka (information, 1906), given as their own name. 

Gualiba, by Garcés in 1776 (Diary, p. 404, 1900); Yavapai name. 

Hawédlapai, by Curtis (1907-9, vol. 2, p. 116). 

Jaguallapai, by Garcés in 1776 (Diary, p. 308, 1900). 

Matdvéké-Paya, by Corbusier MS. p. 27. Meaning ‘‘people to the 
north’’(?); Yavapai name. 

Oohp, by Ten Kate (1885, p. 160), Pima name. 


366 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Burn 145 


Pdéxuddo 4méti, by Gatschet (1886, p. 86), meaning ‘‘people far down the 
river,” Yavapai name. 

Set4 Kéxninime, by Ten Kate (1884, p. 9), Hopi name. 

Tabképdya—Gatschet (1883, p. 124), Yavapai name; abbreviated from 
Matdvéké-Paya. 

Tiqui-Llapais, by Domenech (1860, vol. 1, p. 444). 


Connections.—The Walapai belonged to the Yuman branch of the 
Hokan linguistic stock and were connected especially closely with the 
Havasupai, the Yavapai apparently standing next. 

Location.—On the middle course of the Colorado River, above the 
Mohave Indians, between Sacramento Wash and National Canyon 
and inland, extending south almost to Bill Williams Fork. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Kroeber and his collaborators give the following: 

A. Mata'va-kopai (north people) (the northwestern division). Villages: Hadi’- 
ba, Hai’ya, Hathekd4va-ki6é, Huwuskét, Kahwdga, Kwa’thekithe’i’ta, Mati’bika, 
Tanyika”’; 

B. Soto'lve-kopai (west people) (the Cerbat Mountains and the country west to 
the Colorado). Villages: Chimethi’ap, Ha-kamué”, Haika-tovahddja, Hamté’’, 
Ha’theweli’-kio’, Ivthi/ya-tanakwe, Kenyua’tci, Kwateh4, Nyi’i’ta, Quwi’-nye- 
hd, Thawintya, Waika’i’la, Wa-nye-ha’, Wi’ka-tavata’va, Wi-kawea’ta, Winya’- 
ke-tawasa, Wiyakana’mo; 

C. Ko’o'u-kopai (mesa people) (north central section).—Villages: Crozier (Amer- 
ican name), Djiwa’ldja, Hak-tala’kava, Haktutu’deva, Hé’l, Katha’t-nye-ha’, 
Muketega’de, Qwa/ga-we’, Sewi’”’, Taki’otha’wa, Wi-kanyo”’; 

D. Nyav-kopai (east people) (east of the point where Truxton Canyon begins 
to cut its way down to Hualpai Valley).—Villages: Agwa’da, Ha’ke-takwi'va, 
Haksa’”’, Ha’nya-djiluwa’ya, Tha’ve-nalnalwi’dje, Wiwakwa’ga, Yiga’t; 

E. Hakia’ tce-pai (?) or Talta’l-kuwa (cane?) (about the Mohon Mountains).— 
Villages: Hakeskia’l, Hakia’ch, Ka/nyu’tekwa’, Tha’va-ka-lavala’va, Wi-ka-tava, 
Witevikivol, Witkitana’kwa; 

F. Kwe'va-kopai (south people).—Villages: Chivekaha’, Djimwa’nsevio’’, 
Ha-djiluwa’ya, Hapu’k, Kwakwa’, Kwal-hwa’ta, Kwatha’wa, Tak-mi’nva; 

G. Hua'la-pai, Howda'las-pai (pine people) (at the northern end of the Hualpai 
Mountains, extending in a rough half-circle from east to west.)—Villages: 
Hake-djeka’dja, Ilwi’-nya-ha’, Kahwa’t, Tak-tada’pa. 

History.—It is possible that some of the Walapai were encountered 
by Hernando de Alarcén in 1540, and at any rate Marcos Farfan de 
los Godos met them in 1598, and Francisco Garcés in 1776. Their 
history since that time has been little different from that of the other 
Yuman tribes of the region. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 700 Walapai 
in 1680, but estimates of native informants regarded by Kroeber and 
his associates as reliable would give a population of more than 1,000 
previous to 1880. There were 728 in 1889; 631 in 1897; 501 in 1910, 
according to the census of that year; 440 in 1923; and 449 in 1932; 
454 in 1937. (See Havasupai.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 367 


Yavapai. According to the Handbook of American Indians (Hodge, 
1907, 1910), from enyaéva, “sun,” and pai, “people,” and thus 
signifying “people of the sun,” but the southeastern Yavapai 
interpreted it to mean ‘‘crooked-mouth people,” that is, a ‘‘sulky’’ 
people who do not agree with other peoples (fide Gifford, 1936). 
Also called: 

Apache Mohaves, in Rep. Office Ind. Aff., 1869, p. 92; 1870. 

Apaches, by Garcés in 1775-76 (Diary, p. 446, 1900) ; also by Spaniards. 

Cruzados, by Ofiate in 1598 (Col. Doc. Inéd., vol. 16, p. 276, 1864-84). 

Dil-zha, by White (MS.); Apache name meaning ‘Indians living where 
there are red ants.” 

E-nyaé-va Pai, by Ewing (1892, p. 203), meaning ‘‘sun people’’ because 
they were sun worshipers. 

Gohtn, by Ten Kate, (1884, p. 5), Apache name. 

Har-dil-zhays, by White (1875 MS.), Apache name. 

Inva’vapé, by Harrington (1908, p. 324), Walapai name. 

Jum-pys, by Heintzelman, (1857, p. 44) 

Kohenins, by Corbusier (1886, p. 276), Apache name. 

Ku-we-vé-ka pai-ya, by Corbusier (MS., p. 27); said to be own name, 
because they live in the south. 

Nyavapai, by Corbusier (1886, p. 276). 

Taros, by Garcés in 1775-76 (Diary, p. 446, 1900), Pima name. 

Yampaos, by Whipple (1856, p. 103). 


Connections.—The Yavapai belonged to the Yuman branch of the 
Hokan linguistic family, their closest cultural affiliations being with 
the Havasupai and Walapai. 

Location.—In western Arizona from the Pinal and Mazatzal 
Mountains to the country of the Halchidhoma and Chemehuevi in the 
neighborhood of Colorado River and from Williams and Santa Maria 
Rivers, including the valleys of the smaller branches, to the neighbor- 
hood of the Gila River. 


Subdivisions 


Gifford gives the following: 


A, Kewevikopaya or Southeastern Yavapai, which included the Walkamepa 
Band (along the southerly highway from Miami to Phoenix via Superior), and the 
Wikedjasapa Band (along the present Apache trail highway from Phoenix to 
Miami via Roosevelt Dam). These included the following exogamous bands: 
Limited to the Walkamepa Band: Ilihasitumapa (original home in the Pinal 
Mountains); limited to the Wikedjasapa Band: Amahiyukpa (claiming as their 
homeland the high mountains on the west side of the Verde River, just north of 
Lime Creek and directly opposite the territory of the Yelyuchopa Clan), Atachiopa 
(who originated in the mountains west of Cherry), Hakayopa (whose inland 
homeland was Sunflower Valley, south of Mazatzal Peak, high in the Mazatzal 
Mountains, and west of Fort Reno in the Tonto Basin), Hichapulvapa (whose 
country was the Mazatzal Mountains southward from the East Verde River and 
westward from North Peak and Mazatzal Peak); represented in both bands: 
liwilkamepa (who considered the mountainous country between the Superstition 
and Pinal Mountains as their homeland), Matkawatapa (said to have originated 


368 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


from intermarriage between people of the Walkamepa Band and Apache from the 
Sierra Ancha), Onalkeopa (whose original homeland was in the Mazatzal Moun- 
tains between the lands of the Hichapulvapa and Yelyuchopa clans but who 
moved later south into the territory of the Walkamepa Band), Yelyuchopa (who 
claimed as their homeland the Mazatzal Mountains between the territories of the 
Hakayopa and Hichapulvapa clans). Cuercomache (on one of the heads of 
Diamond Creek, near the Grand Canyon of the Colorado) is given as a village. 
Amanyik4 was the principal camp site of the Wikedjasapa south of the Salt River. 

B. Yavepe or Northeastern Yavapai, including: 

a. Yavepe proper (claiming upper Verde Valley and the mountains on either 
side, including the Montezuma National Monument), whose bands were: Wipu- 
kupa (occupying caves in Redrock country, probably in the region designated as 
Red Buttes on maps, and descending Oak Creek to plant maize in certain moist 
flats and to gather mesquite in Verde Valley), Matkitwawipa (people of upper 
Verde Valley, East Verde River, Fossil Creek, Clear Creek, ranging south to Cave 
Creek, and Walkey-anyanyepa (people of the massif to which Jerome clings). 

b. Mat-haupapaya (inhabiting the massif from Prescott to Crown King and 
Bumble Bee), and including: Wikutepa (the Granite Peak Band) and Wikeni- 
chapa (the Black Mountains or Crown King Band). 

C. Tolkepaya or Western Yavapai, including: Hakupakapa or Inyokapa 
(inhabitants of mountains north of Congress); Hakehelapa Wiltaikapaya (people 
of Harquahala and Harcuvar Mountains on either side of Wiltaika (Salome); 
People’s Valley, Kirkland Valley (upper drainage of Hassayampa Creek near 
Wickenburg and region around Hillside); Haka-whatapa or Matakwarapa (who 
formerly lived at La Paz and Castle Dome). 


History.—Gifford (1936) states that ‘‘the earliest probable mention”’ 
of the Yavapai “is by Luxan of the Espejo expedition, who in 1582- 
1583 apparently visited only the country of the Northeastern Yava- 
pai.” In 1598 Marcos Farfan de los Godos met them and called them 
Cruzados because they wore smal] crosses on their heads, and in 
1604 Juan de Ofiate also visited them, as did Father Francisco Garcés 
in 1776, after which time contact with Europeans was pretty regular. 
They were removed to the Verde River Agency in May 1873. In 
1875 they were placed on the San Carlos Apache Agency, but by 
1900 most of the tribe had settled in part of their old home on the 
Verde River, including the abandoned Camp McDowell Military 
Reservation, which was assigned to their use, November 27, 1901, 
by the Secretary of the Interior, until Congress should take final 
action. By Executive Order of September 15, 1903, the old reserva- 
tion was set aside for their use, and the claims of the white settlers 
purchased under Act of April 21, 1904. 

Population.—-Mooney (1928) estimates 600 Yavapai in 1680. 
Gifford’s (1936) estimate would about double that, though he does not 
believe they ever exceeded 1500. In 1873 they were said to number 
about 1,000 and in 1903 between 500 and 600. In 1906, 520 were 
reported, 465 at Camp McDowell and Upper Verde Valley, and 55 at 
San Carlos. In 1910, 289 were reported by the Census, but the same 
year the Indian Office reported 178 under the Camp McDowell School 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 369 


Superintendent, 282 under the Camp Verde School, and 89 under the 
San Carlos School; total, 549. In 1823 the Indian Office reported 
708 under the Camp Verde School and Salt River Superintendencies. 
In 1932 the Indian Office reported only 193, but the ‘‘Yuma Apache” 
would add 24. In 1937 there were 194. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—(See Havasupai.) The 
name has been perpetuated in that of Yavapai County, Ariz. 


Yuma. Said to be an old Pima and Papago term for this tribe and in 


some cases the Kamia and Maricopa also (Forde, 1931). Also called: 

Cetguanes, by Venegas (1759). 

Chirumas, an alternative name given by Orozco y Berra (1864). 

Club Indians, by Emory (1848). 

Cuchan, or, strictly, Kwitey4n*, own name. 

Dil-zhay’s, Apache name for this tribe and the Tonto and Mohave, signi- 
fying ‘‘red soil with red ants” (White, MS.). 

Garroteros, by Emory (1848). 

Guichyana, Chemehuevi name. 

Hatilshe’, same as Dil-zhay’s. 

Hiukwats, Paiute name, signifying ‘‘ weavers.” 

Kin, said to be Apache name for this tribe and the Tulkepaia. 

Wamakava, applied by Havasupai to Mohave and perhaps to this tribe 
also. 


Connections.—The Yuma were one of the chief tribes of the old 
Yuman linguistic stock, to which they have given their name, but 
their closest immediate relatives were the Maricopa and Halchidhoma. 
The Yuman stock is now considered a part of the larger Hokan family. 

Location.—On both sides of the Colorado River next above the 
Cocopa, or about 50 or 60 miles from the mouth of the river, at and 
below the junction of the Gila River, Fort Yuma being in about the 
center of their territory. (See also California.) 


Villages 


Forde (1931) gives the following: 

Ahakwedehor (axakweédexor), about 2 miles northeast of Fort Yuma. 

Avikwotapai, some distance south of Parker on the California side of the Colorado. 

Huksil (xuksi’l), along the Colorado River near Pilot Knob, a few miles south of 
Algodones and across the International Boundary. 

Kwerav (ava’io), about 2 miles south of the present Laguna Dam and on the 
California side of the Colorado. 

Unnamed town, a little east of the present site of Picacho, at the foot of the 
Chocolate Mountains. 


History.—Neither Alarcén, who ascended the Colorado River in 
1540, nor Onate, who visited it in 1604, mentions the Yuma, but in 
the case of Ofiate this may be accounted for by the fact that these 
Indians were then living exclusively on the west side of the river, 
which he did not reach. The first explorer to mention them by 


370 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


name seems to have been Father Kino, 1701-2; and Garcés, 1771, and 
Anza, 1774 and 1775, have a great deal to say about them. Garcés 
and Eixarch remained among them in 1775. (See Kino (1726), and 
Garcés (1900).) Most of their territory passed under the control of the 
United States by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, and 
the remainder in consequence of the Gadsden Purchase of 1853. 
After the founding of Fort Yuma, contacts between the Whites and 
this tribe became intimate. Most of them were ultimately concen- 
trated on the Colorado River and Yuma Reservations. 

Population.—Garcés (1776) estimated that there were 3,000 Yuma, 
but Anza (see Coues, 1900) raises this to 3,500. An estimate attributed 
to M. Leroux dating from ‘early in the 19th century,” again gives 
3,000. According to the Report of the United States Indian Office 
for 1910, there were then 655 individuals belonging to the tribe, but 
the census of that year gives 834. The Indian Office figure for 1923 
is 826 and that for 1929, 826, but the United States Census for 1920 
increases it very materially, to 2,306. However, the Report of the 
Indian Office for 1937 gives only 848. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—Besides giving its 
name to the Yuman stock, the name Yuma is preserved by counties in 
Arizona and Colorado; localities in Yuma County, Ariz.; Yuma 
County, Colo.; Cloud County, Kans.; Taylor County, Ky; Wexford 
County, Mich.; and Carroll County, Tenn. 


COLORADO 


Apache. A number of the Apache bands extended their raids from 
time to time over the territory of what is now Colorado, but only 
one of them, the Jicarilla, may be said to have been permanent 
occupants of any part of the State within the historic period. This 
tribe is considered under the name Jicarilla below; for an account 
of the other Apache tribes except the Lipan, see New Mexico. The 
Lipan are treated under Texas. 


Arapaho. The Arapaho hunted and warred over parts of eastern 
Colorado. (See Wyoming.) 


Bannock. This tribe and the Shoshoni roamed over the extreme 
northwestern corner of the State. (See Idaho.) 


Cheyenne. The same may be said of the Cheyenne as of the Arapaho. 
(See South Dakota.) 


Comanche. Like the Arapaho and Cheyenne, this tribe hunted and 
warred in the eastern parts of the State. (See Texas.) 


Jicarilla. A Mexican Spanish word, meaning ‘‘little basket,’ given 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 371 


to the tribe on account of the expertness of Jicarilla women in 
making baskets. Also called: 
Bé’-xai, or Pex’-gé, Navaho name. 
Kinya-inde, Mescalero name. 
K°op-tagui, Kiowa name, signifying “mountain Apache.” 
Pi’-ke-e-wai-i-ne, Picuris name. 
Tan-nah-shis-en, by Yarrow (1879) and signifying ‘‘men of the woodland.” 
Tashi’ne, Mescalero name. 
Tinde, own name. 
Tu-sa-be’, Tesuque name. 

Connections.—The Jicarilla were one of the so-called Apache tribes, 
all of which belonged to the great Athapascan linguistic stock, but 
with the Lipan (see Texas) constituted a group distinct from the 
Apache proper. (See New Mexico.) 

Location.—Within historic times the homes of the Jicarilla have 
beep in southeastern Colorado and northern New Mexico, though 
they have ranged into the adjacent parts of Kansas, Oklahoma, and 


Texas. 
Subdivisions 


Mooney (1928) gives the following: 
Apatsiltlizhihi, who claim the district of Mora, N. Mex. 
Dachizhozhin, original home around the present Jicarilla Reservation, N. Mex. 
Golkahin, claiming a former home south of Taos Pueblo, N. Mex. 
Ketsilind, claiming a former home south of Taos Pueblo, N. Mex. 
Saitinde, claiming the vicinity of present Espanola, N. Mex., as their original 
home. 


History.—There is little doubt that the Jicarilla traveled south- 
ward at no very remote period from among the Athapascan tribes 
in northwestern Canada, very likely by way of the eastern flanks of 
the Rocky Mountains. They were probably among the Querechos 
met by Coronado in 1540-42, the same people known to the later 
Spanish explorers as Vaqueros. They first received mention under 
their own name early in the eighteenth century. In 1733 a Spanish 
mission was established for them near Taos, N. Mex., but it did not 
last long, and their relations with the Spaniards were generally hostile. 
In 1853 the governor of New Mexico induced 250 of the tribe to settle 
on the Puerco River, but failure to ratify the treaty he had made 
with them caused them to go on the warpath, and they continued 
hostile until their defeat by United States troops in 1854. In 1870 
they resided on the Maxwell grant in northeastern New Mexico, but 
the sale of it necessitated their removal. In 1872 and again in 1873 
attempts were made to move them to Fort Stanton, but most of them 
were permitted to go to the Tierra Amarilla, on the northern confines 
of the territory, on a reservation of 900 square miles set aside in 1874. 
Their annuities having been suspended in 1878 on account of their 


372 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


refusal to move southward in accordance with an Act of Congress of 
that year, they resorted to thieving. In 1880 the Act of 1878 was 
repealed, and a new reservation was set aside on the Navajo River, 
to which they were removed. Here they remained until 1883, when 
they were transferred to Fort Stanton. On February 11, 1887, how- 
ever, a reservation was set aside for them in the Tierra Amarilla 
region by Executive Order. They removed to this territory and 
there they have now been allotted land in severalty. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that there were about 800 
Jicarilla in 1845. In 1905 they numbered 795; according to the 
Census of 1910, there were 694; the Report of the United States 
Indian Office for 1923 gave 608, and that for 1937, 714. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Jicarilla is 
given to mountains and a post village in Lincoln County, N. Mex. 


Kiowa. Like the Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Comanche, the Kiowa 
formerly hunted and warred across parts of eastern Colorado. 


(See Oklahoma.) 


Kiowa Apache. This tribe always accompanied the Kiowa. (See 
Oklahoma.) 


Navaho. The Navaho lived just south of the Colorado boundary, 
entering that State only occasionally. (See New Mexico.) 


Pueblos. Most of the Pueblo tribes trace their origin to some place 
in the north and there is no doubt that the ancestors of many of 
them lived in what are now the pueblo and cliff ruins of Colorado. 
In historic times the principal dealings of Colorado Indians with the 
Pueblos have been with the Pueblo of Taos, which was once a 
trading point of importance. Many of its people intermarried with 
the Ute. (See New Mexico.) 


Shoshoni. Together with the Bannock, the Shoshoni roamed over 
the extreme northwestern part of Colorado. (See Idaho.) 


Ute. The Ute formerly occupied the entire central and western por- 
tions of Colorado. (See Utah.) 


UTAH 


Bannock. This tribe and the Shoshoni roamed over the northern 
part of Utah as far as the Uintah Mountains, and beyond Great 
Salt Lake. (See Idaho.) 


Gosiute. The Gosiute were a small body of Indians inhabiting the 
region about Great Salt Lake in northern Utah. They were long 
supposed to be a mixture of Ute and Shoshoni but are now known 
to have been connected only with the Shoshoni. They attracted 
particular attention because of their wretched manner of life, which 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 373 


reports frequently exaggerated unduly. (See Shoshoni, Western, 
under Idaho.) 


Navaho. This tribe occupied, at least at times, a small part of the 
southeastern section of Utah as far as the San Juan River. (See 
New Mexico.) 


Paiute, Southern. The Southern Paiute occupied the southwestern 
part of Utah. (See Nevada.) 


Shoshoni, Western. The Western Shoshoni extended into northern 
Utah; they included the Gosiute, as above stated. (See Idaho.) 


Ute. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Grasshopper Indians, Pattie (1833). 

lataé-go, Kiowa name. 

Ietan, a form of their name used widely for Indians of the Shoshonean 
stock. 

Mactcifigeha wai", Omaha and Ponca name, signifying “rabbit skin robes.’ 

Moh-tau-hai’-ta-ni-o, Cheyenne name, signifying ‘‘the black men.” 

Ndsuia kwe, Zufi name, signifying ‘‘deer-hunting men.” 

No-ochi or Notch, own name. 

Nota-4, Navaho name. 

Quazula, seems to be the Jemez name for them. 

Sapa wichasha, Dakota name, signifying “‘black people.” 

Ta’hana, Taos name. 

Tcingawuptuh, former Hopi name. 

WaAatenthts, Atsina name, signifying “black.” 


Connections.—The Ute belonged to the Shoshonean division of the 
Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock and were related more closely to the 
true Paiute, Kawaiisu, and Chemehuevi. 

Location.—In central and western Colorado and all of eastern 
Utah, including the eastern part of Salt Lake Valley and Utah Valley 
and extending into the upper drainage area of the San Juan River 
in New Mexico. (See also Nevada and Wyoming.) 


Subdivisions 


Capote, in the Tierra Amarilla and Chama River country, northwestern New 
México. 

Elk Mountain Ute (perhaps the Sabuaguanos of Escalante (1882) and Tah-bah- 
was-chi of Beckwith (1882), especially if the initial letter in one or the other 
case has been misread, in the Elk Mountains of Colorado. 

Kosunats, on Uintah Reservation in 1873. 

Moache, in southwest Colorado and northwest New Mexico. 

Pahvant, around the lower portion of Sevier Lake and River, Utah. 

Pav6gowunsin, on the upper course of the Sevier River, south of the Salina River. 

Pikakwanarats, on the Uinta Reservation in 1873. 

Sampits or Sanpet, around Manti on San Pitch Creek but wintering on Sevier 
River, Utah. 

Seuvarits or Sheberetch, in the Castle Valley country and on headwaters of 
San Rafael River, in east central Utah. 


374 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Tabeguache, in southwest Colorado, chiefly about Los Pinos. 

Tumpanogots or Timpaiavats, about Utah Lake, Utah. 

Uinta, in northeastern Utah. 

Wiminuche, in southwest Colorado, chiefly in the valley of the San Juan and its 
northern tributaries. 

Yampa, on and about Green and Colorado Rivers in eastern Utah. 

The Sogup, in or near New Mexico, and Yubuincariri, west of Green River, 
Utah, are also given as former bands, and a few others of uncertain status also 
appear, such as the Kwiumpus, Nauwanatats, and Unkapanukints. In later 
years the recognized divisions were reduced to three: Tabeguache or Uncom- 
pahgre, Kaviawach or White River, and Yoovte or Uinta. 

History.—The Ute occupied the region above indicated when they 
came to the knowledge of the Spaniards, who were the first Europeans 
to encounter them. Their warlike disposition was early accentuated 
by the introduction of horses among them. Our first intimate knowl- 
edge of them is derived from the diary of Fray Silvestre Velez de 
Escalante, who penetrated their country in 1776. For a brief period 
they were organized into a confederacy under a chief named Tabby 
(Taiwi). The first treaty between the United States Government and 
the Ute was concluded December 30, 1849. By Executive order of 
October 3, 1861, Uintah Valley was set apart for the Uinta Band, 
while the remainder of the land claimed by them was taken without 
formal purchase. By a treaty of October 7, 1863, a reservation was 
assigned to the Tabeguache, and the remainder of their land was 
taken without formal purchase. On May 5, 1864, various reserves, 
established in 1856 and 1859 by Indian agents, were ordered vacated 
and sold. By a treaty of March 2, 1868, a reservation was created 
in Colorado for the ‘Tabeguache, Moache, Capote, Wiminuche, 
Yampa, Grand River, Uinta, and other bands, who relinquished the 
remainder of their lands, but by an agreement of September 13, 1873, 
a part of the reservation was ceded to the United States. When it 
was found that a portion of this last cession was included in the Un- 
compahere Valley, the part so included was retroceded to the Ute 
by Executive order of August 17, 1876. By Executive order of No- 
vember 22, 1875, the Ute Reservation was enlarged, but this additional 
tract was restored to the public domain by an order of August 4, 1882. 
By Act of June 18, 1878, a portion of the Act of May 5, 1864, was 
repealed, and several tracts included in the reservations thereunder 
established were restored to the public domain. Under an agreement 
of November 9, 1878, the Moache, Capote, and Wiminuche ceded 
their right to the confederated Ute Reservation established by the 
1868 treaty, the United States agreeing to establish a reservation for 
them on San Juan River, a promise which was finally fulfilled by 
Executive order of February 7, 1879. On March 6, 1880, the South- 
ern Ute and the Uncompahgre acknowledged an agreement to settle 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 375 


respectively on La Plata River and on the Grand River near the 
mouth of the Gunnison, while the White River Ute agreed to move 
to the Uinta Reservation in Utah. Sufficient agricultural land not 
being found at the point designated as the future home of the Uncom- 
pahgre, the President, by Executive order of January 5, 1882, estab- 
lished a reserve for them in Utah, the boundaries of which were defined 
by Executive order of the same date. By Act of May 24, 1888, a 
part of the Uinta Reservation was restored to the public domain. 
The tribe has since been allotted land in severalty. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 4,500 Ute 
in 1845, including the Gosiute. In 1870 there were supposed to be 
4,000. The official reports give 3,391 in 1885 and 2,014 in 1909. 
The census of 1910 returned 2,244; the United States Indian Office in 
1923, 1,922, including some Paiute; and the Indian Office in 1937, 
2,163. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Ute shared with 
the Shoshoni the reputation of being the strongest and most warlike 
of the Plateau people. The State of Utah derives its name from 
the Ute. Utah is also the name of a county and a lake in this State. 
There is a place called Utahville in Clearfield County, Pa., and locali- 
ties called Ute in Montrose County, Colo., and Monona County, 
Iowa, and Ute Park in Colfax County, N. Mex. 


NEVADA 


Koso. This is properly a California tribe, though it sometimes 
ranged into Nevada. (See California.) 


Paiute, Northern. The significance of the word “Paiute” is uncer- 
tain, though it has been interpreted to mean “water Ute” or 
“true Ute.” Also called: 

Monachi, Yokuts name. 

Monozi, Maidu name. 

Mono-Paviotso, name adopted in the Handbook of American Indians 
(Hodge, 1907, 1910), from an abbreviated form of the above and Paviotso. 

Nutaa, Chukchansi Yokuts name, signifying that they were east or up- 
stream. 

Paviotso, a native term applied by Powell (1891) to a part of the 
Nevada Indians of this group. 

Snake, name commonly given to the Northern Paiute of Oregon. 


Connections.—With the Bannock, the Northern Paiute constituted 
one dialectic group of the Shoshonean Branch of the Uto-Aztecan 
stock. 

Location.—The Northern Paiute were not properly a tribe, the 
name being used for a dialectic division as indicated above. They 


376 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


covered western Nevada, southeastern Oregon, and a strip of Cali- 
fornia east of the Sierra Nevada as far south as Owens Lake except 
for territory occupied by the Washo. According to the students of 
the area, they were pushed out of Powder River Valley and the 
upper course of John Day River in the nineteenth century by Sha- 
haptian tribes and the Cayuse. (See also Idaho.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


There were no true tribes or bands except in the extreme western and north- 
eastern parts of the area covered, but topography enforced concentration into 
certain valleys. Aside from the detached Bannock, the Northern Paiute were 
divided by the Sierra Nevada Mountains into a widely spread eastern division 
and a small division confined to California, the Eastern and Western Mono of 
Kroeber. Kroeber (1925) distinguishes six divisions of the latter as follows: 


Balwisha, on the Kaweah River, especially on its south side. 

Holkoma, on a series of confluent streams—of which Big Burr and Sycamore 
Creeks are the most important—entering Kings River above Mill Creek. 

Northfork Mono, for whom no native name has survived, on the North Fork of 
San Joaquin River. 

Posgisa or Poshgisha, of the San Joaquin, on Big Sandy Creek, and toward, if 
not on, the heads of Little and Big Dry Creeks. 

Waksachi, on Limekiln and Eshom Creeks and the North Fork of Kaweah River. 

Wobonuch, at the head of Mill Creek, a southern affluent of Kings River, and in 
the pine ridges to the north. 


Away from Owens Valley and the immediate neighborhood the Paiute have 
been divided into a large number of bands with names which usually signify that 
they were “‘eaters’’ of some particular kind of food. Although the entire area has 
been filled in with such names, they have been given largely by Indians from areas 
outside those of the supposed bands; different names are given by different inform- 
ants, the same name occurs in a number of places, at times widely separated, and 
there is lack of agreement among informants, including Steward (1933), Kelly 
(1937), Park (1938), and Blyth (1938), as to the numbers, names, and locations of 
the groups under consideration. Instead of attempting any sort of classification, 
therefore, I will simply insert a miscellaneous list of villages and local settlements 
though these were almost as fluctuating and impermanent as the larger groups. 
In most cases, however, it may be assumed that the location was determined by 
economic factors and mention of such a site has, therefore, some permanent value 
however often the name may have changed or the composition of the village 
fluctuated. 

Gifford (1932) gives the following hamlets belonging to Kroeber’s Northfork 
Mono besides 83 fishing places and campsites, the exact locations of which are 
entered in his report and accompanying map: 


Apasoraropa. Homohomineu. 
Apayiwe. Howaka. 
Asiahanyu. Kodiva. 
Bakononohoi. Konahinau. 
Dipichugu. Kotuunu. 
Dipichyu. Kunugipi. 
Ebehiwe. Monolu. 


Homenadobema. Moyopaso. 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 377 
Muchupiwe. Sihuguwe. 
Musawati. Sikinobi. 
Nakamayuwe. Sipineu. 
Napasiat. Siiigati. 
Noboihawe. Soyakanim. 
Nosidop. Sukuunu. 
Ohinobi. Supanaminau. 
O’oneu. Takapiwe. 
Oyonagatii. Takatiu. 
Pahabitima. Tasineu. 
Pakasanina. Tiwokiiwe. 
Papavagohira. Topochinatii. 
Pasawapu. Tiibipakwina. 
Pasiaputka. Tukweninewe. 
Pausoleu. Tumuyuyu. 
Payauta. Tupipasagii we. 
Pekeneu. Waapiiwee. 
Pimishineu. Wadakhanau. 
Poniaminau. Wegigoyo. 
Poniwinyu. Wiakwi. 
Ponowee. Wokoiinaha. 
Saganiu. Wokosolna. 
Saiipii. Yatsayau. 
Saksakadiu. Yauwatinyu. 
Sanita. Yauyau. 
Sigineu. 


Steward enumerates the following ‘‘districts’’ of Owens Valley and neighboring 
valleys, each with communistic hunting and seed rights, political unity, and a 
number of villages: 


Kwina pati, Round Valley. 

Panati, the Black Rock territory, south to Taboose Creek. 

Pitana patii, extending from the volcanic tableland and Norton Creek in the Sierra 
to a line running out into Owens Valley from Waucodayavi, the largest creek 
south of Rawson Creek. 

Tovowahamatii, centering at Big Pine, south to Big Pine Creek in the mountains, 
but with fishing and seed rights along Owens River nearly to Fish Springs. 

Tunuhu witi, of uncertain limits. 

Uti’iitii witt, from the warm springs, now Keough’s, south to Shannon Creek. 


The people of Deep Springs Valley called their valley Patosabaya and themselves 
Patosabaya niinemua; the Fish Lake Valley people to the north of these did not 
constitute a unified band but were distributed into the following villages: 


Ozanwin, on the east or south slope of the Sylvania Mountains and near Tii’nava. 

Pau’uva, in the vicinity of McNett ranch. 

Sohodiihatii, at the present Oasis ranch. 

Suhuyoi, at the Patterson ranch. 

Tuna’va, the present Geroux ranch, marked McFee on the United States Geo- 
logical Survey. 

Tii’nava, at Pigeon Spring at the east end of Fish Lake Valley. 

Watiihad, Moline ranch on Moline Creek. 

Yogamatii, several miles from the mountains at the present Chiatovich ranch. 


378 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 145 


Steward (1933) gives the following village names in and near Owens Valley: 


An unnamed site west of Deep Springs Lake. 
Ahagwa, on Division Creek. 

Antelope Springs, native name not recorded. 

Hudu matu, on Cottonwood Creek. 

Hunadudugo, camp near Wyman Creek. 

Ka’nasi, camp at Dead Horse Meadow on Wyman Creek. 
Mogahu’ pina, scattered along Hogback, Lone Pine, Tuttle, and Diez Creeks. 
Mogohopinan watu, on Richter Creek. 

Muhu witu, on Tinnemaha Creek. 

Nataka’ matu, at Independence. 

Nuvahu’ matu, near Thibaut Creek. 

Oza’n witu, southeast of Deep Springs Lake. 
Padohahu matu, on Goodale Creek. 

Pahago watu, on Tuttle Creek. 

Pakwazi’ natu, at Olancha. 

Pa’natu, on Owens River, near mouth of Birch Creek. 
Pau’ wahapu, at Hines Spring. 

Pawona witu, on Bishop Creek below Bishop. 

Pa’ yapo’o’ha, south of Bishop. 

Pazi wapi nwuna, at Independence. 

Posi’da witu, on Baker Creek. 

Suhubadopa, at Fish Springs Creek, at least in prehistoric times. 
Suhu’budu mutu, on Carroll Creek. 

Suhuvakwazi natu, on Wyman Creek. 

Tanova witu, south of Independence. 

Ti numaha witu, on Tinnemaha Creek. 

To’owiawatu, at Symmes Creek. 

Totsitupi, on Thibaut Creek. 

To’ vowaha’/matu, at Big Pine on Big Pine Creek. 
Tsagapu witu, at Shepherd Creek. 

Tsaki’shaduka, near Old Fort Independence. 

Tsaksha witu, at Fort Independence. 

Tsa‘wawua’a, on Bishop Creek. 

Tsigoki, beyond Owens ranch, east of Bishop. 
Tuhunitogo, near upper course of Birch Creek. 
Tuinu’hu, on Sawmill Creek. 

Tunwa’ pu, at the mouth of Taboose Creek. 

Tupico, on Birch Creek, west of Hunadudugo. 
Tupuzi witu, at George’s Creek. 

Waushova witu, on Lone Pine Creek. 


Steward gives the following villages in Fish Lake Valley: 


Oza‘ nwin, on the east or south slope of the Sylvania Mountains and near Tu’nava. 
Pau’ uva, in the vicinity of McNett ranch. 

Sohoduhatu, at the present Oasis ranch. 

Suhuyoi, at the Patterson ranch. 

Tuna’ va, at the present Geroux ranch. 

Tu’ nava, at Pigeon Springs at east end of Fish Lake Valley. 

Watuhad, at Moline ranch. 

Yogamatu, several miles from the mountains at the present Chiatovich ranch. 


SWANTON) INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 379 


The following are miscellaneous local groups of Northern Paiute, the names 
drawn from various sources: 


Agaivanuna, at Summit Lake, western Nevada. 

Duhutcyatikadu, on Silver and Summer Lakes, Oreg. 

Genega’s Band, at the mouth of Truckee River 

Gidutikadu, in Surprise, Calif.; Coleman; Warner, Oreg.; and probably also 
Long Valleys, in California, Nevada, and Oregon. 

Goyatikendu, at Yainax and Beatty, Oreg., brought from Silver Lake. 

Hadsapoke’s Band, at Gold Canyon, Carson River. 

Hoonebooey, east of the Cascades and south of the Blue Mountains of Oregon. 

Itsaatiaga, about Unionville, Nev. 

Kaivaningavidukw, in Surprise Valley, northeastern California. 

Koeats, in north central Nevada. 

Kosipatuwiwagaiyu, about Carson Sink. 

Koyuhow, about McDermitt, Nev. 

Kuhpattikutteh, on Quinn River, Nev. 

Kuyuidika, near the site of Wadsworth on Truckee River. 

Kuyuitikadu, at Pyramid Lake, Nixon, Nev. 

Kwinaduvaa, at McDermitt, Nev. 

Laidukatuwiwait, about the sink of the Humboldt. 

Lohim, an isolated Shoshonean band, probably of this connection, on Willow 
Creek, a southern affluent of the Columbia, Oreg. 

Loko, on or near Carson River, Nev. 

Nogaie (with 4 subbands), in the vicinity of Robinson District, Spring Valley, 
Duckwater, and White River Valley. 

Odukeo’s Band, around Carson and Walker Lakes. 

Oualuck’s Band, in Eureka Valley, Oreg. 

Pamitoy, in Mason Valley. 

Paxai-dika, in Bridgeport Valley, Calif. 

Petodseka, about Carson and Walker Lakes. 

Piattuiabbe (with 5 bands), near Belmont, Nev. 

Pitanakwat or Petenegowat, in Owens Valley, but formerly in Esmeralda County, 
Nev. 

Poatsituhtikuteh, on the north fork of Walker River. 

San Joaquin’s Band, at the forks in Carson Valley. 

Sawagativa, about Winnemucca. 

Shobarboobeer, probably of this connection, in the interior of Oregon, 

Shuzavi-dika, in Mono Valley, Calif. 

Togwingani, about Malheur Lake, Oreg. 

Tohaktivi, about the White Mountains, near the head of Owens River, Calif. 

Toitikadu, at Fallon and Yerington, Nev. 

Toiwait, about the lower Sink of the Carson. 

Tonawitsowa (with 6 bands), in the vicinity of Battle Mountain and Unionville, 

Tonoyiet’s Band, below Big Meadows, Truckee River. 

Torepe’s Band, near the lower crossing of Truckee River. 

Tosarke’s Band, near Carson and Walker Lakes. 

Tsapakah, in Smith Valley. 

Tubianwapu, about Virginia City. 

Tubuwitikadu, east of Steens Mountain, Oreg. 

Tupustikutteh, on Carson River. 

Tuziyammos, about Warner Lake, Oreg. 

Wahi’s Band, at the big bend of Carson River. 


380 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (BULL. 145 


Wadatikadu, at Burns, Malheur District, Oregon, and Susanville, Calif. 

Wahtatkin, east of the Cascade Mountains and south of the Blue Mountains, 
Oreg. 

Walpapi, on the shores of Goose, Silver, Warner, and Harney Lakes, Oreg. 

Warartika, about Honey Lake, northeastern California. 

Watsequeorda’s Band, on Pyramid Lake. 

Winemucca’s Band, said to have had a specific location on Smoke Creek near 
Honey Lake, northeastern California, but to have been extended to other 
northern Paiute living west of the Hot Springs Mountains in Nevada, who do not 
seem to have been united into one body until brought together to defend 
themselves against the Whites. 

Wobonuch, at the head of Mill Creek, California, and in the pine ridges to the 
north. 

Yahuskin, about the shores of Goose, Silver, and Harney Lakes, Oreg. 

Yammostuwiwagaiya, in Paradise Valley, Nev. 

History.—Although the territory of the Northern Paiute has been 
occupied for a long period by human beings and has been modified 
from time to time along its margins by neighboring cultures, there 
seem to have been few fundamental changes in the culture of the 
region taken as a whole, the economic life having been based on 
hunting and gathering. Contacts with Europeans began at a com- 
paratively late period, probably with the entrance of trappers about 
1825. Jedediah Smith made journeys across Nevada in 1825 and 
Old Greenwood may have visited it still earlier. Peter Skene Ogden 
visited the Paiute of eastern Oregon between 1826 and 1828 and 
probably reached Humboldt River in Nevada. These men were 
followed by Walker (1833), Russell (1834-43), and many others. 
During this period relations with the Indians seem to have been 
uniformly friendly, but clashes became more numerous with the 
great stream of immigration which began about 1840 and swelled to 
tidal proportions with the discovery of gold in California. The 
Paiute in the remote valleys, however, remained for a long time 
little affected. Descriptions of Indian life in the numerous reports 
of travelers are disappointing. A great crisis in the affairs of the 
Indians was brought about by the discovery of the Comstock lode at 
Virginia City, Nev., since in the next 10 years prospectors penetrated 
every part of the territory, says Steward, ‘‘and boom towns sprang up 
in the midst of sheer desert.”” A greater menace to the lives of the 
Indians was the introduction of livestock and consequent destruction 
of native food plants. Pinyon trees were also cut down for fuel. By 
this time the natives had both guns and horses and were in con- 
sequence much more capable of inflicting damage in the clashes 
which began about 1860 and in consequence of which several military 
posts were established. With the completion of the first trans- 
continental railroad in 1869, the native period came practically to 
anend. On October 1, 1863, the United States Government extended 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 381 


its authority without formal purchase over the territory of the ‘‘West- 
ern Shoshoni” and included within it the northern part of the lands 
occupied by the Northern Paiute under discussion. The Government 
assumed ‘‘the right of satisfying their claim by assigning them such 
reservations as might seem essential for their occupancy, and sup- 
plying them in such degree as might seem proper with necessaries 
of life’? (Royce, 1899). By virtue of the authority thus granted, a 
mill and timber reserve was created on Truckee River by Executive 
order, April 24, 1864, for the Pyramid Lake Indians. In December 
1864 Eugene Monroe surveyed a reservation for the Paiute at Walker 
River, and in January 1865 he surveyed another at Pyramid Lake. 
The former was set aside by Executive order March 19, 1874, and 
the latter 4 days later. ‘The remainder of the Pai Ute country,” 
says Royce, ‘‘[was] taken possession of by the United States without 
formal relinquishment by the Indians.’”’ On the other hand, the 
Indians by no means confined themselves to these reservations. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that this division, i. e., the 
tribes embraced under the name of Northern Paiute, and the true or 
Southern Paiute numbered 7,500 in 1845. The figures given in the 
Report of the Indian Office for 1903 indicate a population of about 
5,400 for the group. The Census of 1910 reports 1,448 ‘‘Mono” and 
3,038 Paviotso, a total of 4,486, but the United States Indian Office 
Report of 1923 seems to give a total of more than 13,000. This is 
evidently erroneous since the United States Census of 1930 reported 
4,420. The figures of the United States Indian Office in 1937 seem to 
yield 4,108, after substracting 270, which plainly belonged to the 
Southern Paiute. 


Paiute, Southern. Also called: 


Audélastis, Pima name. 

Chemegué Cuajala, by Garcés in 1776, the first name on account of their 
association with the Chemehuevi (see under California; for Cuajadla, see 
Kohoaldje below). 

Da-da’-ze ni’-ka-ci®’-ga, Kansa name, signifying “grasshopper people.” 

Diggers, a popular name sometimes used for them. 

Hogipa’goni, Shoshoni name, signifying “rush-arrow people.” 

Kohoaldje, originally Mohave name of Virgin River Paiute. 

Nima, own name, signifying ‘‘people,” ‘‘Indians.”’ 

Pa’gonotch, Southern Ute:name. 

Pah-ri-s4-pih, Chemehuevi name. 

Snake Diggers, or Ute Diggers, by Simpson (1859). 

Yabipai Cajuala, by Garcés in 1776. 


Connections.—The Southern Paiute belonged to the Ute-Chemehuevi 
group of the Shoshonean branch of the Uto-Aztecan stock. 

Location.—In western Utah, northwestern Arizona, southeastern 
Nevada, and parts of southeastern California. 


382 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 145 


Subdivisions 


Powell and Ingalls give the following “‘tribes’”’ which, as Steward (1933) sug- 
gests, were more likely villages or restricted local groups: 


Ho-kwaits, in the vicinity of Ivanspaw (“Ivanpah Mountain’’). 

I’-chu-ar’-rum-pats, in Moapa Valley, “probably in Overton-St. Thomas vicinity” 
(Kelly, 1932). 

Kai’vav-wits, in the vicinity of Kanab (‘‘Kaibab Plateau’’—Kelly). 

Kau-yai’-chits, at Ash Meadows but actually in Shoshoni territory. 

Kwai-an’-tikwok-ets, east of Colorado, which is perhaps what the name means 
(Palmer, 1928). 

Kwi-en’-go-mats, at Indian Springs. 

Kwi-um’-pus, in the vicinity of Beaver. 

Mo-a-pa-ri’-ats, in Moapa Valley (on Moapa Creek). 

Mo-quats, in Kingston Mountains. 

Mo-vwi’-ats, at Cottonwood Island. 

Nau-wan’-a-tats, in Moapa Valley. 

No-gwats, in the vicinity of Potosi (“in Spring Mountains’’—Kelly). 

Nu-a’gun-tits, in Las Vegas Valley. 

Pa-ga’-its, in the vicinity of Colville. 

Pa-gu’-its, at Pagu Lake. 

Pa-ran-i-guts, in Pa-ran-i-gut Valley. 

Pa-room’-pai-ats, in Moapa Valley “head of Moapa Creek, at Home ranch.” 

Pa-room’-pats, at Pa-room Spring. 

Pa-ru’-guns, in the vicinity of Parawau ‘‘Paragonah Lakes” (Kelly, 1932). 

Pa-spi’-kai-vats, in the vicinity of Toquerville, ‘‘a district on lower Ash Creek” 
(Kelly). 

Pin’-ti-ats, in Moapa Valley. 

Sau-won’-ti-ats, in Moapa Valley. 

Shi’-vwits, on Shi’-vwits Plateau. 

Tim-pa-shau’-wa-got-sits, at Providence Mountains. 

Tsou-wa’-ra-its, in Meadow Valley. 

U’-ai-Nu-ints, in the vicinity of St. George. 

U-in-ka’-rets, in Mountains (‘‘Mount Trumbull’’—Kelly). 

Un-ka-ka’-ni-guts, in Long Valley. 

Un-ka’-pa-Nu-kuints’, in the vicinity of Cedar (perhaps ‘‘second creek south of 
Kanarra . . . slightly southeast of New Harmony’’—Kelly). 

U-tum’-pai-ats, in Moapa Valley (“‘site of Wiser Ranch, near Glendale, Nevada”— 
Kelly). 

Ya’-gats, at Armagoza (“‘spring just north of Tecopa, in Armagosa Valley”’— 
Kelly). 


Kelly (1932) reduces the number of “‘tribes” or ‘‘bands” to 14, some of which 
agree with those given by Powell, while others seem to contain the remnants of a 
number of his ‘‘tribes.”” She also gives two not appearing in his list, viz: the 
Kaiparowits and a band at Gunlock. 


History.—The Southern Paiute came in contact with the Spaniards 
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries but were little disturbed by 
them. The first attempt to describe them systematically seems to 
have been made by Father Escalante, who traversed their territory 
in 1776. After the annexation of California and New Mexico to the 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 383 


United States, their country was slowly but steadily encroached upon, 
and they were in part removed to reservations though by far the 
greater number remained scattered through the country. There has 
been comparatively little friction between these Indians and the 
Whites. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) gives the population of the Southern 
Paiute and Northern Paiute together as 7,500 in 1845. In 1906 
there were reported to be 129 Indians at Moapa Reservation, 267 at 
Duck Valley, and those not under an agent in Nevada were estimated 
6 years before to number 3,700, but this includes the Northern Paiute; 
in Utah there were 76 Kaibab, 154 Shivwits, and 370 not under an 
agency; and in Arizona there were 350 Paiute under the Western 
Nevada School Superintendent, altogether slightly more than 5,000. 
Even allowing for the Northern Paiute, this figure must be too high or 
the enumerators of 1910 missed a great many Indians, for the census of 
that date reports only 780 Paiute altogether. The Indian Office 
Report for 1923 gives 226 in Nevada and southwestern Utah, but 
others in Utah are enumerated with the Ute. The census of 1930 
enumerates 294 exclusive of the Chemehuevi. According to the Report 
of the United States Indian Office for 1937, there seem to have been 
439 in that year. 

Connections in which they have become noted—The name Paiute 
has become identified with the name “Diggers.” Both have been 
used in a contemptuous sense. A county of south-central Utah is 
named Paiute. 


Panamint, see Paiute, Northern. 


Pueblo. In historic times none of the Pueblo Indians have occupied 
any part of Nevada, but remains in the southern section of the State 
testify to former occupancy by these Indians. (See New Mexico 
and Arizona.) 


Shoshoni. The Western Shoshoni occupied northeastern Nevada as 
far as, and including, Reese River Valley. (See Idaho.) 


Ute. The Ute claimed a small part of eastern Nevada. (See Utah.) 


Washo. From the native term Washiu, signifying ‘“‘person.”’ Also 
called: 


Tsaisuma, name given them by the northeastern Maidu. 


Connections.—Until recently the Washo were regarded as constitut- 
ing a distinct linguistic stock, but it is now believed that they were 
related to some of the tribes of California. J. P. Harrington has 
announced a linguistic connection between them and the Chumash, but 
other students place them in the Hokan linguistic family. 


384 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


Subdivisions 
Lowie gives the following: 


Ha/nale’lti, about Woodfords and in Antelope Valley. 
Pa’walu, near Minden and Gardnerville. 
We’lmelti, about Reno. 

Location.—On Truckee River as far down as the Meadows, though 
their right to the latter was disputed by the Northern Paiute tribes; 
Carson River down to the first large canyon below Carson City; the 
borders of Lake Tahoe; and Sierra and other valleys as far as the first 
range south of Honey Lake, Calif. 

History.—There is some evidence that the Washo were once estab- 
lished in valleys farther east than the location above given and were 
driven thence by Northern Paiute tribes. In 1860-62, according to 
Mooney (1928), the Northern Paiute conquered them in a contest 
over the site of Carson and forbade them thenceforth to own horses. 
They had little contact with Whites until very recent years. In 
later times they lived between Reno and a point a short distance 
south of Carson City, where they adopted a parasitic mode of life, 
depending almost entirely on the towns and ranches. In 1865 it was 
proposed to set aside two reservations for these Indians in Carson 
and Washoe Valleys, but white settlers had already occupied the 
territory and the plan was abandoned. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) made an estimate of 1,000 as of 1845. 
In 1859 they numbered about 900. In 1907, 300 were reported. 
The census of 1910 reported 819; that of 1930, 668. In 1937, 629 
were reported. 

Connections in which they have become noted—The name Washo is 
preserved in the names of Washoe County, Washoe Lake, Washoe 
Valley, and Washoe, a post hamlet, all in Nevada. Another locality 
called Washoe is in Carbon County, Mont. 


WYOMING 


Arapaho, possibly from the Pawnee tirapihu or larapihu, signifiying 
“trader.”’ Also called: 


Ahya’to, Kiowa name. 

Ano’s-anyotskano, Kichai name. 

Bétidéé, Kiowa Apache name. 

Detseka’ yaa, Caddo name, signifying “dog eaters.” 

Dog Eaters. 

E-tah-leh, Hidatsa name, signifying ‘‘bison path Indians.” 

Hitanwo’lv, Cheyenne name, signifying ‘‘cloud men” or ‘‘sky men.” 

Indna-ina, own name, signifying ‘‘our people.” 

Ita-Iddi, Hidatsa name (Maximilian). 

Kaninahoish, Chippewa name. 

Komséka-Ki‘fiahyup, former Kiowa name, signifying “‘men of the worn-out 
leggings.” 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 385 


Kun na-nar-wesh or Gens des Vachfes], by Lewis and Clark (1804). 

Mahpfyato, Dakota name, signifying ‘“‘blue cloud.” 

Nid/rhar!’s-kdrikiwa’ahfiski, Wichita name. 

Sarétika, Comanche and Shoshoni name, signifying ‘‘dog eaters’’; the 
Pawnee, Wichita, and Ute names were forms of this. 

Connections.—Together with their near relatives, the Atsina, the 
Arapaho constitute the most aberrant group of the Algonquian 
linguistic stock. 

Location—The Arapaho have occupied a number of different 
regions in the historic period, but after they crossed the Missouri 
they became most closely identified with northeastern Wyoming, 
where the main or northern part of the tribe resided for a long period 
and where they were finally given a reservation. (See also Colorado, 
Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South 
Dakota, and Canada.) 


Subdivisions 


The Arapaho recognized five main divisions, which were evidently originally 
distinct tribes. Mooney (1928) calls these: (1) Ndkasin&é’na, Bdéachinéna, or 
Northern Arapaho; (2) Ndawunéna, or Southern Arapaho; (8) Aa’ninéna, Hitunéna, 
Atsina, or Gros Ventres of the Prairie, today usually reckoned as a distinct tribe 
(see Montana); (4) Baisawunéna, principally with the Northern Arapaho; and (5) 
Hdnahawunéna, or Aanti’nhawi, later incorporated with the Northern Arapaho. 
The corresponding names given by Kroeber (1902 b) are: Hinanaé’ina® (Arapaho 
proper), Na"waginaha’aina® (evidently Southern Arapaho), Hitdune’na® (Gros 
Ventres), Badsa"wiune’na®, and Ha*anaxawiune’na*. Kroeber also states that 
four more divisions recognized in the tribe were evidently in reality divisions of 
the Hinanaé’ina®. These are: Wa*xué’ici (“ugly people’), about Cantonment, 
Okla.; Haxda*¢ine’na® (“ridiculous men’), on the South Canadian, Okla.; 
Baa"tciine’na® (“‘red-willow men’’), in Wyoming; and a fourth whose name has 
been forgotten. The following are relatively modern local bands of the Arapaho: 
Forks-of-the-River Men, Bad Pipes, Greasy Faces, WaAquithi, Aqdthiné’na, Gawun- 
éna, Hadqihana, Sasabaithi, of which the first three were among the Northern 
Arapaho. 


HMistory.— According to tradition, the Arapaho were once sedentary 
and seem to have lived in the Red River Valley, whence they moved 
southwest across the Missouri at some time prior to the passage of 
that stream by the Cheyenne. Sometime afterward the Atsina 
separated from the rest, possibly cut off from the main body by the 
Crow, and moved off to the north; and within the last century the 
rest of the tribe have slowly divided into a northern and a southern 
branch, the Northern Arapaho living along the edges of the mountains 
at the headwaters of the Platte, while the Southern Arapaho continued 
on toward the Arkansas. About 1840 they made peace with the Da- 
kota, Kiowa, and Comanche but were at war with the Shoshoni, Ute, 
and Pawnee until they were confined to reservations. By the treaty 
of Medicine Lodge in 1867 the Southern Arapaho were placed upon 
a reservation in Oklahoma along with the Southern Cheyenne; this was 


386 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


thrown open to white settlement and the Indian lands were allotted 
in severalty in 1892. The Northern Arapaho were assigned to a 
reservation on Wind River, Wyo., after having made peace with the 
Shoshoni who occupied the same reserve. The Atsina were associated 
with the Assiniboin on Fort Belknap Reservation, Mont. 

Population —Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 3,000 
Arapaho in 1780 and the same number of Atsina. In 1894 there 
were 2,638 of the two tribes together; in 1904 there were 889 Northern 
Arapaho and 859 Southern Arapaho, a total of 1,748. The census of 
1910 reported 1,419 Arapaho, while the United States Indian Office 
Report for 1923 gives 921 Arapaho in Wyoming and 833 in Oklahoma, 
a total of 1,754. The 1930 census reported 1,241, of whom 867 
belonged to the northern division. In 1937 there were 1,164 Northern 
Arapaho and 2,836 Southern Arapaho and Cheyenne together. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Arapaho were one 
of the famous raiding tribes of the Plains; their name appears fre- 
quently coupled with that of the Cheyenne. The name Arapahoe 
has been given to a county and a mountain in Colorado and to localities 
in Furnas County, Nebr.; Pamlico County, N. C.; Cheyenne County, 
Colo.; and Fremont County, Wyo.; and the name Arapaho to the 
county seat of Custer County, Okla. 


Bannock. Some Bannock ranged into western Wyoming. (See 
Idaho.) 


Cheyenne. The Cheyenne hunted and warred to some extent in the 
eastern part of Wyoming; were long allied with the Arapaho. (See 
South Dakota.) 


Comanche. Before separating from the Shoshoni the Comanche 
probably occupied territory in Wyoming, afterward moving south- 
ward. (See Texas.) 


Crows. The Crows occupied in Wyoming the valleys of Powder, 
Wind, and Big Horn Rivers and ranged as far south as Laramie. 
(See Montana.) 


Dakota. Dakota hunting and war parties frequently reached the 
territory of Wyoming, but the tribe had no permanent settlements 
there. In 1876 they participated with the Northern Arapaho and 
Northern Cheyenne in the cession of the northeastern territory of 
Wyoming. (See South Dakota.) 


Kiowa. According to tradition, a tradition reinforced by other evi- 
dence, the Kiowa lived for a time in or near the Black Hills before 
moving south. (See Oklahoma.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 387 


Kiowa Apache. This tribe lived in close conjunction with the Kiowa. 
(See Oklahoma.) 


Pawnee. The Pawnee were known to Wyoming only as hunters and 
warriors. (See Nebraska.) 


Shoshoni. The Northern Shoshoni formerly occupied the western 
part of Wyoming. (See Idaho.) 


Ute. The Ute were just south of the present Wyoming and entered 
its territory at times to hunt or fight. (See Utah.) 


MONTANA 


Arapaho. The Arapaho proper occupied, or camped in, parts of 
southeastern Montana at various periods of their history. (See 
Wyoming.) 

Arikara. Some Arikara hunted in eastern Montana. In 1869 and 
1880, together with the Hidatsa and Mandan, they relinquished 
rights to land in the southeastern part of the State. (See North 
Dakota.) 


Assiniboin. From a Chippewa term signifying ‘fone who cooks by 
the use of stones.” 

E-tans-ke-pa-se-qua, Hidatsa name, from a word signifying ‘long arrows” 
(Long, 1823). 

Guerriers de pierre, French name. 

Hohe, Dakota name, signifying ‘‘rebels.”’ 

Sioux of the Rocks, English name. 

Stonies, or Stone Indians, English name translated from the Indian. 

Tla’tlama’eka, Kutenai name, signifying “cutthroats,’”’ the usual term 
for Dakota derived from the sign language. 

Weepers, given by Henry (1809). 


Connections—The Assiniboin belonged to the Siouan linguistic 
family, and were a branch of the Dakota (see South Dakota), having 
sprung traditionally from the Yanktonai whose dialect they spoke. 

Location.—The Assiniboin were most prominently associated his- 
torically with the valleys of the Saskatchewan and Assiniboin Rivers, 
Canada. In the United States they occupied the territory north of 
the Milk and Missouri Rivers as far east as the White Earth. (See 
also North Dakota.) 


Subdivisions 


The latest list is that given by Professor Lowie (1939). He states that, an- 
ciently, there were three principal tribal divisions, viz: Hé’ke (Like-Big-Fish), 
Tu-wa"’huda® (Looking-like-Ghosts), and Sitco®’-ski (Tricksters, lit. ‘‘Wrinkled- 
Ankles’). Lowie obtained the names of the following smaller bands: Tca*xta’‘da®*, 
U*ska’ha (Roamers), Wazi’a wintca’ct*, (Northern People), Watd’paxna-o® 
wa? or Wato’paxnatu®, Tca®’xe wintca’cta (People of the Woods), Tani®’ta‘bin 
(Buffalo-Hip), Hu’dec&bin® (Red-Butt), Waci’azi hyabin (Fat-Smokers), Witci’- 


388 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL, 145 


abin, I®’ya"to™ wa*bin (Rock People), Watd’pabin (Paddlers), Cufitcé’bi (Canum 
Mentulae), Cahi’a iye’skabin (Speakers of Cree (Half-Crees)), Xe’nato*"wan 
(Mountain People), Xé’bina (Mountain People), Icna’umbis*, (Those-who-stay- 
alone), and Ini’na u’/mbi. Hayden (1862) mentions a band called Min’-i-shi- 
nak’-a-to, or Lake People, which does not seem to be identifiable with any of 
the above. This last may be the band called by Henry (1809) Those-who-have- 
water-for-themselves-only. The following bands cited by Henry are wholly 
unidentifiable: Red River, Rabbit, Eagle Hills, Saskatchewan, Foot, and Swampy 
Ground Assiniboin. 

History.—According to tradition, this tribe separated from the 
Wazikute band of Yanktonai. The separation evidently took place 
before contact with the Whites, but there is evidence that when 
Europeans first heard of the tribe they were south of their later habitat, 
probably in the vicinity of the Lake of the Woods and Lake Nipigon. 
Thence they moved northwest toward Lake Winnipeg and later to 
the banks of the Assiniboin and Saskatchewan Rivers. In the mean- 
time they had allied themselves with the Cree and had become enemies 
of their own southern relatives with whom they were afterward almost 
constantly at war. This northward movement and alliance with the 
Cree was due in large measure to the establishment of British posts 
on Hudson Bay and the desire of the Assiniboin Indians to have access 
to them and thus supply themselves with firearms and other European 
articles. The Assiniboin in the United States were gathered under 
the Fort Belknap and Fort Peck agencies; those in Canada under the 
Battleford, Edmonton, and Assiniboin agencies, at Moose Mountain, 
and on Stoney Reservation. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 10,000 
Assiniboin in 1780. In 1829 Porter gave 8,000, and Drake (in Church, 
1825) thought that there were 10,000 before the smallpox epidemic 
of 1836, when 4,000 died. The United States Indian Office Report 
of 1843 gave 7,000; in 1890 they numbered 3,008; and in 1904, 1,234 
in the United States, and 1,371 in Canada, a total of 2,605. The 
census of 1910 gave 1,235 in the United States, and the United States 
Indian Office Report for 1923 gave 1,400, while there was an approxi- 
mately equal number in Canada. The United States Census of 
1930 gave 1,581. In 1937, 2,232 were returned in the United States. 

Connections in which they have become noted—The Assiniboin 
attained prominence during the dealings of explorers and traders with 
the Indians along the upper Missouri. As Assiniboin or Assiniboine, 
the name has been adopted for an important affluent of the Red 
River of the North in Manitoba and Saskatchewan Provinces. Mount 
Assiniboin is in the Rocky Mountains near the boundary between 
British Columbia and Alberta, about 20 miles south of Banff. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 389 


Atsina. Probably from Blackfoot &t-se’-na, supposed to mean “gut 
people.” Also called: 


Acapatos, by Duflot de Mofras (1844). 

A-re-tear-o-pan-ga, Hidatsa name. 

Bahwetego-weninnewug, Chippewa name, signifying ‘‘fall people.”’ 

Bot-k’in’ago, signifying “belly men.” 

Fall Indians, common early name. 

Gros Ventres des Plaines, derived from an incorrect interpretation of the 
tribal sign and the qualifying phrase ‘‘des Plaines’’ to distinguish them 
from the Hidatsa, the Gros Ventres de la Riviére. 

Hadninin or Aa’ninéna, own name, said to signify ‘‘white-clay people,” 
‘Jime-men,”’ or “‘chalk-men.”’ 

His-tu-i’-ta-ni-o, Cheyenne name. 

Hittinéna, Arapaho name, signifying “beggars’”’ or “‘spongers.”’ 

Minnetarees of the Plains, Minnetarees of the Prairies, so called to avoid 
confusion with the Hidatsa (q. v. under North Dakota). 

Rapid Indians, from Harmon (1820). 

Sa’pani, Shoshoni name, signifying ‘‘bellies.’’ 

Sku’tani, Dakota name. 

Connections.—The Atsina were a part of the Arapaho, of which 
tribe they are sometimes reckoned a division, and both belong to the 
Algonquian linguistic family. 

Location —On Milk River and adjacent parts of the Missouri, 
in what is now Montana, ranging northward to the Saskatchewan. 


(See also Canada.) 
Subdivisions 


Kroeber (1908 b) has recorded the following names of bands or clans, some of 
which may, however, be duplications: 

Names of clans whose position in the camp circle is known, beginning at the 
south side of the opening at the east: Frozen or Plumes, ‘‘Those-who-water-their- 
horses-once-a-day”’?; Tendons, ‘‘Those-who-do-not-give-away,”’ or ‘‘Buffalo- 
humps’’; Opposite (or Middle) Assiniboin, ‘‘Ugly-ones or Tent-poles worn smooth 
[from travel]”; Bloods, ‘‘Fighting-alone.”’ 

Other clan names: Berry-eaters, Breech-cloths, Coffee, Dusty-ones, Gray-ones 
or Ash-colored, Ka*hutyi (the name of a chief), Night-hawks, Poor-ones, Torn- 
trousers, Weasel-skin headdress. 


History.—If the Arapaho once lived in the Red River country, the 
Atsina were probably with them. At least, the languages of both 
point to the region of the Algonquian tribes northeast of the Plains 
for their origin. At the same time Kroeber (1900 b) thinks that 
they must have been separated for at least 200 years. According to 
Hayden (1860), they were south of the Saskatchewan about 1800. 
In 1818 they joined the Arapaho and remained with them until 1823 
when they returned to the location given above in the neighborhood 
of Milk River. For a long time they maintained an alliance with the 
Blackfeet but later joined the Crow against them and in the course 


390 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


of the ensuing war, in 1867, suffered a severe defeat. Later they were 
placed on Fort Belknap Reservation, Mont., with the Assiniboin. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates that the Atsina numbered 
3,000 in 1780. In 1904 there were 535. The census of 1910 reported 
510, and the United States Office of Indian Affairs in 1923 reported 
586; 631 were reported by the census of 1930, and 809 in 1937. 


Bannock. The Bannock ranged into the western part of the State. 
(See Idaho.) 


Cheyenne. The Cheyenne frequently entered the eastern part of 
Montana and the Northern Cheyenne were ultimately assigned a re- 
servation within the State. (See South Dakota.) 


Chippewa. The Chippewa had little contact with the region now 
included in Montana until very recent times when a considerable 
number came to live there, 486 according to the census of 1910. 
(See Minnesota. ) 


Cree. The original homes of the Cree were north of the present 
United States, though their war parties frequently came into the 
territory now occupied by this country to fight the Dakota, Black- 
foot, and other tribes. In comparatively late times a number, given 
by the census of 1910 as 309, settled in Montana, and others were 
reported from Washington (91), Michigan, Oregon, North Dakota, 
Idaho, Kansas, and Minnesota. (See also Canada.) 


Crow. A translation, through the French gens des corbeaux, of their 


own name Absaroke, “‘crow-, sparrowhawk-, or bird-people.”’ Also 
called: 


Hahderuka, Mandan name. 
Haideroka, Hidatsa name. 
Hounena, Arapaho name, signifying ‘“‘crow men.”’ 
IssAppo’, Siksika name. 
Kangitoka, Yankton Dakota name. 
Ka’-xi, Winnebago name. 
Kihnatsa, Hidatsa name, signifying ‘they who refused the paunch,” and 
referring to the tradition regarding the separation of these two tribes. 
Kokokiwak, Fox name. 
Long-haired Indians, by Sanford (1819). 
O-e’-tun’-i-o, Cheyenne name, signifying ‘‘crow people.” 
Par-is-ca-oh-pan-ga, Hidatsa name, signifying ‘‘crow people’ (Long, 
1823). 
Stémchi, Kalispel name. 
Stémtchi, Salish name. 
Stimk, Okinagan name. 
Yaxka’-a, Wyandot name, signifying “crow.” 
Connections.—The Crow belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock and 


were most closely related to the Hidatsa, from whom they claim to 
have separated. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 391 


Location.—On the Yellowstone River and its branches, extending as 
far north as the Musselshell and as far south as Laramie Fork on the 
Platte, but centering particularly on three southern tributaries of 
Yellowstone River, the Powder, Wind, and Big Horn Rivers. (See 
also Wyoming and Canada.) 


Subdivisions 


There were formerly three local divisions, known to the people themselves as 
Miné’ sepére, Dung-on-the-river-banks?, or Black Lodges; the A*c’arahd’, Many- 
Lodges; and the Erarapi’o, Kicked-in-their-bellies. The first of these is called 
River Crow by some writers and the last two collectively Mountain Crow. They 
were also divided into 12 clans arranged in pairs. 

Hisiory.—As stated above, the Crow tribe claims to have separated 
from the Hidatsa, a tradition shared by the Hidatsa. It is at least 
certain that the two are more closely related linguistically than is 
either to any other Siouan group. Their separation into bands must 
have occurred in the first quarter of the nineteenth century at latest. 
In 1804 they were found in their historic seats and have been in 
approximately the same region ever since, the reservation to which 
they were finally assigned being on the Big Horn River. 

Population.—Mooney’s (1928) estimate for the year 1780 is 4,000 
Crow. In 1804 Lewis and Clark estimated 350 lodges and 3,500 souls. 
In 1833 there were said to be 1,200 warriors and a population of from 
3,250 to 3,560. In 1890 a total population of 2,287 was reported, 
and in 1904, 1,826. The census of 1910 gave 1,799, and the United 
States Indian Office Report for 1923, 1,777. The census of 1930, 
reported 1,674, and the Indian Office Report for 1937, 2,173. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Crow tribe was 
prominent in the early history of the Northwest, though not to the 
extent of the Dakota and Blackfeet. The Indian form of the name, 
Absarokee, is borne by a post village of Stillwater County, Mont.; in 
the form Absaraka it appears as the name of a place in Cass County, 
N. Dak.; and as Absaroka, more prominently, as the name of a range 
of mountains and a National Forest in the Yellowstone National Park. 


Dakota. The Dakota entered Montana at times to hunt and fight 


the Crow but were not permanent residents of the State. (See 
South Dakota.) 


Hidatsa. Together with the Arikara and Mandan, in 1869 and 1880 
the Hidatsa took part in treaties ceding territory in southeastern 
Montana to the United States Government. (See North Dakota.) 


Kalispel. This tribe probably visited the westernmost parts of 
Montana at times and most of them finally settled upon the Flat- 
head Reservation in that State. Some of them, together with the 
Salish and Kutenai, ceded Montana lands in 1855. (See Idaho.) 


392 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buy 145 


Kiowa. According to tradition, the Kiowa at one time lived in the 
southeastern part of this State. (See Oklahoma.) 


Kutenai. Said to be from a term applied to this tribe by the Blackfoot 
Indians and believed by Turney-High (1937) to have come origi- 
nally from the name of a Kutenai tribe or division called Tunaha. 
Also called: 


Flatbows, the name given often to the Lower Kutenai, the origin of which 
is unknown. 

Kispélu, their Nez Percé name, signifying ‘“‘water people.” 

SAn’ka or asdn’ka, own name, significance unknown. 

Shalsa’ ulk°, by the Sinkiuse and said to be from a place name, but see below. 

Skels4-ulk, Salish name, signifying ‘‘Water People.” 

Slender Bows, name sometimes given as an interpretation of their own 
name, but erroneously. 


Connections.—The Kutenai were placed by Powell in a distinct 
stock called Kitunahan, but some linguists regard them as remote 
relatives of the Algonquians and Salishans. 

Location.—On Kootenay River, Kootenay Lake, Arrow Lake, and 
the upper course of the Columbia River, except for the bend between 
Donald and Revelstoke; in southeastern British Columbia; north- 
western Montana; northeastern Washington; and the northern tip of 
Idaho. In modern times they have settled as far southeast as Flat- 
head Lake. (See also Canada.) 


Subdivisions 


The Kutenai were separated into two general divisions, the line between ex- 
tending roughly from north to south through Libby, Mont. The Upper Kutenai 
lay to the east on upper Kootenay River and depended more upon hunting, es- 
pecially of the bison, while the Lower Kutenai were largely fishermen. Turney- 
High (1937) gives the following bands: (1) Tundxa, whose original home was on 
the Plains and who have now been destroyed and their descendants incorporated 
with the other bands; (2) Tobacco Plains or People-of-the-Place-of-the-Flying- 
Head, esteemed to be the mother band of the tribe (on Kootenay River at the 
International Boundary Line—the Fernie Band was a subdivision) ; (3) Jennings 
Band (about Jennings, Mont.); (4) Libby Band (at Libby, Mont.); (5) Bonner’s 
Ferry Band (at Bonner’s Ferry, Idaho); (6) Fort Steele Band (at Steele, B. C.); 
(7) Creston Band (at Creston, B. C.); (8) Windermere Band (a very modern band 
at Windermere, B. C.). To these may be added the very modern Dayton-Elmo 
Band on Flathead Lake drawn from the Jennings and Libby bands. 


History—From information collected by Turney-High (1937), 
it would seem that the Kutenai formerly lived east of the Rocky 
Mountains, extending at least as far as MacLeod, Alberta. Their 
oldest settlement in their present territories would seem to have been 
at Tobacco Plains whence they gradually spread to the north, west, 
and south, and in recent times to the southeast. Their country was 
traversed early in the nineteenth century by David Thompson (1916) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 393 


in the interest of the Northwest Company, and Kootenai House was 
established in 1807. With the running of the International Boundary, 
their country was divided between the Dominion of Canada and the 
United States to the considerable inconvenience of the tribe. Mis- 
sionary work among them, particularly work among the Upper Ku- 
tenai, has been very successful. 

Population —Mooney (1928) estimated the Kutenai population to 
be 1,200 in 1780. In 1890 those in the United States were estimated 
at 400 to 500. In 1905 they numbered 554, and those in British terri- 
tory the year preceding were enumerated at 553. The census of 1910 
gave 538 in the United States. The Report of the Canadian Depart- 
ment of Indian Affairs for 1924 returned about 450, and that of the 
United States Indian Office only 129 under that name. The latter 
figure is evidently defective, as the Census of 1930 returned 287 of 
whom 185 were in Montana and 101 in Idaho. In 1937 there were 
118 in Idaho. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Kutenai are noted 
for their peculiar language, which differs from the speech of all their 
neighbors and has been given an independent position as the Kitu- 
nahan stock. They have given their name to Kootenay or Kootenai 
River, also called the Flat Bow or MacGillivray, which flows through 
British Columbia, Montana, and Idaho; to Kootenay Lake in British 
Columbia; to Kootenai Mountains, and Kootenai Falls, Mont.; 
Kootenai County, Idaho; and to a post village, Kootenai, in Bonner 
County, Idaho. 


Mandan. The Mandan were parties to treaties made in 1869 and 1880 
ceding their claims to land in southeastern Montana. (See North 
Dakota.) 


Nez Percé. Individuals belonging to this tribe sometimes entered 
the southwestern part of Montana. (See Idaho.) 


Piegan. The Piegan were the southernmost subtribe of the Siksika 
(ae w:). 


Salish, Probably a place name, the last syllable, -ish, “people.” 
Also called: 


A-shu’-e-ka-pe, Crow name, signifying, ‘‘flatheads.”’ 

A-too-ha-pe, Hidatsa name. 

Flatheads, widely so called because, in contradistinction to the tribes 
west of them, they left their heads in the natural condition, flat on top, 
instead of sloping backward to the crown. 

Ka-ka-i-thi, Arapaho name, signifying, ‘‘flathead people.” 

Ka-ko’-is-tsi’-a-ta’-ni-o, Cheyenne name, signifying, ‘‘people who flatten 
their heads.” 

Ko-toh’-spi-tup’-i-o, Siksika name. 

Nebagindibe, Chippewa name, signifying, ‘‘flat head.”’ 


394 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn 145 


Pa O-bde’-ca, Yankton Dakota name, signifying, “heads cornered or 
edged.” 
Tétes-Plates, common French term. 
Connections.—The Salish belonged to the interior division of the 
Salishan linguistic family, to which they have given their name. 
Location.—In western Montana originally, extending from the 
Rocky Mountains on the west; south to the Gallatin; east to Crazy 
Mountain and Little Belt Ranges, north to some hilly country north 
of Helena. Later they were centered farther west around Flathead 
Lake. (See also Idaho.) 


Subdivisions 


It is said that there was a distinct band of Salish Indians on a river near Helena, 
another band near Butte, another somewhere east of Butte, and another some- 
where in the Big Hole Valley; and there are traditions of still others. 

Mistory.—According to Teit (1930) the Salish once extended farther 
to the east, and there were related tribes in that region which he calls 
Sematuse and Tunahe. As Turney-High (1937) has pointed out, 
however, the Tunahe were evidently a Kutenai division; and the 
Sematuse, if not mythical, seem to have been an alien people in 
possession of this country before the Salish entered it. Teit states 
that these Salish were driven westward out of the Plains by the 
Blackfoot, particularly after that tribe obtained guns. Turney-High, 
on the other hand, regards the Salish as rather late intruders into the 
Plains from the west. However, the pressure of tribes westward by 
their neighbors to the east as soon as the latter obtained guns is such 
a common story that it hardly seems probable that the Salish could 
have escaped its effects. Just how far the Salish retired westward 
may be a matter of argument, nor does it affect the theory of an 
earlier eastward migration if such a movement can be substantiated 
on other grounds. Salish relations with the Whites were always 
friendly and they were successfully missionized by Roman Catholics 
under the lead of the famous Father De Smet. By the treaty of 
July 16, 1855, they ceded all of their lands in Montana and Idaho 
except a reserve south of Flathead Lake and a second tract in Bitter 
Root Valley which was to be made into a reserve for them if it were 
considered advisable. It was, however, not so considered, and acting 
upon an Act of Congress of June 5, 1872, the Salish were removed to 
the former reservation, where they still live. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 600 Salish 
in 1780, evidently accepting the figure given by Lewis and Clark for 
1806. Teit (1930) considers this much too low, the data collected 
by him indicating a Salish population of perhaps 3,000, but this 
would seem to err in the opposite direction. The Indian Office 
figure for 1905 is 557 and that for 1909, 598. The census of 1910 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 395 


reported 486, of whom 400 were in Montana, 46 in Washington, 27 
in Oregon, 6 in Idaho, 6 in Nebraska, and 1 in Kansas. The census 
of 1830 reported 2,036 Interior Salish from Montana, but did not 
give separate figures for the tribe under discussion. The United 
States Office of Indian Affairs reported 3,085 in 1937. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—It was among the 
Salish Indians that the noted Father De Smet worked as a missionary. 
The large group of languages to which this tribe belongs is known to 
ethnologists as the Salishan linguistic family. Flathead or Selish 
Lake, Flathead Pass, and Flathead County, all in Montana, also 
derive their names from the Salish or ‘‘Flathead” Indians. 


Sematuse (phonetically Smmté’use). Signifying “foolish” according 
to some, derived from an old place name according to others. 
Teit (1930) identified the Sematuse as a former tribe of the Salishan 
stock, closely related to the Salish tribe. According to his in- 
formants, one band of these people was on Big Blackfoot River, 
another at a place later known as ‘Big Camas,” or ‘‘Camas Prairie,” 
and some thought that a smaller band had headquarters near 
Deer Lodge, and there may have been one at Phillipsburg. Others 
were said to have been on the Little Blackfoot and Salmon-Trout 
Rivers but may not have constituted a band. Turney-High 
(1937), however, thinks that this tribe was mythical or else that 
it was the name of a non-Salishan people who preceded the Salish 
in western Montana. 


Shoshoni. Before European weapons reached the eastern tribes, 
bands of Shoshoni ranged over a considerable part of eastern 
Montana as far north as Milk River. (See Idaho.) 


Siksika. A native word signifying “black feet,’”’ by which term the 
tribe is best known. By some they are said to be called Blackfeet 
from the discoloration of their moccasins by the ashes of prairie 
fires, but more probably their moccasins were dyed black. Also 
called: 


Ah-hi’-ta-pe, former name for themselves, signifying ‘‘blood people.” 
Ayatchinini, Chippewa name. 

Ayatchiyiniw, Cree name, signifying ‘‘stranger,’”’ or “enemy.” 
Beaux Hommes, so given by Dobbs (1744). 

Carmeneh, Crow name. 

Choch-Katit, Arikara name. 

Ish-te-pit’-e, Crow name. 

I tsi sf pi sa, Hidatsa name, signifying “black feet.” 

Katce, Sarsi name. 

Ka-wi-’na-han, Arapaho name, signifying “‘black people.” 
Makadewana-ssidok, Chippewa name. 

Mamakata’ wana-si’ta’-ak, Fox name. 


396 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu 145 

Mkatewetitéta, Shawnee name. 

Mukkudda Ozitunnug, Ottawa name (Tanner, 1830). 

Netsepoyé, sometimes used by the Confederacy and signifying ‘‘people 
who speak our language.” 

Pah-kee, Shoshoni name. 

Po’-o-mas, Cheyenne name, signifying ‘blankets whitened with earth.” 

Saha’ntla, Kutenai name, signifying “‘bad people.” 

Sawketakix, name sometimes used by themselves, signifying ‘‘men of the 
plains.” 

S’chkoé, or S’chkoeishin, Kalispel name, from koai, “black.” 

Sica’bé, Kansa name. 

Si-ha’-sa-pa, Yankton Dakota name, signifying “black feet.’ 

Skudfshéni, Salish name, signifying ‘‘black feet.” 

Stxuafxn, Okinagan name, signifying ‘‘black.”’ 

Tofikofiko, Kiowa name, signifying ‘‘black legs.” 

Tuhu’ vti-6mokat, Comanche name. 

Wateni’hte, Arapaho name. 


Connections.—The Siksika belong to the Algonquian linguistic stock, 
forming the most aberrant of all the well-recognized tongues of that 
family except Arapaho and Atsina. 

Location.—In the territory stretching from North Saskatchewan 
River, Canada, to the southern headstreams of the Missouri in 
Montana, and from about longitude 105° W. to the base of the 
Rocky Mountains. 


Subdivisions 


The Siksika are divided into the following subtribes: The Siksika or Blackfeet 
proper, occupying the northern part of the above territory; the Kainah or Bloods 
south of the preceding; and the Piegan, south of the Kainah, the one best repre- 
sented in the United States. 

Each of the above divisions was subdivided into bands as follows: 


Siksika bands: Istsikainah. 
Aisikstukiks. Mameoya. 
Apikaiyiks. Nitikskiks. 
Emitahpahksaiyiks. Saksinahmabhyiks. 
Motahtosiks. Siksahpuniks. 
Puhksinahmahyiks. Siksinokaks. 
Saiyiks. Piegan bands: 
Siksinokaks. Ahahpitape. 
Tsiniktsistsoyiks. Ahkaiyikokakiniks. 

Kainah or Blood bands: Apikaiyiks. 
Ahkaiksumiks. Esksinaitupiks. 
Ahkaipokaks. Inuksikahkopwaiks. 
Ahkotashiks. Inuksiks. 
Ahkwonistsists. Ipoksimaiks. 
Anepo. Kahmitaiks. 
Apikaiyiks. Kiyis. 
Aputosikainah. Kutaiimiks. 
Inuhksoyistamiks, Kutaisotsiman. 
Isisokasimiks. Miahwahpitsiks. 


SWANTON] 


Miawkinaiyiks. 
Mokumiks. 
Motahtosiks. 
Motwainaiks. 
Nitakoskitsipupiks. 
Nitawyiks. 
Nitikskiks. 


History.—According to certain 


INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 


397 


Nitotsiksisstaniks. 
Sikokitsimiks. 
Sikopoksimaiks. 
Sikutsipumaiks. 

Susksoyiks (Hayden, 1862). 
Tsiniksistsoyiks. 


traditions, the Siksika moved 


into their present territory from the northeast, and it is at least evi- 
dent that they had gravitated westward, their movement probably 
accelerated by the acquisition of horses. They were at war with 
nearly all of their neighbors except the Athapascan Sarsi and the 
Atsina; both of these tribes usually acted with them. They were on 
relatively friendly terms with the English of the Hudson’s Bay posts 
in Canada, upon whom they depended for guns and ammunition, but 
were hostile to the Whites on the American side, in large measure 
because through them their enemies received the same kind of sup- 
plies. ‘They were several times decimated by smallpox but suffered 
less than many tribes not so far removed from White influences, and 
have never been forced to undergo removal from their home country. 
They are now gathered under agencies on both sides of the Inter- 
national Boundary and are slowly adapting themselves to White 
modes of life. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1780 there were 
15,000 Blackfeet. Mackenzie (1801) gave 2,250 to 2,500 warriors for 
1790, which would reduce Mooney’s (1928) figures by about one-half, 
but in the meantime the smallpox epidemic of 1780-81 had occurred. 
The official Indian Report for 1858 gave 7,300 and another estimate 
of about the same period, said by Hayden (1862) to have been made 
“under the most favorable circumstances,’”’ reported 6,720. In 1909 
the official enumeration of those in the United States was 2,195, and 
of those in Canada 2,440, a total of 4,635. The census of 1910 gave 
2,367 in the United States, all but 99 of whom were Piegan. The 
United States Indian Office Report for 1923 gives 3,124 Blackfeet 
and the Report of the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs for 
1924, 2,236; total, 5,360. The United States census of 1930 reported 
3,145. In 1937 the Office of Indian Affairs reported 4,242. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Siksika were 
peculiar (1) as one of the Jargest and most warlike tribes of the north- 
ern Plains, next to the Dakota alone in prominence; (2) as speaking 
one of three highly specialized languages of the Algonquian stock; 
(3) as among the bitterest opponents of explorers and traders on the 
American side of the International Boundary; and (4) as having given 
the name Blackfoot to a considerable town in Idaho, capital of Bing- 


398 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


ham County, to a creek in the same county, to mountains in Idaho 
and Alberta, to a river in Montana, and to a village in Glacier 
County, in the same State. 


Spokan. Some Spokan probably entered western Montana at times 
and, in 1910, 134 were reported as residents of the State. (See Wash- 
ington.) 


Tunahe (Tuna’xe). Given by Teit (1930) as the name of an extinct 
Salishan tribe living in west central Montana, but identified by 
Turney-High (1937) as a former eastern or plains band of the 
Kutenai Indians, that band, in fact, from which the name Kutenai 
is derived. 

IDAHO 


Bannock. From their own name Bana’/kwit. Also called: 
Diggers, by many writers. 
Ogoize, by the Kalispel. 
Panai’ti, form of name given by Hoffman (1886). 
Pun-nush, by the Shoshoni. 
Robber Indians, by Ross (1855). 
Ush-ke-we-ah, by the Crow Indians. 


Connections.—The Bannock belonged to the Shoshonean branch of 
the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, being a detached branch of the 
Northern Paiute. 

Location.—In historic times their main center was in southeastern 
Idaho, ranging into western Wyoming, between latitude 42° and 45° 
North and from longitude 113° West eastward to the main chain of 
the Rocky Mountains. At times they spread well down Snake River, 
and some were scattered as far north as Salmon River and even into 
southern Montana. (See also Colorado, Oregon, and Utah.) 


Subdivisions 


A few local group names have been preserved, such as the Kutsshundika or 
Buffalo-eaters, Penointikara or Honey-eaters, and Shohopanaiti or Cottonwood 
Bannock, but these are not well defined. 


Mstory.— Bridger met the Bannock Indians in the country above 
indicated as early as 1829, but contacts between them and the Whites 
became much more intimate with the establishment of Fort Hall in 
1834. In 1869 Fort Hall Reservation was set aside for them and the 
Shoshoni, but they were in the habit of wandering widely and it was 
a long time before they were gathered into it. They claimed the 
territory in southwestern Montana in which are situated Virginia City 
and Bozeman, and it is probable that they were driven across the 
mountains into the Salmon River Valley at a comparatively recent 
period. Before 1853 they were decimated by the smallpox and were 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 399 


finally gathered under the Lemhi and Fort Hall agencies. Loss of 
their lands, failure of the herds of buffalo, and lack of prompt relief 
on the part of the Government occasioned an uprising of the tribe in 
1878, which was suppressed by General O. O. Howard. 

Population.—Bridger, in 1829, stated that the Bannock had 1,200 
lodges, or a population of about 8,000, but he evidently included the 
neighboring Shoshoni. Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1845 there 
were about 1,000, but Forney, in 1858 (p. 213) gave only 400 to 500. 
In 1870 Jones estimated 600 and Mann 800 “Northern Bannocks.”’ 
In 1901 they numbered 513 but were so intermixed with Shoshoni that 
the figure is uncertain. The census of 1910 reported 413, all but 50 
of whom were in Idaho, and the census of 1930 gave 415, including 
313 in Idaho. In 1937, 342 were reported. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The only prominence 
attained by the Bannock was for a brief period during the Bannock 
War. The name is perpetuated by a river, a range of mountains, and 
a county. There is also a place named Bannock in Belmont County, 
Ohio, and another in Butler County, Ky., but these are probably not 
connected with the tribe. 


Kalispel. From a native term said to mean “Camas”; they were 
given the name Pend d’Oreilles, because when they were first met 


by Europeans nearly all of them wore large shell earrings. Also 
called: 


Ak-min’-e-shu’-me, by the Crow and meaning ‘‘the tribe that uses canoes’’. 
Camas People, a translation of Kalispel. 

Farring People, an English translation of Pend d’Oreilles. 

Hanging Ears, English translation of Pend d’Oreilles. 

Ni-he-ta-te-tup’i-o, Siksika name. 

Papshpiin‘léma, Yakima name, signifying ‘‘people of the great fir trees.” 

Connections.—The Kalispel belonged to the interior division of the 
great Salishan family. 

Location.—On Pend Oreille River and Lake, Priest Lake, and the 
lower course of Clark’s Fork. They were said to have extended east- 
ward to Thompson Lake and Horse Plains and to have hunted over 
some of the Salmon River country, Canada, and were formerly said 
to have extended to Flathead Lake and Missoula. (See also Montana 
and Washington.) 


Subdivisions 


(1) Upper Kalispel or Upper Pend d’Oreilles (in Montana from Flathead Lake 
and Flathead River to about Thompson Falls on Clark Fork of the Pend Oreille 
River, including the Little Bitterroot, southward about to Missoula and north- 
ward to the International Boundary), with bands at Flathead Lake, near Kalispel, 
at or near Dayton, near Polson at the foot of the lake, and possibly one at Colum- 
bia Falls; some wintered on the Bitterroot and a large band at St. Ignatius. 


400 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLu. 145 


(2) Lower Kalispel or Lower Pend d’Oreilles or Kalispel proper (from Thomp- 
son Falls down Clark Fork, Pend Oreille Lake, Priest Lake, and Pend Oreille 
River nearly to the International Boundary and hunting territories along Salmon 
River, British Columbia). 

(3) The Chewelah (in the country west of the Calispell or Chewelah Mountains 
in the upper part of the Colville Valley). 

The Lower Kalispel also included several minor bands, the Chewelah apparently 
two. The Chewelah subdivision spoke a slightly different dialect and was 
sometimes regarded as an independent tribe. 

History.—The Kalispel were visited by Lewis and Clark in 1805, 
and in 1809 a post was established on Pend Oreille Lake by the 
Northwest Company and another on Clark Fork the same year 
called Salish House. Emissaries of the American Fur Cormpany 
reached them later, and in 1844 they were missionized by the Roman 
Catholic Church. July 16, 1855, the Upper Kalispel, Kutenai, and 
Salish surrendered all of their lands except an area about Flathead 
Lake which became the Jocko Reservation. The greater part of the 
Kalispel settled here, but part of the Lower Kalispel were gathered 
on Colville Reservation with the Okanagon, Colville, and a number 
of other tribes. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that the Kalispel numbered 
1,200 in 1780, but Teit (1930) considered that the prehistoric popu- 
lation must have been between 5,000 and 6,500, an estimate which 
would seem to be excessive. In 1805 Lewis and Clark estimated that 
there were 30 lodges of these people and a population of 1,600. In 
1905 there were 640 Upper and 197 Lower Pend d’Oreilles under the 
Flathead Agency (Jocko Reservation) and 98 under the Colville 
Agency. The census of 1910 reported 386 from Montana, 157 from 
Washington, 15 from Idaho, and 6 from three other States. They 
were not separately enumerated in 1930, but the United States Office 
of Indian Affairs reported 97 in 1937. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The name Kalispel 
is preserved in that of the banking city of Kalispell, county seat of 
Flathead County, Mont., by Calispell Lake, and by the Calispell 
Mountains. The name Pend d’Oreilles is preserved in Pend Oreille 
Lake in northern Idaho and in Pend Oreille River in Montana, Idaho, 
and Washington. 


Kutenai. This tribe occupied the extreme northern part of Idaho. 
(See Montana.) 


Nez Percé. A French appellation signifying ‘‘pierced noses.’ Also 
called: 


A’dal-k’ato’igo, Kiowa name, signifying “people with hair cut across 
the forehead.” 

Anip6érspi, Calapooya name. 

A-pa-o-pa, Atsina name (Long, 1828). 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 401 


A-pii-pe’, Crow name, signifying “‘to paddle,”’ “paddles.” 

Blue Muds, name applied by traders. 

Chopunnish, Lewis and Clark. 

Green Wood Indians, Henry-Thompson Journal. 

I’-na-cpé, Quapaw name. 

Kamii/inu, own name. 

Ko-mun’-i-tup’-i-o, Siksika name. 

Mikadeshitchisi, Kiowa Apache name. 

Nimipu, own name, signifying ‘‘the people.” 

Pa ka’-san-tse, Osage name, signifying “‘plaited hair over the forehead.’’ 

Pe ga’-zan-de, Kansa name. 

Pierced Noses, English translation of name. 

Po’-ge-hdo-ke, Dakota name. 

Sa-dptin, Okanagon name. 

Shi’wantsh, Tenino name for this tribe and the Cayuse, signifying ‘“‘strangers 
from up the river.” 

Tchaxstikush, Caddo name. 

Thoig’a-rik-kah, Shoshoni name, signifying ‘‘louse eaters(?).” 

Tsuhdrukats, Pawnee name. 

Tsitpéli, own name. 


Connections —The Nez Percé Indians were the best known tribe of 
the Shahaptian division of the Shapwailutan linguistic stock, to which 
they gave the name commonly applied to them by Salish tribes. 

Location.—The Nez Percé occupied a large part of central Idaho, and 
sections of southeastern Washington and northeastern Oregon. (See 
also Montana and Oklahoma.) 


Subdivisions 


The following bands are given by Spinden (1908): 


Alpowé’ma, on Alpaha (Alpowa) Creek. 

Atskaaiwawixpu, at the mouth of the northern fork of Clearwater River. 

Esnime, Slate Creek Band, the Upper Salmon River Indians. 

Hasotino, at Hasutin, opposite Asotin City, Wash. 

Hatwéme, on Hatweh Creek. 

Heswéiwewipu, at the month of Asotin Creek. 

Hinsepu, at Hansens Ferry on the Grande Ronde. 

Imndma, on Imnaha River. 

Inantoinu, at the mouth of Joseph Creek. 

Iséwisnemepu, near Zindels, on the Grande Ronde. 

IwatdInu, at Kendrick on Potlatch Creek. 

Kamiaxpu, at Kamiah, at the mouth of Lawyer’s Creek; this band also called 
Uyame. 

Lamtdma, on Salmon River. 

Lapwéme, on Lapwai and Sweetwater Creeks. 

Makapu, on Cottonwood or Maka Creek. 

Painima, near Peck, on Clearwater River. 

Pipii’Inimu, on Big Cafion Creek. 

Saiksaikinpu, on the upper portion of the Southern Fork of Clearwater River. 

Sakinma, between the mouth of Salmon River and the mouth of Grande Ronde. 

Sdlwépu, on the Middle Fork of Clearwater River, about 5 miles above Kooskia, 
Idaho. 


402 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


Saxsano, about 4 miles above Asotin City, Wash., on the east side of Snake River. 
Siminekempu, at Lewiston, Idaho. 

Taksehepu, at Agatha on Clearwater River. 

Tamanmu, at the mouth of Salmon River. 

Tewepu, at the mouth of Oro Fino Creek. 

Toiknimapu, above Joseph Creek on the north side of the Grande Ronde. 
Tsokolaikiinma, between Lewiston and Alpowa Creek. 

Tuké’liklikespu, at Big Eddy. 

Tukpame, on the lower portion of the South Fork of Clearwater River. 
Tunéhepu, at Juliaetta on Potlatch Creek. 

Walwdma, in Willowa Valley. 

Wewi’'me, at the mouth of the Grande Ronde. 

Witkispu, about 3 miles below Alpowa Creek, on the east side of Snake River. 
Yaktd’Inu, at the mouth of Potlatch Creek. 

Yatéinu, on Pine Creek. 


The Nuksiwepu, Sahatpu, Wawawipu, Almotipu, Pinewewewixpu, Tokalatoinu, 
and other bands extended about 80 miles down Snake River from Lewiston. 

History.—In 1805 Lewis and Clark passed through the territory of 
the Nez Percé Indians. The first friction between this tribe and 
the Whites followed upon the discovery of gold in the West and the 
consequent influx of miners and settlers. By treaties concluded in 
1855 and 1863 they ceded all of their lands to the United States 
Government with the exception of one large reservation. The occu- 
pants of Wallowa Valley refused to agree to the final cessions, and the 
Nez Percé war of 1877 resulted, distinguished by the masterly retreat 
of Chief Joseph toward the Canadian line, which was almost attained 
by him before he was overtaken. Joseph and his followers to the 
number of 450 were sent to Oklahoma, but they lost so heavily from 
disease that in 1885 they were removed to the Colville Reservation, 
Wash., where a few still live. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates a population of 4,000 
Nez Percé in 1780. In 1805 Lewis and Clark computed the total 
number at 6,000, if we deduct the estimated population of the two 
tribes later reckoned as distinct. Wilkes (1849) gives 3,000 and Gibbs 
(1877) estimates more than 1,700 in 1853. In 1885 the official figure 
was 1,437. In 1906 there were 1,534 on Lapwai Reservation and 83 
on Colville Reservation, Wash. The census of 1910 reported 1,259, 
of whom 1,035 were in Idaho. The Report of The United States 
Indian Office for 1923 gave 1,415 and the report for 1937, 1,426. In 
1930 the Shahaptian division of the Shapwailutan stock numbered 
4,119. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Nez Percé have 
claims to remembrance, (1) as the largest and most powerful tribe 
of the Shapwailutan stock, (2) as having given a name applied to them 
to the principal division of the formerly independent Shahaptian 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 403 


family. From this tribe Nez Perce County, Idaho, and the post village 
of Nezperce in Lewis County derive their names. 


Paiute, Northern. Indians of this group entered the southwestern 
part of Idaho at times. (See Nevada.) 


Palouse. This tribe extended up the Palouse River into Idaho. (See 
Washington.) 


Salish, or Flathead. The present State of Idaho was visited to some 
extent by Indians of this tribe. (See Montana.) 


Shoshoni, Northern. Significance of the word Shoshoni is unknown. 
Also called: 


Aliatan, a name taken originally from that of the Ute and subsequently 
applied to many Shoshoni tribes, including the Shoshoni proper. 

Bik-ta’-she, Crow name, signifying “‘grass lodges.” 

E-wu-h‘a’-wu-si, Arapaho name, signifying ‘‘people that use grass or bark for 
their houses or huts.” 

Gens du Serpent, by the French. 

Ginebigénini, Chippewa name, signifying ‘‘snake men.” 

Kinebikowininiwak, Algonkin name, signifying ‘‘serpents.” 

Ma-bue-sho-roch-pan-ga, Hidatsa name. 

Mikd4-ati, Hidatsa name, signifying “grass lodges.” 

Mi‘kyashé, Crow name, signifying ‘‘grass lodges.” 

Pezhi’-wokeyotila, Teton Dakota name, signifying ‘‘grass-thatch dwellers.” 

Pi-ci’-kse-ni-tup’i-o, Siksika name. 

Sin-te’-hda wi-ca-sa, Yankton Dakota name, signifying “rattlesnake Indians.” 

SisizhaniIn, Atsina name signifying ‘‘rattlesnake men.” 

Snake Indians, common English name. 

Sn64, Okanagon name. 

Wakidohka-numak, Mandan name, signifying ‘‘snake man.” 

Wés‘inikaci*ga, Omaha and Ponca name, signifying ‘‘snake people.” 

Zuzéca wiédsa, Teton Dakota name, signifying ‘‘snake people.” 


Connections—The Northern Shoshoni belonged to the Shoshoni- 
Comanche dialectic group of the Shoshonean division of the Uto- 
Aztecan linguistic family. 

Location.—The Northern Shoshoni occupied eastern Idaho, except 
the territory held by the Bannock; western Wyoming; and north- 
eastern Utah. 

Subdivisions 


Their only subdivisions were a number of bands headed by popular chiefs, the 
make up of which was constantly shifting. 


Villages 
Lemhi and Central Idaho: 

Bohodai, near the junction of Middle Fork with the Salmon, and an unnamed 
site on upper Salmon River where a few families from Sohodai sometimes 
wintered. 

Guembeduka, about 7 miles north of the town of Salmon. 

Padai, scattered along Lemhi River about Salmon. 


404 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuy, 145 


Pagadut,.on Red Rock Creek, about Lima, Mont.; possibly a few families lived 
near Dillon, Mont. 
Pasasigwana, at a warm spring in the mountains north of Clayton. 
Pasimadai, on Upper Salmon River. 
Sohodai, on the upper Middle Fork of Salmon River, near Three Rivers. 
Fort Hall Shoshoni: 
No band names given. 
Bannock Creek (Kamdiika) Shoshoni (Pocatello’s Band): 
Biagamugep, the principal village, near Kelton. 
Cache Valley (Pangwiduka) Kwagunogwai: 
Along the Logan River above its junction with the Little Bear River. 
Salt Lake Valley: 
There are said to have been bands in the Ogden, Weber, and Salt Lake Valleys, 
but their names have not been preserved; they are sometimes called Ute, but 
Steward is certain that they were affiliated with the Shoshoni. 


History —At one time the Northern Shoshoni extended farther 
eastward into the Plains but there is no reason to suppose that they 
did not at the same time retain the mountain territories later held by 
them. They were affected only indirectly by the Spanish settlements 
to the south and southwest. In 1805 they were met by Lewis and 
Clark who were guided by a famous woman of their nation, Sacagawea, 
and from that time on contact with the Americans became fairly 
common. The Northern Shoshoni, particularly those under the famous 
chief Washakie, were unusually friendly to the Whites. They were 
finally gathered upon the Lemhi and Fort Fall Reservations in Idaho 
and the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming. By the Treaty of 
Fort Bridger, July 3, 1868, the eastern bands of the Shoshoni and 
Bannock ceded all rights to their territories in Wyoming and Idaho 
except the Wind River Reservation in the former state for the Sho- 
shoni and a reservation to be set apart for the Bannock whenever they 
desired it. On July 30, 1869, Fort Hall Reservation was set aside 
for the Bannock but subsequently occupied in part by the Shoshoni. 
February 12, 1875, the Lemhi Reservation was established for these 
two tribes and the Sheepeater band of Western Shoshoni. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated 4,500 in the year 1845, 
including the Western Shoshoni. The United States Census of 1910 
gave 3,840 “Shoshoni,” of which number about 2,000 appear to have 
belonged to this division. The Report of the Office for Indian Affairs 
of 1917 indicated about 2,200. The census of 1930 reported 3,994 
for the Northern and Western Shoshoni combined, but in 1937 the 
United States Office of Indian Affairs reported 3,650 Northern 
Shoshoni alone. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Northern Sho- 
shoni are the most prominent and strongest tribe of the upper plateau. 
They were also distinguished by the fact that their name was employed 
by Gallatin (1936) and later adopted by Powell (1891) for application 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 405 


to a linguistic stock, a stock now considered a branch of a much larger 
group, the Uto-Aztecan. The Shoshoni came into prominence in 
the last century (1) because Sacagawea or Bird Woman, the famous 
guide and interpreter of Lewis and Clark in their expedition to the 
Pacific, was a member of this tribe; and (2) because of the ability of 
chief Washakie and his constant friendship for the Whites. The name 
Shoshone has been applied to rivers and mountains in Wyoming and 
Nevada; to a lake in Yellowstone National Park; to the Shoshone 
Falls of Snake River; to a county in Idaho; and to places in Inyo 
County, Calif.; Lincoln County, Idaho; White Pine County, Nev.; 
and Fremont County, Wyo. 


Shoshoni, Western. Significance of the word Shoshoni is unknown. 
Connections.—The same as for the Northern Shoshoni. 
Location.—Central and western Idaho, northwestern Utah, central 

and northeastern Nevada, and a small territory in California north of 

and about Death and Panamint Valleys. 


Subdivisions 


The names of a great many local groups have been recorded, usually signifying 
that they were “‘eaters” of certain kinds of food, but most of these seem to have 
belonged to territories rather than people, the “eaters’’ in each being subject 
to change. A few of these have, however, acquired special interest and some 
measure of permanence as, for instance, the Tukuarika, Tukuadiika, or Sheep 
Eaters, extending from the Yellowstone National Park to the middle course of 
Salmon River; the Gosiute of northern Utah and eastern Nevada and the Pana- 
mint or Koso, the Californian representatives of the division. 


Villages 


Steward (1938) gives the following villages under the several natural areas 
occupied by these Indians: 
Lida and vicinity: 
Clayton Valley. 
Kamuva, or Wipa, several miles east of Goldfield. 
Montezuma, 
Old Camp, on the north side of Gold Mountain. 
Pauwaha’ (Lida). 
Tumbasai’uwi, at Stonewall Mountain. 
Eastern California: 
Saline Valley: 
Isha’mba (Waucoba Spring). 
Ko (Saline Valley). 
Navadu, at the Springs in Cottonwood Canyon which runs west from Death 
Valley. 
Tuhu, at Goldbelt Spring. 
Little Lake and Koso Mountains: 
Mua’ta (Coso Hot Springs). 
Pagunda (Little Lake). 
Pakwa’si (at Alancha). 
Uyuwu’mba, about 5 miles south of Darwin. 


406 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


Panamint Valley: 
No villages given. 

Northern Death Valley: 
Mahunu (springs in Grapevine Canyon and probably Grapevine Springs). 
Ohyu, at Surveyor’s Well. 
Panuga (Mesquite Springs). 

Central and Southern Death Valley: 
Tumbica, at the several springs at Furnace Creek. 
Village (perhaps) some 15 miles south of Furnace Creek. 

Beatty and Belted Mountains (camps) :? 

Howell Ranch, near Springdale. 

Hunusu, at Burn’s Ranch. 

Indian Camp, at the head of Oasis Valley. 

Mutsi, in the vicinity of the water holes marked merely ‘“‘Tanks” on the U. S. 
Geol. Surv. map. 

Sivahwa, a few miles north of the last. 

Tunava, at Whiterock Springs. 

Takanawa, at Hick’s Hot Springs. 

Sakaifiaga, at the mouth of Beatty Wash on the Amagrosa River. 

Panavadu, somewhere near the last. 

Wuniakuda, 2 or 3 miles east of the Ammonia Tanks. 

Wiva, at Oaksprings. 

Kuikun (Captain Jack Spring). 

Tupipa, at Tippipah Springs. 

Pokopa, at Topopah Spring. 

Pagambuhan (Cane Spring). 

Ione Valley, Reese River, and Smith Creek Valley: 

Reese River Valley (camps) :7 
Wiyunutuahunupi, at the first creek south of Austin. 
Angasikigada, 1 mile from the last. 
Tutumbihunupi, 1% miles from the last. 
Ohaogwaihunupi, 1 mile from the last. 
Bambishpahunupi, about 2 miles from last. 
Songwatumbihun, about 1% miles from the last. 
Gunuvijep, about 1% miles from the last. 
Biahunupi, at Big Creek, west of Kingston. 
Mezaguahunupi, 2 miles from the last. 
Oapihunupi, 2 miles from the last. 
Tudupihunupi, 1% miles from the last. 
Yudigivoihunupi, 2 miles from the last. 
Aihyuhunupi, about 2 miles from the last. 
Navahodava, 3 miles from the last. 
Guvadakuahunupi, 2 miles from the last or about halfway between Austin 

and Bell’s Ranch. 

Baiambasahunupi, about 1 mile from the last. 
Kwinahunupi, 2 miles from the last. 
Tosakuahunupi, 3 miles from the last. 
Asunguahunupi, 1 mile from the last. 
Wakaihunupi, 1 mile from the last. 
Boyuwihunupi, 3 miles from the last. 
Yumbahunupi, 3 miles from the last. 
Onihunupi, about 2% miles from the last. 


7 Camps given in order of location; names not alphabetized. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 407 


Adumbihunupi, about 2% miles from the last. 
Bukwiyohunupi, about 4 miles from the last and a little south of Bell’s Ranch 
Reese River Valley (winter sites): ® 
Sunungoi, about 10 miles northwest of Austin and slightly north of Mount 
Airy. 
Sova, a spring near the summit of Mount Airy. 
Tuosava, 2 or 3 miles south of the last. 
Yutomba, 1 mile from the last. 
Evimba, 3 or 4 miles from the last. 
Dumboi, 2 or 3 miles from the last. 
Hukumba, about 2 miles from the last. 
Kosiva, 3 miles from the last. 
Wupayagahunupi, 3 miles from the last. 
Dawishiwuhunupi, 2 miles from the last. 
Kunuvidumbihunupi, about 1% miles from the last. 
Pazuyohoi, 4 miles from the last. 
Wangodusikihunupi, 2 miles from the last. 
Ava, 2 miles from the last. 
Bohoba, a spring 3 miles from the last. 
Dongwishava, slightly south of Ione, west of the Bell Ranch. 
There is also a camp southwest of Berlin Peak at a spring called Wanzi awa. 
Great Smoky Valley and Monitor Valley: 
No villages given. 
Kawich Mountains (winter camps): 
Breen Creek. 
Hot Creek, about 10 miles north of Tybo. 
Hot Springs, to the south, had several winter encampments. 
Hugwapagwa (Longstreet Canyon or Horse Canyon). 
Kunugiba (Tybo Creek). 
Reveille Mill. 
Tuava (Rose Spring). 
Little Smoky Valley and vicinity: 
Little Smoky Valley: 
Dzishava (Moore Station). 
Indian Creek (Bagumbush?), 6-7 miles north of Kwadumba. 
Kwadumba (Snowball), 8 miles north of Sapava. 
Kwatsugu (Fish Creek). 
Sapava (Hick’s Station), 12 miles north of Morey. 
Tutoya, at a spring 4 or 5 miles south of Morey, on the west side of the valley. 
Fish Springs Valley: 
Butler’s Place, about 20 miles north of Wongodoya. 
Udulfa (Hot Creek). 
Wongodoya, at a spring in the hills west of Fish Springs. 
Railroad Valley (camps in north end of valley): 
Akamba, or probably also Watoya, at a spring west of Mount Hamilton. 
Bambasa, on the west side of Mount Hamilton. 
Bauduin (Warm Spring). 
Bawazivi (Currant Creek). 
Biadoyava, at Blue Eagle Springs. 
Nyala, native name unknown. 
Suhuva (Duckwater). 
Wongodupijugo, southeast of Green Spring. 


§ Winter sites’given in order of location; names not alphabetized. 


408 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuu. 145 


Steptoe Valley: 


“There were ... villages at Ely, on Duck Creek, about 8 miles northwest of 
McGill, and at Warm Spring, Schellbourne, Egan Canyon, and Cherry 
Creek.” 


Spring, Snake, and Antelope Valleys: 
Spring Valley: 
Aidumba, at a spring west of Aurun. 
Basamba, slightly up the hill west of Sogowosugu. 
Basiamba, in vicinity of Oceola. 
Basawinuba, either 3 or 4 miles northwest of Aurun. 
Basawinuba (Mud Springs), about 7 miles south of Aurun. 
Basonip, about 7 miles (?) south of Cleveland Ranch. 
Bauumba, near Shoshone. 
Biabauwundu, at Cleveland Ranch. 
Haiva, about 6 miles north of Cleveland or two canyons south of 
Wongovitwuninogwap. 
Sogowosugu, at Aurun. 
Supuva, at Anderson’s Ranch. 
Taiwudu, on west slope of Snake Mountains. 
Toziup, on west slope of Mount Moriah. 
Tuhuva, between Yellen’s and Cleveland Ranches. 
Tupa, about 7 miles north of Anderson’s Ranch. 
Wongovitwuninogwap, on Valley Creek, about 10 miles north of Cleveland 
Antelope Valley: 
Bohoba, at Mike Springs south of the villages in Antelope Valley. 
Hugapa, at Chinn Creek. 
Kwadumba, at a spring about 3 miles south of Tippetts. 
Suhuva, at a spring near Kwadumba. 
Toiva, at a spring at north end of valley. 
Wadoya, at a spring 15 miles north of Toiva. 
Snake Valley: 
Bauwunoida, at the present Baker. 
Biaba, at Big Spring. 
Tosakowaip, at Silver Creek. 
Tunkahniva, near a cave near Lehman Cave in the canyon west of Baker. 
Cave Valley, south of Steptoe Valley: 
Daint. 
Gosiute Shoshoni: 
A cave on the north end of the Skull Valley Mountains a short distance from 
the present highway. 
Haiyashawiyep, near present town called Iosepa. 
Towiba, in mountains just east of Skull Valley Reservation. 
Ongwove, a few miles south of Orr’s Ranch. 
Suhudaosa, at the present Orr’s Ranch (?). 
Tiava, on present reservation. 
Tozava, at a spring on west side of Lakeside Range. 
Tutiwunupa, on west slope of the Cedar Mountains, just east of Clive. 
Utcipa, south of Tutiwunupa on west slope of Cedar Mountains. 
Wanapo’ogwaipi, at Indian Springs, south of Ongwove. 
Pine Creek and Diamond Valley: 
Bauwiyoi, a group of at least 6 encampments at the foot of the Roberts 
Mountains. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 409 


Todzagadu, on the west side of the Sulphur Spring Mountains. 
Tupagadu, west of the Alkali flat in Diamond Valley. 
Ruby Valley and Vicinity: 
A settlement on south side of Spruce Mountains. 
A village on the east slope of the Pequop Mountains. 
Baguwa, in the flats near Overland. 
Butte Valley, at north end on a canyon called Natsumbagwic. 
Medicine Spring, on the west slope of the Cedar Mountains, east of Franklin 
Lake. 
Suhuwia, on the headwaters of Franklin River. 
Toyagadzu (Clover Valley). 
Waihamuta, on the creek against the hills, west of the Neff Ranch. 
Wongogadu, on north side of Spruce Mountains. 
Yuogumba or Sihuba (Long Valley). 
Humboldt River (districts): 
A village in a valley a little south of Elko. 
A village somewhere on upper Huntington Creek. 
Banadia, scattered along both sides of Lamoille Creek. 
Badukoi, village about 3 miles below Carlin. 
Elko, preferred site for village being at the mouth of the South Fork. 
Independence Valley, in the valley of what is called Magpie or Maggie Creek. 
Kinome, 5 miles north of Huntington. 
Palisade, people lived near here along Humboldt River. 
Sahoogep, at Lee. 
The valley of North Fork. 
Toyagadzu, at Wells. 
Tukwampandai, at Deeth. 
Battle Mountain and Vicinity: 
There was a concentration of population between Battle Mountain and Iron 
Point. 
Snake River (three villages between Hagerman and Bruneau): 
Ototumb, near Bliss. 
Pazintumb, about 8 miles below Hagerman. 
Saihunupi, about 4 miles below Hagerman. 
Boise River and Vicinity: 
No village names recorded. 
Grouse Creek: 
Kuiva, on Raft River, probably near Lynn and Yost. 
O’o or Podongoe, a little southwest of Lucin. 
Paduyavavadizop (Dove (?) Creek). 
Tusaid or Angapuni (Grouse Creek). 
Promontory Point (Hukundu’’ka): 
Nagwituwep, on Blue Creek, north of the old railroad. 
Nanavadzi, near Little Mountain, east of Promontory Point. 
Sudotsa, scattered along valley of Bear River from near Bear River City to 
Deweyville. 
Tongishavo, on the west side of Promontory Point near Mount Tarpey. 
The following names, derived from various sources, may be appended: 


Kaidatoiabie (with 6 subbands), in northeastern Nevada. 
Nahaego, in Reese River Valley, and about Austin, Nev. 
Pagantso (with 3 subbands), in Ruby Valley, Nev. 


410 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Buu, 145 


Sunananahogwa, on Reese River, Nev. 
Temoksee, in Reese River Valley, Nev. 
Toquimas, in lower Reese River Valley, Nev. 


History—The history of the Western Shoshoni was practically 
identical with that of the Northern Shoshoni and Northern Paiute, 
except that their territory was somewhat more remote from the paths 
followed by American explorers in the north and Spaniards in the 
south. In 1825 Jedidiah Smith made several journeys across Nevada 
and may have been preceded by Old Greenwood. In 1847 the 
Mormons settled Nevada and came in contact with some of the 
eastern representatives of this Shoshonean division. Narratives of 
explorers generally waste few words on these Indians or the neighboring 
Paiute, classing them indiscriminately as “diggers” and dismissing 
them all with a few contemptuous words. They were affected mate- 
rially by the discovery of the Comstock Lode. Although it was not 
in their territory, prospectors penetrated everywhere, stock was intro- 
duced which sorely affected the food supplies of the natives, and the 
resulting friction affected first the Northern Paiute and somewhat 
later the Shoshoni. Steward says: 

By 1865, Shoshoni of Battle Mountain and Austin were involved. Mean- 
while south of the Great Salt Lake in Utah and in eastern California, Sho- 
shoni, especially those known as Gosiute, were committing depredations against 
immigrants, raiding the pony express and attacking the stage line which ran 
through this territory. . . . For protection, Fort Ruby in Ruby Valley was built 
in 1862. ... An army unit massacred a large number of Shoshoni in Steptoe 
Valley in 1862, but by 1865 the strife was ended. In 1869 the railroad across the 
continent was completed and the native period was at an end. Shoshoni of 
central Nevada and of the more remote valleys seem to have kept pretty well out 
of the conflict. The treaty of 1863 included all the Shoshoni of northern Nevada. 
They were given the Western Shoshone or Duck Valley Reservation in 1877 (by 
Executive Order of April 16), but by no means all Shoshoni went to it. A few of 
the more westerly Shoshoni joined Paiute on reservations in western Nevada, but 
most Shoshoni remained near their native haunts, gradually abandoning their 


native economy and attaching themselves to ranches or mining towns. (Steward, 
1938, p. 7.) 


The Carlin Farms Reservation northwest of Elko was set aside by 
Executive Order of May 10, 1877, but restored to the public domain 
by Executive Order of January 16, 1879. 

Population —Mooney (1938) estimated that there were 4,500 
Northern and Western Shoshoni together in 1845. The United States 
Census of 1910 gave 3,840, a figure which included about 1,800 
Western Shoshoni. The United States Indian Office Report for 1917 
indicated perhaps 1,500. The census of 1930 raised this figure into 
the neighborhood of 2,000, but in 1937 the Indian Office returned 
only 1,201. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA AgT 


Skitswish. From their own name; significance unknown. Also 
called: 


Coeur d’Aléne, a French appellation meaning ‘‘awl heart,’ said to have been 
used originally by a chief to indicate the size of a trader’s heart. 

Q’ma’shp&l, Yakima name, meaning ‘“‘camas people.” 

Pointed Hearts, derived from the word Coeur d’Aléne. 


Connections.—The Skitswish belonged to the inland division of the 
Salishan stock, their closest relatives being the Kalispel or Pend 
d’Oreilles, and other eastern tribes. 

Location.—On the headwaters of Spokane River from a little above 
Spokane Falls to the sources, including Coeur d’Aléne Lake and all its 
tributaries, and the head of the Clearwater. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Teit (1930) reports the following divisions and villages, noting that the last in 
reality may have included two sections, the Coeur d’Aléne Lake Division and the 
Spokane River Division: 

St. Joe River Division: 
Ntcaamtsen (.ntcia’mtsEn), at the confluence of the St. Joe and St. Maries 
Rivers. 

Stiktakeshen (.sti’q*takecEn?), near the mouth of St. Joe River, on the river, 

or nearby on the lake. 

Stotseawes (stotsriwszs), on St. Joe River, at the place now called Fish Trap by 

the Whites. 

Takolks (ta’x.olks) (?), on upper Hangman’s River, at a spring near the foot 

of the hill just south of De Smet. 

Tcatowashalgs (tcat’owacalgs), on St. Joe River a little above Stotseawes. 

Tcetishtasheshen (tcéti’ctacrecEn), probably on the lake, near the Stiktakeshen, 

on the north or east side, not far from the mouth of the river. 
Coeur d’Aléne River Division: 

Athlkwarit (alqwarit), at Harrison. 

Gwalit (gwa’lit), near the lake and close to Harrison. 

Hinsalut (hinsa’lut), on Coeur d’Aléne River a little above Smakegen. 

Kokolshtelps (qoqole’télps), a little above Nestagwast. 

Nalstkathlkwen (nalstqa’txwEn), a little above Senshalemants. 

Neatskstem (ne’atsxsteEm), on Coeur d’Aléne River a little above Athlkwarit. 

Néstagwast (nest’a’gwast), at Black Lake, at a tributary river and lake here. 

Senshalemants (sEnca’lemiants), a little above Hinsalut. 

Smakegen (sma’qrgen), at Medimont. 

Skwato (sk’wat’o’), at old mission. 

Tclatcalk (tcla’tcalxw), on Coeur d’Aléne Lake, close to the mouth of Coeur 

d’Aléne River. 
Coeur d’Aléne Lake and Spokane River Division. 

Ntaken (nt’a’q’En) Hayden Lake), north of Coeur d’Aléne Lake. 

Tcelatcelitcemen (tcélitcelitezemrn), halfway down Coeur d’Aléne Lake, on the 

east side. 

Ntcemkainkwa (ntc’emqa’inqwa), at Coeur d’Aléne City. 

Smethlethlena (smetzte’na), near the last on the same side. 

Tpoenethlpem, very near the preceding, on the same side. 


412 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ BULL. 145 


Nsharept (nc&’rEpt), a little below the next to the last. 

Stcatkwei (stcatkwe’i), a little below the last. 

Kamilen (q’ami’len), at Post Falls. 

Hinsaketpens (hinsaq’a’tpEns), about one mile above the Spokane bridge. 

Newashalks (ne’Ewa’calqs), a little below the preceding. 

Ntsetsawolsako (ntsetsakwolsa’ko?), on Tamarack Creek, toward the moun- 

tains. 

Neshwahwe (nesxwa’xxwe), on the river a little below the last two. 

Nesthlihum (nesti’xum), a little below the last. 

Tcanokwaken (tcanokwa’ken?), a little below the last. 

Mulsh (mu’lc), at Green Acres. 

Tcatenwahetpem (tcatenwa’xetppem), a short distance below Green Acres, 

and about 20 miles above Spokane City. 

History.—There is no tradition of any Skitswish migrations. Like 
so many other tribes in the region, the Skitswish were first brought 
clearly to the attention of Whites by Lewis and Clark. Although 
suffering the usual heavy losses following contact with Europeans, 
they continued to live in the same country and were finally allotted 
a reservation there bearing their name. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that the Skitswish may have 
numbered 1,000 in 1780, but Teit (1930) raises this to from 3,000 to 
4,000. In 1905 the United States Indian Office returned 494, all on the 
one reservation. The census of 1910 gave 293, probably below the 
true figure, as the United States Indian Office reported 601 on the 
reservation, including probably some Spokane, and in 1937 it returned 
608. 

Connections in which they have become noted —Coeur d’Aléne Lake in 
northern Idaho and a town on its shores preserve the memory of the 
Skitswish, as they bear the name given this tribe by the French. 


Snakes, see Paiute, Northern. 


Spokan. The Spokan extended a few miles into this State along its 
western boundary. (See Washington.) 


WASHINGTON 


The State of Washington was occupied by a great number of Indian 
tribes formerly very populous, particularly those along the coast. 
There are few traditions regarding migrations and those which we 
have apply almost entirely to the interior people. After the Whites 
came it was unlikely that the Indians would move eastward in the 
face of the invasion and impossible for them to move westward; 
hence we do not have to trace various stages of long migrations due to 
displacement by the Whites and the overland retreat which followed, 
so marked in the history of the eastern Indians. Contrary to an older 
view, which held that Salishan tribes formerly extended to the lower 
Columbia and were driven north by Shahaptians, pushed forward in 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 413 


turn by Shoshonean peoples, it seems that the relative positions of 
Salishans and Shahaptians has been unchanged for an uncertain 
period of time and that, as a matter of fact, the Shoshoneans have 
been pushed southward although this movement was very recent. 
The Athapascan Kwalhioqua must represent a comparatively late 
invasion although that may not have been so recent as their anoma- 
lous position would lead one to suppose. There is also evidence of a 
much earlier movement when the Salishans came down upon the 
coast. The earliest European to meet any of the peoples of Wash- 
ington was probably Juan de Fuca, a Greek navigator sailing under 
the Spanish flag, who, in 1592, visited the straits which now bear 
hisname. Other Spanish explorers followed, and were later succeeded 
by English and Americans. The continual resort of trading vessels 
to Nootka on the west coast of Vancouver Island served to distribute 
European commodities and had a considerable influence among the 
tribes of Washington. In the latter part of the eighteenth century 
traders of the Hudson Bay and Northwest Companies made their 
appearance, but the Washington peoples first come squarely out 
upon the stage of history with the descent of the Columbia by Lewis 
and Clark in 1805-6. These pioneers gave the first general descrip- 
tion of the region, enumerated the aboriginal peoples found in occu- 
pancy, and attempted estimates of their numbers. For some time 
afterward the territory was dominated by representatives of British 
companies and the land was claimed by England, while the only 
attempt to exploit it on the part of Americans, the settlement of 
Astoria, was soon abandoned. Following upon the acceptance of 
the 49th parallel of latitude as the International Boundary, however, 
and still more the discovery of gold in California and the opening 
up of the “Oregon trail,’”’ settlers from the Eastern States began to 
pour in in numbers. It was thereafter inevitable that friction should 
develop between the newcomers and the aborigines. There were 
wars with the Nez Percé, Yakima, and other tribes, but the Indians 
suffered less in this way than from European diseases, particularly the 
smallpox, which began their ravages before Lewis and Clark appeared, 
from spirituous liquors, and from a general dislocation of their aborig- 
inal adjustments. The destruction was greatest in the Columbia 
Valley, which as the main artery of travel and trade was peculiarly 
exposed to epidemics, and within a few years the greater part of the 
once teeming populations of the lower valley were practically wiped 
out of existence. Roman Catholic missions sprang up at an early 
date in the eastern part of the territory, and were soon followed by 
those of Protestant denominations, notable among which was that 
conducted among the Cayuse by Marcus Whitman (1838-47). As 
in other parts of the United States, the Indians gradually parted 


414 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


with their lands and were placed upon reservations, though in most 
cases they were not removed so far from their original homes as in 
the eastern parts of the Union. 

The above sketch will show enough of the history of most of the 
tribes in this area, though some details have been added in certain 
cases (i. e., in connection with the Cayuse, Chilluckittequaw, Chi- 
makum, Chinook, Klickitat, and Yakima. (See Ray, 1932, and 
Spier and Sapir, 1930.) 


Cathlamet. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Guasémas, or Guithlamethl, by the Clackamas. 
Kathlamet, own name. 
Kwillu’chini, by the Chinook. 


Connections.—The Cathlamet belonged to the Chinookan stock. 
The diaiect to which they have given their name was spoken as far up 
the Columbia River as Ranier. 

Location.—On the south bank of Columbia River near its mouth, 
claiming the territory between Tongue Point and the neighborhood 
of Puget Island, and on the north bank from the mouth of Grays 
Bay to a little east of Oak Point. 


Villages 


Ika’/naiak, on the north side of the Columbia River at the mouth of Coal Creek 
Slough just east of Oak Point. 

Ilo’humin, on the north side of Columbia River opposite Puget Island and near 
the mouth of Alockman Creek. 

Kathla’amat, on the south side of Columbia River about 4 miles below Puget 
Island. 

Ta’nas ilu’, on Tanas Ilahee Island on the south side of the Columbia River. 

Wa’kaiyakam, across Alockman Creek opposite Ilo’humin. 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated 450 Cathlamet in 1780. 
In 1805-6 Lewis and Clark gave 300. In 1849 Lane reported 58. 
They are now extinct as a separate group. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The capital of Wahkia- 
kum County, Washington, perpetuates the name of the Cathlamet. 


Cathlapotle. Meaning “people of Lewis (Na’p!éix.) River.” 
Connections.—The Cathlapotle belonged to the Chinookan lin- 
guistic stock and were placed by Spier (1936) in the Clackamas 
division of Upper Chinook but by Berreman (1937) apparently with 
the Multnomah. 
Location.—On the lower part of Lewis River and the southeast 
side of the Columbia River, in Clarke County. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 415 


Villages 
The main village of the Cathlapotle was Nahpooitle, at the mouth of Lewis 


River, but to this should perhaps be added Wakanasisi, opposite the mouth of 
Willamette River. 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated 1,300 Cathlapotle in 1780; 
Lewis and Clark, 900 in 1806. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Lewis River was once 
known by the name of Cathlapotle. 


Cayuse. The Cayuse were located about the heads of Wallawalla, 
Umatilla, and Grande Ronde Rivers, extending from the Blue 
Mountains to Deschutes River, Washington and Oregon. (See 
Oregon.) 


Chehalis. Meaning “sand,” the name derived originally, according 
to Gibbs (1877), from a village at the entrance of Grays Harbor. 
Also called: 


Atchixe’lish, Calapooya name. 

liga’t, Nestucca name. 

Lower Chehalis, name used by Spier (1927). 
Staq-taibe, Puyallup name. 


Connections.—The Chehalis belonged to the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic family, being most intimately related to the 
Humptulips, Wynoochee, and Quinault. 

Location.—On the lower course of Chehalis River, especially on the 
south side, and on the south side of Grays Bay. In later times the 
Chehalis occupied territory to and about Willapa Bay that had for- 
merly been held by the Chinook. 


Villages 


Chehalis (Gibbs, 1877), on the south side of Grays Harbor near \ estport, in 
country earlier occupied by the Chinook. 

Chiklisilkh (Gibbs), at Point Leadbetter, Willapa Bay, in territory earlier occu- 
pied by Chinook. 

Hlakwun (Curtis, 1907-9), near Willapa on Willapa River in territory earlier 
occupied by the Chinook. 

Kaulhlak (Curtis), at the head of Palux River, earlier in Chinook country. 

Klumaitumsh (Gibbs and Boas personal information), given doubtfully as the 
name of a former band or village on the south side of Grays Harbor at its 
entrance. 

Nai’yasap (Curtis), on Willapa River in territory earlier occupied by Chinook. 

Nickomin (Swan 1857 and Boas, personal information), on North River which 
flows into Willapa Bay, in territory earlier occupied by the Chinook. 

Noohooultch (Gibbs), on the south side of Grays Harbor. 

Noosiatsks (Gibbs), on the south side of Grays Harbor. 

Nooskoh (Gibbs), on a creek opposite Whishkah River. 

Qyan (Gairdner, 1841), on the north point of Grays Harbor. 


416 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL, 145 


Talal (Gibbs), at Ford’s Prairie on the Chehalis River near Centralia, and there- 
fore far outside of the Chehalis territory proper. 
Willapa, on Willapa River and in earlier Chinook country. 


The following villages were originally occupied by Chinook but seem to have 
shifted in population or language or both so as to become Chehalis: Hwa’hots, 
Nutskwethlso’k, Quela’ptonlilt, Quer’quelin, Tske’lsos. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated a population of 1,000 in 
the year 1780 for the Lower and Upper Chehalis, the Cowlitz, the 
Humptulips, and related tribes, but the number had sunk to 170 by 
1907. However, the census of 1910 gives 282 for the same group 
exclusive of the Cowlitz. In 1923 the United States Indian Office 
returned 89, and in 1937, 131. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—A river, county, and 
city in Washington preserve the name of the Chehalis. There is a 
Chehalis in Minnesota but its name probably has no connection with 
that of the Washington tribe. 


Chelan. The name is derived from Chelan Lake. 

Connections.—An interior Salish tribe speaking the Wenachee 
dialect and separated tentatively from that tribe by Spier (1927). 

Location.—At the outlet of Lake Chelan. 

Population.—No data. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The name Chelan is 
shared not only by the lake above mentioned but by Chelan Falls, a 
range of mountains, a county, and two post villages, Chelan and 
Chelan Falls. 


Chilluckittequaw. Significance unknown. 

Connections.—The Chilluckittequaw belonged to the Chinookan 
linguistic stock. 

Location.—As reported by Lewis and Clark, the Chilluckittequaw 
lay along the north side of Columbia River, in the present Klickitat 
and Skamania Counties, from about 10 miles below the Dalles to the 
neighborhood of the Cascades. Spier (1936) thinks they may have 
been identical with the White Salmon or Hood River group of Indians 
and perhaps both. In the latter case we must suppose that they 
extended to the south side of the Columbia. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Itkilak or Ithlkilak (occupied jointly with Klickitat), at White Salmon Landing. 

Nanshuit (occupied jointly with Klickitat), at the present Underwood. 

Smackshop, a band of Chilluckittequaw extending from the River Labiche (Hood 
River ?) to the Cascades. 

Tgasgutcu (occupied jointly with Klickitat), said to be about 4 mile west of a 
long, high mountain opposite Mosier, Oreg., and at the same time about a 
mile above White Salmon Landing, an apparent inconsistency. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 417 


Thlmieksok or Thlmuyaksok, % mile from the last; in 1905 the site of the Burket 

Ranch. 

Historical Note-—According to Mooney (1928), a remnant of the 
Chilluckittequaw lived near the mouth of the White Salmon River 
until 1880 when they removed to the Cascades, where a few still resided 
in 1895. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated 3,000 for this tribe in 1780. 
In 1806 Lewis and Clark placed the figure at 1,400, besides 800 
Smackshop, or a total of 2,200. 


Chimakum. Significance of the name is unknown. Also called: 


Aqokilo, own name. 
Port Townsend Indians, popular name. 

Connections.—The Chimakum, the Quileute, and the Hoh (q. v.) 
together constituted the Chimakuan linguistic stock, which in turn 
was probably connected with the Salishan stock. 

Location.—On the peninsula between Hood’s Canal and Port 
Townsend. 

Mistory.—The Chimakum were constantly at war with the Clallam 
and other Salish tribes and, being inferior in numbers, suffered very 
much at their hands. They were included in the Point-no-Point 
Treaty of 1855 and placed on the Skokomish Reservation, where they 
gradually diminished in numbers until, in 1890, Boas was able to find 
only three individuals who could speak their language, and then but 
imperfectly. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates 400 Chimakum in 1780, 
and Gibbs (1877), 90 in 1855. The census of 1910 enumerated 3. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Attention was called 
to the Chimakum in early days by their warlike character and the 
uniqueness of their language. 


Chinook. From Tsintk, their Chehalis name. Also called: 


Ala’dshiish, Nestucca name. 

Flatheads, a name shared with a number of other tribes in the region from 
their custom of deforming the head. 

Thlidla’h, Clackama name. 

Connections.—The Chinook belonged to the Lower Chinook division 
of the Chinookan family. 

Location.—On the north side of the Columbia River from its mouth 
to Grays Bay (not Grays Harbor), a distance of about 15 miles, and 
north along the seacoast to include Willapa or Shoalwater Bay. Ray 
(1938) makes a separate division to include the Shoalwater Chinook 
but it will be more convenient to treat them under one head. It is 
understood that they differed not at all in dialect. 


418 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuu. 145 


Towns 
(As given by Ray (1938), except as otherwise indicated) 


Clamoitomish (Sapir, 1930), in Grays Bay. 

Hakelsh, at the mouth of Smith Creek on the northeast shore of Willapa Bay. 

Hwa’hots, at a former settlement called Bruceport about 3 miles north of the 
mouth of Palix River. 

Ini’sal, on Naselle River where it enters the arm of Willapa Bay. 

Iwa’lhat, at the mouth of Wallicut River, which bears its name in a corrupted form. 

Kalawa’uus, on the peninsula at Oysterville Point. 

Killaxthokle (Lewis and Clark, 1905-6), probably on Willapa Bay. 

Kwatsa’mts, on Baker Bay at the mouth of Chinook River, north side of the 
Columbia. 

Lapi’lso, on an island in an arm of Willapa Bay below the mouth of Naselle River. 

Ma’hu, at the mouth of Nemah River below the present town of Nemah. 

Mo’kwal, at the mouth of Deep River on Grays Bay. 

Nahume’nsh, on the west side of North River at its mouth on the north shore of 
Willapa Bay. 

Namla’iks, at Goose Point. 

Na’/mstcats, at a site now called Georgetown between Tokeland and North Cove. 

Nokska’itmithls, at Fort Canby on Cape Disappointment. 

No’skwalakuthl, at Ilwaco, named efter its last chief. 

Nu’kaunthl, at Tokeland, named after its chief. 

Nu’patstcthl, at the site of Nahcotta, on the peninsula opposite the mouth of 
Nemah River. 

Nutskwethlso’k, on Willapa Bay west of Bay Center. 

Nuwi’lus, on the site of Grayland on the coast. 

Quela’ptonlilt (Swan, 1857), at the mouth of Willapa River. 

Querquelin (Swan), at the mouth of Querquelin River, which flows into Palix 
River from the south near the mouth of the latter. 

Se’akwal, on the north bank of the Columbia a short distance below Mo’kwal. 

Tokpi’luks, at the mouth of Palix River. 

Tse’yuk, at Oysterville on the peninsula north of Nahcotta. 

Tske’lsos, on Willapa River between South Bend and Raymond. 

Ya’kamnok, at Sandy Point 3 miles south of Goose Point, the extreme north point 
at Bay Center. 


Fistory.—Though the Chinook had been known to traders for an 
indefinite period previously, they were first described by Lewis and 
Clark, who visited them in 1805. From their proximity to Astoria 
and their intimate relations with the early traders, they soon became 
well known, and their language formed the chief Indian basis for the 
Chinook jargon, first employed as a trade language, which ultimately 
extended from California to Alaska. In the middle of the nineteenth 
century they became mixed with the Chehalis with whom they ulti- 
mately fused entirely, dropping their own language. The Chinook 
of later census returns are composed of a number of other tribes of 
the same stock. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 800 of these 
Indians in 1780, “including the Chinook and Killaxthokl.’”’ In 1805 
Lewis and Clark gave 400 on Columbia River alone. In 1885 Swan 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 419 


states that there were 112. They are now nearly extinct though 
Ray (1938) discovered three old people still living as late as 1931-36. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The name of the 
Chinook tribe became famous (1) because of intimate dealings be- 
tween the Chinook and British and American traders, (2) on account 
of the extension of their name to the related tribes now classed in 
the Chinookan stock, (8) because the name was also extended to 
the Chinook jargon or Oregon Trade Language known throughout 
the entire Northwest, (4) because of its application to the Chinook 
or Pacific wind, and (5) from its application to towns in Pacific 
County, Wash., and Blaine County, Mont. 


Clackamas. Placed on both sides of the Columbia, but I prefer 
to follow Berreman (1937) in limiting the term to groups living on 
the Oregon side. (See Oregon.) 


Clallam. Meaning ‘“‘strong people.”’ Also spelled Nu-sklaim, S’Klal- 
lam, Tla’lem. 
Connections.—The Clallam were a tribe of the coastal division of 
the Salishan linguistic stock most closely connected with the Songish. 
Location.—On the south side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, between 
Port Discovery and Hoko River. Later the Clallam occupied the 
Chimakum territory also and a small number lived on the lower end 
of Vancouver Island. 


Villages 


Elwah, at the mouth of Elwah River. 

Hoko, at the mouth of Hoko Creek. 

Huiauulch, on the site of modern Jamestown, 5 miles east of Dungeness. 

Hunnint or Hiing!’ngit, on the east side of Clallam Bay; this town and Klatlawas 
together were called Xainafit by Erna Gunther (1927). 

Kahtai, at Port Townsend, occupied after the destruction of the Chimakum. 

Kaquaith (or Skakwiyel), at Port Discovery. 

Klatlawas, the Tlitliwai’is of Curtis (1907-9), on the west side of Clallam 
Bay; see Hunnint. 

Kwahamish, a fishing village on the Lyre River. 

Mekoés, on Beecher Bay, Vancouver Island, B. C. 

Pistchin, on Pysht Bay. 

Sequim or Suktcikwiifi, on Sequim Bay or Washington Harbor. 

Sestietl, Upper Elwah. 

Stehtlum, at new Dungeness. 

Tclanuk, on Beecher Bay, Vancouver Island, B. C. 

Tsako, at the former mouth of Dungeness River. 

Tsewhitzen, on Port Angeles Spit, 2 or 3 miles west of the old town of Stehtlum. 

Yennis, at Port Angeles or False Dungeness. 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated 2,000 Clallam in 1780. In 


1854 Gibbs estimated 800. In 1855, 926 were reported. In 1862 
Eells estimated 1,300 but gave 597 in 1878. In 1881 he reduced this 


420 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Bout. 145 


to 485. In 1904, 336 were returned. By the census of 1910, 398 
were reported; by the United States Indian Office in 1923, 535, and 
in 1937, 764. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The name Clallam is 
perpetuated by its application to a bay, a county, a river, and a 
precinct in the State of Washington. 


Clalskanie. (See Oregon.) 


Columbia or Sinkiuse-Columbia. So called because of their former 
prominent association with Columbia River, where some of the most 
important bands had their homes. Also called: 


B6d’tcaced, by the Nez Percé, probably, meaning ‘‘arrows’” or “‘arrow people.” 

Isle-de-Pierre, a traders’ name, perhaps from a place in their country or for 
a band of the tribe. 

Middle Columbia Salish, so called by Teit (1928) and Spier (1930 b). 

Papspé’lu, Nez Percé name, meaning “‘firs,’’ or “fir-tree people.” 

.sa’/tadebe, probably the Snohomish name. 

Sinkiuse, the name applied to themselves and most other neighboring Salish 
tribes, and said to have belonged originally and properly to a band which 
once inhabited Umatilla Valley. 

Suwa’dabc, Snohomish name for all interior Indians, meaning ‘‘inland people,”’ 
or “interior people.” 

.swa’dab.c, Twana name for all interior Indians, meaning “inland people.” 

.swa’/namce, Nootsak name for all interior Indians, meaning “‘inland people.” 

Ti/atttuxa, Wasco Chinook name. 

.tskowa’xtsEnux or .skowa’/xtsEnEx, applied by themselves, meaning has 
something to do with ‘‘main valley.” 


Connections.—The Sinkiuse-Columbia belonged to the inland 
division of the Salishan linguistic stock, their nearest relatives being 
the Wenatchee and Methow. 


Subdivisions or Bands 
(According to Teit, 1930) 


nkeé’us or .s.nkeié’usox (Umatilla Valley). 

Stata’ketux, around White Bluffs on the Columbia. 

.tskowa’xtsEnux or .skowa’/xtsEnEXx, also called Moses-Columbia or Moses Band 
after a famous chief (Priest’s Rapids and neighboring country). 

Curtis (1907-9) gives the following: ‘‘Near the mouth of the sink of Crab Creek 
were the Sinkimkinatkuh, and above them the Sinkolkoluminuh. Then came in 
succession the Stapi’sknuh, the Skukul&t’kuh, the Skod4hchnuh, the Skihlkintnuh, 
and, finally, the Skultaqch!’mh, a little above the mouth of Wenatchee River.”’ 
Spier (1927) adds that the Sinkowarsin met by Thompson in 1811 might have been 
a band of this tribe. 


Location and History.—The Sinkiuse-Columbia lived on the east 
side of Columbia River from Fort Okanogan to the neighborhood of 
Point Eaton. Later a reservation was created for them known as 
Columbia Reservation. In 1870 Winans placed them ‘‘on the east 
and south sides of the Columbia River from the Grand Coulée down 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 421 


to Priest’s Rapids.”” They are now under the jurisdiction of Colville 
Agency and one band, the Moses-Columbia Band, is in the southern 
part of Colville Reservation. 

Population.—The Sinkiuse-Columbia are estimated by Mooney 
(1928) to have numbered 800 in 1780, but were probably considerably 
more numerous as Teit (1927) considers that this tribe and the Pisquow 
together must have totaled something like 10,000 before the smallpox 
reached them. In 1905, 355 were reported; in 1908, 299; and in 1909, 
perhaps including some others, 540 were returned. The census of 
1910 gave 52. 


Colville. The name is derived from Fort Colville, a post of the 
Hudson’s Bay Company at Kettle Falls, which was in turn named 
for the London governor of the company at the time when the post 
was founded, i. e., in 1825. Also called: 


Basket People, by Hale (1846). 

Chaudiére, French name derived from the popular term applied to them, 
Kettle Falls Indians. 

Kettle Falls Indians, as above. 

Salsxuyilp, Okanagon name. 

Skuyélpi, by other Salish tribes. 

Whe-el-po, by Lewis and Clark, shortened from above. 


Connections.—The Colville belonged to the inland division of the 
Salishan linguistic stock and to that branch of the latter which included 
the Okanagon, Sanpoil, and Senijextee. 

Location.—On Colville River and that part of the Columbia between 
Kettle Falls and Hunters. 


Villages and Subdivisions 
(From Ray, 1932) 


Kakalapia, home of the Skakalapiak (across from the present town of Harvey, at 
the point where the ferry now crosses). 

Kilumaak, home of the Skilumaak (opposite the present town of Kettle Falls, 
about 1% miles above Nchumutastum). 

Nechaliam, home of the Snchalik (about 14% miles above the present town of 
Inchelium). 

Nchumutastum, home of the Snchumutast (about 6 miles above Nilamin). 

Nilamin, home of the Snilaminak (about 15 miles above Kakalapia). 

Nkuasiam, home of the Snkuasik (slightly above the present town of Daisy, on 
the opposite side of the river). 

Smichunulau, home of the Smichunulauk (at the site of the present State bridge 
at Kettle Falls). 


History —The history of the Colville was similar to that of the 
neighboring tribes except that Kettle Falls was early fixed upon as 
the site of an important post by the Hudson Bay Company and 
brought with it the usual advantages and disadvantages of White 
contact. 


ADD BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buut. 145 


a 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated the number of the Colville 
at 1,000 as of 1780, but Lewis and Clark placed it at 2,500, a figure 
also fixed upon by Teit (1930). In 1904 there were 321; in 1907, 334; 
and in 1937, 322. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The name Colville was 
applied to an important Indian Reservation and later to a town, the 
county seat of Stevens County, Wash., but the original, of course, 
was not Indian. 


Copalis. Significance unknown. 

Connections.—The Copalis belonged to the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic family. 

Location.—Copalis River and the Pacific Coast between the mouth 
of Joe Creek and Grays Harbor. 

Population.—Lewis and Clark in 1805 estimated a population of 
200 Copalis in 10 houses. The 5 individuals assigned to a ‘‘Chepalis”’ 
tribe in an enumeration given by Olson of the year 1888 probably 
refers to them. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The name Copalis is 
perpetuated in that of Copalis River, and in the post villages of Copalis 
Beach and Copalis Crossing, Grays Harbor County, Wash. 


Cowlitz. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Ni-s6-lupsh, name given by Indians not on the Sound to Upper Cowlitz 
and Upper Chehalis. 

Connections.—The Cowlitz belonged to the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic family, yet shared some peculiarities with the 
inland tribes. 

Location.—Most of the lower and all the middle course of Cowlitz 
River. Later they were divided between Chehalis and Puyallup 
Reservations. 

Towns 

Ray (1932) gives: Awi/mani, at the mouth of Coweman River, south of Kelso, 
and Manse’la, on site of Longiew. (See Curtis, 1907-9.) 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated the number of the Cowlitz, 
along with the Chehalis, Humptulips, and some other tribes, at 1,000 
in 1780. In 1853 Gibbs stated that they and the Upper Chehalis 
counted not more than 165. About 1887 there were 127 on Puyallup 
Reservation. .The census of 1910 returned 105. The United States 
Indian Office Report of 1923 gives 490, probably including other 
tribes. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The name Cowlitz is 
perpetuated by Cowlitz River and Cowlitz Pass; by Cowlitz Glacier, 
which radiates from Mount Ranier; and by Cowlitz County, Cowlitz 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 423 


Park, Cowlitz Chimney, Cowlitz Cleaver, and some small towns in 
the same region. 


Duwamish. A place name. 
Connections.—The Duwamish belonged to the Nisqually dialectic 
group of the coast division of the Salishan linguistic stock, 


Subdivisions and Villages 
(According to Smith, 1940) 


A. The Duwamish River from its mouth up to and including the Black and Cedar 
Rivers, with the following villages: 

Dsidsila’letc, at Yesler Way and Jackson St., Seattle. 

Duwe’kwulsh, at Maple Valley. 

Kati’lbabsh, at the present town of Renton. 

Sakwe’kwewad, on Cedar River about 2 miles from Renton. 

Skwa’lko, where the Black and White Rivers join to form the Duwamish. 

Tkwabko’, at south end of Lake Washington. 

Tola’ltu, below Duwamish Head, Seattle. 

Tupa’thlteb, at the mouth of the easternmost estuary of the Duwamish. 

Tuduwa’bsh, at the mouth of the Duwamish River. 

B. From where the Black River flows into the Duwamish to the junction of the 
White and Green Rivers, including these villages: 

Stak and Tcutupa’lhu, on the east bank of the White River between its junc- 
tion with the Black River and the mouth of the Green River. 

C. The Green River villages: 

Ila’lkoabsh, at the junction of the Green and White Rivers. 

Su’sabsh, on Suise Creek. 

Perhaps several groups of houses: (1) on the upper Green River, including 
Tskoka’bid (at the bend now spanned by the highway bridge about 4 miles 
east of Auburn); (2) on the north bank of the Robert Wooding Place; (3) on 
the Du Bois Place, and (4) at the mouth of Newaukum Creek. 

D. The White River village, Sbalko’absh (on White River near a small stream at 
the southeast corner of the present Muckleshoot Reservation and to the east 
on Boise Creek). 

EK. The Lake Washington people, including the Thluwi’thalbsh (at Union Bay), 
the Sammamish (at the mouth of Sammamish River), and the peoples of Salmon 
Bay. In 1856 they were removed to the eastern shore of Bainbridge Island 
but as the place lacked a fishing ground they were shortly afterward taken to 
Holderness Point, on the west side of Eliot Bay, which was already a favorite 
place for fishing. They are now under the Tulalip School Superintendency. 


Population—The Duwamish were estimated by Mooney (1928), 
with the Suquamish and other tribes, at 1,200 in 1780. About 1856 
they are variously given at from 64 to 312. The census of 1910 
returned 20. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Duwamish will be 
remembered mainly as one of the tribes formerly located on the site 
of Seattle, and one of the two of which the Indian who gave his name 
to that city was chief. The name Duwamish itself is preserved in 
Duwamish River and in the name of a small town. 


424 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Hoh. Significance unknown. 

Connections.—The Hoh spoke the Quileute language and were often 
considered part of the same tribe, constituting one division of the 
Chimakuan linguistic stock and more remotely connected with the 
Salishan family. 

Location.—On Hoh River on the west coast of Washington. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates 500 in the Hoh and the 
Quileute together in 1780. In 1905 the Hoh numbered 62. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Hoh is pre- 
served in that of the Hoh River. 


Humptulips. Said to signify ‘“‘chilly region.”’ 

Connections.—The Humptulips belonged to the coastal division of 
the Salishan linguistic stock, bemg connected most closely with the 
Chehalis. 

Location.—On the Humptulips River, and part of Grays Harbor, 
including also Hoquiam Creek and Whiskam River. 


Villages 


Hli’mtmi (Curtis, 1907-9), near North Cove. 
Hoquiam, on Hoquiam Creek. 
Hooshkal (Gibbs), on the north shore of Grays Harbor. 
Kishkallen (Gibbs), on the north shore of Grays Harbor. 
Klimmim (Gibbs), 1877). 
Kplelch (Curtis), at the mouth of North River. 
Kwapks (Curtis, 1907-9), at the mouth of North River. 
Mo/niliimsh (Curtis), at Georgetown. 
Nooachhummik (Gibbs), on the coast north of Grays Harbor. 
Nookalthu (Gibbs), north of Grays Harbor. 
Nu’moihanhl (Curtis), at Tokeland. 
Whishkah, on Whishkah River. 

These are placed under the Humptulips only on account of their locations as 
described. 


Population.—See Chehalis. In 1888 according to Olsen 18 Hump- 
tulips were reported. In 1904 there were 21. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Humptulips River and 
a village in Grays Harbor County preserve the name of the Hump- 
tulips Indians. 


Kalispel. The Kalispel extended over into the eastern edge of the 
State from Idaho (q. v.). 


Klickitat. From a Chinook term meaning ‘“‘beyond’’ and having 
reference to the Cascade Mountains. Also called: 


Awi-adshi, Molala name. 

LOk‘-a-tatt, Puyallup name. 

Méhane, Umpqua name. 

MI-Clauq’-tcu-win’-ti, Alsea name, meaning ‘‘scalpers.’’ 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 425 


Min-an’-né-qu’ tinné, Naltunnetunne name, meaning “‘inland people.” 
Qwit’lh-hwai-pim, own name, meaning “prairie people.” 
Tlakai’tat, Okanagon name. 
Tsé la’kayat amim, Kalapuya name. 
Tiuwanxa-ike, Clatsop name. 
Wahnookt, Cowlitz name. 
Connections.—The Klickitat belonged to the Shahaptian division of 
the Shapwailutan linguistic family. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Possibly the Atanum or Atanumlema should be added to the Klickitat. Mooney 
(1928) reports that their language was distinct from, though related to, both 
Klickitat and Yakima. 

The following villages are mentioned: 

Itkilak or Ithlkilak, at White Salmon Landing, which they occupied jointly with 
the Chilluckquittequaw. 

Nanshuit (occupied jointly with the Chilluckquittequaw), at Underwood. 

Shgwaliksh, not far below Memaloose Island. 

Tgasgutcu (occupied jointly with the Chilluckquittequaw), said to be about % 
mile west of a long high mountain opposite Mosier, Oreg., and about 1 mile 
above White Salmon Landing but the exact location seems to be in doubt. 

Wiltkun (exact location unknown). 

History.—The original home of the Klickitat was somewhere south 
of the Columbia, and they invaded their later territory after the 
Yakima crossed the river. In 1805 Lewis and Clark found them 
wintering on Yakima and Klickitat Rivers. Taking advantage of the 
weakness of the Willamette tribes following upon an epidemic of fever 
between 1820 and 1830, the Klickitat crossed the Columbia and forced 
their way as far south as the valley of the Umpqua but were soon 
compelled to retire to their old seats. They were active and enter- 
prising traders, profiting by their favorable location to become middle- 
men between the coast tribes and those living east of the Cascades. 
They joined in the Yakima treaty at Camp Stevens, June 9, 1855, by 
which they ceded their lands to the United States, and most of them 
settled upon the Yakima Reservation. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that the Klickitat, includ- 
ing the Taitinapam, numbered 600 in 1780. In 1805 Lewis and Clark 
placed their total population at about 700. The census of 1910 
returned 405 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Klickitat were 
early distinguished from other tribes of central Washington owing to 
their propensity for trading. The name is perpetuated in that of a 
small affluent of the Columbia and in the name of the county, and a 
post village in the county. 


496 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Kwaiailk. Meaning unknown. Also called: 


Kwii-teh-ni, Kwalhioqua name. 

Nii-s6-lupsh, by Sound Indians, referring to the rapids of their stream. 

Stak-ta-mish, a name for this and other inland tribes, meaning ‘‘forest 
people.” 

Upper Chehalis, common name. 

Connections.—The Kwaiailk belonged to the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic family but a part of them were associated with the 
inland tribes by certain peculiarities of speech. Their nearest relatives 
seem to have been the Cowlitz and Chehalis. 

Location.—On the upper course of Chehalis River. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Cloquallum, on Cloquallum River. 


Population.—In 1855, according to Gibbs (1877), the Kwaiailk 
numbered 216 but were becoming amalgamated with the Cowlitz. 
(See Chehalis.) 


Kwalhioqua. From their Chinook designation, meaning “a lonely 
place in the woods.”’ Also called: 
Axwée’lape, “people of the Willapa,”’ by the Chinook and Quinault Indians. 
Gila’q!ulawas, from the name of the place where they usually lived. 
Owhillapsh or Willapa, applied to this tribe erroneously. 
Tkulhiyogo&a’ike, Chinook name. 

Connections.—The Kwalhioqua belonged to the Athapascan lin- 
guistic stock. 

Location.—On the upper course of Willopah River, and the southern 
and western headwaters of the Chehalis. Gibbs (1877) extends their 
territory eastward of the Cascades, but Boas (1892) doubts the 
correctness of this. 

Subdivisions 

Suwal, on headwaters of the Chehalis. 

Wela’pakote’li, on Willapa River. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated 200 in 1780; Hale (1846) 
gives about 100, but in 1850 it is said that only 2 males and several 
females survived, which indicates that an error had been made by one 
or the other. 

Connection in which they have become noted —The Kwalhioqua were 
distinguished almost solely by the fact that they belonged to the 
great Athapascan group yet were the only tribe of that stock in the 
State of Washington in historic times, having become entirely isolated 
from their relatives. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 4927 


Lummi. Significance unknown. Also spelled H4-lum-mi, Nuh-lum- 
mi, and Qtlumi. Also called: 


Nikhlésh, by the Skagit, who also included the Clallam in the designation. 


Conneciions.—The Lummi belonged to the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic family and spoke, according to Boas (1911), the 
same dialect as the Songish of Vancouver Island. 

Location.—On the upper part of Bellingham Bay and about the 
mouth of Nooksack River. Formerly the Lummi are said to have re- 
sorted at times to a group of islands east of Vancouver Island. They 
were finally placed on Lummi Reservation. 


Villages 
(According to Stern, 1934) 


Elek, near the upper end of Bellingham Bay. 

Hwetlkiem, near the upper end of Bellingham Bay west of Nooksack River. 

Kwakas, on the north side of Nooksack River. 

Momli, near the mouth of Nooksack River. 

Skalisan, north of Point Francis and opposite Lummi Island. 
The following fishing stations are also cited: 

Hoholos, a point on Orcas Island south of Freeman Island. 

Hwitcosang, in Upright Channel south of Shaw Island. 

Hwtcihom or Bee Station, north of Sandy Point. 

Skalekushan or Village Point, on Lummi Island. 

Skoletc, on Lopez Island opposite Lopez. 

Tceltenem, Point Roberts. 

Tikwoloks, on Orcas Island. 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the number of Lummi at 
1,000 in 1780, including the Samish and Nooksack. In 1905 there 
were 412; according to the census of 1910, 353; according to the United 
States Indian Office Report for 1923, 505; and according to that for 
1937, 661. 

Connection in which they have become noted—Lummi River, Wash- 
ington, preserves the name. 


Makah. Meaning “cape people.” Also called: 


Ba-qa-5, Puyallup name. 
Cape Flattery Indians, from their location. 
Classet, Nootka name, meaning “outsiders.” 
Kwe-nét-che-chat, own name, meaning “‘cape people.” 
Tla’asath, Nootka name, meaning ‘outside people.” 
Connections.—The Makah belonged to the Nootka branch of the 
Wakashan linguistic family. 
Location.—About Cape Flattery, claiming the coast east as far 
as Hoko River and south to Flattery Rocks, besides Tatoosh Island. 
Later they were confined to the Makah Reservation. 


428 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu. 145 


Villages 
Winter towns: 

Baada, on Neah Bay. 

Neah, on the site of the old Spanish fort, Port Nufiez Gaona, Neah Bay. 

Waatch, at the mouth of Waatch Creek, 4 miles from Neah Bay. 

Summer villages: 

Ahchawat, at Cape Flattery. 

Kehsidatsoos, location unknown. 

Kiddekubbut, 3 miles from Neah Bay. 

Tatooche, on Tatoosh Island, off Cape Flattery. 

Population.—Together with the Ozette, the Makah were estimated 
by Mooney (1928) to number 2,000 in 1780, a figure evidently based 
on that given by Lewis and Clark in 1805. In 1905 there were 435; 
the census of 1910 gave 360, and the United States Indian Office 
Report for 1923 gave 425, including the people of Ozette. In 1937, 
407 were returned besides the Ozette Indians. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The Makah and the 
Ozette are peculiar as the only tribes of the Nootka group and the 
Wakashan stock in the United States. 


Methow. Meaning unknown. The Battle-le-mule-emauch of Ross 

(1847, p. 290). 

Connections.—The Methow spoke a dialect belonging to the interior 
division of the Salishan linguistic.stock. 

Location.—On Methow River. A detached band called Chilowhist 
wintered on the Okanogan River between Sand Point and Malott. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that this band and the 
Columbia Indians, or rather Moses’ band of Columbia Indians, 
numbered 800 in 1780. In 1907 there were 324. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Methow River and 
Valley and a post village perpetuate the name of the Methow Indians. 


Mical. Significance unreported. 
Connections.—The Mical were a branch of the Shahaptian tribe 
called Pshwanwapam. 
Location.—On the upper course of Nisqually River. 
Population.—No separate data. 


Muckleshoot. From the native word o’kelcul, significance unknown. 
Connections.—The Muckleshoot belonged to the Nisqually dialectic 

group of the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic family. 
Location.—On White River, their territory extending from Kent east- 

ward to the mountains, but it seems also to have included Green River, 


Subdivisions 
The following names appear applied to bands in their territory: 
Sekamish, on White River. 
Skopamish, on upper Green River. 
Smulkamish, on upper White River 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 429 


Smith (1940) adds Dothliuk, at South Prairie below where Cole Creek enters 
South Prairie Creek, an affluent of Carbon River. 


Population—The Muckleshoot are probably included in the 1,200 
“Nisqually, Puyallup, etc.” estimated by Mooney (1928) as in exist- 
ence in 1780. The Skopamish numbered 222 in 1863 and the Smul- 
kamish about 183 in 1870. Mooney estimated a total of 780 in 1907 
for the group above given. In 1937 the United States Office of Indian 
Affairs reported 194 Indians of this tribe. 

Conneciion in which they have become noted.—The name of the 
Muckleshoot is preserved in that of Muckleshoot Indian Reservation. 


Neketemeuk. A supposed Salishan tribe placed by Teit’s informants 
at an early period near and above the Dalles. Ray (1932), however, 
discredits the existence of an independent tribe of this name. 


Nespelem, a division of the Sanpoil (q. v.). 


Nez Percé. The Nez Percé occupied territory in the extreme south- 
eastern part of the state. (See Idaho.) 


Nisqually. From Skwale’absh, the native name of Nisqually River. 
Also spelled Quallyamish, and Skwalliahmish. Also called: 


Askwalli, Calapooya name. 

Ltsxe’als, Nestucca name. 

Suketi’kenuk, Sukoti’kenuk, by Columbia Indians along with all other coast 
people, meaning ‘‘people of the other side,’’ with reference to the 
Cascades. 

Tsé Skua’lli ami’m, Luckamiut Kalapooian name. 


Connections.—They gave their name to one dialectic division of the 
coastal division of the Salishan linguistic stock. 

Location.—On Nisqually River above its mouth and on the middle 
and upper courses of Puyallup River. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Basha’labsh, on Mashell Creek and neighboring Nisqually River, the town on a 
highland below Eatonville on Mashell Creek. 

Sakwi’absh, Clear Creek and neighboring Nisqually River, the main settlement 
on a hill near the junction of Clear Creek and the Nisqually River. 

Sigwa’letcabsh, on Segualitcu River, the main settlement where Dupont Creek 
enters the Sqwualitcu River. 

Tsakwe’kwabsh, on Clarks Creek and neighboring Puyallup River, the main 
settlement where Clarks Creek empties into Puyallup River, but seems to have 
included also Skwa’dabsh, at the mouth of a creek entering Wappato Creek 
above the Wappato Creek village. 

Sta’habsh, where the Stuck River enters the Puyallup. 

Tsuwa’diabsh, on what is now the Puyallup River above its junction with the 
Carbon, and just below the site of the Soldiers’ Home. 

Tuwha’khabsh, above Ortig where Vogt Creek enters the Carbon River. 

Yisha’ktcabsh, on Nisqually Lake, the principal settlement being at the mouth 
of a sizable creek. 


430 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Yokwa’Isshabsh, on Muck Creek and the neighboring parts of Nisqually River, 
the main settlement located where Muck Creek enters Nisqually River, and a 
division on Clover Creek. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were 
about 3,600 Nisqually of whom, in 1907, between 1,100 and 1,200 
survived. About 1,100 were returned in the census of 1910, but the 
Indian Office Report for 1937 gives only 62, evidently a minor tribe 
which gave its name to the larger body. 

Connection in which they have become noted——The memory of the 
Nisqually tribe, or cluster of bands, has been preserved in the name 
of Nesqually or Nisqually River, and in the post village of Nisqually 
in Thurston County. 


Nooksack. Meaning “mountain men.” Also spelled Nooksak and 

Nootsak. 

Connections.—The Nooksack belonged to the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic family. Hill-Tout (1902) says they separated from 
the Squawmish of British Columbia and speak the same dialect. 

Location.—On Nooksack River, Whatcom County. (See also 
Canada.) 

Population.—In 1906, 200 Nooksack were officially returned, but 
Hill-Tout (1902) states that in 1902 there were only about 6 true 
male members of the tribe. The census of 1910 gives 85 under this 
name, and the Report of the United States Office of Indian Affairs for 
1937 returned 239. (See Lummi.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Nooksack River and 
Nooksack town in Whatcom County, Washington, preserve the name, 


Ntlakyapamuk. The southern bands of this tribe hunted over in the 
territory now embraced in Washington. (See Canada.) 


Okanagon. From the native term Okana’qén, Okanaqgé’nix, or 
Okina’qén. The name is derived from some place on the Okanogan 
River, near Okanogan Falls at the mouth of the Similkameen, where 
is said to have been the headquarters of a large band of the tribe 
and is even given as the place of origin of the entire tribe. Also 
called: 


Akénug’/ta’lam or Kiékrnu’k’ké, by Kutenai (Chamberlain, 1892). 

Tsonkuafli, own name, meaning ‘‘our people.” 

Kank.’utla’atlam, Kutenai name, meaning ‘‘flatheads” (Boas, 1911). 

Kenake’n, by Tobacco Plains Band of Klickitat. 

Otcrnake’, Otcrnad.qai’n, or Utcrna’.qai’n, by the Salish and their allies. 

Soo-wan’-a-mooh, Shuswap name. 

-SoqEnaqai’/meEx, Columbia name. 

Tcutzwa’ut, Tcitxia’ut, Tsawa’nemux, or Okena.qai’n, Ntlakyapamuk 
names. 

Wetc.nagqei’n, Skitswish name. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 431 


Connections—The Okanagon belonged to the interior division of 
the Salishan stock, but their closest relatives were the Sanpoil, 
Colville, and Senijextee. 

Location.—On Okanagan River above the mouth of the Similkameen 
to the Canadian border and in British Columbia along the shores of 
Okanagan Lake and in the surrounding country; in later times they 
have displaced an Athapascan tribe and part of the Ntlakyapamuk 
from the Similkameen Valley. (See also Canada.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 
The Similkameen Okanagon were divided into three bands, the Okanagon 
proper into four; with the villages belonging to each, they are as follows: 
Upper Similkameen Band: 
Ntkaihelok (Ntkai’xel6x), about 11 miles below Princeton, north side of 
Similkameen River. 
Snazaist (Snfzii’st), on the north shore of Similkameen River, a little east 
of Twenty-mile Creek and the town of Hedley. 
Tcutcuwiha (Tcutcuwt’xa) or Tcutcawiha (Tcutcawi’xa), on the north side 
of Similkameen River, a little below the preceding. 
Ashnola Band: 
Ashnola (Acnii’léx), on the south side of Similkameen River, near the mouth 
of Ashnola Creek. 
Nsrepus (Nsre’pus) or Skanek, .sa’nex, a little below the Ashnola, but on 
the north side of Similkameen River. 
Lower Similkameen Band: 
Kekeremyeaus (Kekeremyé’aus), across Similkameen River from Keremyeus. 
Keremyeus (Kerremye’us), on the north side of Similkameen River, near 
Keremeos. 
Nkura-elok (Nkuraé’l6éx), on the south side of Similkameen River and about 
4 miles below KerrEmyeaus. 
Ntleuktan (Ntleuxta’n), on the south side of Similkameen River, opposite 
Skemkain. 
Skemkain (Skemquai’n), a short distance below Nkuraelok. 
Smelalok (Smela’lox), on the south side of Similkameen River, about 10 miles 
below Nsrepus. 
To the villages listed above must be added the following old Similkameen village 
sites in Washington: 
Hepulok (Xe’puléx). 
Konkonetp (Ko’nkonetp), near the mouth of Similkameen River. 
Kwahalos (Kwagalo’s), a little back from Similkameen River, below Hepulok. 
Naslitok (Nia.sli’tok), just across the International Boundary in Washington. 
Skwa/nnt, below Kwahalos. 
Tsakeiskenemuk (Tsakei’sxrnEmux), on a creek along the trail between 
Keremeous and Penticton. 
Tseltsald’s, below Kwahalos. 
Douglas Lake Band: 
Kathlemik (Ka.’temix), near Guichons, at the mouth of the Upper Nicola 
River, where it falls into Nicola Lake. 
Komkonatko (Komkona’tko) or Komkenatk (Komkena’/tkk), at Fish Lake 
on the headwaters of the Upper Nicola River. 
Kwiltcana (Kwiltca’na) at the mouth of Quilchene Creek. 
Spahamen (Spa’yamen) or Spahamen (Sp4’xemeEn), at Douglas Lake. 


432 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu 145 


Komaplix or Head of the Lake Band: 

Nkamapeleks (Nkama’/prleks) or Nkomapeleks (Nkoma’pelrks), near the 
head of Okanagan Lake, about 8 miles north of Vernon. 

Nkekemapeleks (Nkekema’pelrks), at the head of Long Lake, a little over a 
mile from Vernon. 

Nkokosten (Nxok.o’stEn), a place near Kelowna, and also a general name for 
the district around there and Mission. 

Skelaunna (Skrla’un.na), at Kelowna, near the present town. 

Sntlemukten (Sntlemuxte’n), (Black Town), a little north of the head of 
Okanagan Lake. 

Stekatelkeneut (Stekatelxené’ut), a little above Mission(?) on Long Lake 
opposite Tselotsus. 

Tseketku (Tse’kEtku), at a small lake a little north of Black Town. 

Tselotsus (TseElo’tsus), at the narrows of Long Lake. 

Tskelhokem (Tsxelho’qEm), near the lower end of Long Lake about 19 miles 
south of Vernon. 

Penticton Band: 

Penticton (Penti’ktrn), Penticton, near the foot of Okanagan Lake. 

Stekatkothlkneut (Stekatkotxne’ut) or Stekatethlkeneut (Stekatelxené’ut), 
on the opposite side of Long Lake from Mission. 

Nkamip Band: 

Nkamip (Nkami’p), on the east side of the upper end of Osoyoos Lake. 

Sci/yus, near Haynes or the old customhouse just north of the American line. 

Skohenetk (Sxoxené’tku"), at the lower end of Dog Lake. 

To the villages listed above must be added the following names of old village sites 
on Okanagan River south of the Canadian line: 

Milkemahituk (Milkemaxi-tuk) or Milkemihituk (Milkemixi’tuk), a general 
name for the district around the mouth of Similkameen River and of the 
river itself. 

Okinaken (Okind’qén), an old name for Sathlilk. 

Sathlilk (Sati’lxe), near the mouth of Similkameen River. 

Smelkammin (Smelkammi’n), thought to be the old name of a place at the 
mouth of Similkameen River. 


History.—The history of the Okanagon differed little from that of 
the Ntlakyapamuk and other neighboring tribes except that they were 
affected by the fact that a part of them were on the south side of the 
International Boundary. During the last two centuries, however, 
there has been a steady movement of the tribe northward, where 
they have displaced the Shuswap, who once hunted down to the head 
of Okanagan Lake and in the hinterland on the east side of it down to 
the latitude of Penticton. They have also displaced the Stuwik(?) 
and the Ntlakyapamuk in the Similkameen Valley. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that there were about 2,200 
Okanagon in 1780. Teit (1900) gives the population as between 2,500 
and 3,000. In 1905, according to the Canadian and United States 
Departments of Indian Affairs, there were 1,516 Indians belonging to 
this tribe, including 824 in Canada and 692 in the United States. 
In 1906 the numbers were given as 824 and 527, respectively. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 433 


Connections in which they have become noted.—The name of the 
Okanagon in the form Okanogan has been given to a county, a town 
in that county, a precinct, and a river in the State of Washington, and 
in the form Okanagan to a lake and a town in British Columbia. 


Ozette. Significance unknown. 
Connections.—The Ozette were a southern branch of the Makah 
and belonged to the Nootka branch of the Wakashan linguistic family. 
Location.—On the Ozette Lake and Ozette River in Clallam 


County. 
Villages 
Ozette, at Flattery Rocks. 
Sooes, 4 miles south of the Makah village of Waatch. 


Population.—(See Makah.) A single Ozette Indian was reported 
in 1937. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—An island, a lake, a 
river, and a village are named Ozette after them. 


Palouse. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Pallotepellows, by Lewis and Clark in 1806. 
.spalu’.sox, so called by Sinkiuse, said to be from a place name. 


Connections.—The Palouse belonged to the Shahaptian division of 
the Shapwailutan linguistic stock, and were most closely connected 
with the Nez Percé. 

Location.—In the valley of Palouse River in Washington and Idaho 
and on a small section of Snake River, extending eastward to the 
camas grounds near Moscow, Idaho. The Palouse were included in 
the Yakima treaty of 1855 but have never recognized the treaty 
obligations and have declined to lead a reservation life. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Almotu, on the north bank of Snake River about 30 miles above the mouth of 
Palouse River. 

Chimnapum, on the northwest side of Columbia River near the mouth of Snake 
River and on lower Yakima River. 

Kasispa, at Ainsworth, at the junction of Snake and Columbia Rivers, Wash. 

Palus, on the north bank of Snake River just below its junction with the Palouse. 

Sokulk or Wanapum, on Columbia River above the mouth of Snake River. 

Tasawiks, on the north bank of Snake River, about 15 miles above its mouth. 


History.—The Palouse are said to have separated from the Yakima. 

Population.—Estimated by Mooney (1928) at 5,400 in 1780. In 
1805 Lewis and Clark gave 1,600. In 1854 they were said to number 
500. The census of 1910 returned 82. 


434 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bow 145 


Connection in which they have become noted.—Palouse or Pelouse 
River, in Idaho and Washington, and the city of Palouse in Whitman 
County, Washington, preserve the name of the Palouse Indians. 


Pshwanwapam. Meaning “the stony ground.” Also called Upper 

Yakima. 

Connections.—The Pshwanwapam belonged to the Shahaptian 
division of the Shapwailutan linguistic family, and probably were most 
closely connected with the Yakima. 

Location.—On the upper course of Yakima River. 


Puyallup. From Pwiya’lap, the native name of Puyallup River. 
Connections.—The Puyallup belonged to the Nisqually dialectic 

group of the Coastal division of the Salishan linguistic family. 
Location.—At the mouth of Puyallup River and the neighboring 

coast, including Carr Inlet and the southern part of Vashon Island. 


Subdivisions and Viliages 


Esha’ktlabsh, on Hylebos Waterway. 

Kalka’lak, at the mouth of Wappato Creek. 

Klbalt, at Glencove. 

Puyallup or Spwiya’laphabsh, on Commencement Bay and Puyallup River as 
far up as the mouth of Clarks Creek, including the main settlement of the same 
name at the mouth of Puyallup River. 

Sha’tckad, where Clay Creek empties into the Puyallup River. 

Sko’tlbabsh, on Carr Inlet, including a Sko’tlbabsh settlement on Carr Inlet 
above the town of Minter. 

Skwapa’bsh, on the south part of Vashon Island and the land west of the Narrows, 
including a town of the same name at the mouth of a stream at Gig Harbor. 

Skwlo’tsid, at the head of Wollochet Bay. 

Steilacoom, on Steilacoom Creek and the neighboring beach, the main village on 
the present site of Steilacoom. 

Tsugwa’lethl, at Quartermaster Harbor. 

Tule’lakle, at the head-of Burley Lagoon, Carr Inlet. 

Twa’debshab, at the mouth of a creek formerly entering Commencement Bay 
and now covered by Tacoma. 


Population.—(See Nisqually.) The report of the United States 
Office of Indian Affairs for 1937 gave 322 Puyallup. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The name Puyallup is 
preserved by a river, an Indian reservation, a glacier, an important 
town in Pierce County, and in the ridge called Puyallup Cleaver. 


Queets or Quaitso. Significance unknown. 

Connections.—The Queets belonged to the Coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic family and were most intimately related to their 
neighbors to the south, the Quinault. 

Location.—On Queets River and its branches. 

Population.—Lewis and Clark in 1805 estimated that the Queets 
numbered 250. They then occupied 18 houses. Mooney (1928) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 435 


estimated that in 1780 they and the Quinault together numbered 1,500, 
but Olson (1936) regards this figure as too high. Olson prints an 
estimate of 82 as their present population, including 23 males over 18, 
32 females over 14, and 16 children between 6 and 16. In 1909 there 
were 62. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name of the 
Queets is perpetuated in that of Queets River. 


Quileute. Meaning unknown. 

Connections.--Together with the Hoh and Chimakum, the Quileute 
constituted the Chimakuan linguistic family which is possibly more 
remotely related to Wakashan and Salishan. 

Location.—On Quilayute River, on the west coast of Washington. 
They are now on the Quileute and Makah Reservations. 

Population (including the Hoh).—Mooney (1928) estimates that in 
1780 there were of the Quileute and the Hoh 500 Indians. Olson 
(1936) quotes a figure of 64 in 1888. The census of 1910 returned 303 
and the United States Office of Indian Affairs in 1937 gave 284. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The town of Quillayute 
in Clallam County, preserves the name of the Quileute and it was 
formerly that of Soleduck River. Otherwise the tribe is particularly 
noted on account of the uniqueness of its language, which was spoken 
by no other known tribes except the Hoh and Chimakum (q. v.). 


Quinault. ‘“Acorruption of kwi’nail, the nameof thelargestsettlement 
situated at the present site of the village (Taholah)” at the mouth 
of the Quinault River. 

Connections.—The Quinault belonged to the coastal division of the 

Salishan linguistic family. 

Location.—The valley of Quinault River and the Pacific coast 
between Raft River and Joe Creek. 


Subdivisions 


Lewis and Clark mention a division or associated band called Calasthocle. 


Towns 


(Olson’s (1936) list modified phonetically) 


A’alatsis, 3 miles below Lake Quinault. 

Djagaka’Imik, % mile above Nosklako’s. 

Djekwe’ls, on the north bank of Quinault River about 400 yards above Thlathle’- 
lap). 

Gutse’lps, 6 miles below Lake Quinault. 

Hagwi’shtap, about 1% miles above Cook Creek. 

He’shnithl or Kuku’mnithl, on the south bank of Quinault River about 500 yards 
above Pini’lks. 

Kwakwa’h, not far fom Hagwi’shtap. 


436 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Kwakwa’nikatctan, 4 miles below Lake Quinault. 

Kwatai’tamik, 3 miles above Kwakwa’h. 

Kwatai’tumik, on the south bank about 500 yards above Kwi’naithl. 

Kwikwa’la, perhaps % mile above Sunuksunu’ham. 

Kwi’naithl, at present site of Taholah. 

Lae’lsnithl, on north bank a mile or less above Heshnithl. 

La’Ishithl, perhaps a mile above Djagaka’Imik on Quinault River. 

Ma’atnithl, 1 mile below the fork of upper Quinault River. 

Magwa’ksnithl, 300 yards above Kwikwa’la. 

Me’tsugutsathlan, on south bank of Quinault River at its mouth. 

Nago’olatcan, not far from Nossho’k. 

Negwe’thlan, at the mouth of Cook Creek. 

Nokedja’kt or Thla’a’lgwap, on south bank a few hundred yards above Tonans. 

Nomi’‘lthlostan, just above _Kwakwa/h. 

No’omo’thlapsh, at mouth of Moclips River, which bears its name in a corrupted 
form. 

No’omo’thlapshtcu, not far above Magwa’ksnithl. 

No’skathlan, a few miles above Kwi’naithl, on the north bank of Quinault River. 

Noskthlako’s, on south bank of Quinault River perhaps 1 mile above No’skathlan. 

Nossho’k, not far above Nokedja’kt. 

No’sthluk, not far from Djekwe’ls. 

Pina’alathl, located where the upper Quinault River enters Lake Quinault. 

Pini’lks, close to La’Ishithl. 

Pino’otcan tci’ta, on the upper Quinault below Ma’anithl. 

Po’iks, on the upper Quinault above Finley Creek. 

Pote’lks, 1 mile above Tsimi’sh. 

Sunuksunu’ham, not far from Nomi’lthlostan. 

Tamo/’ulgutan, just below No’omo’thlapshtcu. 

Tci’tano’sklakalathl, at the outlet of Lake Quinault. 

Thlathle’lap, at the mouth of Quinault River and on the north bank. 

To’nans, less than % mile above He’shnithl. 

Tsi’i’sh, 2 miles above Magwaksnithl. 


Population.—Lewis and Clark in 1805 estimated 800 Quinault proper 
and 200 Calasthocle. Mooney (1928) estimated 1,500 in 1780 in- 
cluding the Quaitso, but Olson (1936) suggests 800 and regards that as 
too high if anything. This would reduce Mooney’s figure consider- 
ably since the Quaitso were a much smaller tribe. A tabulation re- 
covered by Olson but believed to be from some Indian agent gave 95 
Quinault in 1888. The Indian Office figure for the two tribes in 1907 
was 196. The census of 1910, however, returned 288, presumably 
including the Quaitso. In 1923 the Indian Office returned 719 on the 
Quinault Reservation, perhaps representing several tribes, but that for 
1937 gave 1,228 of the Quinault alone. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Quinault Lake and 
River and a small town, all in Grays Harbor County, preserve the 
name of the Quinault. 

Sahehwamish. Meaning unknown but evidently that of a locality. 


Connections.—The Sahehwamish belonged to the Nisqually dialectic 
group of the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic stock. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 437 


Location.—On the innermost inlets of Puget Sound as indicated by 
the positions of the subdivisions given below. 


Subdivisions 

Elo’sedabsh, on Medicine Creek and the lower reaches of Nisqually River, in- 
cluding a main settlement at the mouth of Nisqually River and Tuda’dab, at the 
mouth of McAllister or Medicine Creek. 

Sahehwamish or Sahe’wabsh, on Shelton Inlet, including the main settlement of 
Sahe’wabsh, at Arcadia, and a village opposite the town of Shelton. 

Skwayaithlhabsh, on Mud Bay or Eld Inlet. 

Statca’sabsh, on Budd Inlet, with its principal settlement at Tumwater. 

Tapi’ksdabsh, with its main settlement on Oyster Bay or Totten Inlet below the 
town of Oyster Bay. 

Tutse’tcakl, on South Bay or Henderson Inlet, between the creek at the head and 
that on the south. 


Population.—The group to which this tribe belonged is estimated 
by Mooney (1928) to have numbered 1,200 in 1780, and he gives 780 
for the year 1907. 


Samish. Signification unknown. 

Connections.—The Samish belonged to the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic family. 

Location —On Samish Bay and Samish Island, Guemes Island, 
and the northwest portion of Fidalgo Island. The Samish were later 
placed on Lummi Reservation. 


Villages 


Atse’ked, on the south side of the slough at Edison on Samish Bay. 
Dikwi’bthl. 
Gunguna’la, on Guemes Island facing west toward Cypress Island. 
Hwaibathl, at Anacortes. 
Kwalo’l, at Summit Park on Fidalgo Bay. 
Nukhwhaiimikhl, on the southwest side of Guemes Island. 
The name of the last village listed above is from Gibbs (1877) and may be 
another name for Gunguna’la, and Gibbs’ Aseakum is perhaps Atse’ked. 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the Samish tribe, together 
with the Lummi and Nooksack, at 1,000 in 1780. No later estimate 
is given. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Samish River, Samish 
Bay, Samish Island, and a post hamlet on Bellingham Bay perpetuate 
the name of the Samish Indians. 


Sanpoil. A native word in spite of its French aspect; meaning un- 
known. Also called: 


Hai-ai’-nima, by the Yakima. 

Ipoilq, another Yakima name. 

Nesilextci/n, .n.selixtci’n, by Sanpoil, and probably meaning ‘‘Salish- 
speaking.”’ 

N’poch-le, & shortened form of the name. 


438 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Buu. 145 


Connections.—The Sanpoil belonged to the inland division of the 
Salishan linguistic stock, and were related most closely to its eastern 
section. 

Location.—On Sanpoil River and Nespelem Creek and on the 
Columbia below Big Bend. They were later placed on Sanpoil and 
Colville Reservations. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The Nespelim of Nespelem Creek were often given independent status. Ray 
gives the following villages and camps: 
Nespelim villages: 

Haimisahun, a2 summer settlement of the Suspiluk, on the north bank of Co- 
lumbia River about a half mile above the mouth of Nespelem River. 

Masmasalimk, home of the Smasmasalimkuwa, approximately a mile and a 
half above Skik. 

Nekuktshiptin, home of the Snekuktshiptimuk, at the site of the present 
Condon’s Ferry, on the north side of the river. 

Nspilem, home of the Snspiluk, on the lower Nespelem from the falls to the 
mouth of the river. 

Salkuahuwithl, home of the Salkuahuwithlau, across the river from the present 
town of Barry. 

Skik, home of the Skik, about a mile above Salkuahuwithl on the same side of 
the river. 

Skthlamchin, fishing grounds of the Salkuahuwithlau, across the river from the 
mouth of the Grand Coulee. 

Sanpoil villages: 

Enthlukaluk, about a mile and a half north of the mouth of the river. 

Hahsulauk, home of the Shahsulauhuwa, near Plum. 

Hulalst, home of the S-hulalstu, at Whitestone, about 8 miles above Npuiluk. 

Hwatsam, a winter camp, about 3 miles above Snukeilt. 

Kakamkam, on the islands in the Sanpoil River a short distance above the 
mouth. 

KathlIpuspusten, home of the Kathlpuspustenak, about a mile above Plum, on 
the opposite side of the river. 

Ketapkunulak, on the banks of the Columbia just east of the Sanpoil River. 

Naak, home of the Snaakau, about a mile below Plum but on the north side of 
the river. 

Nhohogus, fishing grounds of the S-hulalstu. 

Npokstian, a winter camp, about 2 miles above Hwatsam. 

Npuiluk, home of the Snpuiluk, at the mouth of Sanpoil River, made up of the 
following camps: Snkethlkukwiliskanan, near the present landing of the 
Keller ferry; a branch of the last called by the same name, several hundred 
yards north of the first between the cliff and the Sanpoil River, on the west 
side; Kethltselchin, on the first bench above the Columbia, west of the 
Sanpoil River. 

Nthlahoitk, a winter camp of the Snpuiluk, about halfway between Skthlam- 
chin and Naak. 

Saamthlk, home of the Saamthlk, on the opposite side of the river from Kathl- 
puspusten. 

Skekwilk, on the west side of Sanpoil River about a mile above the mouth. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 439 


Snputlem, on the east bank of Sanpoil River, about an eighth of a mile above 
the mouth. 

Snukeilt, home of the Snukeiltk, on the west side of Columbia River about % 
mile above the mouth of Spokane River. 

Tkukualkuhun, home of the Stkukualkuhunak, at Rodger’s Bar just across 
the river from Hunters. 

Tsaktsikskin, a winter camp of the Snpuiluk, about a half mile below Naak. 

Wathlwathlaskin, home of the Swathlwathlaskink, 4% mile up the river from 
Nthlahoitk. 

Temporary camp sites of the Sanpoil on Sanpoil River; beginning with the first 

temporary camp beyond Npuiluk: 

Enluhulak, about 3 miles above the mouth of the river. 

Ksikest, on the west side of the river about haifway between the Columbia 
River and Keller. 

Aklaiyuk, 4% mile above Ksikest. 

Snkloapeten, a short distance below Keller. 

Pupesten, at the present site of Keller. 

Nmhoyam, about a quarter of a mile north of Keller. 

Nhwiipam, a mile above Alice Creek on the east side of the river. 

Seaachast, at Alice Creek. 

Achhulikipastem, about half a mile north of Alice Creek. 

Nloklokekuelikten, about 2 miles south of Cash Creek. 

Nhatlchinitk, on the west side of the river at Cash Creek. 

Snthulusten, on the east side of the river at the foot of a cliff, about % mile above 
Cash Creek. 

Nlupiam, 14% miles above Snthulusten, on the same side of the river. 

Slakumulemk, directly across the river from Nlupiam. 

Nklakachin, on the east side of the river, at Thirty-mile Creek. 

Malt, 4% mile above Thirty-mile Creek. 

Lulukhum, at Devil’s Elbow. 

The following possible camp sites are higher up: 

Akthlkapukwithlp, 8 miles below West Fork. 

Kthliipus, at the present site of Republic. 

Tkwiip, near the creek at West Fork. 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates 800 Sanpoil in 1780 but 
Ray (1932) raises this to 1,600-1,700, and considers that there were 
about 1,300 immediately following the middle of the nineteenth 
century. In 1905 the United States Indian Office returned 324 
Sanpoil and 41 Nespelim; in 1910 the census gave 240 and 46; in 
1913, as the result of a survey, the Office of Indian Affairs returned 
202 and 43. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Sanpoil River, a 
northern tributary of the Columbia, perpetuates the name of the 
Sanpoil. Nespelem River is named for the subgroup, and a town. 


Satsop. Significance unknown. 


Connections.—The Satsop belonged to the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic family, and have usually been classed with the 
Lower Chehalis. 


440 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuv. 145 


Location.—On Satsop River, a branch of the Chehalis. 

Population—The population of the Satsop is usually given with 
that of the Chehalis (q. v.), but in 1888 a census of the Satsop alone, 
obtained by Olson (1936), gave 12. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—Satsop River and a 
village called Satsop in Grays Harbor County preserve the name of 
the Satsop. 


Semiahmoo. Significance unknown. Also called: 
Birch Bay Indians, from a place occupied by them. 


Connections.—The Semiahmoo belonged to the coastal division of 
the Salishan linguistic stock. 

Location.—About Semiahmoo Bay in northwest Washington and 
southwest British Columbia. 

Population.—In 1843 the Semiahmoo numbered 300; in 1909 there 
were 38 in British Columbia; none were enumerated on the American 
side of the line. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The name of the 
Semiahmoo is preserved in Semiahmoo Bay and a township in What- 
com County, Wash. 


Senijextee. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Lake Indians, a popular name for them because they lived on the Arrow 
Lakes. 

Connections.—The Senijextee belonged to the inland division of the 
Salishan linguistic stock, and were most closely connected with the 
Sanpoil. 

Location.—On both sides of the Columbia River from Kettle Falls 
to the Canadian boundary, the valley of Kettle River, Kootenay 
River from its mouth to the first falls, and the region of the Arrow 
Lakes, B. C. The Lake Indians on the American side were placed 
on Colville Reservation. 

Population —Mooney (1928) estimates their numbers at 500 in 
1780. In 1909 the United States Office of Indian Affairs reported 342 
on Colville Reservation. The census of 1910 identifies them with 
the Colville and returns 785. 


Sinkaietk. Significance unknown; an Anglicized form of their own 
name. 

Connections—The Sinkaietk are sometimes classed with the 
Okanagon, and called Lower Okanagon, both constituting a dialectic 
group of interior Salishan Indians. 

Location.—Okanagan River from its mouth nearly to the mouth of 
the Similkameen. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 44] 


Subdivisions 

Kartar, from the foot of Lake Omak to the Columbia River. 

Konkonelp, winter sites, from about 3 miles above Malott to the turn of the 
Okanagan River at Omak. 

Tonasket, from Riverside upstream to Tonasket. 

Tukoratum, winter sites, from Condon’s Ferry on the Columbia to the mouth 
of the Okanagan River and up the latter to about 4 miles above Monse, Wash. 
Ray (1932) mentions four villages belonging to the Kartar and Tukoratum 
Bands. 


Population.—Included with the Okanagon (q. v.). 


Sinkakaius. Meaning “between people.”’ 

Connections —The Sinkakaius belonged to the interior division of 
the Salishan linguistic stock and were composed largely of people 
from the Tukoratum Band of Sinkaietk and the Moses Columbia 
people. 

Location.—Between Columbia River and the Grand Coulee in the 
latitude of Waterville. 


Skagit. Significance unknown. Also called: 
Hum-a-luh, own name, meaning ‘“‘the people.” 
Connections.—The Skagit belonged to the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic stock. 
Location.—On Skagit and Stillaguamish Rivers except about their 


mouths. 
Subdivisions and Villages 


(Smith, 1941) 


Base’lelotsed, on Skagit River from Van Horn to roughly 3 miles above Rock- 
port and Sauk River almost to the mouth of Suiattle, including the village of 
Tca’gwalk, at the mouth of Sauk River. 

Baska’dsadsiuk, on the south bank of Skagit River from Hamilton to Birdsview, 
including a village opposite Hamilton. 

Baske’kwiuk, on Skagit River above Rockport, including a village at Marble 
Mount at the mouth of the Cascade River. 

Baslo’halok, on the north bank of the Skagit from Hamilton to Birdsview, includ- 
ing a settlement at Hamilton. 

Duwa’ha, on the mainland drainages from South Bellingham to Bayview includ- 
ing part of Lake Whatcom, Lake Samish and Samish River, including the village 
of Batsla’thllaos, at Bayview on Padilla Bay. 

Nookachamps, on Skagit River from Mount Vernon to Sedro Woolley and Nooka- 
champs River drainage including Big Lake, including a village back of Mount 
Vernon just below the concrete bridge, and Tsla’tlabsh on Big Lake. 

Sauk, on Sauk River above the confluence of the Suiattle River, including a settle- 
ment on Sauk prairie above Darrington. 

Sba’leuk, on Skagit River from above Birdsview to above Concrete, including a 
village at Concrete. 

Sikwigwi’lts, on Skagit River from Sedro Woolley to below Lyman, including a 
village on the flats near Sedro Woolley. 


449 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Buu, 145 


Stillaguamish, on Stillaguamish River from Arlington up, including villages at 
Arlington and Trafton. 

Suiattle, on Suiattle River, including a village not far about the mouth of 
Suiattle River. 

Tcubaa’bish, on Skagit River from Lyman to below Hamilton, including Day 
Creek drainage, and including a village at the mouth of Dry Creek. 
Population —The Skagit population is given by Mooney (1928), 

with the Swinomish and some other tribes, as 1,200 in 1780. Gibbs 

(1877) estimated there were 300 Skagit proper in 1853. The census 

of 1910 returned 56 under this name. In 1923 the United States 

Indian Office entered 221 “Swinomish” in their returns, including 

evidently the Skagit and some other tribes; in 1937 it gave an estimate 

of 200 Skagit. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Skagit River, which 
flows into Puget Sound, Skagit County, and a post hamlet preserve 
the name of the Skagit Indians. 


Skilloot. Significance unknown. 


Connections.—The Skilloot belonged to the Clackamas dialectic 
division of the Chinookan linguistic family. 

Location.—On both sides of Columbia River above and below the 
mouth of Cowlitz River. (See also Oregon.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Cooniac (at Oak Point on the south side of Columbia River, below the mouth 
of the Cowlitz, in the present Columbia County, Oregon) was their principal village 
in later times. The Hullooetell, reported to Lewis and Clark as a numerous 
nation north of Columbia River on Cowlitz and Lewis Rivers, may have been a 
subdivision, although perhaps Salishan. The Seamysty, at the mouth of Cowlitz 
River before 1835, were undoubtedly a Skilloot band, and the Thlakalama and 
Tlakatlala of Boas (1901, and personal information 1905), at the mouth of 
Kalama River, about 3 miles above Oak Point, had best be added. 


Population Mooney (1928) estimates the number of Skilloot at 
3,250 in 1780 including 250 Tlakalama. In 1806 Lewis and Clark 
give 2,500 and in 1850 Lane places the Skilloot population at 200. 
They have now entirely disappeared as an independent group. 


Skin. Taken from a town name. 

Connections.—The Skin belonged to the Shahaptian division of the 
Shapwailutan linguistic stock. 

Location.—On Columbia River from The Dalles to a point about 75 
miles above. 


Villages 


Ka’sawi, on the Columbia opposite the mouth of Umatilla River. 
Skin, opposite the mouth of Deschutes River. 

Uchi’chol, on the north bank of the Columbia in Klickitat County. 
Waiya’mpam, about Celilo. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 443 


Eneeshur is used by Lewis and Clark for part of the above people, perhaps all 
of them. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) includes the Skin in a group under 
the general name Tapanash, which he estimates to have numbered 
2,200 in 1780. 


Snohomish. Meaning unknown but evidently the name of a place. 
Also called: 
Ashnuhumsh, Kalapuya name. 
Connections.—The Snohomish belonged to the Nisqually dialectic 
group of the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic stock. 
Location.—On the lower course of Snohomish River and on the 
southern end of Whidbey Island. 


Subdivisions and Villages 

Sdugwadskabsh, the south portion of Whidbey Island, including villages opposite 
Mukilteo on Whidbey (Neg*a’sx) Island and at Newell on Useless Bay. 

Skwilsi’diabsh, from Preston Point, above Everett, to the southern tip of Camano 
Island, including a village at Marysville and Tcatcthlks opposite Tulalip on 
Tulalip Bay. 

Snohomish, Port Gardner Bay and Snohomish River as far up as Snohomish, 
including Tctlaks at Everett on the south side of the mouth of Snohomish River 
and Hibolb on the north side of its mouth. 

Tukwetlbabsh, on Snohomish River from Snohomish to Monroe, including vil- 
lages at Snohomish at the mouth of Pilchuck Creek and below Monroe 2 miles 
from the confluence of the Skykomish and the Snoqualmie. 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated the population of the 
Snohomish, the Snoqualmie, the Tulalip, and some others at 1,200 in 
1780. In 1850 there were 350 Snohomish. The census of 1910 gives 
664, evidently including other bands, and the United States Office of 
Indian Affairs, 667 in 1937. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The name of the 
Snohomish is perpetuated in Snohomish River, Snohomish County, 
and a city in that county. 


Snoqualmie. From the native word sdo’kwalbiuq’. 
Connections—The Snoqualmie belonged to the Nisqually branch 

of the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic family. 
Location.—On Snoqualmie and Skykomish Rivers. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Skykomish, on Skykomish River above Sultan, and on the same below Goldbar. 

Snoqualmie, on Snoqualmie River, including villages at Cherry Valley, on Sno- 
qualmie River opposite the mouth of Tolt River; at Fall City; and below Sno- 
qualmie Falls. 

Stakta’ledjabsh, on Skykomish River as far up as Sultan, including Sultan Creek, 
including villages above Monroe at the mouth of Sultan Creek and on Sultan 
Creek 4 miles above its mouth. 


444. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Buu. 145 


Population.—(See Snohomish.) The population of the Snoqualmie 
alone was reported as 225 in 1857. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The name of the 
Snoqualmie is perpetuated by Snoqualmie River and a town upon it 
in King County. 


Spokan. Phonetically Spoké’.n or Spd.qé’in); said by some to signify 
“Sun (people),” though this origin is doubtful. Also called: 
LécLé’cuks, Wasco name probably intended for this tribe. 
Lar-ti-e-lo, by Lewis and Clerk in 1806. 
Srenoxami’narx, by the Okanagon, from their principal division. 
Sentuti’ or S—enoxma’n, by the Upper Kutenai from the Salish names for 
the Middle and Little Spokan respectively. 


Connections.—The Spokan belonged to the inland division of the 
Salishan linguistic stock, and were most closely connected with the 
Kalispel, Pend d’Oreilles, Sematuse, and Salish. 

Location.—On the Spokane and Little Spokane Rivers, southward 
to, and perhaps including, Cow Creek, and northward to include all of 
the northern feeders of the Spokane. (See also Idaho and Montana.) 


Subdivisions 


The Lower Spokan (about the mouth and on the lower part of Spokane River, 
including the present Spokane Indian reserve), the Upper Spokan or Little 
Spokan (occupying the valley of the Little Spokane River and all the country 
east of the lower Spokane to within the borders of Idaho), the South or Middle 
Spokan (occupying at least the lower part of Hangmans Creek, extending south 
along the borders of the Skitswish). 

History.—Like so many other tribes of the Columbia region, the 
Spokan enter the arena of history with the appearance of Lewis and 
Clark in their territory in 1805. Teit (1930) thinks it possible that 
the several bands were once so many distinct tribes which have become 
fused in course of time, but of thisthereis no certainty. The Lower and 
most of the Middle Spokan, and part of the Upper Spokan, were finally 
placed under the Colville Agency; the rest are on the Flathead Reser- 
vation in Montana. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that about 1780 there 

night have been 1,400 Spokan, but Teit’s figures would raise this to 
something like 2,500. In 1806 Lewis and Clark thought there were 
600 but they may have included only one of the three divisions. In 
1905 the United States Indian Office gave 277 Lower Spokan and 177 
Middle and Upper Spokan under the Colville Agency and 135 on the 
Flathead Reservation; in 1909 it gave 509 all together under the Col- 
ville Agency and 138 on the Flathead Reservation. The United States 
Census of 1910 returned 643 all told; the Indian Office Report for 
1923, 669; and the Indian Office Report for 1937, 847. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 445 


Connections in which they have become noted.—The fame of the Spokan 
will rest in the future mainly upon the importance of the Washington 
city of Spokane. Their name is also attached to a river in Idaho and 
Washington, and to the county of which Spokane is the metropolis. 
It has also been applied to post hamlets in Custer County, S. Dak.; 
in Christian County, Mo.; and in Trumbull County, Ohio; also to 
Spokane Bridge, Spokane County, Wash. 


Squaxon or Squakson. Their own name. 

Connections.—The Squaxon belonged to the Nisqually branch of the 
coast division of the Salishan linguistic family. 

Location.—On North Bay, Puget Sound. 


Villages 
On North Bay at the mouth of Coulter Creek and at Allyn at the mouth of 
Mason Creek. 
Population.—With the Skokomish and Toanho (Twana), Mooney 
(1928) estimated that there were 1,000 Squaxon in 1780. In 1909 
there were 98 under this name, and in 1937, 32. 


Suquamish. From a native place name. 


Connections.—They belonged to the Nisqually branch of the coastal 
division of the Salishan linguistic stock, their closest connections being 
with the Duwamish. The famous Seattle was chief of both tribes. 

Location.—On the west side of Puget Sound, according to Paige 
(1857) claiming the territory from Applegate Cove to Gig Harbor. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Saktabsh, on Sinclair Inlet, Dyes Inlet, and southern Blakely, Blakely Island, 
with villages at Bremerton and on Eagle Harbor. 

Suquamish, on Liberty Bay, at Port Madison, and on the northern part of Blakely 
Island, with villages at, Suquamish, above Poulsbo, and at. Point Monroe. 
Population.—(See Duwamish.) The Suquamish numbered 441 in 

1857, 180 in 1909, and 307 in 1910, according to the census of that year. 

The United States Indian Office returned 204 ‘‘Susquamish”’ Indians 

in 1910, probably meaning this tribe. In 1937 it returned 168 

““Suquamish.”’ 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Suquamish 
is applied to a town in Kitsap County, Wash. 


Swallah. A name applied by Eells (1889). Also called: 
Swalash, by Mallet (¢n Ind. Aff. Rep., 1877, p. 198). 
Connections.—The Swallah belonged to the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic family. 
Location.—On Orcas Island and San Juan Island and the group to 
which they belong. 


446 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buux. 145 


Villages 
Hutta’tchl, on the southeast end of Orcas Island. 
Klala’kamish, on the east side of San Juan Island. 
Lemaltcha, on Waldron Island. 
Stashum, on Waldron Island. 


Swinomish. A place name. 


Connections.—The Swinomish belonged to the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic family, and are sometimes called a subdivision of 
the Skagit. 

Location.—On the northern part of Whidbey Island and about the 
mouth of Skagit River. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Ho’baks, on the upper end of Penn’s Cove, not far from San de Fuca, Batsa’dsali 
at Coupeville, Ba’asats between Coupeville and Snaklem Point west of Long 
Point, and Tcubaa’ltced on the north side of Snaklem Point about 4 miles from 
Coupeville. 

Kikia’los, on Skagit Bay from the South Fork of Skagit River to the north tip of 
Camano Island, with a village at the mouth of Carpenter Creek between 
Conway and Fir, and another called Atsala’di at Utsalady on Camano Island. 

Kwa’dsakbiuk, on the lower reaches of Stillaguamish River and Port Susan, with 
& village at the mouth of the Stillaguamish. 

Skagit, on Whidbey Island, from Oak Harbor south to Snaklem Point, with a 
village at Oak Harbor. 

Skwada’bsh, on the North Fork of the Skagit River and the eastern part of Whidbey 
Island lying north of Oak Harbor, with Skwi’kwikwab at the mouth of the 
North Fork of the Skagit, and Tcotab on a point across Skagit Bay. 

Swinomish (on southern Padilla Bay, Swinomish Slough which joins Padilla Bay 
and Skagit Bay, Skagit Bay from Sullivan Slough north, and the southeast 
portion of Fidalgo Island), with the following villages: Kale’kut (not far from 
Whitney at the highway bridge), Sde’os (near Lone Tree Point, Shuptada’tci 
(on Swinomish Slough 3 miles from La Conner), and another village (on Sullivan 
Slough just east of La Conner). 


Population—The Swinomish are usually enumerated with the 
Skagit (q. v.). The Skagit and Swinomish together numbered 268 
in 1909. In 1937 there were 285 Swinomish reported. 


Taidnapam. Also called Upper Cowlitz. 

Connections.—The Taidnapam belonged to the Shahaptian division 
of the Shapwailutan linguistic family. 

Location.—On the headwaters of Cowlitz River and perhaps ex- 
tending over into the headwaters of the Lewis River. 

Population.—Mooney estimates the population of the Taidnapam 
and the Klickitat together at 600 in 1780, but extinct as independent 
tribes by 1907. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 447 


Twana. Said to signify “a portage,” referring to that between the 
upper end of Hoods Canal and the headwaters of Puget Sound. 
Also called: 

Tu-a’d-hu, own name. 
Skokomish, from the name of a principal division. 
Wi'lfa Ampa’fa ami’m, Luckiamute-Kalapuya name. 
Connections.—The Twana constituted one dialectic group of the 
coastal division of the Salishan stock. 
Location.—On both sides of Hoods Canal. Later they were placed 
on Skokomish Reservation. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Eels (1877) gave the following: 
Kolsid, on Quilcene and Dabop Bays. 
Skokomish, around Annas Bay and the drainage area of Skokomish River. 
Soatlkobsh, on both sides of the canal from Seabeck and Oak Head to Port 
Gamble and Squamish Harbor opposite. 


Smith (1941) lists the following villages: 


Habha’b, at Eldon on the Canal at the mouth of the Hammerhammer River. 
Li’liwap, at Lilliwap on the Canal. 

Skoko’bsh, at the mouth of the Skokomish River, 

Tule’lalap, at the east branch of the Canal at the mouth of Mission Creek. 
Two towns at Duckabush and Brinnon. 


Population—Mooney (1928) gives the Twana, Skokomish, and 
Squaxon together a population of 1,000 in 1780. In 1853 they were 
estimated to total about 265. The census of 1910 gave 61 Twana 
and 195 Skokomish, and the United States Office of Indian Affairs 
returned 206 Skokomish in 1937. 


Wallawalla. Meaning ‘little river’; called Walula by Spier (1936). 

Connections.—The Wallawalla language belongs to the Shahaptian 
division of the Shapwailutan linguistic stock and is very closely 
related to the Nez Percé. 

Location.—On the lower Wallawalla River, except perhaps for an 
area around Whitman occupied by Cayuse, and a short span along 
the Columbia and Snake Rivers near their junction, in Washington 
and Oregon. They are now on Umatilla Reservation, Oregon. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) gives 1,500 for the Wallawalla and the 
Umatilla together in 1780. In 1805 Lewis and Clark estimated 1,600 
but they included other bands now known to be independent. The 
census of 1910 gave 397, the Report of the United States Office of 
Indian Affairs for 1923, 628, and that for 1937, 631, the two last 
evidently including some other peoples. 


448 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuy. 145 


Connections in which they have become noted.—The name Walla- 
walla is perpetuated in that of the city of Walla Walla, Wash.; 
Walla Walla County; Walia Walla River, which flows through Oregon 
and Washington; and appears in the name of a small place in Illinois. 


Wanapam. Significance unknown. 

Connections.—The Wanapam belonged to the Shahaptian diyision 
of the Shapwailutan linguistic stock and were connected closely with 
the Palouse. 

Location.—In the bend of Columbia River between Priest Rapids 
and a point some distance below the mouth of Umatilla River, and 
extending east of the Columbia north of Pasco. 


Subdivisions 
They seem to have included two branches, the Chamnapum and Wanapam 
proper. 
Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates their population as 1,800 in 
1780. 


Watlala. The Watlala occupied the north side of Columbia River 
from the Cascades to Skamania and perhaps to Cape Horn, but a 
larger territory on the south side. (See under Oregon.) 


Wauyukma. Significance unknown. 

Connections.—They belonged to the Shahaptian division of the 
Shapwailutan linguistic family and were very closely related to the 
Palouse. 

Location.—On Snake River below the mouth of the Palouse. 

Population—Unknown but probably included with the Palouse, 
which Mooney (1928) estimates to have numbered 1,800 in 1780. 


Wenatchee (Wina’t.ca). So called by the Wasco, and it has become 
a popular name for them. Also called: 


Awena’tchela, by the Klickitat, meaning “people at the coming-out or 
source,” said to refer to the fact that they occupied the country at the 
heads of the rivers or above the Yakima. 

Pisquow, from .s.npeskwau’zux, their own name, variants of which appear 
in the appelations given them by other Salish tribes in the neighborhood. 

Ts6/kwob.ec, by the Snohomish. 


Connections—The Wenatchee belonged to the inland division of 
the Salishan linguistic family, their nearest relations being the Sinkiuse- 
Columbia Indians. 

Subdivisions 
(From Curtis (1907-9) and Ray (1932)) 
Sinia’/lkumuk, on the Columbia between Entiat Creek and Wenatchee River. 
Sinkumchi’muk, at the mouth of the Wenatchee. 


Sinpusko’isok, at the forks of the Wenatchee, where the town of Leavenworth 
now stands. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 449 


Sintia’tkumuk, along Entiat Creek. 
Stske’tamihu, 6 miles down river from the present town of Wenatchee. 


Minor divisions mentioned are the foliowing: 
Camiltpaw, on the east side of Columbia River. 
Shanweppom, on the headwaters of Cataract (Klickitat) and Tapteel Rivers. 
Siapkat, at a place of this name on the east bank of Columbia River, about 
Bishop Rock and Milk Creek, below Wenatchee River. 
Skaddal, originally on Cataract (Klickitat) River, on the west bank of Yakima 
River and later opposite the entrance to Selah Creek. 
Location. —On Methow and Wenatchee Rivers and Chelan Lake. 
The Wenatchee are now under the Colville Agency. 
Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated there were 1,400 Wenatchee 
in 1780, but Teit (1928) considers this considerably too low. The 
four bands of this tribe mentioned by Lewis and Clark in 1805 totaled 
820. The census of 1910 gave 52. 
Connection in which they have become noted —Wenatchee River, 
Lake Wenatchee, and Wenatchee Mountain preserve the name, as 
also the town of Wenatchee, county seat of Chelan County. 


Wishram. From Wu’cxam, the name given them by the Yakima and 
Klickitat Indians. Also called: 


I-che-loot, by Lewis and Ciark in 1806, from their own name. 
Ila’xluit, their own name and from this called Tlakluit. 


Connections —They belonged to the Chinookan stock, and spoke 
the same dialect as the Wasco. 
Location.—On the north side of Columbia River in Klickitat County. 


Villages 


Atatathlia itcagitkok, on a small island near Celilo Falls, or more likely Ten- Mile 
Rapids. 

Chalaitgelit, a short distance east of The Dalles. 

Gawilapchk, a winter village below The Dalles. 

Gawishila, a fishing station above The Dailes. 

Hladakhat, about 10 miles below The Dalles. 

Hliluseltshlikh, below Big Eddy. 

Kwalasints, opposite The Dalles. 

Nayakkhachikh, a winter village below Gawilapehk. 

Niukhtash, at Big Hddy. 

Shabanahksh, 1 mile below Wishram (?). 

Shgwaliksh, perhaps Klickitat, about 12 miles (?) below The Dalles. 

Shikeldaptikh, about a half mile below The Dalles. 

Shkagech, below Crate’s Point. 

Shkonana, opposite Crate’s Point. 

Shkukskhat, below The Dalles. 

Tsapkhadidlit, a wintering place below Nayakkhachikh. 

Waginkhak, below The Dalles and the lowest Tlakluit town on the river. 

Wakemap, above Wishram. 

Wasnaniks, below Skukskhat. 

Wayagwa, above The Dalles, the easternmost town. 

Wishram (properly called Nixldidix’), about 5 miles above The Dalles. 


450 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn 145 


Population —Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were 
about 1,500 Wishram, but Spier and Sapir (1930) suggest 1,000 about 
1800. The latter figure is the one given by Lewis and Clark in 1806. 
The census of 1910 returned 274, and in 1937, under the designation 
“Upper Chinook,’’ the United States Office of Indian Affairs gave 124. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—A town in Klickitat 
County preserves the name of the Wishram. 


Wynoochee. Significance of word is unreported. 

Connections.—The Wynoochee were closely connected with the 
Chehalis Indians and belonged to the coastal division of the Salishan 
linguistic stock. 

Location.—On the Wynoochee, an affluent of Chehalis River. 


Yakima. Meaning “runaway.” Also called: 

Cuts-séh-nem, by Clark in 1805 in Lewis and Clark Journals (1904-5). 

Pa‘ kiut‘léma, own name, “‘people of the gap.” 

Shanwappoms, from Lewis and Clark in 1805. 

Stobshaddat, by the Puget Sound tribes, meaning ‘‘robbers.”’ 

Waptai’lmin, own name, “‘people of the narrow river.’’ Both of their 
names for themselves refer to the narrows in Yakima River at Union 
Gap where their chief village was formerly situated. 


Connections —The Yakima belonged to the Shahaptian division of 
the Shapwailutan linguistic family. 
Location.—On the lower course of Yakima River. 


Subdivisions 
(As given by Spier (1936), quoting Mooney and Curtis) 


Atanum-lema, on Atanum Creek. 
Nakchi’sh-hlama, on Naches River, and hence possibly Pshwa’nwapam. 
Pisko, about the mouth of Toppenish Creek. 
Se’tas-lema, on Satus Creek. 
Si’-hlama, on Yakima River above the mouth of Toppenish Creek, 
Si’/la-hlama, on Yakima River between Wenas and Umtanum Creeks. 
Si’mkoe-hlama, on Simcoe Creek. 
Tkai’waichash-hlama, on Cowiche Creek. 
Topinish, on Toppenish Creek. 
Waptailmin, at or below Union Gap. 

It is quite possible that under the term Yakima several distinct tribes were in- 
cluded. 


History and location—The Yakima are mentioned by Lewis and 
Clark under the name of Cutsahnim, but it is not known how many 
and what bands were included under that term. In 1855 the United 
States made a treaty with the Yakima and 13 other tribes of Shap- 
wailutan, Salishan, and Chinookan stocks, by which these Indians 
ceded the territory from the Cascade Mountains to Palouse and 
Snake Rivers and from Lake Chelan to the Columbia. The Yakima 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 451 


Reservation was established at the same time and upon it all the 
participating tribes and bands were to be confederated as the Yakima 
Nation under the leadership of Kamaiakan, a distinguished Yakima 
chief. Before this treaty could be ratified, however, the Yakima 
War broke out, and it was not until 1859 that its provisions were 
carried into effect. The Palouse and certain other tribes have never 
recognized the treaty or come on the reservation. Since the estab- 
lishment of the reservation, the term Yakima has been generally 
used in a comprehensive sense to include all the tribes within its 
limits, so that it is now impossible to estimate the number of true 
Yakima. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimated the Yakima proper at 
3,000 in 1780. In 1806 Lewis and Clark give an estimated population 
of 1,200 to their Cutsahnim (see above). The census of 1910 gives 
1,362 ‘‘Yakima,” and the Report of the United States Indian Office 
for 1923, 2,939, but as already stated, this name now covers many 
people beside the true Yakima tribe. In 1937 the population of the 
same body of Indians was given as 2,933. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Yakima first 
attained prominence on account of the extension of their name over 
a number of related, and some unrelated, peoples as above mentioned, 
and its use to designate the Yakima Reservation. It has attained 
greater permanence as the designation of a branch of Columbia 
River, a county in Washington, and a town in the same County and 


State. 
OREGON 


The history of the Oregon Indians was similar to that of the Indians 
of Washington. The coast tribes seem to have been affected little or 
not at all by the settlements of the Spaniards in California, and 
those of the interior were influenced only in slightly greater measure 
by them through the introduction of the horse. Nor were these 
tribes reached so extensively by the employees of the great fur com- 
panies. Contact with such advance agents of civilization was prin- 
cipally along the valley of the Columbia River, and Astoria will 
always be remembered as bearing witness to the transient attempts 
of the American Fur Company to establish a permanent trading 
organization in this region under the American flag. As in the case 
of Washington, Oregon and its tribes were first brought to the acquaint- 
ance of our Eastern States in an intimate way by the expedition 
of Lewis and Clark in 1805-6. Here also settlement was delayed until 
the fixation of the International Boundary line and the rush westward 
following upon the discovery of gold in California. From the middle 
of the nineteenth century onward, however, the native tribes were 
rapidly dispossessed, placed upon reservations, and reduced in 


452 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuv. 145 


numbers. At a later period the decrease became less marked, but 
it has continued nevertheless, partly as an actual extinction of the 
aboriginal population and partly as an absorption in the dominant 
race. Most of the Chinookan tribes were finally placed upon Warm 
Springs and Grande Ronde Reservations and on Yakima Reservation 
in Washington; all of the Athapascan tribes upon the Siletz Reserva- 
tion, except the Umpqua, who went to Grande Ronde; the Kusan and 
Yakonan tribes upon the Siletz Reservation; the Salishan peoples 
of Oregon upon the Grande Ronde and Siletz Reserves; most of the 
Kalapooian peoples upon the Grande Ronde, though a few on the 
Siletz; most of the Molala upon the Grande Ronde; the Klamath 
upon Klamath Reserve; the Modoc mostly on Klamath Reserve but 
a few upon the Quapaw Reservation in Oklahoma; the Shahaptian 
tribes of Oregon upon the Umatilla Reservation; and the Northern 
Paiutes upon the Klamath Reservation. 


Ahantchuyuk. Own name, significance unknown. Also called: 


French Prairie Indians, by early settlers. 
Pudding River Indians, by various authors, and adopted by Berreman 
(1937). 


Connections —The Ahantchuyuk belonged to the Kalapooian lin- 
guistic stock. 

Location.—On and about Pudding River, which empties into the 
Willamette from the east about 10 miles south of Oregon City. 

Population.— (See Calapooya.) Not given separately. 


Alsea. A corruption of Alsé, their own name, meaning unknown. 
Also called: 


Kiinis’tQnné, Chastacosta name. 

Paifan amim, Luckiamute Kalapuya name. 

Si ni’-t8-lf tunné, Naltunne name, meaning “‘flatheads.”’ 
Tcha yéxo amim, Luckiamute Kalapuya name. 
Téhayesdtlu, Nestucca name. 


Connections.—The Alsea belonged to the Yakonan linguistic stock. 
Location.—On Alsea River and Bay. 


Villages 


Chiink, on the south side of Alsea River. 

Kakhtshanwaish, on the north side of Alsea River. 

Kalbusht, on the lower course of Alsea River. 

Kauhuk, on the south side of Alsea River. 

Kaukhwan, on the north side of Alsea River at Beaver Creek. 
Khlimkwaish, on the south side of Alsea River. 
Khlokhwaiyutslu, on the north side of Alsea River. 

Kutauwa, on the north side of Alsea River at its mouth. 
Kwamk, on the south side of Alsea River. 

Kwulisit, on the south side of Alsea River. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 453 


Kyamaisu, on the north side of Alsea River at its mouth. 
Panit, on the south side of Alsea River. 

Shiuwauk, on the north side of Alsea River. 
Skhakhwaiyutslu, on the south side of Alsea River. 
Tachuwit, on the north side of Alsea River. 
Thlekuhweyuk, on the south side of Alsea River. 
Thlekushauk, on the south side of Alsea River. 


Population Mooney (1928) estimates the number of Indians 
belonging to the Yakonan stock at 6,000 in 1780. The census of 1910 
returned 29 Indians under this name, and that of 1930 only 9 under 
the entire Yakonan stock. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Alsea or Alseya River, 
Alsea Bay and the village of Alsea, Benton County, Oreg., preserve 
the name of the Alsea Indians. 


Atfalati. Meaning unknown. Often shortened to Fallatahs. Some- 
times spelled Tudlati, or Tualatin (Berreman, 1937). Also known 


as: 
Tualatin, Palmer in Ind. Aff. Rep., p. 260, 1859. 
Wapato Lake Indians, a common name used by travelers. 


Connections.—The Atfalati belonged to the northern dialectic branch 
of the Kalapooian linguistic family. 

Location.—On the Atfalati plains, the hills about Forest Grove and 
the shores and vicinity of Wapato; they are also said to have ex- 
tended as far as the site of Portland. 


Villages and Bands 


Chachambitmanchal, 34 miles north of Forest Grove. 

Chachamewa, at Forest Grove, 6 miles from Wapato Lake. 

Chachanim, on Wapato Lake prairie. 

Chachif, on Wapato Lake. 

Chachimahiyuk, between Wapato Lake and Willamette River, Washington 
County. 

Chachimewa, on or near Wapato Lake, Yamhill County. 

Chachokwith, at a place of the same name north of Forest Grove, Washington 
County. 

Chagindueftei, between Hillsboro and Sauvies Island, Washington County. 

Chahelim, in Chehelim Valley, 5 miles south of Wapato Lake, Yamhill County. 

Chakeipi, about 10 miles west of Oregon City. 

Chakutpaliu, northeast of Hillsboro, Washington County. 

Chalal, near the outlet of Wapato Lake. 

Chalawai, southeast of Wapato Lake. 

Chamampit, on Wapato Creek at the east end of Wapato Lake. 

Chapanaghtin, north of Hillsboro, Washington County. 

Chapokele, 4 miles west of Wapato Lake. 

Chapungathpi, at Forest Grove, Washington County. 

Chatagihl, at the upper end of Wapato Lake. 

Chatagithl, at the upper end of Wapato Lake. 

Chatagshish, in Washington County. 

Chatakuin, 7 miles north of Hillsboro, Washington County. 


454 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuu. 145 


Chatamnei, 10 miles north of Wapato Lake, in Washington County. 
Chatilkuei, 5 miles west of Wapato Lake, in Yamhill County. 
Chawayed, west of Forest Grove, in Washington County. 

Population.—(See Calapooya.) The census of 1910 returned 44 
Atfalati. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Atfalati is 
preserved in the form Tualatin by a town in Washington County. 


Bannock. The Bannock came over into the eastern borders of the 


state between Powder and Owyhee Rivers in more recent times. 
(See Idaho.) 
Calapooya. Meaning unknown. Also called: 
Kait-ka, by the Umpqua. 
Tsanh-alokual amfm, by the Luckiamute Kalapuya. 
Connections.—The Calapooya belonged to the Calapooya dialectic 
division of the Kalapooian linguistic stock. 


Location.—On the headwaters of Willamette River including 
McKinzie, Middle, and West Forks. 


Subdivisions or Bands 


Ampishtna, east of upper Willamette River. 
Tsanchifin, on the site of Eugene City. 
Tsanklightemifa, at Eugene City. 
Tsankupi, at Brownsville, Lynn County. 
Tsawokot, north of Eugene City. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the population of the entire 
Kalapooian stock at 3,000 in 1780. The Kalapooian bands on Grande 
Ronde Reservation numbered 351 in 1880; 164 in 1890; 130 in 1905. 
The census of 1910 returned 5 of the Calapooya tribe by itself, and 106 
in the entire stock; and that of 1930, 45 individuals in the stock. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Calapooya tribe is 
of note (1) because its name has been used for all the tribes of the 
stock; and (2) from its later application to Calapooya River, a branch 
of the Willamette; Calapooya Creek, an affluent of the Umpqua; and 
the Calapooya Mountains. 


Cayuse. Significance unknown. 


Haf‘luntchi, Molalla name. 
Wailétpu, cwn name. 

Connections.—The Cayuse were placed by Powell (1891) in the 
Waiilatpuan linguistic stock along with the Molala (q. v.), but 
this is now recognized as a branch of the Shapwailutan family. 

Location.—About the heads of Wallawalla, Umatilla, and Grande 
Ronde Rivers and extending from the Blue Mountains to Deschutes 
River, Washington and Oregon. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 455 


History—Anciently the Cayuse are said to have had their head- 
quarters on the Upper Grande Ronde but to have extended west later 
to the region of Deschutes River, where they may have met the Molala. 
They entered the historical arena with the expedition of Lewis and 
Clark and were afterward well known to explorers, hunters, and 
settlers. In 1838 a mission was established among them by the noted 
Marcus Whitman at the site of the present town of Whitman, but in 
1847 smallpox carried off a large number of the tribe, and the Indians, 
believing the missionaries to be the cause, murdered Whitman and a 
number of other Whites and destroyed the mission. By 1851 they 
were much reduced in numbers and had become partially merged 
in the Nez Percé. In 1853 they joined in the treaty by which Umatilla 
Reservation was formed and made their homes upon it from that time 
forward. Their language is now nearly extinct. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates 500 Cayuse in 1780. In 
1904, 404 were officially reported; the census of 1910 gave 298, while 
the United States Indian Office in 1923 returned 337. The census of 
1930 reported 199 Cayuse and Molala, and the United States Indian 
Office of Cayuse alone in 1937, 370. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Cayuse were 
reputed one of the most warlike tribes of Washington and Oregon. 
Horses were early bred among them and an Indian pony came to be 
known to the white settlers as a “‘cayuse.’’ There is a place called 
Cayuse in Umatilla County, Oreg. 


Chastacosta. From Shista-kwista, their own name, significance 
unknown. Also called: 
Atchdshti amé’nmei, by the Atfalati Kalapuya. 
Atchashti 4mim, another form of the Kalapuya name. 
Katuku, by the Shasta. 
Walamskni, by the Klamath. 
Wadlamswash, by the Modoc. 


Connections.—The Chastacosta belonged to the Athapascan stock. 

Location.—On the lower course of Illinois River, both sides of 
Rogue River for some distance above its confluence with the Lllinois, 
and on the north bank somewhat farther. 


Villages 
Dorsey recorded the following: 
Chetuttunne. Chuttushshunche. 


Chunarghuttunne, east of the junction Khloshlekhwuche. 
of Rogue River and Applegate River. Khotltacheche. 


Chunsetunneta. Khtalutlitunne. 
Chunsetunnetun. Kthelutlitunne, at the junction of Rogue 
Chushtarghasuttun. River and a southern affluent. 


Chusterghutmunnetun, the highest on Kushlatata. 
Rogue River. Mekichuntun. 


456 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu 145 


Musme. Tachikhwutme, above the mouth of 
Natkhwunche. Illinois River. 
Nishtuwekulsushtun. Takasichekhwut. 
Sechukhtun. Talsunme. 
Senestun. Tatsunye. 
Thethikhuttunne. 
Setaaye. Tisattunne. 
Setsurgheake. Tsetaame, east of the junction of Rogue 
Silkhkemechetatun. River with Applegate River. 
Sinarghutlitun. Tsetutkhlalenitun. 
Skurgnut. Tukulittatun. 
Sukechunetunne. Tukwilisitunne. 
Surghustesthitun. Tuslatunne. 


Twenty of these at least were on the north side of Rogue River. The follow- 
ing may be synonymous with some in the above list: Klothchetunne, on or in the 
vicinity of Rogue River; Sekhatsatunne, on the north bank of Rogue River; 
Tasunmatunne, in the Rogue River country. 

Drucker (1937) merely gives the “Chasta Costa (cista kwusta)’’ as one town near 
the Rogue-Illinois confluence divided into three parts called Tleattli’ntun, Tcetci’- 
wut, and Setla’tun. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the population of the Chas- 
tacosta and 10 other Athapascan tribes in the vicinity at 5,600. In 
1856 the remnant which was removed to Siletz Reservation numbered 
but 153, and the census of 1910 returned only 7. The 1930 census 
returned a total Athapascan population in Oregon of 504. The United 
States Office of Indian Affairs reported 30 Chastacosta in 1937. 


Chelamela. Significance unknown. Also called: 
Long Tom Creek Indians. 


Connections.—The Chelamela belonged to the Calapooya dialectic 
division of the Kalapooian linguistic stock. 

Location.—On Long Tom Creek, a western tributary of the Wil- 
lamette River. 

Population.—(See Calapooya.) 


Chepenafa. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Api‘nefu, or Pineifu, by the other Kalapuya. 
Marys River Indians, the official and popular name. 

Connections.—The Chepenafa belonged to the Calapooya dialectic 
division of the Kalapooian linguistic stock, and were sometimes re- 
garded as a subdivision of the Luckamiut (q. v.). 

Location.—At the forks of St. Marys Creek, near Corvallis. 

Population.—(See Calapooya.) The census of 1910 returned 24. 


Chetco. Own name, meaning “close to the mouth of the stream.”’ 
Connections —The Chetco belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 

stock and differed little in culture from the other Athapascan groups 

immediately north of them and the Tolowa to the south. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 457 


Location.—On each side of the mouth of Chetco River and about 
14 miles up it as well as on Winchuck River. (See also California.) 


Villages 


As recorded by Dorsey (in Hodge, 1907): 
Chettanne, Khuniliikhwut, Nukhsuchutun, Setthatun, Siskhaslitun, and 
Tachukhaslitun, on the south side of Chetco River. 
Chettannene, on the north side of Chetco River. 
Nakwutthume, on Chetco River above all the other villages. 
Thlicharghiliitun, on the upper course of a south branch of Chetco River. 
As recorded by Drucker (19387): 
Hosa’tun, at the mouth of Winchuck River. 
Natltene’tun, about where the modern town of Brookings stands. 
Shri’choslintun, on Chetco River a little above the following. 
Teagitli’tun, on Chetco River at the mouth of the north Fork. 
Tcet or Tcetko, at the mouth of Chetco River, really a town on each side. 
Tiime’stun, near Shri’choslintun. 
Drucker adds that ‘‘the coast town which Parrish calls Wishtenatan (Water 
man, xustene’ten) may have been affiliated more closely with Chetco River 
than with the Lower Rogue River group.” 


Population.—See Chastacosta. In 1854, a year after the Chetco 
had been removed to the Siletz Reservation, they numbered 241. 
In 1861 they numbered 262. In 1877 there were only 63 on the reser- 
vation. The census of 1910 returned 9. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—A river and a post 
hamlet in Curry County, Oregon, perpetuate the name of the Chetco. 


Clackamas. From their own name, Guithla’kimas, significance 
unknown. 

Also spelled TlikimIsh, and called: 

A’kimmash, by the Atfalati Kalapuya. 
Gita’q!émas, by the Clatsop. 
Nsekau’s or Ns tiwat, by the Nestucca. 
Tu’hu tane, by the Umpqua. 

Connections.—The Clackamas belonged to the Chinookan linguistic 
stock and to a dialectical division to which they have given their name. 

Location.—On Clackamas River, claiming the country on the east 
side of Willamette River from a few miles above its mouth nearly to 
Oregon City and east as far as the Cascade Mountains. (See also 
Washington.) 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that the Clackamas num- 
bered 2,500 in 1780. In 1806 Lewis and Clark set down their probable 
number as 1,800. In 1851 there were 88; the 1910 census returned 40; 
and United States Office of Indian Affairs in 1937, 81. The census of 
1930 reported a total of 561 Indians in the Chinookan stock. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Clackamas is 
perpetuated by a river, a county, and a town in Oregon. 


458 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Clatskanie. Significance unknown. Also spelled A‘lAtskné-i, Clack- 
star, Klatskanai, Tlatskanai, etc. 

Connection.—The Clatskanie belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
stock. 

Loeution.— According to Gibbs (1877) the Clatskanie at one time 
owned the prairies bordering Chehalis River, Washington, at the 
mouth of Skookumchnek River, but on the failure of game, crossed the 
Columbia and occupied the mountains about Clatskanie River, their 
best-known historic seat. For a long time they exacted toll of all who 
passed going up or down the Columbia. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates 1,600 Clatskanie in 1780. 
In 1851 they were reduced to three men and five women. The census 
of 1910 returned three. (See Chastacosta.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Like the Kwahlioqua, 
the Clatskanie are noted for their isolation from other branches of 
the Athapascan stock. Their name is preserved by Clatskanie Creek 
and Clatskanie town in Columbia County, Oreg. 


Clatsop. From a native word meaning “dried salmon.” 
Connection.—The Clatsop belonged to the Lower Chinook dialectic 
division of the Chinookan linguistic stock. 
Location.—The Clatsop centered about Cape Adams, on the south 
side of Columbia River, extending up the latter as far as Tongue Point, 
and southward on the Pacific coast to Tillamook Head. 


Villages 
As far as known these were: 
Konope, near the mouth of Columbia River. 
Neacoxy, the principal winter village, at the site of Seaside, at the mouth of 
Neacoxie Creek. 
Neahkeluk, at Point Adams. 
Niakewankih, south of Point Adams at the mouth of Ohanna Creek. 
Neahkstowt, near the present Hammond. 
Necotat, at the site of Seaside. 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates 300 Clatsop in 1780. In 
1806 Lewis and Clark gave 300. In 1875 the few survivors were moved 
to Grande Ronde Reservation, where the census of 1910 returned 26. 
(See Clackamas.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Clatsop County and 
the town of Clatsop, Oreg., preserve the name. 


Clowwewalla. Significance unknown. Phonetically Gita’ wéwalamt. 
Also called: 


Fall Indians, Tumwater Indians, popular names. 
Willamette Indians, Willamette Falls Indians, popular names. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 459 


Connections. —The Clowwewalla belonged to the Clackamas division 
of the Chinookan linguistic stock. 
Location.—At the falls of Willamette River. 
Subdivisions 


The Clowwewalla may have included the Cushooks, Chahcowahs, and Nemal- 
quinner of Lewis and Clark. 

Population.—The Clowwewalla, or a part of them, were called 
Cushook by Lewis and Clark, who estimated that they numbered 650 
in 1805-6. On this basis Mooney (1928) estimated there might have 
been 900 in 1780. They were greatly reduced by the epidemic of 1829 
and in 1851 numbered 13. They are now apparently extinct. 


Dakubetede. Own name, significance unknown. Also called: 


Applegate River Indians, from their habitat. 
Ni’ckite hitclim, Alsea name, meaning ‘‘people far up the stream.” 
Ts’ (-qts-li’-qwiit-me’ tunne, NaltQnnetiinne name. 

Connections.—The Dakubetede belonged to the Athapascan lin- 
guistic stock, using a dialect identical with that of the Taltushtuntude. 

Location.—On Applegate River. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates the Dakubetede, the 
Nahankhotane (part of the Umpqua), the Taltushtuntude, and the 
Umpqua to have numbered 3,200 in 1780. They are nowhere sepa- 
rately enumerated. (See Chastacosta.) 


Hanis. Own name, significance unknown. 

Connections.—The Hanis formed one dialectic group of the Kusan 
linguistic family, the other being Miluk. It is probable that this stock 
was connected with the Yakonan. 

Location.—On Coos River and Bay. 

Villages 
Anasitoh, on the south side of Coos Bay. 
Melukitz, on the north side of Coos Bay. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that the Hanis and the 
Miluk together numbered 2,000 in 1780. In 1805 Lewis and Clark 
estimated 1,500 Hanis. The census of 1910 returned 93 for the entire 
stock and that of 1930, 107, while, again for the stock, the United 
States Office of Indian Affairs reported 55 in 1937. 


Klamath. A word of uncertain origin but probably used first by 
Columbia River or other outside tribes. Their own name is maklaks, 
meaning “‘people,” ‘“‘community.”” They are also called: 

Aigspaluma, abbreviated to Afgspalo, Afspalu; Nez Percé name for all 


Indians on Klamath Reservation and in the vicinity, meaning “people 
of the chipmunks.” 


460 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


Al4émmimakt fsh (from ala’mmig, ‘‘Upper Klamath Lake’’), said to be the 
Achomawi name. 

Athlémeth, Calapooya name. 

Atksiwash, in Yreka dialect of Shasta. 

Dak‘-ts!a*m-al-at or Dak‘-ts!aew-an-a’*, “those above the lakes,” by the 
Takelma. 

f\-ukshik-ni m4klaks, meaning “people of the lakes,” also their own name. 

Makaftserk, by the western Shasta. 

Pla{kni, collective name for Klamath, Modoc, and Snakes on Sprague River. 

S4yi, Northern Paiute name. 

Tapdadji, Ilmawi name. 

Wols, name given by the Latgawa. 


Connections.—Together with the Modoc (q. v.), the Klamath con- 
stituted the Lutuamian division of the Shapwailutan linguistic family. 

Location.—On Upper Klamath Lake, Klamath Marsh, and William- 
son and Sprague Rivers. 


Subdivisions and Villages 
These are given as follows by Spier (1930), maintaining his order: 


I. &’ukckni (the Klamath marsh—Williamson River group), with the following 
villages: mii’tcuia’ksi (near the bridge toward the eastern end of Klamath marsh), 
k’Etaiwa’s (along the eastern side of the marsh), gtipgiia’ksi, (east side of Klamath 
marsh south of last), i/wal (along a southeastern tongue of the marsh), kla’djéksi 
(ibid.), du/‘flktit (on the south shore of Klamath marsh), awa’lwaskAn (west of 
preceding), wa’ktale’s (on the higher ground where Williamson River leaves the 
marsh), la’laks (ibid.), lobd’kstsdksi (on the bluff on the left bank of the Sprague 
River at the railroad bridge) called by Gatschet (1891 b) ktaf-tté-pakshi), an un- 
named site (on the south side of Sprague River below the dam), k!3tew3’éts (about 
2 miles above the dam on the south bank of Sprague River), kom&’éksi (on both 
sides of Sprague River south of Braymill, 4 miles from Chiloquin), ka’umk&n 
(about 6 miles above last), [Yainax] (settlements of some sort near here), hicdi{c- 
lué’luke (west of Gearhart Mountain), bmztikse’was (on the right bank of William- 
son River below the mouth of Sprague River), takalma’keda (on the right bank of 
Williamson River below preceding), k’tai’di (on a flat opposite last mentioned), 
djigii’s (below last two on both sides of river), k!o’Itawas (on both banks below 
preceding but principally on left bank), at’awlke (below last, principally on right 
bank), ya’ak (right bank below preceding), tsa’k’wi (below last, principally on 
right), witi’mtimpsi (on a high bluff on the right bank above an eddy in the sharp 
bend in the river), goyemske’ xgis or kizke’tsiis (on right bank below last), wela’lksi 
(on the eastern shore of Agency Lake), lok’o’gtit (on the higher land near Agency 
Lake by a little warm spring), tcd’klaliimps (overlooks the lake where the Chilo- 
quin road meets the Agency Lake highway), ‘‘other towns may have been at 
ya’mzi, on the western side of Yamsay Mountain, and koken4’oke, Spring Creek, 
a large northern affluent of Klamath marsh.” 

II. kowa’cdikni, perhaps part of the first division, occupying: kowa’cdi (on 
Agency Lake). 

III. du’kwakni (on the delta of Williamson River), affiliated most closely with 
the next division, and including: mo’aksda (on the left bank of Williamson River 
nearly a mile above the mouth), wickimdi (below the preceding on the right bank), 
la’wa'Istét (on the point forming the right side of the mouth of Williamson River), 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 461 


mo’ginkiinks (on the left bank of Williamson River a quarter of a mile above the 
mouth), djlmgiis (at a spring on the lake front to the east of the mouth of William- 
son River). 

IV. gu’mbétkni (on Pelican Bay and the marsh to the north) including: sle’tsksi 
(on the west side of Seven Mile Creek near its mouth), wudd’/kin (in the marsh a 
mile from the last and east of Seven Mile Creek), iwtinau’ts (on the western side 
of a little creek emptying into Klamath Lake 2 miles east of Recreation P. O., 
and extending along the marsh shore to the northern side of Pelican Bay), diind’ksi 
(an open space overlooking the northern end of Pelican Bay), e’o’kai (a few hun- 
dred yards up Four Mile Creek on the left bank), wa‘lé’kdi (above the last men- 
tioned on the opposite side of the creek), wak’a’k (south of the high ridge south 
of Odessa), gai’ldks or gaila’lks (on the point south of Odessa, or more probably 
between Howard and Shoalwater Bays), st6’kmate (at Eagle Point); to which 
should perhaps be added: e’o’kak (on Wood River, toward the mountains), and 
e’ukwa/lksi (on the east side of Wood River, and possibly the same site as the 
other). 

V. iu’la‘lonkni (the people of Klamath Falls (Link River) and the eastern shore 
of Klamath Lake), including the following villages: krt!ai’ksi (extending south- 
ward from a promontory 2 miles or so northwest of Modoc Point), suwiaka/éks 
(at Modoc Point), iuli’u (on the east side of Klamath Lake), diu’wiaks (at the 
railroad point Ouxy), kau’Smdt (a half mile south of the preceding on the lake 
shore), di’tk!aks (at a hot spring known as Barclay Spring near the last men- 
tioned), kdélwa’l (at Rattlesnake Point at Algoma), wuk!o’twas (on Buck Island 
in Klamath Lake), lama’tcksi (on the point east of Buck Island), k!su’nk!si (three- 
fourths of a mile south of the preceding on the shore of Klamath Lake), iwau’woéne 
(on both sides of Link River at the highway bridge), iu’‘lalone (at the mouth of 
Klamath River), wék’&ls (on the shore of Klamath Lake a mile west of the 
mouth of Klamath River), wut!ana’kdks (at one end of a little marsh (now 
drained) on the west side of Klamath Lake), iup!a’téna (at the other end of the 
same marsh), woksa’/lks (on the north shore of Wokas marsh near Klamath Lake), 
dé’ktcdnks (on the west shore of Klamath Lake opposite Buck Island), sa’stitka’- 
wals (at Squaw Point). 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated the Klamath at 800 in 1780 
but Spier (1930) raises this to 1,200. In 1905, including former slaves 
and members of other tribes more or less assimilated with them, 
they numbered 755. The census of 1910 returned 696. In 1923 there 
were 1,201 Indians under the Klamath Superintendency including 
Klamath, Modoc, and other Indians. In 1930, 2,034 were returned 
as Klamath and Modoc. In 1937 the United States Office of Indian 
Affairs reported 1,912 Klamath. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Klamath is 
perpetuated by Klamath Lake, Klamath County, and the town of 
Klamath Falls, Klamath County, Oreg.; by Klamath River, Oreg. 
and Calif.; and by a village in Humboldt County, Calif. 


Kuitsh. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Ci-sta’-qwit-mé’ tunné’, Mishikwutmetunne name, meaning ‘“‘people 
dwelling on the stream called Shista.”’ 

Lower Umpqua, or Umpwua, popular name. 

Tu’kwil-mé’-k‘i, Alsea name. 


462 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Bunn, 145 


Connections.—The Kuitsh belonged to the Yakonan linguistic stock, 
though so remotely connected that Frachtenberg (1911, p. 441) 
thought of placing them in an independent family, the Siuslawan. 

Location.—On Lower Umpqua River. 


Villages 

According to Dorsey these were: 
Chitlatamus. Paiuiyunitthai. 
Chukhuiyathl. Skakhaus. 
Chukukh. Takhaiya. 
Chupichnushkuch. Thukhita. 
Kaiyuwuntsunitthai. Tkimeye. 
Khuwaihus. Tsalila. 
Kthae. Tsetthim. 
Kuiltsh. Tsiakhaus. 
Mikulitsh. Tsunakthiamittha. 
Misun. Wuituthlaa. 


Ntsiyamis. 


Population.—The Kuitsh are usually classed with the Siuslaw. 
Mooney (1928) estimates the entire Yakonan stock at 6,000 in 1780, 
and by 1930 this had been reduced to 9. The Kuitsh are nowhere 
separately enumerated. 


Latgawa. Signifying ‘those living in the uplands.’”’ Also called: 
Walumskni, by the Klamath. 


Connections.—With the Takelma proper, the Latgawa constituted 
the Takilman linguistic family which, in turn, was probably affiliated 
with the Shastan stock. 

Location.—On Upper Rogue River eastward about Table Rock and 
Bear Creek and in the neighborhood of the present town of Jack- 
sonville. 

Village 


Sapir (1915) records one village belonging to this tribe known by the tribal name 
and also called Latgauk. 


Population.—See Takelma. 


Lohim. Significance unknown. (See Paiute, Northern.) 

Connections.—Reported as a band of Shoshoneans which entered 
Oregon at a late period. 

Location.—On Willow Creek, a southern affluent of the Columbia. 

Population.—In 1870 the number of Lohim was reported as 114, 
but the name has not appeared in recent official reports. They have 
generally been regarded as renegades belonging to the Umatilla Reser- 
vation, and Ray’s (1938) informants denied the presence of Sho- 
shoneans here, asserting that the name was applied to Yakima. 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 463 


Luckiamute, Lakmiut. Significance unknown. 


Alakéma/yuk, Atfalati name. 
Suck-a-mier, Chelukimaukes, forms appearing in Reports of the Office of 
Indian Affairs. 
Connections.—The Luckiamute belonged to the Calapooya dialectic 
division of the Kalapooian linguistic stock. 
Location.—The Luckiamute River. 


Subdivisions or Bands 


Ampalamuyu, on Luckiamute River. 
Mohawk, on Mohawk River. 
Tsalakmiut, on Luckiamute River. 
Tsamiak, near Luckiamute River. 
Tsantatawa, south of Luckiamute River. 
Tsantuisha, on Luckiamute River. 


Population.—(See Calapooya.) The number of Luckiamute was 
given as 28 in 1905. The census of 1910 returned only 8. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—This tribe has given its 
name to Luckiamute River, Oreg. 


Miluk. Significance unknown; also called Lower Coquille. 


Connections —The Miluk spoke the southern of the two dialects of 
the Kusan linguistic family, and were related more remotely to the 
Yakonan stock. 

Location.—At the mouth of Coquille River. 


Villages 
Miluk or Mulluk, on the north side of the Coquille River at the site of the present 
town of Randolph. 


Nasumi, on the south side of Coquille River on the coast of Oregon, near the site 
of the present Bandon. 


Population—Mooney (1928) estimated 2,000 in 1780 for the 


Miluk and Hanis together. In 1910 they numbered 93. (See Hanis.) 
In 1937 the population of the ‘“‘Kus”’ Indians was given as 55. 


Mishikhwutmetunne. Signifying “people who live on the stream 
called Mishi.’”’ Also called: 


Coquille, or Upper Coquille, from their habitat. 

De-d’4 tené, Tutuni name, meaning ‘‘people by the northern water.” 
Ithalé téni, Umpqua name. 

Kukwil’, Alsea name (from Coquille). 


Connections.—The Mishikhwutmetunne belonged to the Atha- 


pascan linguistic stock, their relations being particularly close with 
the Tututni. 


Location.—On upper Coquille River. 


464 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bouut. 145 


Villages 
The following were recorded by J. O. Dorsey (1884): 


Choekreletan, near the forks of Coquille Sunsunnestunne. 


River. Sushltakhotthatunne. 
Chuntshataatunne. Thikwantiyatunne. 
Duldulthawaisame. Thitsharghiliitunne. 
Enitunne. Thitsusmetunne. 
Ilsethithawaiame. Thiulchikhwutmetunne. 
Katomemetunne. Timethitunne. 
Khinukhtunne. Tkhlunkhastunne, next to the Kusan 
Khweshtunne, next above Coquille City. | people and below Coquille City. 
Kimestunne. Tsatarghekhetunne 
Kthukhwestunne. Tthinatlitunne, at the site of Coauille. 
Kthunataachuntunne. Tulwutmetunne. 
Meshtshe. Tuskhlustunne. 
Nakhituntunne Tustatunkhuushi. 
Nakhochatunne. Drucker (1937) recorded besides: 
Natarghiliitunne. Hweshtun (perhaps partly Kusan). 
Natsushltatunne. Natgrilitun. 
Nilestunne. Stonerutltutl, a suburb of Natgrilitun. 
Rghoyinestunne. Tlunhoshtun, said to have come from 
Sathirekhtun. Umpqua. 
Sekhushtuntunne. 


Population —(See Chastacosta.) The census of 1910 returned 
15 Mishikhwutmetunne under the name Upper Coquille. 


Modoe. From Méatokni, meaning ‘‘southerners.”” Also called: 


Aigspaluma, Nez Percé name for all Indians on Klamath Reservation and 
in the vicinity. 
La-la-cas, said to be the original name. 
Lutmdwi, by a part of the Pit River Indians. 
Lutuami, Nmawi name. 
Pydnai, Yreka Shasta name. 
Ssidoka, Shoshoni name. 
Connections —With the Klamath (q. v.), the Modoc constituted 
the Lutuamian division of the Shapwailutan linguistic stock. 
Location —On Little Kamath Lake, Modoc Lake, Tule Lake, Lost 
River Valley, and Clear Lake, extending at times as far east as Goose 
Lake. (See also California and Oklahoma.) 


Subdivisions 


The most important bands of the Modoc are said to have been at Little Klamath 
Lake, Tule Lake, and in the valley of Lost River. 


Villages 


Agawesh, on lower Klamath Lake, Calif., and on Hot Creek. 
Chakawech, near Yaneks, on Sprague River, Klamath Reservation. 
Kalelk, on the north shore of Tule or Rhett Lake. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 465 


Kawa, at Yaneks on Sprague River. 

Keshlakchuis, on the southeast side of Tule (Rhett) Lake, Calif. 

Keuchishkeni, on Hot Creek near Little Klamath Lake, Calif. 

Kumbatuash (with Klamath), southwest of Tule (Rhett) Lake, Calif., extending 
from the lake shore to the lava beds. 

Leush, on the north side of Tule (Rhett) Lake, Oreg. 

Nakoshkeni, at the junction of Lost River with Tule Lake. 

Nushaltkagakni, at the headwaters of Lost River near Bonanna. 

Pashka, on the northwest shore of Tule (Rhett) Lake. 

Shapashkeni, on the southeast side of Little Klamath Lake, Calif. 

Sputuishkeni, on Lower Klamath Lake, Calif. 

Stuikishkeni, on the north side of Little Klamath Lake. 

Waisha, on Lost River, 3 or 4 miles northwest of Tule Lake, and near the hills 
that culminate in Laki Peak. 

Wachamshwash, on Lost River near Tule (Rhett) Lake, in Klamath County. 

Welwashkeni, on the southeast side of Tule Lake, at Miller’s Farm, Calif. 

Wukakeni, on the east side of Tule Lake, Calif. 

Yaneks (with Klamath and Shoshoni), along middle Sprague River, Lake County. 

Yulalona (with Klamath), at the site of the present Linkville. 

History.—The Modoc came into contact with the Whites in com- 
paratively late times, and acquired an unfortunate reputation from 
frequent conflicts with white immigrants in which atrocities were 
committed on both sides. In 1864 the Modoc and the Klamath 
together ceded their territory to the United States and retired to 
Klamath Reservation, but they were never contented there and made 
persistent efforts to return to their old country. Finally, in 1870, a 
chief named Kintpuash, better known to the Whites as Captain Jack, 
led the more turbulent element of the tribe back to the California 
border and refused to return. The first attempt to bring the run- 
aways back precipitated the Modoc War of 1872-73. The Modoc 
retreated to the lava beds of northern California and for several 
months resisted ail attempts to dislodge them, but they were finally 
overcome and Kintpuash and five other leaders hanged in October of 
that year. Part of the tribe was then sent to Indian Territory and 
placed on the Quapaw Reservation and the remainder on the Klamath 
Reservation. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 400 Modoc 
in 1780, but Kroeber (1925), with whom Spier (1930) seems to concur, 
allows twice as many. In 1905 there were 56 on the Quapaw Reser- 
vation and 223 on the Klamath Reservation. The census of 1910 
returned 282, of whom 212 were in Oregon, 33 in Oklahoma, 20 in 
California, and the remainder scattered among 5 other States. In 1930 
31 were in Oklahoma. (See Klamath.) In 1937, 329 were reported. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The chief claim of the 
Modoc to remembrance is on account of the remarkable defensive 
war they maintained in the lava beds of California, as above stated. 
A California county is named for them and places called Modoc are 


466 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


to be found in Philips County, Ark.; in Emanuel County, Ga.; in 
Louisiana; in Ohio; and in McCormick County, S. C.; Randolph 
County, Ill.; and Randolph County, Ind.; also in the name of Modoc 
Point, Oreg.; in Scott County, Kans.; and in the name of the Modoc 
Lava Beds, Calif. 


Molala. Derived from the name of a creek in the Willamette Valley 
from which one of their bands drove the original inhabitants. Also 
called: 

Amolélish, by the Kalapuya. 
Kuikni, by the Klamath. 

Lati-u or La’tiwé, their own name. 
Ya/’-ide’sta, by the Umpqua. 

Connections —Together with the Cayuse, the Molala constituted 
the Waiilatpuan division of the Shapwailutan linguistic stock. Ac- 
cording to Cayuse tradition, the Molala formerly lived with them and 
were separated and driven westward in consequence of wars with hos- 
tile tribes. 

Location.—At an early date the Molala are believed to have been 
in the valley of the Deschutes River and to have been driven west, 
as above intimated, into the valleys of the Molala and Santiam 
Rivers. Either part of them subsequently went south to the head- 
waters of Umpqua and Rogue Rivers or they were separated from the 
rest in the movement above mentioned, as Berreman (1937) thinks. 

Subdivisions 

The following are said to have been Molala bands or settlements: 

Chakankni, on the headwaters of Rogue River, northwest of Klamath Lake, 
absorbed later by the neighboring tribes, particularly the Klamath. 

Chimbuiha, on the headwaters of Santiam River. 

Mukanti, on the western slope of the Cascade Mountains. 

Population —Mooney (1928) believes the Molala were still with the 
Cayuse in 1780, whose numbers he fixes at about 500. In 1849 the 
Molala were estimated at 100. In 1877 Gatschet found several 
families living on the Grande Ronde Reservation, and in 1881 there 
were said to be 20 individuals in the mountains west of Klamath 
Lake. The census of 1910 returned 31, all but 6 of whom were in 
Oregon. (See Cayuse.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Molala are note- 
worthy in the first place for the uniqueness of their language, which 
is closely related only to Cayuse. Molalla River or Creek and a 
post village, both in Clackamas County, Oreg., bear the name. 


Multnomah. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Wappato, originally the Cree or Chippewa name of a bulbous root (Sagit- 
taria variabilis) used as food by the Indians of the west and northwest 
It means literally “white fungus.” It passed into the Chinook jargon 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 467 


with the meaning “‘potato’”’ and became applied to Sauvies Island in 
Columbia River, at the mouth of the Willamette, and the Indian tribes 
living on or near it. It was so used by Lewis and Clark, though there 
was little or no political connection between the numerous bands so 
designated. 

Connections.—The Multnomah belonged to the Clackamas division 

of the Chinookan linguistic stock. 
Location.—As above indicated, on and near Sauvies Island. 


Subdivisions or Bands 


Cathlacomatup, on the south side of Sauvies Island on a slough of Willamette 
River. 

Cathlacumup on the west bank of the lower mouth of the Willamette River and 
claiming as their territory the bank of the Columbia from there to Deer Island. 

Cathlanaquiah, on the southwest side of Sauvies Island. 

Clahnaquah, on Sauvies Island. 

Claninnata, on the southwest side of Sauvies Island. 

Kathlaminimin, at the south end of Sauvies Island, later said to have become 
associated with the Cathlacumup and Nemoit. 

Multnomah, on the upper end of Sauvies Island. 

Nechacokee, on the south bank of Columbia River a few miles below Quicksand 
(Sandy) River. 

Nemalquinner, at the falls of the Willamette but with a temporary house on the 
north end of Sauvies Island. 

Shoto, on the north side of Columbia River, a short distance from it and nearly 
opposite the mouth of the Willamette. 


Population.—Mooney (1928) gives the population of all of these 
bands of the Multnomah as 3,600 in 1780. Their descendants are 
probably included among the 315 Indians returned as Chinook by 
the census of 1910. (See Clackamas.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—There is a county, 
town, and river channel of the name in Oregon. The name‘ Wappato”’ 
secondarily applied to the Multnomah besides its former use as a 
name of Sauvies Island, is given, with the spelling Sapato, to a lake 
and place near Portland in Oregon—the latter in Multnomah County, 
the former between Yamhill and Washington Counties—and to a 
place in the State of Washington. 


Naltunnetunne, a small Athapascan tribe between the Tututni and 
Chetco, apparently included by later writers under the former. 
Nez Percé. They extended into northeastern Oregon, (See Idaho.) 


Paiute, Northern. These people occupied the southeastern part of 
Oregon and formerly extended far enough north to include the 
valley of Powder River and the upper course of John Day River of 
which they were dispossessed by Shahaptians. (See Nevada.) 

Santiam. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Aha’Ipam, by the Atfalati Kalapuya. 


468 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Connections.—The Santiam belonged to the Calapooya dialectic 
division of the Kalapooian linguistic stock. 
Location.—Santiam River. 


Subdivisions or Bands 


Chamifu, on Yamhill Creek. 
Chanchampenau, east of Willamette River. 
Chanchantu, location not specified. 
Chantkaip, below the junction of the Santiam forks. 
Population.—(See Calapooya.) In 1906 there were 23 Santiam on 
Grande Ronde Reservation. The census of 1910 returned 9. 
Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Santiam is 
perpetuated in Santiam River, a branch of the Willamette. 


Shasta. The Shasta extended at least into the territory watered by 
Jenny Creek from their main seats in California (q. v.). 


Siletz. Significance unknown. Also called: 
Tsad Shnddsh amfm, Luckiamute Kalapuya name. 


Connections.—The Siletz belonged to the Salishan linguistic stock. 

Location.—On Siletz River. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the population of all of the 
Salishan tribes of Oregon as 1,500 in 1780. They are not now sepa- 
rately recorded, but in the census of 1930, 72 Salishan Indians were 
returned from Oregon besides the Tillamook. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Siletz are of note 
as having been the southernmost of the Salishan linguistic family. 
Siletz River and a post village, both in Lincoln County, Oreg., 
preserve the name. 


Siuslaw. Significance unknown. Also called: 


K’cu-qwie’tfinné, Naltunne name. 
K’qlo-qwec tinné, Chastacosta name. 
Tsan4-uta amfm, Luckiamute Kalapuya name. 
Connections.—The Siuslaw belonged to the Siuslawan division of 
the Yakonan linguistic stock. 
Location.—On and near Siuslaw River. 


Villages 
Dorsey (1884) gives the following: 

Chimuksaich. Khalakw. 

Hauwiyat. Kumiyus. 

Hilakwitiyus. Kumkwu. 

Khachtais. Kupimithlta. 

Khaikuchum. Kuskussu. 

Khaiyumitu. Kwsichichu (south of Eugene City). 


Khakhaich. Kwulhauunnich. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 469 


Kwultsaiya. Stthukhwich. 
Kwunnumis. Thlachaus. 
IKwuskwemus. Thlekuaus. 
Matsnikth. Tiekwachi. 
Mithlausmintthai. Tsahais. 
Paauwis. Tsatauwis. 

Pia. Tsiekhaweyathl. 
Pilumas. Waitus. 
Pithlkwutsiaus. Wetsiaus. 
Skhutch. Yukhwustitu. 


Population.—(See Alsea.) The census of 1910 reported 7 Siuslaw. 
Connection in which they have become noted.—The name Siuslaw is 
preserved by Siuslaw River, in Lane County, Oreg. 


Skilloot. The Skilloot occupied part of Oregon opposite the mouth 
of Cowlitz River. (See Washington.) 


Snake. (See Northern Paiute under Nevada.) 


Takelma. Own name, meaning ‘‘those dwelling along the river.” 


Kyu’-kiite hitclam, Alsea name meaning “people far down the stream 
(or country).” 

Lowland Takelma, of Berreman (1937). 

Na-tcté tdnné, Naltunne name. 

Rogue River Indians, from their habitat. 


Connections.—Together with the Latgawa (q. v.), the Takelma 
constituted the Takilman linguistic stock. It is possible that this is 
distantly connected with the Shastan stock of northern California. 

Location.—On the middle course of Rogue River from above 
Illinois River to about Grant’s Pass and on the northern tributaries 
of Rogue River between these limits and the upper course of Cow 
Creek; also south nearly to the California boundary. 


Villages 


The following names were recorded by J. O. Dorsey mainly in one of the Atha- 
pascan dialects of the region: 


Hashkushtun, on the south side of Rogue River. 

Hudedut, at the forks of Rogue River and Applegate River. 

Kashtata, on the south side of Rogue River above Leaf Creek and Galice Creek. 
Kthotaime, on the south side of Rogue River. 

Nakila, on the south side of Rogue River about 10 miles above Yaasitun. 
Salwahka, near the mouth of Illinois River or one of its tributaries. 

Seethltun, on the south side of Rogue River, the village nearest the Chastacosta. 
Sestikustun, on the south side of Rogue River. 

SewaathlIchutun, ibid. 

Shkashtun, ibid. 

Skanowethitunne, ibid. 

Talmamiche, ibid. 

Talotunne, ibid. 


470 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Buu. 145 


Tthowache, on the south side of Rogue River near ‘‘Deep Rock’’. 
Yaasitun, on the south side of Rogue River. 
Yushlali, ibid. 

The following names, probably covering in part the same towns, were recorded 
by Dr. Edward Sapir in 1906, and are enumerated from the Latgawa country 
downstream: 

Hatil, east of Table Rock. 

Gelyalk, below Table Rock. 

Dilomi, near the falls of Rogue River. 

Gwenpunk. 

Hayaal balsda. 

Daktgamik. 

Didalam, on the present site of Grant’s Pass, the county seat of Josephine County. 
Daktsasin or Daldanik, on Rogue River near Jump Off Joe Creek. 
Hagwal, on Cow Creek. 

Somouluk. 

Hatonk, 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the entire Takilman stock 
at 500 in 1780. Only 1 was returned under that name by the census 
of 1910, but under the general head of ‘‘Rogue River’ the Indian 
Office Report for 1937 gives two bodies of Indians numbering 58 and 
46 individuals, respectively. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Together with the 
Latgawa, the Takelma are remarkable for the peculiarity of their 
language, accentuated by the fact that they are almost entirely 
surrounded by Athapascan peoples. A post village called Takilma 
in Josephine County, Oreg., perpetuates the name. 


Taltushtuntude. Own name, meaning unknown. Also called: 


Galice Creek Indians, from their habitat. 
K4-lis’-kitce hite’lim, Alsea name. 

Connections —The Taltushtuntude belonged to the Athapascan 
linguistic stock, and spoke the same dialect as the Dakubetede but 
culturally had become assimilated with the Takelma, 

Location.—On Galice Creek. 

Population.—In 1856, 18 Taltushtuntude were reported living on 
the Siletz Reservation. Under the name ‘‘Galice Creek’”’ 42 Indians 
were reported in 1937. 


Tenino. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Méli’-léma, own name. 
Warm Springs Indians, the common official designation. 


Connections.—The Tenino constituted a division of the Shahaptian 
branch of the Shapwailutan linguistic stock. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 471 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Kowasayee, on the north bank of Columbia River nearly opposite the mouth of 
the Umatilla. 

Ochechote or Uchichol, on the north bank of Columbia River, the exact region 
being uncertain though they derive their name from a rock near the mouth of 
the Deschutes River. 

Skinpah, on the north bank of Columbia River above the mouth of the Deschutes. 

Tapanash, on the north bank of Columbia River, near the mouth of the Deschutes 
and a little above Celilo, the name being later extended over most of the above 
bands. 

Tilkuni, between White and Warm Springs Reservations. 

Tukspush on John Day River, and hence called often John Day Indians. 

Wahopum, on the north bank of Columbia River near the mouth of Olive Creek. 

Waiam, near the mouth of the Deschutes River. 


History—The Tenino were mentioned by Lewis and Clark in 1805. 
By the treaty of 1855 they gave up their lands and settled, along with 
other Shahaptian tribes and some Salishan tribes, on Yakima Reser- 
vation, Washington. Since then they have not had separate official 
recognition. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were 
3,600 including the Atanum of the Yakima and the Tyigh. The 
United States Office of Indian Affairs reported 460 in 1937 of the 
Yakima and associated bands. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—A town in Thurston 
County, Wash., perpetuates the name. 

Tillamook. A Chinook term meaning ‘‘people of Nekelim (or Neha- 
lem). Also spelled Calamox, Gillamooks, Killamook, etc. 
Higgahaldahu, Nestucca name. 
Kyaukw, Alsea name. 
Nsietshawas, so called by Hale (1846). 


Si ni’-té-lf, Mishikwutmetunne name for this tribe and the Alsea, mean- 
ing “‘flatheads.”’ 


Connections.—The Tillamook were the principal tribe in Oregon 
belonging to the Salishan linguistic family, coastal division. 
Location.—The coast from the Nehalem to Salmon River. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Nehalem, on Nehalem River. 

Nestucca, on Nestucca Bay and the streams flowing into it. 

Salmon River, on the river of that name. 

Tillamook, on Tillamook Bay and the streams flowing into it, including the 
following villages enumerated by Lewis and Clark: Chishucks (at the mouth of 
Tillamook River), Chucktin (the southernmost Tillamook village, on a creek 
emptying into Tillamook Bay), Kilherhursh (at the entrance of Tillamook 
Bay), Kilherner (on Tillamook Bay, at the mouth of a creek 2 miles from 
Kilherhursh), Towerquotten (on a creek emptying into Tillamook Bay). 


472 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLu. 145 


Population.—See Siletz. Lewis and Clark estimated 2,200 Tilla- 
mook in 1805. In the reports of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition 
(1845) their number is given as 400, and by Lane in 1849 as 200. The 
census of 1910 returned 25, and that of 1930, 12. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Tillamook seem 
to have been the most powerful tribe on the coast of Oregon. A 
bay, and also a county and its capital in the former country of the 
tribe preserve the name; also a cape, Tillamook Head. 


Tututni. Meaning unknown. Also called: 


H’lilush, Nestucca name. 

Lower Rogue River Indians, or Rogue River Indians, from their habitat. 
Taélémaya, Umpqua name. 

Ta-qu’-qiic-cé, Chetco name, meaning “northern language.” 


Connections.—The Tututni belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
stock, and were related closely with the Mishikhwutmetunne. 
Location.—On lower Rogue River and the Pacific coast north and 
south of its mouth. 
Villages 


J. O. Dorsey (1884) gave the following villages or bands: 


On the north coast of Rogue River: 
Chemetunne, popularly called Joshuas, just north of Rogue River. 
Kaltsergheatunne, at Port Orford. 
Kosotshe, between Port Orford and Sixes Creek, perhaps earlier on Flores Creek. 
Kwatami, on or near Sixes River. 
Kthukwuttunne. 
Kthutetmeseetuttun, just north of Rogue River. 
Kwusathikhuntunne, said to have been at the mouth of Mussel Creek, 5 miles 
south of Mount Humbug. 
Natutshltunne, between Coquille River and Flores Creek. 
Niletunne, the first village south of the Miluk village of Nasumi, south of 
Coquille River. 
Yukichetunne, on Euchre Creek. 
On Rogue River: 
Chetlesiyetunne, on the north side. 
Enitunne, near the mouth of a southern affluent of Rogue River. 
Etaatthetunne. 
Kunechuta. 
Kushetunne, on the north side. 
Mikonotunne, on the north side 14 miles from its mouth. 
Nakatkhaitunne, on the north side of Rogue River. 
Targheliichetunne, on the north side. 
Targhutthotunne, near the coast. 
Testthitun, on the north side. 
Thechuntunne, on the north side. 
Thethikhttunne, or Chastacosta, on the north side. 
On or near the coast south of Rogue River: 
Aanetun. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 473 


Chetleschantunne, on Pistol River and the headlands from the coast 6 miles 
south of Rogue River.. 

Khainanaitetunne. 

Kheerghia, about 25 miles south of Pistol River. 

Khwaishtunnetunne, near the mouth of a small stream locally called Wish- 
tenatin, after the name of the settlement, that enters the Pacific about 10 
miles south of Pistol River, at a place later known as Hustenate. 

Natthutunne, on the south side of Rogue River. 

Nuchumatuntunne, on the north side of Rogue River near the mouth. 

Sentethltun, on the south side of Rogue River and perhaps at its mouth. 

Skumeme, on the south side of Rogue River near its mouth. 

Tsetintunne, the highest of 4 villages on a stream emptying into Rogue River 
near its mouth. 

Tsetuttunne. 

Drucker (1937) gives the following village names: 

On Rogue River: 

Gwi’sat huntun, on Mussel Creek near Sixes River and sometimes separated as 
the Sixes tribe. 

Kusiti’me, on what is now called Flores Creek. 

Kwataime, a short distance north of last. 

Kwuse’tun, near and possibly a suburb of Megwin6’tun, on the coast. 

Megwin6’tun, a few miles up river. 

Skame’me, between Pistol River and mouth of Rogue River; Waterman places 
it at Hunter’s Creek. 

Sukwe’me or Sukwe’tce, at mouth of Sixes River. 

Tagrili’tun, a suburb of Ti’tutun. 

Tce’metun or Tce’me, really two towns, one on each side of the river’s mouth. 

Tce’tlersh tcuntun, on Pistol River, perhaps belonging to the Chetco. 

Ti’tutun, 5 to 6 miles from the river’s mouth, divided into two parts called 
Tatre’tun, ‘‘downriver,” and Na’/gutretun “upriver.” 

Yukwi'tce or Yu’gwitce, on what is now called Euchre Creek. 


Berreman (1937) makes seven major divisions as follows: Kwatami or Sixes 
River; Euchre Creek (Yukichetunne); Mikono tunne; Pistol River (Chetles- 
chantunne); Joshua; Tututunne (Tututni); Kwaishtunne or Khustenete. 

Population.—(See Chastacosta.) In 1854 the Tututni population 
was 1,311. The census of 1910 returned 383, but in 1930 the United 
States Indian Office gave only 41 under this name, 55 under that of 
“Meguenodon” (see above), and 45 under that of ‘Joshua”’ 
(Tce’metun). 


Tyigh. Significance unknown. Also spelled Attayes, Iyich, Ta-ih, 
Thy, Tyh, etc. 
Tedxtkni, or Télknikni, Klamath name. 
Tsté Aminéma, Luckiamute Kalapuya name. 
Connections.—The Tyigh belonged to the Tenino branch of the 
Shahaptian division of the Shapwailutan linguistic stock. 
Location.—The country about Tygh and White Rivers. 


474 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Subdivisions and Villages 


No names are recorded. 


History.—The history of the Tyigh was identical] with that of the 
Tenino (q. v.). 

Population.—With the other Oregon tribes of the Tenino group, 
the Tyigh numbered 1,400 in 1780 according to Mooney’s (1928) 
estimate. In 1854 they were said to number 500 and in 1859, 450; 
but both of these figures must be overestimates. They are not now 
enumerated separately from the Warm Spring Indians, placed at 550 
by the census of 1910. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Tygh Creek and a 
place called Tygh Valley in Wasco County, Oreg., bears the name of 
the Tyigh. 


Umatilla. Significance unknown. 


Connections.—The Umatilla belonged to the Shahaptian division of 
the Shapwailutan linguistic stock. 

Location.—On Umatilla River and the banks of Columbia River 
adjacent to the mouth of the Umatilla. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates this tribe and the Walla- 
walla together at 1,500 in 1780. The census of 1910 returned 272, 
the United States Indian Office Report for 1923, 145, and the Indian 
Office Report for 1937, 124. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—An Indian reservation 
has received the name Umatilla, and it has also been applied to a 
river, a county, and a post village, all in Oregon; also to a place in 
Lake County, Fla. 


Umpqua. Significance unknown. 


Amgititsuish, Shasta name. 

Cacta®’-qwit-me’tinné, Naltunne name. 

Ci-cta’-qwit-me’ttiinné, Tututni name, meaning ‘‘Umpqua River people.’’ 

Ci-sta’-qwit, Chastacosta name. 

Etnémitane, own name (Gatschet, 1877). 

Tsan Ampkua amim, Luckiamute Kalapuya name, meaning “people on 
the Umpqua.” 

Upper Umpqua, Berreman (1937). 

Ya*galé‘, Takelma name. 


Connections.—The Umpqua belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
stock. 
Location.—On upper Umpqua River, east of the Kuitsh. 


Subdivisions 


The Umpqua on Cow Creek are often spoken of separately under the name 
Nahankhuotana. Parker (1840) mentions a people called Palakahu which was 
probably an Athapascan or Yakonan tribe but cannot now be identified, and also 
the Skoton and Chasta, probably parts of the Chastacosta or Tututni. This is 


~ 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 475 


all the more likely as he includes the Kwatami band of the Tututni and the 
entirely independent Chilula of California. Their chief village was Hewut. 

Population.—(See Dakubetede.) Hale (1846) says that in his time 
the Umpqua were supposed to number not more than 400. In 1902 
there were 84 on Grande Ronde Reservation. The census of 1910 
returned 109. In 1937, 43 Indians are given under this name. (See 
Chastacosta and Dakubetede.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Umpqua River, and the 
settlement of Umpqua or Umpqua Ferry in Douglas County, preserve 
the name. 


Wallawalla. The Wallawalla extended somewhat into northeastern 
Oregon. (See Washington.) 


Walpapi. Significance unknown. Commonly called Snakes. A part 
of the Northern Paiute. (See under Nevada.) 


Wasco. From a native word wacq!6, “‘cup or small bowl of horn,” the 
reference being to a cup-shaped rock a short distance from the main 
village of the tribe; from this the tribal name Gatasq’6, ‘‘those 
that have the cup,” is derived and variations of it frequently appear 
in the literature. Also called: 

Aftlakin, by the Kalapuya. 

Ampxénkni, meaning ‘where the water is,” by the Klamath. 
Awdsko ammim, by the Kalapuya. 

Sdxlatks, by the Molala. 

Connections.—They belonged to the upstream branch of the Chi- 
nookan linguistic stock, their closest relatives being the Wishram on 
the opposite side of the river. 

Location.—In the neighborhood of The Dalles, in the present Wasco 
County. 

Villages and Fishing Stations 

The following are given by Sapir (1930) in order from east to west: Hlgahacha, 
Igiskhis, Wasco (a few miles above the present town of The Dalles), Wogupan, 
Natlalalaik, Gawobumat, Hliekala-imadik, Wikatk, Watsokus, Winkwot (at The 
Dalles), Hlilwaihldik, Hliapkenum, Kabala, Gayahisitik, Itkumahlemkt, Hlgak- 
tahlk, Tgahu, Hliluktik, Gahlentlich, Gechgechak, Skhlalis. 

Population.—Morse (1822) estimated the number of Wasco at 900. 
The census of 1910 returned 242, and the United States Office of 
Indian Affairs, 227 in 1937. (See Clackamas and Watlala.) 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Wasco were the 
strongest Upper Chinook tribe and that which ultimately absorbed 
the rest. The name is preserved by Wasco County, Oreg., and a 
town in Sherman County in the same State; also places in Kern 
County, Calif., and Kane County, III. 


476 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Watlala. Significance of word is unknown. Also called: 
Cascade Indians, the popular English name. 
Gila’xicatck, by the Chinook. 
Katlagakya, own name. 
Shahala, from Chinook saxala, meaning ‘‘above,”’ by Chinook. 
Connections.—The Watlala belonged to the Chinookan linguistic 
stock and the Clackamas dialectic group. 
Location.—At the Cascades of Columbia River and extending down 
to the mouth of the Willamette River. 


Subdivisions 


The following names have been applied by various writers to the Indians in 
this neighborhood and may be subdivisions of this tribe, or perhaps refer to the 
entire tribe itself: 

Cathlakaheckit, at the Cascades. 

Cathlathlala, just below the Cascades. 

Clahclellah, near the foot of the Cascades. 

Neerchokioon, on the south side of Columbia River a few miles above Sauvies 

Island. 

Washougal, near Quicksand River. 
Yehuh, just above the Cascades. 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that the Watlala and the 
Wasco together numbered 3,200 in 1780. In 1805-6 Lewis and Clark 
estimated that there were 2,800. In 1812 the two first-mentioned 
bands were estimated to number 1,400. They are no longer enumer- 
ated separately and are probably incorporated at the present time 
with the Wishram and the Wasco. 


Yahuskin. One of the two chief peoples in Oregon belonging to the 
Northern Paiute division of the Shoshonean and therefore Uto- 
Aztecan linguistic stock. (See Nevada.) 


Yamel. Significance unknown, often spelled Yam Hill. Also called: 
Ychi-yamel-amim, by the Atfalati Kalapuya. 
Connections.—The Yamel belonged, along with the Atfalati, to the 
northern dialectic division of the Kalapooian linguistic stock. 
Location.—Yamhill River. 


Subdivisions 
Gatschet (1877) records these as follows: 


Andshankualth, on a western tributary of the Willamette. 
Andshimmampak, on Yamhill River. 

Chamifu, in the forks of Yamhill River. 

Chamiwi, on Yamhill River. 

Champikle, on Dallas (La Creole) Creek. 

Chinchal, on Dallas Creek. 


Population.—(See Calapooya.) The census of 1910 returned 5 
Yamel. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA AT7 


Connection in which they have become noted—The name of the Yamel, 
in the form Yamhill, is perpetuated by an affluent of the Willamette 
and by the county through which it flows. 

Yaquina. Significance unknown. 


Sa&-4kl, Nestucca name. 
Sis’-qdin-me’tinné, Chetco name. 
Tcha ydkon amim, Luckiamute Kalapuya name. 


Connections.—The Yaquina were one of the tribes of the Yakonan 


linguistic stock to which they gave their name. 
Location.—About Yaquina River and Bay. 


Villages 


The following list is from J. O. Dorsey (1884): 


On the north side of Yaquina River: 


Holukhik. Mittsulstik. 
Hunkkhwitik. Shash. 
Iwai. Thialkhaiuntik. 
Khaishuk. Thlekakhaik. 
Khilukh. Tkhakiyu. 
Kunnupiyu. Tshkitshiauk. 
Kwulaishauik. Tthilkitik. 
Kyaukuhu. Ukhbwaiksh. 
Kyuwatkal. Yahal. 
Mipshuntik. Yikkhaich. 

On the south side of the river: 
Atshuk. Kwullakhtauik. 
Chulithltiyu. Kwutichuntthe. 
Hakkyaiwal. Mulshintik. 
Hathletukhish. Naaish. 
Hitshinsuwit. Paiinkhwutthu. 
Hiwaitthe. Pikiiltthe. 
Kaku. Pkhulluwaaitthe. 
Khaiyukkhai. Pkuuniukhtauk. 
Khitalaitthe. Puuntthiwaun. 
Kholkh. Shilkhotshi. 
Khulhanshtauk. Shupauk. 
Kilauutuksh. Thlekwiyauik. 
Kumsukwum. Thlelkhus. 
Kutshuwitthe. Thlinaitshtik. 
Kwaitshi. Thlukwiutshthu. 
Kwilaishauk. Tkulmashaauk. 
Kwulchichicheshk. Tuhaushuwitthe. 
Kwullaish. Tulshk. 


Population.—(See Alsea.) The census of 1910 returned 19 Yaquina. 
Connecton in which they have become noted.—The name of this tribe 
Yaquina, was given some scientific prominence by its use, in the form 


478 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu 145 


Yakonan, for a small linguistic stock in the Powellian classification. 
It is preserved in Yaquina River, Yaquina Bay and a town called 
Yaquina in Lincoln County. 


Yoncalla. From Ayankéld, or Tch’Ayanké’ld, “those living at 

Ayankeld,’”’ own name. 

Connections.—The Yoncalla were the southernmost tribe of the 
Kalapooian linguistic stock, forming one of the three dialectic divi- 
sions. 

Location.—On Elk and Calapooya Creeks, tributaries of Umpqua 


River. 
Subdivisions 


According to Gatschet (1887), there were two bands, called Chayankeld and 
Tsantokayu by the Luckiamute, but it seems likely that the former name (Tch’ 
Ayanké’ld) is merely the native tribal name. 

Population.— (See Calapooya.) The census of 1910 returned 11 
Yoncalla. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Yoncalla, a post 
village of Douglas County, Oreg., preserves the name. 


CALIFORNIA 


The territory of the present State of California was discovered in 
1542 by a Portuguese navigator in the Spanish service, J. R. Cabrillo. 
In 1578 Sir Francis Drake landed at Drake’s Bay, opened communi- 
cation with the natives, and took possession of the country in the 
name of England, calling it New Albion. It was explored by the 
Spaniard S. Viscayno in 1602, but no attempt was made at coloniza- 
tion until the Franciscan Fathers established a mission at San Diego 
in 1769. Within the next 50 years they founded 21 missions and 
gathered 20,000 Indians about them, but the number of neophytes 
continually fell off and the power of the missions declined with them, 
especially after Mexican government had succeeded to Spanish. 
Transfer of the country to the United States and the rush of immi- 
grants following upon the discovery of gold in 1848 was still more 
disastrous to the Indians and this disaster extended to parts of the 
State which the Spaniards had not reached. From this time on the 
history of the Indians of this area is one long story of debauchery 
and extermination. Reservations were set aside for most of the tribes, 
but the greater part of the survivors live scattered through the 
country as squatters or on land purchased by themselves. 

In dealing with the tribes of California, I have adopted the names 
given by Dr. Kroeber in his Handbook of the Indians of California 
(1925). An inspection of these shows us at once, however, that the 
tribal concept in most parts of the State is one imposed upon the 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 479 


Indians as a result of ethnological investigation rather than something 
recognized by themselves. It has a dialectic rather than a govern- 
mental or ceremonial base, but it is the best that can be done unless 
we adopt the impracticable alternative of treating each village group 
as a tribe. It is to be understood that, from the ordinary point 
of view as to what constitutes a tribe, this expedient is largely arti- 
ficial. Under these circumstances it has seemed best not to follow 
a strictly alphabetic system throughout, or rather, to enter those 
tribes defined by their names as parts of larger groups under the more 
common group names, the qualifying word following, as: Paiute, 
Northern, and Yuki, Coast, instead of Northern Paiute and Coast 
Yuki. 

Connections in which they have become noted—That few names 
of California tribes have found permanent lodgment in the geography 
of the region is not surprising when we consider the small number 
of names of this kind at all prominent. This is in keeping with the 
fact that tribal organizations as they were known in eastern North 
America were wanting over much of the State, and that where they 
existed they were generally small and insignificant. It also happens 
that a few real tribal names, or names that have been used to cover 
tribal groups, include peoples which extended into neighboring States 
and have been treated elsewhere. Under this head come the names 
of Modoc County, Klamath River, Mohave River, Mono County and 
Lake, and Piute Peak. Still other names are derived from villages and 
smal] tribes, mere subdivisions of the main bodies. Among these 
may be mentioned Tuolumne County, Mokelumne Peak and River, 
Cosumnes River, Kaweah River. While the designation of the 
Shasta is a conspicuous one it is rather the mountain which has 
given name to the tribe than the tribe to the mountain, though in fact 
both are derived from a chief of the Shasta people. Following from 
the use of the term for Mount Shasta we have Shasta River, Shasta, 
Shasta Retreat, Shasta Springs. The history of the name Hupa 
has been somewhat similar. It has remained attached to the valley 
to which it was originally applied and to the tribe secondarily. 
Nevertheless, the valley name now serves to preserve in memory that 
of the people who occupied it. 


Achomawi. From adztima or achéma, “river.” 
K6’m-maidiim, Maidu name, meaning “snow people.” 
Shawash, Yuki name for the Achomawi taken to Round Valley Reservation. 
Connections —The Achomawi were originally classed with the 
Atsugewi as one stock under the name Palaihnihan, the Achomawan 
stock of Merriam (1926), and this in turn constitutes the eastern branch 


480 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 145 


of the Shastan stock, which in turn is now placed under the widely 
spread Hokan family. 

Location.—In the drainage area of Pit River from near Montgomery 
Creek in Shasta County to Goose Lake on the Oregon line, with the 
exception of the territory watered by Burney, Hat, and Horse or Dixie 
Valley Creeks. 


Subdivisions 


Kroeber (1925) gives the following: 
Achomawi, on Fall River. 
Astakiwi, in upper Hot Springs Valley. 
Atuami, in Big Valley. 
Hamawi, on the South Fork of Pit River. 
Hantiwi, in lower Hot Springs Valley. 
Ilmawi, on the south side of Pit River opposite Fort Crook. 
Madehsi, the lowest on Pit River along the big bend. 


C. H. Merriam (1926) says that Achomawi is the Madehsi name for the Astakiwi 
which occupied all of Hot Springs Vailey, and he adds the names of two other 
tribes between the last mentioned and Goose Lake, the Ko-se-al-lak’-te, and, 
higher up, at the lower end of the lake, the Ha’-we-si’-doc. 

Population.—Together with the Atsugewi, the Achomawi are esti- 
mated by Kroeber (1925) to have numbered 3,000 in 1770; in 1910 
there were 985. According to the census of 1930, the entire Shastan 
stock numbered 844, and in 1937, 418 ‘‘Pit River”? Indians were enu- 
merated, only a portion of the stock apparently. 


Alliklik. Designation bestowed by the Venturefio Chumash; mean- 
ing unknown. 

Connections.—The Alliklik belonged to the Californian group of the 
Shoshonean division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, their closest 
relatives probably being the Serrano. 

Location.—On the upper Santa Clara River. 


Villages 


Akavavi Kashtu, Etseng, Huyang, Kiivung, and Pi’idhuku (on Piru Creek, the 
last mentioned at Piru); Kamulus (on Castac Creek); Kashtiik Tsawayung (on 
a branch of Castac Creek). 

Population.—The Alliklik together with the Serrano, Vanyume, and 
Kitanemuk, numbered 3,500 in 1770 and 150 in 1910. The census of 
1930 returned 361 southern California Shoshoneans. 


Atsugewi. Their own name or that which the Achomawi applied to 
them; significance unknown. 


Adwanuqdji, IIlmawi name. 
Hat Creek Indians, popular English name. 
Tcunofyana, Yana name. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 481 


Connections.—With the Achomawi, the Atsugewi constituted the 
Palaihnihan or eastern group of the Shastan- stock, more recently 
placed by Dixon and Kroeber (1919) in the Hokan family. 

Location—On Burney, Hat, and Dixie Valley or Horse Creeks. 


Subdivisions 


Kroeber (1925) gives: Apwarukei (Dixie Valley people), Hat Creek people 
(native name unknown), and Wamari’i (Burney Valley people). C. G. Merriam 
(1926) calls the Hat Creek people collectively At-soo-ka’-e (Atsugewi) and treats 
most of the Burney Valley Indians as part of the Atsugewi proper. 

Population.—Kroeber estimates that in 1770 there were 3,000 of 
the Atsugewi and the Achomawi together. The Shastan Indians 
numbered 844 in 1930. 


Bear River Indians. A body of Indians living along Bear River in 
the present Humboldt County for whom no suitable native name 
has been preserved. Also called: 


Ni’ekeni’, name they applied to themselves and to the Mattole. 


Connections —The Bear River Indians belonged to the Athapascan 
linguistic family, and were most closely connected with the Mattole, 
Sinkyone, and Nongatl tribes to the south and east. 

Location.—As given above. (See North Carolina for a tribe simi- 
larly named.) 

Villages 


From the mouth of Bear River inland as given by Nomland (1938): 


Tealko’, at the mouth of Bear River. 

Chilshéck, on the site of the present Capetown. 

Chilenché, near the present Morrison Ranch. 

Selsche’ech, on a site marked by a large red rock 3-4 miles above the last. 

Tlanko, above the preceding. 

Estakana, at Gear’s place, on the largest flat in the upper valley above Tlanko. 

Sehtla, about 7 miles above Capetown. 

Me’sseah, name for a natural amphitheater, the training place for shamans, 
about which lived a few families. 


Population.—Included with the Nongatl (q. v.). 1,129 were returned 
in the census of 1930. The United States Office of Indian Affairs 
reported 23 “Bear River” Indians in 1937. 

Cahuilla. A name perhaps of Spanish origin, but its significance is 
unknown. Also spelled Kawia. 

Connections.—The Cahuilla belonged to the southern California 
group of the Shoshonean division of the Uto-Aztecan stock. 

Location.—Mainly in the inland basin between the San Bernardino 
Range and the range extending southward from Mount San Jacinto. 


482 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuv. 145 


Subdivisions 


Desert Cahuilla, at northern end of the Colorado Desert. 
Mountain Cahuilla, in the mountains south of San Jacinto Peak. 
Western or Pass Cahuilla, centering in Palms Springs Canyon. 


Villages 


Duasno, on or near the Cahuilla Reservation. 

Juan Bautista, in San Bernardino County. 
Ekwawinet, at La Mesa, 2 miles south of Coachella. 
Kavinish, at Indian Wells. 

Cahuilla, on the Cahuilla Reservation. 

Kwaleki, in the San Jacinto Mountains. 

Lawilvan or Sivel, at Alamo. 

Malki, on the Potrero Reservation in Cahuilla Valley east of Banning. 
Pachawal, at San Ygnacio. 

Palseta, at Cabezon. 

Paltewat, at Indio in Cahuilla Valley. 

Panachsa, in the San Jacinto Mountains. 

Sechi, in Cahuilla Valley. 

Sokut Menyil, at Martinez. 

Sapela, at San Ygnacio. 

Temalwahish, at La Mesa. 

Torres, on Torres Reservation. 

Tova, at Agua Dulce. 

Wewutnowhu, at Santa Rosa. 


Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates 2,500 Cahuilla in 1770; in 
1910 there were about 800. (See Alliklik.) 

Connection in which their name has become noted.—The name Ca- 
huilla is preserved in that of a village called Kaweah in Tulare County. 


Chemehuevi. The Yuman name for this tribe and for the Paiute; 
significance unknown. Also called: 
Ah’alakat, Pima name, meaning “‘small bows.” 


Mat-hat-e-vdtch, Yuma name, meaning ‘“northerners.”’ 
Ta’n-ta’wats, own name, meaning “southern men.” 


Connections.—The Chemehuevi were a part of the true Paiute and 
were associated with them and the Ute in one linguistic subdivision 
of the Shoshonean division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock. 

Location.—Anciently in the eastern half of the Mohave Desert. 
At a later date the Chemehueyi settled on Cottonwood Island, in 
Chemehuevi Valley, and at other points on Colorado River. 

Subdivisions 
(So far as known) 
Hokwaits, in Ivanpah Valley. 
Kauyaichits, location unknown. 


Mokwats, at the Kingston Mountains. 
Moviats, on Cottonwood Island. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 483 


Shivawach or Shivawats, in the Chemehuevi Valley, perhaps only the name of a 
locality. 
Tiimpisagavatsits or Timpashauwagotsits, in the Providence Mountains. 
Yagats, at Amargosa. 
Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates between 500 and 800 
Chemehuevi in ancient times. In 1910, 355 were returned of whom 
260 were in California. 


Chetco. The Chetco extended slightly across into northern California 
from its home in Oregon (q. v.). 


Chilula. An American rendering of Yurok Tsulu-la, ‘people of 

Tsulu,”’ the Bald Hills. 

Connections.—With the Hupa and Whilkut, the Chilula formed one 
group of the Athapascan linguistic stock. 

Location.—On or near lower Redwood Creek from near the inland 
edge of the heavy redwood belt to a few miles above Minor Creek. 


Villages 


The following are known and are given in order beginning with the one farthest 
down Redwood Creek: Howunakut, Noleding, Tlochime, Kingkyolai, Kingyu- 
kyomunga, Yisining’aikut, Tsinsilading, Tondinunding, Yinukanomitseding, 
Hontetlme, Tlocheke, Hlichuhwinauhwding, Kailuhwtahding, Kailuhwchengetld- 
ing, Sikingchwungmitahding, Kinahontahding, Misme, Kahustahding. 

Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates 500 to 600 Chilula before 
White contact. Now reduced to two or three families and a few 
persons incorporated with the Hupa. (See Bear River Indians.) 


Chimariko. From the native word chimar, “person.” Also called: 


Kwoshonipu, name probably given them by the Shasta of Salmon River. 
Meyemma, given by Gibbs (1853). 


Connections.—Originally considered a distinct stock, the Chimariko 
are now classed in the Hokan linguistic family. 

Location.—On the canyon of Trinity River from about the mouth 
of New River to Canyon Creek. 


Villages 


Chalitasum, at the junction of New and Trinity Rivers. 
Chichanma, at Taylor Flat. 

Himeakudji, at Big Creek. 

Hodinakchohoda, at Cedar Flat. 

Maidjasore, at Thomas. 

Paktunadji, at Patterson. 

Tsudamdadji, at Burnt Ranch. 


Population.—The Chimariko were estimated by Kroeber (1925) at 
250 in 1849; only a few mixed-bloods are now living. 


484 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 145 


Chumash. A term originally applied to the Santa Rosa islanders. 
Also called: 


Santa Barbara Indians, a popular name. 


Connections.—At first considered a distinct linguistic stock, the 
Chumash are now included in the larger Hokan family. 

Location.—The Chumash occupied the three northern islands of the 
Santa Barbara group, the coast from Malibu Canyon to Estero Bay, 
and extended inland to the range that divides the drainage of the great 
valley from the coast, except on the west where their frontier was the 
watershed between the Salinas and the Santa Maria and short coast 
streams, and on the east where some small fragments had spilled over 
into part of the most southerly drainage of the San Joaquin-Kern 
system. 

Subdivisions 


Barbarefio Chumash, on the coast from Point Conception nearly to Ventura 
River. 

Cuyama Chumash, in the valley of Cuyama River and the upper valley of the 
Santa Maria River. 

Emigdiano Chumash, beyond the coast range in the southernmost extremity of 
the great valley of California. 

Island Chumash, on San Miguel, Santa Rosa, and Santa Cruz Islands. 

Obispefio Chumash, on the coast from a point a little north of Santa Maria River 
to Salinan territory. 

Purisimefiio Chumash, on the coast between the lands of the Obispefio and Bar- 
barefio divisions. 

Santa Ynez Chumash, inland along Santa Ynez River between the Barbarefio and 
Cuyama divisions. 

Venturefio, on the coast from the Ventura River to the end of Chumash territory 
on the southeast and the drainage areas of Ventura River, Calleguas Creek, and 
most of that of Santa Clara River inland. 


Villages 


A’hwai (at Ojai). 

Ala-hulapun, at Santa Ynez Mission. 

Alka’ash, on the coast west of Santa Barbara. 
Alpincha, at Santa Barbara. 

Alwatalam, in the Goleta marsh. 

Amolomol, on the coast close to Santa Barbara. 
Amuwu, at Mission Purisima near Santa Ynez River. 
Anawupu, on a small stream emptying into the Pacific at Gaviota. 
Antap, near Ventura. 

Awawilashmu, near the Cafiada del Refugio. 
Chikachkach, at the mouth of Ventura River. 
Ch’oloshush, at the west end of Santa Cruz Island. 
Ch’iishii, on the north shore of Santa Cruz Island. 
Chwayiik, on the coast west of Ventura River. 
Elhelel, on the coast east of Santa Barbara. 

Elhiman, in the Goleta marsh. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 485 


Hahas, on the north shore of Santa Cruz Island toward the east end. 

Hanawani, on the south shore of Santa Cruz I[sland. 

Halam, on Jalama Creek near the coast. 

Hanaya, northeast of Santa Barbara Mission. 

Heliok, on the coast southwest of Goleta. 

Helo, on the coast south of Goleta. 

Hipuk, inland on Maliba Creek. 

Honmoyanshu, near Ventura. 

Ho’ya or Huya, said to have been the name of a village on Santa Cruz Island. 

Humkaka, at Point Conception. 

Ishwa, at the mouth of Santa Clara River. 

Kachyoyukuch, near Ventura. 

K’ahii, on the coast between Cafiada del Refugio and Dos Pueblos Canyon. 

Kamupau, inland on San Emigdio Creek. 

Kashiwe, inland northeast of Santa Susana. 

Kashwa, northeast of Santa Barbara Mission. 

Kasil, at the mouth of Cafiada del Refugio. 

Katstayiit, on the coast west of Gaviota. 

Kayewiish, inland on Calleguas Creek. 

Kichiiwiin, on the northeast coast of Santa Rosa Island. 

Kinapuich’, near Ventura. 

Kohso, a short distance inland from the mouth of Ventura River. 

Kolok, at Carpinteria. 

K’shiuk’shiu, on the northeast coast of Santa Rosa Island. 

Kulalama, near Santa Barbara Mission. 

Kuyamu, near the mouth of Dos Pueblos Canyon. 

L’aka’amu, on the north coast of Santa Cruz Island near its west end. 

L’alalii, on the north coast of Santa Cruz Island. 

Lapau, on the Cafiada de los Uvas north of Old Fort Tejon. 

Liyam, on the south shore of Santa Cruz Island. 

Lu’upsh, near the east end of Santa Cruz Island. 

Mahalal, at San Cayetano. 

Mah’aubh, inland near the middle course of Calleguas Creek. 

Maliwu, at the mouth of Maliba Creek. 

Mashch’al, on the east coast of Santa Cruz Island. 

Masuwiik, near Los Alamos. 

Ma’tilha, inland on Matilija Creek. 

Mich’iyu, on the coast east of Gaviota. 

Mikiw, at the mouth of Dos Pueblos Canyon. 

Mishopshno (near Carpinteria), near Santa Ynez River above Cachuma Creek. 

Mishtapalwa, near Ventura. 

Mismatuk, in Arroyo Burro near Santa Barbara Mission. 

Mispu, on the coast southwest of Santa Barbara. 

Mitskanakan, at Ventura Misslon. 

Nupu, at Santa Paula. 

Nushiim, on the coast between Ventura Mission and Carpinteria. 

Muwu, on the coast near the mouth of Calleguas Creek. 

Nahayalewa, on the headwaters of Santa Ynez River northwest of Chismahoo 
Mountain. 

Nawani, on the west coast of Santa Rosa Island. 

Niakla, on the north coast of Santa Rosa Island. 

Nila’lhuyu, on the south coast of Santa Rosa Island. 

Nimalala, on the north coast of Santa Cruz Island. 


486 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Buu. 145 


Nimkiilkiil, on the north coast and near the west end of Santa Rosa Island. 
Onohwi, on Nojoqui Creek, a branch of Santa Ynez River. 
Onomyo, at Gaviota. 

Sahpilil, on the coast southwest of Goleta. 

Salnobalkaisikw, a short distance west of Ojai. 

Sati’k’oi, at Saticoy on Santa Clara River. 

Sek’spe, at Sespe. 

Shalawa, on the coast north of Santa Barbara. 

Shawa, on the west coast of Santa Cruz Island. 

Shimiyi, at Simi on Calleguas Creek. 

Shisholop, on the coast near Point Conception. 

Shisholop, a second town of the name at Ventura Mission. 
Shishwashkui, on the coast south of Rincon Creek. 

Shtekolo, at the Cienega near Santa Barbara Mission. 

Shuku, at the mouth of Rincon Creek. 

Shushuchi, on the coast west of the Cafiada del Refugio. 
Shuwalashu, on the coast at the lower end of Sycamore Canyon. 
Siliwihi, on the north coast of Santa Rosa Island. 

Simo’mo, at the mouth of Calleguas Creek. 

Sis’a, on Sisar Canyon northwest of Santa Paula. 

Sitoptopo, inland northeast of Ojai. 

Siuhtun, at Santa Barbara Mission. 

Skonon, in Arroyo Burro near Santa Barbara Mission. 
S’ohmiis, inland on the middle course of Calleguas Creek. 
Swahiil, at the eastern point of Santa Cruz Island. 

Swetete, on the coast east of Santa Barbara. 

Ta’apu, inland north of Santa Susana. 

Takuyo, inland on Tecuya Creek, northwest of old Fort Tejon. 
Tashlipunau, inland on San Emigdio Creek north of San Emigdio Mountains. 
Teneknes, at Carpinteria. 

Tenenam, near Santa Barbara Mission. 

Tokin, near Santa Barbara Mission. 

Tuhmu’l, on the coast east of Gaviota. 

Upop, near Point Conception. 

Ushtahash, inland northwest of Santa Barbara Mission. 
Wene’me, at Hueneme. 

Wichachet, on the coast east of the mouth of Calleguas Creek. 


Cabrillo’s sixteenth century relation gives the names of a number of villages, 
part of which Kroeber (1925) has been able to identify, at least with a fair degree 
of probability, while some are evidently duplications. Eliminating the. duplica- 
tions, we have the following additional village names: 


Aguin. Nacbuc (or Anacbuc). 
Anacot. Nocos. 

Asimu. Olesino. 

Bis. Opia (or Opistopia). 


Caacat (or Caacac), though this last Potoltuc (Paltate, Partocac, or Pal- 
may be a synonym for Ciucut  tocac). 


(Siuhtun). Quiman. 
Gua (or Quannegua). Sopono (Misesopono, or Garomisopona). 
Maquinanoa. Xotococ. 


Misinagua. Yutum. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 487 


Population—The number of Chumash has been estimated by 
Kroeber (1925) at 10,000 in 1770; at the present time a mere remnant 
is left, given as 38 in the census of 1910 and 14 in that of 1930. 


Costanoan. From Spanish Costafios, ‘‘coast people.’’ Also called: 
Mutsun, Gatschet extended this term over these and other peoples. 


Connections.—The Costanoan formed one division of the Penutian 


linguistic stock. 
Location.—On the coast between San Francisco Bay and Point Sur, 
and inland probably to the Mount Diablo Range. 


Subdivisions 


Monterey Costanoan, from Pajaro River to Point Sur and the lower courses of the 
latter stream and Salinas and Carmel Rivers. 

Saclan Costanoan, between San Francisco and San Pablo Bays. 

San Francisco Costanoan, between San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean. 

San Juan Bautista Costanoan, along San Benito River and San Felipe Creek. 

Santa Clara Costanoan, on Coyote and Calaveras Creeks. 

Santa Cruz Costanoan, on the coast between Pescadero and Pajaro River. 

Soledad Costanoan, on the middle course of Salinas River. 


Villages 


As far as Kroeber has been able to locate them, they are as follows: 
Ahala-n, south of Martinez. 
Altah-mo, on the west shore of San Francisco Bay. 
Aulin-tak, on the coast close to Santa Cruz Mission. 
Ausai-ma, on San Felipe Creek. 
Awas-te, near San Francisco. 
Chatu-mu, near Santa Cruz Mission. 
Hotochtak, just west of the preceding. 
Huchiu-n, northeast of Oakland. 
Huime-n, near San Pablo. 
Huris-tak, at the junction of San Felipe and San Benito Creeks. 
Imuna-kan, northeast of Salinas. 
Kakon-ta-ruk, near Point Sur. 
Kalinta-ruk, at the mouth of Salinas River. 
Kino-te, inland south of San Francisco Bay. 
Matala-n, inland south of San Francisco Bay. 
Mus-tuk, inland east of the mouth of Salinas River. 
Mutsu-n, at San Juan Bautista Mission. 
Olho-n, south of San Francisco. 
Orbiso-n, at San Jose Mission. 
Paisi-n, on San Benito River. 
Posol-mi, near the south end of San Francisco Bay. 
Romano-n, south of San Francisco. 
Rumse-n, on Carmel River. 
Saho-n, on Salinas River south of Salinas. 
Sakla-n, south of Martinez. 
Salso-n, at San Mateo. 
Sirhin-ta-ruk, on the coast north of Point Sur. 


488 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Sokel, at Aptos, east of Santa Cruz. 

Tamie-n, on Coyote River near Santa Clara Mission. 
Tamo-tk, near Monterey. 

Tulo-mo, south of San Francisco. 

Ulis-tak, on Coyote River north of Santa Clara Mission. 
Urebure, near the west shore of San Francisco Bay. 
Wacharo-n, near Soledad Mission on Salinas River. 
Werwerse-n, inland east of San José. 

Wolwo-n, inland northwest of Mt. Diablo. 


Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates that there were about 7,000 
Costanoan in 1770. Today there are only a few mixed-blood descend- 
ants remaining. The census of 1910 returned 10; that of 1930, none. 


Cupefio. From Kupa, the name of one of their towns. 
Connections.—The Cupenio spoke a dialect belonging to the Luiseiio- 
Cahuilla branch of the Shoshonean division of the Uto-Aztecan 
linguistic stock. 
Location.—A mountainous district on the headwaters of San Luis 
Rey River, not over 10 by 5 miles in extent. 


Villages 


Kupa, near the famous hot springs of Warner’s Ranch. 
Wilakal, at San Ysidro. 


Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates not over 500 in 1770, and in 
1910, 150. (See Alliklik.) 


Dakubetede. An Athapascan tribe of Oregon which extended 
slightly beyond the northern border of California. (See Oregon.) 


Dieguefio. Derived from the name of the Mission of San Diego. 

Connections.—The Dieguefio belonged to the Central division of the 
Yuman linguistic group, being most closely connected with the Kamia 
and Kiliwa, but that is reckoned a branch of the Hokan stock. 


Subdivisions 


Northern Dieguejio, in the eastern part of San Diego County and extending 
an indefinite distance southward into the Mexican State of Baja California, 
Southern Dieguefio, in the modern districts of Campo, La Posta, Manzanita, 

Guyapipe, and La Laguna, and some territory in Baja California. 


Villages 
Aha-hakaik, at La Laguna. 
Akmukatikatl, inland on San Dieguito River. 
Ahta (‘cane’) or Hapawu, at Carrizo. 
Ahwat, in Baja California. 
Amai’-tu, at La Posta. 
Amat-kwa’-ahwat, on the stream anove Campo. 
Amotaretuwe, inland between San Diego and Sweetwater Rivers. 
Anyaha, at the headwaters of San Diego River. 


SWANTON] ‘INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 489 


Atlkwanen, on the head of San Dieguito River. 
Awaskal, location unknown. 

Ekwiamak, on the head of Sweetwater River. 
Emitl-kwatai, at Campo. 

Ewiapaip, at Guyapipe. 

Hakum, in or near Jacumba Pass. 

Hakutl, south of San Marcos Creek. 

Hamacha, on the middle course of Sweetwater River. 
Hamul, at the head of Otay River. 

Hanwi, location uncertain. 

Hapai, south of San Dieguito River. 

Hasasei, location uncertain. 

Hasumel, location uncertain. 

Hata’am, location uncertain. 

Hawai, location uncertain. 

Hawi, at Vallecitos. 

Inomasi, location uncertain. 

Inyahkai, at La Laguna. 

Kamachal, location uncertian. 

Kohwat, location uncertain. 

Kokwitl, location uncertain. 

Kosmit, at the head of San Diego River. 

Kosoi, at San Diego. 

Kwalhwut, location uncertain. 

Kulaumai, on the coast near the mouth of San Dieguito River. 
Kwatai, at the head of Cottonwood Creek. 

Maktati, location uncertain. 

Maramoido, location uncertain. 

Mat-ahwat-is, location uncertain. 

Matamo, location uncertain. 

Met-hwai, southwest of San Ysidro Mountain. 

Meti, location uncertain. 

Mitltekwanak, on San Felipe Creek and the head of San Dieguito River. 
Netlmol, location uncertain. 

Nipawai, on lower San Diego River. 

Otai, about Otai Mountain. 

Pamo, between the heads of San Dieguito and San Diego Rivers. 
Paulpa, at the north end of San Diego Bay. 

Pauwai, inland between San Dieguito and San Diego Rivers. 
Pokol, location uncertain. 

Pu-shuyi, inland east of San Diego. 

Sekwan, on the middle course of Sweetwater River. 
Setmunumin, southeast of Mesa Grande. 

Shana, location uncertain. 

Sinyau-pichkara, on the middle course of San Dieguito River. 
Sinyau-tehwir, at the head of San Diego River. 
Sinyeweche, northeast of San Diego. 

Suapai, location uncertain. 

Tapanke, location uncertain. 

Tawi, west of San Ysidro Mountain. 

Tlokwih, near North Peak. 

Totakamalam, at Point Loma. 

Tukumak, at Mesa Grande. 


490 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Wemura, location uncertain. 
Witlimak, on a head branch of San Diego River. 

Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates 3,000 Dieguefio and Kamia 
together in 1770; in 1925, between 700 and 800. The census of 1930 
gave 322. 


Esselen. Probably the name of a village; significance unknown. 

Connections.—Originally given the status of a distinct stock, the 
Esselen are now placed in the Hokan linguistic family, their affinities 
being rather with the Yuman division, to the south, and with the 
Pomo, Yana, and other groups to the north than with their closer 
neighbors of this stock, the Salinan and Chumash tribes. 

Location.—On the upper course of Carmel River, Sur River, and 
the coast from Point Lopez almost to Point Sur. 


Villages 


Echilat, 12 miles southeast of Mission Carmelo. 
Ekheya, in the mountains. 

Ensen, at Buena Esperanza. 

Ichenta, at San José. 

Pachhepes, near the next. 

Xaseum, in the sierra. 


Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates 500 Esselen in 1770; they 
are now extinct. 


Fernandefio. So-called from San Fernando, the name of one of the 
two Franciscan missions in Los Angeles County. 
Connections.—The nearest relatives of the Fernandefio were the 

Gabrielino and both belonged to the California section of the Sho- 

shonean Division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock. 

Location.—In that part of the valley of Los Angeles River above 

Los Angeles. 

Villages 

Hahamo, north of Los Angeles. 

Kawe, northwest of Los Angeles. 

Mau, north of Los Angeles. 

Pasek, at San Francisco Mission. 

Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates that, with the Gabrielino 
and Nicolefio, the Fernandefio numbered 5,000 in 1770; they are 
now practically extinct. 


Gabrielino. Derived from San Gabriel, one of the two missions in 
Los Angeles County. Also called: 
Kizh, reported by Gatschet (1876); Hale (1846) has Kij. 
Playsanos, a name which seems to be applied to the California Shoshoneans 
living in the lowlands, especially near the coast in the region of Los 
Angeles. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 49] 


Tobikhars, said to mean “settlers,” but probably from Tobohar, the 
mythical first man. 
Tumangamalum, Luisefio name. 


Connections.—The nearest connections of the Gabrielino were the 
Fernandefio; both belonged to the California branch of the Shoshonean 
Division of the Uto-Aztecan stock. 

Location.—In the drainage area of the San Gabriel River, the 
territory about Los Angeles, and all the country southward to include 
half of Orange County, also Santa Catalina Island and probably 
San Clemente. 

Villages 


Ahau, near Los Angeles River north of Long Beach. 
Akura, near San Gabriel Mission. 

Akura-nga, at La Presa. 

Aleupki-nga, at Santa Anita. 

Apachia, just east of Los Angeles. 

Asuksa, west of Azusa. 

Awi, between Pomona and the San Gabriel River. 
Chokish-nga, at Jaboneria. 

Chowi, near San Pedro. 

Engva, near Redondo. 

Hout, south of San Gabriel Mission. 

Hutuk, inland on Santa Ana River. 

Isantka-nga, at Mission Vieja. 

Kinki or Kinkipar, on San Clemente Island. 

Kukamo, southwest of Cucamonga Peak. 

Lukup, near the mouth of Santa Ana River. 

Masau, on the coast near San Pedro. 

Moyo, on the coast south of the mouth of Santa Ana River. 
Nakau-nga, at Carpenter’s. 

Pahav, southeast of Corona. 

Pasino, southeast of Pomona. 

Pimoka-nga, at Rancho de los Ybarras. 

Pimu or Pipimar, on Santa Catalina Island. 

Pubu, inland on San Gabriel River, east of Long Beach. 
Saan, on the coast south of Santa Monica. 

Sehat, inland near the middle course of San Gabriel River. 
Shua, near Long Beach. 

Siba, at San Gabriel Mission. 

Sisitkan-nga, at Pear Orchard. 

Sona-nga, at White’s. 

Sua-nga, near Long Beach. 

Tibaha, north of Long Beach between Los Angeles and San Gabriel Rivers. 
Toibi, at Pomona. 

Wenot, at Los Angeles. 


Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates 5,000 Gabrielino, Fernan- 
defio, and Nicolefio in 1770; they are now practically extinct. 


492 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Halchidhoma. On the middle Colorado. (See Arizona.) 


Huchnom. The name applied to this tribe by the Yuki and appar- 
ently by themselves; said to signify “‘mountain people.’’ Also called: 


Redwoods, a popular name. 
Ta’-tu, by the Pomo of Potter Valley. 


Connection.—The Huchnom belonged to the Yukian linguistic 
stock, though resembling the Pomo somewhat more closely in culture. 

Location.—In the valley of South Eel River from Hullville nearly to 
its mouth, together with the valley of its affluent, Tomki Creek, and 
the lower course of the stream known as Deep or Outlet Creek. 


Villages 


Ba’awel, name in Pomo; on South Eel River a couple of miles from Ukumna (q. v.). 
Hatupoka, on Tomki Creek below the village of Pukemul. 
Komohmemut-kuyuk, on South Eel River between Lilko’ol and Mumemel. 
Lilko’ol, on South Eel River between Ba’awel and the preceding. 
Mot, on South Eel River between Yek and Mupan. 
Mot-kuyuk, on South Eel River at the mouth of Tomki Creek. 
Mumemel, on South Eel River just below the forks at Hullville. 
Mupan, on South Eel River between Mot and Mot-kuyuk. 
Nonhohou, on South Eel River between Shipomul and Yek. 
Pukemul, on Tomki Creek above the village of Hatupoka. 
Shipomul, on South Eel River at the mouth of Outlet Creek. 
Ukumna, near the head of the eastern source of Russian River. 
Yek, on South Eel River between Nonhohou and Mot. 
There is one village of uncertain name and possibly Yuki on the headwaters of 
the South Fork of Eel River. 


Population.—The Huchnom were estimated at 500 in 1770 by 
Kroeber (1925); the census of 1910 returned 7 full-bloods and 8 half- 
breeds. (See Yuki.) 


Hupa. Derived from the Yurok name of the valley, Hupo. Also 
called: 
Cha’parahihu, Shasta name. 
Hich’hu, Chimariko name. 
Kishakevira, Karok name. 
Nabiltse, given by Gibbs (1877) and translated “man.” 
Natinnoh-hoi, own name, after Natinnoh, ‘‘Trinity River.” 
Num-ee-muss, Yurok name. 
Trinity Indians, translation of their own name. 


Connections.—The Hupa belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
stock, forming one closely knit linguistic group with the Chilula and 
Whilkut. 

Location.—On the middle course of the Trinity River and its 
branches, particularly a beautiful stretch of 8 miles known as Hupa 
(or Hoopa) Valley, and on New River. C. H. Merriam (1926) treats 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 493 


these latter as a distinct tribe of Shastan affinities, but J. P. Harrington 
(personal information) states that they were Hupa. 


Villages 


Aheltah, name perhaps Yurok; said to be in the upper part of Hupa territory. 

Cheindekotding, on the west bank of Trinity River between Kinchuhwikut and 
Miskut. 

Dakis-hankut, on the west bank of Trinity River between Honsading and Kin- 
chuhwikut. 

Djishtangading, on the east bank of Trinity River between Howunkut and 
Haslinding. 

Haslinding, in the “Sugar Bowl’ above Hupa Valley. 

Honsading, the village farthest down Trinity River and on the east bank. . 

Howunkut, on the west side of Trinity River between Medilding and Djishtan- 
gading. 

Kachwunding, on Trinity River near the mouth of Willow Creek. 

’Kek-kah’-na-tung, at Martha Ziegler’s place on the lower part of New River. 

Kinchuhwikut, on the east bank of Trinity River between Dakishankut and 
Cheindekotding. 

Ki-oo°>-wet-tung, at Sally Noble’s place on New River, about a quarter of a mile 
below the mouth of Panther Creek. 

Klo-neg-tung, at the present site of Quinby on New River. 

Medilding, on the east bank of Trinity River between Totltsasding and Howunkut. 

Me-yemma, possibly belonging to this tribe, but more likely Chimariko, on 
Trinity River just below the mouth of New River. 

Mingkutme, on Trinity River near the mouth of Willow Creek. 

Miskut, on the east bank of Trinity River between Cheindekotding and Taki- 
mitlding. 

Sehachpaya, the name perhaps Yurok; said to have been in the upper part of 
the Hupa territory. 

Sokeakeit, ibid. 

Takimitlding, on the east bank of Trinity River between Miskut and Tsewen- 
alding. 

Tashuanta, the name perhaps Yurok; said to have been in the upper part of the 
Hupa territory. 

Tlelding, at the forks of the Trinity River. 

Tlokame, a subsidiary settlement of the preceding, 5 miles up the South Fork 
of Trinity River. 

Totltsasding, on the west bank of Trinity River between the preceding and 
Medilding. 

Tsa-nah’-ning-ah’-tung, on the bar or flat at New River Forks, at the junction of 
East Fork with main New River. 

Tsewenalding, on the east bank of Trinity River between Takimitlding and 
Totltsasding. 

Waugullewatl, the name perhaps Yurok; said to have been in the upper part of 
the Hupa territory. 


Population.—Kroeber (1925) places the number of Hupa at 1,000 
in 1770; the census of 1910 returned 500. In 1937 the United States 
Office of Indian Affairs returned 575. (See Bear River Indians.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—A village in Humboldt 
County, preserves the name of the Hupa. 


494 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLw. 145 


Juanefio. Derived from the mission of San Juan Capistrano. Also 
called: 


Gaitchim, given by Gatschet (1876). 
Netela, given by Hale (1846), meaning ‘‘my language.” 

Connections.—The Juanefio belonged to the Shoshonean branch of 
the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, their speech being a variant of 
Luisefio. 

Location.—From the Pacific Ocean to the crest of the southern 
continuation of the Sierra Santa Ana. Southward, toward the Lui- 
sefio, the boundary ran between the San Onofre and Las Pulgas; on 
the north, toward the Gabrielino, it is said to have followed Alisos 


Creek. 
Villages 


Ahachmai, on the lower course of San Juan Creek below the mission of San Juan 
Capistrano. 

Alona, north of the Mission of San Juan Capistrano. 

Hechmai, near the coast south of Arroyo San Onofre. 

Humai, on the middle course of San Juan Creek. 

Palasakeuna, at the head of Arroyo San Mateo. 

Panhe, near the mouth of Arroyo San Mateo. 

Piwiva, on San Juan Creek above San Juan Capistrano. 

Pu-tuid-em, near the coast between San Juan and Aliso Creeks. 


Population.—The Juanejio were estimated by Kroeber (1925) at 
1,000 in 1770; the census of 1910 returned 16. (See Alliklik.) 


Kamia. From their own term Kamiyai or Kamiyahi, which they 
applied also to the Dieguefio. Also called: 
Comeya, common synonym used by Bartlett in 1854 and adopted in 
Handbook of American Indians (Hodge, 1907, 1910). 
I’-um O’-otam, Pima name for Kamia and Dieguejfio. 
New River Indians, from their location. 
Quemay4, so called by Garcés in 1775-76. 
Tipai, own name, also meaning ‘“‘person.” 
Yum, same as I’-um. 

Connections.—They belonged to the Yuman stock of Powell now 
considered a subdivision of the Hokan family, their closest affinities 
being with the eastern Dieguefio who were sometimes considered one 
tribe with themselves. 

Location.—In Imperial Valley, and on the banks of the sloughs 
connecting it with Colorado River. (See also México.) 


Villages 
There were no true villages. 


Population.—Gifford (1931) says there could not have been more 


than a few hundred Kamia in aboriginal times. Heintzelman (1857) 
gives 254 under the chief Fernando in 1849. (See Diegueiio.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 495 


Connection in which they have become noted.—Whatever notoriety 
the Kamia, an inconspicuous tribe, has attained is due entirely to the 
fame of their valley home. 

Karok. Properly Karuk, signifying in their own language “upstream,” 
but not used as a tribal designation. 


Ara, given by Gatschet (1890), signifying “man.” 

Ivap’i, Shasta name. 

Orleans Indians, a name sometimes locally used, especially downstream 
from the Karok territory. 

Petsikla, Yurok name, meaning ‘‘upstream.’”’ 


Connections.—Originally considered an independent stock, the 
Karok are now classsed in a much larger linguistic connection known 
as the Hokan family. Their closest relatives are the Chimariko and 
Shasta. 

Location.—On the middle course of Klamath River between the 
Yurok and Shasta and all of the branches of the Klamath except the 
upper course of Salmon River. 


Subdivisions 


The Karok were divided into the Upper Karok above Independence Creek 
and the Lower Klamath below that stream. 


Villages 


Aftaram, on Klamath River, probably above the mouth of Salmon River. 

Ahoeptimi, 10 to 12 miles above Ashipak (q. v.). 

Akoteli, a village or portion of a village near the mouth of Salmon River. 

Amaikiara, on the west side of Klamath River below a fall about a mile below the 
mouth of Salmon River. 

Aranimokw, Yurok name of a Lower Karok town on Klamath River. 

Ashanamkarak, at the fall just mentioned, and on the east side of Klamath 
River. 

Ashipak, on Klamath River a few miles above the mouth of Salmon River. 

Asisufunuk, at Happy Camp, at the mouth of Indian Creek. 

Aukni, Shasta name for a village above Happy Camp. 

Ayis, some distance above the mouth of Salmon River. 

Chamikininich, on the south or east bank of Klamath River in the Orleans district. 

Chiniki, on Klamath River below Camp Creek. 

Chinits, at Sims Ferry on Klamath River. 

Inam, at the mouth of Clear Creek. 

Inoftak, a village or section of a village near the mouth of Salmon River. 

Ishipishi, opposite Katimin, the Karok center of the world just above the mouth 
of Salmon River. 

Iwatak, a village or section of a village near the mouth of Salmon River. 

Katipiara, on the east bank of Klamath River above the flat at Orleans. 

Kaus, a village or section of a village near the mouth of Salmon River. 

Kumawer, Yurok name of a village above the mouth of Salmon River. 

Nupatsu, Shasta name of a village below Happy Camp. 

Oler, Yurok name of a village below Camp Creek. 


496 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ BULL. 145 


Panamenik, on the flat at Orleans. 

Sanipa, on Klamath River below Camp Creek. 

Segoashkwu, Yurok name of a village below Camp Creek. 

Shavuram or Sahwuram, on Klamath River above Tu’i. 

Tachanak, on the west bank of Klamath River at the mouth of Camp Creek. 

Ti, 10 to 12 miles above Ashipak. 

Tishrawa, a village or section of a village near the mouth of Salmon River. 

Tsofkaram or Tasofkaram, at Pearch on Klamath River. 

Tu’i, Yurok name of a village on Klamath River below Camp Creek. 

Unharik, a village or section of a village near the mouth of Salmon River. 

Ussini, Shasta name of a village at the mouth of China Creek. 

Wetsitsiko or Witsigo, Yurok name of a village in the Orleans district. 

Wopum, the Karok village farthest down Klamath River opposite Red Cap 
Creek. 

Yutuirup, a neighbor or suburb of Ishipishi (q. v.). 


Population.—The number of Karok were estimated by Kroeber 
(1925) at about 1,500 in 1770. In 1905, 576 were returned, and in 
1910, 775, but the latter figure is probably too high, though the census 
of 1930 returned 755. 


Kato. A Pomo place name meaning ‘‘lake.’”’ Also called: 


Batem-da-kai-ee, given by Gibbs (1853). 
Kai Po-mo, given by Powers (1877). 
Laleshiknom, Yuki name. 
Tlokeang, own name. 
Connections.—The Kato belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
stock, and spoke a dialect peculiar to themselves. 
Location.—On the uppermost course of the South Fork of Eel River. 


Villages 


There are said to have been nearly 50 of these, probably an overestimate, but 
none of their names are known. 

Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates 500 Kato in 1770; about 50 
persons, mostly full-bloods are still reckoned as Kato. (See Bear 
River Indians.) 


Kawaiisu. So-called by the Yokuts; the signification of the word is 
unknown. 

Connections.—The Kawaiisu belonged to the Shoshonean branch of 
the Uto-Aztecan linguistic family, and were a more immediate off- 
shoot, apparently, of the Chemehuevi. 

Location.—In the Tehachapi Mountains. 

Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates an aboriginal Kawaiisu 
population of perhaps 500 and a present (1925) population of nearly 
150. (See Alliklik.) 


Kitanemuk. Perhaps from the stem ki, “house,”’; other synonyms 
are Kikitanum, and Kikitamkar. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 497 


Connections.—The Kitanemuk belonged to the Shoshonean division 
of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock and to a subgroup which included 
also the Alliklik, Vanyume and Serrano. 

Location.—On upper Tejon and Paso Creeks, the streams on the 
rear side of the Tehachapi Mountains in the same vicinity and the 
small creeks draining the northern slope of the Liebre and Sawmill 
Range, with Antelope Valley and the westernmost end of the Mohave 
Desert. 

Villages 


The present principal Kitanemuk village is called Nakwalki-ve, and is situated 
where Tejon Creek breaks out of the hills. (Other names given do not seem 
unquestionably those of villages). 

Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates that in 1770 there were 
3,500 Serrano, Vanyume, Kitanemuk, and Alliklik, and that these 
were represented by about 150 in 1910. (See Alliklik.) 


Konomihu. Their own name, significance unknown. 
Connections.—The Konomihu was the most divergent of the Shastan 
group of tribes of the Hokan linguistic family. 
Location.—Territory centering about the forks of Salmon River. 


Villages 


The principal Konomihu village, called, apparently by the Karok, Shamnam, 
was between the forks of Salmon River in Siskiyou County, on the right side of 
the south branch just above the junction. 

Population.—Together with the Chimariko, New River Shasta, and 
Okwanuchu, the Konomihu are estimated by Kroeber (1925) to have 
numbered about 1,000 in 1770; they are not now enumerated sepa- 
rately from the Shasta, of whom 844 were returned in 1930. 


Koso. Significance unknown. 


Ke-at, given by Gatschet (Wheeler Survey, p. 411, 1879). 
Panamint, name more often used. 

Connections.—The Koso formed the westernmost extension of the 
Shoshoni-Comanche branch of the Shoshonean division of the Uto- 
Aztecan linguistic stock. 

Location.—On a barren tract of land in the southeastern part of 
the State between the Sierra and the State of Nevada, and including 
Owens Lake, the Coso, Argus, Panamint, and Funeral Mountains and 
the intervening valleys. 

Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates an aboriginal Koso popula- 
tion of not over 500; since 1880 they have been placed at about 100 
to 150. 


498 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Lassik. The name derived from that of a chief. 

Connections.—The Lassik belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
family and were connected very closely with the Nongatl, who lay 
just to the north. 

Location.—On a stretch of Eel River, from a few miles above the 
mouth of the South Fork not quite to Kekawaka Creek; also Dobbins 
Creek, an eastern affluent of the main stream, and Soldier Basin at 
the head of the North Fork; to the east they extended to the head 
of Mad River. 

Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates that in 1770, along with the 
Nongatl and Sinkyone, the Lassik numbered 2,000, and in 1910, 100. 
(See Alliklik.) 


Luisefio. From the name of the Mission of San Luis Rey de Francia. 
Also called: 


Ghecham or IChecham, from the native name of San Luis Rey Mission. 


Connections.—The Luisefio belonged to the Shoshonean division of 
the Uto-Aztecan linguistic family. 

Location.—In the southwest part of the state from the coast toward 
but wholly west of the divide that extends south from Mount San 
Jacinto; bounded northward by the cognate Juanefio, Gabrielino, and 
Serrano and south by the Dieguefio. 


Villages 


Ahuya, near the upper course of San Luis Rey River. 

Akipa, near Kahpa. 

Alapi, south of the middle course of the San Luis Rey River. 

Awa’, on a head branch of Santa Margarita River. 

Hurumpa, west of Riverside. 

Huyulkum, on the upper course of San Luis Rey River. 

Ikaimai, near San Luis Rey Mission. 

Kahpa, on the middle course of San Luis Rey River. 

Katukto, between Santa Margarita and San Luis Rey Rivers, north of San Luis 
Rey. 

Keish, south of San Luis Rey Mission. 

Keweyu, on the upper course of San Luis Rey River. 

Kolo, near the upper course of San Luis Rey River. 

Kuka, on the upper course of San Luis Rey River. 

Kwalam, on the lower course of San Luis Rey River. 

Malamai, northeast of Pala. 

Meha, on Santa Margarita River northwest of Temecula. 

Mehel-om-pom-pauvo, near Escondido. 

Ngorivo, near the headwaters of San Luis Rey River. 

Pa’auw, near Ta’i. 

Paiahche, on Elsinore Lake. 

Pala, at Pala. 

Palamai, on the coast between Buena Vista and Agua Hedionda Creeks. 

Panakare, north of Escondido. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 499 


Pashkwo, near the headwaters of San Luis Rey River. 
Paumo, east of Pala. 

Pu-chorivo, on the upper course of San Luis Rey River. 
Saumai, south of the middle course of San Luis Rey River. 
Shakishmai (Luisefio or Dieguefio), on the boundary line between the two peoples. 
Shikapa, west of Escondido. 

Sovovo, east of San Jacinto. 

Taghanashpa, east of Pala. 

Takwi, at the head of Santa Margarita River. 
Takwishpo-shapila, near Palomar Mountain. 

Ta’i, close to Palomar Mountain. 

Tapomai, north of Katukto. 

Temeku, east of Temecula. 

Tomkavy, west of Pala. 

Ushmai, near the mouth of Santa Margarita River. 
Wahaumai, on San Luis Rey River above San Luis Rey. 
Wiawio, at the mouth of San Luis Rey River. 

Wissamai, east of San Luis Rey. 

Wosbha, near the upper course of San Luis Rey River. 
Yami, near Huyulkum. 


Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates 4,000 to be a liberally 
allowed maximum for the Luisefio in 1770. The United States Indian 
Office returned over 2,500 in 1856; 1,300 in 1870; 1,150 in 1885; and 
in recent returns, less than 500. (See Alliklik.) 


Maidu. A native term meaning “‘person.’”’ Also called: 
Wawiah, Paiute name for all Sacramento River tribes. 
Connections.—Formerly considered an independent stock, the 
Maidu have now been placed in the Penutian linguistic family. 
Location.—In the drainage areas of the Feather and American 


Rivers. 
Subdivisions 


The Maidu are divided, mainly on dialectic grounds, into the Nishinam or 
Southern Maidu (holding the whole of the American drainage plus that of the 
Bear and Yuba Rivers), the Northeastern Maidu (on the upper reaches of the 
North and Middle Forks of Feather River), and the Northwestern Maidu (below 
the high Sierra, part in the foothills where the South, Middle, North, and West 
Branches of Feather River converge, and on upper Butte and Chico Creeks and 
part in the open Sacramento Valley along the lower courses of the same streams). 


Villages 
Southern Division: 
Bamo, southwest of Placerville. 
Bushamul, on Bear River below the foothills. 
Chapa, between the South and Middle Forks of American River. 
Chikimisi, on a branch of the North Fork of Cosumnes River. 
Chuemdu, on Bear River below the foothills. 
Ekele-pakan, west of Placerville. 
Helto, on an east branch of Feather River. 
Hembem, on the North Fork of American River. 


500 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu 145 


Homiting, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Honkut, on Feather River north of Marysville. 

Hoko, on Feather River below Marysville. 

Indak, at Placerville. 

Intanto, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Kaluplo, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Kapaka, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Kolo-ma, on the South Fork of American River. 

Kulkumish, at Colfax. 

Kushna, on the South Fork of Yuba River. 

Lelikian, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Lidlipa, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Mimal, on Feather River just south of Marysville. 

Molma, at Auburn. 

Mulamchapa, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Okpa, on Feather River below Marysville. 

Ola, on the east bank of Sacramento River above the mouth of Feather River. 

Oncho-ma, south of Placerville. 

Opelto, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Opok, on the North Fork of Cosumnes River. 

Pakanchi, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Pan-pakan, on a south branch of Yuba River. 

Pitsokut, northwest of American River midway between Auburn and Sacra- 
mento. 

Pulakatu, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Pushuni, northeast of Sacramento. 

Seku-mni, on the lower course of American River. 

Shokumimlepi, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Shutamul, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Sisum, on Feather River below Marysville. 

Siwim-pakan, inland between the Middle and South Forks of American River. 

Solakiyu, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Taisida, southeast of Marysville. 

Talak, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Tomcha, on the east side of Feather River above Marysville. 

Tonimbutuk, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Toto, on an east branch of Feather River. 

Tsekankan, at Grass Valley. 

Tumeli, on the South Fork of American River northeast of Placerville. 

Usto-ma, east of Grass Valley. 

Wapumni, near the middle course of Cosumnes River. 

Wokodot, on a south branch of Yuba River northeast of Grass Valley. 

Woliyu, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Yalisu-mni, on the lower course of the South Fork of American River. 

Yamaki, near the junction of the South Fork of American River with the main 
stream. 

Yikulme, on Feather River above the junction of Bear River. 

Yodok, at the junction of the South Fork of American River with the main 
stream. 

Yokolimdu, on Bear River below the foothills. 

Yikili, on the lower course of the South Fork of American River. 

Yupu, close to Marysville. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 501 


Northeastern Division: 
Hopnom-koyo, on a north branch of Indian Creek. 
Ko-tasi, north of the middle course of Indian Creek. 
Nakangkoyo, on the headwaters of the North Fork of Feather River. 
Oidoing-koyo, on the headwaters of the North Fork of Indian Creek. 
Silong-koyo, at Quincy. 
Tasi-koyo, on the middle course of Indian Creek. 
Yota-moto, on the middle course of Indian Creek. 

Northwestern Division: 
Bahyu, on a west branch of the North Fork of Feather River. 
Bauka, on the west side of Feather River below Oroville. 
Bayu, on the west side of Feather River below Oroville. 
Benkiimkiimi, inland between the Middle and North Forks of Feather River. 
Botoko, on the west bank of Feather River below Oroville. 
Eskini, on a branch of Sacramento River southeast of Chico. 
Hoholto, near the lower course of the Middle Fork of Feather River. 
Hokomo, near the lower course of the Middle Fork of Feather River. 
Kalkalya, near the lower course of the Middle Fork of Feather River. 
Konkau, near the lower course of the North Fork of Feather River. 
Kulayapto, near the lower course of the Middle Fork of Feather River. 
Michopdo, southeast of Chico. 
Nim-sewi, northeast of Chico. 
Ololopa, west of Oroville. 
Otaki, northeast of Chico. 
Paki, north of Chico. 
Tadoiko, south of Chico. 
Taichida, on the west bank of Feather River below Oroville. 
Taikus, on a west branch of the North Fork of Feather River, near its lower 

course. 

Toto-ma, on the lower course of the North Fork of Feather River. 
Tsaktomo, at the junction of the Middle and South Forks of Feather River. 
Tsam-bahenom, near the lower course of the Middle Fork of Feather River. 
Tsuka, near the South Fork of Feather River. 
Tsulum-sewi, a considerable distance northeast of Chico. 
Yauku, northeast of Chico. 
Yuma, at Oroville. 
Yunu, east of Chico. 


Helto, Toto, Honkut, and Tomcha should perhaps be included in the last 
division instead of among the Nishinam. 

Inhabited sites not included among the above were Hoktem, Kiski, Kphes, 
Natoma, Tankum, Tsamak, Wesnak, and Willi. 


The following list of Northwestern Maidu “districts” or ‘‘tribelets’”’ was given 
to Dr. Kroeber by a Wintun half-breed, who had spent most of his life associated 
with the Chico Maidii: 


Shi’da-wi, between Sacramento River and lower Pine Creek. 

Muli, on the Sacramento between Pine and Chico Creeks. 

Ts’éno or Ch’é’no, on the west side of the river about opposite the mouth of Chico 
Creek. 

Su’’nisi, on the Sacramento from Chico Creek to the Llano Seco or Parrott grant 
about opposite Jacinto or a couple of miles above. 

Batsi’, near Jacinto, on the west side, opposite and perhaps including the Llano 
Seco grant. 


502 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 145 


Pi’nhuk, the principal settlement, at Butte City, of a tribelet covering a con- 
siderable extent of country. 

Micho’pdo, from Dayton to Chico east of Little Chico Creek. 

O’da-wi, from Chico City water tank to the foothills and from Edgar slough to 
Sandy Gulch. 

E’sken, from Durham to the foothills and Butte Creek to Clear Creek. 

Shi’udu, from Clear Creek to Feather River and from near Oroville to past Liveoak. 

Kiu‘lu, east of Shi’udu from Feather River toward the foothills about as far as 
the Oroville branch of the Southern Pacific Railroad and from Oroville inclu- 
sive south not quite to Marysville. 

Yu’pu, from the Southern Pacific bridge over the Feather River north of Marys- 
ville to about 2 miles south of the city and from a short distance west of the 
Feather to the foothills (this was a Nishinam village). 


Dr. Kroeber (1925) attempts to reconstruct the names of the Nishinam or 
Southern Maidu tribelets as follows: Following downstream: Yupu (at mouth of 
Yuba into Feather River), Kochuk or (and) Yokol-Liman-Hokok, Wolok or Ola 
(at efflux of Feather into Sacramento), Leuchi, Wijuna, Totola or Nawean, 
Pujune (on American River just above its mouth), Sek or Sekumne, Kadema and 
perhaps others up American River, Sama (below Sacramento city). This is 
incomplete. 


Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates that 9,000 Maidu about the 
year 1770 would be a liberal estimate; the census of 1910 returned 
1,100, and that of 1930 only 93. 


Mattole. Perhaps from the name of a village. Also called: 
Tul’bush, Wailaki name, meaning “foreigners.” 


Connections.—The Mattole constitute one of the primary divisions 
of those Indians of the Athapascan stock living in California. 

Location.—On Bear River and Mattole River drainages; also on a 
few miles of Eel River and its Van Dusen Fork immediately above 
the Wiyot. 

Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates that there were 500 Mattole 
in 1770; the census of 1910 returned 34, including 10 full-bloods. 
(See Bear River Indians.) 


Miwok. The native word signifying “‘people.”’ 

Connections.—Originally a distinct stock in the classificatory system 
of Powell, Miwok has now been made a subdivision of the Penutian 
linguistic family. 

Location.—The Miwok lived in three detached groups as follows: 
(1) The main body on the long western slope of the Sierra Nevada 
between Fresno and Cosumnes Rivers and in that part of the valley 
which is intersected by the winding arms of the deltas of the San 
Joaquin and the Sacramento; (2) the Coast Miwok from the Golden 
Gate north to Duncan’s Point and eastward to Sonoma Creek; and (3) 
the Lake Miwok in the basin of Clear Lake, including the drainage of 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 503 


two small streams flowing into the lowest mile or two of Clear Lake, 
and the southern bank of Cache Creek, the lake outlet, for a short 
distance beyond. 

Subdivisions 


Apart from the natural groups indicated above, the following dialectic subdivi- 
sions may be made out: 


The Lake Miwok, identical with the geographical group just described. 
The Bodega Miwok, about Bodega Bay in the coastal area. 
The Coast Miwok, occupying the rest of the coastal area. 
The Plains Miwok, in the deltas of the San Joaquin and Cosumnes Rivers. 
The Northern Miwok, in the upper valleys of Mokelumne and Calaveras Rivers. 
Central Miwok, in the upper valleys of the Stanislaus and Tuolumne. 
The Southern Miwok, along the headwaters of the Merced and Chowchilla and 
on Mariposa Creek. 
The Lake Miwok were furthermore subdivided into two, or possibly three, 
district or tribal groups: (1) about the present Lower Lake, (2) on the head- 
waters of Putah Creek, and perhaps (3) in Pope Valley. 


Villages 
Lake Miwok: 

Kado’ i’-yomi-pukut, Cookman Ranch, toward Lower Lake. 

Kai-yomi-pukut, in Pope Valley at the limit of Miwok territory. 

Kala’u-yomi, in Coyote Valley. 

Kawi-yomi, a town reported by Barrett (1908 b) on north frontier of Miwok, 
perhaps originally Pomo. 

Kilinyo-ke, at Eaton Ranch in Coyote Valley. 

Ki’tsin-pukut, Gamble, in Coyote Valley. 

Laka’h-yomi, on Weldon’s ranch a mile and a half from Middletown and on 
Putah Creek. 

La’lmak-pukut, at north end of Middletown. 

Ole’-yomi, on the Berry place in Coyote Valley on Putah Creek. 

Sha’‘Ishal-pukut and Shandk-yomi-pukut, at Asbill in Coyote Valley. 

Tsitsa-pukut, according to Barrett (1908 b), a site at the north end of Miwok 
territory but believed by Kroeber’s informants to have been occupied by 
Miwok only in late times. 

Ts6k-yomi-pukut or Shékomi, 3 miles below the store or town of Pope Valley. 

Tsu’keliwa-pukut, “at the new Siegler swimming resort.”’ 

Tu’bud or Tu’bul, on Asbill property toward Lower Lake. 

Tule’-yomi, 2-3 miles south of the American town of Lower Lake. 

Tumi’stumis-pukut, given by Barrett (1908 b). 

Wi'lok-yomi, near the present rancheria or reservation but may have been 
Wappo. 

Wodi'daitepi, in Jerusalem Valley. 

Yawi’-yomi-pukut, above Tsu’ keliwa-pukut in a canyon. 

Coast Miwok: 

Amayelle, on San Antonio Creek. 

Awachi, at the mouth of Estero Americano. 

Awani-wi, at San Rafael. 

Bauli-n, on Bolinas Bay. 

Chokeche, near Novato. 

Echa-kolum, on Tomales Bay south of Marshall. 


504 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu 145 


Echa-tamai, at Nicasio. 
Etem, at Petaluma. 
Ewapalt, near Valley Ford. 
Ewu, north of San Rafael. 
Helapattai, on Bodega Bay. 
Hime-takala, on Bodega Bay. 
Ho-takala, on Bodega Bay. 
Huchi, at Sonoma. 
Kennekono, at Bodega Corners. 
Kotati, at Cotati. 
Likatiut, on Petaluma River north of Petaluma. 
Liwanelowa, at Sausalito. 
Lumen-takala, northeast of Cotati. 
Meleya, on San Antonio Creek southwest of Petaluma. 
Olema-loke, at Olema. 
Olompolli, northwest of Novato. 
Oye-yomi, near Freestone. 
Pakahuwe, near Freestone. 
Patawa-yomi, near Freestone. 
Payinecha, west of Cotati. 
Petaluma, east of Petaluma River and the present Petaluma. 
Pulya-lakum, on the ocean near the mouth of Salmon Creek. 
Puyuku, south of Ignacio. 
Sakloki, opposite Tomales Point. 
Shotokmo-cha, southeast of Ignacio. 
Shotomko-wi, on Tomales Bay near the mouth of San Antonio Creek. 
Susuli, northwest of Petaluma. 
Suwutenne, north of Bodega Corners. 
Temblek, west of Sonoma. 
Tiwut-huya, on the coast outside of Bodega Bay. 
Tokau, cn Bodega Bay. 
Tuchayelin, northwest of Petaluma. 
Tuli, northwest of Sonoma. 
Tulme, northwest of Petaluma. 
Uli-yomi, at the head of Estero Americano. 
Utumia, near Tomales. 
Wotoki, on the south side of Petaluma River. 
Wugilwa, on Sonoma Creek. 
Valley Miwok: 
Plains Division: 
Chuyumkatat, on Cosumnes River. 
Hulpu-mni, on the east bank of Sacramento River below Sacramento. 
Lel-amni, on Mokelumne River. 
Lulimal, near Cosumnes River. 
Mayeman, on Cosumnes River. 
Mokel(-umni), on Mokelumne River. 
Mokos-umni, on Cosumnes River. 
Ochech-ak, on Jackson Creek. 
Sakayak-umni, on Mokelumne River. 
Sukididi, on Cosumnes River. 
Supu, on Cosumnes River. 
Tukui, on Cosumneg River. 
Umucha, near Cosumnes River. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 505 


Yomit, on Cosumnes River. 
Yumbui, near Cosumnes River. 
Northern Division: 

Apautawili, between Mokelumne and Calaveras Rivers. 

Chakane-sii, on Jackson Creek? 

Kechenii, at the head of Calaveras River. 

Heina, between Mokelumne River and the head of Calaveras River. 

Huta-sii, at San Andreas. 

Kaitimi, at the head of Calaveras River. 

Ketina, between Mokelumne and Calaveras Rivers. 

Kiiniisti, near Mokelumne River. 

Mona-sii, on the headwaters of Calaveras River. 

Noma, near the South Fork of Cosumnes River. 

Omo, near the South Fork of Cosumnes River. 

Penken-sii, inland south of Mokelumne River. 

Pola-sii, near Jackson. 

Seweu-sii, on Jackson Creek? 

Sopochi, between Mokelumne River and Jackson Creek. 

Tukupe-su, at Jackson. 

Tumuti, on the headwaters of Jackson Creek. 

Upiisiini, on Mokelumne River. 

Yule, south of Cosumne River. 

Yuloni, on Jackson Creek. 

Central Division: 

Akankau-nchi, two towns of the name, (1) near Sonora, (2) a considerable 
distance to the southwest. 

Akawila, between a branch of Tuolumne River and Stanislaus River. 

Akutanuka, northwest of Stanislaus River. 

Alakani, east of San Andreas. 

Chakachi-no, southwest of Sonora. 

Hangwite, on the South Fork of Stanislaus River. 

Hechhechi, on the headwaters of Tuolumne River. 

Hochhochmeti, on Tuolumne River. 

Humata, on a branch of Calaveras River. 

Hunga, northeast of Sonora. 

Kapanina, southwest of Sonora. 

Katuka, on a branch of Calaveras River. 

Kawinucha, near the North fork of Stanislaus River. 

Kesa, a short distance east of Sonora. 

Kewe-no, on Stanislaus River. 

Kosoimuno-nu, between Stanislaus River and San Andreas. 

Kotoplana, a short distance west of Sonora. 

Kulamu, on a branch of Tuolumne River. 

Kuluti, at Sonora. 

Loyowisa, near the junction of the Middle and South Forks of Stanislaus 
River. 

Newichu, between Stanislaus River and a head branch of Calaveras River. 

Olawiye, east of Sonora. 

Oloikoto, on Stanislaus River. 

Pangasema-nu, on a northern branch of Tuolumne River. 

Pasi-nu, on Tuolumne River southeast of Sonora. 

Pigliku (Miwok pronunciation of ‘“‘Big Creek’’), south of Tuolumne River. 

Pokto-no, a short distance west of Sonora. 


506 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Pota, a short distance northwest of Sonora. 

Sala, just south of Pigliku. 

Sasamu, almost due east of San Andreas. 

Shulaputi, just southeast of the preceding. 

Siksike-no, south of Sonora near Tuolumne River. 

Singawii-nu, at the head of a branch of Tuolumne River. 

Sopka-su, southwest of Sonora between Stanislaus and Tuolumne Rivers. 

Suchumumu, southwest of Sonora. 

Sukanola, southeast of Sonora. 

Sukwela, east of Sonora. 

Sutamasina, on the South Fork of Stanislaus River. 

Takema, on the Middle Fork of Stanislaus River. 

Telese-no, northeast of Sonora. 

Tel’ula, northeast of Sonora. 

Tipotoya, on Stanislaus River. 

Tulana-chi, on Stanislaus River. 

Tulsuna, between the South and Middle Forks of Stanislaus River. 

Tunuk-chi, northeast of Sonora. 

Tuyiwii-nu, on Stanislaus River. 

Waka-che, southwest of and near Sonora. 

Wokachet, on the South Fork of Stanislaus River. 

Wolanga-su, south of the junction between the South and Middle Forks of 
Stanislaus River. 

Wiiyii, on. Stanislaus River. 

Yungakatok, near the junction of the North and Middle Forks of Stanislaus 
River. 

Southern Division: 

Alaula-chi, on Merced River. 

Angisawepa, on Merced River. 

Awal, on Merced River. 

Awani, close to Yosemite. 

Hikena, on Merced River. 

Kakahula-chi, on Merced River. 

Kasumati, near Mariposa. 

Kitiwana, on Merced River. 

Kuyuka-chi, on Merced River. 

Nochu-chi, near Mariposa. 

Nowach, on the headwaters of Chowchilla River. 

Olwia, on the headwaters of Chowchilla River. 

Owelinhatibii, on Merced River. 

Palachan, on a southern branch of Merced River. 

Sayangasi, between the middle courses of Merced and Tuolumne Rivers. 

Siso-chi, on Merced River. 

Sope-nchi, on a northern branch of Merced River. 

Sotpok, on a southern branch of Merced River. 

Wasema, near the head of Fresno River. 

Wehilto, on the upper waters of Fresno River. 

Wilito, on Merced River. 

Yawoka-chi, on Merced River. 


Many other village names have been recorded, but the above list contains all 
those which are well authenticated independent settlements. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 507 


Population Kroeber (1925) estimates that in 1770 there were 
about 500 Lake Miwok, 1,500 Coast Miwok, and 9,000 Plains and 
Sierra Miwok, bringing the total to 11,000. The census of 1910 
returned 670, but Kroeber estimates about 700 of the Plains and 
Sierra Miwok alone. The census of 1930 returned 491. 

Modoc. ‘This tribe extended into the northern part of the State. 

(See Oregon.) 

Mohave. The Mohave occupied some territory in the neighborhood 
of the Colorado River. (See Arizona.) 
Nicolefio. From San Nicolas, the most eastward of the Santa Barbara 

Islands. 

Connections.—They belonged to the Shoshonean Division of the 
Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, but their more immediate affiliations 
are uncertain. 

Location.—On the island above mentioned. 

Population.—Kroeber (1925) gives an estimate of their population 
in conjunction with the Gabrielino and Fernandefio (q. v.). (See 
also Alliklik.) 

Nongatl. Significance unknown. Also called: 
Saia, by the Hupa, along with other Athapascans to the south; meaning “‘far 
off.” 

Connections.—The Nongatl belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
family and were closely connected with the Lassik (q. v.). 

Location.—In the territory drained by three right-hand affluents of 
Eel River—Yager Creek, Van Dusen Fork, and Larrabee Creek—and 
on the upper waters of Mad River. 

Population.—The Nongatl were estimated by Kroeber (1925) to 
number in 1770, along with the Sinkyone and Lassik, 2,000, and 100 
in 1910. (See Bear River Indians.) 

Okwanuchu. Significance unknown. 

Connections —The Okwanuchu belonged to the Shastan Division of 
the Hokan linguistic stock. 

Location.—On the upper Sacramento from about the vicinity of 
Salt and Boulder Creeks to its headwaters; also on the McCloud 
River and Squaw Creek from about their junction up. 

Population.—See Chimariko and Shasta. 

Paiute, Northern. The Northern Paiute occupied part of the Sierra 
in the southeastern part of the State and the desert country east of 
it and also a strip of land in the extreme northeast. (See Nevada.) 


Patwin. Signifying “person” in their own language. 
Connections —The Patwin formed the southernmost and most 


508 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuu. 145 


diverse dialetic division of the former Wintun (or Copehan) linguistic 
family, now considered part of the Penutian stock. 

Location.—On the western side of Sacramento Valley, and extending 
from San Francisco Bay to a point a little south of Willows, occupying 
both sides of Sacramento River from a few miles above its junction 
with Feather River to the northern boundaries of their territory. 


” 


Subdivisions, or ‘‘Tribelets,”’ and Villages 


(As given by Kroeber, 1932) 
River Patwin: 
Colusa Dialect: 
Katsi’l, less than a mile below the present Katsi’l Reservation. 
Ke’ti’, on the site of the present Princeton. 
Koru’, in Colusa city, named from it. 
Kukui, one and a half miles below Koru’. 
Séma, 2 miles below modern Katsi’l, somewhat off the river, and not certainly 
an independent unit. 
Tatno, perhaps 2 miles above Colusa. 
Ts’a‘, 3 miles below Princeton. 
Wa’itere, 2 or 3 miles above the present Katsi’l, or ‘‘Colusa rancheria.” 

Grimes Dialect: 

Ko’doi(—dihi), a mile below Saka, on the J. Brown place. 
Kusémpu, on the east side of Sacramento River, perhaps a mile below 
No’matsapin. 
Lo’klokma-ti’nbe, in the southern outskirts of Grimes. 
No’matsapin, about 5 miles downstream from Saka. 
Nowi(—dihi), 1 mile below Lo’klokma-ti’nbe. 
P’adlo, 1 or 2 miles downstream from Tsaki, some 3 miles above Kirkville. 
Saka, little more than 100 yards from last, at Eddy’s Ferry. 
Tsaki, 7 or 8 miles below Saka. 
T’inik(—dihi), on the east side about opposite Ko’doi, status uncertain. 
Yali, opposite Saka, on east bank. 
Knight’s Landing Dialect (only ones remembered): 

Hololum (?), between Kirkville and Knight’s Landing. 
Yo’doi, at Knight’s Landing giving name to Yolo. 

Hill Patwin (from south to north): 

South of Cache no names of tribelets are known but villages called Suskol, 
Tuluka, Ula-to, Topai-dihi, and Liwai-to. 

On Lower Cache Creek Barrett places Pulupulu, Churup, Kachituli, also Moso 
(at Capay). 

C. H. Merriam (1929) gives Kopa’ (Kope) (in the broad flat part of Capay 
Valley near Brooks), and Kroeber (1932) Hacha (3 miles below Capay). 

Kisi, a village upstream on Cache Creek, may have been a tribal center. 

Imil, a village apparently in a tribal territory (near Guinda), and Siiya, a 
village (half a mile north of Guinda), besides 16 inhabited sites mentioned 
by one informant. 

Lopa and Tebti (on or near Cache Creek), villages probably belonging to a 
tribelet. 

Sukui-sel, whose principal village was Sukui (2-3 miles above Sulphur Creek). 

Kuikui, a village was Sukui (2-3 miles above Sulphur Creek). 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 509 


Kuikui, a village (on Cache Creek 2 miles below the mouth of Bartlett), and 
Opi, a village (on Cache Creek at the mouth of Bartlett), probably in a 
tribelet. 

Tebti-sel, including the villages of Tebti (on Bartlett Creek at the mouth of 
Long Valley Creek), and Helu’supet or Helu’sapet (downstream within 
2 or 3 miles of Cache Creek). 

Lol-sel, located at village of A’li-ma-ti’nbe (some 5 miles up Long Valley Creek). 

Loli (either on Bartlett Creek 3 miles from Tebti or in Indian Valley) was a 
village in an unnamed tribelet. 

Wor-pa’ntibe, one of whose villages was Wa’i-taluk (in Morgan Valley south 
of Cache Creek). 

Tsuhel-mem or Chuhel-mem, a village on Indian Creek above Ladoga and 
Kabal-mem or Kabel-mem, a later village. 

A tribelet called Edi’ or Edi’la. 

A tribelet with villages at Bahka(labe) (not far from the mouth of Indian 
Creek). 

Kula’ (-la) (some miles up), and Dikikala’i (downstream from Bahka). 

Yakut (on Sand Creek), perhaps a tribelet by itself. 

Wa’ikau-sel, with villages at Let(-labe) (near Cortina Creek). 

Wa’ikau (on main Cortina Creek), and perhaps Kotu (1% or 2 miles upstream 
from Wa’ikau). 

A tribelet at Pone (on Grapevine Canyon or Road, three or more miles north 
of Sites). 

Potba-sel, or a village called Potba(—labe), (at a spring in a gulley half a dozen 
miles north of the last. 


Population.—(See Wintun.) 


Pomo. From the native ending -pomo or -poma, placed after the 
names of village or local groups, the exact meaning of which is 
unknown. Also called: 


Nokonmi, Yuki name. 


Connections.—The Pomo were originally placed in a distinct lin- 
guistic stock (Kulanapan) but are now attached to the widely scattered 
Hokan family. 

Location.—The Pacific Coast between Cleone and Duncan’s Point, 
and inland, with some interruptions, as far as Clear Lake; there was 
a detached group on Stony Creek. 


Subdivisions 


The Pomo were divided dialectically into the following groups: 

Salt Pomo or Northeastern Pomo, on the headwaters of Stony Creek. 

Eastern Pomo, on the northern and southern affluents of Clear Lake. 

Southeastern Pomo, about Lower Lake. 

Northern Pomo, from the northern boundary of Pomo territory to Navarro 
River and some distance above Ukiah on Russian River. 

Central Pomo, from the above boundaries to Gualala on the coast and a point 
north of Cloverdale on Russian River. 

Southern Pomo or Gallinomero, in the inland portion of the remaining Pomo 
territory. 

Southwestern or Gualala Pomo, on the coast section of the remaining territory. 


510 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 145 


Certain divisions larger than villages were recognized in an indefinite way by the 
people themselves. 


Village Communities 
Northeastern Pomo: 

Bakamtati, at Stony Ford. 

Cheetido, at the salt deposit. 

Turururaibida, above the forks of Stony Creek. 

The status of the last two of these is somewhat uncertain. 

Eastern Pomo: 

Bidamiwina, Nonapoti, and Shabegok were names of three places which were 
at different times centers of a community called Habe-napo or “rock people,”’ 
around Kelseyville. 

Danoha, some miles up an eastern affiluent of lower Scott. Creek, connected 
with which was Badonnapoti on Bloody Island in Upper Lake off the mouth 
of Scott Creek and Behepel or Gabehe between the two. 

Howalek, on Middle Creek near Upper Lake town. 

Kashibadon, at Lakeport on the west side of the lake. 

Shigom, on the east side of main Clear Lake. 

Yobutui, on the opposite side of lower Scott Creek from the northern Pomo 
village of Mayi. 

Southeastern Pomo: 

Elem, on Rattlesnake or Sulphur Bank Island in the Bay known as East Lake. 

Kamdot or Lemakma, on Buckingham Island near the entrance to Lower Lake. 

Koi, Hoyi, Shutauyomanok, or Kaubokolai, on an island near the outlet of the 
lake. 

Northern Pomo: 

Bakau, at Little Lake north of Willits. 

Buldam, at the mouth of Big River. 

Chomchadila, on the West Fork near Calpella. 

Chauishak, near Willits. 

Dapishu or Kachabida, in Redwood Canyon. 

Kachake, on Mill Creek, separate position uncertain. 

Kadiu, at the mouth of Noyo River. 

Kalaili, at the mouth of Little River. 

Katuli, above Navarro River at Christine. 

Komli, at Ukiah. 

Kulakai, at a lake south of Sherwood. 

Lemkolil, on Anderson Creek near Boonville. 

Masut or Shiyol, on the West Fork of Russian River near the mouth of Seward 
Creek. 

Mato, northwest of Sherwood. 

Mayi, on Scott Creek near Tule Lake, not far from the town of Upper Lake. 

Nabo or Nato, near Willits. 

Naboral, on Scott Creek northwest of Lakeport. 

Pomo, in Potter Valley downstream from Sedam. 

Shabakana, Bitadanek, and Kobida, three sites successively inhabited by one 
group, whose home was on Forsythe Creek. 

Sedam, in Potter Valley downstream from Shanel. 

Shachamkau, Chamkawi or Bomaa, downstream?, in Coyote Valley. 

Shanekai, in a small elevated valley between the heads of an affluent of south- 
ern Eel River and a tributary of Middle Creek which drains into the head 
of Clear Lake. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 511 


Shanel or Seel or Botel, at the north end of Potter Valley on the East Fork of 
Russian River. 
Shotsiu, east of Willits. 
Tabate, below Philo on Navarro River. 
Tsakamo, on Russian River at the mouth of Cold Creek. 
Tsamomda, west of Willits. 
Tsiyakabeyo, on a tributary of Middle Creek which drains into the head of 
Clear Lake, probably only a part of Shanekai. 
On the North Fork of Navarro River were three sites, Chaida, Chulgo, and 
Huda, which may have constituted a community. 
Central Pomo: 
Danokeya, name uncertain, on Rancheria Creek. 
Kahwalau, Russian River at the mouth of Pieta Creek. 
Kodalau, on Brush Creek. 
Koloko, Russian River at the mouth of Squaw Creek. 
Lachupda, on the upper waters of the North Fork of Gualala River. 
Lema, on MeNab Creek a mile or two up from Russian River. 
Pdahau or Icheche, on Lower Garcia River. 
Shanel, near the mouth of McDowell and Feliz Creeks, in Hopland Valley. 
Shepda, on Russian River at the entry of Wise Creek. 
Shiego, on Russian River at the mouth of McNab Creek. 
Shokadjal, on Russian River in Ukiah Valley. 
Tatem, downstream from the last and in the same valley. 
Southern Pomo or Gallinomero: 
Batiklechawi, at Sebastopol at the head of the slough known as Laguna de 
Santa Rosa, an important village and probably the head of a district. 
Hiwalhmu, a village and probably the head of a community on the Gualala 
River drainage. 
Hukabetawi, near Santa Rosa City and perhaps the head of a community. 
Kalme, a community in the Russian River drainage. 
Kubahmoi, a village and probably the head of a community on the Gualala 
River drainage. 
Makahmo, on the Russian drainage at the mouth of Sulphur Creek. 
Ossokowi, a village and probably the center of a community on Russian River 
extending from the mouth of Elk Creek halfway up to Geyserville. 
Shamli, a village on Gualala River drainage, perhaps the head of a community. 
Shawako, on Dry Creek at the mouth of Pifia Creek. 
Wilok, at the head of Santa Rosa Creek. 
Wotokkaton, head of a community in the vicinity of Healdsburg. 
Southwestern or Gualala Pomo: 
Ashachatiu, a village at the mouth of Russian River connected probably with 
Chalanchawi. 
Chalanchawi (see Ashachatiu). 
Chiti-bida-kali, north of Timber Cove. 
Danaga, at Stewart’s Point. 
Hibuwi, on the Middle Fork of the Gualala. 
Kowishal, at Black Point. 
Meteni, perhaps the name of a group at the site of Fort Ross, though another 
name, Madshuinui is also mentioned. 
Potol, on Haupt and Hopper Creeks, perhaps the center of a group. 


5i2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 145 


Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates 8,000 Pomo in 1770; the 
census of 1910 returned 777, but this figure perhaps does not include 
all, as Kroeber gives 1,200 for the same year. According to the census 
of 1930, there were then 1,143. 

Salinan. From Salinas River which drains most of their territory. 

Connections.—Formerly considered a distinct linguistic stock, they 
are now connected with the Hokan linguistic family. ; 

Location.—From the headwaters of the Salinas—or perhaps only 
from the vicinity of the Santa Margarita Divide—north to Santa 
Lucia Peak and an unknown point in the valley somewhere south of 
Soledad; and from the sea presumably to the main crest of the Coast 
Range. 


Subdivisions 


On linguistic grounds the Salinan have been divided into the San Miguel Salinas 
on the upper course of Salinas River, the San Antonio Salinas below the preceding 
to Costanoan territory, and the Playano along the coast. 


Villages 
San Antonio Division: 
Chahomesh, at the head of San Antonio River. 
Chohwahl, near the mouth of San Antonio River. 
Chukilin, at the head of Nacimiento Creek. 
Holamna Jolon, southeast of San Antonio Mission. 
Nasihl Pleyto, on lower San Antonio River. 
Sapewis, below the preceding. 
Skotitoki, north of San Antonio Mission. 
Tesospek, on San Antonio River above San Antonio Mission. 
Tetachoya Ojitos, on lower San Antonio River. 
San Miguel Division: 
Cholame, probably on Cholame Creek or at the mouth of Estrella Creek. 
Teshaumis, on the upper course of Cholame Creek. 
Teshaya, at San Miguel Mission. 
Trolole, near Cholame or near Santa Margarita. 
Playano: 
Ehmahl, located conjecturally near Lucia. 
Lema, perhaps lower down the coast than the preceding. 
Ma’tihl’she, located conjecturally still farther south. 
Tsilakaka, placed conjecturally near San Simeon. 


Population Kroeber (1925) estimates that there may have been 
3,000 Salinan in 1770 but that 2,000 is a safer estimate; about 40 
remain. The census of 1910 returned 16; that of 1930, none. 


Serrano. A Spanish word, meaning “mountaineers.” Also called: 


Banumints, Chemehuevi name. 

Céw-ang-a-chem, own name (Barrows 1900). 

Cuabajai, applied by Mohave to those about Tejon Creek. 

Genigueches, by Garcés in 1776. 

Gikidanum, or Gitanemuk, Serrano of upper Tejon and Paso Creeks in the 
San Joaquin Valley drainage. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 513 


Hanakwiche, by some Yuman tribes. 

Hanyuveche, Mohave name. 

Kaiviat-am, given by a native as their own name, from kai-ch, “mountain.” 

Kuvahaivima, Mohave name for those about Tejon Creek. 

Marangakh, by their southern and other neighbors. 

Marayam, Luisefio name. 

Mayintalap, southern Yokuts name for Serrano of upper Tejon, Paso, and 
possibly Pastoria Creeks, meaning “‘large bows.”’ 

Mohineyam, name for themselves, given by Mohave River Serrano. 

Panumits, Chemehuevi name for Serrano north of the San Bernardino 
Range, toward Tehachapi Mountains. 

Pitanta, Chemehuevi name for those Serrano north of San Bernardino 
Range in Mohave Desert and on Tejon Creek. 

Takhtam, by Gatschet (in Wheeler Surv., vol. 7, p. 413, 1879), meaning 

Tamankamyam, by the related Aguas Calientes. 

Witanghatal, Tubatulabal name for the Tejon Creek Serrano. 


Connections.—The Serrano belonged to the Shoshonean Division of 
the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock. 

Location.—In the San Bernardino Range; a tract of unknown 
extent northward; the San Gabriel Mountains or Sierra Madre west 
to Mount San Antonio; and probably a tract of fertile lowland south 
of the Sierra Madre, from about Cucamonga east to above Mentone 
and as far as San Gorgonio Pass. 


Villages 


The following place names have been recorded and many of these probably 
were names of villages: 
Acha-va-t, east of Bear Lake. 
Aka-va-t, west of Banning. 
Arhangk, near Colton. 
Atan-pa-t, northeast of Acha-va-t. 
Hikavanii-t, west of Colton. 
Hisaku-pa, on the outlet of Bear Lake. 
Hunga-va-t, in San Timotec Canyon. 
Kayah-pia-t, at Bear Lake. 
Kotaina-t, on Santa Ana River east of San Bernardino. 
Malki, northeast of Banning. 
Maronga, on Morongo Creek. 
Musku-pia-bit, northwest of San Bernardino. 
Nilengli, near San Bernardino Peak. 
Nanamii-vya-t, at the head of Mohave River. 
Padjiidjii-t, at the head of Mohave River. 
Puwipuwi, near San Gorgonio Mountain. 
Toloka-bi, in San Timoteo Canyon. 
Wacha-vak, where San Timoteo Canyon comes out on Santa Ana River. 
Wahinu-t, in Cajon Canyon. 
Yamiwu, perhaps Cahuilla, north of San Jacinto Peak. 


Population.—Kroeber gives 1,500 Serrano as an ample allowance in 
aboriginal times; the census of 1910 returned 118. (See Alliklik.) 


514 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 145 


Shasta. Probably from a chief called Sasti. Also called: 


Ekpimi, Ilmawi name. 
Mashukhara, Karok name. 
Wulx, Takelma name, meaning ‘‘enemies.” 

Connections.—The Shasta constituted part of the Shastan division 
of the Hokan linguistic stock. 

Location.—On Klamath River from a point between Indian and 
Thompson Creeks to a spot a few miles above the mouth of Fall 
Creek; also the drainage areas of two tributaries of the Klamath— 
Scott River and Shasta River—and a tract on the north side of the 
Siskiyous in Oregon on the affluents of Rogue River known as Stewart 
River and Little Butte Creek. 


Subdivisions 
Ahotireitsu, in Shasta Valley. 
Cecilville Indians, about Cecilville; they spoke a distinct dialect; the Indians 
called by Merriam (1926) Haldokehewuk. 
Jruaitsu, in Scott Valley. 
Kahosadi, on the affluents of Rogue River. 
Kammatwa or Wiruhikwairuk’a, on Klamath River. 

The term New River Shasta is incorrectly used since there were no Shasta on 
New River. 

Villages 
Ahotiretsu Division: 

Ahawaiwig, Asta, Ihiweah, Ikahig, Kusta. 
Truaitsu Division: 

Itayah and Crowichaira the only ones known. 
Kammatwa Division (in order up stream): 

Chitatowoki (north side), Ututsu (N.), Asouru (N.), Sumai (N.), Arahi (S.), 
Harokwi (N.), Kwasuk (S.), Aika (N.), Umtahawa (N.), Itiwukha (N.), Ishui 
(N.), Awa (N.), Waukaiwa (N.), Opshiruk (N.), Ishumpi (N.), Okwayig (N.), 
Eras (S.), Asurahawa (S.), Kutsastsus (N.). 


Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates that there were about 2,000 
Shasta in 1770; in 1910 there were only about 100. The entire Shas- 
tan stock numbered 844 according to the returns of the 1930 census, 
and in 1937, 418 “Pit River’ Indians were enumerated, a portion of 
this stock. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—Mount Shasta, Shasta 
County, and a place in the county preserve the name of the Shasta 
Indians. 

Sinkyone. From Sinkyo, the name of the South Fork of Eel River. 

Connections.—The Sinkyone were one of the tribes of the southern 
California group of the Athapascan family. 

Location.—On the South Fork of Eel River and its branches and the 
adjacent coast from near Four Mile Creek to Usal Lagoon. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA APS 


Land Areas 
(Given by native informants to Nomland (1935) instead of villages) 


Anse’ntakik, the land south of Briceland. 

Chashingik, the ridge north of Briceland. 

Senké’ktk, to the South Fork from Garberville. 

Shusashish’ha, the region north of Garberville. 

Totro’bé, the land around Briceland. 

Yenekuk, an area southeast of Briceland. 

Yese’, coast area to the Mattole boundary at Four Mile Creek. 
Yésé@’kik, the Mattole River area. 


Population.—(See Lassik and Bear River Indians). 
Tolowa. So-called by the Yurok. Also called: 


Aqiisti, by Dorsey (MS.); meaning “southern language,’ Naltunnetunne 
name. 

Lagoons, by Heintzleman (in Ind. Aff. Rep., 1857, p. 392; 1858). 

Lopas, by Heintzleman (op. cit.). 


Connections—The Tolowa constituted one of the divisions into 
which the California peoples of the Athapascan linguistic stock are 
divided, but they were closely connected with the Athapascan tribes 
of Oregon immediately to the north. 

Location.—On Crescent Bay, Lake Earl, and Smith River. 


Villages 
(According to Drucker, 1937) 


Etecilet, at end of point in Lake Earl. 

Ha’tsahothwut, long abandoned site. 

Kehosli’hwut, on east bank, lower course of Smith River. 
Mestlte’tltun, on Crescent Bay. 

Mi'liteuntun, on middle course of Smith River. 

Mu/nsontun, on east bank, on lower course of Smith River. 
Munshri’na taso’, long abandoned site. 

Muslye’, on North Fork of Smith River. 

Na’kutat, a suburb of Tatftun, 

Numore’tun, long abandoned site. 

Sitragi’tum, on the west bank of Smith River below Mill Creek. 
Ta’gestlsatun, on coast at mouth of Wilson Creek, mixed with Yurok. 
Ta’tatun, on Crescent Bay. 

Tati’tun, on shore of Crescent Bay near north end. 

Tcestu’/mtun, on South Fork of Smith River. 

Tcunsu’tltun, on east bank of Smith River at mouth of Mill Creek. 
Te’nitcuntun, between North and South Forks of Smith River at junction. 
Titru’ome, on Crescent Bay toward south end. 

Tro’let, a small suburb of Yotokut near mouth of Smith River. 
Tunme’tun, on a small branch of the North Fork of Smith River. 
Tushroshku’shtun, on peninsula between two arms of Lake Earl. 
Yoto’kut, on coast south of mouth of Smith River. 


Population.—Kroeber estimates ‘‘well under” 1,000 Tolowa in 1770 
and indicates a possible modification to 450; the census of 1910 re- 


516 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


turned 121. In 1930 the ‘‘Oregon Athapascans,”’ including the Tol- 
owa, were reported to number 504. 


Tiibatulabal. A Shoshonean word meaning ‘‘pine-nut eaters.”’ Also 
called: 


Bahkanapiil or Pahkanapil, own name, said to refer to all those who speak 
their language. 

Kern River Indians, popular name. 

Pitanisha, the usual Yokuts name, from Pitani-u, the place-name of the 
forks of Kern River. 

Wateknasi, by Yokuts, meaning ‘‘pine-nut eaters.” 


Connections.—Under the name of Kern River Shoshoneans, the 
Tubatulabal are given a position as one of the major divisions of the 
Shoshonean branch of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic family. 

Location.—In the upper part of the valley of Kern River. 


Subdivisions 


Bankalachi, on west slopes of Greenhorn Mountains. 
Palagewan, on Kern River above mouth of South Fork. 
Tibatulabal, on lower reaches of South Fork of Kern River. 


Villages 


EK. W. Voegelin (1938) gives the following: 
Palagewan sites: 

Holit, near mouth of Bull Run Creek, SW. quar., sec. 4, T. 25 S., R. 33 E. 

Pashgeshtap, at hot spring on east edge of Hot Springs Valley, SE. quar., 
sec: o1, T. 26 S., R. 33° E. 

Tcuhkayl, at hot springs in foothills, SE. quar. sec. 26, T. 25 S., R. 33 E. 

Tibatulabal sites: 

Hahalam, South Fork Kern River, NW. quar., sec. 16, T. 26 8., R. 34 E. 

Kolokum, near springs on Fay Creek, NE. quar., sec. 22, T. 25 8., R. 34 E. 

Omomip, (1) on north bank of South Fork Kern River, NW. quar., sec. 3, T. 
26 S., R. 35 E. (2), north bank of South Fork of Kern River, SW., quar., 
sec. 4, T. 265., R. 35 E. 

Padazhap, below and above spring, in foothills south of South Fork Valley, SW. 
quar., sec. 31, T. 26S., R. 34 E. 

Tcebunun, south bank of South Fork of Kern River, SW. quar., sec. 35, T. 258., 
R. 35 E. 

Tushpan, on floor of South Fork Valley, SW. quar., sec. 14, T. 26S., R. 34 E. 

Umubiflap, below spring on flat, near west end of South Fork Valley, SE. quar., 
sec: d2, 126 Sa Roose: 

Uupulap, on flat west side of South Fork of Kern River, NW. quar., sec. 24, 
TT: 25 8. Re. 35 Es. 

Yitiyamup, at springs in foothills, north edge of South Fork Valley, SE. quar., 
sec. 35, T. 25 5., R. 34 E. 

Yowolup, at spring on floor of South Fork Valley. 


Name unknown, on South Fork of Kern River, NE. quar., sec. 18, T. 26 S., 
R. 34 E. 


History.—F rom the specialization of their language, Kroeber (1925) 
inferred that these people had occupied their country for a long time 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 57 


but later researches by Whorf (1935) make this less certain. The first 

white person to visit them was Father Garcés in 1776 and during the 

next 50 years they were brought in contact with the San Buenaventura 

Mission, founded in 1782 near Ventura. By 1846 white settlers had 

established ranches in South Fork Valley, and in 1857 the Kern River 

gold rush began in Palagewan territory. During 1862 a few Tii- 
batulabal joined the Owens Valley Paiute in hostilities against the 

Whites, and about this time a group of Koso Indians settled in the 

Tiibatulabal area, intermarrying chiefly with the Kawaiisu, however. 

In 1863, 35-40 Tiibatulabal and Palagewan men were massacred near 

Kernville by American soldiers. Between 1865 and 1875 the Tiiba- 

tulabal began to practice agriculture and in 1893 the majority of them 

and a few Palagewan survivors were allotted land in South Fork 
and Kern Valleys. 

Population.—Kroeber (1925) makes an estimate of 1,000 Tiiba- 
tulabal for the year 1770 but Voegelin (1938) regards this as “‘ probably 
too high.” Henley in 1854 gives a figure of 100 which seems to 
apply to the Tiibatulabal and Palagewan Bands, but Voegelin points 
out that it may be necessary to double this on account of a band 
temporarily absent from the country, and the same writer estimates 
that Henley indicates a band of perhaps 50 which may have been the 
Bankalachi. A village site estimate obtained by Voegelin (1938) 
from native informants suggested a total about 1855-60 of 228 
Tibatulabal, and 65 Palagewan, or 293 combined. An estimate for 
1863 based on the total of adult males indicates a population of 220. 
The United States Census of 1910 returned 105 and a field census 
taken by Voegelin in 1832 including all mixtures, 145. 

Vanyume. Name applied by the Mohave; significance unknown, 
though it is probably related to the term Panamint given to the 
Koso. 

Connections.—The Vanyume belonged to the Shoshonean Division 
of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, their closest connections being 
probably with the Kitanemuk, and secondly with the Serrano. 

Location.—On Mohave River. 

Population.—(See Alliklik.) They are now extinct as a tribe. 


Wailaki. A Wintun word meaning “north language,” applied to 
other Wintun groups and to some foreign groups. Also called: 
Kak’-wits, Yuki name, meaning “northern people.” 
Connections.—The Wailaki belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
stock and to the southern California group. 
Location.—On Eel River from the Lassik territory to the Big 
Bend, several affluents on the west side, Kekawaka Creek on the 
east side, and the whole of the North Fork except the head. 


518 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun. 145 


Subdivisions and Village Communities ® 
On main Eel River: 
Sehlchikyo-kaiya, on the east side, Big Bend Creek to McDonald Creek. 
Ninkannich-kaiya, opposite Sehlchikyo-kaiya. 
Nehlchikyo-kaiya, on the east side downstream to the mouth of North Fork. 
Sehlchikyo-kaiya, on the east side downstream. 
Tatisho-kaiya, on the west side opposite the mouth of North Fork. 
Bas-kaiya, on the east side below Sehlchikyo-kaiya. 
Sla-kaiya, on the east side below Bas-kaiya. 
Chisko-kaiya, on the east side below Sla-kaiya. 
Seta-kaiya, on the west side below Tatisho-kaiya. 
Kaikiche-kaiya, on the west side below Seta-kaiya. 
Dahlso-kaiya, Set’ahlchicho-kaiya, K’andang-kaiya—in order downstream on 
the west side. 
Thikodang-kaiya, on the west side below Chisko-kaiya. 
Kasnaikot-kaiya, on the east side at the mouth of Kakawaka Creek. 
On the lower part of North Fork: 
Setandong-kiyahang, Secho-kiyahang, Kaiye-kiyahang—in order upstream. 
Higher up North Fork: 
T’odannang-kiyahang, on the North Fork below Hull Creek. 
T’okyah-kiyahang, upstream on North Fork. 
Chokot-kiyahang, on and above Red Mountain Creek. 
Ch’i’ankot-kiyahang, on Jesus Creek. 


Population.—The Wailaki were estimated by Kroeber (1925) as 
1,000 about 1770; they were given as 227 in the census of 1910. (See 
Bear River Indians.) 


Wappo. An Americanization of Spanish Guapo. ‘‘brave,” given them 
on account of their stubborn resistence to Spanish military ag- 


gression. Also called: 
Ash-o-chi-mi, a name given by Powers (1877). 
Soteomellos or Sotomieyos, names given by Taylor (1860-63). 


Connections.—The Wappo language constituted a very divergent 
form of speech of the Yukian linguistic family. 

Location.—On the headwaters of Napa River and Pope and Putah 
Creeks, and a stretch of Russian River. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Following are their dialectic divisions and the villages in each, the names 
in italic being principal towns in as many village communities: 
Southern Wappo: 

Anakota-noma, at St. Helena. 

Kaimus, at Yountville. 

Tsemanoma, northeast of St. Helena. 

Wilikos, near the head of Sonoma Creek. 

Central Wappo: 

Maiyakama, south of Calistoga. 

Mélka’/wa-hotsa-noma, at site of Middletown—Driver. 

Mutistul, between the Napa River and Russian River drainage. 

Nihlektsonoma, north of Calistoga. 

Tselmenan, north of Calistoga. 


® Arranged in order of location; not alphabetized. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 519 


Northern Wappo: 

Lok-noma, northeast of Middletown. 

Petinoma, north of Middletown. 

Uyuhanoma, east of Middletown. 
Western Wappo: 

Ashaben, near Lytton. 

Gayechin, near Lytton. 

Hol-tcu’kolo, location unknown. 

Koloko, on Russian River below Geyserville. 

Malalachahl, at Lytton. 

Néts-tul, northeast of Tsimitu-tsonoma. 

Oso’yik-eju, west of Russian River and southeast of Geyserville. 

Owotél-péti, east of Tsimitutsonoma. 

Pipoholma, on Russian River below Geyserville. 

Shéi-kana, location unknown. 

Shimela, on Russian River below Geyserville. 

Tsi’mitu-tso-noma, on the east bank of Russian River some miles below Geys- 

erville. 

Tekenan-tso-noma, near Geysers in Sulphur Creek drainage. 

Unutsa’wa-holma-noma, north of Tsi’mitu-tso-noma. 
Lile’ek Wappo: 

Daladan, on Cole Creek. 

Kabetsawam, on Cole Creek. 

Driver (1939) adds the following names of camp sites, presumably in the 
country of the Western Wappo: Halish-wahtk-holma, Ho’lko-mota, Hut-mitul, 
Nuya-hotsa, Teano-nayuk, Ts’awo-tul, Tikomota, Walma-pésite. 


Population.—Kroeber (1925) estimates 1,000 Wappo in 1770 as a 
maximum; the census of 1910 returned 73. (See Yuki.) 

Washo. The range of this tribe extended over considerable Califor- 
nian territory about the angle in the eastern boundary line of the 
State. (See Nevada.) 

Whilkut. From Hupa Hoilkut-hoi. Also called: 


Redwood Indians, the popular name for them. 


Connections.—The Whilkut belonged to the Hupa dialectic group 
of the Athapascan linguistic family. 

Location.—On the upper part of Redwood Creek above the Chilula 
Indians and Mad River, except in its lowest course, up to the vicinity 
of Iaqua Butte. 

Population.—Kroeber (1932) estimates about 500 Whilkut in 
aboriginal times; the census of 1910 returned 50 full-bloods and some 
mixed-bloods. 

Wintu. The native word meaning “‘people.”’ 
For synonyms see Wintun. 


Connections —The Wintu were the northernmost division of the 
Copehan stock of Powell, later called Wintun by Kroeber (1932) and 
now regarded as part of the Penutian family. 


520 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bubn. 145 


Location.—In the valleys of the upper Sacramento and upper 
Trinity Rivers north of Cottonwood Creek and extending from Cow 
Creek on the east to the South Fork of the Trinity on the west. 


Subdivisions 
(As given by Du Bois (1935) but placing the native name first) 


Dau-nom, ‘‘in-front-of-west’’ (Bald Hills), a flat valley area at the foot of the hills 
south of Reading and east of the coastal range. 

Dau-pom, ‘‘in-front-of-place” (Stillwater), comprising the plateau to the north 
of Reading. 

Elpom, ‘shore place” (Keswick), extending from a point somewhat south of 
Kennett on the Sacramento chiefly along the west bank southward almost to 
Reading, and including the former Indian settlements around the mining 
town of Old Shasta, 

Hayfork Wintu, on the Hayfork branch of Trinity River and on Trinity River 
about Junction City, extending also from about Middletown westward to the 
South Fork of the Trinity. 

Klabalpom (French Gulch), on the upper reaches of Clear Creek. 

Nomsus, ‘“‘west-dwelling’’ (Upper Trinity), on the East Fork of Trinity River 
and Trinity River proper as far south as Lewiston. 

Nomtipom, ‘“‘west-hillside-place’’ (Upper Sacramento), along the precipitous 
reaches of the upper Sacramento above Kennett. 

Waimuk, “north inhabitant(?),”’ in the narrow valley of the upper McCloud 
River. : 

Winimen, ‘‘middle-water’”’ (McCloud), in the McCloud and lower Pit Valleys. 
Du Bois (1935) mentions Nomkentcau and Nomkali as two villages in Watson 

Gulch. 


Population.—(See Wintun. ) 


Wintun. The word for “people” in the northern Wintun dialects. 
Also called: 
Wawéh, Mono name for all Sacramento River tribes, meaning “‘strangers.”’ 
XAtikwiwa, Shasta name for a Wintun Indian. 

Connections—The Wintun were formerly considered a part of 
Powell’s Copehan stock and the Wintun of Kroeber (1932) but are 
now placed in the Penutian family. 

Location.—On the west side of the Sacramento Valley from the 
river up to the coast range, but falling short of this in spots and ex- 
tending beyond it in others, and from Cottonwood Creek on the north 
to about the latitude of Afton and Stonyford on the south. 


Wintun Tribelets 
(Generally south to north) 


Dahchi’mchini-sel, in a village called Dahchi’mchini (upstream of Brisco Creek 
and 4 miles above Elk Creek). 

Toba, reported by Barrett (1919) as a town at the mouth of Brisco Creek. 

A tribelet probably located at Tolokai or Doloke (at the mouth of Elk Creek). 

Pomtididi-sel, at the village of Pomtididi (where Grindstone Creek enters Stony 
Creek). 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 521 


A tribelet at a village called Kalaiel (on the North Fork of Stony Creek). 

Soninmak (at a ‘‘butte”’ named Son-pom down Stony Creek). 

Pelti-kewel (reported north of preceding by one informant). 

A tribelet at the villages of Sohu’s-labe (3 or 4 miles south of Fruto) and Nomé’l- 
mim-labe (2 or 3 miles farther south still). 

Nom-kewel or Nom-laka, with their village, Lo-pom (south of Thomas Creek). 

Walti-kewel, with villages called Noitikel, Kenkopol, and Saipanti (close together 
on the north side of Thomas Creek below Nom-kewel). 

Olwenem-wintun, at O’lwenem (near the mouth of Thomas Creek on the Sacra- 
mento). 

A tribelet at Mi’tenek (at Squaw Hill Ferry). 

Pelmem-we, at Pelmem (near Vina and the mouth of Deer Creek). 

Tehémet, (at Tehama). 

Da-mak (where Redbank Creek comes in below Red Bluff). 

Wai-kewel (on Elder Creek). 

A tribelet at Chuidau (on the South Fork of Cottonwood Creek). 


Population.—Kroeber (1932) estimates 12,000 Wintun in 1770 and 
about 1,000in 1910. The census of 1930 returned 512 Wintun, Wintu, 
and Wappo. 

Wiyot. Properly the name of one of the three Wiyot districts but 
extended by most of their neighbors over the whole people. Also 
called: 


Dilwishne, Sinkyone name. 

Humboldt Bay Indians, popular term. 

Sulatelik, used by the Wiyot to designate their language, and approaching 
a tribal designation in its usage. 

Wishosk, probably a misapplication of the Wiyot name for their Atha- 
pascan neighbors. 


Connections.—In the Powellian classification the Wiyot were given 
an independent position as the Wishoskan stock. Later California 
investigators combined them with the Yurok under the name Ritwan 
but still later believed that they had established a relationship 
between them and the great Algonquian family of the east. This 
allocation is, however, questioned by other ethnologists. 

Location.—On lower Mad River, Humboldt Bay, and lower Eel 
River. 


Subdivisions 
Batawat, on lower Mad River. 
Wiki, on Humboldt Bay. 
Wiyot, on lower Eel River. 
Villages 


Bimire, on the lower part of Humboldt Bay. 

Dakduwaka, or Hiluwitl(?), on the southern point at the entrance to Humboldt 
Bay. 

Dakwagerawakw, on Eel River. 

Dulawat, on an island in Humboldt Bay. 

Hakitege (?), at the junction of Eel and Van Duzen Rivers. 

Ho’ket (?), near the mouth of Eel River. 


522 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLt. 145 


Kachewinach (?), on Mad River. 

Kotsir (?), at the northern end of Humboldt Bay. 
Kumaidada, on Freshwater Creek. 

Legetku (?), at the southern end of Humboldt Bay. 
Ma’awor, Yurok name; at the mouth of Mad River. 
Osok, Yurok name; on Mad River, 

Potitlik, Cherokigechk, of Pletswak (?), opposite the entrance of Humboldt Bay. 
Tabagaukwa (?), at the mouth of Mad River. 
Tabayat or Witki (?), on Humboldt Bay. 
Tokelomigimitl (?), north of Humboldt Bay. 
Watsayeriditl (?), on Eel River. 

We’tso (?), on the south side of Mad River. 
Wuktlakw (?), on the north side of Eel River. 
Yachwanawach, at the end of Humboldt Bay. 


Population.—Kroeber (1932) estimates 1,000 Wiyot in 1770 and 
100 in 1910. The census of 1930 gives 236 but probably includes 
Indians of other connections. 


Yahi. Meaning “person” in their own language. 

Connections.—The Yahi constituted the southernmost group of the 
Yanan division of the Hokan linguistic stock. 

Location.—On Mill and Deer Creeks. 


Villages 


Bushkuina, Tolochuaweyu, and Tuliyani were on or near Mill Creek; Bopmay- 
huwi, Gahma, K’andjauha, Puhiya, and Yisch’inna on or near Deer Creek. 


Population.—Included in the Yana (q. v.). 


Yana. Meaning ‘‘person”’ in their own language. Also called: 


Kom/’-bo, Maidu name. 
N6-si or N6-zi, a name given by Powers (1877). 
Tisaiqdji, Ilmawi name. 


Connections.—The Yana were originally considered an independent 
linguistic stock but are now placed in the larger Hokan family. 

Location.—Including the Yahi, the Yana extended from Pit River 
to Rock Creek, and from the edge of the upper Sacramento Valley to 
the headwaters of the eastern tributaries of Sacramento River. 


Subdivisions 


Aside from the Yahi (q. v.), they embraced three dialectic subdivisions, a north- 
ern (on the drainage of Montgomery Creek into Pit River and that of Cedar 
Creek, an affluent of Little Crow Creek), a central (the entire Cow Creek drain- 
age and Bear Creek), and a southern (on Battle, Payne, and Antelope Creeks and 
one or two smaller streams). 

Villages 
Northern Division: 

Djewintaurik’u, south of Montgomery. 

Djitpamauwid’u, on Cedar Creek. 

K’asip’u, south of Round Mountain. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 523 


Central Division: 
Badjiyu, on Clover Creek. 
Ban’ha, inland between the two forks of Cow Creek. 
Djichitpemauna, on Bear Creek. 
Hamedamen, at Millville. 
Haudulimauna, near the South Fork of Cow Creek. 
Hodjinimauna, on the North Fork of Bear Creek. 
Luwaiha, on Old Cow Creek. 
Pawi, on Clover Creek. 
Pulsu’aina, near the North Fork of Cow Creek. 
Ship’a, between Little Cow Creek and Oak Run. 
Unchunaha, between the North Fork of Cow Creek and Clover Creek. 
Wamarawi, west of Shingletown. 
Wichuman’na, on the South Fork of Cow Creek. 
Southern Division: 
K’uwiha, on Battle Creek. 


Population.—Kroeber (1932) estimates 1,500 Yana in 1770 includ- 
ing the Yahi, and states that there are less than 40 full- and mixed- 
bloods today, all of the Northern and Central Divisions. Only 9 
appear under the head of Yanan in the census of 1930. 


Yokuts. The name for “person,” or ‘‘people,” in many of the dialects 
of the group. Also called: 


Mariposan, a name derived from Mariposa County, and applied to the 
stock to which these people were originally assigned by Powell. 
Noche, a name used by Garcés in 1775-76 (1900). 


Connections.—The Yokuts were originally considered a distinct 
linguistic family but have now been made a part of the large Penutian 
stock. 

Location.—On the entire floor of San Joaquin Valley from the 
mouth of San Joaquin River to the foot of Tehachapi, and the ad- 
jacent lower slopes or foothills of the Sierra Nevada, up to an altitude 
of a few thousand feet, from Fresno River south. 


Subdivisions and Villages 
These were as follows: 


Buena Vista Group: 

Tulamni (on Buena Vista Lake), including the villages of Tulamniu (on tle 
west or northwest shore of the lake), and Wogitiu (at McKittrick). 

Hometwoli or Humetwadi (on Kern Lake), including the villages of Halau 
(near the entrance of Kern River into the channel connecting Kern and 
Buena Vista lakes). 

Loasau (somewhere on the north side of Kern Lake), and Sihetal Daal or 
Pohalin Tinliu (on the south shore). 

Tuhohi, Tohohai, or Tuohayi (among the channels and tule-lined sloughs of 
lower Kern River, perhaps ranging as far as Grass Lake), including the 
village of Tahayu (location unknown). 

Poso Creek Group: 

Paleuyami, Padeuyami, Peleuyi, or Paluyam (on Poso Creek and neighborirz 

parts of Kern River), including the villages of Altau (just south of Poso 


524 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn. 145 


Creek), Bekiu (in Poso Flat), Shikidapau (in Poso Flat), Holmiu (in Linn’s 
Valley) and Kumachisi, Komechesi, Kometsicsi, or Kumachesi (centered 
about Hoschiu on White River), including the villages of Hoschiu (on White 
River), and Kelsiu (just south of White River). 

Tule-Kaweah Group: 

Yaudanchi, Yaulanchi, or Nutaa (Tule River in the foothills especially the 
North and Middle Forks), including the villages of Shawahtau (above Spring- 
ville), and Ukun’ui (above Daunt), and perhaps Uchiyingetau (at the painted 
rocks). 

Bokninuwad, or Bokninwal (on Deer Creek in the foothills), including K’eyau 
(near the valley), and perhaps Hoin Tinliu (not far from Deer Creek Hot 

. Springs, though this may have been Bankalachi), and Uchiyingetau (see 
above). 

Wiichamni, Wikchamni, or Wikchomni (on Kaweah River and the adjacent 
hills). 

Yokod or Yokol (west of the latter and south of Kaweah River), their principal 
village being on a flat near Kaweah Railroad Station, and on the south side 
of Kaweah River, north of Exeter. 

Gawia or Kawia (on the north side of Kaweah River), including a settlement 
on the north side of Kaweah River and Chidepuish (at Calvin Hill on Big 
Dry or Rattlesnake Creek). 

Kings River Group: 

Choinimni (on Kings River), including the village of Tishechu (on the south 
side of Kings River at the mouth of Mill Creek). 

Michahai (on Mill Creek), including the village of Hehshinau (on the north 
side of the stream on a flat at the foot of the pine covered ridge). 

Chukaimina (in Squaw Valley on a small southern affluent of Mill Creek), in- 
cluding the villages of Dochiu (at the north side of the valley), and Mashtinau 
(on the east side of the valley). 

Toihicha (below the Choinimni on the north side of Kings River), including 
the villages of Tanaiu (at Hughes Creek), and Bochiptau (location uncertain). 

Aiticha (farther down Kings River on the south side), including the village of 
K’ipayu (somewhat nearer Centerville than to Tishechu). 

Kocheyali (location and even existence uncertain as the name is given as a 
synonym for the last). 

Gashowu (on Big Dry Creek and Little Dry Creek), including the villages of 
Pohoniu (below Letcher on Big Dry Creek), Yokau (on Auberry Valley on 
Little Dry Creek), and Ochopou (possibly belonging to the Kechayi). 

Northern Group of the Foothill Division: 

Toltichi (the Yokuts tribe farthest up the San Joaquin, possibly Mono), includ- 
ing the village of Tsopotipau (at the electric power site on the large bend of 
the river below the entrance of the North Fork). 

Kechayi (holding the south bank of the San Joaquin for some miles above 
Millerton), including Kochoyu and Kowichkowicho (farther up). 

Dumna (on the north side of the San Joaquin about opposite the Kechayi), 
including the village of Dinishneu (at Belleville). 

Dalinchi (on Fine Gold Creek), including the villages of Moloneu (on this 
creek), and Dalinau (over the divide in the Coarse Gold Creek drainage). 
Chukchansi, Shukshansi, or Shukshanchi (on Coarse Gold Creek and the head 
of Cottonwood Creek), including the villages of Hapasau (near Fresno 
Flats), Chukchanau or Suksanau (well up on Fresno River), Tsuloniu (near 
the headwaters of Coarse Gold Creek), Kowoniu or Kohoniu (on Picayune 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 525 


Creek), Kataniu (the present Picayune rancheria), and Ch’eyau (on Cotton- 
wood Creek near Bates). 
Southern Group of the Valley Division: 

Yauelmani (a strip of territory between Tejon Ranch on Paso Creek and Poso 
Creek), including the villages of Tinliu (below the Tejon Ranch House), 
Woilo (at Bakersfield), K’ono-ilkin (on Kern River), Shoko (on Kern River), 
but Shoko and K’ono-ilkin were shared, however, with the Paleuyami, so that 
it is not known which claimed ownership. 

Tsineuhiu (a short distance above Bakersfield on Kern River), and Kuyo (ona 
channel draining toward Kern Lake), and the people of this subdivision also 
lived at times at Hoschiu on White River and at Chididiknawasi (in the Deer 
Creek country). 

Koyeti (on lower Tule River from Porterville down), including the village of 
Chokowisho (Porterville). 

Choinok (probably on Deep and Outside Channels of Kaweah River), including 
the village of Ch’iuta (somewhere south of Tulare). 

Wo’lasi or Wo’ladji (at and below Farmersville, perhaps on Cameron channel). 

Telamni (at Visalia and Goshen), including the village of Waitatshulul (about 
7 miles north of Tulare City). 

Wechihit (about Sanger on lower Kings River), including the village of Musahau 
(in the low bottoms opposite Sanger), and perhaps Wewayo (on Wahtoke 
Creek) although this latter was rather a kind of no-man’s-land. 

Nutunutu (south of lower Kings River), including the villages of Chiau (a little 
south of Kingston), and Hibek’ia (location uncertain). 

Wimilchi (on the north side of lower Kings River), including the town of Ugona 
(southwest of Kingston). 

Wowol (on the southeastern shores of Tulare Lake), including the village of 
Sukuwutnu or Dulau (on an island off the eastern shore of the lake). 

Chunut (the Tulare Lake shore in the Kaweah Delta region), including the 
villages of Miketsiu and Chuntau which cannot be definitely located. 

Tachi (the tract from northern Tulare Lake and its inlet or outlet Fish Slough 
west to the Mount Diablo chain of the Coast Range), including the villages of 
Udjiu (downstream from Coalinga), Walna (where the western hills approach 
the lake), Colon (Huron), Chi (west of Heinlen), and Waiu (on Mussel 
Slough). 

Apiachi (north of Kings River and east of its outlet slough), including the 
village of Wohui (beyond Telweyit or Summit Lake, in the direction of 
Elkhorn). 

Northern Group of the Valley Division: 

Pitkachi or Pitkati (on the south side of the San Joaquin), including the villages 
of Kohuou (near Herndon or Sycamore), Weshiu (on a slough), and Gawachiu 
(still farther downstream). 

Wakichi (on the south side of San Joaquin River above the last), including the 
village of Holowichniu (near Millerton). 

Hoyima (on the north side of the San Joaquin opposite the Pitkachi), including 
the villages of K’eliutanau (on a creek entering the San Joaquin from the 
north), and Moyoliu (above the mouth of Little Dry Creek). 

Heuchi (on Fresno River at least on its north side), including the village of 
Ch’ekayu (on Fresno River 4 miles below Madera). 

Chauchila or Chaushila, or Toholo (on the several channels of Chauchilla River), 
including a village at Shehamniu (on Chowchilla River apparently at the 
edge of the plains some miles below Buchanan), and perhaps Halau (near 
Berenda), although this may have been Heuchi. 


526 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLu. 145 


Nupchinche or Noptinte (not located). 

Tawalimnu (probably on Tuolumne River). 

Lakisamni (perhaps about Takin rancheria at Dents of Knights Ferry on the 
Stanislaus River). 

Siakumne (location uncertain). 

Hannesuk (location uncertain). 

Coconoon (on Merced River). 

Chulamni (about Stockton, their territory extending at least some miles down 
the San Joaquin and up the Calaveras, and possibly as far west as Mount 
Diablo), including the villages of Yachik and Wana (both near Stockton). 


Population.—Kroeber (1932) estimates 18,000 Yokuts in 1770 and 
600 in 1910, based on the census report of 533. The census of 1930 
returned 1,145. 


Yuki. Derived from the Wintun language and meaning “stranger,” 
or ‘‘foe.”’ Also called: 


Chu-mai-a, Pomo name. 
Noam-kekhl, Wintun name, meaning ‘‘west dwelling,” or ‘‘western tribe.” 


Connections.—The Yuki constituted an independent stock called 
Yukian. 

Location.—All the land lying in the drainage of Eel River above 
the North Fork, except for a stretch on South Eel River where the 
allied Huchnom were situated. 


Subdivisions 


Huititno’m, on the South Fork of Middle Eel River. 

Onkolukomno’m, from the forks of the South Eel River to their sources. 
Sukshaltatano’m, on the North Fork of Middle Eel River. 

Ta’no’m, on main Eel River. 

Ukomno’m, about Round Valley on the north side of Middle Fork. 

Utitno’m, about the forks made by the Middle and South Eel Rivers. 
Witukomno’m, on the south side of Middle Eel River, especially on its branches. 


Villages 


The following villages constituted a group in the northern portion of Round 
Valley west of the agency: Chochhanuk, Mameshishmo U’wit, Hake, Son, and 
there were still others whose names have been forgotten. 

There was another group in the northern part of Round Valley east of the 
agency and northeast over the hills to include Williams Valley: Pomo, in Round 
Valley, and, in successive order upstream in Williams Valley, Mo’t-huyup, 
Kilikot, Lelhaksi, Nonakak, Yukuwaskal, Moyi. 

A third group was in the northeastern corner of Round Valley and eastward to 
Middle Eel River, as follows: Titwa or Ona*s, Sonkash, Molkus, (all in Round 
Valley), and other villages east of the valley toward the river, whose names and 
sites are not known. 

The names of six subdivisions of the Ta’no’m are known: Kichilpitno’m, 
Kasha*sichno’m, Pomaha"no’m, Matno’m, Ha*chhotno’m, and Ulamolno’m. 
Probably these corresponded to the Ukonno’m groups. Names of places are: 
Kasha®sich, Pomaha®, and Hanchhot. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 527 


The following names belong to settlements or communities in various parts of 

the Yuki territory: 

Alniukino’m, in the northwest part of Round Valley. 

K’ilikuno’m, in the north or lower end of Eden Valley. 

Witukomno’m, a village near the head of Eden Valley. 

Sukano’m, Sonla"Ino’m, Chakomno’m, and Chahelilno’m—names of parts of a 
group of unknown designation, between the Ukomno’m and the Witukomno’m. 

Liltamno’m and Nonlachno’m (perhaps synonymous), at Bluenose north or 
northeast of Round Valley. 

Ukachimno’m, in Poorman’s Valley, northeast of Round Valley. 

Shipima*ino’m and Kichilukomno’m, in Williams Valley; one of these may be the 
name of the second group given above, in Round Valley. 

Maz#lchalno’m, at one of the heads of Middle Eel River. 

Onkolukomno’m, in Gravelly Valley near Hullville. 

Hunkalich, a village near Hullville. 

Matamno’m, a group perhaps belonging to the Witukomno’m division. 


Population.—Kroeber (1932) estimates 2,000 Yuki in 1770; the 
census of 1910 returned 95, and that of 1930, 177, including the Yuki, 
Coast Yuki, and Huchnom. 


Yuki, Coast; or Ukhotno’m. (See Yuki.) The second name is 
applied to them by the interior Yuki, signifying ‘‘ocean people.” 
Connections.—The Coast Yuki believe themselves to be an offshoot 

from the Huchnom but linguistic examination seems to place them 

near the Yuki. 

Location.—The Pacific coast from Cleone to a point halfway 
between Rockport and Usal and inland to the divide between the 
coast streams and Eel River. 


Villages 


These have not been recorded but the following places were probably inhabited: 
On the coast from north to south: 

On-chil-ka or On-chil-em, beyond Rockport. 

Es’im, at Rockport or Hardy Creek. 

Melhom-i’iken (Warren Creek). 

Hisimel-auhkem (the next creek). 

Lil-p’in-kem (De Haven). 

Shipep or Shipoi (Westport). 

K’etim, Chetman Gulch. 

Lilim, Mussel Rock. 

Ok’omet or Shipoi, Kabesilah. 

Methuyak-olselem (the creek north of Ten Mile River). 

Metkuyaki or Metkuyakem (the mouth of Ten Mile River and also the river). 

Mil-hot-em (Cleone). 

Sus-mel-im, at the mouth of Pudding Creek. 

Ol-hepech-kem (Noyo River). 

Nehkinmelem (Casper). 

Onp’otilkei (in Sherwood Valley). 

Ukemim (near Willits). 


528 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuw. 145 


Population.—Kroeber (1932) estimates that in 1770 and 1850 there 
were 500 Coast Yuki; the census of 1910 reported 15. (See Yuki.) 


Yuma. This tribe extended into the extreme southeastern corner of 
the State along the Colorado River. (See Arizona.) 


Yurok. Signifying ‘‘downstream”’ in the language of the neighboring 
Karok. Also called: 


Kiruhikwak, by the Shasta of Salmon River. 
Weitchpec, a name sometimes locally used, especially in Hupa aod Karok 
territory, to which Weichpec is at present the nearest Yurok village. 


Connections—The Yurok were originally regarded as an independ- 
ent stock, later combined with the Wiyot into the Ritwan family, and 
still later identified by Kroeber and Sapir as a part of the great 
Algonquian family of the east. This last identification has not, 
however, met with entire acceptance. 

Location.—On the lower Klamath River and along the coast to 
the north and south of it. 

Subdivisions 


Two dialects differing but little from each other may be distinguished; one 
spoken in the southernmost coast section, the districts of the Big Lagoon and 
Trinidad; the other, in the remainder of Yurok territory. 


Villages 


Ayotl, above the mouth of Blue Creek. 

Erner, at the mouth of Blue Creek. 

Ertlerger, at the mouth of Trinity River on the west side. 

Espau, on the coast north of Redwood Creek. 

Hergwer, on Stone Lagoon. 

Himetl, on the north side of Klamath River. 

Ho’pau, on Klamath River a few miles from the coast. 

Keihkem, 2 towns: (1) on Big Lagoon; (2) on the north side of Klamath River. 

Kenek, on the south side of Klamath River. 

Kenekpul, on the south side of Klamath River, a short distance below Kenek. 

Kepel, on the north side of Klamath River. 

Ko’otep, on the north side of Klamath River. 

Lo’olego on the north side of Klamath River above the mouth of the Trinity. 

Ma’ats, on Big Lagoon. 

Merip, on the north bank of Klamath River. 

Meta, on the south or west bank of Klamath River. 

Metskwo, at the mouth of Little River. 

Murekw, on the north bank of Klamath River. 

Nagetl, on the south or west side of Klamath River opposite the mouth of Blue 
Creek. 

Nohtskum, on the south bank of Klamath River. 

Omen, on the coast north of Klamath River. 

Omenhipur, on the coast north of Klamath River. 

Opyuweg, between Big Lagoon and the coast. 

Orau, on Redwood Creek. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 529 


Orekw, on the south side of Redwood Creek at its mouth. 

Osegen, on the coast south of Klamath River. 

Oslokw, on the east side of Big Lagoon. 

Otmekwor, on the north side of the mouth of Redwood Creek. 

Otsepor, on the south side of Klamath River below the mouth of Bluff Creek. 
Otwego, on the south side of Klamath River near its mouth. 

Pa’ar, near the north end of Big Lagoon. 

Pekwan, on the north side of Klamath River. 

Pekwututl, on the south side of Klamath River at the mouth of the Trinity. 
Rekwoi, on the north side of the mouth of Klamath River. 

Sa’a, on the south side of Klamath River. 

Sa’aitl, on the north side of Klamath River some miles above its mouth. 
Serper, on the north side of Klamath River. 

Sregon, on the north or east side of Klamath River. 

Tlemekwetl, on the north side of Klamath River below Blue Creek. 

Tmeri, just below Requa. 

Tsahpekw, on the west side of Stone Lagoon. 

Tsetskwi, on the north or east side of Klamath River. 

Tsotskwi, near the south end of Stone Lagoon. 

Tsurau, near Trinidad. 

Turip, on the south side of Klamath River a few miles from the coast. 
Wa/’asel, on the north side of Klamath River. 

Wahsekw, on the north or east side of Klamath River below Weitchpeg. 
Weitspus, opposite the mouth of Trinity River. 

Wetlkwau, on the south side of the mouth of Klamath River. 

Wohkel, on the south side of Klamath River a short distance above its mouth. 
Wohkero, on the north side of Klamath River. 

Wohtek, close to the preceding. 

Yohter, on the south or west side of Klamath River. 


Population.—Kroeber (1932) estimates 2,500 Yurok in 1770; the 
census of 1910 returned 668, and that of 1930, 471. 


ALASKA 
Ahtena. Signifying “Ice People.” Also called: 


Copper River Indians, popular name. 

Intsi Dindjich, Kutchin name, meaning ‘‘men of iron.”’ 
Ketschetnaer or Kolshina, Russian name meaning “‘ice people.” 
Mednofski, Russian name meaning ‘‘copper river people.” 
Yellowknife Indians, by Ross (quoted by Dall, 1877). 

Yullit, Ugalakmiut name. 


Connections —The Ahtena belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
stock. Physically they are said to bear a close resemblance to the 
Koyukukhotana. (See Koyukan.) 

Location.—In the basin of Copper River. 


Subdivisions 
According to Allen (1887): 
Miduusky, on Copper River from its mouth to Tazlina River, and its branches. 
Tatlazan, above the Tazlina. 


530 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


According to Hoffman (ms.): 

Ikherkhamut, near the mouth of Copper River. 

Kangikhlukhmut, at the head of Copper River. 

Kulchana, about headwaters of the Kuskokwim and extending probably into 
the valley of Copper River, but Osgood (1936) calls this ‘‘an erroneous 
generalized extension of the Ahtena people.” 

Kulushut, on Copper River next above the Ikherkhamut. 

Shukhtutakhlit, on Copper River next above the Kangikhlukhmut. 

Vikhit, next below the Kulchana (?). 


Villages 


Alaganik, with Ugalakmiut near the mouth of Copper River. 

Batzulnetas, near upper Copper River where the trail for Tanana River begins. 

Liebigstag, on the left bank of Copper River, latitude 61°57’ N., longitude 
145°45’ W. 

Miduuski, on the east bank of Copper River below the mouth of Tonsina Creek. 

Skatalis, near the mouth of Copper River, probably the original Alaganik. 

Skolai, on Nizina River near the mouth of Chitistone River, latitutde 61°21’ N., 
longitude 143°17’ W. 

Slana, at the confluence of Slana and Copper Rivers. 

Titlogat, probably of the Kulchana division. (But cf. Osgood above.) 

Toral, on Copper River at the mouth of Chitina River. 


History—The mouth of Copper River was discovered by Nagaieff 
in 1781, but expeditions into the interior met with such consistent 
hostility on the part of the natives that for a long time they were 
a simple record of failure. The attempts of Samoylof in 1796, 
Lastéchkin in 1798, KJimofisky in 1819, and Gregorief in 1844 all ended 
in the same way. Serebrannikof ventured up the river in 1848, but 
his disregard for the natives cost him his life and the lives of three 
of his companions. In 1882 after the cession of Alaska to the United 
States, a trader named Holt ascended as far as Taral but on a sub- 
sequent visit he was killed by the natives. In 1884 Lt. Abercrombie 
explored a part of the river, and in 1885 a thorough exploration of the 
whole region was made by Lt. Allen, who visited the Ahtena villages 
on Copper River and on its principal tributaries. From that time 
on intercourse between the river people and Whites has been increas- 
ingly intimate. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimated 500 Ahtena for the year 
1740. Petroff (1884) placed their numbers in 1880 at not more than 
300. Allen (1887) gave 366 on the river and its branches. The census 
of 1890 returned 142, and that of 1910, 297. In 1920 the total 
native population of Alaska speaking Athapascan dialects was 4,657; 
in 1930, 4,935. 


Aleut. A name of unknown origin but traced with some plausibility 
to the Chukchi word aliat, meaning “‘island,’”’ which is supposed to 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 531 


have been bestowed upon the inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands 
through a misunderstanding. Also called: 


Takhayuna, Knaiakhotana, name according to Petroff (1884). 
U-nung’iin, own name, according to Dall (1886). 


Connections—The Aleut constituted the only widely divergent 
branch of the Eskimauan linguistic stock, the remainder of the tongues 
of that family being closely related. 

Location.—On the Aleutian Islands, the Shumagin Islands, and the 
western part of Alaska Peninsula. 


Subdivisions 


There were two main subdivisions distinguished by difference in dialect: (1) the 
Atka, on Andreanof, Rat, and Near Islands; and (2) the Unalaska on the Fox and 
Shumagin Islands and Alaska Peninsula. 


Villages 
I. Atka Division: 

Attu, on Holt Bay (Chichagof Harbor ?), Attu Island. 

Korovinski, at Korovin Bay, on Atka Island. 

Nazan, on Atka Island. 

Unalga, on Unalga Island, Andreanof group; 

The following ruined places on the single island of Agattu: Agonakagna, Atku- 
lik, Atkigyin, Hachimuk, Hamnulik, Hanilik, Hapkug, Higtiguk, Hilksuk, 
Ibin, Imik, Iptugik, Isituchi, Kakuguk, Kamuksusik, Kaslukug, Kigsitatok, 
Kikchik, Kikun, Kimituk, Kitak, Kuptagok, Magtok, Mukugnuk, Navisok, 
Siksatok, Sunik, Ugiatok, Ugtikun, Ugtumuk, Ukashik. 

II. Unalaska Division: 

Akutan, on Akutan Island, close to Unalaska Island. 

Avatanak, on Avatanak Island, between Unalaska and Unimak Islands. 

Belkofski, near the end of Alaska Peninsula. 

Biorka, on Biorka Island near Unalaska. 

Chernofski, on Unalaska Island. 

Eider, on Captain Bay, Unalaska Island. 

Tliuliuk, on Unalaska Island. 

Kashiga, on Unalaska Island. 

Korovinski, on Korovin Island. 

Makushin, on Makushin Bay, Unalaska Island. 

Mashik, at Port Moller, Alaska Peninsula. 

Morzhovoi, at the end of Alaska Peninsula, formerly at the head of Morzhovoi 
and later on Traders Cove which opens into Isanotski Bay. 

Nateekin, on Nateekin Bay, Unalaska Island. 

Nikolaief, on Alaska Peninsula north of Belkofski. 

Nikolski, on Umnak Island. 

Pavlof, at Selenie Point, Pavlof Bay, Alaska Pensinsula. 

Pogromni, near Pogromni volcano, on the north shore of Unimak Island. 

Popof, at Pirate Cove, Popof Island, one of the Shumagins. 

Saint George, on St. George Island, Pribilof group. 

Saint Paul, on Saint Paul Island, Pribilof group. 

Sannak, on Sannak Island. 

Unga, on Unga Island, Shumagin group. 

Vossnessenski, on Vossnessenski Island, in the Shumagin group. 


wee BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Butn. 145 


Villages reported by later writers: 
Agulok, on Unalaska Island. 
Akun, on Akun Island, between Unalaska and Unimak. 
Artelnof, on Akun Island. 
Beaver, on Unalaska Island. 
Chaliuknak, on Beaver Bay, Unalaska Island. 
Tkolga, on Unalaska Island. 
TImagnee, on Summer Bay, Unalaska Island. 
Itchadak, on one of the east Aleutian Islands. 
Kalekhta, on Unalaska Island. 
Kutchlok on Unalaska Island. 
Riechesni, on Little Bay, Akun Island in the Krenitzin group. 
Seredka, on Seredka Bay in Akun Island. 
Sisaguk, on Unimak Island. 
Takamitka, on Unalaska Island. 
Tigalda, on Tigalda Island, one of the east Aleutians. 
Totchikala, on Unalaska Island.. 
Tulik, on Umnak Island, near a volcano of the same name. 
Ugamitzi, on Unalaska Island. 
Uknodok, on Hog Island, Captains Bay, Unalaska. 
Veselofski, at Cape Cheerful, Unalaska. 


History—The Aleut became known to the Russians immediately 
after the voyages of Chirikoff and Bering in 1741, the discovery of 
the islands themselves being attributed to Mikhail Nerodchikof, 
September 1745. Though the natives at first resisted the exactions 
of the foreign traders with courage, their darts were no match for 
firearms, and they were not only cruelly treated themselves but were 
forced into the service of their masters as allies in attacks upon more 
distant peoples. It is said they were soon reduced to one-tenth of 
their former numbers. In 1794-1818 the Russian Government 
interfered to protect them from exploitation, and their condition 
was somewhat improved, but most of the improvement they experi- 
enced at Russian hands was due to the noted missionary Veniaminoff, 
who began his labors in 1824. Through his efforts and those of his 
fellow missionaries of the Greek Church, all of the Aleut were soon 
converted, and they were to some extent educated. In 1867 they, 
with the rest of the population of Alaska, passed under the control 
of the United States. 

Population Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1740 there were 
16,000 Aleut. Veniaminoff (1840) gave the Atka population as 750 
in 1834 and the Unalaska population as 1,497. In 1848 Father 
Shaiesnekov enumerated 1,400 all told, a figure which was reduced 
to 900 as a result of the smallpox epidemic of that year. Dall (1877) 
estimated that there were about 2,000, and according to the census 
of 1890 there were 1,702, including 734 mixed-bloods. The census of 
1910 returned 1,451. The native Alaskan population speaking 
Eskimauan dialects was 13,698 in 1920 and 19,028 in 1930. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 533 


Connection in which they have become noted.—The name of the Aleut 
is perpetuated in that of the Aleutian Islands, and from their language 
is derived the word Alaska, applied to Alaska Territory, and to Alaska 
Peninsula, which such a large number of the Aleut inhabit. 
Dihai-kutchin. Signifying ‘‘Kutchin farthest downstream.” 

Connections—The Dihai-kutchin were a band or tribe of the 
Kutchin division of the Athapascan linguistic stock. They are added 
to Osgood’s (1936) list of true Kutchin tribes on the authority of 
Robert McKennan (1935). 

Location —The Dihai-kutchin lived about the north fork of Chan- 
dalar River, and the Middle and South Forks of the Koyokuk River, 
Alaska. 

Population —The Dihai-kutchin were never numerous and are now 
extinct as a separate body of Indians. 

Eskimo. All of the coast lands of Alaska from Kayak Island near the 
mouth of Copper River to the Canadian boundary on the Arctic 
coast were fringed with Eskimo settlements except the upper end 
of Cook Inlet and that part of Alaska Peninsula which, with the 
Aleutian Islands, was occupied by the cognate Aleut. (See 
Aleut and Canada.) 

Haida. A part of this tribe settled on Prince of Wales and Dall 
Islands early in the eighteenth century and are locally known as 
Kaigani. (See Haida under Canada.) The Kaigani population 
in 1910 numbered 530; in 1920, 524; and in 1930, 588. 

Han. Signifying ‘‘those who dwell along the river.” 
Connections.—Athapascan linguistic stock. 

Location—The Yukon River drainage between latitude 64° and 
66° N., in east central Alaska and Yukon Territory, Canada. 


Subdivisions 


Katshikotin or Eagle group (about the village of Eagle on Yukon River), 
including Johnny’s Village and probably also Charlie’s Village or Tadush (near 
the mouth of Kandik River), Takon of Nuklako (centering at the confluence of 
the Klondike and Yukon Rivers), and perhaps a third, Fetutlin (near the mouth 
of Forty Mile Creek.), 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 200 Han 
in 1740. 

Ingalik. Name given by the Eskimo but widely used as applied 
to these Indians. 

Connections.—The Ingalik were one of the westernmost divisions of 
the Athapascan linguistic stock. 

Location.—Between Anvik and Holy Cross on the lower Yukon 
River, including the drainage of the Anvik River and the region 


534 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuy. 145 


southeast to the Kuskokwim River, including its drainage above 
Georgetown. 
Subdivisions 


Osgood (1934) makes the following subdivisions: 

(1) Anvik-Shageluk group, centering around the villages bearing these names. 

(2) Bonasila group, centering around the village of the same name. 

(3) Holy Cross-Georgetown group, centering around the villages bearing those 
names, 

(4) McGrath group, the people of the drainage of the upper Kuskokwim River; 
this group somewhat arbitrarily constructed. 


Villages Reported in this Area 


Akmiut, a litte above Kolmakof on Kuskokwim River. 

Anvik, at the junction of Anvik and Yukon Rivers. 

Chagvagchat, near the headwaters of Anvik River. 

Inselnostlinde, on Shageluk River. 

Intenleiden, on the east bank of Shageluk River. 

Khugiligichakat, on Shageluk River. 

Khunanilinde, near the headwaters of Kuskokwim River. 

Koserefski, on the left bank of the Yukon near the mouth of Shageluk Slough, 
later an Ikogmiut Eskimo village. 

Kuingshtetakten, on Shageluk River. 

Kvigimpainag, on the east bank of Yukon River, 20 miles from Kvikak. 

Napai, on the north bank of Kuskokwim River. 

Palshikatno, on Innoko River. 

Tigshelde, on Inncko River. 

Tlegoshitno, on Shageluk River. 

Vagitchitchate, near the mouth of Innoko River. 


Population.—(See Ahtena.) 


Koyukon. A contraction of Koyukukhotana, “people of Koyukuk 

River.” 

Connections.—The Koyukon belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
stock. 

Location.—On the drainage of the Yukon River south of the mouth 
of the Tanana to about latitude 63° N., including the drainage of the 
Innoko River north of the latitude named, and of the Koyukuk River 
in west central Alaska. 

Subdivisions 
Kaiyuhkhotana, on Yukon River between the Anvik and Koyukuk, including the 
drainage of Innoko River north of latitude 63° N. 
Koyukukhotana, the drainage of the Koyukuk River. 


Yukonikhotana, the drainage of Yukon River south of the mouth of the Tanana 
to the mouth of the Koyukuk. 


Villages 
(1) Kaiyuhkhotana villages: 
Anilukhtakpak, on Innoko River. 
Chinik, on the east bank of Yukon River at the junction with the Talbiksok. 
Iktigalik, on Unalaklik River. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 535 


Innoka, on Tlegon River. 

Ivan, on the divide between Unalaklik and Yukon Rivers. 

Kagogagat, on the north bank of Yukon River at the mouth of Medicine Creek. 

Kaiakak, on the west bank of Yukon River. 

Kaltag, on the left bank of Yukon River. 

Khogoltlinde, on Yukon River. 

Khulikakat, on Yukon River. 

Klamaskwaltin, on the north bank of Yukon River near the mouth of Kaiyuh 
River. 

Kunkhogliak, on Yukon River. 

Kutul, on Yukon River 50 miles above Anvik. 

Lofka, on the west bank of Yukon River. 

Nulato, on the north bank of Yukon River about 100 miles from Norton Sound. 

Taguta, on the north bank of Yukon River 15 miles below the mouth of the 
Kaiyuh. 

Takaiak, east of Yukon River near Nulato. 

Talitui, on Tlegon River. 

Tanakot, on the right bank of Yukon River near the mouth of Melozi River. 

Terentief, on the Yukon below Koyukuk River. 

Tutago, on Yukon River at the mouth of Auto River. 

Wolasatux, on the east bank of Yukon River on a small stream north of Kaiyuh 
River. 

(2) Koyukukhotana villages: 

Batza, on Batza River. 

Bolshoigor, on Yukon River 25 miles above the mouth of Koyukuk River. 

Dotle, on Koyukuk River. 

Hussliakatna, on the right bank of Koyukuk River, 2 miles above the south 
end of Dall Island. 

Kakliaklia, on Koyukuk River at the mouth of Ssukloseanti River. 

Kaltat, on an island in Yukon River not far from its junction with Koyukuk 
River. 

Kanuti, on Koyukuk River in latitude 66°18’ N. 

Kautas, on Koyukuk River. 

Kotil, at the junction of Kateel River with Koyukuk River. 

Koyukuk, near the junction of Koyukuk and Yukon Rivers. 

Mentokakat, on the left bank of Yukon River 20 miles above the mouth of 
Melozi River. 

Nohulchinta, on the South Fork of Koyukuk River 3 miies above the junction. 

Nok, on the west bank of Koyukuk River near its mouth. 

Notaloten, on Yukon River 20 miles above the mouth of Koyukuk River. 

Oonigachtkhokh, on Koyukuk River. 

Soonkakat, on the left bank of the Yukon River below Nulato. 

Tashoshgon, on Koyukuk River. 

Tlialil, on Koyukuk River. 

Tok, on an island at the junction of Koyukuk River with the Yukon. 

Zakatlatan, on the north bank of Yukon River, in longitude 156°30’ W. 

Zogliakten, on the east bank of Koyukuk River. 

Zonagogliakten, on the east bank of Koyukuk River. 

(3) Yukonikhotana villages: 

Chentansitzan, on the north bank of Yukon River 30 miles below the mouth of 
Melozi River. 

Medvednaia, on the south side of Yukon River. 

Melozikakat, on Melozikakat River. 


536 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Noggai, on Yukon River. 

Nowi, on the south side of Yukon River at the mouth of Nowikakat River. 

Tohnokalong, on the north bank of Yukon River in longitude 154°25’ W. 

Tuklukyet, on the north bank of Yukon River 15 miles below the mouth of 

Tozi River. 

History.—Russian influences began to penetrate the country of the 
Koyukon after the establishment of the Russian settlement of Kodiak 
before any settlements had been made on the Kuskokwim or Yukon. 
In 1838 the most important Russian settlement on the lower Yukon 
was made at Nulato, and this was the center of one of the very few 
native uprisings. The post was attacked by neighboring Indians in 
1851 and most of the inmates butchered. With American ownership 
in 1867 the influences of civilization began to increase, and the current 
was swollen still further by the discovery of gold, though this last 
was hardly to the advantage of the aborigines. (See Ahtena.) 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 1,500 
Koyukon in the year 1740. In 1890, 940 were returned. 


Kutcha-kutchin. Signifying “those who dwell on the flats,” called 
Yukon Flats Kutchin by Osgood (1936). They have also been 
called as follows, but the Eskimo terms are applicable to any 
Kutchin: 

Fort Indians, Ross (MS). 

Ik-kil-lin, Gilder quoted by Murdoch (1892). 

Itchali, 11th Census, Alaska, p. 154. 

It-ka-lya-riin, Dall (1877, p. 30); Nuwukmiut Eskimo name. 
Itkpe’lit, Petitot (1876, Vocab., p. 42). 

Itku’dlifi, Murdoch (1892). 

Lowland people, Whymper (1868, p. 247). 
Na-Kotchpé-tschig-Kouttchin, Petitot (1891, p. 361). 
Q-til’-tin, Dawson (1888, p. 202B). 

Youkon Louchioux Indians, Ross (MS.). 

Connections.—The Kutcha-kutchin were a tribe belonging to the 
Kutchin division of the northern section of the Athapascan linguistic 
family. 

Location.—Along the valley of the Yukon from the widening of the 
river a few miles above Circle to about Birch Creek below Fort Yukon. 


Villages 
One at Fort Yukon and one at Senati, on the middle Yukon. 


History.—The history of all the Kutchin tribes had best be treated 
in one place. They were first brought into contact with Europeans 
when Alexander Mackenzie met some of them in 1789 during his 
descent of the river which bears his name. This became more 
intimate with the establishment of the first Fort Good Hope in 1847. 
Until Alaska passed into the hands of the United States practically 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 537 


all of the relations which the Kutchin tribes had with Europeans were 
through the Hudson’s Bay Company. Since then influences from the 
west have been more potent. The discovery of gold in the Klondike 
region and the rush which followed marked the opening of a new era 
for these people, but one in which the bad for a long time outweighed 
the good. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that there were about 500 
of these Indians in 1740. The Kutcha-kutchin and the Tranjik- 
kutchin may be put together as Kutchin in the census of 1910, which 
enters 359. The Hudson’s Bay Co.’s census of 1858 gave 842 Kutchin 
belonging to six tribes as resorting to Fort Yukon. Osgood (1936), 
who quotes this, believes that the entire Kutchin population at that 
date might be set down at 1,200. (See Ahtena.) 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Kutchin tribes were 
noted for their greater energy and more warlike character, as compared 
with neighboring Athapascans, and for a peculiar three-caste system 
in their social organization. 

Nabesna. From the name of Nabesna River, the meaning of which 
is unknown. 

Connections—The Nabesna belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
family. 

Location.—In the entire drainage area of the Nabesna and Chisana 
Rivers, including the tributaries of the Tanana River, which they 
form at their confluence, as far down as the Tok River; the upper 
White River, including its tributaries the Beaver and the Snag, and 
the headwaters of the Ladue; together an area roughly enclosed be- 
tween latitude 61°31’ and 63°30’ N., and longitude 141°30’ and 143°30’ 
W. (Dr. Robert C. McKennan through Osgood, 1936). 


Subdivisions 


According to McKennan (1935), including the following “extremely fluid bands:”’ 

(1) Ranged about Last Tetling Lake and the Tetling River. 

(2) Ranged about the mouth of the Nabesna River. 

(3) Ranged from the head of the Nabesna through the upper Chisana River 

to the White. 

(4) Ranged from Scottie Creek to the Snag. 

The first of these evidently includes the Nutzotin of earlier writers with their 
villages of Nandell near Wagner Lake and Tetling, and the third the Santotin. 
Khiltats, at the mouth of Nabesna River, must have belonged to the second 
division. 

Villages 

Allen (1887) mentions the village of Khiltats at the mouth of the Nabesna 

River. 


History — White contact with these people was made in 1885 and a 
settlement established at Chisana in 1913. 


538 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLn. 145 


Niska. This is a tribe of the Chimmesyan linguistic family which 
lived just beyond the boundaries of Alaska to the southeast and at 
times hunted over some of its territory. It belonged properly to 
British Columbia. (See Canada.) 


Natsit-kutchin. Signifying “those who dwell off the flats [i. e., 

Yukon River].”’ Also called: 

Gens du Large, by Ross (MS), from which came the name of Chandelar 
River. 

Natche’-Kutchin, by Dall (1877, p. 480). 

Neyetse-kutchi, by Richardson (1851, vol. 1, p. 399). 

Tpe-ttchié-dhidié-Kouttchin, by Petitot (1891). 

Connections —The Natsit-kutchin were one of the tribes of the 
Kutchin group of the northern division of the Athapascan linguistic 
stock. 

Location.—On Chandelar River. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated 200 Natsit-kutchin as of 
the year 1740. The census of 1910 returned 177. (See Kutcha- 
kutchin.) 


Tanaina. Own name, meaning “people” exclusive of Eskimo and 

Europeans. Also called Knaiakhotana. 

Connections.—The Tanaina belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
stock. 

Location.—According to Osgood (1934): ‘“‘The drainage of Cook Inlet 
north of Seldovia (59°20’ N. lat.), the north half of Iliamna Lake and 
its drainage, including Clark Lake. Since contact, possibly slight 
incursions have been made into territory formerly occupied by the 
Eskimo, notably Seldovia Bay and portions of I[liamna Lake.” 


Subdivisions 


Osgood (1936) gives the following: 
(1) Lower Inlet (Seldovia and Kachemak Bay). 
(2) Middle Inlet (Tustamena, Skilak, and Kenai Lakes and the adjacent 
coast). 
(3) Upper Inlet (Knik arm of Cook Inlet and its drainage). 
(4) Susitna (Susitna River and drainage). 
(5) Tyonek (west coastal region of Cook Inlet). 
(6) Iliamna (region of the north part of Iliamna Lake and its drainage). 
(7) Clark Lake (the region about Clark Lake). 


Villages 


Chinila, on the east side of Cook Inlet near the mouth of Kaknu River. 
Chuitna (not given by Osgood), on Cook Inlet at the mouth of Chuit River. 
Eklutna, at the head of Knik Arm. 

lliamna, near the mouth of the Iliamna River. 

Kasilof, on the east coast of Cook Inlet at the mouth of Kasilof River. 
Kasnatchin, at Anchor Point, Kenai Peninsula. 

Kenai, on the east side of Cook Inlet at the mouth of Kaknu River. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 539 


Kilchik (not noted by Osgood), on Lake Clark. 

Knakatnuk, opposite Nitak on the west side of Knik Arm, at the head of Cook 
Inlet. 

Knik, near the mouth of Knik River. 

Kultuk, on the east side of Cook Inlet near Nikishka. 

Kustatan, on the west side of Cook Inlet below Tyonek. 

Nikhkak, on Lake Clark. 

Nikishka, near East Foreland at the head of Cook Inlet. 

Ninilchik, on the east coast of Cook Inlet south of the mouth of Kasilof River. 

Nitak, on the east side of Knik Bay at the head of Cook Inlet and near Eklutna. 

Skilak, on the south side of Skilak Lake, Kenai Peninsula. 

Skittok, on Kaknu River and forming part of the Kenai settlement. 

Susitna, on Susitna River, Cook Inlet. 

Titukilsk, on the east shore of Cook Inlet and near Nikishka. 

Tyonek, on the west side of Cook Inlet. 

Zdluiat, on the east side of Knik Bay south of Nitak. 


History.—Cook Inlet received its name from Captain Cook who 
entered it in May 1778, but all of the natives met by him seem to 
have been Eskimo. The Russian settlement of Kodiak in 1784 
marked an important event for the history of the region because the 
Russians, assisted by Aleut hunters, at once began to exploit the 
animal wealth of the neighboring region, and Cook Inlet was a prin- 
cipal scene of their activities. In July 1786, Portlock and Dixon 
went to the very head of Cook Inlet and must have had dealings with 
the Tanaina because they met with considerable success in their trad- 
ing operations. Captain Douglas visited the inlet in 1788. Russian 
ownership gave place to ownership by the United States in 1867, but 
Cook Inlet was exploited relatively little until the railroad line was 
built from Seward to Fairbanks and skirted the head of the inlet for 
many miles. The Tanaina Indians were one of the last groups in 
Alaska to receive attention from ethnologists. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that there were about 1,200 
Tanaina in 1740. In 1818, 1,471 natives were enumerated in Cook 
Inlet. In 1825 Baron Wrangell returned 1,299. Veniaminoff (1840) 
gave 1,628 and in 1860 the Holy Synod returned 937. In 1869 Halleck 
and Colyer returned the grossly exaggerated estimate of 25,000. The 
census of 1880 returned 614 and that of 1890, 724. Mooney esti- 
mated 890 in 1900. (See Ahtena.) 


Tanana. Named from the Tanana River. 

Connections.—The Tanana belonged to the northern division of the 
Athapascan linguistic family. They were formerly erroneously 
classed among the Kutchin tribes. 

Location.—‘‘The drainage of the lower Tanana River below the 
Tok River, the region about the confluence of the Tanana and Yukon, 


540 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buut. 145 


and the region along the latter river above the confluence.”” [Osgood, 
1936.] 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Clatchotin, on Tanana River. 

Huntlatin, on Tanana River. 

Minchumina Lake people, around the lake of that name. 

Nuklukayet, a rendezvous for various tribes, on the north bank of the Yukon 
just below the mouth of the Tanana. 

Nukluktana, on Tanana River just below Tutlut River. 

Tatsa, on Yukon River. 

Tolwatin, on Tanana River. 

Tozikakat, north bank of the Yukon at the mouth of Tozi River. 

Tutlut, at the junction of Tutlut and Tanana Rivers. 

Weare, at the mouth of Tanana River. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates a possible population of 500 
in 1740 including the Nabesna. Richardson (1851) cut this estimate 
to 100. Dall (1870) made it 500, Petroff (1884), 300-700, Allen 
(1887) 600, the census of 1890, 373. In 1900, 370 were given and 
by the census of 1910, 415. (See Ahtena.) 


Tennuth-kutchin. Meaning ‘middle people.” Also called: 


Birch Creek Kutchin, Osgood (1934, p. 172). 

Birch River Indians, Whymper (1868, p. 255). 

Gens de Bouleaux, Dall (1870 p. 431). 

Connections.—The Tennuth-Kutchin were a tribe of the Kutchin 
group of the northern division of the Athapascan stock. 

Location.—In the region of Birch Creek. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimated that there were about 100 
Tennuth-Kutchin in 1740. They have long been extinct having been 
swept away in 1863, according to Dall (1870), by an epidemic of 
scarlet fever. (See Kutcha-kutchin.) 

Tlingit (literally Lingi’t). Signifying ‘‘people,”’ in their own language. 

Also called: 

Koluschan, a name given to them as a linguistic family by Powell (1891), 
originally a Russian or Aleut term referring to the labrets worn by their 
women. 

Connections.—The Tlingit were originally constituted into one 
linguistic stock by Powell, but show resemblances to the Athapascan 
dialects and to Haida which have induced Sapir (1915) to class the 
three together as the Na-déné. The exact nature of the relationship 
is still disputed. 

Location.—All of the coast and islands of Alaska from Yakutat 
Bay inclusive southward with the exception of the southern ends of 
Prince of Wales and Dall Islands and Annette Island, though these 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 541 


latter have been alienated from them only in comparatively recent 


times. 
Subdivisions and Villages 


Auk, on Stephens Passage and Douglas and Admiralty Islands, including the 
following villages: 

Anchguhlsu, opposite the north end of Douglas Island. 

Tsantikihin, on the site of the present Juneau. 

Chilkat, about the head of Lynn Canal, including these villages: 

Chilkoot, on the northeast arm of Lynn Canal. 

Deshu, at the head of Lynn Canal. 

Dyea, at the modern place of the same name. 

Katkwaahltu, on Chilkat River about 6 miles from its mouth. 

Klukwan, on Chilkat River 20 miles from its mouth. 

Skagway, at the site of the modern town of that name at the head of Lynn 
Canal. 

Yendestake, at the mouth of Chilkat River. 

Gonaho, at the mouth of Alsek River. 

Hehl, on Behm Canal. 

Henya or Hanega, on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island between Tlevak 
Narrows and Sumner Strait, including the following villages: 

Klawak, on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island. 

Shakan, a summer village on the northwest coast of Prince of Wales Island. 

Tuxican, on a narrow strait on the northwest coast of Prince of Wales Island. 

Huna, on Cross Sound, encamping in summer northward beyond Lituya Bay, with 
these villages: 

Akvetskoe, a summer village on Lituya Bay. 

Gaudekan, the chief town, now usually called Huna, in Port Frederick on the 
north shore of Chichagof Island. 

Hukanuwu, on the north side of Cross Sound between the mainland and 
Chichagof Island. 

Klughuggue, given by Petroff (1884) as a town on Chichagof Island but probably 
identical with one given by Krause (1885) on the opposite mainland, and 
perhaps the same as Tlushashakian. 

Kukanuwu, on the north side of Cross Sound. 

Tlushashakian, on the north side of the west entrance to Cross Sound. 

Hutsnuwu, on the west and south coasts of Admiralty Island, with these villages: 

Angun, north of Hood Bay, Admiralty Island. 

Killisnoo, on Killisnoo Island near Admiralty Island. 

Nahltushkan, on Whitewater Bay, on the west coast of Admiralty Island. 

Kake, on Kupreanof Island, the designation being sometimes extended to cover 

Kuiu and Sumdum, and including a village of the same name. 

Kuiu, on Kuiu Island, with a village of the same name in Port Beauclerc. 
Sanya, about Cape Fox, their village being called Gash, at Cape Fox. 
Sitka, on the west coasts of Baranof and Chichagof islands, with these villages: 

Dahet. 

Keshkunuwu. 

Kona. 

Kushtahekdaan. 

Old Sitka, a summer camp on Baranof Island. 

Sitka, site of the modern town. 

Tlanak. 


542 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLw. 145 


Tluhashaiyikan, as indicated by the native word straight opposite Mount 
Edgecombe. 

Silver Bay, a summer camp. 

Stikine, on Stikine River and the neighboring coasts, with these villages: 

Kahltcatlan, a place called also Old Wrangell. 

Katchanaak, on the site of modern Wrangell. 

Shakes’ Village, on Etolin Island. 

Sumdum, at Port Houghton, the village and location being the same. 
Taku, on Taku River and Inlet, Stevens Channel, and Gastineau Channel, with 
the following villages: 

Sikanasankian, on Taku Inlet. 

Takokakaan, at the mouth of Taku River, as the name itself implies. 
Tongass, at the mouth of Portland Canal, on the north side, with a village of the 

same name on Tongass Island, Alexander Archipelago. 
Yakutat, principally about Yakutat Bay but extending westward in later times 
to the mouth of Copper River, including these villages: 

Chilkat, a village or group of villages on Controller Bay. 

Gutheni, north of Dry Bay. 

Hlahayik, on Yakutat Bay behind an island called Hlaha which gave it the 

name. 

Yakutat, on Yakutat Bay. 

History.—According to native tradition, some Tlingit families 
came into their present territories from the coast farther south while 
others entered from the interior. In 1741 Chirikoff and Bering dis- 
covered the Tlingit country, and they were soon followed by other 
Russian explorers as well as by explorers and traders from México, 
England, France, and New England. Among the noteworthy events 
of this period was the visit of La Pérouse to Lituya Bay in 1786 and 
the tragic loss of two of his boats loaded with men in the tide rips at 
its entrance. In 1799 the Russians built a fort near the present Sitka. 
In 1802 the Sitka Indians rose upon this post, killed part of its inmates, 
and drove the rest away, but 2 years later Baranoff drove them from 
their fort in turn and established on its site a post which grew into the 
present Sitka, the capital successively of Russian America and 
Alaska Territory until 1906. Russian rule was so harsh that there were 
frequent outbreaks among the natives so long as the territory remained 
under their control. In 1836 to 1840 occurred a terrible epidemic of 
smallpox, brought up from the Columbia River, whichswept away hun- 
dredsofIndians. In1840 the Hudson’s Bay Company took a lease from 
the Russian American Company of all their lands between Cape Spen- 
cer and latitude 54° 40’ N. In 1867 the Tlingit were transferred with 
the rest of the Alaskan people to the jurisdiction of the United States 
and since then they have been suffering ever more rapid transformation 
under the influences of western civilization. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 10,000 
Tlingit in 1740. Veniaminoff (1840) gave 5,850 for the year 1835, 
and an enumeration made by Sir James Douglas 4 years later showed 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 543 


5,455 exclusive of the Yakutat. In 1861 Lt. Wehrman of the Russian 
Navy reported 8,597 as the result of a census. Petroff (1884) in the 
census of 1880 gave 6,763, but the census of 1890 showed only 4,583, 
not counting the Tlingitized Ugalakmiut. The census of 1910 re- 
turned 4,426; that of 1920, 3,895; and that of 1930, 4,462. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Russian capital 
and the first American territorial capital Sitka was on Tlingit land, 
as is the later and present territorial capital Juneau. The ports of 
this tribe, especially those in the Chilkat country, figured prominently 
in the great Klondike rush. 


Tranjik-kutchin. Signifying ‘‘one who dwells along the river [i. e., 
the Black River].”’ Also called: 
Black River Kutchin, by Osgood (1936). 
Cache River People, by Cadzow (1925). 
Connections.—The Tranjik-kutchin belonged to the Kutchin group 
of tribes of the northern division of the Athapascan linguistic stock. 
Location.—In the country around Black River. 
HMistory.—(See Kutcha-kutchin. ) 
Population.—(See Kutcha-kutchin. ) 


Tsimshian. The home of the Tsimshian is on Skeena River, British 
Columbia, and the coast to the southward. In 1887, however, 
Rev. William Duncan, missionary of the Church of England at 
Metlakatla, 15 miles south of Port Simpson, having become 
involved in difficulties with his superiors, moved to Annette Island, 
Alaska, with the greater part of the Indians who had been under 
his charge. A grant of land was subsequently obtained from the 
United States Government, and the Tsimshian have continued in 
occupancy. The census of 1910 reported 729; that of 1920, 842; 
and that of 1930, 845. (See Canada.) 


Vunta-kutchin. Signifying “those who dwell among the lakes.” 
Also called: 


Crow River Kutchin, by Osgood (1934, p. 173), from a stream in their 
country. 

Gens des Rats, by Dall (1877, p. 31). 

Rat People, by Dall (1869, p. 261). 

Zjén-ta-Kouttchin, by Petitot (1891,.p. 361), meaning ‘‘muskrat people,” 
a name probably based on a legend, though a tributary of the Porcupine 
is called Rat River. 


Connections—The Vunta-kutchin are one of the group of Kutchin 
tribes belonging to the northern division of the Athapascan linguistic 
family. 

Location.—On the middle course of Porcupine River and the country 
to the northward, including Old Crow Creek. 


544. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Population—Mooney (1928) estimated that the Vunta-Kutchin 
together with the Tukkuth-kutchin, and “Tutcone-kutchin” com- 
prised a population of 2,200 in 1670, but they had been reduced to 
1,700 in 1906 and the census of 1910 returned only 5 under this 
name by itself. (See Kutcha-kutchin.) 


CANADA 


Algonkin. Significance uncertain, but Hewitt (Hodge, 1907) suggests 
Micmac algoomeaking or algoomaking, “‘at the place of spearing 
fish or eels [from the bow of a canoe].’’ It was applied originally 
to one band, the Weskarini. 

Connections—The Algonkin were the easternmost division of the 

Chippewa group of the Algonquian linguistic stock. 

Location —On Ottawa River but particularly its northern trib- 
utaries. 
Subdivisions 

Abitibi, about Lake Abitibi. 

Barriére, about Barriére and Kakabong Lakes. 

Dumoine, on Dumoine River and Lake, Ontario. 

Kichesipirini, on Allumette Island in Ottawa River and hence often called 
Algonkins of the Island. 

Kipawa, on Kipawa River, Maganasibi River, and the north bank of Ottawa 
River opposite Mattawa. 

Lac des Quinze, Lac des Quinze and to the north and east. 

Maniwaki or River Desert, from the upper course of the Riviére Liévre to Black 
River. 

Ononchataronon, between St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers and near Montreal. 

Sagaiguninini, southwest of Ottawa River in 1640, perhaps not of this group, as 
nearly all the other bands are on or northeast of the Ottawa River. 

Timiskaming, on and near Lake Timiskaming. 

Weskarini, on the north side of Ottawa River below Allumette Island and on 
Gatineau River. 

Villages 


Egan, Maniwaki township, Ottawa County, Quebec. 

Hartwell, in Ottawa County, Quebec. 

Isle aux Tourtes, mission, for Algonkin and Nipissing, probably on Ottawa River 
but soon removed to Oka. 


FHistory.—The Algonkin were encountered by the French when that 
nation first settled Canada and became firmly attached to them. 
In the war between the French and Iroquois many bands were driven 
out of their country, some uniting with the Ottawa, while others fled 
to the north and east and drifted back into their old territories on the 
cessation of hostilities. They have since continued in the same region 
though suffering steady modification in culture and manner of life 
from contact with Europeans. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 545 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1600 there were 6,000 
in the Algonkin and Ottawa bands combined. In 1884, 3,874 were 
returned from Quebec Province and eastern Ontario. The total popu- 
lation of the bands recognized as Algonkin in 1900, but including a few 
Iroquois, was 1,536. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The principal claim of 
these people to notoriety rests on the fact that they, or rather one of 
their bands, first bore the name Algonkin from which the name of the 
great Algonquian linguistic stock was derived, as well as a multitude of 
names of places and terms of various sorts. 

Arapaho. This tribe probably occupied Canadian territory in pre- 
historic times in southern Saskatchewan and perhaps in southern 
Manitoba. (See Wyoming.) 

Assiniboin. A tribe of the Siouan linguistic family which separated 
from the Dakota in the late prehistoric period, living first, it is 
thought, about Rainy Lake and Lake of the Woods but, from about 
1675, on Assiniboin and Saskatchewan Rivers west of Lake Winni- 
peg. Their lands extended southward to the Missouri and a part 
of the tribe were finally placed on reservations in Montana. (See 
Montana.) 

Atsina. These were a branch of the Arapaho and were popularly 
known as Gros Ventres, or, in order to distinguish them from an- 
other tribe so called, Gros Ventres of the Plains. They were some- 
times known as Fall Indians from the circumstance that they were 
supposed formerly to have lived at the falls of the Saskatchewan 
River, near the junction of its north and south branches. (See 
Montana.) 


Bellabella. An Indian corruption of the word Milbank taken back 
into English. Also called: 
Elk*ba’sum#, Bellacoola name. 
Hé@’iltsuq, own name. 
Milbank Sound Indians, popular name. 

Connections.—Dialectically the Bellabella were closely related to the 
Kwakiutl south of them and more remotely to the Nootka of the west 
coast of Vancouver Island and Cape Flattery, Washington, the whole 
constituting the Wakashan linguistic family. 

Location.—The coast of British Columbia from Rivers Inlet to Doug- 
las Channel inclusive. 

Subdivisions 
Haisla Dialect: 


Kitamat, on Douglas Channel. 
Kitlope, on Gardiner Canal. 


546 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuu. 145 


Heiltsuk Dialect: 

Bellabella proper, embracing the Kokaitk on the north shore of Milbank Sound, 
Oealitk on the south shore of Milbank Sound, and the Oetlitk on the middle 
section of Milbank Sound. 

China Hat, on Tolmie Channel and Mussel Inlet. 

Nohuntsitk, at the lower end of Wikeno Lake. 

Somehulitk, at the north end of Wikeno Lake. 

Wikeno, on Rivers Inlet. 


Villages 

The Wilkeno had the following, all with one possible exception, on Rivers 
nlet: Niltala, Nuhitsomk, Somhotnechau, Tlaik, Tsiomhau, Wikeno. 

History.— Bodega and Maurelle passed along the coast occupied by 
the Bellabella in 1775, and they were immediately afterward visited 
by English and American explorers and traders. The Hudson’s Bay 
post of Fort McLoughlin was established in their territory in 1833, but 
the foundation of Victoria in 1843 probably had greater influence on 
the lives of these people. The traders were soon followed by mission- 
aries and permanent white settlers. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were 
2,700 Indians of the Bellabella group. In 1906 there were 852. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—These people are in- 
teresting as exhibiting an apparent replacement of a patrilineal system 
of descent by a matrilineal system. 


Bellacoola. A name applied by the Kwakiutl; significance unknown. 
Phonetic form of name Bi’lxula. Also called: 


Tallion Nation, from the name of a town, in early reports of the Canadian 
Indian Office. 


Connections.—They are an isolated body of Indians belonging to the 
Salishan linguistic family. 

Location.—On North Bentinck Arm, South Bentinck Arm, Dean 
Channel and River, and Bella Coola River, B. C. 


Subdivisions 


At the present time there are but two bodies of Bellacoola: The Kimsquit, on 
Dean Inlet; and the Bella Coola, at the mouth of Bella Coola River. Older writers 
speak of the Nuhalk, which was the name of Bella Coola Valley; Taliomk, at the 
head of South Bentinck Arm, abandoned about 20 years ago; and the Nooth- 
lakamish, reported by Tolmie and Dawson (1884) on North Bentinck Arm. 


Villages 
(as given by MclIlwraith) 


Aimats, north of Anutskwakstl near the Peisela River. 

Aketi, on the south side of Dean River about 1 mile from the sea. 
Anutlitlk, near the mouth of Dean River, still occupied. 
Anutskwakstl, an eastern extension of Tlokotl. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 547 


Aseik, on a stream flowing into a bay at the southwest end of South Bentinck 
Arm. 

Asenane, on the shore of a bay on the south side of Bella Coola River. 

Asktlta, at Salmon House on Upper Dean River. 

Atlklaktl, near the south bank of Peisela River about %4-mile from the sea. 

Ikwink, on Dean River 28 miles from the sea. 

Kadis, on the east side of South Bentinck Arm, about %-mile from Nuik River. 

Kameik, on the west bank of Necleetsconnay about 34-mile from the sea. 

Kankilst, on the east side of South Bentinck Arm “slightly north of the island 
opposite the hot springs on the west side of the fiord.” 

Koapk, on the east side of the mouth of a creek entering the head of South Ben- 
tinck Arm from the south. 

Komkutis, the upper (eastern) continuation of Stskeitl. 

Kwiliutl, on the north side of the Atnarko a few hundred yards above the forks. 

Nuekmak, near some stagnant pools on the north side of Bella Coola River a 
short distance above Snoonikwilk. 

Nuhwilst, on the shore of Dean Channel six miles from Satsk. 

Nuiku, on a raised mound on South Bentinck Arm south of the mouth of Nuik 
River. 

Nukaakmats, on the north shore of Bella Coola River about a mile above Tsilkt. 

Nukits, on the south side of Bella Coola River 11!4 miles from the sea. 

Nuskapts, on the south bank of Dean River about 25 miles from the sea. 

Nuskek, on the shore of North Bentinck east of the creek that flows into it at 
Green Bay. 

Nuskelst, on the north side of Bella Coola River opposite the mountain of the 
same name. 

Nutal, on the bank of Dean River at the bottom of the canyon. 

Nutltleik, 200 yards from Bella Coola River on a creek flowing in from the north 
and about 31 miles from the sea. 

Nutskwatlt, on the south side of Dean River about 1!4-miles from the sea. 

Okmikimik, at the present village of Hagensburg 11 miles from the sea. 

Ososkpimk, on the north shore of Bella Coola River about -mile above Aimats. 

Satsk, at the mouth of the Kimsquit River. 

Senktl, on the south side of Bella Coola River opposite Tciktciktelpats. 

Setlia, on the east side of South Bentinck Arm about }4-mile from its junction 
with North Bentinck. 

Siwalos, on the north side of Dean River about 35 miles from the sea, where the 
trail to the interior left the river valley. 

Skomeltl, on the south side of Bella Coola River about 3 miles from the sea. 

Snoénikwilk, on a curving promontory on the south bank of Bella Coola River 
about 4 miles from the sea. 

Snutele, on the south bank of Bella Coola River above Nukaakmats. 

Snutlelelatl, on the north side of the Atnarko about 10 miles from the forks. 

Stskeitl, on the south bank of Bella Coola River about }4-mile from the sea. 

Stuik, on the point between the Atnarko and Whitewater Rivers, which join to 
form the Bella Coola. 

Talio, on the west side of the mouth of the river, last location, which was fre- 
quently changed. 

Tasaltlimk, on the shore of North Bentinck Arm west and north of the mouth of 
the Necleetsconnay. 

Tciktciktelpats, some distance from the north bank of the Bella Coola River, the 
river course having changed. 

Tlokotl, above Atlklaktl on Peisela River. 


548 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuu. 145 


Tsaotltmem, on the east side of South Bentinck Arm about 4 miles from Kankilst. 
Tsilkt, on the north shore of Bella Coola River above Tsomootl. 
Tsomootl, the upper continustion of Skomeltl. 

Boas (1898) gives also the following names, most of which are probably syn- 
onyms for some of the above: Koatina, Nusatsem, Osmakmiketlp, Peisela, Sakta, 
Selkuta, Slaaktl, Sotstl, Tkeiktskune, Tskoakkane. 

History—Alexander Mackenzie entered the country of the Bella- 
coola after crossing the Rocky Mountains in 1793 at about the same 
time that they began to have dealings with vessels of European ex- 
plorers and traders. The rest of their history has been the usual one 
of modification in customs, missionization, supervision by Indian 
Office officials, and at least temporary decline. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,400 Bella- 
coola in 1780; in 1902 only 311 were returned. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Bellacoola are 
noted particularly for their isolated position, a Salishan island among 
Kwakiutl Indians, for their peculiar cosmologic system recorded by 
Boas (1897), and as having given their name to Bella Coola River. 


Beothuk. Probably from a native word signifying ‘‘man,” or “human 
being.” Also called: 
Macquaejeet or Ulnd mequadegit, Micmac name, signifying “Tred man,” 
and evidently a translation of the popular English name. 
Ulndbah, Abnaki name. 

Connections.—While certain Algonquian elements are to be found 
in the remnants of the Beothuk language which have been preserved, 
the greater part of it is so different thal these Indians have been placed 
in an independent linguistic stock, the Beothukan. 

Location.—When first brought to the knowledge of Europeans, the 
Beothuk seem to have occupied all of the island of Newfoundland 
except possibly the northernmost extremity. 

History.—The Beothuk were probably first met by Europeans under 
John Cabot in 1497, and from that time forward were frequently 
visited by explorers and fishermen. Differences having arisen be- 
tween them and the French, they were gradually reduced in numbers, 
and the Micmac, who had settled meanwhile in the southern part of 
the island, drove them north until they were confined to some terri- 
tory near Exploits River. In 1810 Sir Thomas Duckworth issued a 
proclamation for their protection, but in 1827 when Carmack’s expe- 
dition, conducted on behalf of the Beothuk Institution for the civiliza- 
tion of the native savages, made a careful search for them, not one 
was encountered. The last of them may have crossed the Strait of 
Belle Isle to unite with the Algonquian Indians of Labrador. (See 
Hodge, 1907, article on Beothukan family.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 549 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the total Beothuk popula- 
tion in 1600 to have been 500. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Beothuk were 
noted for their great use of red ocher, from which came the name 
usually bestowed upon them by Europeans; for their linguistic distinc- 
tiveness; and for the mystery surrounding their connections with other 
tribes and their ultimate fate. 


Carriers. The name was derived from a native custom whereby a 
widow was obliged to carry about with her in a basket for 3 years 
the ashes of her deceased husband. Also called: 


Atlishimih, Bellacoola name. 
Takulli, by several Athapascan tribes, and said to mean “people who go 
upon the water.” 


Connections.—The Carriers spoke an Athapascan dialect. 
Location.—Around Kutsuk, Francis, Babine, and Stuart Lakes and 
the headwaters of the Fraser River as far south as the neighborhood 
of Quesnel. 
Subdivisions 


The lists collected by different investigators vary tosome extent. The following 
names are adapted from Morice (1906): 
Southern Carriers: 

Tautin, on Fraser River about old Fort Alexander. 

Naskotin, in Chentsithala and Nesietsha villages, on Fraser River near the 
mouth of Blackwater. 

Tanotenne, at the junction of Stuart and Nechako Rivers. 

Ntshaautin, on Blackwater River and upper Nechaco River. 

Natliatin, inhabiting Natleh and Stella, at either end of Fraser Lake. 

Northern Carriers: 

Nikozliautin, on the southern half of Stuart Lake and on Pintce River, in two 
villages, Nakraztli at the outlet of Stuart Lake, and Pintce on Stuart Lake 
at the mouth of Pintce River. 

Tatshiautin, at the head of Stuart Lake and on Tachi River and Thatlah, 
Tremblay, and Connolly Lakes, in the following villages: Kezche on Taché 
River, Sasthut on Connolly Lake, Tachy at the mouth of Taché River, 
Tsisli at the mouth of Tatlah River, Tsisthainli on Lac Trembleur, Yucuche 
at the head of Stuart Lake and on the portage between it and Sabine Lake, 
and probably Saikez south of Nechaco River. 

Babines: 

Nataotin, on middle Babine River and Babine lake, in two towns: Latha- 
krezla (on the north side of Babine Lake) and Neskollek (on Babine Lake). 

Hwotsotenne, on Bulkley River, hunting as far as Francis Lake, and occupying 
the following villages: 

Hagwilget, on Bulkley River 3 miles southeast of Hazleton. 
Hwotat, on the east side of Babine Lake near its outlet. 
Keyerhwotket, on Bulkley River. 

Lachalsap, on Bulkley River. 

Tsechab, on Bulkley River. 

Tselkazkwo, on Bulkley River. 


550 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuw. 145 


Dawson (1880 b) makes the people of Kezche distinct from the Tatshiautin 
under the name of Kustsheotin, the people of Tachy distinct from the rest of the 
Tatshiautin under the name Tatshikotin, and the people of Stella distinct from 
the other Natliatin under the name Stelatin. 

History.—The Carriers were visited in 1793 by Alexander Mackenzie 
when on his way from Athabaska Lake to the Pacific Ocean. When 
Fort McLeod was built in the Sekani country by Simon Fraser in 
1805, it served for a time as a trading point for the Carriers, but in 
1806 Fort St. James was established in their own country, near the 
outlet of Stuart Lake. Missionary work was begun among them in 
1843 by the Roman Catholic priest, Father Demers, and proved very 
successful. After that time white traders, miners, and settlers came 
in increasing numbers, and finally the country was penetrated by the 
Janadian transcontinental railroad to Prince Rupert. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that the Carrier tribe 
numbered 5,000 in 1780. It was given as 2,625 in 1839. Morice 
(1889) gave an estimate of 1,600, while the Canadian Office of Indian 
Affairs reported 1,551 in 1902 and 1,614 in 1909. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Carriers attracted 
attention at an early period on account of the peculiar custom to 
which they owe their name. Later they were particularly com- 
mended to the attention of ethnologists as furnishing an excellent 
illustration of the manner in which cultures spread on account of the 
mixture of coastal and interior features, and for the very thorough 
studies of them made by Rev. A. G. Morice. 

Chilcotin. More phonetically rendered Tsilkotin, meaning ‘‘people 
of young man’s [Chilcotin] river.” 

Connections.—The Chilcotin belong to the Athapascan linguistic 
stock. 

Location.—Chiefly in the valley of Chilcotin River. 


Subdivisions 


In later years a distinction has grown up between the reservation Chilcotin 
and those who have continued their aboriginal customs at a distance from the 
reservations, the latter being called the ‘‘Stone Chilcotin” or ‘‘Stonies.” The 
former Morice (1889) divides into the Tlathenkotin (in Ilothenka village on 
Chilcotin River), Tleskotin (in the village of Tlesko on Chilcotin River near its 
junction with Fraser River), and Toosey (near Williams Lake Agency). 


History.—Alexander Mackenzie (1801) passed through their terri- 
tory in 1793, and Fort Chilcotin was established among them in 1829. 
To employees of the Hudson’s Bay Company soon succeeded miners 
and more permanent settlers. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1780 there were 2,500 
Chilcotin. In 1906 they were placed at 450. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 551 


Connection in which they have become noted.—The name of the Chil- 
cotin is perpetuated by Chilcotin River, Chilko River, and Chilko 
Lake. 

Chippewa or Ojibwa. Bands of this immense tribe extended from 
Lake Nipissing westward along the north shore of Lake Superior, 
and in later times they settled in southern Manitoba, in the northern 
part of the present States of Minnesota and North Dakota and 
along the southern shore of Lake Superior. The Saulte Ste. Marie 
was considered by them their ancient center of dispersion. North- 
ward they reached the upper course of Albany River. (See Min- 
nesota.) 

Chipewyan. From a Cree word meaning “pointed skins,’ referring 
to the pointed parkas or shirts which they wore. Also called: 


) 


Montagnais, French name. 
Mountaineers, English name. 
Yatcheé-thinyoowuc, Cree name, meaning “strangers.” 

Connections.—The Chipewyan formed a dialectic division of the 
Athapascan linguistic stock. 

Location.—The boundaries of this group of Indians have changed 
considerably but in general their territory lay north of Churchill 
River, between Great Slave Lake and Slave and Athabaska Rivers 
on the west and Hudson Bay on the east. 


Subdivisions 


The principal subdivisions seem to have been as follows: 

Athabaska, between Lake Athabaska and Great Slave Lake and in the territory 
eastward. 

Desnedekenade, along Slave River, near Fort Resolution. 

Etheneldeli or Caribou-Eaters, mainly about Lakes Caribou, Axe, and Brochet. 

Thilanottine, in later times on the shores of Lacrosse Lake and between Cold 

Lake and Fort Locha. 

The Tatsanottine or Yellow Knives, sometimes considered a subdivision, 
Jenness (1932) believes to have been independent. It is doubtful whether the 
distinction represented by these divisions was more than temporary. (See the 
section on History.) 


History.—Petitot (1876 a) states that the Chipewyan tribe was 
living on Peace River in 1718, that after the Cree had obtained guns 
they drove the Etchaottine or Slaves from their hunting grounds 
along Slave River, but that they were attacked in turn by the Chipe- 
wyan and expelled from the country, the Chipewyan taking their 
places. Jenness wholly discredits this tradition, however, and 
gives the following summary of events bearing on the relative position 
of Chipewyan and Cree tribes during this period: He thinks that 
when the fur-trading posts were established on Hudson Bay the 


552 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buxu. 145 


Chipewyan already occupied the country from the Great Slave Lake 
and Lake Athabaska eastward— 


. . . but that the intense fusion resulting from the fur trade obliterated the old 
subdivisions into tribes or bands and broke down also dialectic differences. Then 
the Cree pushed northward and seized the country between Lake Athabaska and 
Great Slave Lake [the Slave River], driving the Beaver up the Peace River [the 
Beaver and Cree together driving the Sekani into the Rockies] and confining the 
Chipewyan or Northern Indians to the territory designated by Hearne. Then 
came the smallpox epidemic that decimated both Cree and Chipewyan, but 
particularly the Cree, who were forced to withdraw a little from Chipewyan 
territory, allowing the latter to reoccupy Lake Athabaska, the Slave River, and 
the southern and eastern shores of Great Slave Lake, though a few Cree still 
lingered on Lake Athabaska and on the Slave River. This was the condition in 
Mackenzie’s day, who defines the territory of the Chipewyans as extending from 
100°-110° W. by 60°-65° N., although his unpublished MS. and that of Roderic 
Mackenzie make them the principal inhabitants of Lake Athabaska, especially 
its eastern end. The establishment of posts on Lake Athabaska broke the Chipe- 
wyans up into two groups, an eastern that still traded at the posts on Hudson 
Bay, and a western that traded at Lake Athabaska. Subsequently the Cree 
recovered a little and penetrated this western country in greater numbers, so 
that today there are practically no Chipewyans near the Mackenzie River except 
at Fond du Lac, at the east end of Lake Athabaska, and at Fort Resolution and 
around the south shores of Great Silver Lake. Slave River is occupied by Cree, 
as is also Fort Chipewyan; and the Cree dwell all along the Peace River up to 
Peace River Landing, and have a large colony at Hudson Hope. [Jenness. 


The Athabaska division consisted simply of those Chipewyan who 
chose to trade at Lake Athabaska. The Athabaska or “‘Athapuskow”’ 
Indians of Hearne (1795) were Cree. 

Population.—Alexander Mackenzie (1801) estimated that there 
were about 400 Athabaska Chipewyan, and Mooney (1928) that there 
were 3,500 Chipewyan in all, including 1,250 Caribou-eaters, in 1670. 
In 1906 there were 2,420, of whom 900 were Caribou-eaters. 

Connection in which they have become noted—From one of their 
Chipewyan bands, the Athabaska, has come the term Athapascan 
selected by Powell (1891) for the designation of the linguistic stock to 
which the Chipewyan belong, although, curiously enough. the name 
does not appear to be Athapascan at all. 

Comox. Significance unknown; so called by the Lekwiltok. Also 
called: 


Catlé/ltx, own name. 


Connections.—The Comox constituted a dialetic group of the coastal 
division of the Salishan linguistic family. 

Location —On the east coast of Vancouver Island including both 
sides of Discovery Passage, between the Puntlatch and Kwakiutl. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 553 


Subdivisions 


Clahoose, on Toba Inlet. 

Comox, on both sides of Discovery Passage between Chancellor Channel and 
Cape Mudge. 

Eéksen, about Oyster Bay. 

Homalko, on the east side of Bute Inlet. 

Kaike, on the southeast coast of Valdes Island. 

Kakekt, at Cape Lazo. 

Sliammon, on Malaspina Inlet. 

Tatpods, on the eastern part of Valdes Island. 


History—The Comox were visited by Europeans somewhat later 
than the Cowichan (q. v.), otherwise their history has been the same. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were 400 
Comox on Vancouver Island and 1,400 on the mainland. In 1906 he 
gives 59 and 265 respectively. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—An important port on 
Vancouver Island is named after the Comox. 


Cowichan. Significance unknown. 

Connections.—The Cowichan were one of the principal dialectic 
groups of the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic stock. They 
were closely connected with the Salishan Indians, who occupied the 
valley of Fraser River from its mouth nearly to Spuzzum. (See Stalo.) 

Location.—On the southeast coast of Vancouver Island between 
Nanoos Bay and Saanich Inlet. 


Subdivisions 


Clemclemalats, in Cowichan Valley. 

Comiakin, in Cowichan Valley. 

Hellelt, on Chimenes River. 

Kenipsim, in Cowichan Valley. 

Kilpanlus, in Cowichan Valley. 

Koksilah, in Cowichan Valley. 

Kulleets, on Chimenes Bay. 

Lilmalche, on Thetis Island. 

Malakut, on Saanich Inlet. 

Penelakut, on Kuper and Galiano Islands. 

Quamichan, in Cowichan Valley. 

Siccameen, on Oyster Bay. 

Somenos, in Cowichan Valley. 

Tateke, on Valdes Island, southeast of Vancouver Island and north of Galiano 
Island. 

Yekolaos, on Thetis Island. 


History.—These people (the Cowichan) may have been visited by 
Juan de Fuca in 1592 and were certainly met by several later expedi- 
tions to the northwest coast by Spaniards, English, and Americans. 
Early in the nineteenth century Hudson’s Bay Company traders 
began to come into the country, and, most important for the history 


554 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu. 145 


of the native people, was the founding of Victoria in 1843. The rush 
of miners came a few years later and the subsequent history of the 
Cowichan has been that of most tribes subjected to continuous 
contact with Europeans, though they have never been driven entirely 
out of their ancient territories. 

Population.—Mooney’s (1928) estimate of the Vancouver Island 
Cowichan for the year 1780 is 5,500 as against a population of 1,298 
in 1907. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name of the Co- 
wichan has been given to a lake, river and valley on Vancouver Island. 


Cree. Contracted from Kristinaux, the French form of Kenistenoag, 
given as a name they applied to themselves. Also called: 


Ana, Annah, Ennas, Eta, various forms of an Athapascan word, meaning 
“foes.” 

Iyiniwok, or Nehiyawok, own name, meaning “‘those of the first race.”’ 

Nathehwy-within-yoowuc, meaning “southern men” (Franklin, 1823). 

Nehiyaw, Chippewa name. 

O’pimmitish Ininiwuc, meaning ‘“‘men of the woods.”’ 

Shahé’, Hidatsa name. 

Saie’kuin, Siksika name. 

Sha-i-yé, or Shi-é-ya, Assiniboin name, meaning “enemies.” 

Shi-e-4-la, Dakota name. 

Southern Indians, by the Hudson Bay traders. 


Connections.—The Cree are one of the type people of one of the two 
greatest divisions of the Algonquian linguistic family. 

Location.—When the Cree first came to the knowledge of Europeans 
they extended from James Bay to the Saskatchewan, the Téte de 
Boule of the upper Ottawa forming a detached branch. For their 
later extensions see History below. 


Subdivisions 


A major distinction is usually drawn between the Paskwawininiwug (Plains 
Cree) and Sakawininiwug (Woodland Cree). The former are subdivided into the 
Sipiwininiwug (River Cree) and Mamikininiwug (Lowland Cree). Hayden (1862) 
gives the following band names, nearly all said to have been derived from the name 
of a chief: Apistekaihe, Cokah, Kiaskusis, Mataitaikeok, Muskwoikakenut, 
Muskwoikauepawit, Peisiekan, Piskakauakis, Shemaukau, Wikyuwamkamu- 
senaikata. These are probably identical in part with the following bands of Plains 
Cree given by Skinner (1914): Katepoisipi-wiinuik (Calling River (Qu’Appelle) 
Band) also called Kagiciwuinuwuk (Loud Voices Band, from their famous chief), 
Wabuswaianik (Rabbit Skins), Mamakitce-wiinutk (Big Gizzard People), 
Paskokopa-wiinuik (Willow People), Nutimi-iniujk (Poplar People), Cipi- 
winiudk (River People), Saka-winoutk (Bush People), Masnipiwiniudk (Painted 
or Pictured People), ‘Little Dogs,’ (Piapot’s Band), Asinskau-winiuik (Stone 
People), Tcipoaian-winiuik (Chipewyan People), Niopwattk (Cree-Assiniboine), 
Sakbwatsik (Bush Assiniboine). Skinner (1914) expresses uncertainty as to 
whether the names of the last three were nicknames due to intimacy between the 
bands so designated and the foreign tribes mentioned, or whether the tribes 
themselves were of mixed ancestry. For the following names of bands of the 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 555 


Woodland Cree I am indebted to Dr. John M. Cooper (personal information): 
Barren Ground Cree (on the west side of James Bay at its entrance), Fort Albany 
Band (on the lower course of Albany River), Kesagami Lake Band (at the southern 
end of James Bay), Moose Factory Band (the Monsoni proper), on the lower course 
of Moose River, Northern Téte de Boule (at the head of St. Maurice River), 
Southern Téte de Boule (on the middle course of St. Maurice River). This list 
is incomplete, leaving out of consideration particularly the bands later formed 
toward the west, though two of these latter were the Sakittawawininiwug (Cree 
of Cross Lake) and the Ayabaskawininiwug (Athabaska Lake Cree). It must 
not be supposed that any of these have had a connected history from early times. 
They represent, for the most part, the later rearrangement following on the 
establishment of trading posts. However, the location of some of them was no 
doubt determined in the first instance by that of the old bands or by the same 
geographic advantages originally responsible for them. (See section on History.) 

History.—The Cree were known to French traders and missionaries 
as early as the first half of the seventeenth century, and about the end 
of that century they rose to a position of importance owing to the use 
made of them as guides and hunters in the prosecution of the fur 
trade. The English first came in contact with them through the posts 
of the Hudson’s Bay Company established in their territory on Hudson 
Bay beginning in 1667 and for a time there was great rivalry between 
the French and English for their favor and patronage. At an early 
period the Cree formed an alliance with the Assiniboin, who wished to 
be on good terms with them so that they could have access to the 
Hudson Bay posts where they could obtain guns and powder to assist 
them in their wars with their kindred, the Dakota. This alliance 
also enabled the Cree to push southward as far as Red River and 
territories of the present United States. Acquisition of rifles and the 
impetus given by the fur trade also induced them to undertake adven- 
turous journeys to the west and north. A party of Cree reached the 
delta of the Mackenzie River just before Sir Alexander Mackenzie, 
and other Cree bands were raiding the Sekani up the Peace River into 
the Rocky Mountains at the same time. Today there are many of 
the Cree descendants in the north and west, around Little Slave Lake, 
at Hudson Hope on Peace River, along the Lower Peace, and on 
Lake Athabaska and Slave River down to Great Slave Lake. The 
trails they blazed in their raids were followed by Mackenzie and other 
fur-traders. There is a little band among the Sarsi, and they have 
mingled their blood with every Plains tribe, even including the 
Blackfeet.! 

Their later history has been closely bound up with the activities of 
the Hudson’s Bay and Northwest Fur Companies, and though Euro- 
peans and European influence have steadily filtered into their country, 


1 For much of this information I am indebted to Mr. D. Jenness, formerly Chief of the Anthropological 
Division of the National Museum of Canada, Ottawa, Canada. 


556 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu. 145 


the utility of the Cree in the promotion and preservation of the fur 
trade has prevented that displacement and depletion so common 
among the tribes of the United States. 

Population—Mooney (1928) estimated 20,000 Cree at the period 
of first white contact, including 5,000 Monsoni and related peoples in 
1600 and 15,000 Cree proper and Maskegon in 1670. This agrees 
very closely with another estimate for the year 1776. At the present 
day they are supposed to number all told about 10,000. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The principal claim of 
the Cree to notoriety has been in connection with the activities of the 
Hudson’s Bay Company and the fur trade. 


Crow. A tribe of the Siouan linguistic family which may have lived 
on the north side of the International Boundary in late prehistoric 
times in the region indicated on the map, though this is uncertain. 
(See Montana.) 


Dakota. A well-known tribe of the same family as the Crow. As 
already noted, the Assiniboin branched from them in prehistoric 
times, but some bands of Dakota, notably that of Sitting Bull, re- 
sorted to Canadian territory at a later period. (See South Dakota.) 


Eskimo. Said to be from Abnaki Algonquian Esquimantsic, or 
possibly from its Chippewa equivalent Ashkimeq, signifying ‘‘eaters 
of raw flesh.’”” This may be described as the traditional interpre- 
tation, but Dr. Thalbitzer, an eminent authority on the Eskimo, 
believes it to have been derived from a term applied to them by 
the French missionaries, signifying “the excommunicated ones’’ 
(Thalbitzer, 1950), from which he also derives the place name 
Escoumains. Also called: 


A’lvayé’lilit, Chukchi name, meaning “those of alien language.”’ 

Anda-kpoen, Kutchin name. 

Ara-k’e, Bastard Loucheux (Kutchin) name. 

En-na-k’e, Kawchodinne name, meaning “‘enemies.”’ 

En-na-k’ié, Slave name, meaning “enemies.” 

Eshkibod, Chippewa form given by Baraga. 

Hisky, by Hudson’s Bay Company employees. 

Innuit, Innuin, ete., own name, meaning ‘‘people.” 

Kaladlit, name adopted for themselves by Greenland Eskimo, said to be a 
corruption of Skandinavian Skraeling. 

Nottaway, term used by most Algonquian people for all enemies, meaning 
“snakes.” 

Ot’el’nna, Montagnais name. 

Seymés, term used by sailors of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s ships, and 
derived from a native term of greeting, said to be Seymo or Teymo. 

Skraellingar, Scandinavian name, meaning ‘‘small people.” 

Ta-kutchi, Kutchin name, meaning ‘‘ocean people.” 

Tciéek-riné2, Seneca name, meaning ‘‘seal people.” 

Ultséhaga, Kenai name, meaning “slaves.” 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 557 


Connections.—The Eskimo constituted one linguistic stock, the 
dialects of which were in general very close together, but the Aleut 
(q. v.) of Alaska formed a somewhat divergent group. Chiefly on 
physical grounds they are usually set apart from all other aborigines 
of America. 

Location.—The Eskimo are known to have extended anciently from 
Mingan opposite Anticosti Island, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, around 
the entire northeastern and northern coasts of Canada to the Alaskan 
boundary except for the southwest coast of Hudson Bay, and to have 
occupied Baffin Land and many of the other Islands of the Arctic 
Archipelago, both sides of Smith Sound, and the entire west coast 
and most of the east coast of Greenland. In later times they retired 
from northeastern Greenland, from the north coast of the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, and from part of the west coast of Hudson Bay. Their 
occupancy of the Mingan section of Labrador appears to have been 
brief. They fringed the coast of Alaska almost completely to Copper 
River and in part a little beyond, and had settled along the north coast 
of Siberia. (See also Alaska.) 


Subdivisions 


The Eskimo were subdivided into a very large number of local groups always 
changing, and any list of these is highly conventional. The following is believed 
to include the most important names and is based upon the best authorities availa- 
ble. The enumeration is from east to west, except for Greenland, omitting of 
course those territories occupied in early historic times and now abandoned. 


I. Labrador Eskimo: 
Aivitumiut, about Rigolet. 
Avitumiut, about Hopedale. 
Chuckbuckmiut, in Saglek Bay. 
Itivimiut, on the east coast of Hudson Bay. 
Kanithlualukshuamiut, on George River. 
Kigiktagmiut, on the Belcher Islands and other islands off the east shore of 
Hudson Bay. 
Killinunmiut, at Cape Chidley. 
Koksoakmiut, between Whale and Payne Rivers, especially on Koksoak River. 
Konithlushuamiut, Okkak. 
Netcetumiut, about Cartwright, in Sandwich Bay. 
Nunenumiut, about Nain. 
Nuvugmiut, at Cape Wolstenholme. 
Puthlavamiut, in Battle Harbor, Labrador. 
Unavamiut, at Hopes Advance. 
II. Central Eskimo: 
Aivillirmiut, in Wager Inlet and along the coast from Cape Fullerton to Cape 
Penrhyn. 
Akudnirmiut, from Home Bay to Scott Inlet. 
Akuliarmiut, from Icy Cape to beyond Amadjuak Bay. 
Akulliakatagmiut, on the south shore of Dolphin and Union Straits. 
Arveqtormiut, in Bellot Strait. 
Arviligyuarmiut, from Committee Bay nearly to Rae Strait. 


558 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Asiagmiut, opposite Melbourne Island. 

Ekaluktogmiut, from Dease Strait to Denmark Bay. 

Haneragmiut, on the north shore of Dolphin and Union Straits west of the last. 

Haningayormiut, on the upper course of Backs River. 

Harvagqtormiut, on Mistake Bay. 

Hauheqtormiut, from Pistol Bay to Rankin Inlet. 

Iglulirmiut, on Fury and Hecla Straits. 

Tluilermiut, on Adelaide Peninsula and King William Island. 

Kanghiryuachiakmiut, in Minto Inlet. 

Kanghiryuarmiut, on the south coast of Banks Island and Prince Albert Sound. 

Kiglinirmiut, on the eastern end of Victoria Island. 

Kilusiktomiut, on Bathurst Inlet, on the mainland. 

Kingnaitmiut, over most of the northern shore of Cumberland Sound. 

Kogloktogmiut, on the lower course of Coppermine River. 

Nagyuktogmiut, on the north shore of Coronation Gulf. 

Nedlungmiut, between Jones’ Sound and Norwegian Bay, Ellesmere Land. 

Nenitagmiut, on Arctic Sound. 

Netsilingmiut, on Boothia Peninsula, 

Noahonirmiut, at Cape Krusenstern. 

Nugumiut, in Frobisher Bay. 

Padlimiut, two groups: (1) from Cape Dier to Home Bay; (2) from Cape 
Esquimaux to Ferguson River on the west coast of Hudson Bay. 

Pilingmiut, at the end of Fox Channel(?). 

Pingangnaktogmiut, on the south shore of Coronation Gulf. 

Puivlirmiut, on the north shore of Dolphin and Union Strait west of Lady 
Franklin Point. 

Qaernermiut, Chesterfield Inlet. 

Qaumauangmiut, from Resolution Island to Iey Cove, Baffin Island. 

Qinguamiut, at the head of Cumberland Sound. 

Sagdlirmiut,.on the scuth coast of Southampton Island. 

Saumingmiut, becween Cape Mercy and Exeter Sound. 

Sikosuilarmiut, about King Charles Cape. 

Sinimiut, on Pelly Bay. 

Talirpingmiut, on the south shore of Cumberland Sound and Netilling Lake. 

Tununerusirmiut, in Admiralty Inlet. 

Tununirmiut, in Ponds Inlet and Eclipse Sound and on both sides of Lancaster 
Sound at its east end. 

Ukkusiksaligmiut, on the lower part of Backs River. 

Wallirmiut, from Rae River to Dease Bay on Great Bear Lake. 

III. Mackenzie Eskimo: 

Avvagmiut, between Franklin Bay and Liverpool Bay. 

Kigirktarugmiut, from the mouth of the Mackenzie River into Alaska. 

Kittegaryumiut, on the west side of Mackenzie Delta. 

Kurugmiut, on Hutchison Bay. 

Nuvorugmiut, from Anderson River to Cape Brown. 

IV. The Greenland tribes are as follows, these divisions being named for the most 
part for modern places: 


Agto. Disko. 
Ameralik. Egedesminde. 
Anarkat. Fiskernaes. 
Angmagsalingmiut. Frederikshaab. 


Arsuk. Godhavn. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 559 


Godthaab. Nugsuak (two groups (1) on the south 
Holstensborg. side of Nugsuak Peninsula; (2) from 
Igdlorssuit. Melville Bay to Cape Shackleton). 
Ita Eskimo. Pamiagdluk. 

Ivigtut Pisigsarfik. 

Jakobshavn. Proven. 

Julianehaab. Puisortok. 

Kangamiut. Sukkertoppen. 

Kangatsiak. Tasiusak, about the place so-called. 
Kangerdlugsiatsiak. Tingamirmiut. 

Karajak. Umanak. 

Nanortalik. Upernivik, about Upernivik. 


V. Alaskan Eskimo tribes and towns: 
Aglemiut, from the mouth of Nushagak River to Heiden Bay, including these 
villages: 
Igagik, at the mouth of Ugaguk River. 
Ikak, near Naknek Lake. 
Kingiak, on the north side of the mouth of Naknek River, Bristol Bay. 
Paugwik, with Aleut, at the mouth of Naknek River, on the south side. 
Ugashik, at the mouth of Ugashik River. 
Unangashik, at Heiden Bay, Alaska Peninsula. 
Chingigmiut, in the region of Cape Newenham and Cape Peirce; villages: 
Aziavik, near Cape Peirce. 
Kinegnak, on Cape Newenham. 
Tzahavak, near Cape Newenham. 
Chnagmiut, on the shore of Pastol Bay, in the Yukon Delta, and on both banks 
of Yukon River as far as Razboinski; villages: 
Aiachagiuk, on the right bank of the Yukon near the head of the delta. 
Aimgua, near the mouth of Yukon River. 
Alexeief, in the Yukon Delta. 
Andreafski, on the north bank of Yukon River 5 miles above a former 
Russian redoubt of that name. 
Ankachak, on the right bank of the lower Yukon, perhaps identical with 
Kenunimik. 
Apoon, on Apoon Pass, the northern mouth of the Yukon River. 
Ariswaniski, on the right bank of the lower Yukon. 
Avnulik, the exact location not given. 
Chatinak, near the mouth of Yukon River. 
Chefoklak, near the head of Yukon Delta. 
Chukchuk, in the Yukon Delta. 
Claikehak, on the north bank of Yukon River above Tlatek. 
Fetkina, on the north arm of Yukon Delta. 
Ingichuk, in the Yukon Delta. 
Kanig, on the north bank of Yukon River near its mouth. 
Kashutuk, on an island in the Yukon Delta. 
Kenuninuk, given as 15 miles above Andreafski on the right bank but per- 
haps identical with Ankachak, 
Komarof, on the north bank of Yukon River. 
Kotlik, on Kotlik River. 
Kusilvak, on Kusilvak Island at the mouth of Yukon River. 
Kwiahok, at the southern mouth of the Kwikluak Pass of the Yukon River. 
Nigiklik, at the head of the Yukon Delta. 


560 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu. 145 


Ninvok, near the Yukon Delta. 

Nokrot, near Cape Romanzof on the coast of Norton Sound. 

Nunapithlugak, in the Yukon Delta, on the right bank of Apoon Pass. 

Onuganuk, at the Kwikluak mouth of the Yukon. 

Pastoliak, on the right bank of Pastoliak River near the southern shore of 
Norton Sound. 

Razboinski, on the right bank of the Yukon near the head of the delta. 

-Starik, on the south bank of Yukon River above the head of the delta. 

Takshak, on the north bank of the Yukon near Razboinski. 

Tiatiuk, in the Yukon Delta. 

Tlatek, on the north bank of Yukon River 35 miles above Andreafski. 

Chugachigmiut, from: the western extremity jof, Kenai Peninsula to the delta 
of Copper River; villages: 

Ingamatsha, on Chenega Island, Prince William Sound. 

Kanikluk, on the north shore of Prince William Sound. 

Kiniklik, on the north shore of Prince William Sound. 

Nuchek, where the Russians established a stockade and trading post known 
as Fort Konstantine, at Port Etches, Hinchinbrook Island, Prince William 
Sound. 

Tatitlek, on the northeastern shore of Prince William Sound. 

Ikogmiut, on both banks of Yukon River from the territory of the Chnagmiut 
as far inland as Makak; villages: 

Asko, on the right bank of the lower Yukon below Anvik. 

Bazhi, on the Yukon at the upper mouth of Innoko River. 

Ignok, on the right bank of the Yukon near Koserefski. 

Ikatlek, on the Yukon 30 miles below Anvik. 

Ikogmiut, also called ‘“‘Mission,’’ on the Yukon near its southernmost bend. 

Ikuak, on the Yukon at its southernmost bend. 

Ingrakak, on the right bank of the Yukon near longitude 161°30’ W. 

Katagkak, on Innoko River above its junction with the Yukon. 

Khaik, on the northern bank of Yukon River nearly opposite Koserefski; 
given once apparently as Claikehak. 

Kikhkat, on the north bank of Yukon River near Ikogmiut. 

Kochkok, on the right bank of Yukon River near the Kuskokwim portage. 

Koko, on the north bank of the Yukon below Ikogmiut. 

Koserefski, formerly Kaiyuhkhotana, on the left bank of the Yukon near the 
mouth of Shageluk slough. 

Kuyikanuikpul, on the right bank of Yukon River below Koserefski. 

Kvikak, formerly Kaiyuhkhotana, on Yukon River 30 miles above Anvik. 

Makak, on the right bank of the Yukon below Anvik. 

Nukluak, on the left bank of the Yukon opposite Ikogmiut Mission. 

Nunaikak, on the Yukon opposite Koserefski, perhaps the same as Ukak. 

Nunaktak, on Yukon River above Anvik. 

Paimiut, on the southern bank of the Yukon 38 miles above Ikogmiut, lati- 
tude 62°10’ N., longtitude 169°10’ W. 

Pogoreshapka, on the right bank of the Yukon about 20 miles from Koseref- 
ski. 

Ribnaia, on the right bank of the Yukon above Ikogmiut. 

Staria Selenie, on the Yukon River below Ikogmiut. 

Uglovaia, on the right bank of the lower Yukon between Ikogmiut and Raz- 
boinski. 

Ukak, on the Yukon nearly opposite Koserefski, perhaps the same as Nunai- 
kak. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 561 


Imaklimiut, on Big Diomede Island in Bering Strait in U. 8S. S. R. territory. 
Inguklimiut, on Little Diomede Island in Bering Strait; their village called 
Inalik. 
Kagmalirmiut, on the lower course of Colville River but not extending to its 
mouth. 
Kaialigmiut, north of the Kuskwogmiut, between Kuguktik River and Cape 
Romanzof and on Nelson Island; villages: 
Agiukchuk, opposite the southern shore of Nelson Island. 
Anogok, on the coast just west of Kuskokwim Bay; given by Porter (1893) as 
Magemiut but actually Kaialigmiut. 
Asiknuk, on Hooper Bay near Cape Romanzof. 
Chichinak, on a small river flowing into Etolin Strait. 
Kaialik, in the Yukon Delta near Azun River. 
Chalit, on the left bank of Kuguklik River, northwest of Kuskokwim Bay. 
Igiak, inland from Scammon Bay and near Magemiut territory. 
Kashigalak, in the center of Nelson Island. 
Kashunuk, near the Kaskunuk outlet of the Yukon River. 
Kenachananak, on the coast opposite Nunivak Island. 
Kuskunuk, on Hooper Bay. 
Kvigatluk, in the lake district northwest of Kuskokwim River. 
Nuloktolok, on the south side of Nelson Island. 
Nunvogulukhluguk, in the Big Lake region. 
Nushanamut, south of Hooper Bay. 
Sfaganuk, between Dall Lake and Etolin Strait. 
Ukak, on Hazen Bay. 
Ukuk, on Nelson Island. 
Unakagak, at the head of Hazen Bay. 
Kaniagmiut, on Kodiak Island and the mainland coast from Iliamna Lake to 
Ugashik River, and the southern coast to longitude 159° W.; villages: 
Afognak, comprising 3 settlements on Afognak Island. 
Aiaktalik, on one of the Goose Islands near Kodiak. 
Akhiok, on Alitak Bay, Kodiak Island. 
Aleksashkina, on Wood Island in St. Paul Harbor, Kodiak Island. 
Alexandrovsk, on Graham Harbor. 
Ashivak, near Cape Douglas. 
Chiniak, at the east end of Kodiak Island. 
Fugitive, at Hobson Harbor, Sitkalidak Island near Kodiak. 
Igak, on Afognak Island east of Afognak. 
Kaguyak, on the southwestern coast of Kodiak Island. 
Kaluiak, on Chignik Bay. 
Kanatak, on Shelikof Strait. 
Karluk, on the northern coast of Kodiak Island. 
Katmai, on the southeastern coast of Alaska Peninsula. 
Kattak, on Afognak Island east of Afognak. 
Kiliuda, on the eastern coast of Kodiak Island. 
Kodiak, established by the Russians, on the eastern end of Kodiak Island. 
Kuiukuk, on the southeastern coast of Alaska Peninsula. 
Kukak, on Kukak Bay on the coast of Alaska Peninsula. 
Liesnoi, on Wood Island near Kodiak. 
Mitrofania, on Mitrofania Island, south of Chignik Bay. 
Nauklak, 15 miles east of Naknek Lake, Alaska Peninsula. 
Nunamiut, on Three Saints Harbor, Kodiak Island. 
Nunikiak, on the southwestern shore of Afognak Island. 


562 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULn, 145 


Orlova, at Eagle Harbor, Ugak Bay, Kodiak Island. 

Ostrovki, on Kachemak Bay, on the coast of Kenai Peninsula. 

Seldovia, on the south side of Kachemak Bay, on the west coast of Kenai 
Peninsula. 

Sutkum, on Sutwik Island off the southern coast of Alaska Peninsula. 

Three Saints, on the site of the oldest Russian settlement in Alaska, Kodiak 
Island. 

Uganik, on the northern coast of Kodiak Island. 

Uhaskek, on the southeastern coast of Kodiak Island. 

Ukshivikak, on the southwestern coast of Kodiak Island. 

Uyak, near the salmon canneries on Uyak Bay, Kodiak Island. 

Uzinki, on Spruce Island, Kodiak group. 

Yalik, on Nuka Bay, eastern coast of Kenai Peninsula. 

Yelovoi, on Spruce Island, Kodiak group. 

Kanianermiut, on the headwaters of Colville River. 
Kaviagmiut, on the southern part of Seward Peninsula westward from Norton 

Bay, many wintering on the eastern shore of Norton Sound; villages: 

Aiacheruk, near Cape Nome. 

Akpaliut, on Norton Sound west of Golofnin Bay. 

Anelo, at Port Clarence. 

Anlik, on Golofnin Bay. 

Atnuk, near Darby Cape. 

Aziak, on Sledge Island. 

Chaik, on the shore of Norton Sound. 

Chainruk, at Port Clarence. 

Chinik, on Golofnin Bay. 

Chiukak, on the peninsula enclosing Golofnin Bay. 

Iknetuk, on Golofnin Bay. 

Imoktegokshuk, at Cape Nome. 

Kachegaret, at Port Clarence. 

IKXalulek, at Port Clarence. 

Kaveazruk, at Port Clarence. 

Kaviak, southeast of Port Clarence. 

Kogluk, at Cape Nome. 

Kovogzruk, at Port Clarence. 

Metukatoak, at Port Clarence. 

Netsekawik, on Golofnin Bay. 

Okinoyoktokawik, on the coast opposite Sledge Island. 

Opiktulik, on the north shore of Norton Sound. 

Perebluk, at Port Clarence. 

Senikave, on the mainland opposite Sledge Island. 

Shinnapago, at Port Clarence. 

Siningmon, on Golofnin Bay. 

Sitnazuak, west of Cape Nome. 

Sunvalluk, on the coast opposite Sledge Island. 

Takchuk, east of Port Clarence. 

Tubuktolik, on the north shore of Norton Sound. 

Uinuk, at the mouth of Nome River. 

Ukivok, on King Island. 

Ukodlint, on Golofnin Bay. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 563 


Kevalingamiut, on the coast of the Arctic Ocean from Cape Seppings and 
Cape Krusenstern inland to Nunatak River. Later they moved farther 
north, expelling the Tikeramiut from Port Hope and the district beyond; 
villages: 

Ipnot, at Point Thomson. 
Kechemudluk, at Cape Seppings. 
Kivualinak, near Port Hope. 
Ulezara, near Cape Kruzenstern. 

Kiatagmiut, on Kvichivak River and Iliamna Lake; villages: 
Chikak, on Iliamna Lake. 
Kakonak, on the south shore of Iliamna Lake. 
Kaskanak, on Kvichak River where it flows from Lake Iliamna. 
Kichik, on Kichik Lake east of Iliamna Lake. 
Kogiung, on Bristol Bay at the mouth of Kvichak River. 
Kvichak, on Kvichak River. 
Nogeling, on the outlet of Lake Clark. 

Kigirktarugmiut, between Manning Point and the mouth of the Mackenzie 
River. 

Killinermiut, on the middle course of Colviile River. 

Kinugumiut, on Seward Peninsula in the region about Cape Prince of Wales; 
villages: 

Eidenu, at Cape Prince of Wales. 

Kigegen, inland from Cape Prince of Wales. 
Mitletukeruk, location unknown. 

Nuk, at Port Clarence. 

Pikta, near Cape Prince of Wales. 
Shishmaref, at Shishmaref Cape. 

Sinauk, on the north shore of Port Clarence. 
Niktak, on Cape Prince of Wales. 

Kowagmiut, on Kowak River east of Kotzebue Sound; villages: 
Kikiktak, at the mouth of Hotham Inlet, Kotzebue Sound. 
Kowak, at the mouth of Kowak River. 

Umnokalukta, on Black River, a branch of Kowak River. 

Unatak, on Kowak River. 

Sheshalek, on the north shore of Kotzebue Sound, near the mouth of Noatak 
River, a trading settlement for several towns. 

Kukparungmiut, on the Arctic Ocean between Point Belcher and Cape Beaufort; 
village: 

Kokolik, at Point Lay. 

Kunmiut, on Kuk River above Wainright Inlet; village: 
Kilimantavie, on the Arctic coast west of Wainright Inlet. 

Kuskwogmiut, on the shores of Kuskokwim Bay and the banks of Kuskokwim 
River as far inland as Kolmakof; villages: 

Agomekelenanak, in the Kuskokwim district. 

Agulakpak, near Kuskokwim River. 

Aguliak, on the eastern shore of Kuskokwim Bay. 

Agumak, location not given. 

Akiachak, on Kuskokwim River. 

Akiak, on Kuskokwim River. 

Aklut, on Kuskokwim River at the mouth of the Eek. 

Akmiut, on Kuskokwim River 10 miles above Kolmakof, also given as a 
Taiyanyanokhotana (Koyukon) village, perhaps Eskimoized in later time .. 

Anagok, on the coast near Cape Avinof. 


564 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun. 145 


Apahiachak, location uncertain. 

Apokak, near the mouth of Kuskokwim River. 

Atchaluk, location uncertain. 

Bethel, a Moravian Mission, close to Mumtrelek. 

Chimiak, on Kuskokwim River. 

Chuarlitilik, on Kanektok River. 

Ekaluktaluk, location uncertain. 

Etoluk, location uncertain. 

Igiakchak, location uncertain. 

Iliutak, on Kuskokwim Bay. 

Kahmiut, location uncertain. 

Kakuiak, on Kuskokwim River. 

Kaltshak, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River about longitude 161° 
(159° ?) W. 

Kaluktuk, location uncertain. 

Kamegli, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River above Bethel. 

Kanagak, location uncertain. 

Kanak, location uncertain. 

Kenachananak, on the coast opposite Nunivok Island. 

Kiktak, on an island in Kuskokwim River 25 miles above Bethel. 

Kinak, on the north bank of the Kuskokwim River. 

Kinegnagak, location uncertain. 

Klchakuk, on the east side of the entrance to Kuskokwim Bay. 

Kleguchek, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River at its mouth. 

Klutak, location uncertain. 

Kolmakof, a Moravian mission consisting of Eskimo mixed with Athapascans, 
200 miles from the mouth of the Kuskokwim River. 

Kongiganak, near the entrance to Kuskokwim Bay. 

Kuilkluk, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River, perhaps identical with a 
town given as Quieclohchamiut or Quiechochlogamiut. 

Kukluktuk, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River 30 miles below Kolmakof. 

Kulvagavik, on the west shore of Kuskokwim Bay. 

Kuskok, on Kuskokwim River near its mouth. 

Kuskovak, on the west bank of Kuskokwim River near its mouth. 

Kweleluk, on a small river in the tundra north of Kuskokwim Bay. 

Kwik, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River 10 miles above Bethel. 

Kwikak, on upper Kuskokwim River. 

Kwilokuk, location uncertain. 

Kwinak, on the east side of Kuskokwim River near its mouth. 

Lomavik, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River. 

Mumtrak, on Good News Bay. 

Mumtrelek, on the west bank of lower Kuskokwim River. 

Nak, on the north bank of Kuskokwim River. 

Nakolvakik, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River near the mouth. 

Napai, mixed with Athapascans, on the bank of Kuskokwim River a little 
above Kolmakof. 

Napaiskak, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River about 4 miles below 
Bethel. 

Napakiak, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River about 10 miles below 
Bethel. 

Nochak, on Chilitna River. 

Novotoklak, location uncertain. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 565 


Okaganak, on the south bank of Kuskokwim River. 

Oknagak, on the north bank of Kuskokwim River. 

Oyak, on the east shore of Kuskokwim Bay, just north of the mouth of 
Kanektok River. 

Papka, on the north shore of Kuskokwim Bay. 

Shevenak, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River. 

Shiniak, on the east shore of Kuskokwim Bay at the end of deep-water 
navigation. 

Shokfak, on a lake in the tundra north of Kuskokwim Bay. 

Takiketak, on the east shore of Kuskokwim Bay. 

Togiaratsorik, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River. 

Tuklak, on Kuskokwim River below the Yukon portage. 

Tuluka, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River. 

Tuluksak, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River 40 miles above Bethel. 

Tunagak, location uncertain. 

Ugovik, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River. 

Uknavik, on Kuskokwim River 10 miles below the Yukon portage. 

Ulokak, location uncertain. 

Vinasale, a trading post on the upper Kuskokwim. 

Yakchilak, near the mouth of Kuskokwim River. 

Magemiut, in the lake country of Alaska from Cape Romanzof almost to the 

Yukon River, villages: 

Anogok, see Kaialigmiut. 

Chefoklak, on the left bank of Yukon River at the head of the delta. 

Gilak, near Cape Romanzof. 

Kipniak, at the mouth of the southern arm of Yukon River. 

Kweakpak, in the tundra south of the Yukon Delta. 

Kwikak, on the coast of the Yukon Delta, south of Black River. 

Nanvogaloklak, on one of the lakes connected with Kvichivak River. 

Nunochok, in the Big Lake region. 

Tefaknak, south of the Yukon Delta. 

Tiengak, on Kvichavak River. 

Malemiut, on the coast of Norton Sound north of Shaktolik, and on the neck 

of Seward peninsula; villages: 

Akchadak-kochkond, location uncertain. 

Atten, near the source of Buckland River. 

Chamisso, on Chamisso Island in Eschscholtz Bay. 

Inglutaligemiut, on Inglutalik River. 

Kongik, on Buckland or Konguk River. 

Koyuktolik, on Koyuk River. 

Kugaluk, on Spafarief Bay on the shore of Kotzebue Sound. 

Kungugemiut, on Buckland River. 

Kviguk, at the mouth of Kviguk River, on the shore of Norton Sound. 

Kvinkak, on Kvinkak River at the upper end of Norton Sound. 

Kwik, two villages: (1) on a stream near the head of Norton Sound; (2) on 
the west side of Bald Head, Norton Bay. 

Nubviakchugaluk, on the north coast of Norton Sound. 

Nuklit, near Cape Denbigh, Norton Sound. 

Shaktolik, on the east coast of Norton Sound. 

Taapkuk, at Cape Espenberg, Kotzebue Sound. 

Ulukuk, on Ulukuk River east of Norton Sound. 

Ungalik, at the mouth of Ungalik River at the eastern end of Norton Sound. 


566 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Noatagmiut, on the lower course of Noatak River; villages: 
Aniyak, on the Arctic coast just north of Kotzebue Sound (?). 
Noatak, on the lower course of Noatak River. 

Nunatagmiut, on the upper course of Noatak River. 

Nunivagmiut, occupying the greater part of Nunivak Island and a small dis- 

trict about Cape Vancouver on Nelson Island; villages: 

Chulik, on Nunivak Island, in 1880 comprising two villages called Chuligmiut 
and Upper Chuligmiut. 

Inger, on Nunivak Island. 

Kaliukluk, south of Cape Vancouver on Nelson Island. 

Koot, near Cape Etolin, Nunivak Island. 

Kwik, on the southern shore of Nunivak Island. 

Tanunak, near Cape Vancouver, Nelson Island. 

Nushagagmiut, on the banks of Igushik, Wood, and Nushagak Rivers and the 

shores of Nushagak Bay; villages: 

Agivavik, on Nushagak River. 

Akak, location uncertain. 

Akuliukpak, on Pamiek Lake. 

Akulivikchuk, on Nushagak River. 

Anagnak, on Wood River. 

Angnovchak, location uncertain. 

Annugamok, on an eastern tributary of Nushagak River. 

Ekuk, near the mouth of Nushagak River. 

Golok, location uncertain, perhaps the same as Kalignak. 

Igivachok, location uncertain. 

TIgushik, on Igushik River. 

Imiak, at the outlet of Aleknagik Lake. 

Insiachak, location uncertain. 

Kakuak, 60 miles up Nushagak River. 

Kalignak, on a tributary of Nushagak River. 

Kanakanak, on Nushagak Bay. 

Kanulik, on the left bank of Nushagak River near its mouth. 

Mulchatna, on Mulchatna River, a branch of Nushagak River. 

Stugarck, on Nushagak Bay. 

Tikchik, on Lake Tikchik, on the Kuskokwim portage. 

Trinachak, location uncertain. 

Vuikhtulik, on the northern shore of Lake Alaknakik. 

Yaoherk, location uncertain, perhaps identical with Ekuk. 

Nuwukmiut, at Point Barrow; villages: 

Isutkwa, on the site of the United States Signal Station at Point Barrow. 
Nuwuk, at Point Barrow. 
Pernyu, on the western shore of Elson Bay, close to Point Barrow. 
Ongovehenok, on Kugrua River near Point Barrow. 
Selawigmiut, on Selawik Lake east of Kotzebue Sound: 
Sidarumiut, west of Point Barrow; villages: 
Atnik, near Point Belcher. 
Attenok, on Seahorse Islands. 
Charnroruit, on Seahorse Islands. 
Nunaria, near Point Belcher. 
Perignak, on Seahorse Islands. 
Pinguishuk, on Seahorse Islands. 
Sidaru, between Wainwright Inlet and Point Belcher. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 567 


Tikeramiut, at Point Hope; village: 
Tikera or Nuna, at Point Hope. 

Togiagmiut, about Togiak Bay and River; villages: 
Aguliukpak, on lake of same name at head of Wood River. 
Eklik, on Togiak River near its mouth. 

Kashaiak, on Togiak River near its junction with the Kashaiak River. 
Kassiank, on Togiak River. 

Kulukak, on Kukulak Bay. 

Togiak, at the mouth of Togiak River. 

Tuniakpuk, on lower Togiak River. 

Ualik, on Kulukak Bay. 

Ugalakmiut, at the mouth of Copper River and on Kayak Island; in later 
years they became thoroughly altered by contact with the Tlingit so that 
they were often classed with the latter people. Village: 

Eyak, at the entrance of Prince William Sound. 

Unaligmiut, extending from the eastern shore of Norton Sound inland to the 

coast range; villages: 

Anemuk, on Anvik River. 

Iguik, on Norton Sound. 

Kiktaguk, on the southern coast of Norton Sound. 

Pikmiktalik, near the mouth of Pikmiktalik River, just north of Cape 
Romanzof. 

Tachik, on St. Michael Island, near the Russian redoubt, and now included 
in the town of St. Michael. 

Topanika, on the eastern coast of Norton Sound. 

Unalaklik, at the mouth of Unalalik River. 

Utkiavinmiut, on the Arctic coast west of Point Barrow; villages and summer 
camps: 

Ernivwin, inland from Point Barrow. 
Imekpung, near Point Barrow. 
Ipersua, not accurately located. 
Kuosugru, on a dry place inland from Point Barrow. 
Nakeduxo, not accurately located. 
Nunaktuau, close to Refuge Inlet. 
Pengnok, near Cape Smythe. 
Sakamna, inland from Point Barrow. 
Sinyu, inland from Point Barrow. 
Utkiavi, at Cape Smythe. 

Walakpa, not located definitely. 

Utukamiut, originating at Icy Cape; they later ranged along the Arctic coast 
from Point Hope to Wainright Inlet, and inland to Colville River; villages: 

Kaiaksekawik, on the north side of Icy Cape. 
Kelemanturuk, near Icy Cape. 
Utuka, at Icy Cape. 
Yuit, around East Cape, Indian Point, and Cape Chukotsky, Siberia, and on 
St. Lawrence Island, Alaska; and divided into: 
(1) The Nodékalit, at East Cape; villages: 
Enmitahin, north of East Cape. 
Nabukak, on East Cape. 
Ulak, inhabited in part by Chukchi, just north of East Cape. 
(2) The Aiwanat, about Indian Point; villages: 
Avak, near Cape Chukotsky. 
Imtuk, near Indian Point. 


568 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Napakutak, on an island near Indian Point (?). 

Nasskatulok, at the head of Plover Bay. 

Rirak, in Plover Bay. 

Tesik, occupied partly by Chukchi, on the west shore of Chechin Bay. 
Unisak, on Indian Point. 

(3) The Wuteélit, at Cape Ulakhpen; villages: 
Chenlin, including Chukchi, west of the next. 
Cherinak, near Cape Ulakhpen. 

(4) The Eiwhuelit, on St. Lawrence Island; villages: 
Chibukak, at Northwest Cape. 

Chitnak, on the south coast. 

Kialegak, near Southeast Cape. 

Kukuliak, on the north coast. 

Puguviliak, at Southwest Cape. 

Punuk, on Punuk Island, east of St. Lawrence Island. 

History —The Norse settlers of Greenland were the first white men 
to come in contact with Eskimo, though it is probable that the latter 
had relatively little to do with the extermination of the European 
colonists as was once thought. They wererediscovered by Frobisher 
or perhaps even earlier explorers and contact between White and Eski- 
mo was continuous from that time forward. In the eighteenth cen- 
tury the Danes began to resettle Greenland, and about the same time 
relations were opened between the western Eskimo and the Russians. 
The Eskimo of Labrador were missionized by Moravians, whose efforts 
among them are famous in the annals of missionary work. The central 
Eskimo were not reached until much later than those of the east and 
west, the first Europeans to come in contact with them being usually 
whalers, though some of the eighteenth-century explorers, such as 
Hearne (1795), reached them overland from the south. Many of 
their tribes were scarcely known at all until the recent explorations of 
Stefansson (1914) and Jenness (1922, 1923). 

Population.—Mooney (1928) gives an estimate of 3,600 Eskimo in 
Labrador in 1600 and 22,300 in the rest of Canada in 1670; 10,000 in 
Greenland in 1721; and 40,000 in Alaska in 1740. As Mooney in pre- 
paring the data for each of his areas selects a date just before contact 
with the Whites made itself felt appreciably, we may assume that the 
figures given had remained relatively stationary for a considerable 
period and add them together for our total, which is 75,900. For the 
entire Eskimo population we must add 1,200 living in Asia, which gives 
us 77,100. To obtain the population of the linguistic stock we must 
increase this by the number of the Aleut, 16,000, making 93,100. 
Jenness thinks Mooney’s estimates are much too high. He has kindly 
supplied me with the following figures for the present population: 
Canada, 6,184 (Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. for 1927) ; Greenland, 14,066 
(Statistisk Aarbog for 1922, Copenhagen, 1922), including, however, 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 569 


about 300 Europeans; Alaska, 13,698 (census of 1920); Labrador 
(from an estimate before it was entirely united to Canada), probably 
not over 1,200 since a large part of the Peninsula was included in 
Canada. This gives a total of approximately 35,000. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—From the time when 
they were first known to Europeans, the Eskimo were marked off from 
all other peoples in the minds of the former by their peculiar physical 
type, and the unique character of their customs and manner of life. 
They are distinguished as having been the first of all people of America 
to encounter Europeans, and they have earned an honorable name for 
themselves through the assistance they have rendered to Arctic 
explorers at all periods. They may be called the one people who did 
not have to discover America, since they lived on both sides of Bering 
Strait and hence in both the New and the Old Worlds. 


Etchaottine. Significance unknown. Also called: 


Awokanak, Cree name, meaning “slaves.” 
Brushwood Indians, by Franklin (1823). 
Slaves, Slavey, by traders by translation of the Cree term. 
Connections.—The Etchaottine belonged to the Athapascan linguistic 
stock, their closest relatives having been, apparently, the Kawchottine. 
Location.—In the valley of Mackenzie River between Great Slave 
Lake and Fort Norman. 
Subdivision 
The following names are mainly from Petitot (1891): 
Desnedeyarelottine, on the banks of upper Mackenzie River. 
Eleidlinottine, at the confluence of Liard and Mackenzie Rivers, their territory 
extending to La Martre, Grandin, and Taché Lakes. 
Etchaottine, between Liard River and the Divide, along Black, Beaver, and 
Willow Rivers. 
Etcheridiegottine, on the middle course of Liard River. 
Etechesottine, between Great Slave and La Martre Lakes. 
Klodesseottine, on Hay River. 
Petitot speaks of another band at Fort Norman, but applies no special name to it. 
Mistory.—Petitot (1891) states that the Etchaottine anciently ex- 
tended as far south as Lake Athabaska but that the Cree, on obtaining 
guns, drove them out of that region and, when they had taken refuge 
in the islands in Great Slave Lake, pursued them thither and slaught- 
ered many. Although it is by no means certain that the Etchaottine 
ever extended as far as Lake Athabaska (see history of the Chipe- 
wyan), they no doubt suffered, like other Athapascan tribes of the 
region, from the invasion of the Cree. In 1789 Mackenzie passed 
through the entire length of the country and trading posts soon fol- 
lowed. They have since continued to occupy the territory above 
indicated while it has gradually been metamorphosed by the activities 
of the Hudson’s Bay Company and the missionaries. 


570 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL, 145 


Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1670 there were 
1,250 Etchaottine. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Etchaottine have 
appeared in history principally under the name of “‘Slaves’’ owing to 
the dominating position which the Cree obtained over them and the 
contemptuous attitude of that tribe toward them in consequence. 


Haida. Their own name, meaning “people.” 

Connections.—The Haida constitute the Skittagetan linguistic 
family, the speech of which has certain structural resemblances with 
that of the Tlingit and Athapascans, with which Sapir (1915) com- 
bined it under the term Na-déné. 

Location.—Originally on the Queen Chariotte Islands, but early 
in the eighteenth century a part of the Haida settled on the southern 
part of Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, where they came to be known 
as Kaigani, from a summer camp where they were in the habit of 
gathering to meet trading vessels. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The following are large local groups perhaps entitled to the appellation of 
tribes: 
Chaahl, on the northwest coast of Moresby Island. 
Cumshewa, at the north entrance of Cumshewa Inlet, Moresby Island. 
Dadens, on the south coast of North Island, fronting Parry Passage. 
Gahlinskun, on the east coast of Graham Island, north of Cape Ball. 
Haena, on the east end of Maude Island, Skidegate Inlet. 
Hlielung, on the right bank of Hi-ellen River, at its mouth, Graham Island. 
Howkan, on Long Island, Alaska, facing Dall Island. 
Kaisun, on the northwest coast of Moresby Island. 
Kasaan, on Skowl Arm of Kasaan Bay, east coast of Prince of Wales Island. 
Kayung, on the east side of Masset Inlet just above Masset. 
Kiusta, on the northwest coast of Graham Island, opposite North Island. 
Klinkwan, on Cordova Bay, Prince of Wales Island, Alaska. 
Kloo, at the east end of Tanoo Island. 
Kung, at the mouth of Naden Harbor, Graham Island. 
Kweundlas, on the west coast of Long Island, Alaska. 
Masset, on the east coast of Masset Inlet near its entrance. 
Naikun, Rose Spit or Nekoon, at the northeast angle of Graham Island. 
Ninstints, on Anthony Island at the south end of Moresby Island. 
Skedans, on a point of land which extends into Hecate Strait from the east end of 
Louise Island. 
Skidegate, on the north shore of Skidegate Inlet near its entrance. 
Sukkwan, on Cordova Bay, Alaska. 
Tiun or Tigun, on the west coast of Graham Island south of Point Lewis. 
Yaku, on the northwest coast of Graham Island opposite North Island. 
Yan, on the west side of Masset Inlet near its mouth. 
Small towns and camps so far as known are as follows: 
Aiodjus, on the west side of Masset Inlet at its mouth. 
Atana, on House or Atana Island off the east coast of Moresby Island. 
Atanus, on the northeast coast of Hippa Island. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 571 


Chaahl, on the east coast of North Island. 

Chatchini, near Kasaan, Prince of Wales Island. 

Chets, on an island at the mouth of Tsooskahli, Masset Inlet. 

Chuga, near Houston Stewart Channel and the town of Ninstints. 

Chukeu, on the southwest coast of Moresby Island. 

Dadjingits, on the north shore of Bearskin Bay, Skidegate Inlet. 

Dahua, north of Lawn Hill at the mouth of Skidegate Inlet. 

Daiyu, on Shingle Bay, east of Welcome Point, Moresby Island. 

Djigogiga, legendary town on Copper Bay, Moresby Island. 

Djigua, legendary town on the north shore of Cumshewa Inlet. 

Djihuagits, on a creek just south of Rose Spit, Graham Island. 

\Sdjao, around Edjao Hill at the east end of Masset Village. 

Gachigundae, on the northeast shore of Alliford Bay, Moresby Island. 

Gado, two towns: (1) traditional, on the south side of De la Beche Inlet, Moresby 
Island; (2), on the east side of Lyell Island. 

Gaedi, on the northeast shore of a small inlet just northeast of Houston Inlet. 

Gaesigusket, on Murchison Island at a point opposite Hot Springs Island. 

Gaiagunkun, legendary, near Hot Springs Island. 

Gaodjaos, on the south shore of Lina Island, Bearskin Bay. 

Gasins, on the northwest shore of Lina Island, Bearskin Bay. 

Gatgainans, on Hippa Island. 

Gitinkalana, on the north shore of Masset Inlet where it expands into the inner 
bay. 

Guhlga, legendary, on the north shore of Skidegate Inlet one mile above Skidgate 
Village. 

Gulhlgildjing, on the south shore of Alliford Bay, Moresby Island. 

Gwaeskun, at Gwaeskun, the northernmost point on the Queen Charlotte Islands. 

Hagi, on or near the largest of the Bolkus Islands. 

Heudao, on the east side of Gull Point, Prevost Island. 

Hiagi, on an island near the east end of Houston Stewart Channel. 

Hlakeguns, on Yagun River at the Head of Masset Inlet. 

Hligadun, on Moresby Island facing Anthony Island. 

Higaedlin, on the south side of Tanoo Island. 

Higahet, near Skidegate. 

Hlgai, at the head of Skedans Bay. 

Higaiha, north of Dead Tree Point at the entrance of Skidegate Inlet. 

Hlgaiu, south of Dead Tree Point at the entrance of Skidegate Inlet. 

Hlgihla-ala, north of Cape Ball, on the east shore of Graham Island. 

Hlkia, on the outer side of Lyell Island. 

Hluln, in Naden Harbor. 

Hotao, legendary, on the southwest coast of Maude Island. 

Hotdjohoas, on Lyell Island near the north end of Darwin Sound. 

Hoyagundla, on a stream of the same name a short distance south of Cape Fife. 

Huados, near Higihla-ala, north of Cape Ball. 

Kadadjans, on the northwest end of Anthony Island. 

Kadusgo, at the mouth of a creek of the same name on Louise Island, flowing 
into Cumshewa Inlet from the south. 

Kae, on Skotsgai Bay above Skidegate. 

Kaidju, on Hewlett Bay, east coast of Moresby Island. 

Kaidjudal, on Moresby Island opposite Hot Springs Island. 

Kaigani, at the southeast end of Dall Island, Alaska. 

Kasta, legendary, on Copper Bay, Moresby Island. 


572 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Katana, on Louise Island. 

Kesa, on the west coast of Graham Island. 

Ket, on Burnaby Strait, Moresby Island. 

Kil, on Shingle Bay, Skidegate Inlet. 

Koagoagit, on the north shore of Bearskin Bay. 

Koga, on McKay Harbor, Cumshewa Inlet. 

Kogalskun, on Masset Inlet. 

Kostunhana, a short distance east of Skidegate. 

Kundji, 2 towns: (1) legendary, on the south shore of Copper Bay, Moresby 
Island; (2), on the west side of Prevost Island. 

Kungga, on the south shore of Dog Island. 

Kungielung, on the west side of the entrance to Masset Inlet. 

Kunhalas, just inside of Cumshewa Inlet. 

Kunkia, on the north coast of North Island. 

Kuulana, in Naden Harbor. 

Lanadagunga, south of Tangle Cove, Moresby Island. 

Lanagahlkehoda, on a small island opposite, Kaisun, Moresby Island. 

Lanahawa, 2 towns: (1) on the west coast of Graham Island opposite Hippa 
Island; (2) on the west coast of Burnaby Island south of Ket. 

Lanahilduns, on the southwest side of Rennell Sound, Graham Island. 

Lanasinagai, 3 towns: (1) on the east coast of Graham Island south of Cape Ball, 
(2) on the west side of Masset Inlet where the inner expansion begins; (3) on 
Yagun River. 

Lanaungsuls, on Masset Inlet. 

Nagus, in an inlet on the southwest coast of Moresby Island. 

Sahldungkun, on the west side of Yagun River at its mouth. 

Sakaedigialas, traditional, on or near Kuper Island. 

Sgilgi, in an inlet on the southwest coast of Moresby Island. 

Sindaskun, near the south end of the islands. 

Sindatahls, near Tsoo-skahli, an inner expansion of Masset Inlet. 

Singa, on the north side of Tasoo Harbor, west coast of Moresby Island. 

Skae, close to Cape St. James at the south end of the Queen Charlotte Islands. 

Skaito, on the west coast of Moresby Island near Gold Harbor. 

Skaos, at the entrance of Naden Harbor. 

Skena, legendary, just south of Sand Spit Point, Moresby Island. 

Skudus, on the north side of Lyell Island. 

Stlindagwai, in an inlet on the west coast of Moresby Island. 

Stunhlai, on the northwest coast of Moresby Island. 

Sulustins, on the east coast of Hippa Island. 

Ta, on the east coast of North Island. 

Te, on the west coast of Graham Island opposite Frederick Island. 

Tlgunghung, on the north side of Lyell Island. 

Tlhingus, on Louise Island. 

Tohlka, on the north coast of Graham Island just west of the entrance to Masset 
Inlet. 

Widja, on the north coast of Graham Island just west of the entrance of Masset 
Inlet. 

Yagun, on the north coast of Graham Island. 

Yaogus, on the southwest side of Louise Island. 

Yastling, in Naden Harbor, Graham Island. 

Yatza, on the north coast of Graham Island between North Island and Virago 
Sound, 

Youahnoe, given as a Kaigani town, perhaps identical with the town of Kaigani. 


SwANTONT INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 573 


History.—According to native traditions, the oldest Haida settle- 
ments were on the mainJand side of the islands. The Haida towns in 
Alaska date back to the early part of the eighteenth century, i. e., 
their establishment was almost within the historic period. So far as 
is known, the Spanish Ensign Juan Perez in the corvette Santiago was 
the first white man to visit the islands. This was in the year 1774. 
In 1775 Bodega and Maurelle touched there. La Perouse coasted 
the shores of the group in 1786 and Dixon spent a month about them 
in 1787. He was followed by Douglas, Ingraham, Marchand, Van- 
couver, and numerous explorers and traders whose names have not 
been preserved. The Hudson’s Bay Company located a post at 
Masset and mission stations were established at Masset and Skidegate 
by the Church of England and the Methodists respectively. Small- 
pox, consumption, liquor, and immorality depleted the native popula- 
tion rapidly even before any Whites settled upon the islands, but the 
remnant of the people now seems to have reached an adjustment to 
the new conditions. 

Population.—Mooney (1928), estimated that in 1780 there were 
8,000 Haida on the Queen Charlotte Islands and 1,800 in Alaska. A 
detailed enumeration made between 1836 and 1841 gave 6,593 and 
1,735 respectively, a total of 8,328. Dawson (1880) thought that 
there were between 1,700 and 2,000 on the Queen Charlotte Islands 
and in 1888 the Canadian Office of Indian Affairs estimated 2,500, 
but the next year, when an actual census was taken of all but one 
settlement, the total was 637, and in 1894, when all were included, it 
was only 639. In 1895 there were reported 593; in 1902, 734; and in 
1904, 587. In 1880 Petroff (1884) gave 788 Kaigani but Dall (1886) 
estimated 300. In 1890, 391 were returned and in 1905 the number 
was estimated as 300. The United States Census of 1910 gave 530; 
that of 1920, 524; and that of 1930, 588. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Haida have been 
noted for much the same things as the Tsimshian; beautiful carvings, 
peculiar social and ceremonial customs, and large and well-made 
dugouts. The slate from which so many artistic objects have been 
made is all obtained at one spot in their country. They are usually 
regarded as the typical totem-pole people. 

Hidatsa. Like their relatives, the Crow, the Hidatsa may have lived 
on the north side of the International Boundary in late prehistoric 
times, but this is as yet uncertain. (See North Dakota.) 

Huron. When Canada was first settled, the Huron lived in the region 
of Lake Simcoe, Ontario, but a hundred years earlier part of them 
occupied the lower St. Lawrence Valley. (See Wyandot under Ohio.) 


574 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Iroquois. Bands belonging to the tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy 
lived in Canada at various times and some are there at the present 
day. (See New York.) 


Kawchottine. Signifying ‘‘people of the great hares.” Also called: 
Hare Indians, English appellation derived from their own name. 
Kkpayttchare ottiné, Chipewyan name. 

Nouga, Eskimo name, meaning ‘‘spittle.”’ 
Peaux-de-Liévres, French appellation from their own name. 
Rabbitskins, English appellation derived from their own name. 
Connections.—The Kawchottine belonged to the Athapascan 
linguistic family, being most intimately connected with the tribes 
higher up Mackenzie River. 
Location.—West and northwest of Great Bear Lake. 


Subdivisions 


Petitot (1893) gives the following: 
Chintagottine, also called Katagottine, on Mackenzie River north of Fort Good 
Hope and between the river and Great Bear Lake. 
Etatchogottine, north and east of Great Bear Lake and on Great Cape. 
Kawchogottine, on the border of the wooded region northeast of Fort Good Hope. 
Kfwetragottine, south of Fort Good Hope along Mackenzie River. 
Nellagottine, on Lake Simpson and along Anderson River. 
Nigottine, also given as a part of the Kawchogottine, along the outlet of Great 
Bear Lake. 
Satchotugottine, immediately north of Great Bear Lake, omitted from a later list. 
History.—The country of the Kawchottine was reached by Alexan- 
der Mackenzie in 1789. The establishment of Fort Good Hope in 
1804 and Fort Norman in 1810 brought them in closer touch with 
Europeans, and the intimacy has increased steadily from that day to 
the present. 
Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 750 Kaw- 
chottine in 1670. In 1858 Ross (1858) gave their number as 467. 


Kitksan. Their own name, meaning “people of Skeena River.” 
Phonetically rendered Gyitkshan. 
Connections.—The Kitksan constituted one of the three great 
tribes or tribal groups of the Chimmesyan linguistic family. 
Location.—On the upper waters of Skeena River. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


(The second name, where there are two, is the one given by Barbeau, 1929) 


Kispiox or Kispayaks, at the junction of Kispiox and Skeena Rivers. 

Kitanmaiksh or Gitenmaks, at Hazelton. 

Kitgargas or Kisgagas, on the north bank of Babine River, 3 or 4 miles above its 
junction with the Skeena. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 575 


Kitsegukla or Gitsegyukla, on Skeena River between Hazelton and Kitwanga. 
Kitwancool or Gitwinlkul, 14 miles above Kitwanga on the Grease trail to the 
Nass, 
Kitwanga, on the north bank of Skeena River about 150 miles from the coast. 
Kuldo or Qaldo, near the headwaters of Skeena River. 
Meamskinisht, a modern mission village founded in 1889. 
History.—According to Barbeau (1929), many of the leading 
families of the Kitksan came from the north, from among the interior 
Athapascans and from the ‘Tlingit, within the last two centuries. 
Contact with the Whites became intimate after the establishment 
of Fort Kilmaurs (Babine) in 1822, Fort Connolly in 1826, and 
Fort Stager, and European influences began to come up the river 
with greater strength after the foundation of Fort Simpson in 1831 
and Fort Essington in 1835. 
Population.—(See Tsimshian.) In 1904 there were 1,120 Kitksan. 
Connection in which they have become noted.—(See Tsimshian.) 


Kutchin. The Kutchin occupied the entire central portion of Yukon 
territory and extended to the lower course of the Mackenzie, which 
they occupied on both sides from New Fort Good Hope to the 
delta. (See Nakotcho-kutchin, Takkuth-kutchin, Tatlit-kutchin, 
and Alaska.) 


Kutenai. The Kutenai were located on Kootenay River and Lake 
and extended into the United States, occupying the northern parts 
of Montana and Idaho. In later prehistoric times they extended 
some distance into the Plains. (See Montana.) 


Kwakiutl. Own name, signifying according to themselves, ‘‘smoke 
of the world,’ but probably meaning ‘‘beach at the north side of 
the river.” 

Connections.—W ith the Bellabella (q. v.), the Kwakiutl constituted 
one grand division of the Wakashan linguistic family, the Nootka 
forming the other. 

Location.—On both shores of Queen Charlotte Sound, and the 
northern end of Vancouver Island. 


Subdivisions 


The bands or septs, with the relations which they bear to one another, are 
indicated in the following list, based upon information obtained by Boas 
(1897) : 

Koskimo Subdialect: 

Klaskino, on Klaskino Inlet, Vancouver Island. 

Koprino, at the entrance of Quatsino Sound. 

Quatsino, at the entrance of Quatsino Sound, Vancouver Island. 

Nawiti Subdialect: 
Nakomegilisala, originally at Cape Scott, Vancouver Island. 
Tlatlasikoala, formerly at the northeast end of Vancouver Island. 


576 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn 145 


Kwakiutl Subdialect: 
Awaitlala, on Knight Inlet. 
Goasila, on Smith Inlet. 
Guauaenok, on Drury Inlet. 
Hahuamis, on Wakeman Sound. 
Koeksotenok, on Gilford Island. 
Kwakiutl, including Guetela, Komkutis, Komoyue, Matilpe, and Walas Kwakiutl 
most of whom lived at Fort Rupert. 
Lekwiltok, between Knight and Bute Inlets. 
Mamalelekala, on Village Island. 
Nakoaktok, on Seymour Inlet. 
Nimkish, on and near Nimkish River. 
Tenaktak, on Knight Inlet. 
Tlauitsis, on Cracroft Island. 
Tsawatenok, on Kingcombe Inlet. 
An extinct band was called Hoyalas. 
Villages 

Awaitlala and Tenaktak: Kwatsi, at Point Macdonald, Knight Inlet. (See 
Tsawatenok.) 

Goasila: Waitlas, at the mouth of Samo River, Smith Inlet. 

Guauaenok: Hohopa, on the west coast of Baker Island; Kunstamish, on the 
east side of Clayton Bay, Wells Passage. (See Tsawatenok.) 

Hahuamis. (See Tsawatenok.) 

Koeksotenok: Kwakwakas, on the west coast of Gilford Island. 

Koeksotenok and Mamalelekala: Memkumlis, on Village Islands, at the mouth 
of Knight Inlet. 

Lekwiltok: Husam, at the mouth of Salmon River; Tatapowis, on Hoskyn 
Inlet; Tsaiiyeuk, at the entrance of Bute Inlet; Tsakwalooin, near Cape 
Mudge. 

Mamalelekala. (See Koeksotenok). 

Matilpe: Etsekin, on Havannah Channel. 

Nakoaktok: Awuts, on the lagoon above Shelter Bay; Kikwistok, on the lower 
part of Seymour Inlet; Mapakum, on Deserter’s Island of the Walker Group. 
Quatsino: Owiyekumi, on Forward Inlet, Quatsino Sound; Tenate, on the 

north shore of Forward Inlet. 

Tenaktak: (See Awaitlala.) 

Tlauitsis: Kalakowis, on the west end of Turnour Island. 

Tsawatenok: Hata, at the head of Bond Sound; Kwae, at the head of Kingcombe 
Inlet. 

Tsawatenok, Hahuamis, and Guauaenok together: Kwaustums, on Gilford Island. 
History.—lf the voyage of Fuentes in 1640 is authentic, he was 

probably the first European to encounter any of the Kwakiutl Indians. 

Bodega and Maurelle passed along their coast in 1775, and from this 

time on they were visited by English and American explorers and 

traders at frequent intervals. The establishment of a Hudson’s Bay 
post at Victoria in 1843 marked an epoch in their dealings with the 

Whites which since then have been more and more intimate. Mission 

work among the Bellabella was very successful but the southern 

branches of the family held on to their ancient customs with more 
tenacity. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 577 


Population—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were 
4,500 southern Kwakiutl Indians. In 1906 there were 1,257. The 
Report of the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs for 1909 gives 
2,090 Kwakiutl. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—These tribes are note- 
worthy for the very complete studies of their social organization and 
potlatch customs made by Boas (1897), assisted by George Hunt, 
and the important part these studies have played in the development 
of general theories of exogamy and totemism. 


Lillooet. Signifying “‘wild onion.’’ The name seems to have been 
given originally to a part of the Lower Lillooet. Also called: 
Stla’tliumvA, own name, applied properly to the Upper Lillooet. 

Connections.—The Lillooet belong to the interior division of the 
Salishan linguistic family, their nearest relatives being the Shuswap 
and Ntlakyapamuk. 

Location.—On the upper part of Harrison Lake, Lillooet River, 
Bridge River, and part of Fraser River above and below the mouth 
of the latter stream and between the Shuswap and Ntlakyapamuk, 
and on the heads of some of the streams flowing into the Gulf of 
Georgia. 

Subdivisions 


The Lillooet are divided primarily into the Lower Lillooet and the Upper 

Lillooet, each consisting of two principal bands as follows: 

Lower Lillooet: Lillooet River or Douglas (on Little Harrison Lake and the lower 
Lillooet River up to Lower or Little Lillooet Lake), Pemberton (on Lillooet 
Lake, Pemberton Meadows, Pole River, Upper Lillooet River, Green Lake, 
etc.). 

Upper Lillooet: Lake (on Anderson and Seaton Lakes, Cayuse River to Duffey 
Lake and westerly to the headwaters of the streams flowing into Jervis Inlet 
and the northwest sources of Bridge River), Fraser River (from about 5 miles 
below the mouth of Cayuse Creek to a few miles below the mouth of Pavilion 
Creek, a few miles up Cayuse Creek, in Three Lake Valley and on the neigh- 
boring hills between the Fraser River and Hat Creek, lower Bridge River and 
northwest to near the head of Big Creek). 


Villages 
Lillooet River: 

Hahtsa or (by Whites) Douglas, on Little Harrison Lake, about 4 miles from 
Tipella on Great Harrison Lake. 

Kwehalaten, on Little Lillooet Lake. 

Lalakhen, on Lower Lillooet River, 10 miles above Douglas. 

Samakum, on Lower Lillooet River about 25 miles above Douglas. 

Sektcin or (by Whites) Warm Springs, near Lower Lillooet River about 23 
miles from Douglas. 

Shomeliks, near Lower Lillooet River, 10 miles above Douglas. 

Skatin or (by Whites) Skookum Chuck, on Lower Lillooet River about 17 or 18 
miles above Douglas. 

Smemits, & short distance above Lalakhen. 


578 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuuL. 145 


Pemberton: 
Hazilkwa, at head of slough, 1 mile above Nkimsh. 
Lakemitc, less than 1 mile above Hazilkwa. 
Nkimsh, on Upper Lillooet River, a little above the head of Lillooet Lake. 
Stlalek or Stlaluk or (by Whites) Pemberton, near the big bridge across Upper 
Lillooet River, about 1 mile above Lakemite. 
Sulpauthltin, on Upper Lillooet River, about 2 miles above Stlalek. 
Lake: 
Heselten, about one-third up Seaton Lake on the north side. 
Nkaiot, at the foot of Anderson Lake. 
Nkuatkwa, at the head of Anderson Lake. 
Skemkain, at the foot of Seaton Lake, about 4 miles from Lillooet. 
Slaus, at the head of Seaton Lake. 
Tcalethl, about two-thirds up Seaton Lake on the north side. 
Fraser River: 
Hahalep or Fountain, on the east side of Fraser River near Fountain Creek and 
about 9 miles above Setl. 
Nhoisten, on the upper side of the mouth of Bridge River, about 4 miles above 
Setl. 
Setl or Lillooet village, just west of Lillooet town, on the west side of Fraser 
River. 
Skakethl, on the west side of Fraser River about 3% miles above Setl. 
Skulewas or Skulewes, on the south side of the mouth of Cayuse River. 
Tseut, on the east side of Fraser River about 2 miles above Setl. 


History.—The first white man to penetrate the country of the 
Lillooet was probably Simon Fraser in 1809. Contact with traders 
was practically continuous from that time forward and with the 
miners from 1858. The Lillooet suffered more than any other tribe 
from the great smallpox epidemic of 1863. 

Population.—Mooney’s (1928) estimate of Lillooet population as of 
the year 1780 is 4,000, perhaps copied from that of Teit (1900). The 
report of the Canadian Office of Indian Affairs of 1904 seems to give 
978 Lillooet, but there are probably omissions, as Teit’s estimate of 
about the same time is 900 Lower Lillooet and 700 Upper Lillooet, a 
total of 1,600. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Lillooet have given 
their name to Lillooet Lakes and Lillooet River. 


Malecite. Many explanations of the name have been offered but the 
most probable is that of Chamberlain (MS.), who says it is from 
Malisit, the Micmac term for them, which means “‘ broken talkers.”’ 
Also called: 


Etchemin, perhaps from tchinem, ‘‘men.”’ 

‘“‘Muskrats,’’ by some of their neighbors. 

Wula’stegwi'ak, meaning ‘‘Good River People,’’ name used by themselves, 
referring to the St. John. 


Connections.—The Malecite belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
family, their nearest relatives being the Passamaquoddy, and after 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 579 


them the Penobscot, Abnaki, and Pennacook. ‘They were frequently 
classed with these under the general name Abnaki. 

Location.—In the valley of St. John River, New Brunswick, but 
extending slightly into the northeastern corner of Maine. 


Subdivisions 


Maurault (1866) makes a distinction between Malecite and Etchemin, but 
there seems to have been no valid foundation for this. 


Villages 


Medoctec, about 10 miles below Woodstock, N. B. 

Okpaak, on the middle course of St. John River, N. B. 

Saint Anne, on an island near Frederickton, N. B. 

Viger, in Viger township, TemiscOuata County, Quebec Province. 

History.—Like the Abnaki, the Malecite trace their origin to some 
region in the southwest. arly in the sixteenth century some of them 
were probably encountered by French and English explorers and 
fishermen, but they were first referred to specifically by Champlain 
in 1604, though his ‘‘Etechemins” were on the St. Croix River and 
were perhaps Passamaquoddy. Some years later Fort La Tour was 
built on St. John River, and it became a noted resort for members of 
this tribe. After the English gained possession of Malecite territory, 
certain lands were assigned to the Indians. In 1856, according to 
Schoolcraft (1851-57), these had become reduced to the valley of 
“the Tobique river, and the small tract at Madawaska, Meductic 
Point, and Kingsclear, with their small rocky islands near St. John, 
containing 15 acres.’’ The descendants of the Malecite live partly 
in New Brunswick and partly in the province of Quebec, while a few 
appear in the population statistics of the State of Maine. 

Population.—The Malecite population is estimated by Mooney to 
have been 800 in 1600. In 1884 there were 767 (584 in New Bruns- 
wick; 183 in Quebec); in 1904, 805 (702 in New Brunswick; 103 in 
Quebec). The United States Census of 1910 returned 142 living on 
the south side of the International Boundary, of whom 138 were in 
Maine. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The name of the Male- 
cite is preserved in that of a small town called Maliseet in New 
Brunswick, and one of its synonyms in Etchemin River, Province of 
Quebec. 


Micmac. From the native term Migmac, meaning “allies.” Also 
called: 


Matu-és’-wi skitchi-ni-ik, Malecite name, meaning “porcupine Indians,’’ 
on account of their use of porcupine quills in ornamentation. 

Shénick, Beothuk name, meaning ‘‘bad Indians.”’ 

Souriquois, name by which they were known to the French. 


580 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (BULL, 145 


Connections.—The Micmac belonged to the Algonquian linguistic 
stock and to that part of the Central Algonquian group represented 
typically by the Cree, though their speech differed in some striking 
particulars. Their closest relatives, however, were the Malecite, 
Passamaquoddy, Penobscot, and Abnaki. 

Location.—Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island, Prince Edward Island, 
the eastern shore of New Brunswick as far north as Restigouche, the 
head of the Bay of Fundy, and, in later times, Newfoundland. 

Subdivisions 

Rand (1894) states that the Micmac distinguished seven districts, Prince 
Edward Island where the head chief lived, constituting one of these. The other 
six consisted of two groups of three each: one, called Sigunikt, including the 
districts of Memramcook, Pictou (at the north end of Nova Scotia), and Resti- 
gouche (in northern New Brunswick and neighboring parts of Quebec) ; the other, 
called Kespoogwit (south and east Nova Scotia), including Annapolis (in south- 
west Nova Scotia), Eskegawage (in east Nova Scotia from Canso to Halifax), and 
Shubenacadie (in north central Nova Scotia). 


Villages 

Antigonishe (?), probably on or near the site of the present Antigonishe, Nova 
Scotia. 

Beaubassin, a mission, probably Micmac, site unknown. 

Boat Harbor, near Pictou, Nova Scotia. 

Chignecto, Nova Scotia. 

Eskusone, on Cape Breton Island. 

Indian Village, near Lake Badger, Fogo County, Newfoundland. 

Isle of St. Johns, probably in Nova Scotia. 

Kespoogwit, given by one authority as a village, see under subdivisions. 

Kigicapigiak, on Cascapediac River, Bonaventure County, Quebec. 

Le Have, near the mouth of Mercy River, about Lunenberg, Nova Scotia. 

Maria, in Maria township, Bonaventure County, Quebec. 

Minas, in Nova Scotia. 

Miramichi, on the right bank of Miramichi River at its mouth. 

Nalkithoniash, perhaps in Nova Scotia. 

Nipigiguit, Bathurst, at the mouth of Nipisiguit River, New Brunswick. 

Pictou, at the north end of Nova Scotia. 

Pohomoosh, probably in Nova Scotia. 

Restigouche, on the north bank of Restigouche River near its mouth, Bonaventure 
County, Quebec. 

Richibucto, at the mouth of Richibucto River, Kent County, New Brunswick. 

Rocky Point, on Prince Edward Island. 

Shediac, at Shediac on the east coast of New Brunswick. 

Shubenacadie, at the head of Shubenacadie River, Nova Scotia. 

Tabogimkik, probably in Nova Scotia. 


History—Some Micmac may have been encountered by Norse 
voyagers about A. D. 1000. They were probably seen next by John 
Cabot in 1497, and from that time on they were constantly visited by 
explorers and even more by fishing vessels from France and England. 
During this period they acted as middlemen between the Europeans 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 581 


and the Indians farther west and south and found this profitable. 
Early in the seventeenth century they were missionized by the French 
and became so devoted to French interests that after the cession of 
Acadia to England in 1713 disputes and difficulties between them and 
the English continued until 1779. Since then they have been peaceful 
occupants of the territory with which they have always been associated 
and have gradually adopted the ways and customs of European 
civilization. 

Population.—Mooney’s (1928) estimate for the Micmac applying to 
the year 1600 is 3,500. This seems to be based on Biard’s 1611 
estimate of 3,000 to 3,500. (See Jesuit Relations, 1858.) In 1760 
they were reported to number sonewhat under 3,000 but after that 
date they increased and in 1884 were officially reported as 4,037. The 
Canadian Report of Indian Affairs for 1904 gives 3,861, but it does not 
include the Micmac of Newfoundland. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The Micmac are 
remarkable (1) as having been one of the earliest Indian tribes of the 
North American continent, if not the very earliest, to be encountered 
by Europeans, and (2) that, in spite of that fact and contrary to the 
general impression, they suffered no permanent decline in numbers 
and continued to occupy the territories, or at least a part of the 
territories, in which they had been found. 


Montagnais-Naskapi. The first component, a French word meaning 
“mountaineers,” and so called from the character of their country; 
and the second, a term of reproach applied by the Montagnais 
themselves to their more northern kindred. Also called: 

Chauhaguéronon, Huron name. 

Kebiks, said to have been so named on account of their warning cry of 
“Kebik!”’ when approaching in canoes the rapids of the St. Lawrence 
near Quebec. 

Ne-e-no-il-no, a name used by themselves, meaning ‘‘perfect people.”’ 

Shdud’miink, Beothuk name, meaning ‘‘good Indians.”’ 

Tshe-tsi-uetin-euerno, a name used by themselves and said to signify 
“people of the north-northeast.” 

Ussagétne’wi, Penobscot name, meaning “‘people of the outlet.’’ 

Ussaghenick, Malecite name. 


Connections —The Montagnais-Naskapi belong to the Algonquian 
linguistic stock, their nearest relatives being the Cree from whom they 
are set off by certain phonetic peculiarities. 

Location.—Between St. Maurice River and the hinterland of Labra- 
dor, and from the River and Gulf of St. Lawrence to James Bay, 
including also the entire interior of the Labrador Peninsula. The 
Labrador division has sometimes been made independent under the 
name ‘‘Nascapee”’ (Naskapi) but without sufficient justification. 


5R2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY | Buu. 145 


Bands 


The southern bands of this group were encountered by Europeans early in the 
seventeenth century while the northern ones, except for some on James Bay, were 
but little known until the nineteenth century. To this circumstance, more than 
anything else, we owe the two names Montagnais and Naskapi. Bands which 
probably existed in some form or other in 1650, aithough not necessarily under 
the names given, were the following: 


Bersimis, on Bersimis River. 

Chicoutimi, at Chicoutimi and northward. 

Chisedec, on Seven Islands and Moisie River. 

Escoumains, on and near Escoumains River. 

Godbout, on Godbout River. 

Mistassini, about Lake Mistassini. 

Nichikun, about Nichikun Lake. 

Ouchestigouetch, at the heads of Manikuagan and Kaniapiskau Rivers. 
Oumamiwek or Ste. Marguerite, on Ste. Marguerite River and to the westward. 
Papinachois, at the head of Bersimis River and eastward. 

Tadousac, on the west side of the lower Saguenay River. 

By 1850 (following Speck, 1942) we find that some of these, including the 
Chisedec, Oumamiwek, and Papinachois, have disappeared or been renamed, and 
the following added: 

Barren Ground, on the middle course of George River. 

Big River, on Great Whale and Fort George Rivers. 

Davis Inlet, south of the Barren Ground band. 

Eastmain, on and to the northward of Eastmain River. 
Kaniapiskau, at the head of Kaniapiskau River. 

Michikamau, around Mishikamau Lake. 

Mingan, on Mingan River. 

Musquaro or Romaine, on Olomanoshibo River. 

Natashkwan, on Natashkwan River. 

Northwest River, north of Hamilton Inlet and on Northwest River. 
Petisikapau, on Petisikapau Lake and in the surrounding country. 
Rupert House, on Rupert Bay and River. 

St. Augustin, on St. Augustin River. 

Shelter Bay, on Shelter Bay River, a modern subdivision. 

Ungava, southwest of Ungava Bay. 

Waswanipi, on Waswanipi River. 

White Whale River, between Lake Minto and Little Whale River and eastward to 

Kaniapiskau River or even to Whale River. 


The territory of the Kaniapiskau and Petisikapau seems to be within that of 
the earlier Ouchestigouetch. The Shelter Bay band is of very recent origin and 
seems to have been in the land of the Oumamiwek. The Mingan, Musquaro or 
Romaine, Natashkwan, Northwest River, and St. Augustine bands are in a region 
formerly occupied by Eskimo. 


Villages 


Appeelatat, on the south coast of Labrador. 

Assuapmushan, a mission, probably at the entrance of Ashuapmouchouan River 
into Lake St. John. 

Bonne Espérance, at the mouth of Eskimo River on the north coast of the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence. 


SWANTON ] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 583 


Chicoutimi, a mission, on the right bank of the Saguenay at the present place of 
the same name, Quebec Province. 

Esquimaux Point, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, about 20 miles 
east of Mingan. 

Godbout, on the north shore of St. Lawrence River at the mouth of Godbout 
River. 

Itamameou, a mission, on the north bank of St. Lawrence River east of Natash- 
quan. 

Islets de Jeremie, probably Montagnais, on lower St. Lawrence River. 

Mingan, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, near the mouth of 
Mingan River. 

Moisie, a summer village of Montagnais and Naskapi, at the mouth of Moisie 
River. 

Mushkoniatawee, on the south coast of Labrador. 

Musquarro, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, opposite Anticosti 
Island. 

Nabisipi, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, opposite Anticosti Island. 

Natashkwan, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, at the mouth of 
Natashkwan River. 

Pashasheebo, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

Romaine, at the mouth of Olomanoshibo River on the north shore of the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence. 

St. Augustine, with Naskapi, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 


History.—Montagnais were met by Champlain in 1603 at the mouth 
of the Saguenay. Missionary work was begun among them in 1615 
and they remained firm friends of the French. During the wars be- 
tween the French and Iroquois, the latter drove some Montagnais 
bands out of their old seats, but they reoccupied them again on the 
restoration of peace. The first explorers of the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
found its northern shore as far west as Mingan in possession of the 
Eskimo, but the latter people soon retired from this region and the 
Montagnais took their places. They have gradually adjusted them- 
selves to the new conditions brought about by European colonization, 
the fur trade serving to protect them from the expropriation suffered 
so much by the Indians farther south. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates the Montagnais and Naskapi 
together as numbering 5,500 in 1600. In 1812 they were supposed to 
total 1,500; in 1857 they were estimated at 1,100; and in 1884 they 
were Offictally reported at 1,395, but this figure includes only seven 
bands. In 1906 the Montagnais in the same territory, together with 
the Naskapi, numbered 2,183. 


Nahane. Signifying ‘‘people of the west.’’ Also called: 
Gonana, Tlingit name (applied to all interior Indians). 


Connections.—The Nahane form a major division of the Athapascan 
linguistic stock. 


584 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 145 


Location.—In northern British Columbia and the Yukon Territory 
between the coast range and the Rocky Mountains and latitude 57° 
and 60° N., some bands extending to the Mackenzie River in Macken- 


zie Territory. 
Subdivisions 


There is no consistency in the lists given by various writers, and Jenness reports 
a great deal of displacement since the early nineteenth century. The following 
bands or tribes may, however, be enumerated: 


Esbataottine, in the valleys of Beaver, Nahanni, and North Nahanni Rivers. 

Etagottine, in the valleys of Gravel and Dahachuni Rivers. 

Kaska, on the upper Liard River. 

Pelly River Indians, the country in the vicinity of Ross and Perry Rivers. 

Tagish, about Tagish and Marsh Lakes. 

Takutine, on Teslin River and Lake and upper Taku River. 

Titshotina, between the Cassiar Mountains and Liard and Dease Rivers, British 
Columbia. 


The Tahltan (q. v.) are sometimes regarded as a Nahane band. 


History.—Some of the easternmost bands of Nahane may have 
been met by Mackenzie in 1789. Fort Simpson, at the junction of 
the Liard and Mackenzie Rivers became the base of operations for 
exploitation of the Nahane country. This was established at the very 
beginning of the nineteenth century and shortly afterward Fort Liard 
at the junction of the Liard and Black Rivers and Fort Nelson on 
the south branch of the Liard, now Fort Nelson River, brought the 
Hudson Bay factors still farther into Nahane territory. The last- 
mentioned fort was destroyed by the Indians but reestablished in 
1865. Fort Halkett, on the upper Liard, and in the very heart of 
Nahane territory, was established soon after the union of the North- 
west and Hudson’s Bay Companies, which took place in 1821. Forty 
or fifty years later it was abandoned but a smaller post called Toad 
River was built some time afterward, halfway between the site of 
Halkett and Fort Liard. In 1834 Chief Trader John M. McLeod 
pushed up through the mountains and discovered Dease River and 
Dease Lake. In 1838, a trading post was established on the latter 
by Robert Campbell, a Scotch officer, and in the summer of that year 
he pushed across the Pacific slope to the headwaters of the Stikine. 
His post excited the hostility of the coast Indians, however, who had 
enjoyed a monopoly of trade with the Athapascans, and Campbell 
was forced to abandon it, and it was burned by the coast Indians. In 
1840 he went north from Fort Halkett as far as Pelly River. In 1842 
he built a fort at Lake Francis and Pelly Banks and in 1848 Fort 
Selkirk at the junction of the Pelly and Lewis Rivers. Two years 
afterward this latter was destroyed by the Chilkat, whose trade 
monopoly it threatened. In the meantime European influences had 
been working inland through the medium of the same coast tribes, 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 585 


from the Russian and from British and American trading vessels, and 
later on through the Hudson’s Bay Company along the passageway 
marked by the Stikine River. The Nahane were powerfully affected 
by the Klondike rush, and since then European influences have been 
growing ever stronger. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were about 2,000 
Nahane in the present British Columbia in 1780 and 800 in the Yukon 
Territory in 1670, besides 400 “Mountain Indians” (Tsethaottine). 
A few hundred must be added for the Nahane in Mackenzie District. 
In 1906 there were 374 Nahane in British Columbia, 600 in Yukon 
Territory, and 250 in Mackenzie District. This total, 1,224, agrees 
fairly well with the 1,000 estimate of Morice (1904). 
Nakotcho-kutchin. Signifying “those who dwell on the flats.” Also 

called: 

Gens de la Grande Riviere, by Ross (MS.). 
Loucheux, by Franklin (1823, p. 261). 

Mackenzie Flats Kutchin, by Osgood (1934, p. 174). 
Mackenzie’s River Louchioux, by Ross (MS.). 

Connections.—The Nakotcho-kutchin were one of the tribes of the 
Kutchin group of the northern division of the Athapascan linguistic 
stock. 

Location.—On the lower course of Mackenzie River north of the 
Kawchodinneh and extending to the head of the Mackenzie Delta. 

Population.—With two neighboring tribes, Mooney (1928) esti- 
mates a population of 800 Nakotcho-kutchin in 1670. In 1906 he 
estimates there were 600. (See Kutcha-kutchin under Alaska.) 


Nanaimo. A contraction of Snanaimux, meaning ‘“‘people of Snonowas 
(Nanoose).”’ 
Connections.—The Nanaimo belonged to the Cowichan branch of the 
coastal division of the Salishan linguistic family. 
Location.—On the east coast of Vancouver Island about Nanaimo 
Harbor and Nanoose Bay. 
Subdivisions 


Nanaimo, about Nanaimo Harbor. 
Snonowas, about Nanoose Bay. 

History.—The history of the Nanaimo was practically identical 
with that of the Cowichan. 

Population.— (See Cowichan.) In 1906 there were 161 Nanaimo 
and in 1909, 14 Snonowas. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Nanaimo have 
given their name to an important port, owing its existence largely to 
the lignite coal deposits in the vicinity. 


586 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Neutral. This name was applied to a confederacy of Iroquoian tribes 
found by the Whites in occupancy of the southern part of Ontario, 
the western extremity of New York, and portions of Michigan and 
Ohio. (See New York.) 


Niska. Significance unknown. Phonetically spelled Nisk’a’. Also 
called: 


Nass River Indians, from their habitat. 


Connections—The Niska were one of the three tribes or tribal 
groups constituting the Chimmesyan linguistic family. 

Location —On Nass River and the neighboring coast. (See also 
Alaska.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


There were four divisions or tribes which, including the village or villages of each, 

are as follows: 

Kithateh or Gitrhatin, including the villages of Kincolith, on Nass Inlet, and 
Lakkulzap or Greenville. 

Kitgigenik or Gitwinksilk, including the village of Lahanla or Lakungida, near 
the mouth of Nass River. 

Kitwinshilk, including the village of Lahulyans or Underleaf. 

Kitanwilksh, including the village of Kitlakdamik or Gitlarhdamks, above the 
canyon of Nass River, and Aiyansh, on the lower course of Nass River. 
The following names of villages are also given by various writers: 

Kitaix, near the mouth of Nass River. 

Gwinwah, on Nass River. 

Kisthemuwelgit or Willshilhunhtumwillwillgit, on the north side of Nass River 
near its mouth. 

Qunabhair, on the south bank of Nass River just below the canyon. 

Sheaksh, on the south bank of Nass River, 5 miles above the canyon. 

Kitahon, Kitangata, Kitlakaous, and Andeguale may be additional towns or 
synonymous names for some of the above. 
Emmons (in Hodge, 1910) divides the Niska into the Kitkahteen (Kithatch), 

including those below the canyon, and the Kitanweliks (Kitanwilksh), those 

above the canyon. 


History.—The history of the Niska was almost the same as that of 
the Tsimshian (q. v.), though the resort of so many tribes to Nass 
River during the eulachon run may have given them a more cosmo- 
politan character than the other Chimmesyans. 

Population.—(See Tsimshian.) In 1902 the population of the Niska 
towns was given as 842, in 1906 as 814. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—Besides the connec- 
tions mentioned in treating of the Tsimshian, the Niska were note- 
worthy from the fact that the territory they occupied included Nass 
Inlet, which was a place of resort for tribes from all sections during 
the eulachon season, and that the myths of many of these tribes cen- 
ter around it. Perhaps it was owing to this circumstance that the 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 587 


Nass River seems to have been the center of the northwest cultural 
area. 


Nooksak. A tribe, living mainly in the State of Washington, which 
is said to have branched off from the Squawmish of British 
Columbia. (See Washington.) 


Nootka. Significance unknown. The name was originally applied 
to a tribe also known as Mooachaht living at Nootka Sound but 
was afterward extended to all of the tribes of the same group even 
including the Makah of the State of Washington, though the latter 
are more often treated independently. (See Makah under Wash- 
ington.) Also called: 


Aht, from the endings of their divisional names. 
Tc’eca’atq, Skokomish name. 


Connections.—The Nootka constituted one of the two great branches 
of the Wakashan linguistic family, the other being the Kwakiutl. 

Location.—All the Nootka are located on the west coast of Van- 
couver Island from Cape Cook on the north to beyond Port San Juan, 
except the Makah and Ozette, who live about Cape Flattery, in 
the State of Washington. 


Subdivisions or Tribes 


Ahousaht, about Clayoquot Sound. 

Chaicclesaht, on Ououkinsh and Nasparte Inlets. 
Clayoquot, on Meares Island and Torfino Inlet. 

Ehatisaht, on Esperanza Inlet. 

Ekoolthaht, on Barclay Sound. 

Hachaasht, on or north of Barclay Sound. 

Hesquiat, on Hesquiat Harbor. 

Kelsemaht, on Clayoquot Sound. 

Klahosaht, north of Nootka Sound. 

Kwoneatshatka, toward the north end of Vancouver Island. 
Kyuquot, on Kyuquot Sound. 

Makah, about Cape Flattery. 

Manosaht, at Hesquiat Point. 

Mooachaht, on the north side of Nootka Sound. 

Muchalat, on Muchalat Arm of Nootka Sound. 

Nitinat, on the tidal lake of Nitinat near the southwest coast of Vancouver Island. 
Nuchatlitz, on Nuchalitz and Esperanza Inlets. 

Oiaht, on Barclay Sound. 

Opitchesaht, on Alberni Canal, Somass River, and neighboring lakes. 
Pacheenaht, on San Juan Harbor. 

Seshart, on Barclay Sound and Alberni Canal. 

Toquart, on the north shore of Barclay Sound. 

Uchucklesit, on Uchucklesit Harbor, Barclay Sound. 
Ucluelet, at the north entrance of Barclay Sound. 


588 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buut. 145 


Villages 


Exclusive of the Makah and Ozette towns (see Washington), the names of 
the following Nootka villages have been recorded: 


Acous (Chaicclesaht). Mahcoah (Toquart). 
Ahadzooas (Oiaht). Mahbktosis (Ahousaht). 
Ahahsuinnis (Opitchesaht). Nuchatl (Nuchatlitz). 
Aktese (Kyuquot). Oke (Ehatisaht). 
Carmanah (Nitinat). Pacheena (Pacheenaht). 
Cheshish (Muchalat). Tsahahch (Seshart). 
Clo-oose (Nitinat). Tsooquahna (Nitinat). 
Elhlateese (Uchucklesit). Wyah (Nitinat). 
Heshque (Hesquiat). Yahksis (Kelsemaht). 
Ittatso (Ucluelet). Yucuatl (Mooachaht). 


Kukamukamees (Kyuquot). 


History.—Juan de Fuca (1592) is the first white man known to 
have visited the Nootka country. Fuentes, if he and his voyage be 
not myths, was among these people, or at least near them, in 1640. 
Ensign Juan Perez is believed to have anchored in Nootka Sound in 
1774, and the next year Bodega and Maurelle passed along the Nootka 
coasts on their way south. From March to April 1778, Captain Cook 
was at Nootka Sound, and we owe one of our oldest accounts of the 
Indians there to him. In 1786 English vessels under Captains Hanna, 
Portlock, and Dixon visited them and from that time on British and 
American trading vessels constantly resorted to them, usually calling 
at Nootka Sound. Between 1792 and 1794 Capt. George Vancouver 
visited the country. In 1803 the Boston, from the New England port 
of that name, was destroyed by Nootka Indians and all on board 
killed except two persons, one of whom, John Jewett (1815), has left 
us an important account of his captivity and his captors. A new era 
was opened with the settlement of Victoria in 1843 and since then 
absorption in European culture has gone on apace. The Nootka have 
been missionized principally by the Roman Catholic Church. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that, in 1780, there were 
6,000 Nootka proper and 2,000 Makah. In 1906 there were 2,159 
and 435 respectively. 

Connections in which they have become noted.—The claim of the 
Nootka to special recognition rests, (1) on the fact that, with the 
exception of a few of their neighbors, they were the only Indians on 
the Pacific coast who hunted whales; and, (2) from the part played by 
Nootka Sound in the early history of the northwest coast. 


Ntlakyapamuk. From their own name Nuak‘a’pamux. Also called: 


Cé’qtamux (c=sh), Lillooet name, from their name for Thompson River. 
Knife Indians, by the employees of the Hudson’s Bay Company. 
Liikatimii’x, Okanagon name. 

Nko’atamux, Shuswap name. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 589 


Salic, Okanagon name. 
Sema’mila, by the Cowichan of Fraser River. 
Thompson River Indians, popular name given by the Whites. 


Connections.—The Ntlakyapamuk were a tribe of the interior divi- 
sion of the Salishan linguistic stock. 

Location.—On Fraser and Thompson Rivers, B. C. (See also 
Washington.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Lower Thompson, on Fraser River from a short distance below Spuzzum nearly to 
Cisco: 
Chetawe, on the east side of Fraser River about 1644 miles above Yale. 
Kalulaadlek, on the east side of Fraser River about 24 miles above Yale. 
Kapachichin, on the west side of Fraser River about 28 miles above Yale. 
Kapaslok, on Fraser River above Suk. 
Kimus, on the east side of the Fraser between Yale and Siska. 
Kleaukt, on Fraser River below North Bend. 
Koiaum, on the east side of Fraser River 25 miles above Yale. 
Nkakim, near Spuzzum, on Fraser River. 
Nkattsim, on the east side of Fraser River about 38 miles above Yale and near 
Keefer’s Station. 

Nkoiam, on Fraser River below Cisco. 
Noieltsi, on the west side of Fraser River about 23 miles above Yale. 
Npiktim, on the east side of Fraser River about 30 miles above Yale. 
Ntsuwiek, on the west side of Fraser River 27 miles above Yale. 
Sintaktl, on the west side of Fraser River 30 to 40 miles above Yale. 
Skohwak, on the west side of Fraser River about 15 miles above Yale. 
Skuzis, on Fraser River above Spuzzum. 
Skwauyik, on the west side of Fraser River. 
Spaim, on the east side of Fraser River. 
Spuzzum, on the west side of Fraser River below Spuzzum Station. 
Stahehani, on the east side of Fraser River between Keefer’s Station and Cisco. 
Suk, on the east side of Fraser River below Keefer’s Station. 
Takwayaum, on Fraser River below North Bend. 
Tikwalus, on the east side of Fraser River 13 miles above Yale. 
Tliktlaketin, on the east side of Fraser River 3 miles below Cisco. 
Tzauamuk, on Fraser River 6 or 7 miles above Boston Bar. 

Upper Thompson; Lytton band (Lytton and vicinity): 
Anektettim, on the east side of Fraser River, 3 miles above Lytton. 
Cisco, on Fraser River 8 miles below Lytton. 
Kittsawat, near Lytton. 
Natkelptetenk, on the west side of Fraser River about 1 mile above Lytton. 
Nehekchekokenk, on the west side of Fraser River, 15 miles above Lytton. 
Nehowmean, on the west side of Fraser River, 1% miles above Lytton. 
Nikaomin, on the south side of Thompson River, 10 miles above Lytton. 
Nkoikin, on the east side of Fraser River, 8 miles above Lytton. 
Nkya, on the west side of Fraser River, 2 miles below Lytton. 
Noét, on the west side of Fraser River, 12 miles above Lytton. 
Npuichin, on the west side of Fraser River, 8 miles above Lytton. 
Ntlaktlakitin, at Kanaka Bar, Fraser River, about 11 miles below Lytton. 
Staiya, on the east bank of Fraser River just below Lytton. 


590 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 145 


Stryne, on the west side of Fraser River, 5 miles above Lytton. 
Tikamcheen on the south side of Thompson River at its junction with the 
Fraser. 
Tuhezep, on the east side of Fraser River about 1 mile above Lytton. 
Upper Fraser Band, from the territory of the Lytton band up Fraser River for a 
distance of 40 miles: 
Ahulka, on Fraser River just below Siska. 
Nesikeep, on the west side of Fraser River, 38 miles above Lytton. 
Nkaktko, on the west side of Fraser River 28 miles above Lytton. 
Ntlippaem, on the west side of Fraser River 22 miles above Lytton. 
Skekaitin, on the west side of Fraser River 43 miles above Lytton. 
Tiaks, at Fosters Bar on the east side of Fraser River, 28 miles above Lytton. 
Spences Bridge band, from the territory of the Lytton band up Thompson River 
nearly to Ashcroft: 
Atchitchiken, on the north side of Thompson River 3 miles back in the moun- 
tains from Spences Bridge. 
Klukluuk, on Nicola River 8 miles from Spences Bridge. 
Nkamchin, on the south side of Thompson River at its junction with the Nicola, 
about 24% miles above Lytton. 
Nkoeitko, on the south side of Thompson River 30 miles above Lytton. 
Nokem, at Drynoch, on the south side of Thompson River 16 miles above 
Lytton. 
Nskakaulten, on the south side of Thompson River, 4% mile below Spences 
Bridge. 
Ntekem, on the north side of Thompson River about 1 mile back from the 
stream and 39 miles above Lytton. 
Nukaatko, on the north side of Thompson River 43 miles above Lytton. 
Pekaist, on the south side of Thompson River, 32 miles above Lytton. 
Pemainus, on the south side of Thompson River 28 miles above Lytton. 
Semehau, on the north side of Thompson River 32 miles above Lytton. 
Snapa, on the south side of Thompson River, 14% miles back from the stream 
and 42 miles above Lytton. 
Spatsum, on the south side of Thompson River, 35 miles above Lytton. 
Stlaz, at Cornwalls near Ashcroft, 1 mile back from Thompson River. 
Tlotlowuk, on Nicola River about 8 miles from Spences Bridge. 
Zakhauzsiken, on the south side of Thompson River, half a mile back from 
the stream and 31 miles above Lytton. 
Nicola band, in the valley of Nicola River: 
Hanehewedl, near Nicola River, 27 miles above Spences Bridge. 
Huthutkawedl, near Nicola River, 23 miles above Spences Bridge. 
Koiskana, near Nicola River, 29 miles above Spences Bridge. 
Kwilchana, on Nicola Lake. 
Naaik, near Nicola River, 39 miles above Spences Bridge. 
Nehekus, about 1 mile back in the mountains from Kwilchana. 
Nsisket, near Nicola River a few miles from the west end of Nicola Lake. 
Nrstlatko, near Nicola River a few miles from the west end of Nicola Lake. 
Petutek, on Nicola river about 41 miles above Spences Bridge. 
Shahanik, near Nicola River, 16 miles above Spences Bridge. 
Tsulus, near Nicola River about 40 miles above Spences Bridge. 
Zoht, near the west end of Nicola Lake, 50 miles above Spences Bridge. 


History—Simon Fraser passed through the territory of the 
Ntlakyapamuk in 1809 and was followed by numerous employees of the 


SWANTON | INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 591 


Northwest and Hudson’s Bay Companies. More injurious to the 
welfare of the Indians by far was the invasion of the miners in 1858. 
In 1863 the tribe was decimated by smallpox, and this and other 
epidemics have cut down numbers of them at various periods. They 
have continued to live in their ancestral territories though crowded 
into narrower quarters by the invasion and settlements of the Whites. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1780 there were 5,000 
Ntlakyapamuk. The report of the Canadian Department of Indian 
Affairs for 1902 gives 1,826 and that for 1906, 1,776. 


Okanagon. A tribe living on Okanagan Lake and later in the 
Similkameen Valley, and extending southward on the west side of 
Okanogan River to old Fort Okanogan in the State of Washington. 
(See Washington.) 


Ottawa. This tribe occupied Manitoulin Island and bands belonging 
to it extended eastward toward Ottawa River. At a very early 
period they made settlements in the southern peninsula of Michigan. 
(See Michigan.) 


Passamaquoddy. A tribe affiliated with the Malecite, living on 
Passamaquoddy Bay and St. Croix River, in New Brunswick and 
Maine. (See Maine.) 


Puntlatsh. Phonetically rendered Pentlatc, significance unknown. 
Connections.—The Puntlatsh constituted a dialectic group of the 
coastal division of the Salishan linguistic family. 
Location.—On the east coast of Vancouver Island between the 
Cowichan and Comox tribes. 


Subdivisions 


Hwahwatl, on Englishman River. 
Puntlatsh, on Baynes Sound and Puntlatsh River. 
Saimen, on Kwalekum River. 


History.—The history of the Puntlatsh is practically the same as that 
of the Cowichan (q. v.). 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates 300 Puntlatsh in 1780; re- 
duced to 13 in 1906. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The Puntlatsh have 
given their name to Puntlatsh River, B. C. 


Sarcee or Sarsi. From the Siksika (Blackfoot) words sa arsi, “not 
good.” Also called: 


Castors des Prairies, by Petitot, (1891, p. 362). 

Circee, by Franklin, (1824, vol. 1, p. 170). 

Ciriés, by Gairdner in 1835 (1841. p. 257). 

Isashbahatsé, by Curtis (1907-9, p. 180), meaning “bad robes’: Crow 
name. 


592 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Buy, 145 


Mauvais Monde des Pieds-Noirs, by Petitot (1891). 

Sussee, by Umfreville in 1790 (1859, p. 270). 

Sussekoon, by Henry, Blackfoot MS. vocab., 1808: Siksika name. 

Tc6’k6, or Tsti’qis, by Chamberlain (1892, p. 8): Kutenai name. 

Ts6-Ottiné, by Petitot (1891, p. 362), meaning ‘‘people among the beavers’’. 

Ussinnewudj Eninnewug, by Tanner (1830, p. 316), meaning ‘‘stone moun- 
tain men’: Ottawa name. 

Connections.—The Sarcee were connected with the Sekani and 
Tsattine divisions of the Athapascan linguistic family and probably 
separated from the latter. 

Location.—When first known to Europeans, the Sarcee were usually 
found on the upper courses of the Saskatchewan and Athabaska Rivers 
toward the Rocky Mountains. 


Subdivisions 


Jenness (1938) states that the tribe is constituted of the following five bands at 
the present time : 

(1) Bloods, Klowanga or Big Plume’s band, of mixed Sarcee and Blood (Blackfoot) 
descent. 

(2) Broad Grass, Tents Cut Down, or Crow-Child’s band, mixed Cree and 
Sarcee, hence their name, signifying that they came from the north where the 
grass is thick and long. 

(3) People who hold aloof or Crow-Chief’s band, nearly all pure Sarcee. 

(4) Uterus or Old Sarcee’s band, part Blackfoot, part Sarcee. 

(5) Young Buffalo Robe or Many Horses’ band, occasionally called also “Those 
who keep together.” 


History.—The Sarcee evidently drifted to the Saskatchewan River 
from the north and, as Jenness (1938) thinks, “possibly towards the 
end of the seventeenth century.” They are first mentioned by Mat- 
thew Cocking in 1772-73, but the erection of a trading fort at Cum- 
berland House, followed by others farther up North Saskatchewan 
River, soon made them well-known to the traders. Early in the 
nineteenth century the Indians of the section acquired horses and 
guns, intertribal warfare was increased to such an extent that several 
tribes united for mutual protection, and the Sarcee allied themselves 
for this purpose with the Blackfoot. Nevertheless, they continued 
to suffer from attacks of the Cree and other tribes, and their numbers 
were still farther reduced by epidemics, particularly the smallpox 
epidemics of 1836 and 1870 and one of scarlet fever in 1856. In 1877, 
along with the Blackfoot and Alberta Assiniboine, they signed a 
treaty ceding their hunting grounds to the Dominion Government, 
and in 1880 submitted to be placed upon a reservation, where they 
declined steadily in numbers until 1920. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that there was a Sarcee 
population of 700 in 1670. Mackenzie (1801) estimated that there 
were 120 Sarcee warriors in 1801 and that their tents numbered 35. 


SWAN'tON } INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 593 


Thompson (1916 ed.) and Henry (1801 ed.) allowed 90 tents, 150 
warriors and about 650 souls. Sir John Franklin (1824) estimated 
that they had 100 tents. When their reservation life began Jenness 
(1938) believes that they numbered between 400 and 450, but they 
seem to have declined steadily and in 1924 there were 160 on the 
reserve, ‘all commonly considered Sarcee though an uncertain pro- 
portion were originally Cree and Blackfoot.”’ 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Sarcee are noted 
as the only northern Athapascan band which is known to have become 
accustomed to life on the Plains, though it is probable that they 
merely represent a recent case of Plains adaptation such as took place 
at an earlier period with the Apache and Kiowa Apache successively. 


Seechelt. From their own name Siciatl (c=sh). Also called: 
Niciat], Comox name, 


Connections.—The Seechelt constituted a distinct dialectic group 
of the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic family. 

Location.—On Jervis and Seechelt Inlets, Nelson Island, and the 
southern part of Texada Island, B. C. 


Subdivisions 


Anciently there were four divisions or septs of the Seechelt, as follows: 
Kunechin, at the head of Queen’s Reach, Jervis Inlet. 
Skaiakos, with no fixed abode. 
Tsonai, at Deserted Bay at the junction of Queen’s Reach and Princess Royal 
Reach, Jervis Inlet. 
Tuwanek, at the head of Narrow’s Arm, Seechelt Inlet. 


The Kunechin and Tsonai are said to be descended from Kwakiutl from Fort 
Rupert. Later all Seechelt came to live in one town called Chatelech, on Trail 
Bay, at the neck of Seechelt Peninsula. 

History.—As above noted, two of the original four septs of the 
Seechelt trace their origin to Kwakiutl Indians from Fort Rupert. 
On physical grounds Hill-Tout (1902) thought them to be related 
to the Lillooet. Their history after the coming of Europeans has 
been similar to that of their neighbors. They were converted to 
Roman Catholicism by Bishop Durieu. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,000 
Seechelt in 1780. In 1902 Hill-Tout gave a population of 325 but 
the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs only 236. The latter 
authority has 244 in 1909. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Seechelt have 
given their name to Seechelt Inlet. 


Sekani. Signifying ‘dwellers on the rocks.’’ Also called: 


Al-ta-tin, by Dawson (1888, p. 192 B). 
Lhtaten, by Morice (1889, p. 118), meaning “inhabitants of beaver dams’’: 
applied also to Nahane. 


594 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bux. 145 


Rocky Mountain Indians, by Bancroft (1886-90, vol. 1, p. 35, map). 

Sastotene, by Teit quoted by Jenness (1937, p. 5): Kaska name for certain 
bands, meaning “‘black bear people’. 

Thé-ké-né, by Petitot (MS.), meaning ‘‘dwellers on the mountains.” 

Tsekenné, by Morice (1889, p. 112), meaning “inhabitants of the rocks.”’ 
{‘‘people of the contorted rocks,’”’ according to James Teit (1900)]. 

Tseloni, by Teit quoted by Jenness (1937, p. 5): Kaska name for certain 
bands, meaning ‘‘mountain top people’. 

T’set’sa’ut, by Jenness (1937, p. 5): so called by the Indians on Skeena 
and Nass Rivers. 


Connections.—The Sekani formed a group of bands or tribes of the 
Athapascan linguistic stock, and were dialectically affiliated with the 
Tsattine and Sarcee. 

Location.—On the headwaters of Peace and Liard Rivers and some 
of the neighboring western slopes of the Rocky Mountains. 


Subdivisions 


Jenness (1937) gives the following: 


(1) Sasuchan or Sasuten, occupying all of the basin of Finlay River from the 
mouth of the Omineca north and west, including Thutade and Bear Lakes. 

(2) Tsekani, occupying the country from McLeod Lake south to the divide, and 
east to the edge of the prairies. 

(3) Tseloni, occupying the plateau country between the headwaters of Finlay 
and Liard Rivers, the Fox in its upper reaches, and the Kechika or Muddy 
River flowing through the center of their domain. 

(4) Yutuwichan, in the country from the north end of McLeod Lake down the 
Parsnip and Peace Rivers to Rocky Mountain canyon and westward to the 
headwaters of the Manson and Nation Rivers, including Carp Lake and the 
upper reaches of Salmon River. 


Morice (1889) counted nine bands, but he extended the name Sekani over the 
Tsattine and Sarcee and included three minor groups whose independent position 
is uncertain, and which have probably resulted from later mixtures. 

History.—Jenness (1937) believes that the Sekani were driven into 
the Rocky Mountains as a result of the westward thrust of the Cree. 
Morice (1889) tells us that the first Sekani encountered by Europeans 
were evidently the band met by Alexander Mackenzie on June 9, 
1793, when on his way to the Pacific Ocean. One of these guided him 
to the head of Parsnip River but deserted shortly before they came 
to the Fraser. In 1797 James Finlay ascended the river which now 
bears his name. A few years later James McDougall penetrated the 
Sekani country, and in 1805 Simon Fraser established Fort McLeod 
on McLeod Lake for the Sekani trade. Since then the contact of the 
tribe with the Whites has been continuous and cumulative. Traders 
were followed by miners and missionaries and all the influences of a 
more complicated civilization. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 3,200 
Sekani in 1780, not counting the Esbataottine, of whom he thought 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 595 


there might have been 300 in 1670. Drake (1848), estimated 1,000 
in 1820, and Morice 500 in 1887 and 1893. Mooney (1928) estimated 
there were 750 in 1906, including 250 Esbataottine, but a census taken 
by the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs in 1923 returned 
only 160. 


Senijextee or Lake Indians. ‘These were a Salish people living on the 
Arrow Lakes and across the International Boundary in the State 
of Washington as far down the Columbia as Kettle Falls. (See 
Washington.) 


Shuswap. From Suxwa’pmux, their own name, meaning unknown. 
Also called: 


Atena or Atna, from a Carrier word, meaning ‘‘stranger.”’ 
Tlik’atewt/mtlat, Kutenai name, meaning ‘‘without shirts or trousers. 


Connections.—The Shuswap belong to the interior division of the 
Salishan linguistic stock. 

Location.—The Shuswap occupied a territory on the middle course 
of the Fraser River, a second section of the Fraser near its head, 
the drainage of Thompson River above Kamloops Lake, and a 
large part of the valley of the upper Columbia above the Arrow Lakes. 


Subdivisions 


Stlemhulehamuk (Sitemxu’lExamux), in the valley of Fraser River from High Bar 
to Soda Creek, including the people of Clinton. 

Setlemuk (Se’ttmux), or Setlomuk (Set’Lomux) west of the Fraser, from about 
Churn Creek to beyond Riskie Creek. 

Stietamuk (Stie’tamux), the interior of the plateau between Fraser and North 
Thompson Rivers. 

Tekkakalt (Texqa’kallt) or Tekkekaltemuk (Trexqé’kalltemux), people of the 
North Thompson region. 

Skstellnemuk (Sxsté’lInEmux), on the Upper South Thompson, Shuswap Lake, 
and Spallumcheen River. 

Stkamlulepsemuk (Stkamlu’lzepseEmux) or, sometimes, Sekwapmukoe (Sexywap- 
mux’6’é), the people of Kamloops and Savona. 

Zaktcinemuk (Zaxtci’/nEmux), in the valley of the Bonaparte River to near Ash- 
croft on the main Thompson, Cache Creek, Loon Lake, the lower part of Hat 
Creek, through Marble Canyon to Pavilion, and on both sides of Fraser River 
near that point. 

Bands and the Principal Village of Each 


Fraser River Division: Soda Creek (Hatsu’th! or Ha’tsu’thl), Buekskin Creek 
(Teukkehwank), Williams Lake or Sugar Cane (Pethltcoktcitcen), Alkali Lake 
(Skat), Dog Creek (Ratltem or Ratlt), Canoe Creek (Teawak), Empire Valley 
(Tcekweptem or Tcekiuptem), Big Bar (Stekauz), High Bar (Thlenthlenaiten), 
Clinton (Pethlteket). 

Cafion Division: Riskie Creek (Pek), North Cafion (Snhahalaus), South Cafion 
(Snhahelaus), Chileotin Mouth (Tekhoilups). 


596 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 145 


Lake Division: Lake la Hache (Hatlinten or Hallinten), Canim Lake (Tskasken), 

Green Timber (Pelstsokomus). 

North Thompson Division: Upper Thompson (Pesskalalten), Lower North 

Thompson (Tcoktcekwallk), Kinbaskets. 

Bonaparte Division: Pavilion (Skwailak), Bonaparte River (Nhohieilten), Main 

Thompson. 

Kamloops Division: Savona or Deadman’s Creek (Sketskitcesten or Stskitcesten), 

Kamloops (Stkamluleps). 

Shuswap Lake Division: South Thompson (Halaut), Adams Lake, Shuswap Lake 

(Kwaut), Spallumcheen (Spelemtcin), Arrow Lake. 

History.—This tribe was encountered by Alexander Mackenzie in 
1793 and Simon Fraser in 1808. Mackenzie is thought to have been 
the first white man to meet any of them and Fraser was the first to 
explore the northern and western parts of their country. They were 
followed by fur traders of the Hudson’s Bay Company, among them 
a band of Iroquois who came about the year 1816. The appearance 
of miners in 1858 introduced much greater changes into their lives 
which have since undergone rapid alterations though they have not, 
as in the case of so many Indian tribes of the United States, been 
driven out of their ancient territories. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 the population 
of the Shuswap was 5,300. Teit (1909) obtained an estimate from 
an intelligent old Indian which would give a population in 1850 of 
7,200. The returns of the Canadian Indian Office for 1903 were 
2,185; for 1906, 2,236. 

Connection in which they have become noted—The Shuswap have 
given their name to a lake and hamlet in British Columbia. 


Siksika (Blackfoot). In historic times this tribe was on the upper 
course of the Saskatchewan River and extended southward into the 
present State of Montana. Their eastern boundary was in the 
neighborhood of the 150th meridian, and they stretched westward 
to the Rocky Mountains. At an earlier period all seem to have 
been some distance north of the International Boundary. (See 
Montana.) 


Songish. Name given to the principal band of the group by the 
Whites, who adopted it, in a corrupt form, from the name of a 
sept, the Stsa’figes. Also called: 

Etzamish, by the tribes of the south part of Puget Sound. 
Lku’/ngEn, own name. 
Connections.—The Songish constituted one of the dialectic groups 
of the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic family. 
Location.—At the southern end of Vancouver Island and on the 
west coast of San Juan Island, State of Washington. 


~- 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 597 


Subdivisions 

There were three principal bands or tribes: the Sanetch, Songish, and Sooke. 

The Sanetch consisted of the following septs or bands: Mayne Island, Panque- 
chin, Tsartilp, Tsawout, Tsehump, to which the Saturna Island Indians should 
be added. 

The following are Songish bands or septs: Chikauach (at McNeill Bay, Van- 
couver Island), Chkungen (at McNeill Bay, Vancouver Island), Kekayeken 
(between Esquimalt and Beecher Bay, Vancouver Island), Kitlasen (at McNeill 
Bay), Ksapsem (at Esquimalt), Kukoak (at MeNeill Bay), Kukulek (at Cadboro 
Bay, Vancouver Island), Lelek (at Cadboro Bay, Vancouver Bay), Sichanetl 
(at Oak Bay, Vancouver Island), Skingenes (on Discovery Island off Vancouver 
Island), Skuingkung (at Victoria), Stsanges (between Esquimalt and Beecher Bay). 

History.—The Songish were probably first encountered by the Greek 
pilot Juan de Fuca in 1592, when he discovered the straits bearing his 
name. Spanish, English, and American exploring and trading vessels 
visited their country in ever-increasing numbers but the greatest 
change in their lives followed upon the settlement of Victoria, first as 
a Hudson’s Bay Company post, in 1843. As this rose to be the 
capital of the province of British Columbia, it became a rendezvous 
of Indian tribes from all quarters and for all classes of Whites. It was 
at the same time a potent cause of the civilizing of the Songish and 
of their decline. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 2,700 people 
of the Songish group in 1780; they had become reduced to 488 in 1906. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The only claim of the 
Songish to special recognition is the fact that Victoria, the provincial 
capital of British Columbia, was founded in their country. The name 
of the Sanetch, a Songish band, is perpetuated in Saanich Peninsula 
and that of another Songish band, the Sooke, in Sooke Inlet. 


Squawmish. Significance unknown. Phonetically spelled Sk’qo’mic. 
Connections.—Together with the Nooksak of Washington, the 
Squawmish constituted a subdialect of the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic stock. 
Location.—On Howe Sound and Burrard Inlet, north of the mouth 
of Fraser River. 


Villages 
Chakkai, on the east side of Howe Sound. 
Chalkunts, on Gambier Island. 
Chants, on Burrard Inlet. 
Chechelmen, on Burrard Inlet. 
Chechilkok, at Seymour Creek, Burrard Inlet. 
Chekoalch, on Burrard Inlet. 
Chewas, on the west side of Howe Sound. 
Chiakamish, on Chiakamish Creek, a tributary of Squawmisht River. 
Chichilek, on Burrard Inlet. 
Chimai, on the left bank of Squawmisht River. 
Chukchukts, on the left bank of Squawmisht River. 


598 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


Ekuks, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 
Etleuk, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 
Hastings Saw Mill Indians. 

Helshen, on Burrard Inlet. 

Homulschison, at Capilano Creek, Burrard Inlet. 
Huikuayaken, on Howe Sound. 

Humelsom, on Burrard Inlet. 

Ialmuk, at Jericho, Burrard Inlet. 

Ikwopsum, on the left bank of Squawmisht River. 
Itliok, on the left bank of Squawmisht River. 
Kaayahunik, on the west bank of Squawmisht River. 


Kaksine, on Mamukum Creek, left bank of Squawmisht River. 


Kapkapetlp, at Point Grey, Burrard Inlet. 
Kauten, on the right bank of Squawmisht River 
Kekelun, on the west side of Howe Sound. 
Kekios, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 
Kekwaiakin, on the left bank of Squawmisht River. 
Kelketos, on the east coast of Howe Sound. 
Ketlalsm, on the east side of Howe Sound. 
Kiaken, on the left bank of Squawmisht River. 
Kiaken, on Burrard Inlet. 

Kicham, on Burrard Inlet. 

Koalcha, at Linn Creek, Burrard Inlet. 

Koekoi, on the west side of Howe Sound. 
Koikoi, on Burrard Inlet. 

Kolelakom, on Bowen Island, Howe Sound. 
Komps, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 
Kotlskaim, on Burrard Inlet. 

Kuakumchen, on Howe Sound. 

Kukutwom, on the east side of Howe Sound. 
Kulatsen, on the east side of Howe Sound. 
Kulaten, on Burrard Inlet. 

Kwanaken, on Squawmisht River. 
Kwichtenem, on the west side of Howe Sound. 
Kwolan, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 


Male, shared with the Musqueam, north of Sea Island in the delta of Fraser River. 


Mitlmetlelch, on Passage Island, Howe Sound. 
Nkukapenach, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 
Nkuoosai, on Howe Sound. 

Nkuoukten, on Howe Sound. 

Npapuk, on the east side of Howe Sound. 

Npokwis, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 
Nthaich, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 
Papiak, on Burrard Inlet. 

Poiam, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 
Pokaiosum, on the left bank of Squawmisht River. 
Sauktich, Hat Island, Howe Sound. 

Schilks, on the east side of Howe Sound. 

Schink, at Gibson’s Lodge, on the west side of Howe Sound. 
Selelot, on Burrard Inlet. 

Shemps, on the left bank of Squawmisht River. 
Shishaiokoi, on the east coast of Howe Sound. 


[Bunv. 145 


ee ee eee es ae 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 599 


Siechem, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 

Skakaiek, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 

Skauishan, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 

Skeakunts, on Burrard Inlet. 

Skeawatsut, at Port Atkinson on the east side of Howe Sound. 

Skelsh, on Burrard Inlet. 

Sklau, on the left bank of Squawmisht River. 

Skoachais, on Burrard Inlet. 

Skumin, on the left bank of Squawmisht River. 

Skutuksen, on the east side of Howe Sound. 

Skwaius, on Burrard Inlet. 

Slokoi, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 

Smelakoa, on Burrard Inlet. 

Smok, on the left bank of Squawmisht River. 

Snauk, at False Creek, Burrard Inlet. 

Spapak, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 

Stamis, on the left bank of Squawmisht River. 

Stetuk, on Burrard Inlet. 

Stlaun, on Burrard Inlet. 

Stoktoks, on Howe Sound. 

Stotoii, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 

Suntz, on Burrard Inlet. 

Sutkel, on Burrard Inlet. 

Swaiwi, on Burrard Inlet. 

Swiat, on the west side of Howe Sound. 

Thetsaken, on the east side of Howe Sound. 

Thetuksem, on the west side of Howe Sound. 

Thetusum, on the west side of Howe Sound. 

Thotais, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 

Tktakai, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 

Tlakom, on Anvil Island in Howe Sound. 

Tlastlemauk, in Burrard Inlet. 

Tleatlum, on Burrard Inlet. 

Toktakamai, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 

Tseklten, on Howe Sound. 

Tumtls, on the east side of Howe Sound. 

Ulksin, on Burrard Inlet. 

Yukuts, on the right bank of Squawmisht River. 
There were a few more villages at the upper end of Burrard Inlet. Modern 

villages are: Burrard Inlet, No. 3. Reserve; False Creek (same as Snauk, 

q. v.), Kapilano (see Homulchison), Seymour Creek (see Checkilkok), and 

Squamish (on Howe Sound). 


History.—The history of the Squawmish has been practically 
identical with that of the other coast Salish tribes in their neighbor- 
hood. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates 1,800 Squawmish in 1780. 
In 1909, 174 were returned. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Squawmish have 
given their name to Squawmisht River, B. C. 


600 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boo. 145 


Stalo. Significance of name unknown. Also called: 


Cowichan of Fraser River, on account of their close linguistic connection 
with the Cowichan proper of Vancouver Island. 

Halkéme’lém, said to be a name which they applied to themselves. 

Hue-la-muh or Hum-a-luh, said to be the name by which at least a part of 
them called themselves. 

Sa-chinco, Shuswap name for the upper Stalo, meaning ‘‘strangers.”’ 

Té’it, name for those above Nicomen and Chilliwack Rivers, so-called by 
the lower bands. 


Connections.—The Stalo belonged to the coastal division of the 
Salishan linguistic stock, their nearest relatives being the Cowichan 
of Vancouver Island with whom they are often classed. 

Location.—On the lower Fraser River from a point below Spuzzum 
to the mouth of the river. 


Subdivisions and Villages 


Chehalis, along the middle course of Harrison River. 

Chilliwack, on Chilliwack River; they formerly spoke Nooksak. 

Coquitlam, in Fraser River Valley just above the delta, but owning no land 
because practically slaves of the Kwantlen. 

Ewawoos, in a town called Skeltem, 2 miles above Hope, on Fraser River. 

Katsey, in villages called Seltsas and Shuwalethet, on Pitt Lake and River. 

Kelatl, in a town called Asilao, on Fraser River above Yale. 

Kwantlen, in villages called Kikait, Kwantlen, Skaiametl, Skaiets, and Wharnock, 
between Stave River and the mouth of the southern arm of Fraser River and 
Sumass Lake. 

Musqueam, in the northern part of Fraser Delta. 

Nicomen, in villages called Skweahm and Lahuai, on Nicomen slough and at the 
mouth of Wilson Creek. 

Ohamil, on the south side of Fraser River just below Hope. 

Pilalt, in villages called Chutil, Kwalewia, Skelautuk, Skwala, Schachuhil, and 
perhaps Cheam, on lower Chilliwack River and part of Fraser River. 

Popkum, in a town of the same name on lower Fraser River. 

Scowlits, in a town of the same name at the mouth of Harrison River. 

Sewathen, on the coast south of the mouth of Fraser River. 

Siyita, in a village called Skuhamen, at Agassiz on Fraser River. 

Skwawalooks, on Fraser River below Hope. 

Snonkweametl, in a village called Snakwametl, on Fraser River. 

Squawtits, on Fraser River between Agassiz and Hope. 

Sumass, on Sumass Lake and River. 

Tsakuam, in a town called Shilekuatl, at Yale. 

Tsenes, location uncertain. 


History.—The first visitors to the Stalo were probably Spaniards, 
possibly the companions of Juan de Fuca in 1592. In 1809 Simon 
Fraser passed through their country, and his name is perpetuated in 
that of the river upon which most of them lived. Afterward traders 
connected with the Northwest and Hudson’s Bay Companies entered 
their territory more and more frequently and posts were es- 
tablished. They were followed about the middle of the nineteenth 


SWwaNron] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 601 


century by miners and the latter by more permanent settlers. Com- 

plete opening up of the country followed upon its penetration by the 

Canadian Pacific Railway and the consequent establishment of the 

port of Vancouver for trans-Pacific trade. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were 
7,100 Stalo and in 1907, 1,451. 

Stuwihamuk, So called by the Ntlakyapamuk Salish, significance 
unknown. Also called: 

Sri/leqamuq, another Ntlakyapamuk name, meaning “people of the 
high country.” 
Smflé’kamuq, a third Ntlakyapamuk name. 

Connections.—The Stuwihamuk belonged to the Athapascan stock 
but to what particular branch of it is unknown. 

Location.—In Nicola Valley. 

History.—At some prehistoric period the Stuwihamuk forced their 
way into the midst of the territory occupied by Salishan tribes and 
were finally absorbed by the Ntlakyapamuk of Thompson River. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were 150 
Stuwihamuk, basing his conclusions on Boas’ (1895) estimate of 120 
to 150 at a later period (1895). 

Tahltan. Properly, according to Morice (1904 b), “Thalhthan, a 
contraction of Tha-selhthan,” from tha or thu, “water,’”’ and saelh- 
than, a verb that refers to some heavy object lying thereon, which 
seems to be confirmed by a myth reported to Emmons (1911), 
though some of the older people told the latter it was from a foreign 
tongue; some, however, derived it from “‘thalla-a, point, the first 
living place on the rocky tongue of land between Stikine and 
Tahltan Rivers; and still others claim that it originated from the 
exhibition or giving away of a piece of steel, thal, by a chief at a 
great feast given at this point in early days, in celebration of the 
bringing out of his daughter.” 

Connections.—The Tahltan belong to the Athapascan linguistic 
family, and have usually been classed with the Nahane, but we follow 
Jenness (1932) in treating them separately. 

Location.—In the drainage basin of Stikine River down to the 
mouth of Iskut River, Dease Lake, and Dease River halfway to 
McDane Creek (though anciently the head of Dease Lake was not in 
their territory), the northern sources of the Nass and some of the 
southern branches of the Taku in Alaska and British Columbia. 


Villages 


Gikahnegah, a fishing village on the south bank of the Stikine opposite Nine Mile 
flat. 
Lakneip, a subdivision or village on the upper course of Nass River. 


602 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bune. 145 


Tahltan, called by themselves Goontdarshage, the modern village, 1% miles 
northwest of the mouth of Tahltan River. 

Teetch-aranee, on the south bank of the Tahltan near its mouth. 

Thludlin, on Tahltan River some 12 miles above its mouth. 

Tratuckka, a fishing village at Nine Mile flat on the Stikine River. 

Tsaqudartsee, several miles beyond Teetch-aranee on the rock ledge separating 
the Stikine and Tahltan Rivers. 
There were some others of which the names have not survived. 


Hisiory.—The Tahltan claim descent from people from several 
different directions—the head of the Nass, Tagish Lake, the head- 
waters of the Taku, the Liard (or Peace) River, and also from the 
coast. Intimate contact witb the Whites was delayed until placer gold 
was discovered in the river bottom below Glenora in 1861 when some 
desultory prospecting began, but constant contact only followed on the 
Cassiar gold excitement of 1874. They suffered in many ways from 
White contact, particularly during the smallpox epidemics of 1864 
and 1868. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) placed the entire Nahane population 
including this tribe at 2,000 in 1780. In 1909 there were 229 Tahltan. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Tahltan are noted 
as a tribe whose organization has been made over by contact with 
coastal people. 


Takkuth-kutchin. Significance uncertain but possibly “squinters.”’ 
Also called: 


Dakaz, by Morice (1906, p. 261). 

Dakkadhé, by Petitot (1876, p. 20). 

Deguthee Dennee, by Franklin (1828, p. 40). 

Gens de rats, by Whymper (1868, 255). 

Klovén-Kuttchin, by Petitot (1876). 

Kukuth-kutchin, by Bancroft (1886-90, vol. 1, p. 147). 

Lapiene’s House Indians, by Kirkby in Hind (1863, vol. 2, p. 254). 
Louchieux Proper, by Ross (MS., p. 474). 

Nattsae-Kouttchin, by Petitot (1891, p. 361), meaning ‘‘marmot people.”’ 
Porcupine River Indians, by Whymper (1868, p. 255). 

Quarrelers, by Mackenzie (1801, p. 51). 

Rat Indians, by Hardisty (1867, p. 311). 

Rat River Indians, by Whymper (1868, p. 255). 

Squint-Eyes, by Franklin (1824, p. 261). 

Takadhé, by Petitot (MS.). 

Ta-Kuth-Kutchin, by Hind (1863, p. 254). 

Tykothee-dinneh, by Franklin (1824, p. 261). 

Upper Porcupine River Kutchin, by Osgood (1934, p. 176). 
Yukuth Kutchin, by Bancroft (1886-90, vol. 1, p. 115). 


Connections —The Takkuth-kutchin were the central and most 
characteristic tribe of the Kutchin group of the northern division of 
the Athapascan linguistic stock. 

Location.—On the upper course of Porcupine River. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 603 


Population.—With the Vunta-kutchin and Tutcone, Mooney (1928) 
estimated that there were about 2,200 Takkuth-kutchin in 1670. In 
1866 they had been reduced to 15 hunters or 40 men in all. Dawson 
(1888) gave 337 of this tribe and the Tatlit-kutchin; Morice (1906) 
estimated 150 in 1906. In 1910, 6 were living in Alaska. (See 
Nakotcho-kutchin, Tatlit-kutchin, and also Kutcha-kutchin under 
Alaska.) 


Tatlit-kutchin. Signifying “those who dwell at the source of the 
river [i. e., the Peel River].’’ Also called: 
Fon du Lac Loucheux, by Hooper (1853, p. 270). 
Gens du fond du lac, by Ross (MS).. 
Peel River Kutchin, by Osgood (1934, p. 174). 
Sa-to-tin, by Dawson (1888). 
Toe-tliet-Kouttchin, by Petitot (1891, p. 361). 

Connections.—The Tatlit-kutchin belonged to the Kutchin group 
of tribes of the northern division of the Athapascan linguistic family, 
being particularly closely connected with the Takkuth-kutchin. 

Location.—On Peel River and neighboring parts of the Mackenzie. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) gives 800 to the Tatlit-kutchin and 
the Nakotcho-kutchin, together. In 1866, 30 hunters and 60 men in 
all were reported. (See Nakotcho-kutchin, Takkuth-kutchin, and also 
Katcha-kutchin under Alaska.) 


Tatsanottine. Signifying “people of the scum of water,” “scum” 
being a figurative expression for copper. Also called: 


Copper Indians, from the fact that copper was obtained in their country. 
Couteaux Jaunes, French-Canadian name. 

Red-knife Indians, referring to copper. 

Yellow-knife Indians, referring to copper. 


Connections.—The Tatsanottine belonged to the Athapascan lin- 
guistic stock and were later classified with the Chipewyan, but their 
original position within the stock is unknown. 

Location.—On the northern shores and eastern bays of Great Slave 
Lake. 

History.—The Tatsanottine derived their name from the ore in a 
low mountain near Coppermine River which they formerly made into 
knives, axes, and other cutting tools and traded at fabulous prices, 
until the introduction of articles of European manufacture broke the 
market and they moved away from the mine toward trading posts in 
the south. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 430 in 1670. 
In 1859 a census, which may, however, have been only partial, returned 
219. <A later estimate by Morice (1906) gave 500. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Tatsanottine 


604 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLt. 145 


have become noteworthy merely on account of their association with 
the copper deposit above mentioned. 
Thlingchadinne, signifying “dog-flank people.” Also called: 
Atticmospicayes or Attimospiquaies, by La Potherie, and said to mean 
“dog-ribs.”’ 
Dog Ribs, popular English name from their own designation. 
Flancs-de-Chien or Plats-Cétes-de-Chien, French name derived from their 
own designation. 
Lintcanre, nickname applied by their congeners. 
Connections.—The Thlingchadinne belonged to the Athapascan 
linguistic stock. 
Location.—Between Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake but 
not extending to the Mackenzie River. 


Subdivisions 


Petitot (1891) gives the following divisions: 

Lintchanre, north and east of the northern arm of Great Slave Lake. 

Takfwelottine, southeast of Great Bear Lake and at the source of Coppermine 
River. 

Tsantieottine, on La Martre Lake and River. 

Tseottine, along the south shore of Great Bear Lake. 

History.—The name of the Thlingchadinne appears as early as 
1744. It is said that they were gradually forced northwest by the 
Cree but it is probable that this was true of only a part of them, the 
greater portion having occupied approximately the same territories. 
Their later history is bound up with that of the Hudson’s Bay Com- 
pany, the purveyors of European civilization to most of the Indians 
of northwestern Canada. 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1670 there were 
1,250 Indians of this tribe. In 1858 Ross (1858) gave their total 
population as 926. Morice (1906) estimated 1,150. 

Tionontati, Signifying according to Hewitt (in Hodge, 1910), “‘there 
the mountain stands’. Also called: 
Gens du Petun, French name, meaning “tobacco nation,” first used by 
Champlain (1616), on account of their agricultural activities. 
Quieunontati, a slightly different form of Tionontati, meaning ‘“‘where the 
mountain stands,” used by some early writers. 
Tobacco Indians, Tobacco Nation, popular English name. 

Connections.—The Tionontati belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic 
stock, being most closely connected probably with the Huron whose 
designation was sometimes extended over them. 

Location.—In the highland south of Nottawasaga Bay, in Grey and 
Simcoe Counties, Ontario. (See also Wisconsin.) 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 605 


Villages 

Ehouae (mission of St. Pierre and St. Paul), Ekarenniondi (St. Matthieu), 
Etarita (St. Jean), St. Andre, St. Barthelemy, St. Jacques, St. Jacques et St. 
Philippe, St. Simon et St. Jude, St. Thomas. 

History—The Tionontati were first visited by Europeans, the 
French, in 1616, and in 1640 the Jesuits established a mission among 
them. When the Huron villages were destroyed by the Iroquois in 
1648-49, many Hurons took refuge with this tribe, in consequence of 
which the Iroquois turned against them, and attacked Etarita in 
December 1649, during the absence of the warriors, destroying the 
mission and many of the inhabitants. In consequence the Tionontati 
abandoned their country and followed the fortunes of the Huron, 
with whom they subsequently became amalgamated. Hewitt 
believed that they are represented to a greater extent in the Wyandot 
of Ohio than were the Huron proper. (See Wyandot under Ohio.) 

Population.—Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1600 the Tionontati 
had a population of 8,000. They are no longer separable from the 
Huron. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Tionontati were 
noted solely for the extent to which they cultivated tobacco. 


Tsattine. Signifying ‘‘dwellers among the beavers.’’ Also called: 
Beaver Indians, English term derived from their own name. 


Connections.—The Tsattine belonged to the same branch of the 
Athapascan family as the Sekani and Sarcee. 

Location.—On the prairies south of Peace River and east of the 
Rocky Mountains and on the upper part of Peace River. 

History.—The Tsattine and the Sekani were originally one people, 
the separation having come about by the gradual penetration of the 
Sekani westward into the mountains. The Sarcee evidently branched 
off from the Beaver. The invasion of the Cree probably had some- 
thing to do with all this. Some of the Indians of this tribe resorted 
to the Hudson’s Bay Company’s posts before there was a post in their 
own country. Mackenzie (1801) says that they first secured firearms 
in 1782. This was perhaps a result of the establishment of a post 
on Athabaska River by Peter Pond for the Northwest Company 
in 1778. It was abandoned a few years later and never rebuilt but 
other forts took its place, such as Athabaska Landing, Peace River 
Landing, Fort St. John, Fort Dunvegan, and a post on Little Slave 
Lake. Mackenzie spent the winter of 1792-93 with one band of 
Beaver near Peace River Crossing before setting out for the Pacific. 
Goddard (1916) states that they are now divided into three groups, 
one trading at Fort St. John, a second living about Dunvegan, and 
a third near Vermilion. There is also a large band at Hudson Hope. 


606 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuuL. 145 


Tsetsaut. Name given them by the Niska and signifying “people 
of the interior.” 

Connections.—The Tsetsaut belonged to the Athapascan stock and 
were usually considered as a Nahane tribe. Their dialect is said to be 
similar to Tahltan, yet they are reported to have branched off from 
the Kaska. 

Location.—According to Teit, ‘‘their [the Tsetsaut’s] country lay 
in a strip from near Bradfield canal and the Iskut across the streams 
flowing into Behm Canal perhaps to about the head of Boca de 
Quadra. They occupied all of the upper part of Portland Canal around 
Stewart, and Salmon and Bear Rivers. They may have come down 
the canal as far as Maple Bay. They occupied all the White River 
and Meziadin Lake basins and one of their original headquarters, 
especially for salmon fishing, was at Meziadin Lake. They stretched 
across the head of the Skeena River above Kuldo River over to 
Bear and Sustut lakes” (Teit’s Note in D. Jenness, 1932). 

History—Once a large tribe they were almost exterminated by 
the Lakweip and Tlingit about 1830. They once lived further down 
Behm Canal and were friendly with the Sanya Tlingit until they 
discovered that the latter had determined to kill them and enslave 
their women and children, when they emigrated to Portland Canal 
and, becoming reduced in numbers, fell under the control of the Niska, 
among whom the last of them found homes. 

Population—About 1830 the Tsetsaut numbered 500; in 1895 
they were reduced to 12. 


Tsimshian. A native term meaning “people of Skeena River.” 
Also called: 


Kilat, by the Masset Haida. 

Kilgat, by the Skidegate Haida. 

Kwé’tela, Heiltsuk Kwakiutl name. 

Skeena Indians, an English translation of their own name. 
Ts’dtsqn’n, Tlingit name. 


Connections.—The Tsimshian are the largest of the three divisions of 
the Chimmesyan linguistic stock, to which they have given their name. 

Location.—On the lower course of Skeena River and the neighboring 
parts of the Pacific Coast. (See also Alaska.) 


Subdivisions and Villages 


The following are at the same time tribal or band, and town groups: 
Kilutsai, near Metlakatla. 
Kinagingeeg, near Metlakatla. 
Kinuhtoiah, near Metlakatla. 
Kishpachlaots, at Metlakatla. 
Kitlani, near Metlakatla. 
Kitsalthlal, between Nass and Skeena Rivers. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 607 


Kitunto, near the mouth of Skeena River. 

Kitwilgioks, near the mouth of Skeena River. 

Kitwilksheba, near Metlakatla and the mouth of Skeena River. 
Kitzeesh, near Metlakatla. 

These were the Tsimshian proper, but in a more extended sense the name 
applies to the Kitzilas, who occupied two towns in succession—Old Kitzilas just 
above the canyon of Skeena River, and New Kitzilas just below, and Kitzimgay- 
luin, On the north side of Skeena River below the canyon. Ina still more extended 
sense it covered the Kitkahta, on Douglas Channel; Kitkatla, on Porcher Island; 
and the Kittizov, on the south side of Swindle Island, northwest of Milbank Sound. 
Modern towns are: 

New Metlakatla, at Port Chester on Annette Island, Alaska. 

Old Metlakatla, 15 miles south of Port Simpson. 

Port Essington, at the mouth of Skeena River. 

Port Simpson, between Old Metlakatla and the mouth of Nass River. 

History.—Traditional and other evidence indicates that the Tsim- 
shian formerly lived inland and have pushed down to the Pacific in 
relatively late times, probably displacing the Tlingit. Spanish 
navigators reached the latitude of their coast in very early times but 
it is questionable whether any actually touched there. In the latter 
part of the eighteenth century English and American explorers and 
traders met them and this contact became more intimate as time went 
on. Later the Hudson’s Bay Company’s posts were established at 
Fort Simpson in 1831 and at Fort Essington in 1835, and still later 
their country was overrun by miners and prospectors, particularly 
during the great Klondike rush. In 1857 Rev. William Duncan 
established a mission of the Church of England at Metlakatla, but, 
on account of differences with his superiors over the conduct of this 
work, he removed to Annette Island, Alaska, in 1887 with the greater 
part of the Indians under his charge and obtained the grant of this 
island for his colony. A still closer contact between them and the 
outside world resulted from the establishment of the terminus of the 
Grand Trunk (now the Canadian National Railway) among them at 
Prince Rupert. 

Population Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were 
5,500 Indians belonging to the Chimmesyan linguistic stock of which 
the Tsimshian were a part. In 1908 there were 1,840 Tsimshian, in- 
cluding 465 in Alaska. 

Connection in which they have become noted.—The Indians of this 
stock, including the Tsimshian, are noted for their beautiful carvings, 
equaled if at all only by those of the neighboring Haida. They and 
the Haida together occupy the very center of the remarkable cultural 
area of the north Pacific coast, and their social and ceremonial institu- 
tions have attracted particular attention. Their language occupies a 
unique position among the tongues of the northwest. 


608 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


Tutchone. Usually called Tutchone-kutchin, but their connection 
with the true Kutchin seems to be denied by later investigators; 
meaning of name ‘‘Crow People.”’ Also called: 

Caribou Indians, by Dall (1877, p. 32). 

Gens de bois, by Whymper (1869, p. 255). 

Gens des Foux, by Dall (1870, p. 429). 

Klo-a-tsul-tshik’, by Dawson (1889, p. 202). 

Mountain Indians, by Hardisty (1867, p. 311). 

Nehaunee, by Dall (1877, p. 32). (So called by Hudson’s Bay Co. men.) 

Tatanchaks, by Colyer (1870, p. 593). 

Wood Indians, by Dawson (1889, p. 202). (So called by fur traders.) 

Connections.—The Tutchone belonged to the Athapascan stock and 

were probably most closely related to the Han Indians on the Yukon 

River to the north and the Nabesna Indians to the west. 
Location.—Between the Han Indians and the Nahane country. 
Population.—Hodge (1910), gives 1,100, on what authority is not 

stated, and it is uncertain how many other tribes may be included in 

whole or in part. 
THE WEST INDIES 


INDIAN TRIBES OF HAITI 
Bainoa. 


Connections.—So far as known, the Bainoa belonged to the Arawa- 
kan linguistic family. 

Location.—The Bainoa tribe or “province’’ included all of the 
present Republic of Haiti south of the San Nicolas Mountains, 
except that portion west of the River Savane, and also southwestern 
Santo Domingo to the River Maguana or San Juan. 


Subdivisions 

(As given by Peter Martyr (1912)) 
Amaquei. Diaguo. 
Anninici. Guahabba. 
Atiec. Guarricco. 
Attibuni, on the River Artibonite. Honorucco. 
Azzuei. Tacchi. 
Bauruco. Iagohaiucho. 
Buiaz. Maccazina. 
Camaie. Maiaguarite. 
Caunoa. Neibaimao. 
Dabaigua. Yaguana. 
Dahibonici. Xaragua. 


However, I have omitted from his list Marien and Maguana, which I believe 
should be considered distinct. 


Cahibo or Cibao. 


Connections.—The Cahibo belonged, so far as known, to the Ara- 
wakan linguistic family, except that a different language is said to 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 609 


have been spoken in the provinces of Cubana and Baiohaigua, but 
the difference may have been dialectic. Peter Martyr’s words render 
it impossible to suppose the language of this entire tribe was distinct 
from the speech of the remaining Haitians. 

Location.—The northwestern mountain section of Santo Domingo, 
about the Desert Mountains or Cordilleras del Cibao. 


Subdivisions 


Baiohaigua, Cotoy, Cubana, Cybaho, Dahaboon, Manabaho, and mountainous 
districts called Hazue, Mahaitin and Neibaymao. 


Caizcimu. 


Connections.—So far as known, all the Indians in this province 
belonged to the Arawakan linguistic family. 

Location.—The eastern part of the present Dominican Republic, ex- 
tending on the south side of the Bay of Samana to a point near the 
mouth of the Juna River and on the south coast of the whole island to 
the neighborhood of the mouth of the San Juan or Maguana. Peter 
Martyr (1912) defines it as reaching only to the coast just west of the 
present Ciudad Trujillo (formerly Santo Domingo City), but the sub- 
divisions he names indicate the greater extension given above. 


Subdivisions 


Peter Martyr (1912), gives the following “districts or cantons’: Arabo, Ara- 
mana, Baguanimabo, Caicoa, Guanama, Guiagua, Hazoa, Higuey, Macorix, 
Reyre, Xagua, and the rugged district of Haiti to the north. 


Guaccaiarima. 


Connections.—Cave dwellers were reputed to live here, from which 
circumstance at least the western part of the territory indicated is 
sometimes supposed to have been occupied by a people who preceded 
the Arawak, the Guanacahibes, who were also represented in western 
Cuba. No language of this province is known, however, distinct from 
Arawak. 

Location.—All of the southwestern peninsula of the Republic of 
Haiti west of the River Savane. 


Subdivisions 


Peter Martyr gives the following ‘‘cantons’”’: Ayqueroa, Cahaymi, Guabaqua, 
Habacoa, Ianaizi, Little Bainoa, Manabaxao, Navicarao, Nimaca, Taquenazabo, 
Zavana. 


Hubabo (or Ciguayo) 


Connections.—Peter Martyr (1912) seems to say that the inhabitants 
of this province spoke a language distinct from other Haitians, but 
the wording is obscure and may refer to the province or tribe of 


Cahibo. 


610 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 145 


Location.—In the northern part of Santo Domingo between the 
Yaqui del Norte and Juna Rivers and the Atlantic and from the 
Peninsula of Samana to about Point Blanco. 


Subdivisions 


Peter Martyr knew only the following: Canabaco, Cubao, and Xamana. If 
my interpretation of his words is correct, the people of this province were called 
Macoryzes. Elsewhere they seem to be called Ciguana. 


Maguana 


Connections.—The Maguana probably spoke an Arawakan dialect 
but their position is uncertain. Peter Martyr gives this as a district 
or canton of the Bainoa province, but his description of it extends it 
so far, and the importance of its chief was so great that I have thought 
it best to give it an independent status. It seems possible that this 
is identical with the district of Magua assigned to the province of 
Cahibo. 

Location.—In the upper Artabonite Valley, and the valleys of San 
Tome and San Juan, and Constanza Valley, apparently as far as the 
Bay of Samana. 

Subdivisions 

None are given. 

Marien 


Connections.—The Marien probably spoke an Arawak language and 
are attached to the province of Bainoa by Peter Martyr (1912), but 
their chief seems to have acted independently of all others, and Marien 
is sometimes called a ‘‘province.”’ 

Location.—-The northwestern coast districts of the present Domini- 
can Republic and the northern coast of Haiti from the site of Isabella 
to the Windward Passage. 


Subdivisions 
None are known. 


INDIAN TRIBES OF CUBA 


(After Lehmann, 1920) 


Bani. Cubanacan. 
Baracoa. Cuciba. 
Barajagua. Guaimaro. 
Barbacoa. Guamahaya. 
Bayamo. Guanacahibe. 
Bayaquitiri. Guaniguanico. 
Boyaca. Havana. 
Camagiiey. Hanamana. 


Cayaguayo. lagua. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 611 


INDIAN TRIBES OF CUBA—continued 


Macaca. Maniabon. 
Macorixe. Marien. 
Maguano. Ornofay. 
Maisi. Sabaneque. 
Maiyé. Sagua. 
Mangon. 


Lucayans in Bahamas. 
Caribs in Lesser Antilles. 


INDIAN TRIBES OF PUERTO RICO 


(After Lehmann, 1920) 


Agueynaba. Loaiza. 
Arecibo. Mabodamaca. 
Aymamon. Mayaguex. 
Bayamo. Urayoan. 
Coamo. Utuado. 
Guanica. Yagueca. 
Guarionex. Yauco. 
Humacao. 


INDIAN TRIBES OF JAMAICA 


Aguacadiba. Huereo. 
Ameyao. Maynoa. 
Anaya. Oristan. 
Guaygata. Vaquabo. 


MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA 


The latest and most detailed attempt to classify the languages of 
México and Central America is that of Dr. J. Alden Mason assisted 
by Mr. Frederick Johnson (1940). Aside from some unaffiliated 
families and some languages of uncertain affiliations, these writers 
classify the known languages of this area into 4 great phyla embracing 
15 stocks and under these in turn 23 families. In his table Dr. 
Mason also makes use of such divisions as subphyla, substock, sub- 
family, and groups, and he continues his classification down to lan- 
guages, varieties, dialects, and variations. For our purposes, the minor 
distinctions are unnecessary, many of them being uncertain and subject 
to constant revision, but the phyla, stocks, and families it is useful to 
keep in mind, and they may be indicated in small compass by repro- 
ducing the essential parts of the legend on Mr. Johnson’s map, as 


612 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 145 


follows, merely changing Mosumalpan to Misumalpan, as in Mason’s 
text: 


Phylum Stock Family 
Hokan-Siounnwes eee eae el Okanee sees Sesh) ee 2 -_| Yuman. 
Serian. 
(Tequistlatecan). 
Waicurian. 
Supanecan. 
Coahuiltecan=2-32-- >= ssa ee Tamaulipecan. 
Janambrian (?). 
Macro-Otomangue_------------------. Otomanguesnt=---—— Otomian. 
Popolocan. 
Triquean. 
Chorotegan. 
IMixtecanis ie cesnse sce hs ues een ee Mixtecan. 
Cuicatecan. 
Amusgan. 
Chinantecan. 
Zapotecan. 
Macro-Renttian==s eee Uto-Aztecan (or Utaztecan) ______- Taracahitian. 
Aztecoidan. 
Piman. 
IMS Vane cores ae ee eee ...| Mayoid (Lowland Mayan). 
Quichoid (Highland Mayan). 
Mizocuaveanteass2) = eee eee ee Mixe-Zoquean. 
Huavean. 
Totonacan, 
Xincan. 
Lencan. 
Macro-Chibchane=s—s- 94 Misumal panis---=.2.2s522622-2 352-52 Mosquitoan. 
Suman. 
Matagalpan. 
Chibchan. 
Unaffiliated stocks---..--------------- Jicaquean, 
Payan. 
Tarascan. 


Such a classification does not represent, and is not supposed by its 
authors to represent, the last word on the subject, and some of the 
classifications, particularly the reduction of almost all languages under 
four phyla, are certain to receive vigorous opposition. Some of the 
stock groupings also will not meet with unqualified approval. The 
family divisions, however, and most of the stocks have already ob- 
tained general acceptance. In referring to each tribe, therefore, I 
shall not ordinarily attempt to go beyond mention of the family 
and stock affiliations. 

Three of the four phyla, it will be noticed, are represented outside of 
the area under discussion, the Hokan-Siouan, and Macro-Penutian 
to the northward, and the Macro-Chibchan in South America. This 
applies also to the Hokan, Coahuiltecan, Uto-Aztecan, and Chibchan 
stocks, and to the Yuman, Taracahitian, and Piman families. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 613 


This classification also omits one phylum, stock, and family men- 
tioned in the text, the Athapascan, disregarded evidently because it 
intruded into México only at a late period and in fact had no perma- 
nent settlements there. 

The words “tribe,” “band,” and ‘“‘division’” will be employed 
rather indiscriminately in what follows. One of the lessons resulting 
from any attempt to classify or ‘“‘give the number of” Indian tribes— 
a remark which might be made still more general—is the fact noted 
already in the Introduction, that there is no specific definition of such 
names that will apply in all cases. Sometimes a tribe is a tribe because 
of its political unity, sometimes because of its dialectic unity, some- 
times from a mere ‘‘consciousness of kind’ on the part of the indi- 
viduals composing it. A “band” is supposedly a subdivision of a 
“tribe” but, the definition of a tribe being such as it is, it is frequently 
impossible to say whether we have a tribe or a band. The word 
“division”? assumes, of course, a larger unit but there are divisions 
which would be tribes from one point of view and divisions or bands 
from others. Still the application of a name to any group of Indians 
whether by themselves or by outsiders means that they share some- 
thing in common whether that something be a common territory, 
a common language, a common or similar culture, or a common govern- 
ment. The common territory, language, culture, or government may, 
however, extend beyond the tribe. A common territory may be 
shared by two or more tribes, as for instance in the case of the Hidatsa, 
Mandan, and Arikara Indians of North Dakota. A common language 
is shared by tribes bitterly hostile to each other, such as the Dakota 
and Assiniboin and the Choctaw and Chickasaw. A common culture 
is shared by numbers of Indians in California who differ in language, 
and a common government is shared by the five tribes of the Iroquois 
Confederacy and the several tribes of the Creek Confederation. For 
all that, each tribal name means something and a knowledge of them, 
or at least directory to them, with some intimation as to their geo- 
graphical and linguistic position, as basal ordinarily to their cultural 
position, is of distinct service to ethnologists and ethnographers. 

Only the names of the most important divisions have been placed 
upon the map. 


Abasopalme, a band of Concho Indians. 

Abra, a division (“province”) of Guetare mentioned by Peralta 
(1895). 

Acasaquastlan, location of a division of Nahuatl in the Republic of 
Honduras. 

Acaxee, a tribe belonging to the Taracahitian branch of the Uto- 
Aztecan linguistic stock, located on the headwaters of the 


O14 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Benn. 145 


Culiacan River and centering about the valleys of San Andres 
and Topia. Subdivisions: Acaxee, Sabaibo, and Tebaca; the 
Papudo and Tecaya are also mentioned. 

Accerri, a division (‘‘province’’) of Guetare mentioned by Peralta. 

Achire, a division of Guasave at the southern end of their territory, 
near the mouth of the Rio Lorenzo. 

Acolhua, one of the three Nahuatl tribes which formed the Aztec 
Confederacy. 

Aguacatec I, a tribe belonging to the Quichoid division of the Mayan 
family, in the region of Aguacat4n in the northeastern part of 
the Mam territory. 

Aguacatec II, in the Zoque subfamily of the Mizocuavean stock, located 
in the Quiche territory in southwestern Guatemala, in the region 
of Aguacatan. 

Ahomama, a Lagunero band. 

Ahome, a division of the Guasave about the mouth of the Rio Fuerte. 

Ahuachapan, the location of a detached body of Pokomam in the 
eastern part of El Salvador. 

Aibine, a division of Xixime. 

Akwa’ala, or Paipai, a Yuman (Hokan) tribe which occupied an in- 
land territory at the northern end of the peninsula of Baja Cali- 
fornia. 

Alaguilac, a tribe whose language resembled Pipil and therefore 
belonged to the Uto-Aztecan stock, located on the Rio Motagua 
in the eastern part of Guatemala. 

Alamama, a Lagunero band. 

Amusgo, or Amishgo, a tribe of the Miztecan family occupying a 
wedge-shaped area between the states of Oaxaca and Guerrero, 
and extending to the Pacific Ocean. 

Anachiquaies (the Anacasiguais of Orozco y Berra, 1864), a Tamauli- 
pec tribe about Escandén. 

Apache, name given to several Athapascan tribes which invaded 
México in post-Columbian times. (See New Mexico.) 

Apostata, a Tamaulipec tribe about Burgos. 

Ara, an unclassified tribe but supposed to be Chibchan. 

Aracanaes, the Anacana of Orozco y Berra (1864), a Tamaulipec tribe 
about Altamira. 

Aretino, a Tamaulipec tribe mentioned by Orozco y Berra (1864). 

Aripa, a Waicuri division in the northwestern part of the Waicuri 
territory. 

Atzinca, a division of the Matlatzinca at San Juan Acingo, México. 

Aycalme, a band of the Concho. 

Aztec, the most prominent of all the Nahuatl tribes, located on the 
site of the present City of México. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 615 


Bachilmi, a Concho band. 

Baciroa, a tribe probably cognate with the Conicari and Tepahue and 
therefore in the Taracahitian family, located south of the Conicari 
and between the Mayo and Tehueco. 

Bagaces, an Aztecoidan (Uto-Aztecan) tribe in the interior of Costa 
Rica northward from the head of the Gulf of Nicoya. 

Baimena, a division of the Zoe, in the southern part of the Zoe terri- 
tory. 

Baldam, a division of the Mosquito Indians near the Tuapi Lagoon. 

Bambana, a mixed Mosquito-Sumo tribe on the Rio Bambana in 
eastern Nicaragua. 

Bamoa, a tribe of Cahita south of the Rio Sinaloa. 

Baopapa, a Concho band. 

Bawihka, a Sumo tribe in the northern interior of Nicaragua, east of 
Wanks River near its mouth. 

Bayano, a Cuna tribe (Chibchan stock). 

Baymunana, a tribe of possibly Sumo affiliations (Misumalpan stock) 
south of Cape Gracias 4 Dios. 

Boa, a Sumo tribe on the headwaters of the Rio Grande near the 
Matagalpa Indians, central Nicaragua. 

Borrado, a Tamaulipec tribe near Dolores. 

Boruca, a Chibchan tribe on the Pacific coast in southeastern Costa 
Rica about Coronado Bay. 

Bribri, a Chibchan tribe speaking the Talamanca language, and 
located on the upper course of the Rio Tarire in the territory of 
the present Republic of Panama and adjacent parts of Costa 
Rica. 

Burica, a Chibchan tribe of the Dorasque division located in the 
southwestern corner of the Republic of Panama and neighboring 
parts of Costa Rica. 

Burucaca, a Chibchan tribe related to the Boruca and living in the 
eastern part of Costa Rica in the interior. 

Cabecar, a Chibchan tribe of the Talamanca division located in 
eastern Costa Rica inland. A synonym for Chiripo. 

Cabezas, a tribe or band mentioned by Orozco y Berra (1864) and 
possibly connected with the Toboso, who were sometimes re- 
garded as belonging to the Athapascan family. 

Cacalote, a Tamaulipec tribe about Mier. 

Cacalotito, a Concho band (Uto-Aztecan stock). 

Cacaopera, a tribe speaking a Matagalpa dialect and living in the 
extreme northeastern part of El Salvador in the villages of 
Cacaopera and Lislique. 

Cadimas (Orozco y Berra (1864) has Cadinias), a Tamaulipec tribe 
living about Guemes. 


616 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Cahita, a Uto-Aztecan tribe of the Taracahitian family living in south- 
western Sonora and northwestern Sinaloa, principally in the 
middle and lower portions of the valleys of the Rio Yaqui, Rio 
Mayo, Rio Fuerte, and Rfo Sinaloa, and extending from the 
Gulf of California to the Sierra Madre except for the coastal 
tract south of the Esto de Agiabampo. They included the Bamoa 
(south of Rio Sinaloa), Sinaloa or Cinaloa (on upper Rio Fuerte), 
Mayo (on Rio Mayo), Tehueco (on Rio Oteros), Yaqui (on Rio 
Yaqui), and Zuaque (on the lower course of the Rfo Fuerte). 

Caimanes, a Cuna tribe. 

Cakchiquel, a tribe belonging to the Quichoid division of the Mayan 
linguistic stock located in central Guatemala between Lake 
Atitlin and the site of Guatemala City and southward to the 
Pacific Ocean. 

Camaleones, a Tamaulipec tribe about Santillana. 

Canaynes, given by Orozco y Berra (1864) as the name of a Tamaulipec 


tribe. 

Caramariguanes, given by Orozco y Berra as the name of a Tamauli- 
pec tribe. 

Caramiguaies, given by Orozco y Berra as the name of a Tamauli- 
pec tribe. 


Carib, a tribe not entered upon the map because they were post- 
Columbian arrivals from the Lesser Antilles upon the northern 
coast of Honduras whence they spread to the west coast of the 
Gulf of Honduras and as far north as Stann Creek, British 
Honduras. 

Caribayes, given by Orozco y Berra (1864) as the name of a Tamaulipec 
tribe. 

Carrizos, a Tamaulipec tribe about Camargo. 

Catapa, a Chibchan tribe of the Rama-Corobici subfamily. 

Caviseras, a Lagunero tribe. 

Cazcan, a tribe of the Nahuatlan (Aztecoidan) division of the Uto- 
Aztecan linguistic stock, located in the southernmost part of the 
State of Zacatecas, northern Jalisco, and perhaps a small part 
of Aguas Calientes, extending south to Lake Chapala and beyond 
the Rfo Grande de Santiago. The Cazcan proper were in the 
northern part of this territory, the Tecuexe in the southern part, 
and the Coca west of Lake Chapala. 

Chacahuaztli, a division of the Totonacan family. 

Chalchuapa, site occupied by a detached body of Pokomam Indians 
(Mayan stock) in the Pipil territory. 

Chaliva, a Chibchan tribe the minor affiliations of which are unknown. 

Chamelcon, a valley near Naco, Honduras, where a band of Nahuatl 
Indians lived. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 617 


Chafiabal, a tribe forming one group with the Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Quelene, 
and Chuj in the Mayoid division of the Mayan linguistic stock. 
They were located in the southeastern part of Chiapas near the 
Mexican-Guatemalan boundary. 

Changuena, a Chibchan tribe of the Dorasque division, located in 
the westernmost part of the Republic of Panamé, inland and 
southwest of Rio Tilorio. 

Chapagua, the site of a Nahuatl colony, northern Honduras. 

Chatino, a tribe belonging to the Zapotecan family living in the 
southern part of the State of Oaxaca between Oaxaca City and 
the Pacific Ocean, and on the Rio Verde. 

Chato, a Matagalpa (or possibly Lenca) tribe, perhaps identical with 
the Dule and occupying part of the Tegucigalpa area, Honduras. 

Chiapanec, a tribe belonging to a family called Chiapanecan or 
Chorotegan and centering about Tuxtla Gutierrez in western 
Chiapas but formerly occupying a much larger territory. 

Chicomuceltec, a tribe belonging to the Mayoid division of the 
Mayan linguistic stock, located in the extreme southeastern part 
of Chiapas close to the Guatemalan frontier. 

Chilanga, a division of Lenca Indians in the northeastern part of the 
Republic of El Salvador. 

Chinantec, a tribe constituting an independent stock, the Chinan- 
tecan, located in the district of Tuxtepec in the northern part of 
the State of Oaxaca, México. Mason and Johnson (1940) give 
the following dialectic varieties: Hume, Ojitlan, Wahmi, and 
Yolox. 

Chinarra, an important subdivision of the Concho living between the 
Rio Santa Maria and the Rio Conchos, State of Chihuahua, 
México, in the northern section. 

Chinipa, a tribe placed by Mason and Johnson in the Varohio group 
of the Taracahitian linguistic family and located on a river of the 
same name, a branch of the Rio Fuerte, State of Chihuahua. 

Chiripo, a synonym for Cabecar (q. v.). 

Chiru, an “unassigned” tribe on the Gulf of Panama west of Panama 
City. 

Chizo, an important subdivision of the Concho living about the big 
bend of the Rio Grande. 

Chocho (of Oaxaca), a tribe placed by Mechling (1912) in his Mazatec 
stock but by Mason and Johnson in the Popolocan family and 
Otomanguean stock; located in the northern part of the State 
of Oaxaca. 

Chocho (of Puebla), see Popoloca. 


618 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Chol, a Mayan tribe including two divisions, the Chol Lacandon of 
eastern Chiapas along the Rio Usumacinta and a second about 
the head of the same. 

Cholo, a tribe placed by Mason and Johnson in the ‘‘unassigned”’ 
group but by Lehmann (1920) connected with the Choco Indians 
of Colombia, in the extreme southeastern part of the Republic 
of Panamaé on the Pacific coast. 

Cholutec, a tribe which has been called Mangue to the exclusion of 
the Dirid and Orotina but are properly independent of but 
related to the Mangue. They have been united into one stock 
with the Chiapanec called by Thomas (1911) Chiapanecan but 
by Mason and Johnson Chorotegan; Lehmann (1920) connected 
them with the Otomi. They lived in southern Honduras along 
the Gulf of Fonseca. 

Chontal, signifying in Nahuatl “stranger,” (1) a Mayan tribe connected 
closely with the Tzeltal, Chol, and Tzotzil and occupying the 
entire eastern part of the State of Tabasco. 

Chontal (2), see Tequistlatec. 

Chorti, a tribe of the Choloid branch of the Mayan stock living in 
the easternmost part of Guatemala and the neighboring Copan 
district of Honduras. 

Chuckures, a tribe living in the neighborhood of Point Manzanillo 
on the north coast of the Republic of Panaméd, by some placed 
in the Nahuatlan (Aztecoidan) division of the Uto-Aztecan 
linguistic family and by others connected with the Suma of the 
Chibchan family. 

Chucunaque, a Cuna tribe belonging to the Chibchan stock. 

Chuj, or Chuje, a Mayan tribe closely connected with the Jacaltec 
and belonging to the same group as Chol, located in north- 
western Guatemala between Nenton and San Sebastian. 

Chumulu, a Chibchan tribe. 

Cinaloa, a Cahita tribe on the upper course of the Rio Fuerte, State 
of Sinaloa. 

Coahuiltecan tribes, the name given a great number of small tribes or 
bands in the State of Coahuila, México, and also in Neuvo Leén, 
Tamaulipas, and southern Texas as far as the River San Antonio. 
(See Texas.) 

Coano, a division of Cora Indians on the Rio Santiago, Nayarit, 
México. 

Coca, a division of Cazcan Indians west of the Lago de Chapala, 
State of Jalisco, México. 

Cochimi, a Yuman tribe in Baja California between latitude 26° N. 
and latitude 31° N.; Laymon is a northern division. 

Coco, a Sumo division. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 619 


Cocomacaque, a division of Pima Bajo north of the Rio de Sonora, 
State of Sonora, México. 

Cocopa, an Arizona tribe which occasionally crossed into Sonora. 
(See Arizona.) 

Cocora, a tribe belonging to the Rama-Corobici subfamily of the 
Chibchan stock, on the Rio Cocora in southeastern Nicaragua. 

Coiba, signifying “distant’’(?), the western division of the Cunan 
branch of the Chibchan linguistic stock located in the neighbor- 
hood of the present Panama Canal and westward. 

Colotlan, a tribe on the river of the same name, closely connected 
with the Teul and Tepecano Indians and therefore in the Piman 
division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock. 

Comanito, a tribe placed by Mason and Johnson in the Tahue group 
of their Cahitan linguistic subfamily and Taracahitian family of 
the Uto-Aztecan stock. 

Comecamotes, a Tamaulipec tribe about Soto la Marina. 

Comecrudo, a Coahuiltec or Tamaulipec tribe about San Fernando, 
Tamaulipas. 

Comopori, a division of the Guasave north of the Esto. de Agiabampo. 

Concho, a tribal division in the valley of the Rio Concho above its 
mouth and extending westward to the neighborhood of the Casas 
Grandes. They are placed by Mason and Johnson in the Tara- 
cahitian division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock. There were 
two major subdivisions, the Chinarra around the salt lakes and 
sand dunes of northern Chihuahua, and the Chizo east of the 
Concho and near the big bend of the Rio Grande; and the follow- 
ing minor bands: Abasopalme, Aycalme, Bachilmi, Baopapa, 
Cacalotito, Concho, Conejo, Coyamit, Guamichicorama, Guelasi- 
guicme, Guiaquita, Julime, Mamite, Mesquite, Mosnala, Obone 
(or Oposine), Olobayaguame, Olojasme, Polacme, Posalme, 
Sucayi, Tatamaste, Tocone, Topacolme, Xiximole, Yacchicaua, 
Yaculsari, Yaochane (Ahuchan or Ochan), Yeguacat. 

Conguaco, or Popoluca, a tribe classed by Thomas (1911), following 
Juarros (1824), with the Lenca but by Lehmann (1920), followed 
doubtfully by Mason and Johnson, in the Xincan family. They 
were in the extreme southeastern part of Guatemala near the 
Pacific coast. 

Conicari, a tribe connected by Sauer (1934) with the Cahita and there- 
fore assigned by Mason and Johnson to their Taracahitian family 
of the Uto-Aztecan stock; they were located about the junction of 
the Mayo and Cedros Rivers. 

Cooc, given by Peralta (1895) as a “province”’ of the Guetare Indians. 


620 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn. 145 


Cora, (1) calling themselves Nayarit or Nayariti, a tribe belonging 
to the Taracahitian division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic family, 
located in the Sierra de Nayarit, on the middle course of the 
Rio Grande de Santiago, State of Jalisco, and a section of the San 
Pedro, and including the coast of the present Nayarit. Sub- 
divisions: Coano (in the barrancas of Mochitiltic in the extreme 
south), Huaynamota (on an east branch of the Rio Grande de 
Santiago), Zayahueco (south and southwest margins of Cora 
country). 

Cora, (2) a subdivision of the Waicuri on the east coast of Baja 
California from about Dolores to the southeastern point of the 
peninsula. 

Corobici, a Chibchan tribe closely related to the Guatuso and living 
to the east of Lake Nicaragua in Costa Rica. 

Coto, or Cocto, a Chibchan tribe related to the Boruca and located in 
the interior of Costa Rica north of the Gulf of Dulce. 

Coyamit, a band of Concho Indians. 

Cuahcomeca, a tribe of unknown affinities located in western Guerrero. 

Cuercos quemados, a Tamaulipec tribe about Revilla. 

Cuicatec, a major division of the Mixtecan linguistic family living in 
the district of Cuicatlan on the northeastern border of the Mixtec, 
State of Oaxaca, México. 

Cuitlatec, a people of unknown affiliations living in the present States 
of Guerrero and Michoacan between the country of the Tarasco 
and the Pacific Ocean. 

Cuna, the eastern branch of the Cunan family of the Chibchan stock, 
occupying all of the eastern part of the Republic of Panamaé 
except some territory on the Pacific coast and a small enclave in 
the interior. 

Cuyuteca, a tribe of unknown affiliations living in the State of Jalisco. 

Daparabopos, a band of Lagunero Indians. 

Desaguedero, a body of Indians believed to have belonged to the 
Aztecoidan division of the Uto-Aztecan stock, located at the 
mouth of the Rio San Juan between the present republics of 
Nicaragua and Costa Rice. 

Did&, a tribe in Baja California of uncertain location believed to have 
belonged to the Waicurian family. 

Dieguefio, a Yuman tribe occupying territory in southwestern Cali- 
fornia and the northwestern part of Baja California. (See 
California.) 

Diria, a division of the Mangue, belonging to the Chiapanecan or 
Chorotegan linguistic stock, connected by Lehmann (1920) with 
the Otomi. They were located between Lake Nicaragua and the 
Pacific Ocean. 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 621 


Doleguas, a Guaymi tribe on Rio Chiriqui, Republic of Panama. 

Dorasque, a tribe of the Chibchan linguistic stock living in the 
northwestern part of the Republic of Panam4 on the Atlantic 
coast about the Bahia del Almirante and extending across to the 
Pacific. 

Dudu, a Sumo tribe placed by Mason and Johnson in the Misumalpan 
linguistic stock. 

Dule, a tribe, possibly identical with the Chato, placed somewhat 
doubtfully in the Matagalpan family, and located in the area of 
Tegucigalpa, Honduras. 

Duy, a Chibchan tribe related to the Dorasque. 

Eda, a Baja California tribe of uncertain location but probably 
belonging to the Waicurian family. 

Escoria, an “unassigned” tribe inland from the Gulf of Parita in the 
western part of the Republic of Panama. 

Estrella, a Chibchan tribe of otherwise uncertain position. 

Eudeve, a division of the Opata of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, 
in the southern part of the Opata territory near the Jova. 

Garabito, given by Peralta (1895) as a Guetare ‘“‘province,” and hence 
falling in the Chibchan linguistic stock. 

Gocoyome, a band of Toboso Indians and perhaps belonging to the 
Athapascan stock. 

Gotane, a tribe of the Chibchan stock and Rama-Corobici subfamily. 

Guachichile, a tribe or group of tribes regarded as connected with the 
Huichol and classed with the Aztecoidan division of the Uto- 
Aztecan linguistic family. They occupied a long strip of terri- 
tory extending from the borders of Michoacén northward to 
Saltillo and lying between longitude 100° and 103° W. 

Gualaca, a Chibchan tribe otherwise “unclassified” living near the 
mouth of Rio Chiriqui in the Gulf of Chiriquf, 

Guamichicorama, a band of the Concho. 

Guanexico, a tribe believed to belong to the Ulva group of the Suman 
family and Misumalpan stock. 

Guarco, a Guetare band or “province’”’ mentioned by Peralta. 

Guasapar, a tribe belonging to the Varohio division of the Taraca- 
hitian family and Uto-Azetcan stock, in the present state of 
Chihuahua midway between the Rio Oteros or Chinipa and the 
Rio Urique. 

Guasave, a tribe of the Cahita group, Taracahitian family and Uto- 
Aztecan stock located on the Pacific coast of the State of Sinaloa 
between the Esto. de Agiabampo and the Rio San Lorenzo. 
Sauer (1934) gives the following subdivisions: Achire (at the 
southern end of the Guasave territory), Ahome (about the mouth 
of Rio Fuerte), Comopori (north of the Esto. de Agiabampo), 


622 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Butn. 145 


and Vacoregue (between the Ahome and the Esto. de Agiabampo). 
The following names of settlements are also given: Pohui, 
Sisinicari, Tamazula, and Ure. 

Guatijigua, a settlement of Lenca Indians in the northeastern part 
of El Salvador. 

Guatinicamame, a Mazatec tribe belonging to the Popolocan family 
and Otomanguean stock. 

Guatuso, a tribe which formed one group of the Chibchan stock with 
the Corobici Indians, and lived in the interior of the Republic 
of Costa Rica south of Lake Nicaragua. 

Guaxiquero, a body of Lenca Indians living in Honduras. 

Guayma, a band of Seri Indians living on the Gulf of California near 
Guaymas. 

Guaymi, signifying ‘‘man,’”’ a Chibchan tribe or group of tribes 
(Guaymi-Dorasque subfamily), in the Republic of Panama from 
David Bay on the Pacific coast and the Rio Guaymi on the Atlan- 
tic side eastward to about the present Chame and Salud. The 
following are given as subdivisions or tribes: Doleguas (on Rio 
Chiriqui), Move (east of Rio Chiriqui), Muoi (south of Chiriqui 
Lagoon), Murire (about the Gulf of Chiriqui), Muite, Pariza (?), 
Penomeno (on the Gulf of Parita). 

Guelasiguicme, a Concho band. 

Guetare, a tribe belonging to the Talamanca division of the Chibchan 
linguistic stock. Subdivisions: Besides Voto, the name of an 
independent tribe, Peralta (1895) gives the following as ‘“‘prov- 
inces’: Abra, Accerri, Catapa, Cooc, Garabito, Guarco, Pacaca, 
Tayopan, Tice, Turriarba. 

Guiaquita, a Concho band. 

Guixolotes, a Tamaulipec tribe according to Orozco y Berra (1864). 

Halyikwamai, or Kikima, a Yuman tribe on the frontier between 
Sonora and Arizona. (See Arizona.) 

Himeri, a division of Pima Indians of the Piman family and Uto- 
Aztecan stock living on and near the upper Rio Altar, Sonora. 

Hine, a Xixime division on the headwaters of the Rio Piaxtla. 

Hoeras, a Lagunero band. 

Huastec, the northernmost representatives of the Mayan linguistic 
stock in the northern part of the present State of Veracruz, 
southern Tamaulipas, and part of San Luis Potosi; Mason and 
Johnson mention Potosino and Veracruzano as dialects. 

Huave, a tribe belonging to the Mizocuavean stock, formerly consid- 
ered independent, living in the coastal parts of the districts of 
Juchitlan and Tehuantepec, State of Oaxaca, México. 

Huaynamota, a division of the Cora of Nayarit living on an east 
branch of the Rio Grande de Santiago. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 623 


Huichol, a tribe supposed to be closely related to the Guachichil and 
with them forming a branch of the Aztecoidan (Nahuatlan) fam- 
ily and Uto-Aztecan stock, located in the mountains between 
the State of Zacatecas and the territory of Nayarit. They are 
divided into three principal districts with the villages of Santa 
Catarina, San Sebastian, and San Andrés Coamiata as their 
respective seats of government. 

Huite, signifying “‘bowmen,” a tribe placed by Mason and Johnson 
in one group with the Ocoroni and Nio and in the Taracahitian 
linguistic family and Uto-Aztecan stock. They lived about the 
junction of the Otero and Urique Rivers. 

Hume (1), a division of the Chinantee Indians, Chorotegan family. 

Hume (2), a division of the Xixime on the Presidio and Baluarte 
Rivers. 

Icaiche, a Maya subdivision. 

Ika, a body of Indians in Baja California probably belonging to the 
Waicurian family. 

Inocoples, a Tamaulipec tribe about Hoyos. 

Intibucat, a body of Lenca Indians in the Republic of Honduras. 

Ipapana, given by Zembrano as a Totonac dialect spoken in the 
missions of the Augustines. 

Irritila, a Lagunero band; Orozco y Berra (1864) applied their name 
to all of the Lagunero. 

Itza, a Maya tribe about Lake Petén, Guatemala. 

Itzuco, a tribe of unknown affiliations located in northern Guerrero. 

Ixcatec, a tribe of the Popolocan family and Otomanguean stock 
living in the northern part of the Mixtec territory, State of 
Oaxaca, México. 

Ixil, a Quichoid tribe of the Mayan linguistic stock living in an area 
slightly west of the center of Guatemala, and including the 
pueblos of Nebaj, Cotzal, and Chajul as the chief towns. 

Izalco, a tribe belonging to the Aztecoidan branch of the Uto-Aztecan 
linguistic stock, with a dialect regarded by Lehmann (1920) as 
the oldest type of Pipil. They lived about Izalco, south of San 
Salvador City, El Salvador. 

Iztepeque, a body of Pokomam Indians, Mayan linguistic family, 
living east of San Salvador City. 

Jacaltec, a Mayan tribe speaking a dialect allied to Motozintlec, and 
located around the pueblo of Jacaltenango, near the northwestern 
boundary of Guatemala. 

Janambre, on slight evidence Orozco y Berra (1864) was induced to 
separate this tribe and the Pisone from the other tribes in Tamau- 
lipas, and he has been followed by others without more reason. 
It is probable that these two tribes were Tamaulipecan or con- 


624 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bub. 145 


nected with the Pame and Otomi. They lived in the south- 
western part of the State of Tamaulipas. 

Jano, a predatory tribe on the northern frontier of México constantly 
complained of in late seventeenth-century documents. Sauer 
(1934) believes that they were Apache and specifically possibly 
the Mimbrefio Apache. (See Apache under New Mexico.) 

Jicaque, signifying in Nahuatl ‘‘ancient person,” a tribe or group of 
tribes in northwestern Honduras retained for the present as an 
independent linguistic stock though they have resemblances to 
the languages of the Paya, Lenca, and Xinca. Mason and 
Johnson express uncertainty as to whether their language should 
be classed with those to the south or those to the north. The 
Jicaque of Yoro and Jicaque of Palmar (or Sula) are mentioned 
as dialects by Lehmann (1920). Mason adds that of Leany Mulia. 

Jocome, a predatory tribe mentioned constantly in seventeenth-century 
documents in conjunction with the Jano and said to have the 
same speech. Sauer (1934) believes they were Apache and seems 
to suggest that they might have been the Chiricahua Apache. 

Jova, a tribe connected with the Opata and classed in the Taracahitian 
family and Uto-Aztecan stock. They occupied the upper part 
of the valley of the Rfo Yaqui, and the following Jova villages 
are mentioned: Bacaniyagua, Baipoa or Baypon, Natora, Opar- 
rapa, Orasaqui, Sereba, and Setasura. 

Julime, a Concho band. 

Jumano, a tribe on the Rio Grande above the big bend, probably part 
of the Suma. (See Shuman under Texas.) 

Kabo, a division of the Mosquito Indians on the east coast of Nicara- 
gua, north of the mouth of the Rio Grande. 

Kamia, a Yuman tribe whose main seat was in the Imperial Valley, 
California, but which ranged across the international boundary. 
(See California.) 

Karawaka, a division of the Panameka. 

Kekchi, a tribe constituting with the Pokomam and Pokonchi one 
division of the Quichoid family of the Mayan stock, and living 
on both sides of the upper Rio Cahabén, extending westward to 
the Rio Chixoy. 

Kikima. (See Halyikwamai.) 

Kiliwa, or Kiliwi, a Yuman tribe connected somewhat closely with the 
Kamia and Dieguefio and living in the Peninsula of Baja Cali- 
fornia on the west side of the Gulf of California near its head. 

Kiwahka, a mixed Mosquito-Sumo tribe. 

Kohuana, a tribe on the Rfo Colorado. (See Arizona.) 

Ku, a Sumo tribe of the Misumalpan stock located on the middle course 
of Wanks River, Nicaragua. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 625 


Kukalaya, a mixed Mosquito-Sumo tribe. 

Lacandon, a Mayan tribe in the south central part of the Peninsula of 
Yucatan. 

Lagunero, from the Spanish signifying “lake people,” a tribe or group 
of tribes assigned somewhat doubtfully to the Aztecoidan branch 
of the Uto-Aztecan stock and living about the lakes of the table- 
lands of Mapimi. The following bands or subtribes are named by 
Alegre: Ahomamas, Alamamas, Caviseras, Daparabopos, Hoeras, 
Irritila, Maiconeras, Meviras, Miopacoas, Ochoes, Paogas, Vas- 
sapalles, Yanabopos. 

Lakus, a Sumo tribe (Suman family) living, with the Pispis Indians on 
the Rio Uani, in Usabane, on the upper course of the Rfo Pispis 
and on the Rio Bambana. 

Lari, an unclassified tribe but probably Chibchan. 

Laymon, a northern section of the Cochimi of the Yuman family, 
sometimes treated as independent. 

Lenca, a tribe or group of tribes usually placed in a family (the Len- 
can) independent of all others though the language contains 
resemblances to Xincan. It occupied the Valley of Olancho and 
extended westward into the departments of Tegucigalpa, Comay- 
agua, Intibuca, and Gracias and into the eastern part of El 
Salvador east of the Lempa River. The following dialects are 
mentioned: Guaxiquero, Intibucat, Opatoro, and Similaton in 
Honduras, and Chilanga and Guatijigua in El] Salvador. Con- 
guaco is sometimes placed in this stock but Lehmann (1920) 
classes it with Xinca. 

Loreto, a site in Baja California occupied by Indians who constituted 
a division of the Cochimi of the Yuman family. 

Macoyahui, a tribe regarded by Sauer (1934) as “pretty certainly” 
related to the Cahita and therefore classed by Mason and John- 
son in their Taracahitian family of the Uto-Aztecan stock. 
They lived on the Rio Mayo above the Conicari and in the hills 
southeastward from the Mayo. 

Maiconeras, a Lagunero band. 

Malinchenos, given by Orozco y Berra (1864) as a Tamaulipec band 
or tribe. 

Mam, (1) a Quichoid tribe said to have spoken one of the most archaic 
of the Mayan dialects. They lived in southeastern Guatemala 
and part of the district of Soconusco, México. 

Mam, (2) a Mosquito tribe living about the Caratasca Lagoon, 
Honduras. 

Mamite, a Concho band. 


626 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ BULL. 145 


Manche, a Mayan tribe thought to belong to the Choloid group 
under the Mayoid division of the stock, and located at the head 
of the Bay of Honduras. 

Mandinga, a Cuna tribe, Chibchan stock. 

Mangue, a tribe of the Chorotegan family or substock located in 
Nicaragua between Lake Managua and the Pacific Ocean. 
Divisions: Dirié and Nagrandan. 

Maribichicoa-Guatajigiala, a small branch of the Maribio or Subtiaba 
of Nicaragua which in turn is believed to belong to the Hokan 
linguistic stock. They lived in the northeastern part of El 
Salvador. 

Mariguanes, a Tamaulipec tribe living about Horcasitas. 

Matagalpa, a tribe or group of tribes originally placed in an independ- 
ent stock of the same name, by Lehmann (1920) connected with 
the Suma and Tawahka, Ulua, and Mosquito Indians, but put 
in their Misumalpan stock by Mason and Johnson. They 
occupied the central part of Nicaragua, extending almost to 
the northern end of Lake Nicaragua and north through southern 
Honduras to the northeastern corner of El Salvador. According 
to Conzemius (1932), they formerly inhabited the western por- 
tion of the Mosquito coast. The Cacaopera constituted a sepa- 
rate dialect. 

Matlame, a subdivision of the Matlatzinca which belonged to the 
Otomian linguistic family and Otomanguean stock. 

Matlatzinca, or Pirinda, a tribe belonging to the Otomian linguistic 
family and Otomanguean stock, occupying a narrow strip of 
territory south of the Mazahua, extending southwest from Toluca. 
The recorded subdivisions are: Atzinca (at San Juan Acingo), 
Ocuiltec (at Ocuila), and Quata. 

Maya, the type division of the Mayan linguistic family occupying all 
of the Peninsula of Yucatdén including the present British Hon- 
duras, northern Guatemala, and neighboring parts of Tabasco. 
Subdivisions or tribes were the following: Icaiche (east of the 
Rio Hondo in the east central part of the peninsula), Itza (about 
Lake Petén in northern Guatemala and in adjoining parts of 
Yucat&én and British Honduras), Lacandon (in the south central 
part of the peninsula), Maya proper (in the greater part of the 
peninsula and part of Tabasco), Mopan or Moapan (in the 
southern part of British Honduras and adjoining sections of 
Guatemala), Santa Cruz (in the northeastern part of Yucatén). 

Mayo, a Cahita tribe belonging to the Taracahitian family of the 
Uto-Aztecan stock, living on the Rio Mayo, Sonora. 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 627 


Mazahua, a tribe of the Otomian linguistic family living in the 
western portion of the State of México and probably occupying 
some adjoining territory in Michoacan. 

Mazatec, a tribe in the northern part of the States of Oaxaca and 
Guerrero and extending into the State of Veracruz. Mechling 
(1912) made it the type tribe of a distinct stock but Lehmann 
(1920) afterward united it with Chinantec and Otomian while 
Mason and Johnson connect it primarily with Cuicatec and place 
it in their Otomanguean stock, and they give the following 
subdivisions: Mazatec of Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Tabasco, and 
Guatinicamame. 

Melchora, a tribe of the Chibchan stock closely connected with the 
Rama and located in the Republic of Nicaragua northeast of 
Lake Nicaragua. 

Mesquite, a band of Concho Indians. 

Meviras, a Lagunero band. 

Meztitlanec, a tribe of the Aztecoidan division of the Uto-Aztecan 
linguistic stock located in the region north of Tezcuco between 
the Sierra Madre and Huastec territory. 

Miopacoas, a Lagunero band. 

Mixe, one of the two main divisions of the former Zoquean linguistic 
family, now the Mizocuavean stock of Mason and Johnson, in the 
sierra northeast of the Zapotec in the States of Oaxaca, Veracruz, 
and Chiapas. 

Mixtec, a tribe or tribal group in the western part of the State of 
Oaxaca and neighboring parts of Guerrero and Puebla. They 
were formerly, but seemingly erroneously, placed in one stock 
with the Zapotec. Mason and Johnson, who give them an 
independent stock position, do, however, place them in one 
“philum’”’ with the Zapotec, Chinantec and Otomi. They 
distinguish the Mixteca Alta and Mixteca Baja as two main 
subdivisions. 

Mocorito, a tribe on the Rio Mocorito in the State of Sinaloa placed 
by Mason and Johnson in the Tahue group of the Taracahitian 
family. 

Monqui, a Waicurian division on the east coast of the Peninsula of 
Baja California between Dolores and Loreto. 

Mopan, or Moapan, a Mayan tribe in the southern part of British 
Honduras and in adjoining sections of Guatemala. 

Mosnala, a Concho band. 

Mosquito, or Miskito, a group of tribes regarded by Thomas (1911) as 
forming an independent stock, connected by Lehmann (1920) 
with the Matagalpa, Ulua, and Sumo Indians, and through them 
with the Chibchan stock. Mason and Johnson, however, assign 


628 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ BULL. 145 


them to their Misumalpan stock. They lived on the Atlantic 
coast of Nicaragua north of Bluefields and on the Honduran coast 
as far west as Rio Patuca. Mason and Johnson give the following 
as dialects: Baldam, Kabo, Mam, Tawira, Wanki. 

Motozintlec, a Mayan tribe belonging to the same dialectic group as 
the Jacaltec and located about Motozintla in the southeastern 
corner of Chiapas close to the Tapachula and Mam. 

Move, a Chibchan tribe of the Guaymi division, living on the Golfo 
de los Mosquitos on the northwest coast of Panama. 

Muite, a tribe belonging to the Guaymi division of the Chibchan 
linguistic stock. 

Muoi, a tribe of the Guaymi division of the Chibchan stock located 
in the western part of the Republic of Panama. 

Murire, a tribe of the Guaymi division of the Chibchan stock located 
in the southwestern part of the Republic of Panama. 

Musutepes, a Suman tribe of the Misumalpan linguistic stock. 

Naco, see Chamelcon. 

Nagrandan, a division of Mangue of the Chorotegan family. 

Nahuatl or Mexicano, popularly known as Aztec from the dominant 
tribe at the period of the Spanish conquest, a group of tribes 
belonging to the Aztecoidan family of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic 
stock. They were located from México City eastward to the 
coast of the Gulf of México near Veracruz and southeast along 
that coast to the eastern part of Tabasco, southward from México 
City nearly, if not quite, to the Pacific Ocean and in the coast 
districts of Michoacan. There was a detached area on the sea- 
coast of Chiapas and another at the mouth of Usumacinta River; 
also a number of others as indicated below. There were many 
tribes including the three allied tribes of Aztec, Acolhua, and 
Tlacopan, and the Tlascaltec, Meztitlanec, Tepanec, the Sigua in 
Panama, the Desaguadero at the mouth of the Rio San Juan, 
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, and the following detached groups in 
Honduras: Acasaguastlan, in the highlands of Olancho, in the 
Chamelcén Valley, Chapagua and Papayeca near Trujillo, and 
others near Comayagua and Naco. 

Nahuatlato, an Aztecoidan tribe connected with the Pipil belonging 
to the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, and living on the east side 
of the entrance to the Bay of Fonseca in the Republic of Nicaragua. 
(See Olomeca on map.) 

Nata, a tribe of unknown affiliations located on the Gulf of Parita, in 
the western part of the Republic of Panama. 

Nebome, a division of Pima Bajo Indians living on both sides of the 
Rio Yaqui in the State of Sonora. 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA §29 


Nicarao, an Aztecoidan tribe of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock 
affiliated with the Pipil. They lived between Lake Nicaragua 
and the Pacific Ocean in the present Republic of Nicaragua. 
(See Niquisan on map.) 

Nicoya, an Orotifia tribe of the Chorotegan stock living on Nicoya 
Peninsula, Costa Rica. 

Nio, a tribe placed by Mason and Johnson in one linguistic group with 
the Ocoroni and Huite in the Taracahitian family of the Uto- 
Aztecan stock. They lived on the Rio Sinaloa about the mouth 
of the Ocoroni. 

Niquisan, see Nicarao. 

Obone, or Oposine, a Concho tribe. 

Ochoes, a Lagunero band. 

Ocoroni, placed by Mason and Johnson in one group with the Nio 
and Huite tribes and hence in the Taracahitian family of the Uto- 
Aztecan linguistic stock. They lived on a river of the same name, 
a branch of the Rio Sinaloa. 

Ocuiltec, a division of the Matlatzinca Indians of the Otomian 
linguistic family, occuping the eastern part of their territory. 

Ojitlan, a division of the Chinantec of the Chorotegan linguistic 
family. 

Olancho, location of a Nahuatl division in Honduras. 

Olive, a tribe said to have been brought from the country beyond the 
Rio Grande by a returning Spanish expedition early in the six- 
teenth century, but to which of the Texas linguistic stocks they 
belonged is unknown, though it was probably either the Coahuil- 
tecan or the Karankawan. They were settled by the Spaniards 
in southern Tamaulipas. 

Olmec, an extinct people of uncertain affiliations but formerly of 
great importance. 

Olobayaguame, a Concho band. 

Olojasme, a Concho band. 

Olomega, see Nahuatlato. 

Oluta, a division of the Popoloca of Veracruz belonging to the Mixe 
branch of the Mizocuavean linguistic stock. 

Opata, from Pima signifying “hostile people,” ‘‘enemies,” a tribe or 
tribal group belonging to the Taracahitian division of the Uto- 
Aztecan linguistic stock extending east and west from longitude 
109° to 111° W. and north and south from the International 
Boundary of México and the United States to the main fork 
of the Rio Yaqui, about latitude 28°30’ N. The Eudeve, in 
the southern part of Opata territory near the Jova were a sub- 
division. Villages were: Acédnche, Aibin, Alamos, Aribétzi, 
Arispe, Babiafcora, Babispes, Bacadévatzi, Bacanéra, Bacobitzi, 


? 


630 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETH NOLOGY [RuLn, 145 


Banimitzi, Batsines, Batuco, Batziner, Chinapa, Cuchuricac, 
Cuctripe, Ctimupas, Cuquiaratzi, Debatzi, Matape, Nacori, 
Oppésura, Oppotu, Saracatzi, Sauaripa, Setdsura, Tetricatzi, 
Todpa, Tonitzi, Uasseric, Uépaca, Vasdabas, Zenoquippe. 

Opatoro, a division of the Lenca living in the Republic of Honduras. 

Orosi, an Orotifa division living south of Lake Nicaragua and belong- 
ing to the Chorotegan fainily. 

Orotifia, u tribe living in the extreme western part of the present 
Republic of Costa Rica between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific 
Coast and connected with the Chorotegan family. Subdivisions: 
Nicoya (on Nicoya Peninsula) and Orosi (south of Lake Nica- 
ragua). 

Osa, a subdivision of Boruca Indians about the Gulf of Dulce on the 
Pacific coast of Costa Rica. 

Otomi, the principal tribe of the Otomian linguistic family occupying 
the greater part of the States of Queretero and Guanajuato, the 
northwestern portion of Hidalgo and parts of the State of México. 
A northern division of this tribe was known as Serrano, and a 
detached body is reported to have lived near the Pacific coast 
west of Colima. The Mazahua (q. v.) are sometimes regarded 
as a subdivision. 

Pacaca, given by Peralta (1895) as a Guetare “province.” 

Pachera, a subdivision of the Tarahumare at the extreme headwaters 
of the northern branch of the Rio Nonoava, under the munici- 
pality of Guerrero. They belonged to the Taracahitian family, 
Uto-Aztecan stock. 

Pame, a tribe constituting a very divergent branch of the Otomian 
linguistic family. They were located mainly in the southeastern 
part of San Luis Potosi but also in adjoining areas of Tamaulipas 
and Queretero and are said to have extended into Guanajuato 
and to have included a mission (Cerro Prieto) in the State of 
México. Pimentel gives three dialects, one spoken in San Luis 
de la Paz, one in the city of Maiz, and one in Purisima Concepcién 
de Arnedo. 

Panamaka, a tribe of the Suman family, Misumalpan stock, located 
in the northern interior of Nicaragua. The following subdivisions 
are mentioned: Karawala, Panamaka, Tunki. 

Panguayes, mentioned by Orozco y Berra (1864) as a Tamaulipec 
tribe. 

Pantasma, a tribe given a doubtful status in the Matagalpan family. 

Paogas, a Lagunero band. 

Papabuco, a division of the Chatino of the Zapotecan stock. 

Papago, a tribe in Sonora and Arizona. (See Arizona.) 


SWANTON ] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 63] 


Papantla, a dialectic division of the Totonac, Totonacan stock. 

Paparos, a detached body of Indians classified by Lehmann (1920) 
in the Chocoan linguistic stock the main body of which lay along 
the Pacific coast of the Republic of Colombia. The territory 
of this tribe lay on the eastern borders of the Republic of Panama 
inland but nearer to the Atlantic than to the Pacific coast. 

Papayeca, a Nahuatl colony near Trujillo, Republic of Honduras. 

Papudo, a division of the Acaxee of the Taracahitian linguistic family 
and Uto-Aztecan stock, not mentioned by Sauer (1934). 

Pasitas, according to Orozco y Berra (1864) a tribe of Tamaulipec. 

Patica, a Chibchan tribe belonging to the Rama-Corobici division. 

Paya, a tribe constituting an independent family and living between 
the Rio Agu4n and the upper reaches of the Patuca, as also 
probably on the Bay Islands. A modern division is called Seco. 

Penomefio, A Chibchan tribe of the Guaymi division located on the 
west coast of the Gulf of Panama. 

Pericu, a tribe connected on circumstantial evidence with the Wai- 
curian family though only some proper names in their language 
are known. They lived about Cape San Lucas and extended 
northward on the west coast of the Peninsula of Baja California 
to about latitude 23°30’ N. No subdivisions are known, though 
the Waicurian Cora have sometimes been connected with them. 

Piato, an Upper Pima (Pima Alto) tribe, Piman family and Uto- 
Aztecan stock, on the middle and lower Altar in Sonora. (See 
Pima under Arizona.) 

Pima Alto, see Pima under Arizona. 

Pima Bajo or Lower Pima, a tribe belonging to a linguistic family 
bearing their name, itself in turn a section of the Uto-Aztecan 
linguistic stock and located in the Rio Yaqui region, Sonora, but 
extending eastward into Chihuahua and northward to about 
latitude 30°. Sauer (1934) gives three main divisions: the 
Yécora, neighbors of the Varohfo on the borders of Chihuahua 
and Sonora; the Nebome, on both sides of the Rio Yaqui; and 
the Ures, inhabiting the flood plain of the Rio Sonora below the 
gorge of Ures and downstream as far as water was available. 
He also enters on his map the Cocomacaque in the northern 
part of Pima territory. 

Pipil, a tribe or group of tribes belonging to the Nahuatl branch of 
the Nahuatlan family, Uto-Aztecan stock. They occupied sev- 
eral separate areas, the largest chiefly along the Pacific coast in 
western Salvador and some adjacent parts of Guatemala; a second 
a little farther west, east of Escuintla in Guatemala; a third along 
the upper Rio Motagua in eastern Guatemala between the Chol 


632 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy. 145 


and Pokomam, a small area in Honduras north of Comayagua, 
another on the Rio Chamelecén, and a doubtful enclave between 
the Jicaque and Paya. 

Pirinda, see Matlatzinca. 

Pisone, a tribe associated by Orozco y Berra (1864) with the Janam- 
bre. (See Janambre.) 

Pispis, a division of Sumo Indians. 

Pitas, a Tamaulipec tribe about Santander, perhaps identical with 
Orozco y Barra’s Pintos. 

Pochutla, a tribe speaking one of the most aberrant dialects of the 
Aztecoidan family, Uto-Aztecan stock, and located about Porto 
Angel on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca. 

Pocora, a tribe belonging to the Rama-Corobici branch of the Chib- 
chan linguistic stock. 

Pocosi, a tribe connected with the Cabecar of the Talamanca division 
of the Chibchan stock, living in the neighborhood of the present 
Limén, Costa Rica. 

Pokomam, 8 Mayan tribe closely connected with the Pokonchi and 
belonging to the Quichoid division. They occupied a consider- 
able region in southeastern Guatemala, including the capital, ex- 
tending northward to the Rio Grande or Upper Motagua, and 
eastward to the boundary line between Guatemala and El Salva- 
dor. There were detached bodies in Pipil territory at Ahuacha- 
pan, Chalchuapa, Iztepeque, and San Salvador. 

Pokonchi, a tribe forming with the Pokomam one linguistic group of 
the Quichoid division of the Mayan family. They extended over 
a fairly wide territory in the center of Guatemala about the head- 
waters of the Rfo Cahabon. 

Polacme, a Concho band. 

Popoloca (of Conguaco), a body of Indians at the pueblo of Conguaco 
near the southeastern corner of the Republic of Guatemala. 
Juarros (1884), followed by Thomas (1911), places them in the 
Lencan stock but Mason and Johnson incline to agree with 
Lehmann (1920) that they should be classed as Xincan. 

Popoloca (of Oaxaca), see Chocho. 

Popoloca (of Puebla), a tribe which gives its name to the Popolocan 
family of the Otomanguean stock located in the southern part 
of the State of Puebla near Oaxaca. 

Popoloca (of Veracruz), a tribe assigned to the Mixe division of the 
Mizocuavean stock of Mason and Johnson and located on the 
southern coast of the Bay of Campeche extending south to the 
mountains in the Peninsula of Tehuantepec, México. 

Posalme, a Concho band. 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 633 


Potlapiqua, a tribe said to have branched off from the Pima though 
in Opata territory. 

Potosino, a body of Indians speaking a dialect of Huastec, Mayan 
linguistic family. 

Prinzo, a body of Indians of the Uluan division of the Chibchan 
stock, located in the Republic of Nicaragua north of the Rfo 
Grande. 

Quata, a tribe doubtfully classed in the Matlatzinca division of the 
Otomian linguistic family. 

Quepo, a division or tribe of Boruca Indians belonging to the Tala- 
manca division of the Chibchan linguistic family and located on 
the Pacific coast of Costa Rica centering about Quepos Point. 

Quiche, an important Mayan tribe belonging to the Highland divi- 
sion of the family which is given the name Quichoid by Mason 
and Johnson. They occupied considerable territory in central 
Guatemala about the headwaters of Rio Motagua, extending 
thence around the western side of Lake Atitl4n and southward 
to the Pacific Ocean. 

Quinicuanes, according to Orozco y Berra (1864), a Tamaulipec tribe. 

Rama, a tribe belonging to the Rama-Corobici division of the Chibchan 
linguistic family. They occupied the southeasternmost part of 
the present Republic of Nicaragua between the Rio San Juan 
and the Atlantic but the greater part of them are now on Rama 
Key in Bluefields Lagoon. 

Sabaibo, a division of the Acaxee. 

Sainoscos, a Tamaulipec tribe about Padilla. 

Salineros, a division of the Seri on the mainland of the State of Sonora 
opposite Tiburén Island. 

San Blas, a Cuna tribe of the Chibchan stock at San Blas on the north 
coast of the Republic of Panama. 

San Salvador, name given to a detached body of Pokomam of the 
Quichoid division of the Mayan family located about the capital 
of the Republic of El Salvador. 

Santa Cruz, a division of Maya Indians in northeastern Yucatan. 

Sayula, a division of the Popoloca of Veracruz. 

Sayultec, a tribe of the Aztecoidan division of the Uto-Azecan stock 
occupying two areas, one on the Pacific coast in the southern part 
of Jalisco, and the other inland, south and southwest of the Lago 
de Chapala. 

Seco, a division of the Paya Indians (Payan stock). 

Seri, a tribe formerly placed in an independent stock but now classed 
with the Yuman family and Hokan stock. They lived on Ti- 
burén Island in the Gulf of California and on the eastern coast 
of the latter from the Rfo San José nearly to the Altar, State of 


634 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Butr. 145 


Sonora. The following subdivisions are mentioned: Guayma (in 
the southern part of the Seri territory), Salineros (on the main- 
land opposite Tiburén Island), Tepocas (in the northernmost 
part of the Seri territory), Tiburén (on Tiburén Island), Upan- 
guayma (near the Guayma). 

Serrano, a Seri division. (See Seri.) 

Serrano, a northern division of Otomi near the Rio Moctezuma. 

Sibayones (1), a Tamaulipec tribe about Aguayo. 

Sibayones (2), a Tamaulipec tribe on the Rio de los Infantes. 

Sigua, a Nahuatlan (Uto-Aztecan) tribe classed in the same group as 
the Pipil and located on the Rio Telorio in the Bahia de Almirante, 
on the Atlantic coast of Panamé. 

Silam, a Sumo division belonging to the Misumalpan linguistic stock 
living on the lower course of Wanks River, in the territory of 
Nicaragua and Honduras. 

Similaton, a dialectic division of the Lenca Indians (Lencan stock) 
located in the territory of the present Republic of Honduras. 
Sinacantan, a division of the Xinca Indians in southeastern Guate- 

mala. 

Sobaibo, a division of the Acaxee Indians in the southern part of 
their territory on the Rio San Lorenzo, State of Sonora. 

Soltec, a division of the Chatino of the Zapotecan linguistic stock. 

Subinha, a tribe of the Mayan linguistic stock believed to have been 
related to the Jacaltec. All that is known of their language is 
contained in a vocabulary in the Lenguas Indigenas de Centro- 
America en el Siglo XVIII (Fernandez, 1892.). 

Subtiaba, a tribe forming with the Tlapanec and Maribichicoa of 
Guerrero the Supanecan linguistic family which has been con- 
nected with the Hokan stock, They lived in the region of Léon, 
Republic of Nicaragua, on the Pacific slope. 

Sucayi, a Concho band. 

Suerre, a tribe of the Talamanca division of the Chibchan linguistic 
stock located on the Atlantic slope of Costa Rica south of the 
mouth of the Rio San Juan Bajo. 

Suma, a tribe or group of tribes which extended along the Rio Grande 
south of the present El Paso and westward to the Rio Casas 
Grandes. If, as is probable, Jumano is only another form of the 
name, their boundary would be carried down the Rio Grande 
beyond the mouth of the Concho. (See Shuman under Texas.) 
Probably related to the Uto-Aztecan stock. 

Sumo, a tribe or group of tribes of the Suman family and Misumalpan 
linguistic stock in the northwestern interior of the Republic of 
Nicaragua and a fringe of territory adjoining in Honduras. 
Subdivisions: Bawihka (east of Wanks River towards its mouth), 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 635 


Boa (near the head of the Rio Grande), Coco, Panamaka (on 
the Rio Bokay and Rio Hamaca), and the Lakus and Pispis 
Indians (on the Rio Uani, in Uasabane, on the upper course of 
the Rio Pispis, and on the Rio Bambana), and Wasabane. The 
Ku and Silam (on the middle course of Wanks River) should 
probably be added. 

Sumo-Sirpe, a mixed Mosquito-Sumo tribe. 

Tagualilos, given by Orozco y Berra (1864) as the name of a Tamauli- 
pec tribe. 

Tahue, a tribe of the Taracahitian family of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic 
stock on the Pacific coast northward of Mazatlan, extending to 
the mouth of the Rio San Lorenzo and from that point in- 
land and northward to about latitude 25°30’ N. The following 
villages are mentioned: Atamura, Ategualato, Culiacan, Diarea- 
cato, Guachimeto, Hiluruto, Naboloto, Teboloto, Teculimeto, 
Yebalito—all but the third situated below Culiac4n. 

Talamanca, a tribe associated with the Bribri and located in central 
Costa Rica. It gave its name to a division of the Chibchan 
linguistic stock. 

Tamaulipec, a group of small tribes named from the State of Tamaul- 
ipas in the central and southeastern parts of which they lived. 
It is probable that they were related to the Coahuilteco and 
Karankawa (see Texas), but the merest fragment of any of their 
languages survives. Through the Coahuilteco they are con- 
jecturally connected with the Hokan stock. The Mexican Pub- 
licaciones del Archivo General de la Nacién XV (Reyes, 1944) 
gives the following Tamaulipec tribes: Anachiguaies (about 
Escandén), Apostatas (about Burgos), Aracanaes (about Alta- 
mira), Borrados (about Dolores), Cacalotes (about Mier), 
Cadimas (about Guemes), Camaleones (about Santillan), Carrizos 
(about Camargo), Comecamotes (about Soto la Marina), Co- 
mecrudo (about San Fernando), Cuercos quemados (about Revilla), 
Inocoples (about Hoyos), Mariguanes (about Horcasitas), Pitas 
(about Santander), Sainoscos (about Padilla), Serranos (about 
Santa Barbara), Sibayones (1) (about Aguayo), Sibayones (2) 
(about Rio de los Infantes), Tepemacas (about Laredo). Orozco 
y Berra (1864) repeats some of these names, sometimes in an 
altered form, and adds: Aretines, Canaynes, Caramariguanes, 
Caramiguais, Caribayes, Guisolotes, Malinchenos, Panguayes, 
Pasitas, Pintos (= Pitas?), Quinicuanes, Tagualilos, Tamaulipecos. 

Tamazulteca, a tribe of unknown connections living in western 
Michoacan. 


636 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


Tapachultec (1), (or Tapachula) a detached branch of the Zoque and 
so, according to Mason and Johnson, in the Mizocuavean stock. 
They lived on the border between México and Guatemala. 

Tapachultec (2), a tribe of unknown affiliations, but distinct from the 
preceding, located on the México-Guatemalan border. 

Tapixulapan, a division of the Zoque tribe of the Mizocuavean stock. 

Tarahumare, a hispanized form, according to Lumholtz (in Hodge, 
1910, p. 692) of the native name Ralamari which probably signi- 
fies ‘‘foot-runners,”’ a large tribe belonging to the Taracahitian 
branch of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, living in the Sierra 
Madre Mountains and on the headwaters of the San Pedro, 
Conchos, Urique, Otero, and Papigochic Rivers, southern Sonora 
and Chihuahua. The Pachera (at the extreme headwaters of 
the northern branch of the Rio Nonoava, under the municipality 
of Guerrero) are given as a subdivision. 

Tarasco, a tribe forming the Tarascan linguistic stock and occupying 
almost the whole of the State of Michoacan, except for the coastal 
section, and some small areas outside. 

Tariaca, a division of Cabecar Indians of the Talamanca branch of 
the Chibchan linguistic stock living on the north coast of Costa 
Rica southeast of Point Limén. 

Tatamaste, a Concho band. 

Tatimolo, a division of Totonac Indians (Totonacan stock). 

Tatiquilhati, a Totonac division of the Totonacan linguistic stock. 

Tawahka, a tribe of the Sumo group and Misumalpan linguistic stock, 
living on the upper course of Wanks River, Honduras and 
Nicaragua. (See Tanaxka on map.) 

Tawira, a tribe of Mosquito Indians (Misumalpan stock) in north- 
eastern Nicaragua on the coast. 

Tayopan, given by Peralta (1895) as a Guetare ‘‘province.”’ 

Tebaca, a division of the Acaxee of the Taracahitian family and 
Uto-Aztecan stock, living in the southwestern part of the Acaxee 
territory on the Rio Culiacan. 

Tecaya, given as a division of the Acaxee. 

Teco-Tecoxquin, a tribe belonging to the Aztecoidan branch of the 
Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock located inland in southern Nayarit 
and in two detached areas in western Michoacan. 

Tecual, a tribe placed by Sauer (1934) in one group with the Huichol 
and by Mason and Johnson in the Aztecoidan branch of the 
Uto-Aztecan stock. There were two sections of this tribe, one 
on the Rio Grande de Santiago and the other on the Rio San 
Pedro in Nayarit. 

Tecuexe, a division of the Cazcan Indians, Aztecoidan branch of the 


SWANTON} INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 637 


Uto-Aztecan stock, living north of Lago de Chapala, State of 
Jalisco. 

Tedexenos, given by Orozco y Berra (1864) as the name of a Tamaul- 
ipec tribe. 

Tehueco, a tribe of the Cahita Indians on the Rio Oteros, State of 
Chihuahua. 

Teluski, a tribe whose exact affiliations are unknown but they probably 
belonged to the Chibchan stock. 

Temori, a tribe assigned by Mason and Johnson to the Varohio group 
in the Taracahitian family and Uto-Aztecan stock. They lived 
between the Rio Chinipa or Oteros and the Rio Urique, State of 
Chihuahua. 

Tepahue, a tribe belonging to the Taracahitian family and Uto- 
Aztecan stock closely connected with the Cahita. They lived on 
the Rio Cedros, a northern branch of the Rio Mayo, Sonora. 

Tepanec, a Nahuatl tribe. 

Tepecano, derived by Hrdlitka (1903; in Hodge, 1910) from Nahuatl 
tepetl, ‘‘mountain,” and aco, ‘‘on top of,’”’ a southern Tepehuane 
division of the Piman family and Uto-Aztecan stock, living in the 
sierras of northern Jalisco. 

Tepehua, a tribe belonging to the Totonacan linguistic stock occupying 
a small territory where the Mexican States of Veracruz, Hidalgo, 
and Puebla come together. 

Tepehuan, according to Buelna (1891) from Nahuatl tepetl, ““moun- 
tain,’’ and huan, ‘‘at the junction of,” a tribe belonging to the 
Piman division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, loeated 
mainly in Durango, on the eastern slope of the sierra between 
latitude 21° and 27° N., extending also into the States of Chi- 
huahua, and Zacatecas and from the headwaters of the Rio 
Fuerte to the Rio Grande de Santiago in Jalisco. 

Tepemacas, a Tamaulipec tribe about Laredo. 

Tepocas, a division of the Seri in the northernmost part of their terri- 
tory on the coast of the Gulf of California about latitude 30° N. 

Tequistlatec, often called Chontal, an Aztec word meaning “stranger,” 
a tribe in the districts of Yautepec and Tehuantepec on the Pacific 
coast of the State of Oaxaca. It was originally made into an 
independent linguistic stock, the Tequistlatecan from the name 
Tequistlateca suggested by D. G. Brinton (1891, p. 113). 
Brinton, however, classed it as a dialect of Yuman and this has 
recently been confirmed by Kroeber (1915), who allies it 
through that family with the Hokan stock. 

Térraba, a tribe belonging to the Talamanca division of the Chibchan 
linguistic stock located in the extreme northwestern part of the 
Republic of Panam4, between Rio Tarire and Rio Telorio. 


638 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 145 


Teshbi, a Chibchan tribe related to the Térraba. 

Tetiquilhati, a Totonac division. 

Teul, a tribe in southern Zacatacas on the Rio Juchipila connected 
with the Tepecano and Tepehuan and through them with the 
Piman family of the Uto-Aztecan stock. 

Texixtepec, a division of the Popoloca (of Veracruz) connected 
with the Mixe and through them with the Mizocuavean stock. 

Tice, a tribe of the Rama-Corobici branch of the Chibchan linguistic 
stock. 

Tlacopan, one of the three Nahuatl tribes in the Valley of México, 
which formed the Mexican confederation. 

Tlacotepehua-Tepuzteca, an unclassified tribe centering around 
Chilpancingo, Guerrero. 

Tlapanec, or Tlapaneco-Yopi, given by Orozco y Berra (1864) as a 
name applied to the Chocho Indians by the Indians of Guerrero, 
but made independent by Lehmann (1920), who connects the 
Tlapanec with the Maribio and Subtiaba which would place it 
in the Hokan stock. 

Tlascala, a Nahuatl tribe in the present State of Tlaxcala, México. 

Toboso, the name of a predatory tribe living in the seventeenth 
century in the Bolson de Mapimi and extending northward at 
least to the Rio Grande, State of Coahuila, México. On circum- 
stantial evidence they have been classed as Athapascan but 
this is not beyond question. Orozco y Berra’s Cocoyome and 
Cabezas should perhaps be classed with them. 

Tocone, a Concho band. 

Tojar, a Chibchan tribe related to the Térraba (Chibchan stock) 
and located on an island of the same name on the north coast of 
Panama. 

Tolimeca, a tribe of uncertain affiliations in western Guerrero. 

Topacolme, a Concho band. 

Toquegua, a tribe belonging to the Choloid branch of the Mayan 
linguistic family and located in northwestern Honduras on the 
coast of the Gulf of Honduras. 

Totonac, the principal tribe of the Totonacan linguistic stock which 
is now regarded as independent though formerly thought to have 
affinities with the Mayan people. They lived in the northern 
part of the State of Puebla and that part of Veracruz between 
the City of Veracruz and latitude 21° N. Subdivisions: Mason 
and Johnson give three, the Coast, Papantla, and Sierra, but 
Zembrano (1752) states that there were four dialects: Chaca- 
huaxtli (in the Pueblos of Xalpan and Pentepec), Ipapana 
(in the missions of the Augustines), Tatimolo (in the Pueblo of 
Noalingo), and Tetiquilhati (in the high sierras). 


SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 639 


Totorame, a tribe closely connected with the Cora Indians and 
through them with the Aztecoidan branch of the Uto-Aztecan 
stock. They occupied the coast of Sinaloa from Mazatlan 
southward. 

Trique, a tribe entered by Mason and Johnson as a substock of their 
Otomanguean stock. Mechling (1912) connected them with 
Mazatec and Lehmann (1920) with the Chiapaneec and Otomi. 
They were in the midst of the Mixtec country west of the City 
of Oaxaca. The dialect of the town of Copala was said to differ 
considerably from the rest. 

Tubar, a tribe placed by Mason and Johnson in the Tahue group of 
the Taracahitian linguistic family, Uto-Aztecan stock, and located 
in the hot river gorge between the debouchure of the Chinipas 
and Urique Rivers. 

Tucurrique, a tribe believed to have been Chibchan but otherwise 
of uncertain affiliations. 

Tule, a Cuna tribe in eastern Panama. 

Tungla, a mixed Mosquito-Sumo tribe. 

Tunki, a subdivision of the Panamaka. 

Turriarba, a Guetare tribe in southwestern Costa Rica. 

Turrin, a Rama-Corobici tribe of the Chibchan stock. 

Turucaca, a Chibchan tribe related to the Boruca living north of the 
Golfo Dulce, on the Pacific coast of the Republic of Panama. 

Tzeltal or Tzental, a tribe belonging to the Tzeltaloid division of the 
Mayan stock and located in eastern Chiapas northeast of the 
Chiapanec and between the Rio San Pedro and the Rio Grande, 
México. 

Tzotzil (Quelene and Chamula probably synonyms), a tribe belonging 
to the Tzeltaloid division of the Mayan stock and located on 
the Rio Grande in central Chiapas east of the Chiapanec. 

Tzutuhil, a tribe belonging to the Quichoid division of the Mayan 
stock, living around the southern shore of Lake Atitlan, Guatemala. 

Uchita, or Utciti, a division of the Waicuri on the west coast of the 
peninsula of Baja California between latitude 24° N. and the 
Pericu. 

Ulua, originally a type tribe of the Uluan linguistic stock, they were 
connected by Lehmann (1920) with the Tawahka, Yosko, 
Mosquito, and Matagalpa and all ultimately with Chibchan. 
Mason and Johnson, however, treat the Suman family as a 
division of their Misumalpan stock and more remotely connected 
with the Chibchan tribes. They occupied much of the interior 
of the present Republic of Nicaragua from the Bay of Fonseca 
eastward to Lake Nicaragua and from the latter northward to 
the lower Rio Grande and the Mosquito territory. The follow- 


640 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 145 


ing subdivisions are given: Guanexico (location not given), 
Prinzo (north of the Rio Grande), Ulua (on the Rio Grande and 
Rio Sigua). 

Upanguayma, a body of Seri Indians near Guaymas, Sonora. 

Uren, a Chibchan tribe not otherwise fixed as to status. 

Ures, a body of Pima Bajo on the flood plain of the Rio Sonora below 
the gorge of Ures and beyond, Sonora. 

Urinama, a Chibchan tribe connected with the Bribri. 

Urraca, a tribe of unknown affiliations living on the south coast of the 
Republic of Panama. 

Uspanteca, a tribe of the Quiche group, Quichoid division, of the 
Mayan linguistic family, located at the point of meeting of the 
Quiche, Ixil, and Pokonchi and in the great bend of the Chixoy 
(Rio Negro), Guatemala. 

Vacoregue, a division of the Guasave Indians of the Taracahitian 
family, Uto-Aztecan stock, on the Pacific coast north of the 
mouth of the Rio Fuerte, Sonora. 

Varohio, by Mason and Johnson made the type tribe of a group belong- 
ing to the Taracahitian linguistic family and Uto-Aztecan stock. 
They were on the headwaters of the Rio Mayo on the boundary 
between Chihuahua and Sonora, México. 

Vassapalles, a Lagunero band. 

Veracruzano, a Huastec dialectic division, Mayan stock. 

Viceita, a Chibchan tribe connected with the Bribri. 

Vigitega, a detached body of Indians near Tepic in Nayarit believed 
to have belonged to the Piman family and Uto-Aztecan stock. 

Voto, a tribe forming, with the neighboring Rama and Guatuso, one 
dialectic group of the Chibchan stock located in the northwestern 
part of the present Republic of Costa Rica just south of the Rio 
San Juan. 

Wahni, a division of the Chinantec, Chorotegan stock. 

Waicuri, the largest body of Indians belonging to the Waicurian 
linguistic stock which Mason and Johnson classify conjecturally 
under the Hokan. They covered all of Baja California south of 
latitude 26° N. except a small area in the extreme southwest. 
Subdivisions: Aripa (located by Orozco y Berra (1864) in the 
extreme northwestein part of Waicuri territory), Cora (on the 
east coast from near Dolores to the southeastern point of the 
peninsula), Monqui (on the east coast between Dolores and 
Loreto), Uchita or Utciti (on the west coast between latitude 
24° N. and the Pericu), Waicuri (on the west coast from latitude 
24° to 25° N.). The Edd, Didd, and Ika, given by others as 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 641 


Cochimi divisions, were probably Waicuri but their locations are 
uncertain. 

Wanki, a Mosquito subdivision. 

Xilotlantzincea, an unclassified tribe in western Michoacan. 

Xinea, a tribe placed in the Zoquean stock by Lehmann (1920) but 
given independent status by Thomas (1911) and more recently 
by Mason and Johnson except that the last mentioned place it 
in their great Macro-Penutian phylum. They lived in the 
extreme southeastern part of Guatemala between two areas of 
Pipil Indians. There were three closely allied dialects spoken in 
the pueblos of Sinacantan, Xupiltepec, and Xutiapa, to which 
Conguaco should probably be added, although Juarros (1824) 
and Thomas (1911) call it Lencan. 

Xixime, a tribe of the Taracahitian branch of the Uto-Aztecan stock, 
their nearest relatives apparently being the Acaxee. They 
occupied the upper courses of the San Lorenzo, Piaxtla, Presidio, 
and Baluarte Rivers in the States of Durango and Sinaloa. The 
following subdivisions are reported: Aibine, Hine (on the head- 
waters of the Rio Piaxtla), Hume (on the Presidio and Baluarte 
Rivers). 

Xiximole, a Concho band. 

Xorrhue, an otherwise unidentified Chibchan tribe. 

Xupiltepec, a town whose inhabitants spoke a Xinca dialect. It is 
located in Guatemala. 

Xurru, a tribe belonging to the Rama-Corobici branch of the Chibchan 
stock. 

Xutiapa, a town of Guatemala in which a dialect of the Xinca language 
was spoken. 

Yacchicaua, a Concho band. 

Yaculsari, a Concho band. 

Yanabopos, a Lagunero band. 

Yaochane (Ahuchan or Ochan), a Concho band. 

Yaqui, a tribe or tribal division of the Cahita living on the Rio Yaqui 
in the State of Sonora, México. 

Yasika, a Suman tribe belonging to the Misumalpan stock. 

Yecora, a division of Pima Bajo along the boundary line between the 
states of Chihuahua and Sonora, México. 

Yeguacat, a Concho band. 

Yolox, a division of the Chinantec, Chorotegan stock. 

Yosco, a tribe of the Misumalpan stock most closely connected with 
the Sumo and Ulua people, in central Nicaragua on the Rio 
Lisauei and the Rio Hamaka. 


642 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 145 


Zacateco, a tribe related to the Cazcan of the Aztecoidan family and 
Uto-Aztecan stock, occupying a large part of the State of Zaca- 
tecas and also part of Durango, México. 

Zapotec, the type tribe of the Zapotecan family, occupying the 
greater part of central Oaxaca and extending from the Chinantec 
country to the Pacific coast. Mason and Johnson give the fol- 
lowing major divisions: Zapotec of the Northern Mountains, 
Zapotec of the Southern Mountains, and Zapotec of the Valleys, 
and the following dialects: the Zapotec Cajono, Zapotec Etla, 
Zapotec Ixtepexi, Zapotec Nexitza, Zapotec Ocotlan, Zapotec 
Zaachilla, and the Tehuantepec. 

Zayahueco, a division of the Cora Indians, Taracahitian family, 
Uto-Aztecan stock, living in the southern and southwestern 
margins of the Cora country. 

Zegua, a Chibchan tribe, otherwise unclassified. 

Zhorquin, a Chibchan tribe, otherwise unclassified. 

Zoe, according to Buelna (1891), from tzoi, ‘‘wax pitch tree,” 
regarded by Sauer (1934) as belonging to the same group as the 
Comanito Indians which were members of the Taracahitian family 
and Uto-Aztecan stock. They lived in the rough hill country 
of the Rio Fuerte above the Cahita and along the Sinaloa- 
Chihuahua boundary. Two related tribes are mentioned, the 
Zoe proper and the Baimena. 

Zoque, the type tribe of the Zoquean linguistic family placed by 
Mason and Johnson in their Mizocuavean stock. They lived 
in the extreme eastern part of Oaxaca, in northwestern Chiapas, 
and in the adjoining parts of Tabasco. Tapixulapan is given 
as a dialect. 

Zuaque, a division of the Cahita Indians of the Uto-Aztecan stock 
living on the lower course of the Rio del Fuerte, State of Sinaloa. 

Authorities.—Brinton, D. G., 1891; Buelna, 1891; Conzemius, 1932; Hrdliéka, 

1903; Johnson, 1940; Juarros, 1824; Krocber, 1925; Lehmann, 1920; Lumholtz, 

1894; Mason, 1940; Mechling, 1912; México, Archivo General de la Nacidén, 


Publicaciones, vol. XV (on Tamaulipas, 1944); Orozco y Berra, 1864; Peralta, 
1895; Peter Martyr, 1912; Sauer, 1934; Thomas, 1911; Zembrano, 1752; 


9, 6k 
? 


Swanton] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 643 


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SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 663 


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INDEX’ 


Ad’/ninéna, see Atsina. 
A-ar-ke, see Hopi. 
A’-4’tam, see Pima. 
A’a’tam A’kimflt, see Pima. 
Aays, see Eyeish. 
Abasopalme, 6138, 619 
Ab-boin-ug, see Dakota. 
Abercrombie, Lt.[W. R.J, explorer, 530 
Abihka, 153, 157, 222, 228 
Abnaki, nea 16, 17, 18, 28, 44, 579, 
58 
joined by Pennacook, 18 
removal to Canada, 14, 18 
See also Delaware. 
Abra, 613, 622 
Absaroka, see Crow. 
Absdroke, see Crow. 
Absentee Shawnee, see Shawnee. 
Acapatos, see Atsina. 
Acarred Arms, see Cheyenne. 
Acasaquastlan, 613, 628 
Acaxee, 6138-614, 631, 634, 636, 641 
Accerri, 614, 622 
Accohanoc, see Powhatan. 
Accominta, see Pennacook. 
Achire, 614, 621 
Achomawi, 479-480*, 481 
Achuachapan, 614 
Acolapissa, 168, 174, 175, 192, 195-196*, 
200, 207, 208, 210, 211 
joined by Natchitoches, 206 
massacre of Natchitoches by, 206 
merged with Houma, 196, 200 
Acolhua, 614, 628 
Acoste, see Koasati. 
Acuera, 120*, 130, 131 
Acuyé, see Pecos. 
Adai, 196—-197*, 201, 206, 212, 309, 314, 
315, 316, 318, 320 
probably joined Caddo, 197 
A da ka’ da ho, see Arikara. 
A’dal-k’ato’igo, see Nez Percé. 
Addle-Heads, see Menominee. 
Adshusheer, town of, 79, 84 
Adwanuqdji, see Atsugewi. 
Afdlakin, see Wasco. 
Aguacadiba, 611 
Aguacaleyquen, see Utina. 
Aguacatec I, 614 
Aguacatec II, 614 
Agueynaba, 611 
A-gutch-a-ninne-wug, see Hidatsa. 
Ah’alakat, see Chemehuevi. 
Ahalpam, see Santiam. 
Ahantchuyuk, 452* 
Ah-hi’-ta-pe, see Siksika. 
Ahihinin, see Pawnee. 


1 Asterisk indicates main account of tribe. 


Ah-mo-kadi, see Hopi. 
Ahomama, 614, 625 
Ahome, 614, 621, 622 
Ah-pen-ope-say, see Arikara. 
Aht, see Nootka. 
Ahtena, 529-530* 
Ahuddjé, see Apache. 
Ahuchan, see Yaochane. 
Ahya’to, see Arapaho. 
Ai-a’-ta, see Apache. 
Aibine, 614, 641 
Aigspalo, see Klamath. 
Aigspaluma, see Klamath, Modoc. 
Ais, 121—122*, 131, 133 
Aispalu, see Klamath. 
Aix, see Eyeish. 
Ai-yah-kin-nee, see Hopi. 
Ajoica mission, 135 
Akansa, see Quapaw. 
Ak’-ba-sii’-pai, see Havasupai. 
Akénuq/‘la/lam, see Okanagon. 
Akhrakouaehronon, see Susquehanna. 
A’kimmash, see Clackamas. 
Ak-min’-e-shu’-me, see Kalispel. 
Akochakanefi, see Mahican. 
Akokisa, 198, 199, 307, 308, 324 
fate unknown, 199 
See also Atakapa. 
A-ko-t‘is’-ki-ro’re®’, see Tuscarora. 
-ko-tcd-ka/né®, see Delaware. 
Akwa/’ala, 614 
Alabama, 122, 1380, 1384, 135, 139, 144, 


145, 153-156*, 157, 159, 167, 
168, 180, 197, 210, 224, 299, 304, 
307, 324 


joined by Muskogee, 204 

joined by Pawokti, 136, 154, 170 

joined by Tawasa, 154, 211 

member of Creek Confederacy, 299 

migrations, 155, 197, 299, 307 

relations with French, 154 

uniting of some with Seminole, 155 
Alabama language, 154, 160 
Alabama [State of] 153-174 

Abihka, 153 

Alabama, 153-156* 

Apalachee, 156 

Apalachicola, 156 

Atasi, 156 

Chatot, 156 

Cherokee, 156 

Chickasaw, 156 

Choctaw, 156 

Creek Confederacy, 156-157 

Eufaula, 157 

Fus-hatchee, 157 

Hilibi, 157 

Hitchiti, 157 


683 


684 


Alabama [State of]—Continued 
Kan-hatki, 157 
Kealedji, 157 
Koasati, 157—-159* 
Kolomi, 159 
Mobile, 159-160* 
Muklasa, 160* 
Muskogee, 160—-168* 
Napochi, 168-169* 
Natchez, 169 
Okchai, 169 
Okmulgee, 169 
Osochi, 169 
Pakana, 170 
Pawokti, 170 
Pilthlako, 170 
Sawokli, 170-171* 
Shawnee, 171 
Taensa, 171 
Tohome, 171-172* 
Tukabahchee, 172* 
Tuskegee, 172-173* 
Wakokai, 173 
Wiwohka, 174 
Yamasee, 174 
Yuchi, 174 
Alachua, 140 
Ala’dshiish, see Chinook. 
Alaguilac, 614 
Alahé, see Kansa. 
Alakéma’yuk, see Luckiamute. 
Alamama, 614, 625 
Al4mmimakt fsh, see Klamath. 
Alareén, Hernando de, 349, 350, 354, 
357, 366, 369 
Alaska [Territory of], 529-544 
Ahtena, 529-530* 
Aleut, 580—533* 
Dihai-kutchin, 533* 
Eskimo, 533 
Haida, 533 
Han, 533* 
Ingalik, 533-534* 
Koyukon, 534—-536* 
Kutcha-kutchin, 536—-537* 
Nabesna, 537* 
Niska, 538 
Natsit-kutchin, 538* 
Tanaina, 538—539* 
Tanana, 539-540* 
Tennuth-kutchin, 540* 
Tlingit, 540—543* 
Tranjik-kutchin, 543* 
Tsimshian, 543 
Vunta-kutchin, 543-544* ° 
A‘latskné-i, see Clatskanie. 
Alcoholic liquors, effect on Indians, 99 
Aleut, 530-533*, 539, 557, 568 
Algonkin, 544~545* 
Algonquian tribes, 65, 66, 74, 77, 78, 80, 
82, 83, 246, 392, 545, 548 
Aliatan, see Shoshoni, Northern. 
Aliche, see Eyeish. 
Allebome, see Comanche. 
Alleghanys, see Cherokee. 
Allen, Lt. Henry T., explorer, 530, 540 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Alligewi, see Cherokee. 

Alliklik, 480, 497 

Allouez, French priest, 242, 253 

Alnanbal, see Abnaki. 

Alsé, see Alsea. 

Alsea, 452—453*, 469 

Altamaha Yamasee, 113 

Al-ta-tin, see Sekani. 

A’lvayé’Iilit, see Eskimo. 

Amacano, 122, 128, 129 

Amacapiras, see Macapiras. 

Amadas and Barlowe, explorers, 82 

Amahami, 276 

Amayes, see Jemez. 

Ameias, see Jemez. 

Amejes, see Jemez. 

A-me-she’, see Hidatsa. 

Ameyao, 611 

Amgittsuish, see Umpqua. 

Amishgo, see Amusgo. 

Amojave, see Mohave. 

Amolélish, see Molala. 

Ampxankni, see Wasco. 

A’-mu-kwi-kwe, see Hopi. 

Amusgo, 614 

Ana, see Cree. 

Anacana, see Aracanaes. 

Anacasiguais, see Anachiquaies. 

Anachiquaies, 614, 635 

Anadarko, member of Hasinai Confed- 
eracy, 307, 316 

Anagonges, see Abnaki. 

Anahou, see Osage. 

Anakwanckl, see Delaware. 

Ananis, see Biloxi. 

Anaxis, see Biloxi. 

Anaya, 611 

Anda-kpoen, see Eskimo. 

Andaste, see Susquehanna, 

Andatahouats, see Ottawa. 

Ani’-Gu’sa, see Muskogee. 

Ani’-Kitu’hwag!, see Cherokee. 

Ani’-Na’ts!, see Natchez. 

Anfpérspi, see Nez Percé. 

Ani’-Sawinu’gl, see Shawnee. 

An-ish-in-aub-ag, see Chippewa. 

Ani’-Sk4la’li, see Tuscarora. 

Ani’-Suwa’li, see Cheraw. 

Ani’ta’gui, see Catawba. 

Ani’-Tsa‘ta, see Choctaw. 

Ani’-Tsi’ksa, see Chickasaw. 

Ani’-Yfin’-wigd’, see Cherokee. 

Ani’-Yu’ts!I, see Yuchi. 

Annah, see Cree. 

Annocchy, see Biloxi. 

Ano’s-anyotskano, see Arapaho. 

Anza, Lt. Col. Juan Bautista de, 370 

Apache, 292, 293, 296, 299, 307, 313, 
314, 319, 325, 326, 327-330*, 
335, 337, 339, 343, 348, 349, 363, 
365, 370, 593, 614, 624 

eroup of tribes, 299, 300, 301, 322, 
1 


Shuman destroyed by, 325 
See also Chiricahua Apache, Kiowa 
Apache, Mimbrefio Apache. 


INDEX 


Apaches, see Yavapai. 
Apaches de Nabaju, see Navaho. 
Apaches de Navajé, see Navaho. 
Apache Mohaves, see Yavapai. 
Apalachee, 104, 112, 114, 115, 116, 119, 
122-125*, 128, 129, 135, 137, 140, 
Sai 150, 152, 153, 156, 197, 210, 
99 
disappearance of, 124, 151 
migrations of, 123-124*, 156, 197 
relations with English, 104 
relations with Spaniards, 123 
Apalachicola, 104-105*, 107, 116, 125, 
128, 150, 156, 157, 169, 174 
relations with Spaniards, 105 
A-pa-o-pa, see Nez Percé. 
Api’nefu, see Chepenafa. 
Apocynum cannabinum, 85 
Apostata, 614, 635 
Applegate River Indians, see Daku- 
betede. 
A-pii-pe’, see Nez Percé. 
Aqgokiulo, see Chimakum. 
“Aqua Dulce” Indians, see Fresh Water 
Indians. 
Aquannaque, see Abnaki. 
Aquelou pissas, see Acolapissa. 
Aqui, see Pecos. 
Aqisti, see Tolowa. 
Ara, 614 
See also Karok. 
Aracanaes, 614, 634 
A-rach-bo-cu, see Mandan. 
Ara-k’e, see Eskimo. 
Aranama, 308 
extinct by 1848, 308 
Arapaho, 260, 273, 278, 279, 280, 285, 
292, 295, 296, 299, 370, 372, 384— 
386*, 387, 389, 545 
Northern, 385, 386 
Southern, 299, 385, 386 
Arawak, 609, 610 
Archdale, Governor [John], 75 
Arecibo, 611 
A-re-tear-o-pan-ga, see Atsina. 
Aretino, 614, 635 
pe eeeere nee 278, 285, 289, 387, 
i 
citizens of United States, 274 
Aripa, 614, 640 
Arizona [State of], 349-370 
Apache, 349 
Cocopa, 349* 
Halchidhoma, 349-350* 
Halyikwamai, 350-351* 
Havasupai, 351* 
Hopi, 351-353* 
Kohuana, 353-354* 
Maricopa, 354-356* 
Mohave, 356-357* 
Navaho, 357 
Paiute, 357 
Papago, 357-360* 
Pima, 360—-363* 
Quahatika, 363-364* 
Sobaipuri, 364-365* 


685 


Arizona [State of]—Continued 
Tonto, 365 
Walapai, 365-366* 
Yavapai, 367-369* 
Yuma, 369-370* 
Arkansas [State of], 212-215 
Caddo, 212 
Cahinnio, 212 
Cherokee, 212 
Chickasaw, 212 
Illinois, 212 
Kaskinampo, 212 
Michigamea, 213 
Mosopelea, see Ofo. 
Ofo, 213 
Osage, 213 
Quapaw, 213-215* 
Tunica, 215 
Yazoo, 215 
Arkansas, see Quapaw. 
Artaguiette, Diron d’, 192 
Arthur, Gabriel, 74, 90, 102 
As-a-ka-shi, see Mandan. 
As&n’ka, see Kutenai. 
Asay, see Hopi. 
Ascani, see Yscani. 
A’shiwi, see Zuni. 
Ashnuhumsh, see Snohomish. 
Ash-o-chi-mi, see Wappo. 
A-shu’-e-ka-pe, see Salish. 
Askwalli, see Nisqually. 
Assinay, see Hasinai Confederacy. 
Assiniboin, 275, 283, 386, 387-388*, 545, 
592 
allied with Cree, 388, 555 
separated from Dakota, 545 
Atakapa, 186, 193, 194, 197-199*, 205, 
208, 210, 307, 308, 314 
.. believed to be cannibals, 199 
A-tagui, see Lipan. 
Atanum, 471 
Atasi, division of the Muskogee, 156 
A-t‘is-k4-lo’-l8’, see Tuscarora. 
Atch4shti amé’nmei, see Chastacosta. 
Atchasti 4mim, see Chastacosta. 
Atchihwa’, see Maricopa. 
Atchixe’lish, see Chehalis. 
Atcik-hata group, 111, 112, 113, 170 
Atcik-hata language, 104 
Atena, see Shuswap. 
Atfalati, 453-454*, 476 
Athabaska, see Cree. 
Athapascan Sarsi, see Sarsi. 
Athapascan tribes, 371, 452, 456, 570, 
575, 584 
Athapascans, Oregon, 516 
Athapuskow, see Cree. 
Athlameth, see Klamath. 
Athlashimih, see Carriers. 
Atna, see Shuswap. 
Atoktwe, see Apache. 
A-too-ha-pe, see Salish. 
At-pasha-shliha, see Hitchiti. 
Atra‘kwae‘ronnons, see Susquehanna. 
Atsina, 385, 386, 389-390*, 397, 545 
placed on Reservation, 390 


686 


Atsistarhonon, see Potawatomi. 

Atsugewi, 479, 480—481* 

Attamuskeet, 80, 81* 

At’-ta-wits, see Kadohadacho. 

Attayes, see Tyigh. 

Attiecmospicayes, see Thlingchadinne. 

Attimospiquaies, see Thlingchadinne. 

Attiwandaronk, see Neutrals. 

Attucks, Crispus, Negro-Massachuset 
half-breed, 20 

Atzinea, 614, 626 

Atksiwash, see Klamath. 

Audlastis, see Paiute, Southern. 

Autauga, 155 

A’-uya, see Kickapoo. 

Avoyel, 188, 194, 199-200*, 210 

disappearance of, 200 

Awahi, see Pawnee. 

Awahu, see Pawnee. 

Awd4sko ammim, see Wasco. 

A-was-shetan-qua, see Cheyenne. 

AwaAtch, see Apache. 

Awédtche, see Apache. 

Aweatsiwaenhronon, see Winnebago. 

Awena’tchela, see Wenatchee. 

Awi-adshi, see Klickitat. 

Awé6, see Pawnee. 

Awokanak, see Etchaottine. 

Awp, see Apache. 

Axshihhayé-rinu, see Chippewa. 

Axwé’lapce, see Kwalhioqua. 

Ayankéld, see Yoncalla. 

Ayatchinini, see Siksika. 

Ayatchiyiniw, see Siksika. 

Aycalme, 614, 619 

Allon eeaues de, explorer, 84, 94, 103, 


expedition under, 94-95 
Aymamon, 611 
Ayuhwa, see Iowa. 
Aztec, 614, 628 


Ba-akush’, see Dakota. 

Bachilmi, 615, 619 

Baciroa, 615 

Bacon, Nathaniel, 70 

Bad-hearts, see Kiowa Apache. 

Bagaces, 615 

Bagowits, see Navaho. 

Béhakosin, see Cheyenne. 

Bahamas, Lucayans in, 611 

Bahkanapiil, see Tiibatulabal. 

Bahwetego-weninnewug, see Atsina. 

Baimena, 615, 642 

Bainoa, 608*, 610 

Bald Heads, see Comanche. 

Baldam, 615 

Bambana, 615 

Bamoa, 615, 616 

Bana’kwiit, see Bannock. 

Banabeouiks, see Winnebago. 

Bani, 610 

Baniatho, see Cherokee. 

Bankalachi, Tiibatulabal band. 

Bannock, 370, 372, 375, 386, 390, 398- 
399*, 404, 454 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Bannock War, 399 

Banumints, see Serrano. 

Baopapa, 615, 619 

Ba-qa-5, see Makah. 

Baracoa, 610 

Barajagua, 610 

Baranoff, [Baranov, Aleksandr Andree- 
vich, first governor of Russ.- 
America], 542 

Ba-ra-ship’-gi-o, see Dakota. 

Barbacoa, 610 

Barnwell, Col. John, 75, 86, 95, 96, 98, 
100, 101, 103, 115 

Bartlet . R., American Commissioner, 


Bartram, William, 135 
Bashaba, Penobscot chief, 16, 17 
Bashabas, see Abnaki. 
Basket People, see Colville. 
Batem-da-kai-ee, see Kato. 
Battle-le-mule-emauch, see Methow. 
Batts, Thomas, 72, 74 
Bawichtigouek, see Chippewa. 
Bawihka, 615, 634 
Bay Indians, see Winnebago. 
Bay River Indians, see Bear River Indians. 
Bayamo, 610, 611 
Bayano, 615 
Bayaquitiri, 610 
Baymunana, 615 
Bayogoula, 192, 196, 200—201*, 204, 208 
destroyed by Taensa, 200, 209 
joined Houma, 200 
Mugulasha, destroyed by, 200, 208 
Bear River Indians, 74, 81, 83, 86, 481*, 
515 
Beaux Hommes, see Quapaw, Siksika. 
Beaver, 552 
Beaver Indians, see Tsattine. 
Bedzagetcha, see Chippewa. 
Bedzietcho, see Chippewa. 
Bellabella, 545-546*, 575 
Bellacoola, 546—548* 
Belle-Isle, Simars de, French officer, 198 
Benavides, Alonso de, 325, 339 
Benoist, French commander, 179 
Beothuk, 548-549* 
disappearance of, 548, 549 
driven north by Micmac, 548 
Beranger, Captain [Jean], 198, 321 
Bering, [Vitus], explorer, 532, 542 
Beshde’ke, see Foxes. 
Be’shiltch4, see Kiowa. 
Bessebes, see Bashaba. 
Bétid&&, see Arapaho. 
Bé’-xai, see Jicarilla. 
Bidai, 197, 308, 324 
disappearance of, 308 
Biedma, Louis Hernandez de, De Soto 
chronicler, 153 
Bienville, Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur 
de, 128, 129, 136, 160, 175, 188, 
189, 191, 196, 197, 200, 201, 206, 
208, 211, 212, 225, 318, 319 


INDEX 


Biern{’n, see Keresan Pueblos. 
Bik-ta’/-she, see Shoshoni, Northern. 
Biloxi, 136, 174-176*, 188, 191, 201, 206, 
232, 299, 308, 323 
migrations, 175, 308 
Bi’Ixula, see Bellacoola. 
Birch Bay Indians, see Semiahmoo. 
Birch Creek Kutchin, see Tennuth- 
kutchin. 
Birch River Indians, 
kutchin. 
Bird Woman, see Sacagawea. 
Black Hawk, Sauk Chief, 252, 257, 266 
Black Hawk War, 251, 2538, 256, 269 
Black Minqua, see Honniasont. 
Black Pawnee, see Wichita. 
Black River Kutchin, see Tranjik- 
kutchin. 
Blackfeet, 389, 390, 391, 394, 395, 555, 
593 


allied with Sarcee, 592 
See also Siksika. 

Blackhoof, Shawnee chief, 230 

Blande, Edward, explorer, 62, 64, 65, 84 

Blue Muds, see Nez Percé. 

Blunt, Tom, Tuscarora chief, 87 

Boa, 615, 635 

Boas, Franz, 417, 548, 577, 601 

Bo’dalk‘ ifiago, see Comanche. 

Bodega and Maurelle, explorers, 546, 

573, 576, 588 

Boinug, see Dakota. 

Bokeai, see Hopi. 

Bolton, Prof. H. E., 139 

Bone Indians, see Osage. 

Bornn, Colonel, (Byrd?), 63 

Borrado, 615, 635 

Borrados, see Shuman. 

Boruca, 615, 620, 633 

Bo’teaced, see Sinkiuse-Columbia. 

Bot-k’in’ago, see Atsina. 

Botshenins, see Occaneechi. 

Bow Indians, see Quapaw. 

Bowl, Cherokee chief, 223, 309, 319 
killed by Texans, 309 

Boyaca, 610 

Boyano, Pardo, chronicler, 118 

Bribri, 615, 635, 640 

Bridger, [James], 398, 399 

British, allied with Cherokee, 222 
allied with Wyandot, 235 

Brotherton Indians, 28, 30, 31, 42, 43, 47 
joined by Montauk, 43 
removed to Wisconsin, 42 

Brushwood Indians, see Etchaottine. 

Buhk’hérk, see Hopi. 

Bukin, see Hopi. 

Bungees, see Chibnewa: 

Burica, 615 

Burucaca, 615 

Byrd, William, 66 


Cabecar, 615, 617, 636 

Cabellos realzados, see Chippewa. 
Cabezas, 615, 638 

Cabot, John, 14, 20, 70, 548, 580 


see Tennuth- 


687 


Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez, 478 
Cacalote, 615, 635 
Cacalotito, 615, 619 
Cacaopera, 615 
Cache River People, see Tranjik-kutchin, 
Cacores, see Shakori. 
Cacta®’-qwit-me’tiinné, see Umpqua. 
Caddo, 54, 201, 205, 212, 214, 269, 289, 
299, 300, 325, 326 
Caddo tae 309, 315, 316, 319, 320, 
4 
See also Adai, Natchitoches Con- 
federacy, Eyeish Confederacy, 
and Kadohadacho Confederacy. 
Cadimas, 615, 635 
Cahibo, 608-609*, 610 
Cahinnio, member of Kadohadacho 
Confederacy, 212, 318 
Cahita, 615, 616, 619, 621, 625, 626, 
637, 641, 642 
Cahuilla, 481—482* 
Caimanes, 616 
Caizcimu, 609* 
Cajuenche, see Kohuana. 
Cakchiquel, 616 
Calamox, see Tillamook. 
Calapooya, 454* 
Calasthocle, Quinault tribe, 435, 436 
Calderén, Captain, 137 
Calderén [Gabriel Diaz Vara], Bishop 
of Cuba, “113;~ 115," 137; -139, 
150, 170 
California [State of], 478-529 
Achomawi, 479—480* 
Alliklik, 480* 
Atsugewi, 480—481* 
Bear River Indians, 481* 
Cahuilla, 481-482* 
Chemehuevi, 482-483* 
Chetco, 483 
Chilula, 483* 
Chimariko, 483* 
Chumash, 484—-487* 
Costanoan, 487—488* 
Cupefio, 488* 
Dakubetede, 488 
Diegueno, 488—490* 
Esselen, 490* 
Fernandeno, 490* 
Gabrielino, 490—-491* 
Halchidhoma, 492 
Huchnom, 492* 
Hupa, 492-—493* 
Juaneno, 494* 
Kamia, 494-495* 
Karok, 495-496* 
Kato, 496* 
Kawaiisu, 496* 
Kitanemuk, 496-497* 
Konomihu, 497* 
Koso, 497* 
Lassik, 498* 
Luisenio, 498-499* 
Maidu, 499-501* 
Mattole, 501-502* 
Miwok, 502-—507* 


688 


California [State of}—Continued 
Modoe, 507 
Mohave, 507 
Nicoleiio, 507* 
Nongatl, 507* 
Okwanuchu, 507* 
Paiute, Northern, 507 
Patwin, 507—509* 
Pomo, 509-512* 
Salinan, 512* 
Serrano, 512-513* 
Shasta, 514* 
Sinkyone, 514—515* 
Tolowa, 515-516* 
Tibatulabal, 516-517* 
Vanyume, 517* 
Wailaki, 517-518* 
Wappo, 518-519* 
Washo, 519* 
Whilkut, 519* 
Wintu, 519-520* 
Wintun, 520-521* 
Wiyot, 521-522* 
Yahi, 522* 
Yana, 522-523* 
Yokuts, 523-526* 
Yuki, 526—527* 
Yuki, Coast, or Ukhotno’m, 527— 
528* 
Yuma, 528 
Yurok, 528-529* 
Caluga, see Okelousa. 
Calusa, 111, 121, 125-128*, 145, 152 
disappearance of, 127 
gold captured by, 126, 128 
noted for human sacrifice, 128 
relations with Americans, 127 
Camagiiey, 610 
Camaleones, 616, 635 
Camas People, see Kalispel. 
Campbell, Robert, Scotch officer, 584 
Canada and Greenland, 544-608 
Algonkin, 544-545* 
Arapaho, 545 
Assiniboin, 545 
Atsina, 545 
Bellabella, 545-546* 
Bellacoola, 546—548* 
Beothuk, 548-549* 
Carriers, 549—550* 
Chilcotin, 550—551* 
Chippewa or Ojibwa, 551* 
Chipewyan, 551-552* 
Comox, 552-553* 
Cowichan, 553-554* 
Cree, 554—556* 
Crow, 556 
Dakota, 556 
Eskimo, 556-569* 
Etchaottine, 569-570* 
Haida, 570-573* 
Hidatsa, 573 
Huron, 573 
Iroquois, 574 
Kawchottine, 574* 
Kitksan, 574-575* 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Canada and Greenland—Continued 
Kutchin, 575 
Kutenai, 575 
Kwakiutl, 575-577* 
Lillooet, 577—-578* 
Malecite, 578-579* 
Micmac, 579-581* 
Montagnais-Naskapi, 581—583* 
Nahane, 583-585* 
Nakotcho-kutchin, 585* 
Nanaimo, 585* 
Neutral, 586 
Niska, 586-587* 
Nooksak, 587 
Nootka, 587—588* 
Ntlakyapamuk, 588-591* 
Okanagon, 591 
Ottawa, 591 
Passamaquoddy, 591 
Puntlatsh, 591* 
Sarcee or Sarsi, 591-593* 
Seechelt, 593* 
Sekani, 593-595* 
Senijextee or Lake Indians, 595 
Shuswap, 595-596* 
Siksika (Blackfoot), 596* 
Songish, 596-597* 
Squawmish, 597-—599* 
Stalo, 600—601* 
Stuwihamuk, 601* 
Tahltan, 601—602* 
Takkuth-kutchin, 602-603* 
Tatlit-kutchin, 603* 
Tatsanottine, 603-604* 
Thlingchadinne, 604* 
Tionontati, 604-605* 
Tsattine, 605* 
Tsetsaut, 606* 
Tsimshian, 606—607* 
Tutchone, 608* 
Canarsee, 54 
Canawese, see Conoy. 
Canaynes, 616, 635 
Cances, see Lipan. 
Cancey, see Kiowa Apache. 
Canco, Governor Mendez de, 121 
Cannon-gageh-ronnons, see Abnaki. 
Canoe Indians, see Mahican. 
Canton Indians, see Iroquois. 
Capachequi, 128 
Capaha, see Pacaha. 
Caparaz, 122, 128, 129 
Cape Fear Indians, 75, 97 
disappearance of, 75 
Cape Flattery Indians, see Makah. 
Capinans, 137, 176 
Capitanesses, possibly Biloxi, 175 
Capote, Ute band, 374 
Captain Ellick, Kasihta chief, 118 
Captain Jack, see Kintpuash. 
Caramariguanes, 616, 635 
Caramiguaies, 616, 635 
Carib, 611, 616 
Caribayes, 616, 635 
Caribou Indians, see Tutchone. 
Caribou-eaters, see Chipewyan. 


INDEX 


Caribs in Lesser Antilles, 611 
Carmack, explorer, 548 
Carmeneh, see Siksika. 
Carriers, 549-550* 
origin of name, 549 
Carrizos, 616, 635 
Carson, Col. “Kit,” 335 
Cartaya, Ensign [Juan R. de], 137 
Cartier, Jacques, explorer, 235, 236 
Carver, Jonathan, explorer, 256 
Casafias de Jesus Maria, Fray Fran- 
cisco, missionary, 326 
Casapullas, see Cusabo. 
Casas Grandes, mission, 325 
Cascade Indians, see Watlala. 
Cascangue, see Icafui. 
Casqui, see Kaskinampo. 
Castafieda, Carlos E., 331 
Castors des Prairies, see Sarcee. 
Cat Nation, see Erie. 
Catapa, 616, 622 
Catawba, 75, 76, 81, 89, 90, 90—92*, 
93, 96, 97, 100, 101, 102, 215 
joined by Cheraw, 76 
joined by Congaree, 93 
joined by Eno, 79, 96, 99 
joined by Pedee, 97 
joined by Wateree, 101 
may have been joined by Sewee, 99 
probably joined by Keyauwee, 81, 
96 


probably joined by Santee, 98 
probably joined by Sissipahaw, 84 
probably joined by Sugeree, 100 
relations with Whites, 91 
removal to reservation, 91 
treaty with Iroquois, 91 
Catawba dialectic group, 100 
Ca’-tha, see Comanche. 
Cathlamet, 414 
Cathlapotle, 414-415* 
Catlin, George, 267, 278 
Catlo’ltx, see Comox. 
Caviseras, 616, 625 
Cawina, see Kohuana. 
Cayaguayo, 610 
Cayuga, 40, 44, 72, 73 
adoption of Saponi by, 44, 57, 72 
adoption of Tutelo by, 44, 72, 73 
Cayuse, 376, 413, 414, 415, 447, 454- 
455*, 466 
horses adopted by, 455 
removed to reservation, 455 
Cazcan, 616, 618, 642 
Céloron Expedition, 178 
Cenepisa, see Acolapissa. 
Cenis, see Hasinai Confederacy. 
Cé’qtamux, see Ntlakyapamuk, 
Cetguanes, see Yuma. 
Chacahuaztli, 616, 638 
Chacatos, see Chatot. 
Chahiksichahiks, see Pawnee. 
Chah’-ra-rat, see Dakota. 
Chah’-shm, see Apache. 
Chakchiuma, 176, 185, 187, 192 
Chalchuapa, 616 


689 


Chaliva, 616 
Chamelcon, 616, 628 
Champlain, Samuel de, 14, 16, 21, 235, 
579, 583 
chau Francisco Sanchez, 339, 
4 


Chafiabal, 617 
Changuena, 617 
Chaouanons, see Shawnee. 
Chapagua, 617, 628 
Cha’parahihu, see Hupa. 
Charles II, 138 
Charles V, Emperor, 125, 128 
Charleville, French trader, 227 
Charlevoix, Pierre F. X. de, 193, 196 
Chastacosta, 455-456* 
Chatino, 617, 630, 634 
Chato, 617, 621 
Chatot, 105, 115, 123, 128-129*, 137, 
156, 170, 191, 201 
disappearance of, 129, 201 
Chaudiére, see Colville. 
Chauguéronon, see Montagnais-Naskapi, 
Chauvignerie, [Mons.], 267 
Chawasha, 137, 201-202*, 207, 211, 212 
attacked by Negro slaves, 201, 202 
disappearance of, 202 
Chearhaw, see Chiaha. 
Chehalis, 415-416*, 418, 422, 424, 440, 
450 
joined by Chinook, 418 
Lower, 415, 416, 439 
Upper, 416, 422, 426 
See also Kwaiailk. 
Chehaw, see Chiaha. 
Chelan, 416* 
Chelamela, 456* 
Chelukimaukes, see Luckiamute. 
Chemegué, Cuajala, see Paiute, Southern, 
Chemehuevi, 357, 381, 482—483*, 496 
Chepalis, see Copalis. 
Chépart, French commandant, 189 
Chepenafa, 456* 
Cheraw, 76-77*, 79, 80, 100, 102, 103 
Catawba joined by, 76 
Cherechos, see Keresan Pueblos. 
Cheroenhaka, see Nottaway. 
Cherokee, 61, 74, 77, 82, 91, 92, 101, 105 
106, 119, 156, 168, 173, 179, 185, 
212, 215-224*, 227, 229, 233, 263, 
292, 299, 309, 319 
allies of British, 222 
became citizens of Oklahoma State, 
223, 299 
effects of Civil War on, 223 
joined by Delaware, 223, 292 
joined by Natchez, 82, 190, 225, 301 
migrations of, 222-223 
relations with Whites, 221-223 
Cherokee alphabet, invented by Sequoia, 
222, 224 
Cherokee Nation, 54, 223, 228, 229, 292, 
303 


690 


Chetco, 456-457*, 483 
removed to reservation, 457 
Che-wae-rae, see Oto. 
Cheyenne, 260, 275, 278-280*, 284, 285, 
292, 295, 296, 299, 370, 372, 385, 
386, 390 
Custer massacre, participated in by, 
280 
migrations of, 279, 285 
placed on reservation, 390 
Northern, 279, 280, 386, 390 
Southern, 279, 280, 299, 385 
Chiaha, 92, 93, 104, 105-107*, 113, 129, 
130, 133, 157, 169, 224 
Chiapanec, 617, 618, 639 
Chibchan tribes, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 
619, 620, 621, 622, 625, 626, 627, 
628, 631, 632, 633, 637, 638, 639, 
640, 641, 642 
Chickahominy, 71 
Chickanee, see Wateree. 
Chickasaw, 93, 107, 154, 156, 168, 176, 
177-180*, 187, 188, 190, 192, 195, 
196, 201, 209, 212, 222, 224 227, 
229, 233, 299, 319 
allies of English, 178, 180, 196 
relations with French, 178 
relations with Spaniards, 178 
Chickasaw Government, merged with 
State of Oklahoma, 179, 299 
Chickasaw language, 159, 195 
Chickasaw Nation, 306, 307 
Chicktaghiks, see Illinois. 
Chicomuceltec, 617 
Chicora, 84, 100 
Chief Joseph, Nez Percé chief, 301, 402 
Chiguas, see Tiwa Pueblos. 
Chilanga, 617, 625 
Chilcotin, 550-551* 
Chilkat, 584 
Chilluckittequaw, 414, 416-417* 
Chilowhist, see Methow. 
Chilucan, possibly Timucuan, 129 
Chilula, 483*, 492 
Chimakum, 414, 417*, 419, 435 
at war with Clallam, 417 
Chimariko, 483*, 495, 497, 507 
Chinantec, 617, 623, 627, 629, 640, 641 
Chinarra, 617, 619 
Chine, 122, 123, 128, 129 
See also Chatot. 
Chine, possibly Chatot chief, 129 
Chinipa, 617 
Chinook, 417—419*, 467 
joined Chehalis, 418 
Chinook, Upper, 475 
See also Wishram. 
Chinook jargon, trade language, 418, 419 
Chipewyan, 551-552*, 603 
expelled Cree from country, 551 
Chippewa, 40, 230, 236, 240, 241, 243, 
244, 246, 247, 248, 250, 251, 256, 
260—-264*, 265, 275, 279, 283, 292, 
298, 390, 544, 551 
migrations of, 263, 292, 298 
myths about, 264 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Chiricahua Apache, 624 
Chirikoff, explorer, 532, 542 
Chiripo, see Cabecar. 
Chiru, 617 
Chirumas, see Yuma. 
Chishyé, see Apache. 
Chiska, see Yuchi. 
Chita, 618 
Chitimacha, 193, 197, 201, 202-204*, 
206, 210 
noted as basket makers, 204 
war with French, 203 
Chiwere group, 258, 266, 270, 287 
Chizo, 617, 619 
Choch-Katit, see Siksika. 
Chocho, 617, 638 
Choco, 618 
See also Popoloca. 
Choctaw, 127, 128, 129, 136, 156, 159, 
176, 177, 180-185*, 187, 188, 191, 
194, 195, 204, 208, 212, 224, 299, 
309 
allied with French, 176, 183, 185, 
189 
became citizens of United States, 
299 
migrations of, 204, 309 
probably absorbed Mobile, 159, 172 
relations with English, 183, 184 
relations with United States Gov- 
ernment, 184, 185 
Tohome, absorbed by, 172 
Choctaw, Yowani, 309 
Choctaw language, 136, 144, 154, 159, 


160, 195, 200 
Choctaw Nation, 92, 175, 184, 194, 204 
Chol, 618 


Cholera, suffered by Indians, 280 
Cholo, 618 
Cholutec, 618 
Chonque, see Mosopelea. 
Chontal, 618 
See also Tequistlatec. 
Choptank, a subdivision of the Nanti- 
coke, 60 
Chopunnish, see Nez Percé. 
Chorti, 618 
Choula, 185, 187 
Chouman, see Shuman. 
“‘Chousa,”’ see Sutaio. 
Chowan, 88 
Chowanoc, 77—78* 
disappearance of, 77 
treaty with English, 77 
“‘Christian Indians,” see Munsee. 
Chuchures, 618 
Chucunaque, 618 
Chuj, 617, 618 
Chuje, see Chuj. 
Chu-mai-a, see Yuki. 
Chumash, 383, 484—-487*, 490 
Chumulu, 618 
Church of England Missions, 573, 607 
Cibao, see Cahibo. 
Cibola, see Zuni. 
Ci-cta’-qwit-me’tinng, see Umpqua. 


INDEX 


Cicujé, see Pecos. 
Ciguayo, see Hubabo. 
Cinaloa, 618 
Cintu-aluka, see Comanche. 
Circee, see Sarcee. 
Ciriés, see Sarcee. 
Ci-sta’-qwit, see Umpqua. 
Ci-sta’-qwit-mé’tunné’, see Kuitsh. 
Civil War, 321 
Clackamas, 419, 457*, 459 
Clackstar, see Clatskanie. 
Clallam, 417, 419-—420* 

at war with Chimakum, 417 
Clamcoets, see Karankawan Tribes. 
Classet, see Makah. 
Clatskanie, 458 
Clatsop, 425, 458* 
Clowwewalla, 458-459* 

apparently extinct, 459 
Club Indians, see Yuma. 
Coahuiltecan Tribes, 308, 309-312*, 321, 

618 

Coahuiltecan Tribes, list of, 309-311* 
Coahuilteco, 635 
Coamo, 611 
Coano, 618, 620 

See also Kohuana. 
Coaque, Karankawan tribe, 320 
Coast Yuki, See Yuki, Coast. 
Coga, 106, 616, 618 
Cochimi, 618, 625, 641 
Cocking, Matthew, 592 
Coco, see Coaque. 
Cocomacaque, 619, 631 
Cocomaricopa, see Maricopa. 
Coconino, see Havasupai. 
Cocopa, 349*, 350, 351, 354, 619 
Cocora, 619 
Cocoyome, 638 
Cocto, see Coto. 
Coeur d’Aléne, see Skitswish. 
Cofitachequi, possibly Kasihta, 111, 165 
Cohpap, see Maricopa. 
Coiba, 619 
Colapissas, see Acolapissa. 
Coligua, possibly a synonym of Koroa, 

187 


cooly. a synonym of Koroa, 
1 
Colorado [State of], 370-372 
Apache, 370 
Arapaho, 370 
Bannock, 370 
Cheyenne, 370 
Comanche, 370 
Jicarilla, 370-372* 
Kiowa, 372 
Kiowa Apache, 372 
Navaho, 372 
Pueblos, 372 
Shoshoni, 372 
Ute, 372 
Colotlan, 619 
Columbia Indians, 420-421*, 429 
Colville, 400, 421-422*, 431, 440 


691 


Comanche, 285, 292, 295, 296, 299-300, 
312-314*, 319, 323, 330, 337, 370, 
372, 385, 386 
attacked Pecos, 337 
became citizens of United States, 300 
horses introduced to Indians by, 314 
placed on reservation, 314 
relations with Whites, 313-314 
Comanito, 619, 642 
Comecamotes, 619, 635 
Comecrudo, 619, 635 
Comeya, see Kamia. 
Comopori, 619, 621 
Comox, 552-553* 
Comstock Lode, effect on Indians, 410 
Concho, 614, 615, 617, 619, 620, 621, 
622, 624, 625, 627, 629, 632, 634, 
636, 638, 641 
Conejo, 619 
Conestoga, 40, 57, 58, 66, 70 
Meherrin adopted by, 62 
See also Susquehanna. 
Confederate Indians, see Iroquois. 
Congaree, 93 
joined Catawba, 93 
Conguaco, 619, 625, 641 
Conieari, 615, 619, 625 
Connecticut [State of], 29-33 
Mahican, 29 
Mohegan, 29-30* 
Niantic, Western, 30—-31* 
Nipmue, 31 
Pequot, 31-33* 
Wappinger, 33 
Conoy, 48, 57—59*, 61, 66, 74 
found by Captain John Smith and 
Maryiand Colonists, 58 
migration of, 58 
Consumption, suffered by Indians, 573 
Cooc, 619, 622 
Cook, Captain [James], 539, 588 
Coosa, 93, 95, 96 
Coosawda, see Koasati. 
Copalis, 422* 
Copper Indians, see Tatsanottine. 
Copper River Indians, see Ahtena. 
Coquille, see Mishikhwutmetunne. 
Lower, see Miluk. 
Upper, see Mishikhwutmetunne. 
Cora, 618, 631, 639, 640, 642 
Cora (1), 620, 622 
Cora (2), 620 
Coranine, see Coree. 
Cordova [Francis Hernandez de], ex- 
plorer, 126 
Coree, 78*, 81, 82, 86 
disappearance of, 78 
Corn eaters, see Arikara. 
Corobici, 620, 622 
Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, 110, 
290, 294, 306, 329, 331, 333, 336, 
339, 343, 345, 347, 348, 352, 362, 
371 
Cosapuya, see Cusabo. 
Cosnino, see Havasupai. 


692 


Costanoan, 487—488* 
Costan6s, see Costanoan. 
Coste, see Koasati. 
Costehe, see Koasati. 
Coto, 620 
Coulapissas, see Acolapissa. 
Coupe-gorges, see Dakota. 
Coushatta, see Koasati. 
Couteaux Jaunes, see Tatsanottine. 
Céw-ang-a-chem, see Serrano. 
Coweta, 134 ftn., 166 
Cowichan, 553- 554%, 585, 591, 600 
Cowichan of Fraser River, see Stalo. 
Cowlitz, 416, 422-423*, 426 
Cowlitz, Upper, 422 
See also Taidnapam. 
Coxe, Daniel, 173, 187, 232 
Coyamit, 619, 620 
Coyotes, see Oto. 
Craven, Governor [Charles], 115 
Cree, 254, 390, 551, 552, 554-556*, 569, 
570, 580, 581, 592, 593, 604° 
Assiniboin allied with, 388, 555 
driven out by Chipewyan, 551 
Etchaottine driven out by, 551, 569 
migrations of, 390 
relations with fur traders, 555, 556 
Sekani raided by, 555, 594, 605 
wars with Dakota, 555 
Creek Confederacy, 104, 105, 106, 107, 
111, 113, 119, 142, 148, 156-157*, 
160, 165, 166, 170, 174, 299, 300, 
301, 307 
incorporated into State of Okla- 
homa, 167, 300 
Creek-American War, 122, 129, 131, 134, 
142, 143, 155, 160, 166, 168° 
Creeks, 93, 96, 104, 105, 107-108*, 110, 
nal 3. 114, 116, 118, 123, 129, 130, 
134, 136, 139, 145, 151, 157, 158, 
165, 166, 167, 169, 170, 179, 213, 
221, 227, 229, 300, 314 
joined by Natchez, 169, 190, 301 
joined by Osochi, 153, 169 
joined by Yamasee, 152, 174 
jou by Yuchi, 104, 118, 140, 152, 


relations with colonists, 166 
See also Alabama, Chiaha, Hitchiti, 
Mikasukee, Muskogee, Oconee, 
Sawokli, Tawasa, and Yuchi. 
Creeks, Lower, 104, 105, 108-111; 113; 
114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 124, 128, 
139, 156, 157, 166, 168, 169, 170 
See also Seminole. 
Creeks, Middle, 157 
Creeks, Upper, 116, 119, 142, 156, 157, 
158, 165, 166, 167, 174, 179, 227 
Croatan Indians, name erroneously 
applied to "Robeson County In- 
dians, 81 
possible indentification with the 
Hatteras, 80 
remnants of Woccon united with, 90 
tribe so-called in North Carolina, 
101 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


(Bull. 145 


Crow, 275, 295, 385, 386, 389, 390-391*, 
556, 573 
Crow River Kutchin, see Vunta-kutchin. 
Cruzados, see Yavapai. 
Cruzate, Spanish officer, 331 
Cuabajdi, see Serrano. 
Cuahcomeca, 620 
Cuba, 610-611 
Bani, 610 
Baracoa, 610 
Barajagua, 610 
Barbacoa, 610 
Bayamo, 610 
Bayaquitiri, 610 
Boyaca, 610 
Camagiiey, 610 
Cayaguayo, 610 
Cubanacan, 610 
Cuciba, 610 
Guaimaro, 610 
Guamahaya, 610 
Guanacahibe, 610 
Guaniguanico, 610 
Hanamana, 610 
Havana, 610 
Jagua, 610 
Macaca, 611 
Macorixe, 611 
Maguano, 611 
Maisi, 611 
Maiyé, 611 
Mangon, 611 
Maniabon, 611 
Marien, 611 
Ornofay, 611 
Sabaneque, 611 
Sagua, 611 
Cubanacan, 610 
Cuchan, see Yuma. 
Cuciba, 610 
Cuercos quemados, 620, 635 
Cuicatec, 620 
Cuitlatec, 620 
Cuming, Sir Alexander, 221 
Cuna, 615, 618, 620, 626, 633, 639 
Cupeno, 488 
Cusabo, 94-96*, 98, 107, 108, 109, 110, 
111 


noted for relations with Whites, 96 
relations with English, 95 
Cushing, Frank Hamilton, 347, 348 

Cushook, see Clowwewalla. 
Custer [George A.], General, 283 
Custer massacre, 280, 283, 384 
Cutganas, see Kohuana. 
Cuts-séh-nem, see Yakima. 
Cut-throats, see Dakota. 
Cuyuteca, 620 

Cwarennoc, see Coree. 


Dacdbimo, see Navaho. 

Da-da’-ze ni’-ka-ci*’/-ga, see Paiute, 
Southern. 

Dakaz, see Takkuth-kutchin. 

Dakkadhé, see Takkuth-kutchin. 


INDEX 


Dakota, 192, 232, 250, 251, 259, 263, 
264, 265, 269, 274, 275, 280-284*, 
285, 286, 290, 295, 385, 386, 387, 
390, 391, 397, 545, 556 
Assiniboin separated from, 545 
Eastern, 283. 
joined by Cheyenne in Custer mas- 
sacre, 280 
Ottawa attacked by, 245 
uprising, 291 
wars with Cree, 555 
Western, 264, 283 
Dak‘-ts!a*m-al-a®, see Klamath. 
Dak‘-tsla*w-an-a’*, see Klamath. 
Dakubetede, 459*, 488 
Dall, William Hi: 532, 540, 573 
Daparabopos, 620, 625 
Darazhazh, see Pawnee. 
d’Artaguiette, Diron, see Artaguiette, 
Diron d’. 
Da’sha-i, see Kadohadacho. 
Datsé-a®, see Comanche. 
Datiimpa’ta, see Kiowa. 
Davaxo, see Navaho. 
Davion, Father, Canadian missionary, 
193 


Dawson, George M., 573, 603 
Deadose, 197, 308, 314, 324 
Atakapa tribe, 314 
De Bry’s map, 135 
De Crenay map, 175, 176, 192 
De-d’d tené, see Mishikhwutmetunne. 
Deguthee Dennee, see Takkuth-kutchin. 
Dekanawida, Iroquois chief, 39 
Delaware, 33, 42, 47, 48-55*, 57, 58, 59, 
60, 74, 91, 227, 228, 230, 235, 
237, 240, 269, 292, 298, 300, 301, 
326 
adoption of Wappinger, 47 
contact with Dutch, 54, 55 
contact with Swedes, 54 


joined Cherokee Nation, 223, 292, 


300 

relations with French, 54 

relations with Spanish, 54 

removal to reservations, 54, 237, 
292 

treaty with, at Greenville, 54, 237 

treaty with William Penn, 55 

use as scouts by Whites, 55 

Delaware, Lord, Governor of Virginia, 

48 


Delaware [State of], 57 
Delaware, 57 
Nanticoke, 57 
del Bosque, Fernando, explorer, 312 
Demers, Father, missionary, 550 
Desaguedero, 620, 628 
De Soto, Hernando, 76, 77, 95, 106, 
LM, Als, 115, 118; 120, 123, 
128, 134, 135, 137, 138, 145, 
151, 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 
165, 172, 176, 178, 180, 183, 
189, 193, 201, 205, 207, 209, 


107, 


316, 318, 325 


124, 
150, 
160, 
187, 
212, 
213, 215, 221, 224, 225, 229, 315, 


693 


Detseka’/yaa, see Arapaho. 

de Vaca, Alvar Nufiez Cabeza, see Nufiez 
Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar. 

De-wi-ka-nhit’, see Chippewa. 

Dickenson, Jonathan, Quaker, 110, 121, 
131, 132 

Dida, 620, 640 

Picevene 353, 488-490*, 494, 498, 620, 


Diggers, see Bannock and Paiute, Southern. 
Dihai-kutchin, 533* 
now extinct, 533 
Dfhit, see Ponca. 
Dilwishne, see Wiyot. 
Dil-zha, see Yavapai. 
Dil- zhay’ s, see Yuma. 
Diné‘, see Navaho. 
Dirid, 618, 620, 626 
Dixon, Captain [George], explorer, 539, 
573, 588 
Djéné, see Navaho. 
Dobbs, Governor, 77 
Doegs, see Nanticoke. 
Dog Eaters, see Arapaho. 
Dog Indians, see Cheyenne. 
Dog People, see Mosopelea. 
Dog-Ribs, see Thlingchadinne. 
Do’gu’at, see Wichita. 
Do’kani, see Wichita. 
Doleguas, 621, 622 
Domingo Augustin, Jesuit missionary, 
110, 111 
Don Juan, Tacatacuru chief, 144 
Domay, Father Anastasius, 318 
Dorasque, 617, 621 
Dorsey, James O., 175, 258 
Douglas, Captain James, explorer, 539, 
542, 573 
Doustioni, member of Natchitoches 
Confederacy, 204 
Drake, Sir Francis, 478 
Drinkers of the Dew, 
Pueblos. 
Druilleyyes, French Missionary, 253 
Dshipowé-haga, see Chippewa. 
Duckworth, Sir Thomas, 548 
Dudu, 621 
Dule, 617, 621 
Duncan, Rev. William, missionary, 543, 
607 
Durieu, Bishop, missionary, 593 
Dutch, contact with Delaware, 54, 55 
discovered Mahican, 41 
encounter with Susquehanna, 57 
guns sold to Indians by, 33, 39 
trade with Honniasont, 55 
war with Indians, (1640-45), 47 
Duwamish, 423* 
Duy, 621 
Dwi-ki-n&2, see Chippewa. 
Dzaitsi’stiis, see Cheyenne. 


see Keresan 


E-ar’-ke, see Hopi. 
Earring People, see Kalispel. 
Eastern Dakota, see Dakota. 


694 


Eastern Niantic, see Niantic. 

Eastern Shawnee, see Shawnee. 
E-che-loot, see Wishram. 

Egija, Captain [Francisco Fernandez de], 


Eden, Governor [Charles], 76 

Edisto, 96 

Edit, 621, 640 

Eells, Myron, 420 

Eixarch, Tomas, 370 

Ekpimi, see Shasta. 

Eliot, John, missionary, 20 

Elk’ba’sumH, see Bellabella. 

Emejes, see Jemez. 

E-nagh-magh, see Tiwa Pueblos. 

England, territory ceded by France to, 
158 


English, 66 
at treaty of Greenville, 54 
encounter with Susquehanna, 57 
massacre by Indians under Ope- 
chancanough, 70, 71 
relations with Apalachee, 104 
relations with Chickasaw, 178, 180, 
196 
relations with Choctaw, 183, 184 
relations with Cusabo, 95 
relations with Sewee, 99 
treaty with Chowanoc, 77 
treaty with Iroquois, 70, 72 
treaty with Tuscarora, 83, 88 
war with Powhatan Indians, 70 
En-na-k’e, see Eskimo. 
En-na-k’ié, see Eskimo. 
Ennas, see Cree. 
Eno, 79*, 80, 83, 84, 96 
joined by Shakori, 84, 99 
joined Catawba, 79, 96, 99 
Entari ronnon, see Cherokee. 
E-nyaé-va Pai, see Yavapai. 
E-pa, see Walapai. 
Epidemics, suffered by Indians, 26, 27, 
28, 91, 92, 137, 151, 276, 277, 280, 
308, 319, 327, 337, 397, 402, 413, 
425, 459, 532, 540, 542, 552, 578, 
591, 592, 602 
Equinipichas, see Acolapissa. 
rawika, see Kadohadacho. 
Erie, 33, 40, 48, 55, 230—231*, 235, 237 
destroyed by Iroquois, 231 
Erie Nation, 300 
Esbataottine, 594, 595 
Escalante, Fray Silvestre Velez de, 374, 
382 
Escoria, 621 
Eshkibod, see Eskimo. 
Eskiaeronnon, see Chippewa. 
Eskimo, 533, 539, 556-559*, 583 
relations with Whites, 568 
Espejo, Antonio de, 325, 333, 336, 339, 
348, 345, 348, 352, 368 
Esselen, tribe extinct, 490* 
Essequeta, see Kiowa Apache. 
Estevanico, Negro guide, 347 
Estrella, 621 
Eta, see Cree. 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


E-tah-leh, see Arapaho. 
E-tans-ke-pa-se-qua, see Assiniboin. 
Etchaottine, 551, 569-570* 
driven out by Cree, 551, 569 
Etechemin, possibly Passamaquoddy, 579 
See also Malecite. 
Etiwaw, see Cusabo. 
Etnémitane, see Umpqua. 
Etocale, see Ocale. 
Etzamish, see Songish. 
Eucheeanna, 117 
Eudeve, 621, 629 
Eufaula, division of the Muskogee, 134, 
152, 157, 166 
f-ukshik-ni mdklaks, see Klamath. 
E-wu-ha’-wu-si, see Northern Shoshoni. 
Eyanini diné, see Hopi. 
Eyeish, 201, 212, 309, 314-315*, 316, 
318, 320 
joined Caddo Tribes, 315 


Fall Indians, see Atsina. 
Fall Indians, see Clowwewalla. 
Fallam and Batts, explorers, 73 
Fallatahs, see Atfalati. 
Farfan de los Godos, Marcos, 366, 368 
Fernandeno, 490*, 491, 507 

practically extinct, 490 
Fernando, Kamia chief, 494 
Finley, James, explorer, 594 
Fire Nation, see Potawatomi. 
Five Nations, see Iroquois. 
Flancs-de-Chien, see Thlingchadinne. 
Flatbows, see Lower Kutenai. 
Flathead Reservation, 391 
Flatheads, see Chinook, Choctaw, Salish, 

Waxhaw. 

Fletcher, Miss Alice, 286, 287 
Florencia, Spanish officer, 128 
Florida [State of], 120-153 

Acuera, 120* 

Aguacaleyquen, 120 

Ais, 121—122* 

Alabama, 122 

Amacano, 122 

Amacapiras, 122 

Apalachee, 122—125* 

Apalachicola, 125 

Calusa, 125-128* 

Caparaz, 128 

Chatot, 128-129* 

Chiaha, 129 

Chiluecan, 129 

Chine, 129 

Creeks, 130 

Fresh Water Indians, 130—-131* 

Guacata, 131* 

Guale, 131 

Hitchiti, 131-132 

Icafui, 1382* 

Jeaga, 132—133* 

Koasati, 133 

Macapiras, or Amacapiras, 133 

Mikasuki, 133-134* 

Mocogo or Mucogo, 134* 

Muklasa, 134 


INDEX 


Florida [State of]—Continued 
Muskogee, 134 
Ocale or Etocale, 134-135* 
Ogita, 135 
Oconee, 135 
Onatheaqua, 135 
Osochi, 135 
Pawokti, 185-136* 
Pensacola, 136-137* 
Pohoy, Pooy or Posoy, 137* 
Potano, 137-138* 
Saturiwa, 138-139* 
Sawokli, 139 
Seminole, 1389-143* 
Surruque, 143* 
Tacatacuru, 144* 
Tawasa, 144-145* 
Tekesta or Tequesta, 145-146* 
Ucita, 146 
Utina, or Timucua, 146—-151* 
Tocobaga, 146*, 150, 151 
Yamasee, 152 
Yuchi, 152 
Yufera, 152 
Yui, 152-153* 
Yustaga, 153* 
Fon du Lac Loucheux, see Tatlitkutchin. 
Fontaine, Huguenot explorer, 73 
Fontaneda, Hernando de_ Escalante, 
12), 125; 127, 131, 132) 135,145 
Fort Indians, see Kutcha-kutchin. 
Foxes, 225, 240, 242, 243, 250-252*, 253, 
254, 256, 257, 264, 265, 269, 270, 
285, 291, 292, 298, 300, 302 
migrations of, 265 
origin of name, 250 
relations with French, 251 
France, territory ceded to England, 158 
Franciscan Friars, 95, 110, 132, 138, 
151, 196, 197, 478 
Franciscan Missions, 352 
Francisco of Chicora, Indian informant, 
84, 99, 100, 108, 115 
Franquelin, Johannes Ludovicus, 265 
Franklin, Sir John, 593 
Hapeety, SUCOR, 550, 578, 590, 594, 596, 


Freckled Panis, see Wichita. 

French, encounter with Susquehanna, 57 
relations with Chickasaw, 178 
relations with Choctaw, 176, 183, 

185, 189 
relations with Delaware, 54 
relations with Foxes, 251 
relations with Natchez, 189, 190, 
204-205 
relations with Quapaw, 214 
relations with Saturiwa, 139 
relations with Tacatacuru, 144 
relations with Taensa, 209 
relations with Tunica, 193, 194 

French and Indian War, 583 

French missionaries, 251 

French Prairie Indians, see Ahantchu- 

yuk. 


695 


French-English Wars, 40, 227 

Fresh Water Indians, 130-131 

Frobisher, [Martin], explorer, 568 

Fuca, Juan de, Greek navigator, 413, 
553, 588, 597, 600 

Fuentes, explorer, 576, 588 

Fur trade, effect on Indians, 583 

relation to Cree, 555, 556 

ee division of the Muskogee, 

1 


Gabrielino, 490-491*, 498, 507 
practically extinct, 491 

Gadsden Purchase, 349, 363, 370 

Gahe’wa, see Kiowa. 

Gaitchim, see Juanefio. 

Gatasq’6, see Wasco. 

Galice Creek Indians, see Taltushtun- 
tude. 

Galisteo, 337, 344 

ea rage de, Spanish officer, 
12 


Galvez, 198 
Ganawese, see Conoy. 
Ganniataratich-rone, see Nanticoke. 
Ga-qua’-ga-o-no, see Erie. 
Garabito, 621, 622 
Garcés, Francisco, missionary, 349, 350, 
351, 354, 356, 357, 363, 366, 368, 
370, 517 
Garcia de San Francisco, Fray, mission- 
ary, 334 
Garcilaso de la Vega, De Soto chroni- 
cler, 154, 155 
Garroteros, see Yuma. 
Gata’ka, see Kiowa Apache. 
Gatsalghi, see Cheyenne. 
Gatschet, Albert S., 160, 175, 194, 196, 
198, 202, 203, 308, 312, 321, 466 
Gattacka, see Kiowa Apache. 
Geghdageghroano, see Illinois. 
Gemes, see Jemez. 
Genigueches, see Serrano. 
Gens de bois, see Tutchone. 
Gens de Bouleaux, see Tennuth-kutchin. 
Gens de la Grande Riviere, see Na- 
kotcho-kutchin. 
Gens de Rats, see Takkuth-kutchin. 
Gens des Foux, see Tutchone. 
Gens des Rats, see Vunta-kutchin. 
Gens des Vaches, see Arapaho. 
Gens du fond du lac, see Tatlit-kutchin. 
Gens du Large, see Natsit-kutchin. 
Gens du Petun, see Tionontati. 
Gens du Serpent, see Shoshoni, Northern. 
Gentlemen Indians, see Waco. 
Georgia [State of], 104-120 
Apalachee, 104 
Apalachicola, 104-105* 
Chatot, 105 
Cherokee, 105 
Chiaha, 105-107* 
Chickasaw, 107 
Creeks, 107-108 
Guale, 108-111* 
Hitchiti, 111* 


696 


Georgia [State of]—Continued 
Kasibta, 111 
Oconee, 112* 
Okmulgee, 112-113* 
Osochi, 113 
Sawokli, 113 
Shawnee, 113 
Tamathli, 113-114* 
Timucua, 114 
Yamasee, 114-1167 
Yuchi, 116-120* 
Ghecham, see Luisefio. 
Ghost Dance religion, cause of Dakota 
uprising, 283, 284, 319 
Gi-aucth-in-in-e-wug, see Hidatsa. 
Gibbs, George, 402, 419, 422, 426, 442, 
458 


Gikidanum, see Serrano. 

Gila’ qtulawas, see Kwalhioqua. 

GiLa/wéwalamt, see Clowwewalla. 

Gila’xicatck, see Watlala. 

Gillamooks, see Tillamook. 

Gina’s, see Kiowa Apache. 

Ginebigénini, see Shoshoni, Northern. 

Gitanemuk, see Serrano. 

Gita’q!émas, see Clackamas. 

Gits’aji, see Kichai. 

Gocoyome, 621 

Goddard, Pliny Earle, 605 

Gohitin, see Yavapai 

Gold, pee of," ‘478, 536, 537, 585, 
2 


Gonana, see Nahane. 
Gorretas, see Manso. 
Gosiute, 372-373, 375 
Gosnold, [Bartholomew], explorer, 26 
Gotane, 621 
Gourgues, [Dominique] de, French com- 
mander, 139, 144 

Grand River, Ute band, 374 
Grant, Col. James, 222 
Grashoffer, Father Juan Bautista, 363 
Grasshopper Indians, see Ute. 
Gravier, J., 186, 195, 200 
Great Osage, see Osage. 
Greek Church, effect on natives, 532 
Green Wood Indians, see Nez Percé. 
Greenville, treaty with Delaware, 54 

treaty with English, 54 
Greenwood, Old, 380 
Gregorief, explorer, 530 
Grigra, adopted by Natchez, 185*, 189 
Gros Ventres, see Atsina, Hidatsa. 
Gros Ventres de la Riviére, see Hidatsa. 
Gros Ventres des Plaines, see Atsina. 
Gros Ventres of the Plains, see Atsina. 
Guacata, 121, 131* 

disappearance of, 131 
Guacaya, see Waccamaw. 
Guaccaiarima, 609* 
Guachichile, 621, 623 
Guaes, see Kansa. 
Guaimaro, 610 
Gualaca, 621 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Guale, 94, 108-111*, 116, 123, 131, 144, 

50, 165 

joined Yamasee, 110, 115 
relations with Spaniards, 165 

Gualiba, see Walapai. 
Guamahaya, 610 
Guamichicorama, 619, 621 
Guanacahibes, 609, 610 
Guanexico, 621, 640 
Guanica, 611 
Guaniguanico, 610 
Guapo, see Wappo. 
Guarco, 621, 622 
Guarionex, 611 
Guasdmas, see Cathlamet. 
Guasapar, 621 
Guasave, 614, 619, 621, 640 
Guasco, 315 
Guatari, see Wateree. 
Guatijigua, 622, 625 
Guatinicamame, 622 
Guatuso, 620, 622, 640 
Guaxiquero, 622, 625 
Guaygata, 611 
Guayma, 622 634 
Guaymi, 621, 622, 628, 631 
Guelasiguicme, 619, 622 
Guerriers de pierre, see Assiniboin. 
Guetare, 619, 621, 622, 630, 639 
Gueza, 102 
Guiaquita, 619, 622 
Guichita, see Wichita. 
Guichyana, see Yuma. 
Guisoletes, 635 
Guithla’kimas, see Clackamas. 
Guithlamethl, see Cathlamet. 
Guixolotes, 622 
Gt’ta’k, see Kiowa Apache. 
Guyandot, see Wyandot. 
Gyai’-ko, see Comanche. 
Gyitkshan, see Kitksan. 


Haaninin, see Atsina. 
Hahatonwan, see Chippewa. 
Hahatonway, see Chippewa. 
Hahderuka, see Crow. 
Hai-ai’-nima, see Sanpoil. 
Haida, 533, 540, 570-573* 
noted for their arts, 573, 607 
Haideroka, see Crow. 
Haf‘luntchi, see Cayuse. 
Hainai, 315 
H4ish, see Eyeish. 
Haiti, "608-610 
Bainoa, 608 
Cahibo or Cibao, 608-609 
Caizcimu, 609 
Guaccaiarima, 609 
Hubabo (or Ciguayo), 609-610 
Maguana, 610 
Marien, 610 
Halchidhoma, 349-350*, 354, 369, 492 
absorbed. by Maricopa, 350 
Hale, Horatio, 426 
Halkéme’lém, see Stalo. 


INDEX 


H4-lum-mi, see Lummi. 
Halyikwamai, 350-351*, 353, 622, 624 
Ha-ma-kaba-mite kwa-dig, see Apache. 
Han, 533*, 608 
See also Atakapa. 
Hanakwiche, see Serrano. 
Hanamana, 610 
Hand Cutters, see Dakota. 
Hanging Ears, see Kalispel. 
Hanis, 459*, 463 
Hanna, Captain, 588 
Hano, member of Tewa Pueblos, 340, 
344, 353 
Hanyuveche, see Serrano. 
Hapeka, see Hopi. 
Harahey, see Pawnee. 
Har-dil-zhays, see Yavapai. 
Hare Indians, see Kawchottine. 
Harney, Colonel, 127. 
Harrington, John P., 493 
Harrison, Gen. W. H., 228, 240 
Hasinai, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 326 
Hasinai Confederacy, 201, 205, 206, 
212, 307, 309, 314, 315-317,* 323 
Hat Creek Indians, see Atsugewi. 
Hathawekela, see Shawnee. 
Hati’hshi’ri’nd, see Winnebago. 
Hatilshé, see Yuma. 
Hatindia8ointen, see Wyandot. 
Hatiwa*ta-runh, see Neutrals. 
Hatteras, 80, 81 
Havana, 610 
Havasupai, 351*, 366 
Hawalapai, see Walapai. 
Hawkins, Benjamin, 114, 132, 169 
Haynokes, see Eno. 
’H’-doum-dei-kin, see Kadohadacho. 
Head deformation, practiced by Indians, 
102, 185 
Hearne, Samuel, explorer, 568 
H@’iltsuq, see Bellabella. 
Heintzelman, Major S. P., 349, 494 
Hencock, Tuscarora chief, 86, 87 
Henley, Thomas A., 517 
Henné’sh, see Choctaw. 
Henry, Alexander, 593 
Hewaktokto, see Hidatsa. 
Hewitt, J. N. B., 605 
Hiawatha, Iroquois chief, 39, 40 
Hiawatha, poem by Longfellow, 264 
Hich’hu, see Hupa. 
Hidatsa, 274, 275-276*, 277, 281, 387, 
390, 391, 573 
citizens of United States, 276 
Higabu, see Kickapoo. 
Higgahaldahu, see Tillamook. 
Hikanagi, see Mahican. 
Hilibi, division of the Muskogee, 157 
Hilton, Captain William, 75 
Himeri, 622 
Hindsso, see Wichita. 
Hine, 622, 641 
Hiokti6’k, see Pecos. 
His-tu-i’-ta-ni-o, see Atsina. 
Hitanwo’lv, see Arapaho. 
Hitisi’na, see Cheyenne. 


697 


Hitchcock, General E. A., 143 
Hitchiti, 104, 106, 111*, 112, 117, 122, 
130, 131-132, 133, 142, 157, 300 
sais of Creek Confederacy, 300, 
1 
migrations of, 131-132 
Hitchiti language, 104, 113, 114, 131, 
144, 154 
He pe people, 131, 132, 133 
ro 
Hitdnéna, see Atsina. 
H’iwana, see Apache. 
H’lilush, see Tututni. 
Hoctatas, see Oto. 
Hodge, F. W., 339 
Hoeras, 622, 625 
Hogipa’goni, see Southern Paiute. 
Hogiopas, see Cocopa. 
Hogologe, see Yuchi. 
Hoh, 417, 424*, 435 
Hohe, see Assiniboin. 
Holt, trader, 530 
Ho’-m42-hi", see Omaha. 
Ho-ni’-i-tani-o, see Pawnee. 
Honniasont, 55*, 74, 231 
destroyed by Susquehanna, 55 
joined Iroquois, 231 
trade with Dutch, 55 
Hook, 103 
Hopi, 340, 344, 346, 348, 351-353* 
famous for Snake Dance, 353 
relations with Spaniards, 353 
Hépitu, see Hopi. 
H6pitu-shfnumu, see Hopi. 
Hopohithli-yahola, Muskogee chief, 168 
Hostaqua, 135, 151 
Hotanka, see Winnebago. 
Hotcangara, see Winnebago. 
Hot!’nestako’, see Sauk. 
Houechas, see Waco. 
Houma, 176, 185-186*, 193, 196, 199, 
200, 204, 207 
joined by Acolapissa, 196, 200 
joined by Bayogoula, 200 
migrations of, 186, 204 
Hounena, see Crow. 
Housatonic, see Stockbridges. 
Houston, Gen. Sam, 223 
How-mox-tox-sow-es, see Mandan. 
Héxstwitan, see Wichita. 
Hua’amiu’u, see Navaho. 
Huanchané, see Waco. 
Huastec, 622 
Huave, 622 
Huaynamota, 620, 622 
Hubabo, 609-610* 
Huchnom, 492*, 527 
Hudson, Henry, discovered Wappinger, 
47 
Hudson’s Bay Company, relations with 
Indians, 537, 542, 546, 550, 551, 
5538, 555, 556, 569, 573, 576, 584, 
585, 591, 596, 597, 600, 604, 605, 
607 
Hue-la-muh, see Stalo. 


698 


Huereo, 611 

Hughchee, see Yuchi. 

Huguenot colony, 95, 109, 138, 153 
destruction of by Spaniards, 95 

Huichol, 621, 6238, 636 

Huite, 623, 629 

Hikwats, see Yuma. 

Humacao, 611 

Hum-a-luh, see Skagit. 

Hum-a-luh, see Stalo. 

Humano, see Shuman. 

Humboldt Bay Indians, see Wiyot 

Hume (1), 617, 623 

Hume (2), 623, 641 

Humptulips, 415, 416, 422, 424* 

Hunt, George, 21, 577 

Hunter, George, map of Cherokee 

country, 97 
Hupa, 4838, 492—493* 
Huron, 33, 40, 43, 44, 48, 54, 238, 235, 
236, 245, 573, 604, 605 

attacked by Iroquois, 235, 245, 605 
joined by Ottawa, 245 
joined by Tionontati, 605 
See also Wyandot. 

Hisky, see Eskimo. 

Hu-ta’-ci, see Lipan. 

Hitafiga, see Kansa. 

Hut-timadi, see Omaha. 

Huxul, see Lipan. 

Hyscani, see Yscani. 


Tagua, 610 
latd-go, see Ute. 
Ibaja, see Guale. 
Iberville, Pierre le Moyne d’, 160, 168, 
171, 172, 175, 186, 187, 189, 191, 
192, 196, 199, 200, 203, 208, 209, 
210, 211, 232, 267, 290 
Ibitoupa, 177, 185, 186-187* 
Ieafui, 132* 
Icaiche, 626 
Icasqui, see Kaskinampo. 
Idaho [State of], 398-412 
Bannock, 398-399* 
Kalispel, 399-400* 
Kutenai, 400 
Nez Percé, 400—403* 
Paiute, Northern, 403 
Paloos, 403 
Salish or Flathead, 403 
Shoshoni, Northern, 403—405* 
Shoshoni, Western, 405—410* 
Skitswish, 411—412* 
Snakes, see Paiute, Northern. 
Spokan, 412 
Tetan, see Ute. 
Igihua’-a, see Apache. 
Iguaja, see Guale. 
Vhl-déné, see Navaho. 
Ika, 623, 640. 
I’-ka-diti’, see Kickapoo. 
Ikanafaskalgi, see Seminole. 
Ikanitksalgi, see Seminole. 
Ik-kil-lin, see Kutcha-kutchin. 
Ila’xluit, see Wishram. 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


(Bull. 145 


Ilga’t, see Chehalis. 
Illinois, 212, 213, 230, 231, 235, 237, 240, 
241-242*, 243, 252, 254, 258, 265, 
269, 292, 297, 300, 301 
destruction of, 243, 249, 253, 256 

Illinois [State of], 240-243 
Chippewa, 240 
Delaware, 240 
Foxes, 240 
Tllinois, 241-242* 
Kickapoo, 242 
Miami, 243 
Ottawa, 243 
Potawatomi, 243 
Sauk, 243 
Shawnee, 243 
Winnebago, 243 
Wyandot, 243 

Ima, see Quapaw. 

Imaha, see Quapaw. 

Immorality, effects on Indians, 573 

I’-na-epé, see Nez Percé. 

Indd4, see Comanche. 

Inde, see Apache. 

Indiana [State of], 236—240 
Chippewa, 236 
Delaware, 237 
Erie, 237 
Illinois, 237 
Iroquois, 237 
Kickapoo, 237 
Mesopelea, 240 
Miami, 237—240* 
Neutrals, 240 
Potawatomi, 240 
Seneca, 240 
Shawnee, 240 
Wyandot, 240 

Ingalik, 533-534* 

Ingraham, explorer, 573 

ng-wé-pi’-ra®-di-vi-he-ma", see Kere- 
san Pueblos. 

Innuin, see Eskimo. 

Innuit, see Eskimo. 

Inocoples, 623, 635 

Interior Salish, see Salish. 

Intibucat, 623, 625 

Intsi Dindjich, see Ahtena. 

Iniina-ina, see Arapaho. 

Inva’vapé, see Yavapai. 

Iowa [State of], 265-269 
Chippewa, 265 
Dakota, 265 
Foxes, 265 
Illinois, 265 
Iowa, 265—268* 
Missouri, 268 
Moingwena, 268 
Omaha, 268 
Oto, 268 
Ottawa, 268 
Peoria, 268 
Ponca, 268 
Potawatomi, 268 
Sauk, 269 
Winnebago, 269 


INDEX 


Iowa, 252, 258, 264, 265*, 269, 270, 


699 


Jacaltec, 618, 623, 628, 634 


285, 287, 288, 291, 292-293, 300| Jackson, Andrew, 133, 142, 166 


migrations of, 267 
Ipapana, 623, 638 
Ipataragiiites, see Shuman. 
Ipoilq, see Sanpoil. 
Iroquois, 33-40*, 42, 43, 44, 47, 54, 56, 
57, 58, 60, 62, 66, 70, 72, 73, 76, 
87, 91, 168, 230, 231, 233, 237, 
240, 242, 252, 298, 300, 544, 545, 
574, 583, 596 
armed by Dutch, 33, 39 
attacked Huron, 235, 245, 605 
attacked Ottawa, 245, 256 
became citizens of United States, 
300 


Jaguallapai, see Walapai. 
Jallicumay, see Halyikwamai. 
Jamaica, 611 
Aguacadiba, 611 
Ameyao, 611 
Anaya, 611 
Guaygata, 611 
Huereo, 611 
Maynoa, 611 
Oristan, 611 
Vaquabo, 611 
Jamajabs, see Mohave. 
Janambre, 623, 632 
Jano, 325, 624 


conquest of Susquehanna by, 57] Jarosoma, see Apache. 


Erie destroyed by, 231 
governmental organization of, 40 
joined by Honniasont, 231 
ee by Tuscarora, 44, 57, 87, 88, 
00 
migrations of, 40 
removal to reservations, 40 
treaty with Catawba, 91 
treaty with English, 70, 72 
Wyandet destroyed by, 236, 250, 
59 

Iroquois Confederacy, 78, 574, 586 

Iroquois Nation, 57 

hrritila, 623, 625 

Isashbahdtsé, see Sarcee. 

Ish-te-pit’-e, see Siksika. 

Isis, 307 

Isle-de-Pierre, see Sinkiuse-Columbia. 

Isleta del Sur, see Pueblos. 

Isonkuafli, see Okanagon. 

I-sdnsh’-pu-she, see Cheyenne. 

Issa, see Catawba. 

Issippo’, see Crow. 

Isti seminole, see Seminole. 

Iswa, see Catawba. 

Ita ha’tski, see Dakota. 

Ita-I[ddi, see Arapaho. 

Italwa tako, see Apalachicola. 

Itasi’na, see Cheyenne. 

I-ta-su-pu-zi, see Cheyenne. 

Itchali, see Kutcha-kutchin. 

Ithalé tiini, see Mishikhwutmetunne. 

It-ka-lya-riiin, see Kutcha-kutchin. 

Itkpe’lit, see Kutcha-kutchin. 

Itku’dlii, see Kutcha-kutchin. 

I tsi si pi da, see Siksika. 

Itza, 623, 626 

Itzuco, 623 

I’-um O’-otam, see Kamia. 

Ivap’i, see Karok. 

Ixcani, see Yscani. 

Ixcatec, 623 

Ixil, 623, 640 

Iyich, see Tyigh. 

Iyiniwok, see Cree. 

Izalco, 623 

Iztepeque, 623 


Jeaga, 121, 132-133* 
Jece, see Ais. 
Jefferson, Thomas, report on Indians, 71 
Jefferys, Thomas, 80 
Jemez, 330-332*, 340, 344 
joined by Pecos, 332, 337 
relations with Spanish, 331 
Jenness, Diamond, 551, 555, 568, 592, 
593, 594, 601 
Jesuits, missions established by, 58, 70, 
110, 236, 605 
Jewett, John, 588 
Jicaque, 624 
Jicarilla, 293, 300, 307, 317, 322, 330, 
332, 370-372* 
relations with Spaniards, 371 
removed to reservation, 371-372 
See also Apache. 
Jocome, 325, 624 
Joliet [Louis], explorer, 224 
Joshua, see Tututni. 
Joso, see Hopi. 
Joutel, Henri, 318 
Jova, 624 
Juaneno, 494*, 498 
Julime, 619, 624 
Jumano, 624, 634 
See also Shuman. 
Jumpers, see Chippewa. 
Jum-pys, see Yavapai. 
Juni, see Zuii. 


Kabo, 624 

KAddiko, see Tonkawan Tribes. 

Kadohadacho, 205, 206, 208, 317 

migrations of, 318-319 

Kadohadache Confederacy, 201, 205 
212, 309, 314, 315, 316, 317-320* 

Kai Pomo, see Kato. 

Kaibab, 383 

Kaigani, see Haida. 

Kaispa, see Dakota. 

Kait-ka, see Calapooya. 

Kaiviat-am, see Serrano. 

Ka-ka-i-thi, see Salish. 

Ka-ko’-is-tsi’-a-ta’-ni-o, see Salish. 

Kak’-wits, see Wailaki. 

Kaladlit, see Eskimo. 

Kalapooian people, 452 


700 


Kalispel, 391, 399-400*, 411, 424 
Lower, 400 
Ka-ld X-la’-tce, see Kadohadacho. 
Kalu-xnddshu, see Kadohadacho. 
Kamaiakan, Yakima chief, 451 
Kamia, 488, 490, 494-495*, 624 
Kamiyahi, see Kamia. 
Kamiyai, see Dieguefio, Kamia. 
Kamii’inu, see Nez Percé. 
Ka’-nan-in, see Arikara. 
Kanawha, see Conoy. 
Ka/neahedwastsik, see Cheyenne. 
Kangitoka, see Crow. 
Hee heey division of the Muskogee, 
15 


Ka’nina, see Havasupai. 

Kaninahoish, see Arapaho. 

Kanit’, see Mandan. 

Kan’ka®, see Ponca. 

Kank.’utla’atlam, see Okanagon. 
Bene 270, 271, 286, 291, 293-294*, 


removed to reservation, 300. 
Kansas, 286, 288 
Kansas [State of], 292-298 

Apache, 292 

Arapaho, 292 

Cherokee, 292 

Cheyenne, 292 

Chippewa, 292 

Comanche, 292 

Delaware, 292 

Foxes, 292 

Illinois, 292 

Iowa, 292-293 

Troquois, 293 

Jicarilla, 293 

Kansa, 293-294* 

Kickapoo, 294 

Kiowa, 294-296* 

Kiowa Apache, 296-297* 

Miami, 297 

Missouri, 297 

Munsee, 297 

Osage, 297 

Oto, 297 

Ottawa, 297 

Pawnee, 297 

Potawatomi, 297-298 

Quapaw, 298 

Sauk, 298 

Seneca, 298 

Shawnee, 298 

Wyandot, 298 
Kanteati, 155 
Kantsi, see Kiowa Apache. 
K’d-patop, see Kiowa Apache. 
Karankawa, 308, 635 
Karankawan Tribes, 308, 309, 320-321* 
Karawala, 630 
Kariko, see Tonkawan Tribes. 
Karok, 495—496* 
Kasahé tint2, see Chickasaw. 
Kasihta, division of Muskogee, 111, 118 
Kaska, 606 
Kaskaias, see Kiowa Apache. 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Kaskaskia, 242, 300 
joined by Michigamea, 212 
Kaskinampo, 158, 212, 224-225* 
disappearance of, 225 
Kasseye’i, see Kadohadacho. 
Katce, see Siksika. 
Kathlamet, see Cathlamet. 
Katlagakya, see Watlala. 
Kato, 496* 
Kattera, see Tutelo. 
Katuku, see Chastacosta. 
Kaw, see Kansa. 
Kawaiisu, 496*, 517 
Kawchottine, 569, 574* 
Kawia, 357 
See also Cahuilla. 
Ka-wi-’na-han, see Siksika. 
Ka’-xi, see Crow. 
Keop-tagui, see Jicarilla. 
K’gu-qwie’tinné, see Siuslaw. 
Kealedji, division of the Muskogee, 157 
Ke-at, see Koso. 
Kebiks, see Montagnais-Naskapi. 
Keew-ahomomy, see Tuscarora. 
Kekchi, 624 
Keller, Padre Ignacio Javier, 363 
Kenake’n, see Okanagon. 
Kenistenoag, see Cree. 
Kentucky [State of], 229-230 
Cherokee, 229 
Chickasaw, 229 
Mosopelea, 230 
Shawnee, 230 
Yuchi, 230 
K’eres, see Keresan Pueblos. 
Keresan Pueblos, 332—334*, 340 
origin myth, 333 
Kerlérec, Chevalier de, 160, 172 
Kern River Indians, see Tibatulabal. 
Ketschetnder, see Ahtena. 

Kettle Falls Indians, see Colville. 
Keyauwee, 66, 76, 77, 79, 80-81*, 96 
discovered by Lawson, 80 

probably joined Catawba, 81, 96 
Khecham, see Luisefio. 
Khoso, see Hopi. 
Kiawa, 96, 107 
Kichai, 300, 306, 321-322* 
joined Wichita, 322 
Ki’-¢i-ku’-¢uc, see Wichita. 
Ki-¢i’-teac, see Kichai. 
Kickapoo, 225, 231, 237, 238, 242, 243, 
250, 252-254*, 256, 269, 294, 301 
Mexican, 253, 301 
Kidder, Dr. A. V., archeologist, 337 
Kighetawkigh Roanu, see Illinois. 
Kihnatsa, see Crow. 
Kij, see Gabrielino. 
Kikima, see Halyikwamai. 
Kikitamkar, see Kitanemuk. 
Kikitanum, see Kitanemuk. 
Kiliwa, 488, 624 
Kiliwi, see Kiliwa, 624 
Kilat, see Tsimshian. 
Kilgat, see Tsimshian. 
Killamook, see Tillamook. 


INDEX 


Killaxthokl, 418 
K‘inahi-pfaiko, see Tonkawan Tribes. 
Kinebikowininiwak, see Northern Sho- 
shoni. 
King Gilbert, Cusabo chief, 96 
King Haigler, Catawba chief, 91, 92 
King John, Cape Fear Indian chief, 75 
King Philip, see Metacomet. 
King Philip’s War (1675-76), 18, 21, 
23, 24, 26, 28, 29, 30 
Kinipissa, see Acolapissa. 
Kino, Father Eusebius, missionary, 350, 
354, 356, 359, 362, 365, 370 
Kintpuash, Modoe chief, 465 
Kinya-inde, see Jicarilla. 
Kiowa, 279, 284, 286, 294-296*, 301, 
314, 322, 325, 330, 334, 339, 372, 
385, 386, 391, 392 
Kiowa Apache, 295, 296-297*, 301, 330, 
334, 372, 387, 593 
accompanied Kiowa, 372 
See also Apache. 
Kirikiris, see Wichita. 
Kirikurus, see Wichita. 
Kiruhikwak, see Yurok. 
Kishakevira, see Hupa. 
Kisinahis, see Kiowa Apache. 
Kispokotha, Shawnee band, 228 
Kitanemuk, 480, 496-497*, 517 
Ki’-tchésh, see Kichai. 
Kitikitish, see Wichita. 
Kitksan, 574-575* 
Kitsei, see Kichai. 
Kiwahka, 624 
Kiwégapaw®, see Kickapoo. 
Kizh, see Gabrielino. 
Kkpayttchare ottiné, see Kawchottine. 
Klamath, 452, 459-461*, 464, 465 
Klatskanai, sce Clatskanie. 
Klickitat, 424-425*, 446 
settled with Yakima, 425 
Klimoffsky, explorer, 530 
Klo-a-tsul-tshik’, see Tutchone. 
Klovén-Kuttchin, see Takkuth-kutchin. 
Knaiakhotana, see Aleut, Tanaina. 
Knife Indians, see Ntlakyapamuk. 
Koasati,. 133, 134, 155, 157-159*, 168, 
187, 204, 224, 225, 301, 322 
joined Seminoles, 133, 158 
migrations of, 204, 301 
Koasati language, 154, 160 
K‘odalpa-Kifiago, see Dakota. 
Kohatk, see Quahatika. 
Kohenins, see Yavapai. 
Kohnana, 624 
Kohoaldje, see Paiute, Southern. 
Kohuana, 350, 351, 353-354* 
merged with Maricopa, 354 
Kokokiwak, see Crow. 
Kokonino, see Havasupai. 
K’ok’-o-ro-t’ii’-yu, see Pecos. 
Kolapissas, see Acolapissa. 
Kolomi, division of the Muskogee, 159 
Kolshina, see Ahtena. 
Koluschan, see Tlingit. 
Kom/’-bo, see Yana. 


701 


Komkomé, see Tonkawan Tribes. 
Kd’m-maidiim, see Achomawi. 
Ko’/mpabi’inta, see Kiowa. 
Komséka-Ki‘fiahyup, see Arapaho. 
Ko-mun’-i-tup’-i-o, see Nez Percé. 
Konkoné, see Tonkawan Tribes. 
Konomihu, 497* 
Kopano, Karankawan tribe, 321 
Koroa, 187—188*, 192, 194, 195, 204, 232 
Kosho, see Hopi. 
Koso, 375, 497*, 517 
K’o-so-o, see Hopi. 
Ko-tih’ -spi- tup’-i-o, see Salish, 
Koyukon, 534-536* 

attack on Russians by, 536 
Koyukukhotana, 529 

See also Koyukon. 
K’qlo-qwec tfiinné, ii Siuslaw. 
Kristinaux, see Cre 
Kroeber, Alfred L., “348, 350, 366, 478 
Ku, 624, 635 
Kdikni, see Molala. 
Kuitare-i, see Pawnee. 
Kuitsh, 461—462* 
Kukalaya, 625 
Kukuth-kutchin, see Takkuth-kutchin. 
Kukwil’, see Mishikhwutmetunne. 
Kul-hil-ats!, see Kadohadacho. 
K‘t-lis’-kite hite’/lim, see Taltushtun- 

tude. 

Kiulua, see Koroa. 
Kin, see Yuma. 
Kinis’tinné, see Alsea. 
Kun na-nar-wesh, see Arapaho. 
Kdunu-hdyanu, see Potawatomi. 
Kus, see Miluk. 
Kusan Tribes, 452 
Kidspélu, see Kutenai. 
Kiutaki, see Chippewa. 
Kutcha-kutchin, 536-537* 
Kutchin, 575 


Kutchin, Yukon Flats, see Kutcha- 
kutchin. 

Kutchin tribes, 533, 536, 537, 538, 539, 
543, 585, 602 


noted for social organization, 537 
Kutenai, 391*, 392-398, 398, 400, 575 
Lower, 392 
Upper, 393 
Ku-i’sha, see Muskogee. 
Kuvahaivima, see Serrano. 
Ku-we-vé-ka pai-ya, see Yavapai. 
Kwaiailk, 426* 
Kwakiutl, 545, 548, 575-577*, 587, 593 
Kwalhioqua, 426*, 458 
Kwalhioqua, Athapascan, 413 
Kwe-nét-che-chat, see Makah. 
Kwé’trla, see Tsimshian. 
Kwillu’ chini, see Cathlamet. 
Kwitevdn*, see Yuma. 
Kwoshonipu, see Chimariko. 
Kwowahtewug, see Mandan. 
Kwii'da, see Kiowa. 
Kwii-teh- ni, see Kwaiailk. 
Kyaukw, see Tillamook. 
Kyu’-kitte hitclim, see Takelma, 


702 


La Flesche, Dr. Francis, 272, 287 

La Harpe, Bernard de, 185, 186, 193, 
196, 198, 199, 202, 206, 207, 304, 
306, 318, 319 

La Pérouse, explorer, 542, 573 

La Plais, see Comanche. 

La Purificacion Mission de la Tama, 1138 

La Purfsima de Zuni, see Zufi. 

La Salle [Sieur de], murder of, 316, 317, 318 

La Salle, Nicholas, 118, 186, 188, 189, 
192, 195, 207, 208, 209, 210, 214, 
seat 279, 288, 296, 315, 316, 320, 
321 

Lacandon, 625, 626 

Lagoons, see Tolowa. 

Lagunero, 614, 616, 620, 622, 623, 625, 

627, 629, 630, 640, 641 

Lake Indians, see Senijextee. 

Lakmiut, see Luckiamute. 

Lakota, see Dakota. 

Lakus, 625, 635 

Lakweip, 606 

La-la-cas, see Modoc. 

Laleshiknom, see Kato. 

Lameco, see Chiaha. 

Lamhatty, Tawasa Indian informer, 145 

Lane, Joseph, 442, 472 

Lanos, see Manso. 

Lapiene’s House Indians, see Takkuth- 
kutchin. 

Lari, 625 

La’-ri’hta, see Comanche. 

Lar-ti-e-lo, see Spokan. 

Lassik, 498*, 507, 515 

Lastéchkin, explorer, 530 

Latgawa, 462*, 469 

LAati—u, see Molala. 

Laudonniére, René, French writer, 120, 
135 

Lawson, John, explorer, 66, 72, 73, 74, 
78, 79, 80, 83, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90, 
93, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102 

execution of, 86 

Laymon, 618, 625 

Leapers, see Chippewa. 

Lécxé’cuks, see Spokan. 

Lederer, John, explorer, 64, 65, 72, 76, 
79, 84, 91, 101, 102, 118 

Lemhi Reservation, 399, 404 

Le Moyne, Jacques, 135, 143 

Lenca, 617, 619, 622, 624, 625, 630, 634 

Lenni Lenape, see Delaware. 

Leon, Ponce de, explorer, 126, 127, 131, 
150, 312, 320 

Le Page du Pratz, Antoine S., 187, 188, 
191, 192, 195, 199, 207, 210, 214 

Leroux, Joseph, 361, 357, 370 

Le Sueur [Pierre Charles], 264, 288 

Lewis, Meriwether, and Clark, Wm., 
394, 400, 402, 404, 405, 412, 413, 
414, 418, 422, 425, 428, 433, 434, 
436, 442, 444, 447, 449, 450, 451, 
455, 457, 458, 459, 467, 471, 472, 
476 

Lewis, Prof. T. M. N., 117 

Lhtaten, see Sekani. 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


{Bull. 145 


Lihit’, see Ponca. 
Lillooet, 577—578*, 593 

Lower, 577, 578 

Upper, 578 
Lintcanre, see Thlingchadinne. 
Lipan, 296, 301, 307, 322-323*, 330, 334 

See also Apache. 
Liquor, effects on Indians, 573 
Little Crow, Dakota chie f, 283 
Little Osage, see Osage. 
Little Taensa, see Avoyel. 
Little Turtle, "Miami chief, 240 
Lku’ngeEn, see Songish, 
Loaiza, 611 
Lohim, 462* 

disappearance of, 462 
Long Tom Creek Indians, see Chelamela, 
Longfellow, H. W., poem by, 264 
Long-haired Indians, see Crow. 
Lopas, see Tolowa. 
Loreto, 625 
Los Angeles, see Pecos. 
Los Mecos, see Comanche. 
Loucheux, see Nakotcho-kutchin. 
Louchieux Proper, see Takkuth-kutchin, 
Louisiana [State of], 195-212 

Acolapissa, 195-196* 

Adai, 196-197* 

Alabama, 197 

Apalachee, 197 

Atakapa, 197—199* 

Avoyel, 199-200* 

Bayogoula, 200—201* 

Biloxi, 201 

Caddo, 201 

Chatot, 201 

Chawasha, 201-202* 

Chitimacha, 202-—204* 

Choctaw, 204 

Doustioni, 204 

Houma, 204 

Koasati, 204 

Koroa, 204 

Mugulasha, 204 

Muskogee, 204 

Natchez, 204-205 

Natchitoches Confederacy, 205—207* 

Ofo, 207 

Okelousa, 207* 

Opelousa, 207-208* 

Ouachita, 208 

Pascagoula, 208 

Quapaw, 208 

Quinipissa, 208-209* 

Souchitioni, see Natchez Confed+ 

eracy. 

Taensa, 209-210* 

Tangipahoa, 210-211* 

Tawasa, 211 

Washa, 211—212* 

Yatasi, 212 
Loup, see Delaware. 
Loups, see Mahican. 
Lower Rogue River Indians, see Tututni, 
Lowland People, see Kutcha-kutchin. 
Ltsxe’als, see Nisqually. 


INDEX 


Lucayans, 611 

Luckamiut, 456 

Luckiamute, 463* 

Luiseno, 498-499* 

L&k‘-a-tatt, see Klickitat. 

Likatimii’x, see Ntlakyapamuk. 

Lummi, 427*, 437. 

Luna, Tristan de, 136, 159, 165, 168, 
172, 195 

Lutmawi, see Madoc. 

Lutuami, see Madoc. 


Maastoetsjkwe, see Hopi. 
Mabila, see Mobile. 
Mabodamaca, 611 
Ma-buc-sho-roch-pan-ga, see Shoshoni, 
Northern. 
Macaca, 611 
Macapiras, 122, 183, 152 
Machapunga, 62, 73, 74, 78, 80, 81%, 
86, 88 
Secotan adopted by, 81 
Machias Tribe, see Passamaquoddy. 
MacIntosh, William, death of, 166 
Mackenzie, Alexander, explorer, 397, 
536, 548, 550, 552, 555, 569, 574, 
584, 592, 594, 596, 605 
Mackenzie Flats Kutchin, see Nkotcho- 
kutchin. 
Mackenzie’s River Louchioux, 
Nakotcho-kutchin. 
Mackenzie, Roderic, 552 
Macorixe, 611 
Macoyahui, 625 
Macquaejeet, see Beothuk. 
Mactcifgeha wai®, see Ute. 
Maguana, 610* 
Maguano, 611 
Mahan, see Comanche. 
Mahana, see Comanche. 
Mahane, see Klickitat. 
Maharineck, see Meherrin. 
Mahican, 18, 19, 28, 29, 30, 41*, 42, 44, 
47, 48, 54, 58, 60, 254, 293 
discovered by Dutch, 41 
war with Mohawk, 41-42 
See also Stockbridges. 
Mahocks, see Manahoac. 
Mahpfiyato, see Arapaho, 
Mahwee, see Mauwehu. 
Maiaca, 131 
Maiconeras, 625 
Maj{-déc-kiz-ne, see Jemez. 
Maidu, 499-501* 
Maine [State of], 13-17 
Abnaki, 13-15* 
Malecite, 15 
Passamaquoddy, 15—-16* 
Pennacook, 16-17 
Maisi, 611 
Maiyé, 611 
Makadewana-ssidok, see Siksika. 
Makah, 427-428*, 433, 587, 588 
Makajftserk, see Klamath. 
Ma4klaks, see Klamath. 


see 


703 


Maldonado [Francisco], commander of 
De Soto’s fleet, 136 
Malecite, 13, 15, 16, 17, 578-579*, 580, 
591 
Malinchenos, 625, 635 
Malisit, see Malecite. 
Mam (1), 625, 628 
Mam (2), 625 
Mamakaté’wana-si’ta’-ak, see Siksika. 
Mamite, 619, 625 
Ma’-mo a®-ya-di, see Alabama. 
Ma’-mo ha®-ya, see Alabama, 
Manahoac, 61-62*, 63, 64, 70, 73, 74 
disappearance of, 62 
discovered by John Smith, 62 
Manchae, 209 
Manche, 626 
Mandan, 274, 276-278*, 281, 284, 387, 
391, 393 
citizens of United States, 277 
noted for light color, 278 
Mandinga, 626 
Man-eaters, see Tonkawan Tribes. 
Mangoac, see Nottaway. 
Mangon, 611 
Mangue, 618, 620, 626, 628 
Maniabon, 611 
Manso, 325, 334* 
Ma4*térd»’, see Cherokee. 
Map, location of North American tribes, 
11 


Manrhoat, see Kiowa. 
Marangakh, see Serrano, 
Mar-an-sho-bish-ko, see Dakota. 
Marayam, see Serrano. 
Marchand, explorer, 573 
Mariames, see Muruam. 
Maribichicoa-Guatajigiala, 626 
Maricopa, 349, 350, 354-356*, 365, 369 
absorbed Halchidhoma, 350 
absorbed Kohuana, 354 
no treaty ever made with, 356 
Marien, 610*, 611 
Mariguanes, 626, 635 
Marintalap, see Serrano. 
Mariposan, see Yokuts. 
Marques, Pedro Menendez, missionary, 
146 
Marquette, Jacques (Pére), missionary, 
214, 224, 242, 265, 270 
Marquette’s map, 187, 193, 272, 287 
Martyr, Peter, historian, 84, 94, 609, 
610 
Maryland [State of] and District of 
Columbia, 57-61 
Conoy, 57-59* 
Delaware, 59 
Nanticoke, 59-61* 
Powhatan, 61 
Shawnee, 61 
Susquehanna, 61 
Maryland Colonists, Conoy found by, 58 
Nanticoke found by, 60 
Marys River Indians, see Chepenafa. 
Mascouten, 254 
Ma’-seip’-kin, see Kadohadacho. 


704 


Mashukhara, see Shasta. 
Maskegon, 556 
Massachuset, 19-20*, 23, 24, 27 
cae with Captain John Smith, 
0 


Massachusetts [State of], 19-27 
Mahican, 19 
Massachuset, 19-20* 
Nauset, 21—22* 
Nipmuc, 22-23* 
Pennacook, 23 
Pocomtuc, 23-24* 
Wampanoag, 24—27* 
Massasoit, Wampanoag chief, 26, 27 
Massasoits, see Wampanoag. 
Mastute’ -kwe, see Hopi. 
Matagalpa, 615, 617, 626, 627, 639 
Matdvéké- Paya, see ‘Walapai. 
Mat-che-naw-to-waig, see Iroquois. 
Mat-hat-e-vdtch, see Chemehuevi. 
Matlame, 626 
Matlatzinea, 614, 626, 629, 632 
Matokatagi, see Oto. 
Mattapony, 71 
Mattapony, Upper, 71 
Mattole, 481, 501-502* 
Matu-és’-wi skitchi-ni-k, see Micmac. 
Mauilla, see Mobile. 
Mauvais Monde des Pieds-Noirs, see 
Sarcee. 
Mauvila, see Mobile. 
Mauwehu, Pequot Indian, 47 
Mavila, see Mobile. 
Mawatani, see Mandan. 
Maximilian, Alexander P., 278 
Maya, 623, 626 
Mayaguex, 611 
Mayajuaca, 131 
Maynoa, 611 
Mayo, 615, 616, 625, 626 
Mazahua, 627, 630 
Mazatec, 622, 627, 639 
McDougall, James, explorer, 594 
Mee > Alexander, Scotch trader, 
16 


McLeod, John M., chief trader, 584 

Mednofski, see Ahtena. 

Meguenodon, see Tututni. 

Meherrin, 62—63*, 65, 73, 82 
Conestoga adopted by, 62 

Melchora, 627 

Méli’-léma, see Tenino. 

Menendez [Pedro], 131, 151 

Mengwe, see Nottaway. 

Menominee, 248, 244, 254*, 256 

Mepontsky, 62 

Merriam, C. Hart, 492 

Merrimac, see Pennacook. 

Meshingomesia’s band, see Miami. 
citizens of Indiana, 239 

Méshkwa kihitigi, see Foxes. 

Mesquite, 619, 627 

Metacom, see Metacomet. 

Metacomet, Wampanoag chief, 26 

Methodist Missions, 573 

Methow, 428* 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Metitlanec, 627 

Métutahanke, see Mandan. 

Meviras, 625, 627 

Mexicano, see Nahautl. 

Mexico and Central America, classifica- 
tion of the languages, 611-613 

tribes listed, 613-642 
Meyemma, see Chimariko. 

Méziéres, Athanase de, 197, 306 

Meztitlanec, 628 

Miami, 54, 230, 231, 237-240*, 241, 242, 
243, 249, 255, 297, 300, 301 

citizens of Oklahoma, 239, 297 
Mical, 428* 

Michigamea, division of Illinois, 212 

united with Kaskaskia, 212 

See also Illinois. 

Michigan, [State of], 243-250 

Chippewa, 243 

Foxes, 243 

Kickapoo, 243 

Menominee, 243 

Miami, 243 

Neutrals, 243 

Noquet, 243-—244* 

Ottawa, 244-246* 

Potawatomi, 247—250* 

Sauk, 250 

Wyandot, 250 
Michilimackinac, 235 
Mi-Clauq’-tcu-wiin’-ti, see Klickitat. 
Micmac, 138, 548, 579-581* 

Beothuk driven north by, 548 
Mik4-atf, see Shoshoni, Northern. 
Mikadeshitchisi, see Nez Percé. 
Mikasuki Cin 107, 119, 129, 130, 133- 

134 
Miko Lusa’ Black Chief), Chakchiuma 
chief, 176 
Mikonopi, Oconee chief, 135 
Mi‘kyashé, see Shoshoni, Northern. 
Millbank Sound Indians, see Bellabella. 
Miluk, 459, 463* 
Mimbrefio Apache, 624 
Mingwe, see Iroquois. 
Minitari, see Hidatsa. 
Minnesota [State of], 260-265 

Arapaho, 260 

Cheyenne, 260 

Chippewa, or Ojibwa, 260-264* 

Dakota, 264 

Foxes, 264 

Towa, 264 

Missouri, 264 

Omaha, 264 

Oto, 264 

Ottawa, 265 

Ponea, 265 

Sauk, 265 

Winnebago, 265 

Wyandot, 265 
Minnetarees of the Plains, see Atsina. 
Minnetarees of the Prairies, see Atsina. 
Minnishtpsko, see Dakota. 

Minqua, see Susquehanna. 
Miopacoas, 625, 627 


INDEX 


Miruelo [Diego], explorer, 126 
Mishikhwutmetunne, 463-464* 
Miskigtila, see Pascagoula. 
Mississippi [State of], 174-195 
Acolapissa, 174 
Biloxi, 174-176* 
Capinans, 176 
Chakchiuma, 176-177* 
Chickasaw, 177-180* 
Choctaw, 180-185* 
Choula, 185 
Grigra, 185* 
Houma, 185-186* 
Ibitoupa, 186-187* 
Koasati, 187 
Koroa, 187-188* 
Moctobi, 188 
Natchez, 188-190* 
Ofo or Ofogoula, 190 
Okelousa, 190 
Pascagoula, 190-191* 
Pensacola, 191 
Quapaw, 192 
Taposa, 192* 
Tiou, 192-193* 
Tunica, 193-194* 
Yazoo, 194-195* 
Missouri [State of], 269-273 
Caddo, 269 
Dakota, 269 
Delaware, 269 
Foxes, 269 
Illinois, 269 
Towa, 269 
Kickapoo, 269 
Missouri, 269-271* 
Omaha, 271 
Osage, 271-273* 
Oto, 273 
Sauk, 273 
Shawnee, 273 
Missouri, 252, 255, 258, 264, 266, 267, 
268, 269-271*, 286, 287, 288, 
297, 301 
migrations of, 270 
See also Iowa, 255. 
Missouri River Sauk, see Sauk. 
Mitsitd, see Witchita. 
Midxsén, see Tonkawan Tribes. 
Miwok, 502—507* 
Coast, 502, 507 
Lake, 502, 507 
Plains, 507 
Sierra, 507 
Mixe, 627, 632 
Mixtec, 627 
Mkatewetitéta, see Siksika. 
Moache, Ute band, 374 
Moapan, see Mopan. 
Moassones, see Abnaki. 
Méatokni, see Modoc. 
Mobile Indians, 136, 
171, 172, 180 


705 


Mobile language, 159 
Mocama, see Timucua, 
Mochomes, see Delaware. 
Mococo, 134* 

relations with Spaniards, 134 
Mocorito, 627 
Moctobi, 175, 188, 191 
Modoe, 452, 461, 464-466*, 507 

relations with Whites, 465 

removed to Reservations, 465 
Modoe War, 465 
Mohave, 350, 354, 356-357*, 507 
Mohawk, 24, 32, 40, 41 

war with Mahican, 41-42 
Mohegan, 238, 28, 29-30*, 31, 32, 41, 42 
Mohineyam, see Serrano. 
Moh-tau-hai’-ta-ni-o, see Ute. 
Méhtawas, see Kansa. 
Moingwena, 242, 265, 268 
Moki, see Hopi. 
Molala, 452, 455, 466* 
Monacan, 61, 62, 63-64*, 72, 73, 74 
Monacan Confederacy, 72 
Monachi, see Paiute, Northern. 
Monasiccapano, see Saponi. 
Monasukapanough, see Saponi. 
Moneton, 61, 74* 

disappearance of, 74 

discovered by Thomas Batts, 74 
Mo-no’-ni-o, see Mandan. 
Mono-Paviotso, see Paiute, Northern. 
Monozi, see Paiute, Northern. 
Monqui, 627, 640 
Monroe, Eugene, surveyor, 381 
Monsoni, 556 
Montagnais, 581, 583 

See also Chipewyan. 
Montagnais-Naskapi, 581—-583* 
Montana [State of], 387-398 

Arapaho, 387 

Arikara, 387 

Assiniboin, 387-388* 

Atsina, 389-390* 

Bannock, 390 

Cheyenne, 390 

Chippewa, 390 

Cree, 390 

Crow, 390-391* 

Dakota, 391 

Hidatsa, 391 

Kalispel, 391 

Kiowa, 392 

Kutenai, 392-393* 

Mandan, 393 

Nez Percé, 393* 

Piegan, 393 

Salish, 393-395* 

Sematuse, 395* 

Shoshoni, 395 

Siksika, 395-398* 

Spokan, 398 

Tunahe (Tuna’xe), 398 


154, 159-160*,| Montauk, 42-43*, 44 


joined Brotherton Indians, 43 


probably absorbed by Choctaw,| Montigny, Dumont de, missionary, 192, 


159, 172 


194, 201, 209, 210 


706 


Mooachaht, see Nootka. 

Moore, Col. James, 87, 114, 123, 124, 
151, 221 

Moosehead Lake Indians, see Penobscot. 

Mopan, 626, 627 

Moratok, 82* 

Moravian Indians, 47, 54 

Moravians, missionaries, 54, 568 

Morgan, Lewis H., 40 

Morice, Rev. A. G., 550, 594, 604 

Mormon missionaries, 92 

Morris, Robert, 87 

Morse, Jedediah, 191, 194, 308, 475 

Moscoso, successor to De Soto, 205, 211, 


1 
Moses-Columbia band, see Sinkiuse- 
Columbia. 
Moshome, see Navaho. 
Mosnala, 619, 627 
Mosopelea, 190, 213, 225, 230, 231-232*, 
240 


See also Ofo. 
Mosquito Indians, 615, 624, 625, 626, 
627-628, 636, 639 

Mosquito-Sumo, 615, 624, 625, 635, 639 

Motozintlec, 628 

Motttatak, see Oto. 

Mouilla, missionary, 151 

Mountain Comanche, see Apache. 

Mountain Indians, see Tsethaottine, 

Yutchone. 

Mountaineers, see Chipewyan. 

Move, 622, 628 

Muckleshoot, 428—-429* 

Mucogo, see Mocogo. 

Mugulasha, 192, 200, 204, 208 
destroyed by Bayogouia, 200, 208 
possibly identical with Quinipissa, 

208 
fuite, 622, 628 

Mukkudda Ozitunnug, see Siksika. 

Muklasa, 134, 157, 160*, 301 
disappearance of, 160 
migration of, 160 

Muklasa language, 154 

Multnomah, 466—467* 

Mian-an’-né-qu’ ttinn’, see Klickitat. 

Munceys, 54 

Munsee, 42, 49, 54, 55, 255, 257, 292, 

293, 297, 301 

Muoi, 622, 628 

Murire, 622, 628 

Muruam, 326 

Muskogee, 104, 105, 108, 111, 130, 133, 134, 

139, 142, 155, 157, 159, 160—168*, 
169, 170, 204, 225, 301, 314, 323 
disappearance of, 204 
immigration of, 184, 142, 204 
joined Alabama, 204 
Muskogee language, 106, 111, 114, 132, 
134, 145, 160, 168, 169 

Muskrats, see Malecite. 

Muspa, see Calusa. 

Musutepes, 628 

Miatsfaind-tanfu, see Kiowa Apache. 

Mutsun, see Costanoan. 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


(Bull. 146 


Muxtsuhintan, see Apache. 


Nabedache, member of Hasinai Con- 
federacy, 316, 323 
Nabesna, 537*, 698 
Nabiltse, see Hupa. 
Nabuggindebaig, see Choctaw. 
Nacachau, member of Hasinai Con- 
federacy, 323 
Nacanish, member of MHasinai 
federacy, 316, 323 
Nachittoos, see Natchitoches. 
Nachtichoukas, see Natchitoches. 
Nacitos, see Natchitoches. 
Naco, see Chameleon. 
Nacogdoche, member of Hasinai Con- 
federacy, 323 
Nactythos, see Natchitoches. 
Nadaco, member of Hasinai Confed- 
eracy, 323 
Nadchito, see Natchitoches. 
Nadfisha-déna, see Kiowa Apache. 
Nadouessioux, see Dakota, Iowa. 
Nadowa, see Iroquois, Wyandot. 
Nagaieff, explorer, 530 
Nagrandan, 626, 628 
Nahane, 583-585*, 601, 602 
Nahankhotane, 459 
Nahaunee, see Tutchone. 
Nahuatl, 614, 616, 617, 628, 631, 638 
Nahuatlato, 628, 629 
Nahyssan, 64* 
joined Sanoni and Tutelo, 64 
Nai-té’-zi, see Zuni. 
Na-izhi’n, see Lipan. 
Naked Indians, see Miami. 
Naketosh, see Natchitoches. 
Nakota, see Dakota. 
Nakotcho-kutchin, 585*, 603 
Na-Kotchp6-tschig-Kouttchin, see 
Kutcha-kutehin. 
Naks’-4t, see Mohave. 
Na’‘lani, see Comanche. 
Na’la’/ni, see Kiowa. 
Namidish, member of Hasinai Confed- 
eracy, 323 
Nanaimo, 585* 
Nanatsoho, member of Kadohadacho 
Confederacy, 323 
Naniaba, 160, 172 
Na/nita, see Comanche. 
Nanoniks-karé’n{ki, see Cheyenne. 
Nansemond, 71 
Nanticoke, 42, 47, 48, 57, 58, 59-61*, 74 
found by Maryland Colonists, 60 
migration of, 60 
Napgitache, see Natchitoches. 
Napissa, 195, 208 
Napochi, 165, 168-169*, 195, 208 
Naquitoches, sce Natchitoches. 
Nar-a-tah, see Comanche. 
Narraganset, 19, 23, 24, 27*, 29, 31, 32, 
43 


joined in King Philip’s War, 28 
Narsh-tiz-a, see Zuii. 


Con- 


INDEX 


Narvaez Expedition, 123, 124, 134, 136, 
151, 152 

Nar-wah-ro, see Delaware. 

Nascapec, see Montagnais-Naskapi. 

Nashi’tosh, see Natchitoches. 

Nashteise, see Pima. 

Nashtezhé, see Zuni. 

Nasitti, see Natchitoches. 

Naskapi, 581, 583 

Nasoni, member of Hasinai Confeder- 

acy, 316, 318, 323 
Nasoni, Upper, member of Kadohada- 
cho Confederacy, 323 

Nass River Indians, see Niska. 

Nasuia kwe, see Ute. 

Nata, 628 

Na’tia, see Comanche. 

Natao, see Adai. 

Natche’-Kutchin, see Natsit-kutchin. 

Natchez, 82, 97, 101, 168, 169, 185, 188- 

190*, 192, 198, 201, 203, 204-205, 
206, 207, 209, 210, 225, 301 

adopted Grigra, 185, 189 

joined Cherokee, 82, 190, 225, 301 

joined Creeks, 169, 190, 301 

relations with French, 189, 190, 
204-205, 206, 207 

uprising, 176, 178, 187, 190, 192, 
194, 195, 201, 206, 232 

pees, 196, 204, 206, 317, 318, 
20 

joined Acclapissa, 206 

massacred by Acolapissa, 206 

Natchitoches Confederacy, 201, 204, 

205-207*, 212, 309, 315, 316 

Na-tcté tanné, see Takelma. 

Nathehwy-within-yoowue, see Cree. 

Natinnoh-hoi, see Hupa. 

Natio Luporum, see Abnaki. 

Nation de la Folle Avoine, see Menom- 

inee. 

Nation of the Willows, see Havasupai. 

Natni, see Dakota. 

Natnihina, see Dakota. 

Na’-to-wo-na, see Dakota. 

Natsdgana, see Abnaki. 

Natsit-kutchin, 538* 

Natsytos. see Natchitoches. 

Nattsae-Kouttchin, see Takkuth-ku- 

tchin. 

Nauset, 19, 21-22*, 24,26, 27 
Christianized by missionaries, 21 
friendship with Pilgrims, 21 

Navaho, 327, 328, 331, 332, 334-336*, 

348, 357, 372, 373 
blankets, 335, 336 
wars with Whites, 335 

Navajo, see Navaho. 

Navéne, see Lipan. 

Nayarit, see Cora (1). 

Nayariti, see Cora (1). 

Nda kun-dadéhe, see Karankawan tribes. 

Ndaton8atendi, see Potawatomi. 

Nde, see Apache. 

Né-a-ya-og, see Chippewa. 


707 


Nebagindibe, see Salish. 
Nebome, 628, 631 
Nebraska [State of], 285-291 
Arapaho, 285 
Arikara, 285 
Cheyenne, 285 
Comanche, 285 
Dakota, 285 
Foxes, 285 
Towa, 285 
Kansas, 286 
Kiowa, 286 
Missouri, 286 
Omaha, 286-287* 
Oto, 287-289* 
Pawnee, 289-290* 
Ponca, 291* 
Sauk, 291 
Winnebago, 291 
Nechaui, member of Hasinai Confed- 
eracy, 323 
Nechegansett, see Pennacook. 
Neches, member of Hasinai 
eracy, 323 
Needham, James, 90 
Ne-e-no-il-no, see Montagnais-Naskapi. 
Ne-ga-teé, see Chippewa. 
Negro slaves, attacked Chawasha, 201 
Nehiyaw, see Cree. 
Nehiyawok, see Cree. 
Neketemeuk, 429* 
status uncertain, 429 
Ne’me‘ né, see Comanche. 
Némeréyka, see Tonkawan Tribes. 
Nerankamigdok, see Abnaki. 
Nerodchikof, Mikhail, explorer, 532 
Nesilextci’n, see Sanpoil. 
Netela, see Juaneno. 
Netsepoye, see Siksika. 
Neuse, see Neusiok. 
Neusiok, 82* 
Neutral Nation, 33, 48, 232, 240, 243, 
256 
alliance with Wenrohronon, 48 
Neutrals, 438-44*, 48, 232, 235, 240, 248, 
586 
destruction of, 44, 48 
Nevada [State of], 375-384 
Koso, 375 
Paiute, Northern, 875-381* 
Paiute, Southern, 381-383* 
Panamint, 383 
Pueblo, 383 
Shoshoni, 383 
Ute, 383 
Washo, 383-384* 
New Hampshire [State of], 17-18 
Abnaki, 17 
Pennacook, 17-18* 
New Jersey [State of], 48-55 
Delaware, 48—55* 
New Mexico [State of], 327-348 
Apache, 327-—330* 
Comanche, 330 
Jemez, 330-332* 
Jicarilla, 332 


Confed- 


708 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145 


New Mexico [State of}—Continued Nktusem, see Dakota. 
Keresan Pueblos, 332-334* Noam-kekhl, see Yuki. 
Kiowa, 334 Noche, see Yokuts. 
Kiowa Apache, 334 Nokonmi, see Pomo. 
Lipan, 334 Nombre de Dios de Amacarisse, mission, 
Manso, 334* 116, 129 
Navaho, Navajo, 334-336* Nongatl, 481, 498, 507* 
Pecos, 336-337* No-ochi, see Ute. 
Piro Pueblos, 337—339* Nooksack, 427, 430*, 437 
Pueblo Indians, 339-340* Nooksak, see Nooksack. 
Shuman, 340 Nootka, 433, 545, 575, 587-588* 
Tewa Pueblos, 340-344* noted as whale hunters, 588 
Tiwa Pueblos, 344-346* Nootsak, see Nooksack. 
Ute, 346 Noquet, 243-244*, 256 
Zuni, 346—348* Norridgewock, destruction of, 15 
New River Indians, see Kamia. Nortefios, see Piro Pueblos. 
New River Shasta, see Shasta. North Carolina [State of], 74-90 
New York (State of], 33-48 Bear River Indians, 74* 
Delaware, 33 Cape Fear Indians, 75* 
Erie, 33 Catawba, 76 
Iroquois, 33-41* Cheraw, 76-77* 
Mahican, 41—42* Cherokee, 77 
Mohegan, 42 Chowanoc, 77—78* 
Montauk, 42—43* Coree, 78* 
Neutrals, 438-44* Eno, 79* 
Saponi, 44 Hatteras, 80* 
Tuscarora, 44 Keyauwee, 80—81* 
Tutelo, 44 Machapunga, 81* 
Wappinger, 44-48* Meherrin, 82 
Wenrohronon, 48* Moratok, 82* 
Newport, Capt. [Christopher], explorer, 63 Natchez, 82 
Neyetse-kutchi, see Natsit-kutchin. Neusiok, 82* 
Nez Percé, 265, 301, 393, 400-403*, Occaneechi, 83 
413, 429, 433, 455, 467 Pamlico, 83* 
removed to Reservation, 402 Saponi, 83 
See also Iowa, Oregon. Sara, 84 
Nez Percé War, 402, 413 Shakori, 83-84* 
Nhikana, see Mahican. Sissipahaw, 84—-85* 
Niantic, Eastern, 19, 24, 27, 28-29%, Sugeree, 85 
30, 31 Tuscarora, 85—88* 
part in Pequot War, 31 Tutelo, 88 
Western, 19, 24, 27, 30-31*, 32 Waccamaw, 88 
Ni&/rhari’s-kirikiwa’ahiski, see Arap- Wateree, 88 
aho. Waxhaw, 88 
Nicarao, 629 Weapemeoc, 88-89* 
Ni’chihiné’/na, see Kiowa. Woccon, 89-90* 
Nicholas, see Orontony. Yadkin, 90* 
Niciatl, see Seechelt. Yeopim, 90 
Ni’ckite hitclam, see Dakubetede. North Dakota [State of], 273-278 
Nicolenio, 490, 491, 507* Arapaho, 273 
Nicoya, 629, 630 Arikara, 273-275* 
Ni’ekeni’, see Bear River Indians. Assiniboin, 275 
Niere’rikwats-kini’ki, see Cheyenne. Cheyenne, 275 
Ni-he-ta-te-tup’i-o, see Kalispel. Chippewa, 275 
Niménim, see Comanche. Dakota, 275 
Nimipu, see Nez Percé. Hidatsa, 275-276* 
Nio, 623, 629 Mandan, 276—278* 
Nipegon, see Winnebago. Northern Arapaho, see Arapaho. 
Nipmuc, 22—23*, 29, 31 Northern Cheyenne, see Cheyenne. 
Niquisan, see Nicarao. Northern Paiute, see Paiute. 
Ni’ris-hiri’s-ki/riki, see Kadohadacho. | Northern Shoshoni, see Shoshoni. 
Niska, 538, 586-587*, 606 Northwest Fur Company, 555, 584, 591, 
Nisqually, 429-430* 600, 605 
Nittachi, see Missouri. Né-si, see Yana. 
Niza, Fray Marcos de, 347 Nota-4, see Ute. 


Nko’atamux, see Ntlakyapamuk. Notch, see Ute. 


INDEX 


Notchitoches, see Natchitoches. 
Nottaway, 62, 65* 
discovered by Virginia Colonists, 65 
See also Eskimo, 556. 
Nottoway, see Nottaway. 
Nouga, see Kawchottine. 
N6-zi, see Yana. 
N’poch-le, see Sanpoil. 
Nsekau’s, see Clackamas. 
.n.selixtci’n, see Sanpoil. 
Nsietshawas, see Tillamook. 
Ns tiwat, see Clackamas. 
Ntlakyapamuk, 430, 432, 577, 588- 
591*, 601 
absorbed Stuwihamuk, 601 
Nuestra Sefiora de Guadalupe de los 
Mansos, mission, 334 
Nuestra Sefora de Guadalupe de Zuiii, 
see Zuni. 
Nuestra Sefiora de la Candelaria de 
la Tama, mission, 113 
Nuestra Senora de la Luz, mission, 199 
Nuestra Sefiora de los Angeles de 
Porcitincula, see Pecos. 
Nuestra Senora de los Dolores, mis- 
sion, 315 
Nuestra Senora del Pilar de los Adaes, 
military post, 197 
Nuh-lum-mi, see Lummi. 
Nuktusem, see Dakota. 
Niima, see Paiute, Southern. 
Numakaki, see Mandan. 
Num-ee-muss, see Hupa. 
Nufiez Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar, 198, 
312, 320, 321, 325, 326 
Nu-sklaim, see Clallam. 
Ni-s6-lupsh, see Cowlitz, 
Nutaa, see Paiute, Northern. 
Nwi’-ka, see Chippewa, 260. 
Nyavapai, see Yavapai, 367. 


Obome, 619, 629 

Obwahnug, see Dakota. 

Ocale, 134—135* 
disappearance of, 135 

Occaneechi, 65—66*, 73, 74, 79, 80, 81, 83 
discovered by Lederer, 65 
united with Saponi and Tutelo, 66 

Ochan, see Yaochane. 

Ocheese, 117 

Ochesee, see Muskogee. 

Ocheti shakowin, see Dakota. 

Ochie‘tari-ronnon, see Cherokee. 

Ochoes, 625, 629 

Ogita, see Pohoy. 

Ocklawaha, see Seminole. 

Oconee, 104, 112*, 123, 130, 135, 142 
migrations of, 112, 135 

Oconi, see Oconee. 

Ocoroni, 623, 629 

Octoctatas, see Oto. 

Ocuiltec, 626, 629 

Ocute, see Hitchiti. 

O-dug-am-eeg, see Foxes. 

QO-e’-tun’-i-o, see Crow. 


709 


Ofo, 74, 188, 190, 194, 195, 207, 213, 
225, 231, 232 
united with Tunica. 
See also Mosopelea. 
Ofogoula, see Ofo. 
Ogden, Peter Skene, 380 
Oglethorpe, Governor [James Edward], 
118 


Ogoize, see Bannock, 

Ohio [State of], 230-236 
Chippewa, 230 
Delaware, 230 
Erie, 230—231* 
Honniasont, 231 
Illinois, 231 
Iroquois, 231 
Kickapoo, 231 
Miami, 231 
Mosopelea, 231—232* 
Neutrals, 232 
Ofo, 232 
Ottawa, 233 
Potawatomi, 233 
Seneca, 233 
Shawnee, 233 
Wyandot, 233-236* 

Ojibwa, see Chippewa. 

Ojitlan, 617, 629 

Okanagon, 400, 430-433*, 440, 441, 591 

Okchai, division of the Muskogee, 

169, 170 

Oke-choy-atte, see Alabama. 

Okelousa, 190, 202, 207* 
disappearance of, 207 

Okena.qai’n, see Okanagon. 


Kwaiailk. | Oklahoma [State of], 299-307 


Alabama, 299 
Apache, 299 
Apalachee, 299 
Arapaho, 299 
Biloxi, 299 
Caddo, 299 
Cherokee, 299 
Cheyenne, 299 
Chickasaw, 299 
Choctaw, 299 
Comanche, 299-300 
Creeks, 300 
Delaware, 300 
Foxes, 300 
Hitchiti, 300 
Illinois, 300 
Iowa, 300 
Troquois, 300 
Jicarilla, 300 
Kansa, 300 
Kichai, 300 
Kickapoo, 301 
Kiowa, and Kiowa Apache, 301 
Koasati, 301 
Lipan, 301 
Miami, 301 
Mikasuki, 301 
Missouri, 301 
Modoe, 301 


710 


Oklahoma [State of}—Continued 
Muklasa, 301 
Munsee, 301 
Muskogee, 301 
Natchez, 301 
Nez Percé, 301 
Okmulgee, 301 
Osage, 302 
Oto, 302 
Ottawa, 302 
Pawnee, 302 
Peoria, 302 
Piankashaw, 302 
Ponca, 302 
Potawatomi, 302 
Quapaw, 302 
Sauk, 302 
Seminole, 302 
Seneca, 302 
Shawnee, 302-303 
Tawakoni, 303* 
Tawehash, 303-304* 
Tonkawa, 304 
Tuskegee, 304 
Waco, 304-305* 
Wea, 305 
Wichita, 305-306* 
Wyandot, 307 
Yscani, 307* 
Yuchi, 307 
Okmulgee, 104, 107, 112-113*, 157, 169, 
301 
Creek tribe, 169, 301 
Okwanuchu, 497, 507* 
Olancho, 629 
Olive, 629 
Olmec, 629 
OClobayaguame, 619, 629 
Olojasme, 619, 629 
Olomega, see Nahuatlato. 
Oluta, 629 
Omaha, 213, 259, 264, 265, 268, 271, 
284, 285, 286-287, 291, 293 
citizens of United States, 286 
Omanominee, see Menominee. 
Onagungees, see Abnaki. 
Ofate, Juan de, Governor, 325, 329, 
333, 336, 339, 348, 349, 350, 351, 
352, 354, 356, 357, 368, 369 
Onatheaqua, 135 
Ondatawawat, see Ottawa. 
Oneida, 40, 57, 252, 256, 257 
Tuscarora adopted by, 87 
See Iroquois. 
Ongniaahra, 44 
Ofigwano2siofini’, see Iroquois. 
Oni’ha°, see Omaha. 
Onnogonges, see Abnaki. 
Onondaga, 40 
O-no’-ni-o, see Arikara. 
Ontponea, 62 
Ontwagana, see Shawnee. 
O-0’-ho-mo-i’-o, see Dakota. 
Oohp, see Navaho, Walapai. 
Oop, see Apache, Navaho. 
Op, see Apache. 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Opata, 325, 621, 624, 629-630*, 633 

Opatoro, 625, 630 

Cpcehepancuar Powhatan chief, 70, 
1 


massacre of English by, 70, 71 
Opelousa, 197, 202, 207—-208* 
disappearance of, 208 

O’pimmitish Ininiwuc, see Cree. 

Opos(i)me, see Obome, 619, 629 

Oregon [State of], 451-478 
Ahantchuyuk, 452* 
Alsea, 452—453* 
Atfalati, 453-454* 
Bannock, 454 
Calapooya, 454* 
Cayuse, 454-455* 
Chastacosta, 455-456* 
Chelamela, 456* 
Chepenafa, 456* 
Chetco, 456-457* 
Clackamas, 457* 
Clatskanie, 458* 
Clatsop, 458* 
Clowwewalla, 458-459* 
Dakubetede, 459* 
Hanis, 459* 
Klamath, 459-461* 
Kuitsh, 461-462* 
Latgawa, 462* 
Lohim, 462* 
Luckiamute, Lakmiut, 463* 
Miluk, 463* 
Mishikhwutmetunne, 463-464* 
Modoc, 464—-466* 
Molala, 466* 
Multnomah, 466—467* 
Nez Percé, 467* 
Paiute, Northern, 467 
Santiam, 467—468* 
Shasta, 468 
Siletz, 468* 
Siuslaw, 468-469* 
Skilloot, 469 
Snake, 469 
Takelma, 469-470* 
Taltushtuntude, 470* 
Tenino, 469-471* 
Tillamook, 471—472* 
Tututni, 472—-473* 
Tyigh, 473-474* 
Umatilla, 474* 
Umpqua, 474-475* 
Wallawalla, 475 
Walpapi, 475 
Wasco, 475* 
Watlala, 476* 
Yahuskin, 476 
Yamel, 476-477* 
Yaquina, 477-478* 
Yoncalla, 478* 

Oristan, 611 

Orleans Indians, see Karok. 

Ornofay, 611 

Orontony, Wyandot chief, 235 

Orosi, 630 

Orotifia, 618, 630 


INDEX 


Ortiz, Juan, 134 
Orunges, see Mahican. 
Osa, 630 
Osage, 213, 214, 270, 271-273*, 286, 291, 
293, 294, 297, 302, 318, 319 
citizens of Oklahoma, 272 
Great, 272 
Little, 271, 272 
Osay, see Hopi. 
Osceola, Seminole chief, 142 
Oshahak, see Dakota. 
Oshawanoag, see Shawnee. 
Osochi, Ce 107, 113, 114, 135, 158, 157, 
164 


division of Lower Creeks, 113, 135 
settled among Creeks, 153, 169 
Ossachile, see Timucua. 
Ossipe, see Mosopelea. 
Ostiagahoroones, see Chippewa. 
Ota’s-ita’niuw’, see Kadohadacho. 
Otaydchgo, see Nanticoke. 
Otcrnike, see Okanagon. 
OtcEena.qai’n, see Okanagon. 
Ot’el’nna, see Eskimo. 
Otermin, Governor, 324, 331, 339, 346 
O-til’-tin, see Kutcha-kutchin. 
Oto, 252, 256, 258, 264, 266, 267, 268 
270, 273, 287-289*, 297, 301, 302 
migrations of, 267, 270, 287, 302 
See also Towa. 
Otomi, 618, 620, 624, 627, 630, 634, 639 
Ottawa, 233, 235, 240, 243, 244-246*, 
247, 248, 256, 259, 263, 265, 268, 
297, 298, 302, 544, 545, 591 
attacked by Dakota, 245 
attacked by Iroquois, 245, 256 
joined Hurons, 245 
Ouacha, see Washa. 
Ouachita, 206, 208 
member of Natchitoches Confed- 
eracy, 208 
Ouade, see Guale. 
Ouadé, Guale chief, 109 
Oudataouatouat, see Tilinois, Ottawa. 
Ouesperie, see Mosopelea. 
Ouispe, see Mosopelea. 
Outitchakoik, see Kickapoo. 
Owaragees, see Pennacook. 
Owenagunges, see Abnaki. 
Owens Valley Paiute, see Paiute. 
Owhillapsh, see Kwalhioqua. 
Oyadagshroenes, see Catawba. 
Oyata’ge‘ronéi, see Cherokee. 
Ozette, 428, 433* 
Ozinies, 60 


Paanese, see Saponi. 

Pabierni’n, see Keresan Pueblos. 
Pacaca, 622, 630 

Pacaha, 213 

Pacer band of Apache, see Kiowa Apache. 
Pachera, 630, 636 

PaA¢i2 wasdbé, see Wichita. 

Padana, see Pawnee. 

Padani, see Arikara. 


711 


Padilla, Juan de, missionary, 306, 352 
Padouca, see Comanche. 
Paego, see Pecos. 
Paequiu, see Pecos. 
Paequiuala, see Pecos. 
Pagiinivo, see Cheyenne. 
Pa’gonotch, see Paiute, Southern. 
Padgowitch, see Navaho. 
Pahkanapil, see Tubatulabal. 
Pah-kee, see Siksika. 
Pahodja, see Iowa. 
Pah-rii-s4-pah, see Paiute, Southern. 
Paifan am{m, see Alsea. 
Painya, see Pima. 
Paipai, see Akwa’ala. 
Paiute, 357, 410, 482 
Northern, 375-381*, 383, 384, 403, 
410, 452, 467, 469, 475, 476, 507 
Owens Valley, 517 
Southern, 373, 381—383* 
Pakana, 170, 204, 210, 215 
division of the Muskogee, 170, 323 
Pa ka’/-san-tse, see Nez Percé. 
Pa‘ kiut‘léma, see Yakima. 
Palachicola, see Apalachicola. 
Palagewan Band, see Tubatulabal. 
Pallotepellows, see Palouse. 
Paloos, 403 
Palouse, 433-434*, 448, 451 
Pambizimina, see Dakota. 
Pame, 624, 630 
Pamlico, 74, 81, 83*, 86, 88 
destroyed by Tuscarora, 83 
Pamunkey, 70, 71 
Panai’ti, see Bannock. 
Panamaka, 680, 635 
Panamint, see Koso; Paiute, Northern. 
Panana, see Pawnee. 
Paneassa, see Wichita. 
Panguayes, 630, 635 
Pani, see Arikara. 
Panis noirs, see Wichita. 
Panis piqués, see Wichita. 
Pas falaya, see Choctaw. 
Pantasma, 630 
Panumits, see Serrano. 
Pdnyi Wacéwe, see Wichita. 
Pa O-bkde’-ea, sce Salish. 
Paogas, 625, 630 
Paoneneheo, see Pawnee, 289 
Paouichtigouin, see Chippewa, 260 
Papabuco, 630 
Papago, 357—360*, 364, 630 
absorbed Sobaipuri, 365 
Papantla, 631 
Paparos, 631 
Papayeca, 628, 631 
Papikaha, see Quapaw. 
Papitsinima, see Dakota. 
Papshpfin‘léma, see Kalispel. 
Papspé’lu, see Sinkiuse-Columbia. 
Papudo, 631 
P’a-qu-lih, see Pecos. 
Parachukla, see Apalachicola. 
Pardo, Juan, 76, 84, 91, 101, 106, 118, 
158, 165, 221, 224 


712 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Pareja, Francisco de, missionary, 139, | Pensacola, 136-137*, 159, 191 
151 


Par-is-ca-oh-pan-ga, see Crow. 
Pariza, 622 
Pascagoula, 137, 175, 176, 188, 190- 
191*, 208, 323-324 
disappearance of, 208 
migrations, 191 
Pashéhan, see Iowa. 
Pasitas, 631, 635 
Pasquotank, 89 
Passaconaway, Pennacook sachem, 20 
Passamaquoddy, 15*, 16, 17, 578, 579, 
580, 591 
Patarabueyes, see Shuman. 
Patica, 631 
Patiri, 308, 324 
Patshenins, see Occaneechi. 
Patwin, 507—509* 
Paviotso, see Paiute, Northern. 
Pawnee, 288, 289-290*, 297, 302, 321, 
385, 387 
citizens of United States, 290 
scouts furnished by, 290 
Skidi, 273, 274, o78, 285 
Pawokti, joined Alabama, 135*, 154, 170 
See also Alabama. 
Pdxuddo 4méti, see Walapai. 
Paya, 624, 631 
Pdyi®, see Pawnee. 
Payupki people, 353 
Péahko, see Pecos. 
Peakini, see Pecos. 
Peaux-de-Lievres, see Kawchottine. 
Pecos, 330, 332, 336-337*, 344 
attacked by Comanche, 337 
joined Jemez, 332, 337 
Pedee, 75, 97*, 101, 103 
joined Catawba, 97 
Pee Dee, 80 
Peel River Kutchin, see Tatlit-kutchin. 
Pe ga’/-zan-de, see Nez Percé. 
Peki’neni, see Potawatomi. 
Pend d’Oreilles, see Kalispel. 
Pénicaut, M., 175, 191, 196 
Penn, William, council with Delaware, 
54 


treaty signed with Delaware, 55 

sac 13, 15, 16, 17-18*, 19, 20, 23, 
5 

union with Abnaki in Canada, 18 
Pennsylvania [State of], 55-57 

Delaware, 55 

Erie, 55 

Honniasont, 55-56* 

Troquois, 56 

Saluda, 56 

Saponi, 56 

Shawnee, 56 

Susquehanna, 56—-57* 

Tuscarora, 57 

Tutelo, 57 

Wenrohronon, 57 
Penobscot, 13, 15, 16*, 17, 579, 580 
Penomefo, 622, 631 


disappearance of, 136 
Pentagouet, see Penobscot. 
Peoria, 242, 265, 268, 300, 302 
See also Illinois. 
Pequawket, defeat of, 15 
Pequot, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31-33*, 43 
massacre by Whites, 32 
Pequot War, 31, 32, 33 
Perez, Juan, ’ Spanish explorer, 573, 588 
Pericu, 631 
Perquiman, 89 
Perrier, Governor, 201 
Perrin du Lac, F. M., 285 
Perrine, botanist, 127 
Pestilence, 20, 21, 22, 28, 43, 138, 139, 
150, 151, 214, 322, 332 
Petitot, Emile, 551, 569 
Petroff, Ivan, 530, 540, 548, 573 
Petsikla, see Karok. 
Pex’-gé, see Jicarilla. 
Peyote Cult, 319 
Pezhi’-wokeyotila, see Shoshoni, North- 
ern. 
Philip’s Indians, see Wampanoag. 
Piankashaw, 54, 237, 239, 242. 597, 300, 
302 
See also Miami. 
Piato, 631 
Pichardo, José Antonio, 205 
Pi-ci’-kse-bi-tup’i-o, see 
Northern. 
Picks, see Wichita. 
Piegan, 393 
Pierced Noses, see Iowa, Nez Percé. 
Pi’-ke-e-wai-i-ne, see Jicarilla. 
Pilgrims, 21, 26 
treaty with Wampanoag, 26 
Pilthlako, division of the Creeks, 170 
Pima, 356, 357, 359, 360-363,* 364, 
631, 633 
Pima Alto, 631 
Pima Bajo, 619, 628, 631, 640, 641 
Piman tribes, 325, 347, 637 
Pinaleiio Apache, 365 
Pineifu, see Chepenafa. 
Pintos, 632, 635 
Pipatsje, see Maricopa. 
Pipil, 614, 628, 629, 631-632, 634, 641 
Piqua, band of Shawnee, 227, 228 
Pirinda, see Matlatzinca. 
Piro, 334, 344 
Piro Pueblos, 337-—339*, 340 
Piscataway, see Conoy. 
Pishakulk, see Dakota. 
Pishenoa, ‘possibly Bayogoula, 200 
Pisone, 623, 632 
Pisquow, see Wenatchee. 
Pispis, 625, 632, 635 
Pit River Indians, see Achomawi. 
Pi-ta’-da, see Pawnee. 
Pitanisha, see Tiibatulabal. 
Pitanta, see Serrano. 
Pitas, 632, 635 
Pitchindvo, see Wichita. 
Pkiwi-léni, see Miami. 


Shoshoni, 


INDEX 


Plafkni, see Klamath. 
Plaquemine, 203 
Plats-Cétes-de-Chien, 
dinne. 
Playsanos, see Gabrielino. 
Pleasant ens chief of Creek Nation, 
11 
Plymouth Company, 14 
Péanin, see Apache. 
Pocahontas, marriage to John Rolfe, 70 
Powhatan’s daughter, 70, 71 
Pochutla, 632 
Pocomtuc, 19, 23-24* 
Pocora, 632 
Pocosi, 632 
Po’-ge-hdo-ke, see Nez Percé. 
Pohoy, 138, 185, 137*, 146, 151 
Pointed Hearts, see Skitswish. 
Point-no-Point Treaty, 417 
Pokomam, 614, 616, 623, 624, 632, 633 
Pokonchi, 624, 632, 640 
Polacme, 619, 632 
Polu’ksalgi, see Biloxi. 
Pomo, 490, 509-512* 
Pomouik, see Pamlico. 
Ponca, 213, 214, 265, 268, 271, 284, 286, 
291*, 293, 302, 327 
Pond, Peter, trader, 605 
P’é6nin, see Apache. 
Pontiac, Ottawa chief, 242, 246 
Po’-o-mas, see Siksika. | 
Pooy, see Pohoy. 
Popoloca, 617, 632, 633 
(of Oaxaca), 632 
(of Puebla), 632 
(of Veracruz), 632 
Popoluca, see Conguaco. 
Porcupine River Indians, see Takkuth- 
kutchin. 
Port Townsend Indians, see Chimakum. 
Porter, Robert T., 214 
Portlock, Captain, explorer, 539, 588 
Posalme, 619, 632 
Posoy, see Pohoy. 
Potano, 1387-138*, 150 
disappearance of, 138 
relations with Spaniards, 138 
war with Utina, 138 
Potawatomi, 233, 235, 238, 240, 242, 
248, 244, 246, 247-250*, 254, 256, 
263, 265, 268, 292, 297-298, 302 
muse ations of, 248-249, 253, 297- 
Prairie, 292, 297, 298 
Potawatomi of the Woods, 297, 298, 302 
Poteskeet, 89 
Potlapiqua, 633 
Potomac, 71 
Potosino, 633 
Poualak, see Dakota. 
Pouanak, see Dakota. 
Powell, John Wesley, 197 
Powhatan, death of, 70 
Powhatan Indians, 48, 57, 61, 62, 64, 
66-71*, 78, 88 
mixture with Negroes, 71 


see Thlingcha- 


713 


Powhatan Indians—Continued 
war with English settlers, 70 
See also Wahunsonacock. 
Prairie Apache, see Kiowa Apache. 
Prairie Potawatomi, see Potawatomi. 
Prickled Panis, see Wichita. 
Prinzo, 633, 640 
Protestant Missions, 413 
Pshwanwapam, 428, 434* 
Puants, see Winnebago. 
Pudding River Indians, 
tchuyuk. 
Pueblo of Isleta, mission, 325 
Pueblo Rebellion, 333, 339, 348, 346, 
348, 353 
eae an 324, 335, 339-340*, 339, 


classification of, 339-340 
noted for housing, 340 
noted for Snake Dance, 340 
Puerto Rico, 611 
Agueynaba, 611 
Arecibo, 611 
Aymamon, 611 
Bayamo, 611 
Coamo, 611 
Guanica, 611 
Guarionex, 611 
Humacao, 611 
Loaiza, 611 
Mabodamaca, 611 
Mayaguex, 611 
Urayoan, 611 
Utuado, 611 
Yagueca, 611 
Yauco, 611 
Puk-tis, see Omaha. 
Pun-nush, see Bannock. 
Puntlatsh, 591* 
Puritans, 20 
Pushmataha, Choctaw chief, 168, 184 
Puyallup, 422, 429, 434* 
PxAnai, see Modoc. 
Pyramid Lake Indians, 381 


see Ahan- 


Q’ma/shpil, see Skitswish. 
Qtlumi, see Lummi. 
Quahatika, 363-364* 
cattle introduced among Pima by, 
364 
Quaitso, see Queets. 
Quakers, see Oto. 
Quallyamish, see Nisqually. 
Quapaw, 192, 193, 208, 212, 213—-215*, 
232, 271, 286, 291, 292, 293, 298, 
302, 319, 324 
migrations, 214, 319 
now citizens of Oklahoma, 214 
relations with French, 214 
Quarrelers, see Takkuth-kutchin. 
Quasmigdo, see Bidai. 
Quata, 626, 633 
Quatokeronon, see Sauk. 
Quazula, see Ute. 
Queets, 484-435* 
Quélancouchis, see Karankawan Tribes, 


714 


Quelene, 617 
He Oe Kamia. 

uepo, 
Querechos, see Apache. 
Quicama, see Halyikwamai. 
Cannea see Kichai. 

uiche, 633, 640 
Quichoid, 623, 625, 632, 633 
Quichuan, see Kiowa. 
Quidehais, see Kichai. 
Quieunontati, see Tionontati. 
Quigaltanqui, Natchez chief, 189 
Quigyuma, see Halyikwamai. 
Quileute, 417, 424, 435* 
eee 415, 484, 435-436* 

uinicuanes, 6338, 635 
Quinipissa, 168, 200, 204, 208-209,* 210 
Quirasquiris, see Wichita. 
Quivira, see Wichita. 
Quoddy, see Passamaquoddy. 
Quokim, see Kohuana. 
Qwit’lh-hwai-pim, see Klickitat. 


Rabbitskins, see Kawchotiine. 
Rahowacah, see Monacan. 
Rainsford, Giles, Church of England 
missionary, 77 
Raldmare, see Tarahumare, 636 
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 80, 82 
Raleigh Colony, 80, 81, 83, 89 
Rama, 633, 640 
Rama-Corobici, 638, 639, 641 
Ramon, Don Diego, missionary, 317 
Ranjel, De Soto chronicler, 115, 183 
Rapid Indians, see Atsina. 
Rappahannock, 71 
Rasles [Sebastian], missionary, 15 
Rat Indians, see Takkuth-kutchin. 
Rat People, see Vunta-kutchin. 
Rat River Indians, see Takkuth-kutchin. 
Raudauqua-quank, see Bear River In- 
dians. 
Ray, Verne F., 419 
Reatkin, see Yadkin. 
Red-knife Indians, see Tatsanottine. 
Red Shoes, Choctaw chief, 183 
Redwood Indians, see Whilkut. 
Redwoods, see Huchnom. 
Ree, see Arikara. 
Reggio, French commander, 179 
Renni Renape, see Delaware. 
Rhode Island |State of], 27-29 
Narraganset, 27—28* 
Niantic, Eastern, 28-29* 
Nipmuce, 29 
Pequot, 29 
Wampanoag, 29 
Ribault, Jean, 95, 188, 144, 151 
Richardson, John, 540 
Rickohockans, see Yuchi. 
Riggs, Rev. A. L., missionary, 283 
Rights, Dr. Douglas L., 90, 100 
Rfhit, see Ponca. 
Ritwan, 521 
River Indians, see Mahican, Monhegan. 
Roanoke tribe, 80, 81 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Robber Indians, see Bannock. 

Robeson County Indians, 81 

Rocky Mountain Indians, see Sekani. 

Rogue River, Indians, see Takelma, 

Tututni. 

Rolfe, John, marriage to Pocahontas, 70 

Roman Catholic Missions, 413, 588, 593 

Romans, Bernard, 121, 127, 146 

Ross, Bernard, 604 

Rouillet, Régis de, 160, 172 

Round town people, see Yuchi. 

Rsdrsavina, see Sobaipuri. 

Russell, Frank, 380 

Russian American Company, 542 

Russians, attacked by Koyukon, 536 
relations with Eskimo, 568 

Ruttenber, Edward M., 31 


S4-4k1, see Yaquina. 

Sa-dptin, see Nez Percé. 

Sabaneque, 611 

Sacagawea, Shoshoni Indian guide, 404, 

405 

Sachdagugh-roonaw, see Powhatan. 

Sa-chinco, see Stalo. 

Sacrifice, human, 209, 210 

Sddalsémte-k‘fago, see Kiowa Apache. 

Sagittaria variabilis, 466 

Sagua, 611 

Sdhagi, see Dakota. 

Saha’ntla, see Siksika. 

Sahehwamish, 436-437* 

Saia, see Nongatl. 

Saidoka, see Modoc. 

Saie’kuiin, see Cree. 

Saikiné, see Maricopa, Pima. 

Saikinné, see Papago. 

Sainoscos, 633, 635 

St. Cosme, missionary, 203, 206 

St. Croix Indians, see Passamaquoddy. 

St. Denis, Louis Juchereau de, command- 

er, 175, 196, 204, 206, 207 
St. Denis, Louis de, son of Louis 
Juchereau de St. Denis, 206 

St. Francis Indians, 15, 18 

St. Regis Indians, 40 

Sakonnet, 26, 27 

Sak’o’ta, see Cheyenne. 

Saktci homma, see Houma. 

.sa’ladebc, see Sinkiuse-Columbia. 

Salazar, Governor, 124, 150 

Salic, see Ntlakyapamuk. 

Salinan, 490, 512* 

Salineros, 633, 634 
See also Piro Pueblos. 

Salish, 391, 393-395*, 403, 416, 599, 601 
Interior, 395, 416 
Middle Columbia, 

Columbia. 
relations with Whites, 394 
removed to reservation, 394 

Salishans, 392, 418, 452, 468, 471 

Salsxuyilp, see Colville. 

Saluda, 56, 97-98*, 99 


see Sinkiuse- 


INDEX 


Samish, 427, 437* 
peered to Lummi Reservation, 
4 
Samoylof, explorer, 530 
San Agustin de Ahumada, 
San Antonio de Anacape 
San Blas, 633 
San Eee eniare Mission, 129, 152, 
51 
San Diego Mission, 488 
San Fernando Mission, 490 
San Francisco de Potano Mission, 138 
San Gabriel Mission, 490 
San Ildefonso, Franciscan Mission, 308, 
324 


residio, 199 
ission, 131 


San Juan Capistrano Mission, 494 
San Juan de Guacara Mission, 135 
San Juan del Puerto Mission, 139 
San Luis, Mission, 120 
San Luis de Talimali, Spanish mission, 
125, 128 
San Luis Rey de Francia Mission, 498 
San Miguel de Grevavi Mission, 363 
San Miguel de Linares Mission, 196 
San Miguel de los Adaes Mission, see 
San Miguel de Linares. 
San Pedro de los Chines Mission, 129 
San Pedro Mocama Mission, 144, 153 
San Saba Mission, 323, 326 
San Salvador, 633 
San Salvador de Maiaca Mission, 131 
San Xavier del Bac Mission, 363 
Sanakiwa, see Choctaw. 
Sanetch, Songish band, 597 
Sanish, see Arikara. 
S4n’ka, see Kutenai. 
Sanko, see Comanche. 
Sanpoil, 431, 437-438* 
Sa*shkid-a-rind, see Miami. 
Santa Barbara Indians, see Chumash. 
Santa Catalina Mission, 135 
Santa Cruz de Sabacola Mission, 170 
Santa Cruz de Tarihica Mission, 135 
Santa Cruz Indians, 626, 633 
Santa Fe Mission, 137 
Santa Lucia Mission, 120 
Santa Maria de Sena Mission, 144 
Santee, 98*, 103 
discovered by Spaniards, 98 
probably joined Catawba, 98 
Santiam, 467—468* 
Santo Domingo Mission, 144 
Sdpa wichasha, see Ute. 
Sa’pani, see Atsina. 
Saponi, 44, 56, 57, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 
71-73*, 74, 79, 80, 81, 83 
adoption by Cayuga, 44, 57, 72 
joined by Nahyssan, 64 
joined by Occaneechi, 66 
joined by Tutelo, 73 
Sara, 84 
Saraf, see Zufii. 
Saran, see Zui. 
Saraw, see Cheraw. 
Saray, see Zui. 


715 


Sarcee, 591—593*, 594, 605 
allied with Blackfoot, 592 
Sarétika, see Arapaho. 
Sarsi, 555 
Athapascan, 397 
See also Sarcee. 
Sassacus, Pequot chief, 30, 32 
Sasti, Shasta chief, 514 
Sastotene, see Sekani. 
Satoeronnon, see Sauk. 
Sa-to-tin, see Tatlit-kutchin. 
Satsop, 439-440* 
Saturiwa, 138-139* 
disappearance of, 139 
name of chief, 139 
relations with French, 139 
Sau’hto, see Comanche. 
Sauk, 225, 240, 242, 243, 250, 251, 252, 
253, 256-257*, 265, 269, 270, 273, 
291, 298, 300, 302 
migrations of, 256-257, 302 
Missouri River, 256 
Saulteaux, see Chippewa. 
Saulteurs, see Chippewa. 
Sa’u’d, see Zuni. 
Sauvolle, 191 
Sauxpa, see Sissipahaw. 
Sawketakix, see Siksika. 
Sawokhi, 104, 113, 114, 1380, 139, 157, 
170-171* 
division of Creeks, 113, 139 
Saxlatks, see Wasco. 
Sdyi, see Klamath. 
Sayula, 633 
Sayultec, 633 
Scarlet fever, suffered by Indians, 540, 
592 


S’chkoé, see Siksika. 
S’chkoeishin, see Siksika. 
Schockoores, see Shakori. 
Schoolcraft, Henry M., 264, 287, 579 
Scotuks, see Passamaquoddy. 
Seaside People, see Mohegan. 
Seattle, Duwamish chief, 423 
Seco, 631, 633 
Secoffee, Coweta chief, 134 
Second Tuscarora War, 87 
Secotan, adopted by Machapunga, 81 
Sedelmayr, 363 
Seechelt, 593* 
Segresser, Father Felipe, 363 
Sxi/leqamua, see Stuwihamuk. 
Sekani, 550, 552, 555, 592, 593-595*, 605 
raided by Cree, 555, 594, 605 
Selakampém, see Comanche. 
Sema’mila, see Ntlakyapamuk. 
Sematuse, 394, 395* 
Semiahmoo, 440* 
Seminole, 107, 115, 116, 119, 127, 129, 
132, 1383, 1389-143*, 152, 166, 
253, 301, 302 
joined by Koasati, 133, 158 
joined by some Alabama, 155 
moved to reservation, 148, 302 
Nation, 112, 114, 135, 142 
Seminole language, 132, 134, 142 


716 


Seminole War, 112, 115, 119, 127, 134 
135, 139, 140, 143, 152, 168, 302 
Semté’use, see Sematuse. 
Seneca, 40, 55, 87, 228, 231, 237, 298, 
300, 302 
See also Iroquois. 
Senectd del Sur, see Pueblos. 
Senijextee, 431, 440*, 595 
Senoxami’naex, see Spokan. 
Senoxma/n, see Spokan. 
Sentuti’, see Spokan. 
Sequoya, inventer of Indian alphabet, 
173, 222, 224 
Serebrannikof, explorer, 530 
Seretee, see Santee. 
Seri, 622, 633-634, 640 
Serrano, 480, 497, 498, 512-513*, 517, 
630, 634, 635 
Seté Kéxninime, see Walapai. 
Seuel, Father, French missionary, 195 
Seven Cities of Cibola, see Zuiii. 
Sewee, 98-99* 
relations with English, 99 
union with Catawba, 99 
Seymds, see Eskimo. 
.Shahala, see Watlala. 
Shahaptian tribes, 376, 412, 413, 434, 
452, 467, 471 
Shahe, see Cree. 
Sha-ho, see Cheyenne. 
Shaiesnekov, Father, missionary, 532 
Sha-i-yé, see Cree. 
Shake-kah-quah, see Kickapoo. 
Shakori, 66, 74, 79, 80, 81, 83-84*, 99, 
100, 103 
joined Eno, 84, 99 
Shaktci homma, see Chakchiuma. 
Shalsa’ulk°, see Kutenai. 
Sh4naki, see Cherokee. 
Shdnana, see Dakota. 
Shdnnakiak, see Cherokee. 
Shanwappoms, see Yakima. 
Shasta, 468, 495, 507, 514* 
New River, 497 
Shateras, see Tutelo. 
Shati, see Koasati. 
Shawala, see Shawnee. 
Shawash, see Achomawi. 
Shawnee, 54, 56, 61, 73, 74, 91, 97, 99, 
103, 113, 118, 157, 167, 171, 179, 
224, 225-229*, 230, 233, 235, 239, 
240, 243, 246, 273, 298, 302-303, 
324, 326 
Absentee, 228, 302 
citizens of Oklahoma, 228 
Eastern, 228 
joined Cherokee Nation, 223, 303 
migrations of, 99, 227, 228, 229 
relations with Whites, 227, 228 
united with some Yuchi, 118, 174 
Shi-e-4-la, see Cree. 
Shi-é-ya, see Cree. 
Shigapo, see Kickapoo. 
Shi’Ini, see Lipan. 
Shikapu, see Kickapoo. 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull 145 


Shinnecock, see Montauk. 
Shishiné6wiitz-hita’neo, see Comanche. 
Shis-Inday, see Apache. 
Shista-kwista, see Chastacosta. 
Shi’wanish, see Nez Percé. 
Shoénick, see Micmac. 
Shoshonean people, 352, 413 
Shoshoni, 313, 370, 372, 375, 383, 385, 
386, 387, 395, 398, 399, 404, 405 
Northern, 387, 403—405*, 410 
Western, 373, 381, 383, 405—410* 
Shdudimink, see Montagnais-Naskapi. 
Shuman, 305, 324-325*, 340, 624 
destroyed by Apache, 325 
Shuswap, 432, 577, 595-596* 
Sia Mission, 332 
Sibayones (1), 634, 635 
Sibayones (2), 634, 635 
Sibley, John, 197, 199, 210, 211, 214, 
303, 315, 319 
Sica’bé, see Siksika. 
Siciatl, see Seechelt. 
Sickenames, see Pequot. 
Siete-Ciudades de Cibola, see Zuiii. 
Sigua, 628, 634 
Si-ha’-sa-pa, see Siksika. 
Sik’-a-pu, see Kickapoo. 
Si’-ke-na, see Maricopa, Papago, Pima. 
Siksika, 393, 395-398*, 596 
Silam, 634, 635 
Siletz, 468* 
Similaton, 625, 634 
Sinacanton, 634, 641 
Sinaloa, 616 
Si ni’-té-l!, see Tillamook. 
Si ni’-té-li tunné, see Alsea. 
Sinkaietk, 440—441* 
Sinkakaius, 441* 
Sinkiuse, see Sinkiuse-Columbia. 
Sinkiuse-Columbia, 420-421* 
Sinkyone, 481, 498, 507, 514-515* 
Sin-te’-hda_ wi-ca-sa, see Shoshoni, 
Northern. 
Sioux, see Dakota. 
Sioux of the Rocks, see Assiniboin. 
Sisfzhanin, see Shoshoni, Northern. 
Sis’-qfin-me’ttinné, see Yaquina. 
Sissipahaw, 83, 84-85*, 100 
probably joined Catawba, 84 
Sitting Bull, Dakota chief, 556 
Siuslaw, 462, 468-469* 
Six Nations, see Iroquois. 
Skacewanilom, see Abnaki. 
Skagit, 441-442*, 446 
Skaniadaradighroonas, see; Nanticoke. 
Ska-ru’-ré2, see Tuscarora. 
Skaxshurunu, see Foxes. 
Skeena Indians, see Tsimshian. 
Skels4-ulk, see Kutenai. 
Skidi Pawnee, see Pawnee. 
Skilloot, 442*, 469 
disappearance of, 442 
Skin, 442—443* 
Skitswish, 411-412* 
S’Klallam, see Clallam. 
Sko’-ki ha®-ya, see Muskogee. 


INDEX 


Skokomish, 445, 447 
See also Twana. 
Skopamish, see Muckleshoot. 
Skowa’/xtsEnEx, see Sinkiuse-Columbia. 
Sk’qo’mic, see Squawmish. 
Skraellingar, see Eskimo. 
Skudishéni, see Siksika. 
Skuak{fsagi, see Foxes. 
Skunnemoke, Atakapa chief, 197 
Skunnemoke, see Atakapa. 
Sku’tani, see Atsina. 
Skuyélpi, see Colville. 
Skwalliahmish, see Nisqually. 
Slaves, Indian, 32, 83, 86, 87, 93, 94, 98, 
103, 203, 204 
Negro, 121, 201, 202 
See also Etchaottine. 
Slavey, see Etchaottine. 
Slender Bows, see Kutenai. 
Smallpox, suffered by Indians, 28, 83, 


717 
South Carolina [State of}—Continued 
Creeks, 93 
Cusabo, 94-96* 
Eno, 96 


Keyauwee, 96 
Natchez, 97 
Pedee, 97* 
Saluda, 97-98* 
Santee, 98* 

Sewee, 98-99* 
Shakori, 99 
Shawnee, 99 
Sissipahaw, 100 
Sugaree, 100* 
Waccamaw, 100-101* 
Wateree, 101—102* 
Waxhaw, 102* 
Winyaw, 102-103* 
Yamasee, 103 
Yuchi, 103-104 


91, 92, 99, 222, 223, 258, 274, | South Dakota [State of], 278-285 


276, 277, 278, 286, 327, 344, 397, 
398, 413, 455, 532, 542, 552, 573, 
578, 591, 592, 602 
Smet, Pierre J. de, missionary, 394, 395 
Smflé’kamuq, see Stuwihamuk. 
Smith, Captain John, 20, 58, 62, 63, 72 
Smith, Jedediah, 380, 410 
Snake, see Paiute, Northern. 
Snake Diggers, see Paiute, Southern. 
Snake Indians, see Comanche; Shoshoni, 
Northern, 
Snakes, see Walpapi. 
Snanaimux, see Nanaimo. 
Sn6&, see Shoshoni, Northern. 
Snohomish, 443* 
Snonowas, see Nanaimo, 
Snoqualmie, 443-444* 
-S.npeskwau’zux, see Wenatchee. 
Soacatino, 325 
Sobaibo, 634 
Sobaipuri, 364-365* 
merged with Papago, 365 
Solameco, see Chiaha. 
Soltec, 634 
Songish, 427, 596—597* 
Sénik’ni, see Wichita. 
Sooke, Songish band, 597 
Soo-wan’-a-mooh, see Okanagon. 
-SoqEnaqai’mex, see Okanagon. 
Sorrochos, see Surruque. 
Sosa, Castafio de, 346 
Soteomellos, see Wappo. 
Soto, Hernando de, 
Hernando. 
Sotoes, see Chippewa. 
Sotomieyos, see Wappo. 
Souchitioni, member of Natchitoches 
Confederacy, 209 
Souriquois, see Micmac. 
South Carolina [State of], 90-104 
Catawba, 90-92* 
Cherokee, 92 
Chiaha, 92 
Chickasaw, 93 
Congaree, 93* 


see De Soto, 


Arapaho, 278 
Arikara, 278 
Cheyenne, 278-280* 
Dakota, 280-284* 
Kiowa, 284 
Mandan, 284 
Omaha, 284 
Ponca, 284 
Sutaio, 285* 
Winnebago, 285 
Southern Arapaho, see Arapaho. 
Southern Cheyenne, see Cheyenne. 
Southern Indians, see Cree. 
Southern Paiute, see Paiute. 
Southern Shoshoni, see Shoshoni. 
Soyopas, see Mohave. 
Spain, King of, fealty sworn to, 352 
spalu’.sox, see Palouse. 
Spaniards, 70, 79, 114, 115, 119, 121,_ 
288 
Huguenot colony destroyed by, 95 
relations with Apalachicola, 105 
relations with Chickasaw, 178 
relations with Guale, 165 
relations with Hasinai Confederacy, 
316 
relations with Hopi, 353 
relations with Jicarilla, 371 
relations with Mocogo, 134 
relations with Potano, 138 
relations with Tacatacuru, 144 
relations with Zufii, 347-348 
Spanish Government, relations with 
Delaware, 54 
Spanish missionary movement, 139 
Speckled Pawnee, see Wichita. 
Spokan, 398, 412, 444-445* 
Little, 444 
Lower, 444 
Middle, 444 
removed to reservations, 444 
Upper, 444 
Spoké’.n, see Spokan. 
Sp6.qé’in, see Spokan. 
Spotswood, Gov. [Alexander], 72, 76, 79, 80 


718 


Spring Creeks, see Bidai. 
Squakson, see Squaxon. 
Squawmish, 587, 597-599* 
Squaxon, 445*, 447 
S’qiles’tshi, see Arikara. 
Squint-Eyes, see Takkuth-kutchin. 
Stak-ta-mish, see Kwaiailk. 
Stalo, 600-601* 
Staq-tiibe, see Chehalis. 
StAr-r4h-he’, see Arikara. 
Stefdnsson, Vilhjalmur, explorer, 568 
Stegaraki, 62 
Stem, Jesse, 319 
Stémchi, see Crow. 
Stémtchi, see Crow. 
Stevenson, Matilda Coxe, 348 
Steward, Julian H., on Shoshoni. 
Stewart, Rev. Alex., missionary, 80, 81 
Stimk, see Crow. 
Stinkards, see Winnebago. 
Stla’thiumga, see Lillooet. 
Stobshaddat, see Yakima. 
Stockbridges, 254, 255, 257-258 
removed to Wisconsin, 42 
See also Mahican. 
Stone Indians, see Assiniboin. 
Stonies, see Assiniboin. 
Stono, 95, 96, 119 
Stuart, John, British Indian Agent, 214 
Stuwihamuk, 601* 
absorbed by Ntlakyapamuk, 601 
Stxuafyn, see Siksika. 
Suali, see Cheraw. 
Subinha, 634 
Subtiaba, 634 
Sucayi, 619, 634 
Suck-a-mier, see Luckiamute. 
Su’-d¢é, see Kadohadacho. 
Suerre, 634 
Sugeree, 85, 100*, 102, 103 
probably united with Catawba, 100 
Suketi’kenuk, see Nisqually. 
Sukoti’kenuk, see Nisqually. 
Sulatelik, see Wiyot. 
Sullivan, Indian towns destroyed by, 


40, 73 
Suma, 618, 624, 626, 634 
See also Shuman. 
Sumo, 615, 621, 624,%625, 627, 632, 
634-635, 636, 641 
Sumo-Sirpe, 635 
Sun caste, Natchez institution, 190 
Sunset Indians, see Natchez. 
Si’/nyitsa, see Zufi. 
Siinyftsi, see Zufii. 
Supai, see Havasupai. 
Suquamish, 445* 
Surruque, 143* 
probably joined Timucua, 143 
Susquamish, see Suquamish. 
Susquehanna, 33, 55, 56—-57*, 58, 61, 62, 
64, 65, 74 
conquest by Iroquois, 57 
encounter with Dutch, 57 
encounter with English, 57 
encounter with French, 57 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Susquehanna—Continued 
Honniasont destroyed by, 55 
massacred by Whites, 57 

Susquehannock, see Susquehanna. 

Sussee, see Sarcee. 

Sussekoon, see Sarcee. 

Sutaio, 278, 279, 280, 284, 285* 
migrations of, 285 

Suturees, see Sugeree. 

Suwa’dabe, see Sinkiuse-Columbia, 

Suxwa’pmurx, see Shuswap. 

.swa’dab.c, see Sinkiuse-Columbia. 

Swalash, see Swallah. 

Swallah, 445-446* 

Swan, James G., 418 

.swa’namce, see Sinkiuse-Columbia. 

Swedes, contact with Delaware, 54 
contact with Unalachtigo, 54 

Swinomish, 442, 446* 


T4-ashi, see Apache. 
T4éa Ashiwani, see Zufi. 
Tabby, Ute Chief, 374 
Tabeguache, Ute band, 374 
Tabképdya, see Walapai. 
Ta-cdb-ci-nyu-mith, see Navaho. 
Tacatacuru, 144* 
joined Timucua, 144 
relations with French, 144 
relations with Spanish, 144 
Tadirighrones, see Catawba. 
Taensa, 124, 171, 188, 197, 203, 205, 206, 
209-210*, 232 
destroyed Bayogoula, 200, 209 
disappearance of, 210 
human sacrifices made by, 209, 210 
migrations of, 171, 209, 210 
relations with French, 209 
Tagualilos, 635 
TAa’gugala, see Kiowa Apache. 
Tagui, see Apache, Kiowa Apache. 
TAgukerésh, see Apache. 
Tagukerish, see Kiowa Apache. 
TA’hana, see Ute. 
Ta’hba, see Maricopa. 
Tah’ba, see Papago. 
Ta‘hli’mnin, see Navaho. 
Tahltan, 601-602*, 606 
Tahogaléwi, see Yuchi. 
Tahue, 635 
Taidnapam, 446* 
extinct as tribe, 446 
Ta-ih, see Tyigh, 473 
Taitinapam, 425 
Taiwi, see Tabby. 
Takadhé, see Takkuth-kutchin. 
Takelma, 469-470* 
Takelma, Lowland, see Takelma. 
Takhayuna, see Aleut. 
Takhtam, see Serrano. 
Takulli, see Carriers. 
Takkuth-kutchin, 602-603* 
Ta-kutchi, see Eskimo. 
Ta-Kuth-Kutchin, see Takkuth-kutchin. 
Talamanca, 615, 633, 634, 635, 636 
Talémaya, see Tututni. 


INDEX 719 


Tali, 229 Tawatawas, see Miami. 
Tallapoosa, 228 Tawehash, 303-304*, 306 

See also Creeks. Tawira, 636 
Talligewi, see Cherokee. Taxkdhe, see Apache. 
Tallion Nation, see Bellacoola. Tayopan, 622, 636 
Taltushtuntude, 459, 470* Tci-ki’ne®, see Delaware. 
Talwa tako, see Apalachicola. Tedlke, see Cherokee. 
Tama, see Tamathli. Tea-qté a®-ya-df, see Choctaw. 
Tamahita, see Yuchi. Teashtaldlgi, see Potawatomi. 
Tamali, 104, 123 Tca-ta, see Choctaw. 
Tamankamyam, see Serrano. Te’eca’atq, see Nootka. 
Tamathli, 113-114*, 115 Tce’metun, see Tututni. 
Tamaulipec, 614, 615, 616, 620, 622, 623, | Tcerokiéco, see Cherokee. 

626, 632, 633, 634, 635, 637 Tchaktchan, see Chickasaw. 

Tamaulipecan family of Mexico, 309 Tchaxstkush, see Nez Percé. 
Tamazulteca, 635 Tcha ydékon amim, see Yaquina. 
Tamenend, Delaware chief, 55 Tch’Ayanké’ld, see Yoncalla. 
Tamos, see Pecos. Tcha ydxo amim, see Alsea. 
Tanaina, 538-539* Tchidysokush, see Ponca. 
Tanana, 539-540* Tchihogdsat, see Maricopa. 
Taneks a*ya, see Biloxi. Tchikasa, see Chickasaw. 
Tangipahoa, 195, 196, 210-211* Tciéek-riné®, see Eskimo. 

disappearance of, 211 Tci’-ka-sa’, see Chickasaw. 
Tani’banén, see Kadohadacho. Tcingawutptuh, see Ute. 
Tanish, see Arikara. Tcitxta’ut, see Okanagon. 
Tan-nah-shis-en, see Jicarilla. Tcd’k6, see Sarcee. 
Tano, see Tewa, Southern. Tcunofyana, see Atsugewi. 
Tanoan, 324, 339, 344, 352 Tcutzwa’ut, see Okanagon. 
Ta’n-ta’wats, see Chemehuevi. Tedxtkni, see Tyigh. 
Tapdadji, see Klamath. Tebaca, 636 
Tapachula, see Tapachultec. Tebas, see Tiwa Pueblos. 
Tapachultec (1), 636 Tecaya, 636 
Tapachultec (2), 636 Teco-Tecoxquin, 636 
Tapanash, see Skin. Tecual, 636 
Tapixulapan, 636, 642 Tecuexe, 616, 636-637 
Taposa, 177, 187, 192 Tecumseh, Shawnee chief, 166, 184, 228, 
T4-qta, see Choctaw. 229, 240 
Ta-qui’-qiic-cé, see Tututni. death of, 228 
Tarahumare, 630, 636 Tedexenos, 637 
Tarasco, 636 Téhayes&tlu, see Alsea. 
Tariaca, 636 Tehueco, 615, 616, 637 
Taros, see Yavapai. Teit, James, 429, 578, 606 
Tarrateens, see Abnaki. Té’it, see Stalo. 
Tasdmewé, see Navaho. Tejano, see Coahuiltecan Tribes. 
T&shash, see Kadohadacho. Tékapu, see Kickapoo. 
Tashin, see Apache, Kiowa Apache. Tekesta, 121, 145-146* 
Tashi’ne, see Jicarilla. removed to Cuba, 146 
Tassenocogoula, see Avoyel. Telamateno®, see Wyandot. 
Tatamaste, 619, 636 Te‘liémnim, see Navaho. 
Tatanchaks, see Tutchone. Teluski, 637 
Tatimolo, 636, 638 Temori, 637 
Tatiquilhati, 636 Tenino, 470—471*, 473, 474 
Tatlit-kutchin, 603* settled on reservation, 471 
Tatsanottine, 603-604* Tennessee [State of], 215-229 

noted for possession of copper, 604 Catawba, 215 
Ta’-tu, see Huchnom. Cherokee, 215-—224* 
Taux, see Nanticoke. Chiaha, 224 
Tawa, see Ottawa. Chickasaw, 224 
Tawachgudns, see Nanticoke. Kaskinampo, 224—-225* 
Tawahka, 626, 636, 639 Mosopelea, 225 
Tawakoni, 303*, 304, 305, 307, 325, 326 Muskogee, 225 

joined Wichita, 303, 304, 325 Natchez, 225 
Tawasa, 130, 135, 136, 144-145*, 154, Ofo, 225 

155, 157, 210, 211 Shawnee, 225-229* 
joined Alabama, 154, 211 Tali, 229 


migrations, 145 Tuskegee, 229 


720 


Tennessee [State of}—Continued 
Yuchi, 229 
Tennuth-kutchin, 540* 
exterminated by scarlet fever, 540 
Tenskwdtawa, Shawnee medicine man, 
228, 229 
Tenyé, see Navaho. 
Tepahue, 615, 637 
Tepanec, 628 
Te’pdi’, see Kiowa. 
Tepecano, 637, 638 
Tepehua, 637 
Tepehuan, 637, 638 
Tepemacas, 635, 637 
Tepki’nago, see Kiowa. 
Tepocas, 634, 637 
Tequesta, see Tekesta. 
Tequistlatec, 618, 637 
Teran, Domingo, explorer, 318 
Térraba, 637, 638 
Teshbi, 638 
Téte Pelée, see Comanche. 
Tétes Plates, see Choctaw. 
Tétes-Plates, see Salish. 
Tetiquilhati, 638 
Teul, 638 
Tewa, 343, 344, 353 
Northern, 344 
Southern, 344 
Tewa Pueblos, 334, 340-344* 
Tewohomomy, see Tuscarora. 
Texas [State of], 307-327 
Akokisa, 307 
Alabama, 307 
Anadarko, 307 
Apache, 307 
Aranama, 308 
Atakapa, 308 
Bidai. 308 
Biloxi, 308 
Caddo Tribes, 309 
Cherokee, 309 
Choctaw, 309 
Coahuiltecan Tribes, 309-312* 
Comanche, 312-314* 
Creeks, 314 
Deadose, 314 
Eyeish, or Hdish, 314-315* 
Guasco, 315 
Hainai, 315 
Hasinai Confederacy, 315-317* 
Isleta del Sur, 317 
Jicarilla, 317 
Kadohadacho Confederacy, 317-320* 
Karankawan Tribes, 320—-321* 
Kichai, 321—-322* 
Kiowa, 322 
Koasati, 322 
Lipan, 322-323* 
Muskogee, 323 
Nabedache, Nacachau, Nacanish, 
Nacogdoche, Nadaco, Namidish, 
Heouant, Neches, and Nasoni, 
Nanatsoho, 323 
Nasoni, Upper, 323 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Texas [State of}—Continued 
Pakana, 323 
Pascagoula, 323-324 
Patiri, 324 
Pueblos, 324 
Quapaw, 324 
Senecd del Sur, 324 
Shawnee, 324 
Shuman, 324-325* 
Soacatino or Xacatin, 325 
Tawakoni, 325 
Tonkawan Tribes, 326-327* 
Waco, 327 
Wichita, 327 
Texas, see Hasinai. 
Texas Rangers, organization of, 314 
Texixtepec, 638 
Texpamais, see Papago. 
Tex-pias, see Pima. 
Teya, 343 
Thah-a-i-nin’, see Apache. 
Tha‘k4-hiné’na, see Kiowa Apache. 
Thalhthan, see Tahitan. 
Thastchetci’, see Wyandot. 
Thécoél, see Natchez. 
Thé-ké-né, see Sekani. 
Theloél, see Natchez. 
Thldla’h, see Chinook. 
Thlingchadinne, 604 
Thoig’a-rik-kah, see Nez Percé. 
Thomas, William H., Indian trader, 223 
Thompson, David, 392 
Thompson River Indians, see Ntlakya- 
pamuk, 
Three Canes, see Tawakoni. 
Thy, see Tyigh. 
Ti’attluxa, see Sinkiuse-Columbia. 
Tiburon, 634 
Tice, 622, 638 
Tideing Indians, see Kiowa. 
Tigua, see Tiwa Pueblos. 
Tiguex, see Tiwa Pueblos. 
Tihokahana, see Pima. 
Tihuas, see Tiwa Pueblos. 
Ti-ka’-ji, see Chickasaw. 
Tillamook, 471—472* 
Timpoochee Barnard, Yuchi chief, 166 
Timucua, 114, 123, 129, 131, 138, 147- 
152*, 153, 169 
disappearance of, 150, 151, 152 
joined by Tacatacuru, 144 
probably joined by Surruque, 143 
Timucua language, 139, 151 
Timucua Rebellion, 139, 144, 152, 169 
Timucuan tribes, 132, 134, 135, 138, 
150-151, 153 
Tinde, see Jicarilla. 
Tinnd’-ash, see Apache. 
Tiokeang, see Kato. 
Tionontati, 233, 235, 236, 258, 307, 
604—605* 
joined Huron, 604 
Tiou, 177, 185, 188, 189, 192-193* 
Tipai, see Kamia. 
Tiqui-Llapais, see Walapai. 
Tisaiqdji, see Yana. 


INDEX 


Titskan wAtitch, see Tonkawan Tribes. 

Tit’ tlama’eka, see Assiniboin. 

Tiwa, Wiehts band, 303, 334, 337, 344, 
5 


Tiwa Pueblos, 340, 344-346* 
Tkulhiyogoa’ike, see Kwalhioqua. 
Tla’asath, see Makah. 
Tlacopan, 628, 638 
Tlacotepehua-Tepuzteca, 638 
Tlakdi’tat, see Klickitat. 
Tlakalama, 442 
Tlaik!mish, see Clackamas. 
Tlakluit, see Wishram. 
Tla’lem, see Clallam. 
Tlalliguamayas, see Halyikwamai. 
Tlapanec, 638 
Tlapaneco-Yopi, see Tlapanec. 
Tlascala, 638 
Tlascaltec, 628 
Tlatskanai, see Clatskanie. 
Tlik’atewi’ mtlat, see Shuswap. 
Tlingit, 540—-543*, 570, 575, 606, 607 
Sanya, 606 
Toa, see Tamathli. 
Toags, see Nanticoke. 
Toalli, see Tamathli. 
Toanho, 445 
Tobacco Indians, see Tionontati. 
Tobacco Nation, see Tionontati. 
Tobar, Pedro de, 352 
Tobikhars, see Gabrielino. 
Toboso, 615, 621, 638 
To-che-wah-coo, see Foxes. 
Tocobaga, 146*, 150, 151 
Tocone, 619, 638 
Tocwogh, 60 
Tohome, 160, 171-172* 
absorbed by Choctaw, 172 
Tojar, 638 
Tokane, 307 
Tolameco, see Chiaha. 
Tolimeca, 638 
Tolowa, 456, 515-516* 
Tomahitans, see Yuchi. 
Tompacuas, see Tocobaga. 
Tompiros, see Piro Pueblos. 
Tonkawa, 301, 303, 304, 308, 321, 323, 
326, 330 
massacre of, 327 
removed to reservation, 304, 327 
See also Karankawan Tribes. 
Tonkawan Tribes, 308, 309, 326-327* 
accused of cannibalism, 327 
list of, 326 
Tofkonko, see Siksika. 
Téno-odhtam, see Papago. 
Tonti, Henri de, 186, 188, 193, 200, 205, 
208, 209, 214, 318 
Tonto, applied to group of tribes, 365 
Topacolme, 619, 638 
Topin-keua, see Hopi. 
Toquegua, 638 
Totonac, 616, 631, 636, 638 
Totorame, 639 


721 


Tpe-ttchié-dhidié-Kouttchin, see Natsit- 
kutchin. 

Tranjik-kutchin, 537, 543* 

Treaty at Fort Clark, Louisiana Terri- 
tory, 213 

Treaty at St. Louis, 213 

Treaty of Chicago, 298 

Treaty of Dancing Rabbit, 184 

Treaty of Doak’s Stand, 212 

Treaty of Fort Bridger, 404 

Treaty of Fort, Jackson, 145, 155 

Treaty of Fort, Laramie, 279 

Treaty of Greenville, 227, 230, 231, 232, 
236, 237, 240, 243 

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 370 

Treaty of Medicine Lodge, 385 

Treaty of New Echota, 222, 292 

Treaty of Prairie du Chien, 266 

Trinity Indians, see Hupa. 

Trique, 639 

Troiscannes, see Tawakoni. 

Tsaba’kosh, see Dakota. 

Tsah-ti, see Choctaw. 

Tsaisuma, see Washo. 

Tsan Ampkua amim, see Umpqua. 

Tsan4-uta amim, see Siuslaw. 

Tsanh-alokual amim, see Calapooya. 

Tsa Shnddsh amim, see Siletz. 

Tsattine, 592, 594, 605* 

Tsawa/nemux, see Okanagon. 

Tsé Am{inéma, see Tyigh. 

Tsé la’kayat amim, see Klickitat. 

Tsé Skua’lli ami’m, see Nisqually. 

Tsekenné, see Sekani. 

Tseloni, see Sekani. 

Tse-sa do hpa ka, see Pawnee. 

Tsethaottine, 585 

Tsetsaut, 606* 

Tshe-tsi-uetin-euerno, see Montagnais- 
Naskapi. 

Tshishé, see Apache. 

T’set’sa’ut, see Sekani. 

Tsi’-ka-cé, see Chickasaw. 

Tsilkotin, see Chilcotin. 

Tsimshian, 543, 573, 586, 606—607* 

noted for their carvings, 607 

.tskowa’/xtsEnux, see Sinkiuse-Columbia. 

Tsd’kwob.c, see Wenatchee. 

Ts6-Ottiné, see Sarcee. 

Ts’dtsqn’n, see Tsimshian. 

Tsoyaha, see Yuchi. 

Tsuhérukats, see Nez Percé. 

Tsii’q6s, see Sarcee. 

Ts’ (-q(s-li’-qwiit-me’tunne, see Daku- 
betede. 

Tsuitpéli, see Nez Percé. 

Tu-a’d-hu, see Twana. 

TuAdlati, see Atfalati. 

Tualatin, see Atfalati. 

Ti’-ba-na, see Tewa Pueblos. 

Tubar, 639 

Tiibatulabal, 516—-517* 

Tucurrique, 639 

Tu’hu tane, see Clackamas. 


Tpe-tliet-Kouttchin, see Tatlit-kutchin. | Tuhu’vti-6mokat, see Siksika. 


722 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Tukabahchee, division of the Muskogee, | Twightwees, see Miami. 


119, 172, 174 
Tikahun, see Piro Pueblos. 
Tukkuth-kutchin, 544 
Tdk-pa’-ha®-ya-di, see Atakapa. 
Tu’kwil-m4’-k‘i, see Kuitsh. 
Tulalip, 443 
Tul’bush, see Mattole. 
Tule, 639 
Tumangamalum, see Gabrielino. 
Tumwater Indians, see Clowwewalla. 
Tunahe, Kutenai tribe, 392, 394, 398 
Tuna’xe, see Tunahe. 
Tungla, 639 
Tunica, ieee 192, 193-194*, 199, 


200, 
friendly with French, 193, 194 
joined by Ofo, 207, 232 
Tunican group, 198 
Tunki, 630 
Tunxis, 24 
Turner, Nat, 71 
Turriarba, 622, 639 
Turrin, 639 
Turucaca, 639 
Tu-sa-be’, see Jicarilla. 
Tusayan, see Hopi. 
Tuscaloosa, Mobile chief, 159 
Tuscarora, 33, 40, 44, 57, 62, 63, 65, 73, 
ie 78, 82, 83, 85-88*, 90, 91, 95, 
adopted by Oneida, 87 
Expedition, 75, 98, 101, 115 
ieee with Iroquois, 44, 57, 87, 88, 
0 
migrations of, 87, 88 
Pamlico destroyed by, 83 
perhaps joined by Neusiok, 82 
treaties with Whites, 87 
treaty with English, 83, 88 
bias 44, 72, 77, 78, 81, 83, 86, 90, 


Tuskegee, 157, 172-173*, 229, 304 
language, 154, 172 
migrations of, 173, 304 
Tutchone, 608* 
Tutchone-kutchin, see Tutchone. 
Tutcone, 603 
Tutcone-kutchin, 544 
Tutelo, 44, 57, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 71, 
see 73-74*, 79, 80, 81, 88, 232, 
adopted by Cayuga, 44, 72, 73 
flight to Canada, 73 
joined by Nahyssan, 64 
joined by Occaneechi, 66 
joined Saponi, 73 
Tu-tsin-nde, see Lipan. 
Tututni, 463, 472-473* 
Tu’-vén, see Tewa Pueblos. 
Tu’-wa, see Jemez. 
Tjuwanxa-ike, see Klickitat. 
Tiixquét, see Wichita. 
Tadyétchiské, see Dakota. 
Twana, 447* 
See also Toanho. 


Tyh, see Tyigh. 

Tyigh, 471, 473-474* 

Tykothee-dinneh, see Takkuth-kutchin. 
Tzeltal, 617, 618, 639 

Tzental, see Tseltal. 

Tzi-na-ma-a, see Mohave. 

Tzotzil, 617, 618, 639 

Tzutuhil, 639 


U’-aha, see Omaha. 
Uala-to-hua, see Jemez. 
Ucachile, see Timucua. 
Uchita, 639, 640 
Ucita, see Pohoy. 
Udawak, see Ottawa. 
Ugalakmiut, Tlingitized, 543 
Uinta, Ute band, 374, 375 
Ukase, see Kansa. 
U-ka’-she, see Mandan. 
Ukhotno’m, see Yuki, Coast. 
Ukua’-yata, see Ottawa. 
Ulnd mequiaegit, see Beothuk. 
Ulnobah, see Beothuk. 
Ultséhaga, see Eskimo. 
Ulua, 626, 627, 639-640, 641 
Umatilla, 474* 
Umpqua, 452, 459, 474-475* 
Lower, see Kuitsh. 
Upper, see Umpqua. 
Umpwua, see Kuitsh. 
Unalachtigo, contact with Swedes, 54 
See also Nanticoke. 
Unami, 54 
Uncas, Mohegan chief, 24, 30, 32 
See also Mohegan. 
Unchechauge, see Passamaquoddy. 
Uncompahgre, Ute band, 374, 375 
Ungiayé-rono, see Seminole. 
United States Government, relations 
with Choctaw, 184, 185 
Unkus, see Mohegan. 
Unquechauge, see Passamaquoddy. 
U-nung’in, see Aleut. 
Upanguayma, 634, 640 
Upland Indians, see Mohegan. 
Upper Porcupine River Kutchin, see 
Takkuth-kutchin. 
Uragees, see Mahican. 
Urayoan, 611 
Uren, 640 
Ures, 631, 640 
Urinama, 640 
Urraca, 640 
Usherys, see Catawba. 
Ush-ke-we-ah, see Bannock. 
Ushpee, see Mosopelea. 
Uspanteca, 640 
Ussagéne’wi, see Montagnais-Naskapi. 
Ussaghenick, see Montagnais-Naskapi. 
Ussinnewudj Eninnewug, see Sarcee. 
Utah [State of], 372-375 
Bannock, 372 
Gosiute, 372-373 
Navaho, 373 


INDEX 


Utah [State of}—Continued 
Paiute, Southern, 373 
Shoshoni, Western, 373 
Ute, 373-375* 
Utce-cf-nyu-mih, see Apache. 
Utcrna’.qai’n, see Okanagon. 
Utciti, see Uchita. 
Ute, eee, 373-375*, 383, 385, 387, 
4 


horses introduced among, 374 
Southern, 374 
treaties with, 374-875 
White River, 375 

Ute Diggers, see Paiute, Southern. 

Utina, 120, 138, 139, 146-151* 
war with Potano, 138, 139 
See also Timucua. 

Utstshuat, see Quapaw. 

Utuado, 611 

Uxul, see Lipan. 

Uwatdyo-réno, see Cherokee. 


Vacoregue, 622, 640 
Vancouver, George, explorer, 573 
Vandera, Spanish officer, 84, 100, 102, 172 
Vanyume, 480, 497, 517* 
extinct tribe, 517 
Vaquabo, 611 
Vaqueros, see Jicarilla. 
Vargas, Spanish soldier, 331, 348, 353 
Varohfo, 617, 637, 640 
Vassapalles, 625, 640 
Venegas, Miguel, 356 
Veniam{noff, Ivan, missionary, 532, 539, 
542 
Veracruzano, 640 
Vermont [State of], 18-19 
Abnaki, 18 
Mahican, 18 
Missiassik, see Abnaki. 
Pennacook, 19 
Pocomtue, 19 
Vetancourt, Agustin de, 334 
Viceita, 640 
Vidshi itikapa, see Papago. 
Vigitega, 640 
Virginia [State of], 61-74 
Cherokee, 61 
Manahoac, 61—62* 
Meherrin, 62—63* 
Monacan, 63-64* 
Nahyssan, 64* 
Nottaway, 65* 
Occaneechi, 65—-66* 
Powhatan, 66—-71* 
Saponi, 71—-73* 
Shawnee, 73 
Tutelo, 73-74* 
Virginia Colonists, Nottaway discovered 
by, 65 
Viscayno, S., explorer, 478 
Vi'tapatdi, see Kiowa. 
Vivier, Father, missionary, 214 
Voto, 622, 640 
Vunta-kutchin, 543-544*, 603 


723 


WaAatenthts, see Ute. 
Wabanaki, see Abnaki, Delaware. 
Wecommelys 75, 88, 90, 97, 100-101*, 
1 
Waco, 303, 304-305*, 307, 325, 327 
merged with Tawakoni and Wich- 
ita, 305 
Waciitada, see Oto. 
Wacux¢a, see Missouri. 
Wadétata, see Oto. 
Waganha’s, see Ottawa. 
Wab-hd’-na-hah, see Potawatomi, 
Wahit¢axad, see Potawatomi. 
Wahitiyaha, see Potawatomi. 
Wah-kah-towah, see Chippewa. 
Wahmi, 617, 640 
Wahnookt, see Klickitat. 
Webunsouaroer Powhatan chief, 66, 
0, 71 
Waicuri, 614, 620, 639, 640-641 
Waiki tako, see Okmulgee. 
Wailaki, 517—518* 
Wailétpu, see Cayuse. 
Wa-ju’-xd¢4, see Missouri. 
Wakidohka-numak, see Shoshoni, North- 
ern. 
Wakokai, division of the Muskogee, 173 
Wakushég, see Foxes. 
Walam Olum, traditional history of 
Delaware, 54 
WaAlamskni, see Chastacosta. 
Wdlamswash, see Chastacosta. 
Walapai, 351, 365-366* 
Walatoa, see Jemez. 
Waldron, 18 
Walker, trapper, 380 
Wallawalla, 447-448*, 474, 475 
placed on reservation, 447 
Walpapi, 475 
Walpians, 353 
Walula, see Wallawalla. 
Walumskni, see Latgawa. 
Wamakava, see Mohave, Yuma. 
Wampanoag, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24-27*, 29, 
44 


Pilgrim’s treaty with, 26 
sold into slavery, 21 
Wanak, see Dakota. 
Wanapam, 448* 
Wannalancet, Pennacook chief, 18 
Wa-nuk’-e-ye’-na, see Hidatsa. 
Wa-ite’, see Iowa. 
Wappato, see Multnomah, 
Wappatoo Lake Indians, see Atfalati. 
Wappinger, 23, 33, 42, 44-48*, 60 
adoption by Delaware, 47 
discovered by Henry Hudson, 47 
wampum made by, 48 
Wappo, 518-519* 
Waptai’Imin, see Yakima. 
War of 1812, 253 
Warm Springs Indians, see Tenino. 
Wasabane, 635 
Wi-si-sa-o-no, see Dakota. 
Wasco, 475*, 476 


724 


Washa, 137, 
, ol 


Washakie, Shoshoni chief, 404, 405 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


212* 
disappearance of, 211 


Washington [State of], 412-451 


Cathlamet, 414* 
Cathlapotle, 414-415* 
Cayuse, 415 
Chehalis, 415-416* 
Chelan, 416* 
Chilluckittequaw, 416-417* 
Chimakum, 417* 
Chinook, 417-419* 
Clackamas, 419 
Clallum, 419-420* 
Columbia, 420-421* 
Colville, 421-422* 
Copalis, 422* 

Cowlitz, 422—423* 
Duwamish, 423* 
Hoh, 424* 
Humptulips, 424* 
Kalispel, 424 
Klickitat, 424-425* 
Kwaiailk, 426* 
Kwalhioqua, 426* 
Lummi, 427* 

Makah, 427—428* 
Methow, 428* 

Mical, 428* 
Muckleshoot, 428-429* 
Neketemeuk, 429 
Nespelem, 429 

Nez Percé, 429 
Nisqually, 429—430* 
Nooksack, 430* 
Ntlayapamuk, 430 
Okanagon, 430—433* 
Ozette, 433* 

Palouse, 433-434* 
Pshwanwapam, 434* 
Puyallup, 434* 
Queets or Quaitso, 434-435* 
Quileute, 435* 
Quinault, 435-436 * 
Sahehwamish, 436- 437* 
Samish, 437* 
Sanpoil, 437-—439* 
Satsop, 439-440* 
Semiahmoo, 440* 
Senijextee, 440* 
Sinkaietk, 440-441* 
Sinkakaius, 441* 
Skagit, 441—442* 
Sinkiuse- Columbia, 420—421* 
Skilloot, 442* 

Skin, 442-443* 
Snohomish, 443* 
Snoqualmie, 443-444* 
Spokan, 444~-445* 
Squaxon or Squakson, 445* 
Suquamish, 445* 
Swallah, 445-446* 
Swinomish, 446* 
Taidnapam, 446* 
Twana, 447* 


200, 201, 202, 207, 211—, Washington [State of}—Continued 
9 


Wallawalla, 447-—448* 
Wanapam, "448* 
Watlala, 448 
Wauyukma, 448* 
Wenatchee (Wina’t.ca), 448-449 
Wishram, 449-450* 
Wynoochee, 450* 
Yakima, 450-451* 
Washo, 383-384*, 519 


conquered by Paiute, Northern, 384 


Watawawininiwok, see Ottawa. 
Wateknasi, see Tiibatulabal. 
Wateni’hte, see Siksika. 
Wateree, 88, 101-102* 
joined Catawba, 101 
Watlala, 448, 475* 
Watohtata, see Oto. 
Wat‘ota, see Oto. 
Watutata, see Oto. 
Wauyukma, 448* 
Wawéah, see Maidu, Wintun. 
Waxhaw, 88, 102* 
destruction of, 102 
Wa-ya-ta-no’-ke, see Miami. 
Waymouth, [Capt. George], 14 
Wazhazhe, see Osage. 
Wazikute, band of Yanktonai, 388 
Wa-zi’-ya-ta Pa-da’-nin, see Arikara. 
Wdowg, see Ottawa. 
Wea, 239, 242, 297, 300, 305 
subdivision of Miami, 297, 305 
Weapemeoc, 88-89* 
Weepers, see Assiniboin. 
Weesock, see Waxhaw. 
Wehrman, Lt., Russian explorer, 543 
Weitchpec, see Yurok. 
Wenatchee, 448-449* 
Wenrohronon, 48*, 57 
allied with Neutral Nation, 48 
destruction of, 48 
Werowocomoco, 71 
Wés‘&nikaci2ga, see Shoshoni, Northern. 
Weskarini, see Algonkin. 
West Indies, 608-611 
Cuban Tribes, 610-611 
Haitian Tribes, 608-610 
Jamaican Tribes, 611 
Porto Rican Tribes, 611 
West Virginia (State of], 74 
Cherokee, 74 
Conoy, 74 
Delaware, 74 
Honniasont, 74 
Moneton, 74* 
Shawnee, 74 
Susquehanna, 74 
Western Dakota, see Dakota. 
Western Niantic, see Niantic. 
Westo, see Yuchi. 
Wetc.nagei’n, see Okanagon. 
Wetitsadn, see Hidatsa. 
Whe-el-po, see Colville. 
Whilkut, 483, 492, 519* 
White Indians, see Menominee. 
White Minqua, see Susquehanna, 


[Bull. 145 


INDEX 


Whites, massacred by Indians, 86 
relations with Catawba, 91 
relations with Eskimo, 568 
relations with Modoc, 465 
ay Wee with Northern Shoshoni, 

404 
relations with Salish, 394 
peetane with Southern Paiute, 
treaties with Indians, 87 

Whitman, Marcus, missionary, 413, 455 
murder of, 455 

Whiwunai, see Hopi. 

Wichita, 54, 289, 300, 303, 304, 305- 

306*, 307, 321, 323, 327 
joined by Kichai, 322 
joined by Tawakoni, 3038, 304, 325 
migrations of, 306 
Wichita Reservation, occupied by Dela- 
ware, 55 

Wicocomoco, 60, 71 

Widshi itfkapa, see Maricopa. 

Widshi iti’kapa, see Pima. 

Wild Coyotes, see Navaho. 

Wild Rice Men, see Menominee. 

Wi'lfa Ampa’/fa ami’m, see Twana. 

Wili idahap4, see Mohave. 

Wilkes, Charles, 402, 472 

Willamette Falls Indians, see Clowwe- 

walla. 

Willamette Indians, see Clowwewalla. 

Willamette tribes, 425 

Williams, Roger, 28, 32 

Wilson, John, Caddo leader, 319 

Wiminuche, Ute band, 374 

Wina’t:ca, see Wenatchee. 

Winnebago, 243, 252, 258-259*, 265, 

267, 269, 270, 276, 277, 285, 286, 
287, 291 
migrations of, 258-259, 267, 269 

Winnepurkit, Massachuset chief, 20 

Wintu, 519-520* 

Wintun, 517, 520-521* 

Winyaw, 97, 101, 102-103* 
disappearance of, 103 

Wisacky, see Waxhaw. 

Wisconsin |State of], 250-259 
Chippewa, 250 
Dakota, 250 
Foxes, 250-252* 

Housatonic, 252 
Illinois, 252 

Iowa, 252 

Iroquois, 252 
Kickapoo, 252-254* 
Mahican, 254 
Mascouten, 254 
Menominee, 254—255* 
Miami, 255 
Missouri, 255 
Munsee, 255 
Noquet, 256 
Oneida, 256 

Oto, 256 

Ottawa, 256 
Potawatomi, 256 


725 


Wisconsin [State of}—Continued 
Sauk, 256-257* 
Stockbridges, 257-258 
Tionontati, 258 
Winnebago, 258-259* 
Wyandot, 259 
Wishosk, see Wiyot. 
Wishram, 449-450* 
Witanghatal, see Serrano. 
Wi'tapahatu, see Kiowa. 
Witishaxtdnu, see Illinois, Miami. 
Wittne, see Kadohadacho. 
Wiwash, see Nanticoke. 
Wiwohka, division of the Muskogee,174 
Wiyot, 521-522* 
Woccon, 89-90*, 100 
destruction of, 90 
language preserved, 90 
Wohesh, see Pawnee. 
Wols, see Klamath. 
Wong’-ge, see Jemez. 
Wood, Abraham, trader, 74, 90, 118 
Wood Indians, see Tutchone. 
Woraxa, see Potawatomi. 
Wordxé, see Potawatomi. 
Wrangell, Baron, 539 
Wright, Allen, Choctaw chief, 188 
Wu’cxam, see Wishram. 
Wula’stegwi'ak, see Malecite. 
Wulx, see Shasta. 
Wyandot, 44, 227, 233-236*, 240, 243, 
apu 258, 259, 265, 298, 300, 307, 
5 
allied with British, 235 
citizens of Oklahoma, 236, 307 
destruction of Confederacy by Iro- 
quois, 236, 250, 259 
Wynoochee, 415, 450* 
Wyoming [State of], 384-387 
Arapaho, 384-386* 
Bannock, 386 
Cheyenne, 386 
Comanche, 386 
Crows, 386 
Dakota, 386 
Kiowa, 386 
Kiowa Apache, 387 
Pawnee, 387 
Shoshoni, 387 
Ute, 387 


Xacatin, see Soacatino. 
Xa-hé’-ta-fio’, see Apache. 
Xaratenumanke, see Pawnee. 
Xaray, see Zui. 
Xadtikwiwa, see Wintun. 
Xaxka’-a, see Crow. 
Xilotlantzinca, 641 

Xinca, 624, 625, 634, 641 
Xixime, 614, 622, 623, 641 
Xiximole, 619, 641 
Xorrhue, 641 

Xoxi, see Sewee. 

Xuala, see Cheraw. 
Xualla, see Cheraw. 
Xumanas, see Shuman. 


726 


Xupiltepec, 641 
Xurru, 641 
Xutiapa, 641 


Yasgala‘, see Umpqua. 

Yabipai Cajuala, see Paiute, Southern. 

Yabipai Jabesua, see Havasupai. 

Yabipai Lipan, 322 

Yabipais, see Navaho. 

Yabipais Natagé, see Kiowa Apache. 

Yacchicaua, 619, 641 

Yaculsari, 619, 641 

Yadkin, 90* 

Yagueca, 611 

Yahi, 522* 

Yahuskin, 476 

Ya’-ide’sta, see Molala. 

Yakima, 413, 425, 483, 450-451*, 462, 
471 


joined by Klickitat, 425 
removed to Reservation, 451 
Upper, see Pshwanwapam. 
Yakima War, 451 
Y&kokon k4pai, see Karankawan Tribes. 
Yakonan Tribes, 452 
Yakutat, 543 
Yam Hill, see Yamel. 
Yamacraw, see Yamasee. 
Yamasee, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 110, 
114-116*, 122, 123, 128, 131, 139, 
144, 152, 157, 174 
joined by Guale, 110, 115, 116 
joined Creeks, 152, 174 
Yamasee War, 75, 76, 84, 91, 93, 98, 99, 
101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 108, 116, 
124, 166, 227 
Yamel, 476-477* 
Yamiscaron, see Yamasee. 
Yampa, Ute band, 374 
Yampah, see Comanche. 
Ya’mpaini, see Comanche. 
Yampaos, see Yavapai. 
Yana, 490, 522-523* 
Central, 479 
Yanabopos, 625, 641 
Yanktonai, see Assiniboin. 
Yaochane, 619, 641 
Yaqui, 616, 641 
Yaquina, 477-478* 
Yasika, 641 
Yatasi, 205, 206, 212, 318 
member of Natchitoches Confed- 
eracy, 212, 
Yatcheé-thinyoowuc, see Chipewyan. 
Yatchitcohes, see Natchitoches. 
YAtilatlavi, see Navaho. 
Yauco, 611 
Yavapai, 351, 357, 365, 366, 367—369* 
Yayecha, see Eyeish. 
Yazoo, 187, 188, 194-195,* 201, 209, 
215, 232 
Ybaha, see Guale. 
Ychi-yamel-amim, see Yamel. 
Yeardley, Governor [Sir George], 79, 84 
Yécora, 631, 641 
Yeguacat, 619, 641 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


[Bull. 145 


Yellowknife Indians, see Ahtena. 
Yellow-knife Indians, see Tatsanottine. 
Yenyohol, see Winyaw. 
Yeopim, see Weapemeoc. 
Yesa, see Nahyssan. 
Yguaja, see Guale. 
Yoetahd, see Navaho. 
Yojuane, Tonkawan Tribe, 326 
Yokuts, 523-526* 
Yokuts, King’s River, 479 
Yolox, 617, 641 
Yoncalla, 478* 
Yoron, see Tunica. 
Yosko, 639, 641 
Youkon Louchioux Indians, see Kutcha- 
kutchin. 
Ysa, see Catawba. 
Yscani, 303, 305, 307* 
Yuchi, 99, 102, 103-104, 106, 116—120,* 
130, 140, 151, 152, 157, 167, 174, 
227, 229, 230, 307 
joined Creeks, 104, 118, 140, 152, 
0 
migrations of, 118-119, 152, 174 
united with Shawnee, 118, 174 
Yufera, 152 
See also Florida. 
See also Eufaula. 
Yui, 152-153* 
disappearance of, 153 
Yu-i’-ta, see Navaho. 
Yuk’hiti ishak, see Atakapa. 
Yuki, 526—527* 
Yuki, Coast, 527-528* 
Yukuth Kutchin, see Takkuth-kutchin. 
Yullit, see Ahtena. 
Yum, see Kamia. 
Yuma, 349, 354, 356, 365, 369-370,* 528 
Yuma Apache, 369 
Yuma tribes, 347, 351, 365, 490, 614, 
620, 622, 624, 625 
Yu*sséha, see Dakota. 
Yu"tara’ye-ru/nu, see Kickapoo. 
Yupaha, see Guale. 
Yurok, 521, 528-529* 
Yurok Tsulu-la, see Chilula. 
Yustaga, see Hostaqua. 
Yutaha, see Navaho. 
Yutflapé, see Navaho. 
Yutilatl4wi, see Navaho. 


Zacateco, 642 
Za’-ke, see Sauk. 
Zapotec, 617, 627, 642 
Zarate-Salmeron, 335 
Zayahueco, 620, 642 
Ze-gar-kin-a, see Zuni. 
Zegua, 642 
Zhorquin, 642 
Zjén-ta-Kouttchin, see Vunta-kutchin. 
Zoe, 615, 642 
Zoque, 642 
Zuaque, 616, 642 
Zuni, 340, 346—348* 
attacked by Spaniards, 347-348 
Zuzéca wiédsa, see Shoshoni, Northern. 


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