yaa eater *y iH J ae as 4 ae Pelee +i he? k i" ‘ hots % ni Pare testa} mpaiyt ace te i a att MY it oe i iy sicag ‘ te) CPi Tl baa aed ia ae (3 Vins bs ‘f ea sashes ney Mere A meee Rite bata mr - ¢ ty reese ah ae Bytes Tt A» Sap ad ae peat | phd Cas pay ny frees yey Pa oF eat a Ls Cera) ae Aa 1 Pet tae Re f eli ith +a Sites neil ors sie ie fel tl Ate ReieY tro RIL Sa Hteat iat dit mitane Andry. Later teins taiyY Voxel ete at ppb at at pint Mi tage sah i y Cate smart sh aa Dats if Brat P ay et Aba Ge bie gag i BD ytlh \\oh Aine tall aa i ah hi! a i eee tn NY, . 1) 1 J i 1 ne en ff es eit APR FARCE eee Heike eS iow ota at PEN: Fala ‘ hee Oy Mi voecign FIC MN 4 Bis : : Ear _ SMITHSONIAN INSTIGUTION ate BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY : BULLETIN 143 | ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE AND irs CULTURAL BACKGROUND By So SISTER M. INEZ HILGER © SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE AND ITS CULTURAL BACKGROUND By SISTER M. INEZ HILGER UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1952 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25,D.C. - Price 75 cents ah tei PAE SAL Lads ch a SRY og 1 )- « i} i <1 ee ; re * \ ya -_ . ee tie e AA) ; Ch wr = P ‘D, d 7” ; r Hela rR eae ‘har ; h . ar rc Th avis) Ase Ssh oh : ue? oa a ’ ; on ee t tabi st aM ac 4 (bP PR A p ‘ #9 , ‘ aha? witha bad 1 mat eh mt ash, a # LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL SMITHSONIAN INsTITUTION Bureau or AmeRIcAN ETHNOLOGY, Washingion, D. C., June 1, 1950. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled “Arapaho Child Life and Its Cultural Background,” by Sister M. Inez Hilger, and to recommend that it be published as a bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Very respectfully yours, M. W. Srimurne, Director. Dr. ALEXANDER WETMORE, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. vt? Saad » tan id as °F = Cnn 4, Pat) Pe eed UA MEN aC tara Ai) | Si ern tee any ‘ J yi t « y at kur j UF f \ i Salis! Bis BAD ! Te ae | iN ; f +, i nd, Se) ‘ » ay af ‘i 7 : “as | : 14 . ' r j ' ij Oi, iy : J r rvs, , ; } ' hr F 6 , tall ' 4 yi / A ti ‘ 7 , f f ‘ ; . ’ i . i . CUCE na ROR n aera \ . one = pele pew epger oe : ; Needs Pad: He CUP ORLY ane ys et bz) | fu a Sad hal Meu A ba LS Saas Ma len at i ees AY TEMS vet via me esheies 40) “choc beh, OCR ace Sele ral RET Re peaietnies 1:26 | Nig ae ae sitihe Sicha rigcaaeets ‘ 7 Us, : ! : ‘2 ened 6s ah rare A aha i , 7 / , i a, i : ee | ’ or Af a het ' mel yf! ‘ok Pe! Ba hh: ey we kK nat 4 CONTENTS Page HetOracetaheteed 28 a aang watt wad hy XI LA JASER COME” TEA OY ONE CYC Gf Sey ase eee eet Ig UT ORES, TO XV inmtroduetions he Arapaho Indiansi. 922562 es Se eee on 1 PCI UMM METI OC e wane os Yh EO os ee Cael Dyes Paula. ahah ele ops a RaneeanOm 26 oes ne et oa a ee eg ae py ond is 4 REG ARSOCTULG Y= 22 2 ee ee eles Bien at 6 HeimipaelonyancdesiZe\Oh ts matey 25 ey ee Ne ee 0 el eae eat 9 RenroGnorseshatiome: <= acs e! crs ke eee Oi eet oo aie me ener e allies ayy 10 ADOT TION Sees elec iting yn Scene elas Licdip Bp Sy te ay nay 2. by ota be yD pape 11 Food and conduct taboos and prescriptions. _______________._-.__- 12 BESS 10s Ineepenepen Sie iar aye a Ls hi A WL al La aac sd 15 JPAGVETE) OLE Oy HOT a ok ee nen nA ea EN Rs Gi eg MY 2 re 15 IPEYSONGSASSISUING (2 he ee Skah LN Se eae eg 15 Birth: Position of mother, aids, attendants, navel, placenta________ 16 ead shaping fontenals. —. . ..- . _.— -pouaiiyaies - asian pe ae lg shee 20 Chai Tee Es al eg cL Sead ea ead nas Sa 21 HHstoeub lass ec ee Ne le eal ee eh Lars ed > eee 21 Announcement of birth: 222.2) 2 32s ok pee ae ener aes a 21 PrImIA Ol on ee ce i es ee ee a 22 ING VelICOLGset a oe op eee el eee oe 0 ee 22 orcunimliimeerests.... 222) e oslo bl dU ee seen lL So ees 24 INGORE RGIEROUN G2 8 i ed a pees 24 ISIC ROU Owe POE Neh i es oes Ll ae 24 SMa peria:. CAlCUM POWGEr’ 222k Le 5 Lo ee 28 Dirac nies tie te SURE ee ke 29 pieammenartiag abies. oe ha eh ei le ie 38 TRE ee Bre pe ene ee ey oe ei 2 Ue eh | ee 38 Hirst suile;elenched fists): 2 222 asinjfece (2 eet on sly etl Sem ees 40 Mane eU Ot st = Saree Ra a iy en cel lye een 40 OnSiRn Pe te ee ee See ee ca te a. A lh han Be 4] LEDEGEO) S00 98 5S MR RN RIT RSI 7) ee gS ge CONOR ee mUOUEN Co eh TE A Sr 4] WIESE GLOGMOS, 10S Sa 5 ee ih es 8 OY he en poe ae eh 42 1B SUT Ca1E 2570 A ie AE Le oe Rg me ean sn eS 43 Dieesinip a Ween = So Se Se on sel ipa ee 44 PIN 28 2 ch ph el al es hk nfo pert At ie eh a bells mi Ah eth: 44 WEAN 2 eye dere 2 een Bes yo fe eee 3 elt aoa oi ig pede 46 Mey PIC CGNGitions.. 59 ed eerie Sniepve iiaeane bie 46 PUAMIS ADE UPONE ts Sa ee athe a geet aa Se aan 46 Metormed babies -.< = ee ep Pa pend ae ea Bech yee 47 Tne stele ed? oo he ene al gt Y pres iE Ban on pega yr We Ue El 48 MMe orbits ey MEAG TCL yg ye ed i ea Seals RR MY ey poe 49 A Gopylons, slaves, Serv alba” sate St ce Paks Ale Ee bike 50 Sick babies: cure and prevention. 2.2. = a a 54 vi CONTENTS Page TN, DEALS ALI ROR MIS EE RG Aa RP ape Races ag EE EEE oh 58 Oriper0Or MAMIee oa 2 ee ee eee ee eee 58 Reasons for giving or changing names-_--------------------------- 60 arate m ebm. 3683 iss ee ee eee 61 Shanord DAMEG. + 2. ee eee ee iho on en 62 Sherman Sage’s account of Arapaho names. -_------------------- af 64 Aranene NAMES... DS eae n oo ete ate eee eo} ee 66 POTS ESET LC a ane ie ee RES ee REN Pb oe eS ee ee i 68 Brother-sister relationship wad. Lcu.sbedeneseceeenceecst ek oe Eee 68 Puberty... - eae fais “ a4 } oh) Tavice! me Hite tt . Gi ot? 6 isa nothoet otto at igttread ade Pripws toed pepe ges sees 4 ia : ¥ ‘ iy mre) ‘ v iy 14 , I ' as id i wi i ee hee in } ‘7 i . } { ' : ome; { ’ ' \ eet u : ose y , Sir yu MA : Sel : ie ty : tt ATES 4 eer) t Pal. of Hats ‘ ‘ an nh aA F: ‘ r nel } ¥ \ “ e's “HAT; iif at : 5 , hw? i ; ¥ | hy sy ay 1) iby tite mnt + oitis a i a) as : . } f Re 3 ORME 1 OTRO y iano bire he we 4 we OLR, Cheetos ie &] Ais tity ; ‘aN ee fo ch esl ite. ay nae | OFF. , avn bee wed wolthds oiladatte pitesh tig iv i * ae . at ’ ‘ — eh weeks rns Ais d ee ht ord cn Ae a 7 ia 7 } ‘ yey ne ee bh “ MP Shing taitos lo datiMeod alana gift a ata od $4 Poy Old Lath d Asso peo ae al la b PREFACE The purpose of the present study is to record the customs, beliefs, and traditions of the primitive Arapaho Indians of the United States as found in the development and training of the child. Childhood among the primitive Arapaho began with birth. It ended when the child was sufficiently mature to no longer need, or be subject to, parental protection and direction. “They were children as long as the father and the mother supplied their needs; clothed and fed them; saved their treasures and belongings for them; cared for their horses and their ponies; gave them advice and made them obey. In fact as long as they were under the general protection of the family.” A girl was considered mature after puberty. Her childhood ended then, or at least shortly afterward. She was of marriageable age after puberty. The end of a boy’s childhood was not so definite. In- formants thought it ended with puberty, but no one considered a boy mature then. ‘When a boy’s voice had changed—that happened when he was about 14, 15, 16, or 17 years old—he was no longer considered a child. But neither was he a man until he was about 20 years old.” At 15 a boy was eligible for membership in the Stars, the second and last of the boys’ societies. At 17 he was permitted to join the first of the men’s societies, the Tomahawks. Periods in a child’s life were designated by events in its mental and physical development. When asked, “How old is your child?” a mother might answer, “My child still sleeps. My child smiles. My child has teeth. My child walks. Mychildeatsalone. My child now goes to the toilet alone. My child speaks some words now. My child is already able to think [about 4 years old]. My child is able to learn [about 6 years old]. My girl knows our language well now [about 10 years old]. My boy has his own mind now [about 15 years old].” No monograph dealing with Arapaho child life is now available. The brief exact studies of Michelson (1933 and 1934) and the longer accurate account of Mooney (1896), and Kroeber (1902) contain some excellent material related to child life. Attention is called to these in the present work, as well as to scattered items found in other sources. All sources are listed in the appended bibliography. The first 11 sections of the present study deal with the development and training of the child. Sections 12 through 19 tell of the milieu in which the child lived. Since phases of Arapaho life found in sections 12 through 19 had been rather completely covered by earlier writers, xI ‘jun 2 7 1952 XII PREFACE especially by Culin, Mooney, Kroeber, Dorsey, and Carter,’ the pres- ent writer spent little time studying them. The material of these writers is of particular value, since much of it was gathered by them in the field when the Arapaho lived in more primitive ways than they do today. Also in some instances the authors were participants in tribal activities and, therefore, had first-hand information. Attention is called throughout this work to previous comprehensive studies. Furthermore, some of the earlier literature contains minute descrip- tions of traits by eyewitnesses—traits no longer found among the Arapaho nor as minutely remembered by old Arapaho. Quotations from the literature as recorded by participant eyewitnesses are, there- fore, inserted; the atmosphere caught by the author would be lost in digests. The early literature and more recent studies, then, have been drawn upon in order to describe the primitive Arapaho child’s environment. The latter part of this study, beginning with the section on Ceremonial Age Societies, does however, contain some new material. Variations in important items occur in a number of places in the present work. The writer made serious, but unsuccessful, attempts to clear them. She cannot give reasons for the variations unless it be the following: Sherman Sage, a Northern Arapaho nearly 100 years old, was considered by the Whites on the Wind River Reservation, Wyo., and by the Arapaho on both the Wind River Reservation and the Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation, Okla., as the oldest, the best in- formed, and the most reliable Arapaho informant. The writer found this tobe true. It is his information, however, that often differs from that of most other informants. Sage was a generation older than most of the next oldest informants. It is possible that his early life was more typical of his tribe and less affected by intrusions than was that of other informants. Whenever it was difficult to decide which custom was institutional, the writer has quoted informants, especially Sherman Sage, at length. In fact quotations are freely used through- out the work. Many quotations contain shades of differences that may be of value in later comparative studies. Often, also, the age of an informant is given; age sometimes pigeonholes an informant in the period of acculturation. Since much information is personal, names are generally withheld. Informants wanted it so. Exceptions, in instances, are Sherman Sage, older than 97 years (pls. 1, 5) ; Old Lady Salt Friday, older than 81 years (pls. 2,9); Agnes Yellow Plume, 65 years old (pls. 4, 10, 15) ; and Anne Wolf, 70 years old (pls. 4, 10)— all of the Northern Arapaho; Arnold Woolworth, older than 80 years (pl. 3) ; and Jessie Rowlodge, 57 years—both of the Southern Arapaho. Information in the work is not always as complete as the writer would wish it to be. The Arapaho believe that speaking or thinking 1 Cf. Bibliography, pp. 233-240, of this work, CAO! « @ am PREFACE XIII of anything pertaining to prenatal life or to birth will cause pregnancy in one’s relationship. Since this was not desired, informants, as well as interpreters, hesitated to give information on these items. The same reserve was shown when health and death were discussed; such talk might cause ill health or death to someone in the tribe. Giving information on the Sun Dance, the tribal religion, savored of irrever- ence. Sharing knowledge of personal supernatural powers dimin- ished their efficacy. Plant usages, being closely associated with super- natural powers, must not be divulged. Persistence on the part of the writer in breaking down this reserve would have been discourteous, indeed ; consequently, some information is incomplete. The material for the present study was collected by the writer in the field during personal interviews with 15 Southern Arapaho on the Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation in Oklahoma in the winter of 1935 and the summer of 1941, and with 42 Northern Arapaho of the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming in the summers of 1936, 1940, and 1942. Informants and interpreters were selected with the council and advice of the personnel of the reservation agencies of the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, of missionaries on the reservations, of intelligent Arapaho, and of Whites in towns where Arapaho trade. Great care was taken that all persons selected were honest, had relia- ble and clear memories, and were mentally alert. Commercial in- formants and interpreters, such as offered their services at set prices, were strictly avoided.” The appended bibliography lists sources on the Arapaho found by the writer in the Library of Congress, the libraries of the Universities of Minnesota, California, Southern California, and Pennsylvania; of Columbia University and Catholic University of America; of the historical societies of Minnesota, North Dakota, and Oklahoma; of the United States National Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, the University of Pennsylvania Museum, the Field Museum of Natural History, the Southwest Museum, the Henry E. Huntington 2QOn both reservations informants and interpreters were acquainted with published works on the Arapaho. The day following an argument a Southern informant said: “You’re right on those navel cords and bags. Kroeber says the same as those old ladies told you yesterday. I was wrong. Do you know that most of the answers to the questions you are asking are not recorded in Mooney or Kroeber or Dorsey. I’m glad you are collecting these customs and recording them also.” A Northern man offered to let the writer see Carter’s study on the sacred pipe since it was the best available study, and ‘‘that will save you time, for there is no need doing things over again. I didn’t know that there was so much about our tribe that had not been recorded. They were telling me about your questions. Practically none are found in Mooney’s work nor in Kroeber’s.’”’ Lowie’s study (1916) on the Plains Indian age societies was recommended by a Southern man as the best authority on ceremonial age societies. “It deals with a good many buffalo Indian tribes. And it’s a good account. It tells you more than any Indian around here could give you on those societies. In fact, there was talk at one time about reviving these societies and it was Lowie’s book that we were going to use in doing so.’’ And the best information on Arapaho tribal bands is ‘‘the one you can find in Mooney’s account in the Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.” XIV PREFACE Library, and the library of the United States Department of the Interior. The writer owes special thanks to the librarians for their generous and helpful assistance. Valuable information was gleaned from Arapaho exhibits in the Chicago Natural History Museum, the United States National Muse- um, the American Museum of Natural History, and the University of Pennsylvania Museum. The writer is grateful to the curators for assistance in locating Arapaho items in the museums. The writer wishes to express her appreciation to the late Rev. Dr. John M. Cooper, Head of the Department of Anthropology of Cath- olic University of America; to the late Dr. Truman Michelson, of the Bureau of American Ethnology; to Dr. Wilson D. Wallis, Head of the Department of Anthropology of the University of Minnesota; and to Dr. Matthew W. Stirling, Director of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, for their interest, encouragement, and helpful suggestions in the present study. She is deeply indebted and sincerely grateful to both Arapaho in- formants and interpreters for their fine cooperation and intelligent help. The writer is keenly aware that without them the present work could not have been produced. She hopes, as they do, that their descendants will find in it a legacy. The writer is most appreciative, also, of the fine courtesies extended to her by the personnel of the local agencies of the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs on both the Wind River and the Arapaho- Cheyenne Reservations; to the missionaries on the reservations, both Catholic and Protestant; to her companions and field assistants, Sis- ters Marie Hilger, Immacula Roeder, Deodata Kaliher, Hieronyme Magyer, and Olivette Micho. The writer is obliged to her family for financial assistance in field work in 1935 and 1936, and museum research in 1941; to the Social Science Research Council for field work in 1940, 1941, and 1942; and to the American Council of Learned Societies for field work in 1941 and research in libraries in 1942. St. Benedict’s Convent, Sister M. Inez Hilger, St. Joseph, Minnesota Benedictine Sister. LIST OF INFORMANTS Northern Arapaho, Wind River Reservation, Wyo.: Ida Bear Jerome Old Man Susan Behan Iron Piper Dorah Bitner Old Lady Red Pipe Rapheal Dewey Susan Run Behind Flora Dewey Sherman Sage Robert Friday and wife Ed Sage Ann Friday Odilia Sage Gertrude Goggles Old Lady Salt Friday Martha Grosbeck William Shakespeare Susan Hannah Winneshead Sharp Nose Fanny Harris Sam Shotgun Veronica Harris Alberta Sitting Hagle Jane Hungry Wolf Catherine Smith Clarice Jenkins Baron Trosper Little Ant Henry Lee Tylor Pete Lone Bear Cecelia Warren James Monroe and wife Hannah White Plume Alonzo Moss Mae White Plume Paul Moss Ann Wolf Jane One Bull Agnes Yellow Plume Southern Arapaho, Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation, Okla.: Ada Addison Carl Sweezy Frank Addison Henry Rowlodge Rose Arpan Lucy Rowlodge Long Hair Jessie Rowlodge ' Ana Mix Hair Arnold Woolworth Grace Sage Bark Charles Woolworth Nelson Sage Bark Susie Woolworth Helen Spotted Wolf . ’ 3 * ~ y ' ; A Ae te nda - . ay Afr f _ - “1 * ye ad 4.2 ’ ; . if \ - he ® 4 i ‘. “4 ie hen B, F \ aL’ ar ¥ i Cry ern. 1 > : yf PEt omres 3} St A pine fod tia eet eek = a Le } a iy b 645 a. j ; ; Y; eevee (hate ‘ 7 ‘ f it ’ 7; jey 0 * , iy i* “ d yf i ( ri ity a t ‘ q t { " ‘ M + Pee th y v . ‘ Yas ei ier Pe sa aay , ; We bees: AERP OO SEO Pan oy tas bl i ty ‘ q ¥ 5 Ly inp nae! tt eee tas i ‘ Wy Pag Be ene ay Ah wort p presi t, ah ‘ Lei i 4 arta ; ie. ; t bg : i mite ¥ an ay y , « , Va" A é K y ‘ \ t Ae Sere WE ‘a 4 : | : 4 .F a : Y x ’ Maw ? ; Mow ariay whingih i onan oa yan e gang's see MA | a Dame AG. 80 ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE AND ITS CULTURAL BACKGROUND By Sister M. Inez Hi.crr INTRODUCTION: THE ARAPAHO INDIANS The place of origin of the Arapaho is not known. Arapaho tra- ditions tell that long ago, before there were any animals on the earth, all but one mountain was covered with water. Upon this mountain sat an Arapaho. “This Arapaho was a God. He had a pipe, and he gave it to the people. He showed them how to make bows and arrows, how to make fire by rubbing two sticks, how to talk with their hands; in fact, how to live” (Clark, 1885, p. 43). The Arapaho chief, Left Hand, said his people “originated in the north beyond the Mis- souri river” (Scott, 1907, p. 558). The name Arapaho is probably of White origin. Arapaho do not speak of themselves as Arapaho, nor do other Indians call them by that name. Clark (1885, p. 43) wrote: “I have been unable to ascer- tain why these Indians are called ‘Arapahoes.’ They can give no reason for it, and I have not been able to find a similar word in any of the languages of the surrounding tribes. . . . The Southern Arapaho call the Northern Arapaho ‘Red Eye,’ also ‘Sagebrush men’; the Northern Arapaho call the Southern Arapaho ‘South Men.’” The Sioux called the Arapaho Blue Cloud People; the Shoshonie, Dog Eaters (Mooney, 1896, p. 789; Burton, 1862, p.176). Lewis and Clark (1905, vol. 6, p. 90) called them Kanenavich in 1804; in 1819, Long (1904-7), vol. 17, p. 156) speaks of them as Arrapohoes. The Northern Arapaho are signed “mother people” in the sign language; the South- ern, “rubbed noses”; the Gros Ventres of the Prairie, who at one time were very closely allied to, and perhaps, part of the Arapaho proper, “belly people” (Mooney, 1896, p. 954). Linguistically, according to Michelson (1912), the Arapaho are one of the four major divisions of the Algonquian speaking peoples, the other three being the Blackfoot, the Cheyenne, and the Eastern-Cen- tral Algonquins. Culturally, the Arapaho, belong to the great Plains area of North America. Their ethnology has the earmarks of that culture: they sub- 892644—52—_2 il 2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buut., 148 sisted largely on the buffalo, lived in tipis, expressed their religious convictions in the Sun Dance, maintained order by means of military organization generally called soldier bands or age societies, and used the horse for transportation in the hunt. The Arapaho are described in the literature of the nineteenth century as brave and fearless; intelligent; thrifty; ingenious; hos- pitable; kindly and accommodating; much given to ceremonial ob- servances; less easily discouraged than the Cheyenne, but correspond- ingly lacking the energy and determination of the Cheyenne; and having a standard of virtue for the women not nearly so high as that of either the Cheyenne or Sioux.2 In physique they are described as being distinguishable from the Dakota (Sioux) by their superior gauntness of person and boldness of look. (See Mooney, 1907 a, p. 73; Burton, 1862, p. 176; Farnham, 1904~7, p. 266; Miles, 18338, p. 61; Clark, 1885, p. 39.) In all sears the Arapaho at one time were a honeuleaeet village people. Not only their traditions but the literature as well would lead one to think so. Lewis and Clark believed them to have been a subdivision of the Paducas who resided in several villages on the head of the Kansas River in 1724.4 Mooney (1896, p. 957) mentions their traditions regarding agricultural life. Lowie infers village life from his study of Plains Indians age societies; Strong, from his arch- eological findings in Plains areas. (Cf. Lowie, 1916, p. 954; Strong, 1935, pp. 298-299.) The time when the Arapaho turned from a horticultural village life to a nomadic life is not known. Old Arapaho men and women today say that they can remember their old people as always saying that the Arapaho moved to the plains from the valley of the Red River of the North, just north of what is now Minnesota, long before their time. Carter (1938, p. 75) writes that the Arapaho were in Minnesota several hundred years ago; Kroeber (1916, p. 73) believes that they have been separated from the Central and Eastern Algon- quins for more than a thousand years. The Arapaho were occupying what is now eastern N. arth ‘Dakota ne adjacent Manitoba in 1790, for Mackenzie found them occupying the plains from the north bend of the Missouri across the south:bend of the Assiniboin at that time. He thought they were then moving north- westward (Mooney, 1907 a, p. 372)., In 1837 they were residing at the *It is only fair to note here that Michelson (1938, p. 596) wrote regarding the contrast of Arapaho and Cheyenne women: “As far as the Arapaho are concerned, I am inclined to believe that thelr unfavorable reputation is due to the fact some institutional practices recorded by other writers and myself were observed and supposed to be of every day occurrence, whereas they are strictly circumscribed and do not justify the opinions ex- pressed.” Michelson expressed the same opinion to the writer in 1938. The big sae knowledge of Arapaho women substantiates Michelson’s observations. * Lewis and Clark based their location of the Paducas on Le Page du Pratz (1758, p.. 71). Referred to on p. 108 of vol. 6 of Lewis and Clark (1904-5). Hinerr] ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE 3 headwaters of the Arkansas River (Atkinson, 1838, p. 20). In 1839 Farnham found them “south of the Snakes. They wander in the win- ter season over the country about the head of the Great Kenyon of the Colorado of the West, and to a considerable distance down that river; and in summer hunt the buffalo in the New Park, or ‘Bull Pen,’ in the ‘Old Park’ on Grand River, and in ‘Boyou Salade,’ on the south fork of the Platte” (Farnham, 1904-7, p. 266). In 1862 they were living between the South Fork of the Platte and the Arkansas Rivers. They were bounded on the north by the Sioux, and hunted in the same grounds with the Cheyenne (Burton, 1862, p. 176). Just when the Cheyenne and Arapaho formed the close friendship that persists even at the present time is not known. A Northern woman informant of the present study remarked, “During Custer’s fight the Arapaho fought with Custer against the Sioux and the Chey- enne. That was the only time we were afraid of the Cheyenne. We feel as though we are related to the Cheyenne. Some Arapaho have even married Cheyenne.” Nor is the time known when the Gros Ventres, once a part of the main body of the Arapaho, separated from the Arapaho. Mackenzie wrote in 1802 that the Gros Ventres had lived near the falls of the Saskatschewan River. Maximilian found them in about the same area and noted in 1832 that they were roaming “about in all the prairies which border on the territory of the Black- feet and the Arapahos Indians” (Maximilian, 1904-7, p. 75). Nor is the time or the occasion for the separation of the main body into the Northern and the Southern Arapaho known. Left Hand (pl. 38), a chief of the Southern Arapaho, after telling of the separa- tion of the Gros Ventres said: After we came south to the Black hills we separated again because the North- ern Arapaho preferred to stay north and we preferred to come south. We did not do it on account of any quarrel or unpleasantness; we came south because there were more horses and a milder climate. The others preferred to stay in the north; they are our people; we often used to visit them and they us. We have lived since usually with the Southern Cheyenne. [Scott, 1907, pp. 558-559. ] Enemies of the Northern Arapaho were the Utes, the Bannocks, and the Shoshonie; of the Southern Arapaho, the Osage and the Pawnees. “The Sioux and the Cheyenne were good friends of the Arapaho,” said a Northern informant of the present study. “The Sioux are good people. The Bannocks and the Shoshonie were our worst ene- mies. I have such a dislike for the Shoshonie even today that I won’t look at one.” Lewis and Clark (1904-5, p. 90) found the Arapaho—probably the Northern Arapaho—trading with the Mandans on the Missouri in 1804, exchanging “horses and leather tents” for “arms, ammunition, axes, kettles and other articles of European manufacture.” The Man- 4 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 148 dans had received the articles for trade by barter from British trad- ers and the Assiniboine, who had also gotten them in trade from the British. Long (1904-7, vol. 17, p. 156) found them—probably the Southern Arapaho—trading with Spaniards from Mexico in 1819, ex- changing “dressed bison-skins for blankets, wheat, flour, maize, ete.” At intervals, he writes, they held “a kind of fair on a tributary of the Platte, near the mountains (hence called Grand Camp creek), at which they obtained British merchandize from the Shiennes of Shi- enne river, who obtained the same at the Mandan village from the British traders that frequent that part of our territory.” At the present time the Arapaho reside on two reservations assigned to them by the United States Government.’ The Southern Arapaho were placed on the Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation in Oklahoma in 1867. They share the reservation with the Cheyenne. The Northern Arapaho were assigned to the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming in 1876. The Shoshonie reside on the same reservation (Statistical sup- plement to Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1940, pp. 12, 16; Mooney, 1907 a, pp. 72-73). PRENATAL PERIOD CONCEPTION Arapaho believe that speaking of prenatal life or birth will cause a woman relative to become pregnant soon thereafter, a thing evidently not desired or not considered by men and woman informants of the present study one’s business to bring about. They gave information regarding prenatal life and birth reluctantly, or refused it entirely. Often both informants and interpreters sat in complete silence. One interpreter said: “These two old women do not want to say anything more about unborn babies. They are worried even now that one of their married granddaughters will be pregnant because they told you about rebirth (pp. 5-6).° They didn’t know when they agreed to tell you their old customs that you intended to ask them about babies; they prefer to tell you other things.” When women informants and interpreters did discuss such questions, it was done in low, subdued tones and with a certain amount of reverence, hands resting from sew- ing or beadwork. (Sewing and beadwork were often done while giv- ing information.) Women interpreters always hesitated, and usually refused, to ask information on prenatal life and birth from old men. If they did so, it was done in an abashed manner, and conversation on both sides was m subdued tones. “I should not like to ask the old man that question [When is the fetus considered to be a human be- ing?]. I do not think he would want to talk about it. Anyway I 5 For the Northern Arapaho in the process of acculturation see Elkin (1940, pp. 207-258), ® This notation and all similar ones refer to pages of the present work. HILerR] ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE 5 would not know what words to use in asking him.” However, the following information was obtained. Informants were not agreed as to the time during gestation when the fetus became a human being. Some considered the fetus human from the moment of conception; others only when the woman felt quickening. Some gave an aborted fetus burial like that given adults, evidence, no doubt, that they believed the fetus to be a human being; others disposed of it in the same manner as the placenta, that is, they hung it in the crotch of a tree or buried it without ceremony (pp. 17-18). For them it was not human. A Northern woman, in her eighties, believed the fetus was human from the moment of conception. “One time,” she said, “I saw a miscarriage that was 3 months old. It had a form, but its legs had not yet parted. But I considered it as a human being. We always regarded any fetus asa human being. This one was wrapped up and buried in the ground up in the hills. They did not throw it away. It was thought of as being a person.” A well- informed Southern Arapaho man, too, was certain that a fetus born prematurely was always given burial like an adult. Others in agree- ment with this idea said, “In less than two weeks after conception a woman knew that she was pregnant; this fetus was considered human. It was about this time that the mother was aware of her condition because, either in a dream at night or while she was around doing the work of the day, it seemed as if a third person were present. A fetus born prematurely was given burial like a person.” “A child was considered a human being from the moment of conception. No matter at what stage a spontaneous abortion occurred, the child was given the same burial as an adult. Whatever it was, the people considered it as one more life.” On the other hand a Southern woman, in her forties, knew of a 3-to-4-month old fetus that had been tied into a skin and hung in the crotch of a tree, as the placenta is hung. Another Southern women, in her sixties, knew of a 3-month-old fetus that was buried in a hole in the ground without any ceremony, and of an 8-month fetus that was given adult burial. She herself believed the fetus was human from the time that the mother felt its movements. So did two Northern women, one of whom remarked, “When it begins to move, it is considered a human being. That occurs usually during the sixth month of pregnancy. If a miscarriage occurs before the mother feels any movement, the fetus is wrapped in a diaper first, and then into a piece of canvas. It is buried in a hole, and dirt is placed over it. There is no ceremony connected with such a burial.” The Arapaho believe that reincarnation occurred in instances. The method involved was not known. “Yes, a child could be a reborn per- son. I don’t know how this happened, but when such a child was born, we used to say it came from the other world.” The belief of the 6 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 148 Chippewa that the spirit of the deceased person came near the mother’s body and entered it, does not prevail among the Arapaho.’ “There is no belief that the spirit of the old person enters the mother’s body in any way; the person is just born again like other babies.” Most informants agreed that a baby born with teeth, or that one whose upper teeth developed before the lower ones, was reincarnated. So was a child born crippled or scarred or wrinkled, or one born with a patch of white hair, webbed toes, or webbed fingers. An infant that died was believed to return to earth and then live to be a very old person. A person who lived to be unusually old also returned to live again. Twins were not reborn. “I knew a very old man who married a young girl. The skin of their baby, a boy, was wrinkled like that of an old Indian. We thought he was an old Indian man come back to live again.” “TI knew a woman who, when quite old, gave birth to a baby girl whose skin was wrinkled. We said it was an old Indian come back to life again.” “A child born with snips out of its ears was also thought to be an old Indian reborn. The snips indicated pierced ears.” “T know a woman who lives about 10 miles from here who was born with two teeth. The women who were present at her birth said at once, ‘Here is an old woman come back again to live,’ and they named her The-Woman-That-Was-Born-with-Two-Teeth.” “A baby born with two fingers or two toes grown together is said to have been shot when it lived the first time.” Most informants were agreed that an old man was reborn in a boy; an old woman, in a girl. “I knew a girl that was born with many scars on her neck, legs, and waistline. We knew she was an old woman come back to life. A baby girl always had been a woman; a baby boy, a man. My grandson was born with a scar on the under side of each ear-lobe. We knew that he was an old man born again. But we didn’t know who it was that had been reborn in him.” All informants were agreed that the reborn person was not identifiable. FERTILITY, STERILITY Certain Arapaho men and women, “only those who had knowledge of the treatment,” could produce both fertility and sterility in women ; in men, only fertility. | 7 Cf. the writer’s Chippewa Child Life and Its Cultural Background, Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 146. All Chippewa customs referred to in the present work will be found in Chippewa Child Life, unless otherwise stated. ’ Among the Cheyenne, fetal teeth, a patch of grey hair, scars on ears, polydactylism or syndactylism were signs of reincarnation. (Taken from the writer’s unpublished field notes collected among the Northern Cheyenne of Montana in 1936 and the Southern Cheyenne of Oklahoma in 1935 and 1940. All customs related to the Cheyenne found in ‘the present work are from the same unpublished field notes, or her Notes on Cheyenne ebild life (Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. 48, pp. 60-69, 1946). Hitenk] ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE 7 In men fertility was produced by treatment with fumes. In women both fertility and sterility were produced by treatment with fumes, by magic, and by herbs administered either orally in decoctions or by mastication. One informant had been given a potion of boiled root several months before she was married, in order that she be fertile.® Sherman Sage witnessed a treatment by fumes to produce fertility: I knew a couple, a good couple, that didn’t have any children. They went to a medicine man who made a smudge of herbs. This man took a handful of the smudge, and wafted it at the sole of one of the feet of the woman. Then he took another and spread it over the toes; and then with one handful he moved up the entire leg and over the front of the body to the neck. He did the same to the other leg and part of the body. Then he treated each hand and arm in the same way beginning at the finger tips. He did this once to each arm, each time bringing the smudge in his hand over the front of the body up to the neck. Then he scooped up a handful and had the woman inhale it. He also placed a little piece of the herbs used in making the smudge on the tip of the woman’s tongue. Sometimes it was the man’s fault that there were no children. If it was his fault, the medicine man treated him in the same way. Sage had no knowledge of how the medicine man could tell whether the man or the woman was sterile; “but these medicine men could tell,” he added. Two women informants gave names of several men who had cohabited with their (the men’s) granddaughters to discover whether the granddaughters or their husbands were sterile. “They cohabited with these women during a large gathering of the tribe. In every case that we know of the woman conceived, and we knew then that it was the man’s fault.” Sherman Sage said the same medicine man who had treated the woman with fumes described above had the ability to tell a woman that at a certain moon or at the next change of the moon, that is, at some designated time, she could conceive a child. “I know of an instance,” he added, “where he told a couple that they would have a boy, and that came true. Before any couple asked a medicine man to treat either one or both of them, they gave him a horse and brought things for him to eat.” Another Northern informant “knew a man who wished that a woman should not have any children; and this woman never had any. If he wanted a woman to have many children, he could wish her to have many. This was his ‘medicine’ (pp. 124— 127). This man knew what was going to happen; that was his power.” Sage related of his own family: There were five in our family. I had two brothers and a sister older than myself and a sister younger than I. My mother had a hard time when her third baby was born. So my grandmother on my father’s side asked my mother if those were all the children she wanted. My mother said she wanted two more, a boy and girl. So then my grandmother Said, “All right, then I will not treat ® When plants are not identified in this work, it was impossible to obtain the information. (Cf. Preface, p. XIII.) 8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 148 you.” After that I was born; and when I was 8 years old, my little sister was born. [The interpreter added] I remember that old lady . She had that “power.” She grew to be very old and died only a few years ago. Some of these old Indians gave “medicine” which was tied in a small circular container about the size of a bantam egg. ‘hese were worn by a woman attached to the inside of her belt if she did not wish to have any more children. These little bags were hard to get, but women who succeeded in getting them and who wore them didn’t have any more children. Another Northern informant told of sterility produced by fumi- gation. When a young woman was about to be married, [she said] either the man’s parents asked him to practice voluntary control, or the man and the woman agreed not to have any children by having the woman sterilized. If they decided that the woman was to be sterilized, the couple contacted a medicine man, pref- erably one not related to the woman. He might, however, be her grandfather, but not her uncle, brother, or cousin in Arapaho way. [Cf. pp. 194-195.] When all was agreed upon, the couple and the medicine man retired into a tent. The husband had to be present. A fire was built in the tent. The medicine man took hot coals from it, and laid herbs on these. The herbs were found near Lake Moran close to Yellowstone Park. He took the hot coals with the herbs to the west side of the fireplace. The medicine man sat in the center on the west side. That was his place always. He took some of the coals and pulverized them and boiled them in water to make a decoction. When this was done the girl removed her underclothing and stood with feet apart over the coals from which emitted the medicinal fumes. At the same time she drank as much of the hot decoction as she could. She endured this as long as possible. Sterility, the informant thought, probably resulted from the intense heat. A woman who had been thus fumigated once, never again bore children. “At least it was never known that she did,” she added. Several other women who were present at this interview relayed among themselves names of women who had been sterilized by this method. A Southern woman told of sterilization by fumes and magic com- bined : Long ago, before a girl was married, she might be sterilized. Old women knew how to do this. They used some medicine, probably an herb or a root, and made fumes with it. The girl stood over the fumes and had smoke rubbed all over her body. This was done once a month after menses, but it had to be done four successive months to be effective. She was also given a little of the medicine which she put into a little bundle and tied to her belt. She had to carry this all the time. I had an aunt who carried this medicine and while she carried it she had no children. She had one before she knew of the medicine; but it died. It was difficult to get this medicine from those who knew it. A woman who has this medicine gives it only to those she likes. Sometimes those who have this knowl- edge also have the power to treat women secretly when the women are not present; a woman so treated will know nothing about it. There seems to be one woman still who knows how to do this. 1 The number 4 occurs in many Arapaho customs. Both 4 and 7 are sacred numbers according to Mooney (1896, p. 1000), Kroeber (1902, pp. 411-412), and Michelson (1938, p. 604). HILGER] ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE 9 Another informant knew a man whose “medicine” was a mental power by means of which he could produce both fertility and sterility in women. A similar account was related by another Southern woman. My mother, a medicine woman, asked us girls [her daughters] one day if we wanted any children after we were married. “If not,” she said, “I shall tell an old medicine man to come to our house.” If she had invited him we would have had to give him gifts for his services. Then he would have tied some of his “medicines” into a bag and we each would have had to wear the bag on our belt continuously, day and night. This medicine man began by praying to God to keep a woman from having children, and he also blessed her. Then he mixed herbs and put these on hot coals. The woman stood over this and allowed the fumes to come up her clothes. It seemed that those that had this done were childless. I have heard of some that had it done. I saw my mother do it to one of my sisters. Most of us were afraid that this was like murder; so we did not have it done. We were educated, too, and no longer lived the old Indian way. Noth- ing was done to sterilize men. Both Northern and Southern informants knew Arapaho men and women who, in recent times, had exercised their magic powers or used their knowledge to sterilize Arapaho. “My parents asked me if I wanted my wife to be sterile. They asked me this before I was mar- ried.” “I think that this is still practiced around here, for there are a good many women among us who are about 45 years of age who have no children.” “Recently an old Indian woman told a girl who has had a number of children that if the girl wanted it, she could make her sterile.” “Not long ago I saw an old man make a smudge on a shovel. He had a girl stand over this with feet on either side. This was done so that she would not have any more children; and she hasn’t had any since.” LIMITATION AND SIZE OF FAMILY Artificial contraceptive methods were probably not known to the Arapaho; willful control of coition was practiced. Children were spaced by natural control and by being nursed until 4 years of age or older. “It was a custom among the Arapaho that a mother have a child no oftener than every 4 years. To bring this about she nursed a child 4 years.” (Cf. also p. 45.) “Children were spaced by cou- ples keeping apart after a child was born. The husband would have relations with his other wives then.” No, not with just any woman. There was no prostitution in those days. Nowadays there is much prostitution and many women are suffering because of it. In the old days women stayed at home. Men, too, were always busy on the warpath then.” Families of informants and interpreters numbered from 1 to 10 children. An informant in her nineties had had 10 children, 4 of The Cheyenne have the same custom. 10 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 148 whom were living. Another in her seventies had also had 10 children; only 1, a son, was living. She remarked, “Had my oldest child, a girl, lived, she would be 50 years old this year. All my children had the same father.” An informant in her sixties had lost 9 of her 10 children. Ten years had elapsed between her ninth and tenth child; her tenth, a son, was living. Of two interpreters, both in the fifties, one had five children; the other, six. Of two in the forties, one had six and the other two. One noted: Ordinarily families had only four or five children. However, I knew one couple that had 14 children. A couple that had only one child—and in such cases a daughter was preferred—was highly respected because it was said that the parents had restricted themselves. Men were anxious to marry the daughter of such a couple. A man doing so was expected to be well qualified (p. 198). Some families had only two children, sometimes of the same sex. Such families, too, were respected and were considered outstanding. Spacing children was usually done by the mother nursing a child three or four years and by keeping her husband away from her during this time. Mothers sometimes advised their married daughters to go swimming with their men, and this might be done every day; then they would have no children either. [The other added:] Mothers nursed their children as long as they could, so as not to have many children. A nursing mother never conceived. Quoting Sherman Sage: There were cases where couples wanted children but couldn’t have them. They didn’t like to be without children for they thought they hadn’t done right in the face of God, since they were not blessed with children. People used to say, “Now, they don’t have children. Looks like they ought to be tired being alone.” People used to tell us, “Now, those people are stingy ; they are no good.” PERIOD OF GESTATION No means by which the sex of the fetus could be affected was known to the Arapaho. A Southern informant believed that some medicine women long ago had had such knowledge. It was their “medicine,” and such knowledge had died with them. Parents had no desire to have either boys or girls exceed each other in numbers. Nor did they in general wish the first-born to be a boy or a girl. Mothers wanted some girls and fathers some boys, since these would help them in their respective work. Quoting several informants: Both father and mother were willing to take any child that was born to them; they had no preference. I never cared whether my children were boys or girls. I have two girls and one boy. I appreciate my son a great deal; he is my only son. ... The mother usually wished that there would be some girls; the father, that there would be some boys. . . . In the early days warriors were needed to defend the tribe and its rights. For this reason every family wanted some boys, but never to the exclusion of girls. . . . Families were proud of their boys when they were successful on the warpath. ... Parents were satisfied with whatever child was born, but the mother often wished for a girl and the father for a boy since these would help them in their work. . . . Some mothers preferred HILGER] ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE 11 the oldest child to be a girl, for a daughter would help her with the work. In early days women did most of the work. ... A family preferred to have both girls and boys. Our people used to think that a family of girls only was selfish and did not care to help protect other people. If a mother wanted a boy, she was told to pray to the Great Spirit to bless her with one; she had no other way of producing a boy. Some did not want to have any children at all, because they did not want to be bothered with them. I have four children and I am proud of them. Two are soldiers in the army (World War II), one works in town, and one is at home. I feel thankful for being a mother. I think some women realize only after they have grown too old to have children, or maybe in time of need, that they made a mistake in not having children. Also, when they get old, they are lonely and have no one to help them. Sex of the fetus was predicted by the contour of the mother’s body and by the location of the fetus. A Southern informant said, “If a pregnant mother’s body appeared pointed, she was carrying a boy, since the baby was sitting in a position in which men sit [on their haunches]. If the mother’s body was flat, she was carrying a girl.” A similar statement was made by a Northern woman: “If it is a girl that a woman is carrying, it can’t be noticed nearly so much on the mother as when she carries a boy. If she carries a boy, her body is pointed because a boy sits the same way inside his mother as does a man when he sits down. A man crosses his legs.” If the fetus rested low in the mother’s abdomen, she was carry- ing a boy; if it rested near the sternum, a girl. Twins were sometimes predicted correctly because the expectant mother was unusually large. They knew for certain that she was carrying twins when her only comfortable position, when lying down, was on her back with several pillows under her head. “She could not lie on her left or her right side and sleep.” ‘Twins could not be predicted by the hiccoughing of the fetus nor by a slightly depressed longitudinal line extending from navel to lower abdomen of the mother.” ABORTIONS All informants were agreed that abortions were not induced in the early days. A midwife in her eighties was emphatic in her state- ments. “Arapaho had no means of killing an unborn baby or of get- ting rid of it. On the contrary they did have, and still have, medicines that prevent mothers from having miscarriages which may occur when they work too hard, or when they get hurt. I know the plants to use, but I can’t give you any. When I need them I get them over there,” she concluded, pointing in the direction with her chin. Other informants remarked: No voluntary abortions were ever committed by our people. . . . I never heard of intentional abortions. If an expectant mother feared an abortion, she was given a decoction of medicine so that she wouldn’t lose the baby. This might Nae Chippewa predict twins in both ways; Cheyenne, only by the abdominal longitudinal 12 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 148 happen if she got hurt. ...I know of one woman who had one pregnancy after another, but never gave birth to her children. The Indians believed that such a woman would eventually be killed by her own babies. They would come back to kill such a mother. Such a woman ought to get help so she would not lose her babies. . . . The Arapaho women knew that they could have something done to themselves so that they would not bear children; but once a child was conceived, it was always given birth. Nothing was ever done to get rid of the unborn child. I have heard of women of old times who feared that they would lose their children; but they really never lost them. Today there are people around here, some of them White doctors, who tell the Indians how to abort children. I don’t think it is right to do that, but I think it is all right for a woman to have treatments so that she will not have any children. FOOD AND CONDUCT TABOOS AND PRESCRIPTIONS Informants, both Northern and Southern, listed food taboos for both husband and wife during the wife’s pregnancy; just as many in each group—and these ranged from the forties to the eighties in age— said that they had never heard of any. Although those who denied the taboos seemed sincere in their denials, the writer is inclined to think that the fear of affecting pregnancy in a relative influenced their answers, for a denial was quickly made and no further interest was shown. Discussing the taboos and prescriptions was, after all, talking about prenatal life. The following contributions, however, were made by Northern men and women : An expectant mother may have any food she craves. If she wants her baby to have nice black eyes, black hair, and be good-looking, she should eat skunk. I never heard that any of our people believed that a baby would be good-looking if its mother, while she carried it, ate meat found back of the nose of cattle or buffalo, like you say the Blackfoot believes.” If an expectant mother drinks hot tea or hot water, birth will be difficult ; if she eats rabbits, her baby will have a rabbit mouth ; if she eats beaver, it will have arms and legs like a beaver’s. Both Northern and Southern informants were agreed that neither male nor female Arapaho should eat “twins” (tenderloins) of buf- falo—at the present time of cattle—from babyhood until the end of childbearing age, since eating tenderloin made them potential parents of twins." My parents-in-law may now eat them; they are past 50. If they had eaten “twins” before this time they might have expected to have twins. When twins are born on the reservation today, people say that the parents at one time must have eaten “twins.” ... All persons including children, but not old men and old woman, should not eat those two dark strips of meat of cows or sheep called “twins” for fear twins will be born to them when they are married. These “twins” lie near the spine of the animal. “From the writer’s unpublished field notes collected among the Blackfoot in 1936 and 1937. 4 A belief also held by the Cheyenne. HILcER] ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE 13 Quoting Sherman Sage: A woman must never eat, either while pregnant or at any other time, the two pieces of meat that lie opposite each other on either side of the backbone of a buffalo. They are round and long in shape. She will have twins, if she does. Today this holds true for eating the “twins” of cattle. The woman you saw yesterday was not able to come to the Sun Dance last week because she had twins. It would have been too hard to have moved camp with two babies. This woman decided she wanted twins; so she ate this meat. [To which the interpreter added] Iate that meat, but I didn’t have twins. Quoting one of the oldest Northern women: “Today many Arapaho have twins. I don’t know of any Indians that had twins in old times. We have a belief that if a woman eats the two pieces of meat that lie inside of the ribs of a cow or a buffalo, she will have twins. These Pieces are so wide [indicated 3-finger width] and so long [from tip of first finger to wrist]. The old Indians were careful never to eat these. If they did, they knew they would have twins.” Then with a good deal of emphasis and some disgust, she added, ““Those pieces are no good; we cut them out and throw them away.” Her friend, an- other old woman, added with some impatience and a bit of indigna- tion, “Our young Indians today go to Riverton [town near reserva- tion] and buy hamburger meat at the butcher shop. The butcher doesn’t care what he puts into that ground meat; he grinds up all kinds of meat for hamburgers, including ‘twins.’ Our young Indians eat these hamburgers and have twins; that’s why you see so many of them with twins!” Southern informants contributed the following: If the mother ate “twins” found in the back of a cow, she knew she would have twins. People used to eat them without knowing it; now they are careful so that they won’t eat them. Formerly there were few twins among the Ara- paho.. . . I heard of mothers who ate the “twins” of a buffalo or of a cow or of a calf, and then later gave birth to twins. My grandmother said you could eat anything else you wanted to eat but not “twins” when you were that way. [A young mother said] Taboos must be heeded even before the girl is married. If a girl eats rabbit meat, she can expect any of her babies to have a harelip. Hating ‘‘twins’—meat that lies near the spine of a beef—causes women to have twins. These taboos must be heeded from the time the girl is of childbearing age. After a boy reaches manhood, he, too, must abstain from eating “twins.” [A man had heard old women say to his pregnant wife] Don’t eat the double of anything, such as twin nuts, twin seeds, twin watermelons, in fact anything that is double, during the last 3 months of pregnancy. A Northern informant said: One of my children had a harelip when born. They held the lip together right after birth and it grew together. I had eaten rabbits. I heard of a colored woman who was married to an Oklahoma Indian [not an Arapaho]. A monkey was born to them. [She continued in a semiwhisper,] It had a tail and ears just like a monkey. When it was born, the midwife was afraid of it. It died. [Burial was like that of an adult human being.] This woman used to eat 14 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuw, 148 coconuts and that is what caused it. This woman is still living. A girl was told before she married not to eat cottontails since she might then give birth to a child with a harelip; not to wear anything tight, like a girdle, since it might clog her blood flow and injure the baby. To drink much pure water, even to rise at night to do so, was desirable since it kept body fluids normal and later helped to create a healthy flow of milk. An expectant mother was not “to hang around the stove or fire” since it would cause difficult birth and also cause the afterbirth to adhere. In order to maintain her vigor, strength, and health, she was to retire early and be up before sunrise walking around. ‘The baby, however, did not do its growing before sunrise.* Too much lying down or sitting up caused the baby to have a flat head; a thing not desired; moving about prevented this. Married women who associ- ated with a pregnant woman or borrowed clothing from her might also expect soon to become pregnant, for “they will catch it from her.” Looking at a dead person did not affect the baby, but “this younger generation today say that if they look at a dead pent the baby will be marked; this was not believed by the old people.” Nor did a woman cause birthmarks on her unborn child if she touched her own face with her berry-stained hands as is believed by the Chippewa. Blue marks on the baby were due to “bumps” the mother sustained while pregnant. “If a child was born with a birthmark, more par- ticularly a blue mark on the back, people said that the mother had worked hard and had carried heavy loads on her back while carrying the baby. This may be true, for babies born today no longer have these blue marks. Women today don’t carry loads on their backs.” An expectant mother must not look at a cripple nor a hunchback, nor must she be frightened; her unborn child will suffer from the ef- fects. “My husband scared me with a skunk while I was carrying a baby. It left the mark of a skunk on the baby’s leg.” “Not long ago a man was wrecked by a train and badly hurt. When his pregnant wife first saw him his head was tied up with bandages. She was frightened because of the bandages. When her baby was born, it was black all about the left eye, the same eye that had been bandaged on the father. People thought then that the baby had been marked because the mother had been frightened.” Birth was facilitated if the pregnant woman Heise or someone else, dropped a young skunk between the front of her body and the clothing she wore when pregnant. “Her dress was pulled away from her body at the neck and the little skunk dropped down right close to her body, letting it fall to the ground. Skunks give birth easily.” If the pregnant woman did not exercise sufficiently, or if she turned over in bed without sitting up, the navel cord wound about the baby’ 8 A belief held by both Chippewa and Cheyenne. Hiterr)} ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE 15 neck. The same happened if she peeked through holes in the tent cover ; put her head, but not her body, out-of-doors to look around; or if she stepped out-of-doors and returned walking backward. “None of my children had cords around the neck when born, but one of my granddaughters had three children born that way. But young people today no longer listen to advice that we older Indians give them.” A husband was not to step over any part of his pregnant wife’s body, “not even over her feet”; it would make birth difficult. BIRTH PLACE OF BIRTH A special lodge was seldom erected for the birth of a child; generally babies were born in the home tipi. If the people happened to be en route, the baby was born either in the open or in the tipi occupied as the home tipi at the time. “Medicine” bags (pp. 125-126) were removed from the tipi before a birth. If inadvertently they were left in the tipi, they had to be removed within a day after the birth and purified by being fumigated ; merely being close to the lochia lessened their powers. They were taken to a sweat lodge where they were hung over fumes made by placing bits of beaver testes on hot coals. Also any object or any person that came in contact with the lochia was considered unclean. It was also believed that if a person who had assisted at a birth passed directly from the tipi in which the birth had occurred to a sick person, the sick person would die. PERSONS ASSISTING It was probably not conventional for the husband to be present at the delivery of his wife.” Several informants, however, said their husbands had been present when several of their children were born. A few had been present at the birth of all their children. Some in- formants were abashed, others amused, when asked the question. Those who denied it were emphatic in doing so. “He is not allowed around then.” “My husband was present at the birth of all of his ten children. He would fix me up and tell me what todo. He knew my ways and could help me best. Husbands don’t have to be present, if they don’t want to.” Neither could the husband give magical assistance at birth, by con- tinuously walking around, or by doing certain work.* “My husband busied himself chopping wood or working in the field. He didn’t do this to help me; he did it to keep himself from worrying.” 18 Chippewa and Cheyenne hold the same belief. 7 Husbands were not present at birth among the Chippewa and the Cheyenne. 7 A custom found among the Chippewa, but not among the Cheyenne. 16 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL, 148 The woman’s father and mother were usually present. “I think fathers sometimes worried about their daughters; that is why they were present.” ‘The mother and two or three old women assisted at the delivery. At least one of the old women was a professional mid- wife; the others might be medicine women. Medicine men who were herbalists also attended the birth. It was their duty to make decoc- tions of herbs and roots which the mother drank. BIRTH : POSITION OF MOTHER, AIDS, ATTENDANTS, NAVEL, PLACENTA A woman knelt when giving birth.” She braced herself by clutch- ing a horizontal rod with both hands. The rod rested in crotches of two upright poles that had been firmly planted in the ground, the floor of the tipi. The distance between the vertical poles was a little greater than the width of the woman’s body. The height of the rod was such that the kneeling woman could reach it with arms out- stretched full length, over her head. Her grasp was with palms toward earth. Her knees rested on something soft, such as a bed of hay or a burlap bag filled with soft grass or a roll of canvas. In the early days a worn-out hide was placed underneath the woman to receive the secundines; more recently, an old quilt or an old piece of canvas has been used. An Arapaho woman never pulled on a rope attached to the junction of the tipi poles. Chippewa women some- times pulled on a strip of moose hide, a pack strap, or basswood fiber tied to the trunk or limb of a tree or to the framework of the wigwam. When labor pains began, the woman was given a potion. One informant knew it was made of the peppermint plant which was “gathered in the North; povcd,* the Arapaho call it.” Another said it was made by boiling roots of a plant that grows in water. This plant is gathered by men, since it must be pulled by the roots, and this is difficult work. When the time of birth arrived, one of the attending women sat directly in front of the kneeling woman to receive the baby. While waiting for the birth, she forced the tip of a feather down the throat of the woman making her gag. Gagging helped to bring about delivery. Another woman sat behind the delivering woman. She placed her knees against the woman’s buttocks and her hands upon the woman’s abdomen. A third woman sat to one side in order to be close at hand in case she was needed. | Immediately after the delivery one of the women attendants, but not the one who had received the baby, forced the fluid of the navel So did the Chippewa and Cheyenne women. * The transcription of Arapaho words contributed by informants and interpreters of the present study is based on the Phonetic Transcription of Indian Languages (1916). HitenR]} ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE 17 cord away from the baby’s body, using her thumb and first finger. Then placing the tip of her first finger near the navel, she measured its distance to her wrist and cut it at this point with a movement away from the baby. Some women measured off two hand lengths. When cutting she took a position so that the cutting movement was also away from herself. The knife, or scissors more recently used in cutting, was to be anew one. The end of the cord near the baby was tightly bound with sinew. If a woman gave birth when alone—this might happen when en route—she herself cut the cord. Some women greased the cord with lard, coiled it, placed it over the navel, covered it with a clean rag, and then wound a band of cloth about the baby in order to hold the cord in position. Others placed a generous amount of finely powdered horse or, preferably, buffalo manure about the navel, coiled the cord, placed it on the manure, and then placed a thick layer of manure over this. A cloth was then bound around the baby to hold all in place. The manure had previously been rubbed to powder between palms of hands and sifted to remove little sticks by being shaken either in hands with fingers spread or through window screening. “If manure was used the cord dropped off in 8 days; if grease was used, it took a week or 10 days.” “I used buffalo manure on all my grandchildren’s navels; on this baby’s too (2 weeks old). i got the buffalo manure for this baby from the Crow Indians in Mon- tana.” * The interpreter added that one of her babies, a girl, had been treated with cow manure. Immediately after the child was born, while the mother was still kneeling, the woman in front again gagged the mother by pushing a feather down her throat. This assisted the woman in passing the placenta.” Feathers used in gagging, both before and after delivery, were not to be those of buzzard, owl, turkey, chicken, or any domes- ticated fowl. The ones generally used were those of eagle wings, of hawk, grouse, pheasant, or magpie. If the placenta adhered, the midwife removed it with her hands. “I saw a woman who lives close by here do that not so long ago. She washed her hands in lard and then inserted her right hand into the uterus and worked it until the afterbirth came. This woman is a midwife.” The material upon which the mother had knelt was folded, so as to encase the secundines, and tied together by one of the attending women. Care was taken not to touch any of it with the hands. Sometimes the placenta was included in the bundle; sometimes it was wrapped separately. Informants varied regarding the disposal of the bundle. 21The United States Government maintains a herd of buffalo on the Crow Reservation, Mont. 22 Cheyenne women used feathers or fingers to produce gagging, for the same purpose. 28 Certain Chippewa midwives used the same procedure. 892644—51——_3 18 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buxu. 148 All informants agreed that nothing used at the birth was ever burnt. They differed in that some insisted that the bundle was buried; others, that it was hung in a tree. Most of the very oldest informants said that in the early days both the secundines and all materials upon which the mother had rested were buried, and that they were never hung in trees. Old Lady Salt Friday insisted on burial as the custom. Quoting her: “Today some Arapaho are no good, for they hang them in trees. I keep the trees around the river down there clear. I won’t let any hang in the trees.” A woman in her seventies insisted that they were always put in trees and that only when there were no trees in the area, as might happen on the Great Plains, was burial permitted. She herself had always tied the secundines in a clean cloth, put them into a burlap bag, taken them away, and hung them in a crotch of a tree. She added, “We never burnt or buried them; that was against our rules. The one that put them away in the tree prayed to the Heavenly Father to cause this child to grow up to be a good man or a good woman. Only when no trees could be seen anywhere, did we bury them in a hole in the ground. ‘This was always some distance from the home.” Another informant had always climbed up into a tree herself and placed the bundle in a crotch where it would rot away, and where no dog could reach it. “Tt is never burnt or buried,” she said, “because it comes with the baby, and should, therefore, be respected.” One informant had seen some buried in hollow trees. Mothers usually returned to work within a few days after birth. “T sat around and cared for the baby, and did just a little work for about 6 days. One time it was 10 days; but I wasn’t feeling well then.” Informants knew women who had died at childbirth. Several knew of stillbirths. The following accounts were given by Arapaho: a. I have three children. They were all born in the Indian way. My mother died when I was about 10 years old, and so one of her sisters became my mother. But it was my husband’s mother who took care of me when each one of my babies was born. Now I’m going to tell you just the way it was when my first baby was born: I had pains in my back, and cried about it. ‘“What’s the matter,’ said my aunt. But she knew at once what it was. We had built a little tipi outside. In the north side of it she fixed my place. A woman could have a special tipi for the birth of her child, if she wanted one. She put some tall grass like hay under two poles, so high [4 feet]. Across the top of the poles she had tied a bar. On top of this coarse hay, she put softer hay. Soon I felt very sick. There were three women there. One of them was an Indian doctor. They told me to stand on my knees on the pile of hay and to hold on to the bar. I had a very hard time. I was about 26 years old when this first baby was born. My aunt said that that was why I was having a hard time. I tried for 4 days to give birth. My hands were sore from hanging * The Cheyenne burnt the secundines but never the placenta; burning it would cause the child’s death. HienR] ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE 19 onto the rod, and I had blisters on my knees. On the fourth day I said, “Y’m tired, I can’t help myself any more.” I told my man to go after his mother. His mother was a very good doctor. She understood everything about pregnancy and birth. She could examine a woman while she was carrying a baby and tell her about the date of birth. Well, she laid me on my stomach and pressed on my back. She made a potion for me which I drank, and I had more pains. She certainly was a good woman. She said to me, “The baby will come pretty soon now. Try to help us. Now stand up on your feet.” I stood up then, and she blew medicine on my shoulders, on my sides at the loins, and on top of my head.” Then she made me walk around the bed. I called, “I’m going to lose my baby.” “Sit down on your knees,” she called. I did. She was behind me and another woman in front, and then the baby came. I had been married 6 years before we had any children. After the baby came, my husband’s mother said, “It’s a little girl.” Then she drained the cord [she motioned away from the baby] and tied it with sinew. Then she cut it about 8 inches from the baby. She greased it well with lard and curled it up near the navel. Then she put a soft clean rag over it all and placed a strip torn from a burlap sack on it and tied the strip all around the baby. My mother-in-law took a look at the navel every other day until the cord finally fell off. It takes about 4 or 5 days for the cord to drop off. After the mother is all cleaned up and is lying down resting, and has her baby wrapped up and with her, her husband is called. My man was glad to see the baby. He took it and held it. No men were present at the birth. When I first took sick a medicine man came in and rattled his bells, hoping to stop my pains. But when my mother-in-law came, she sent him out. She said, “There is no sense in making so much noise. A woman should have it quiet when a baby is being born.’ No other men, except medicine men were ever allowed in. When my aunt, the one that was mother to me, heard that the child was born. she came running in. b. When the first labor pains occur, the mother must conceal them. She must not become excited or worried or unnecessarily alarmed. When the second pains occur, she tells her own mother or her aunt or her grandmother; or if these are not living, her older sister; or if none of these is around, her father or husband. If it is her father or husband, he will go at once to the midwife’s tipi and ask the midwife to come. A place for the birth is prepared to one side inside the home tipi, near the bed. The bed is on the ground. Two poles, probably 3 or 4 feet high, with a crossbar over the top have already been erected. A worn-out canvas or cloth, like an old curtain, is placed under the cross pole. This is the place where the child is to be born. The mother and grandmother, and some of the woman’s sisters and aunts assist the midwife. Usually there are four in all and these four stay there in case they are needed. Men are not present; this is strictly a woman’s affair. Occasionally, however, a man doctor was a midwife also, and, in that case, he might assist. The husband and the woman’s father may be around the place, but they are not present in the tipi. The husband walks around nervously, maybe wondering if it will be a boy or a girl; but he can in no way assiSt magically. A tea is made from some herb. Midwives know which herb; I do not. The woman is given this tea to drink. It eases the pain. The midwife tickles the woman’s throat with the wing feather of an eagle, hawk, grouse, or magpie; never of a turkey, buzzard, owl, hen, or any domesticated fowl. This makes her vomit; vomiting assists the birth. The woman gives birth standing on her knees, holding on to the crossbar of the rack. The midwife °° Kroeber (1902, p. 439) found a globular concretion, hollow inside, in one Arapaho family which “was kept to be dipped into water containing medicine, then to be put on the head of a woman about to give birth to a child, in order to ease her delivery.” 20 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 148 receives the baby into her two hands. One of the women who is present cuts the cord about a foot from the baby’s body. The cord is folded over and laid upon the baby and then kept in position by wrappings that are placed around the baby. c. Babies were born in the home tipi. All my children were born at home. My mother died before any of them were born; but my mother’s sister attended me. An older woman who knew how to take care of babies was always present. She did not need to be related to the mother. When my babies were born, there were also other women there besides this old woman and my aunt. My husband was present whenever a baby came. He would fix me up and tell me what to do. He knew my ways and could help me the best. Husbands don’t have to be there, if they don’t wish to. Children are not to be present on account of the noise they make. Girls about 20 could be around, but we did not want young men to be around. A husband can’t help in any way, like walking around out-of-doors. Indian men dectors were present, but they don’t beat drums like you say the Chippewa do. They come to give the mother medicine. There are many kinds of Indian medicines. These old Indian men and women doctors know which kinds to use; we don’t know them. The kind they give to a woman when she is in labor is gotten from water. Men usually get it because it has to be pulled up by the roots. These plants are dried before using them. If the mother takes this Indian medicine, she won’t have a hard time delivering the baby. I knelt giving the birth. One of the women knelt behind me, and placed her knees against my buttocks and her hands about my abdomen. She did not press my abdomen but merely held it with both hands. I braced myself by grasping [with palms toward earth] a rod that rested [horizontally] in two crotched sticks. The height of the rod depends on the mother’s height. Arapaho women never grasped a rope which hung down from the top of the tipi, like you say the Chippewa do. Right after birth, while I was still kneeling, the woman who knelt in front of me pushed a feather down my throat as far as she could. The gagging brought the afterbirth. After this everything pertaining to birth, in- cluding the afterbirth, along with the old curtain on which I knelt was folded together. The woman was careful not to touch any of it with her hands. She rolled it into a bundle. Then one of the women took this down towards the river where there are two trees. Such a bundle is placed in a crotch of a tree where it will rot away, and where no animals can reach it. It is never buried or burnt because it comes with the baby and we didn’t like to burn or bury it. It was always placed in a tree. HEADSHAPING, FONTANELS Immediately after the baby was cleaned, either the midwife or one of the old women present at the birth, warmed a piece of cloth, about a hand-length square, over embers. She placed this on the baby’s head and using both hands molded the head into a round ball. Women who did not use a cloth, warmed the hands before molding. Heads not shaped usually became “queer shaped heads.” No other part of the body was shaped. The fontanels were not given any treatment, nor was any belief as- sociated with them. “We never did anything about them; every child had them. We were careful not to exert presswre on them. When the child grew older, the spaces closed.” “We didn’t give the fontanels any treatment. When they began to close up my grandmother would say, ‘That baby will soon begin to talk and have a little sense.’ ” HILGER] ARAPAHO CHILD LIFE pea | CAUL No significance was attached to the caul. It was disposed of with the secundines. A consistent reply was, “It was considered part of the afterbirth.” “I suppose anyone born with it couldn’t help it. But it had no meaning.” “My mother was a midwife. She told of children born with their faces covered; but we had no belief about it. I am certain our tribe never dried that skin and sewed it into a little bag and saved it for good luck, as you say the Chippewa did. We did dry the navel cord, and we saved it’? (pp. 22-24). FIRST BATH A baby’s first bath consisted of handfuls of cool water dashed on the back. “Water from which the chill had been taken, but not lukewarm water, was used.” “The water was poured into a bowl made by cary- ing out a large branch of a tree.” No herbal decoction was used. The bath was usually given by the grandmother who rested the baby on her knees with face down. Sometimes the midwife gave the bath. 2, Ann Wolf Arapaho, 1942. Northern > I, Agnes Yellow Plume ‘OF6T ‘OyRdesy UseyWON tieag suO0T reg *Z G31LV1d srl NILATINGA "QC6] ‘Oyedery UTIYWON fedeg uRPwIIYg */ ASOIONHL]A NVOINAWY AO NVAYNA "961 ‘OuRdery UJIYION {eupy ‘aim pur uejyy p[O ewosef ‘esony dreyg proysouurM ‘2 -OF6T ‘ouedery usoyION fAj[etuouIaia9 Suryours ‘uns JoYyg weg “7 9 3LV1d 8rl NILATINGA ADONIONHILA NVOIYAWY AO NVAYENS (uInasnyy [BUOTYNY Seqe¥Ig pezUL AsayinoD) ‘ajpeso xnoIg “¢ *saTpeID oyedeiy ‘7 ‘7 LALiV1d srl NILSATING ADOIONHLA NVOIMSWY SAO NvaHna ‘O66 ‘OyRdery ulsyWON ‘Aqeq Jay B3ursodsues ‘Aamaq e10opy ‘2 ‘7 BALV1d 87l NILATING ASOIONHL]A NVOIMAWY SAO NVvsayHNnSs ‘OF6I ‘oyrdviy usoyiION ‘pliyopueis Joy sunsodsurs ‘Aeplly eS Ape] plo 2 J 6431V1d 87! NiILS11Na ADSDOIONHL]A NVOIMAWY AO NVaynNa BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 10 I, Rose Moss, transporting her grandchild; Northern Arapaho, 1940. 2, Wife of Robert Friday and her baby; Northern Arapaho, 1940. 3, Agnes Yellow Plume and Ann Wolf, recalling lullabies sung by their grandmothers; Northern Arapaho, 1942. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 11 ’ eee eas a Bie nee " o 1, Clarice Jenkins, preparing to transport her baby on her back; Northern Arapaho, 1942. 2, Ready to swing baby onto back. 3, Swinging baby onto back. 4, Ready to place blanket over baby. el ALW1d 87l NiILAT1INA ASOTONHL]A NVOIYMAWY SO NvaYyna ‘OF6L ‘oyedeiy UIIY AION -Aqeq Joy pure IvIq 9uo'y 919d fo SATIRE IOR “@ “1F61 ‘oyrdviy uLOY INOS :Aqeq Joy pure 21040) aurydaso[ “if cS ™ ie E he ~ €l 31iV1d 87! NILA1T1ING ADSOTIONHLA NVOIMAWY AO NVvaYHnNa ee BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 14 Arapaho children’s moccasins. (Courtesy United States National Museum.) “TF6L ‘oyedery ussyqION fa3040_5 ouiydoasof jo usippiyg ‘Aqeq aya Bulpuay, ‘Zz “7F6] ‘ouedesy uJOyWON +7 ‘7 ajejd ui umoys ydeisojoyd ay} wory ajpeid Oyedviy uv jo SUIYRU OY plyopuris Joy 07 surluly[dxa ‘awn{g MOTI sousy ‘J ar GtALV1d 8rvl NILATINGA ADOTIONHL]A NVOINAWY AO NVAeNSa BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 16 /, A pailful of corn gathered and shucked by 9- and 12-year-old girls in helping their grand- mother, Agnes Yellow Plume, prepare dinner; Northern Arapaho, 1942. 2, Playing house. Playhouse in background; Southern Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne children, 1941. Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation. TLroR os cow pjousy jo uospuri3 ‘uediy uoiselg ‘2 [FET ‘OYedesy ussyynog SyWOMOOA, PjouIY Jo JoIysneppuLis ‘uediy ei[V ‘J ZL aiv1d 8rl NILSAT1ING ADOINONHIS NVOIMAWY AO NVSYHNSG "TF61 ‘oyedery ussy nog foweu say [[9} 0} AYys 00} ‘fooyds 03 AvM Joy uO [IIS apy WV ‘Z «“7HET ‘OYRdesry usu ION SAepriy ouef ‘7 r : wagege : i : me ° , 8L3alV1d 87! NILSAT1INGA ASO NIONHIA NVOISAWY AO NvseayuNna “IF6I ‘oyerdriy ulgyINOg :sunyy) YA “C¥6l ‘oyerdeiy UIOYIION :sumny aE x ’ L i 6 31iVv1d 8rl NILS11INa ASOTONHL]A NVOIMAWY JO NvayHNEG ——— -~ == = “TF6I ‘oyvdery uray nog fuos sJfoM periods uspyH ‘2 ‘7F6T ‘OyRdery ussyoN ‘Aepiiy Appa, ‘7 o¢@ 3ALV1d 8r7l NILSA11ING ASOIONHLS NVYDIYAWY SO NVaeNa (uinasnyy [BUOTIRNY $91¥%1G poqup AsoqIInoD) ‘]jop oyedeiy l@é ALW1d 8rl NILATINA ADSONONHLA NVOIMAWY SO Nvayna (‘wnasnyy [eUONeN s27¥Ig pazuL) AsaqinoDy) “¢7 aie[d ul UMoyYs s[pes9 Ao} WoIy paaoutal [Jop oyedesy “7 “][op oyedeay ‘7 = eee iad . - , _ omy a wet ee ALV1d 87l NILATINGA ADSOINONHL]A NVDINAWY SAO Nvaydna BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 23 Sill : al meliie * : ;*,* ity 2 Two views of Arapaho doll cradle. (Courtesy United States National Museum.) BULLETIN 148 PLATE 24 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Ste phe has inet pecans nesite nia ai iit i ‘iy Pras | : 43 oe ae. PELL! RTH (Courtesy United States National Museum.) Two views of Arapaho shinny ball. (CCUONPAISSOY IoALy pul a | S “oYIIONZ ) oY “AQY As9}.1N07)) “UITIE AY pieuooT "a “Teog ou0'T slouely on “676! ‘oyedeiy UIBY WON -Soouep pelos [eq Io} pone sluednnieg t G@A1V1d 8rl NILSA71NSG ASOIONHLA NVYDIMAWY SO NVSaHNSa Cf °g ‘tayoienZ "dD “y “Ady Asaqyinoy) ‘edig pay ‘Z ‘fOM UPI PIO ‘J ‘6761 “Oyedesy usayON ‘saouep [vidos [eqiiy ut sjuedioieg weg ee moa Hom, 9¢ ALV1d 87l NILATINGA ADOTONHLA NVOIMAWY AO NVvaens ne (-[°S ‘seyssenz “DQ *y ‘aay Asaqinog) *pparyg apa] BUISIY ie *(saAq uOJT) So]3305 [PP YY pue “Sforys [egy fo 4Se] ‘93 pO'T-UI-Ssa0ry “]f ‘SZ6l ‘oyedeiy UIIYIION *saouep [etsos jeqiuy 1of peAy ASOIONHL]A NVOIYMAWY AO NVAYNe (f °g ‘sayouanz "SD “VW ‘Aey Aseqnog) “any peeyoyy ‘Z ‘saead Auvur JOF [louNoD oyedesy ay} Jo Joquau pure Jopeay [equa v “ueY F[OAA [eNutES ‘T “676, ‘Oyrdesy Uloy ON fsaouep [el190s [eqi} IO} psiniy ge 3ALVid 8rl NILSATING ADOTIONHLA NVYOIMAWY AO NVayNa ({ g ‘rayosanz ‘dD ‘VW ‘Aay Aseqmn0D) = “TL6T ‘oyedviy UldYyION SUOI{eAIOSOY JOATY PULA UO sasuayo OUT IO; aBpn! ‘Ivag auoT sowel ‘2 “6761 ‘oyedeiy useyiON ‘uospnf ajo ‘7 :seouep [eisos yequy ur squedionieg 6¢ 31V1d 8yvl NILATINGA ADONONHLA NVOIMAWY AO NVvVaHnNa BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 30 Northern Arapaho, 1942. J, Just after bathing in the irrigation ditch. 2, Mother bathing her child in irrigation ditch. . BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 31 1, Sweat lodge framework; Northern Arapaho, 1936. 2, Camp circle; 1935 Northern Arapaho Sun Dance. (Courtesy Rev. A. C. Zuercher, S. J.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 32 * 7 Southern Arapaho Sun Dance participant. (Courtesy Chicago Natural History Museum.) (urnosnyy AIOISIF] jeanqeNy Oseo1yy ASoqIno)) Seashell Sib Nis el i) es "95 pO] IU C] UNS oyrdery UIIYINOY JO YIOMOLUB I | ASOIONHL]A NVOIMAWYV 4AO NVEaNNe BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 34 Se GEN 7, Center pole; 1940 Northern Arapaho Sun Dance. 2, Sun shelter; Northern Arapaho, 1936. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 35 1940 Northern Arapaho Sun Dance. J, Dancers and bundle containing sacred pipe. 2, Drummers. Children romping around. 3, Rest period. Sponsors of dancers seated at left. Several men at right making cherry water for dancers. (Note picture of center pole on plate 34, /.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 36 7, Sun shelter at Sherman Sage’s home; Northern Arapaho, 1940. 2, Sun shelter near Rabbit Run’s home; Southern Arapaho, 1941. 3, Sun shelter; Northern Arapaho, 1936. (cunasnyy Aro sIFT [eANQeN OSvoIYD AsaqIN0D) ‘Bulop sju8 oyedesy ‘Zz “Buryqojs s.Aoq oyedesy ‘7 / Se oe i a LE 31LV1d srl NILATING ADOUIONHLA NVOINSWY AO NVvVaYNa BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 38 Left Hand and son; Southern Arapaho. (Courtesy United States National Museum.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 148 PLATE 39 Little Raven and daughter; Southern Arapaho, (Courtesy United States National Museum.) (‘wnasnyy [puoQe Ny s9}¥1g pequy) AsoqINOD) ‘uuy “Joiysnep pur svog Moja A “2 (‘AdojouyiY urouowy nesing Asaiinod) ‘oyrdesy ussyION ‘Aepisy ‘7 ie PRB Se Sone ov 3ALV1d 8rl NILATINAGA ADOTIONH LA NVYOIMAWY JO Nvaeaena INDEX Aaninéna (white clay people), tribal division 187 Aant’/haw8, tribal division, 187 Abortions, 5, 11-12, 217 oe ae, prayer addressed to, 14 Addison, Ada, informant, xv Addison, Frank, informant, xv Adolescence, 68-75, 223 Fee 5 alge periae ze, wooden, 170 Afterbirth, see placenta. Age, counted by “snows,” 87, 224 recorded on horns, 87, 224 Age societies, ceremonial, 117-123, 226 Ahk tun o’ wihio, Cheyenne God, 145 Algonquian speaking peoples, 1 HeonauinSs eer Conta 1,2 Amelanchier sp, 1 Amulet, buried with owner, 23, 218 worn by babies, 23, 218 worn by boys, 24 worn by girls, 23 . a also ania ngelica sp, 55 Angelica (Angelica sp.), 55 Animal, personified, 22 “Antelope,” band name, 188, 189 Antelopes, 134, 171 stuffing of hair of, 182 toenails of used as rattles, 36 Apache, 93, 110, 116 See also Chiricahua Apaches. Apron, girl’s, 73, 74, 75 Arapaho, apn, of name, 1 synonyms for, 1 Arapaho, Northern 3, 4, 5, 12, 13, 22, 23, 27, 29, 39, 47, 54, 57, 70, 71, 74, 79, 82, 84, 85, 94, 95, 96, 97, 104, 106, 107, 109, 111, 114, 116, 117, 118, 122, 123, 125, 131-132, 133-134, 137, 140, 143, 149, 151-153, 154-160, 165, 166, 167, 174, 177, 178, 179, 181, 183, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192, 195, 201, 202, 204-206, 208, 209, 210, 214, 215, 216 Arapaho, Southern, 3, 4, 5, 12, 138, 22, 23, 28, 29, 39, 47, 53, 54, 71, 72, 74, 76, 79, 85, 86, 92, 94, 96, 104, 107, 109, 118, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, 125, 126, 127, 130-131, 132-133, 1386, 138, 143, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153, 157, 161, 164, 165, 166, 169, 172, 173, 174, 176, 186, 187, 192, 193, 199-200, 201, 202, 206-208, 209, 210, 214, 215, 216 Archery, 111, 226 982644—52——20 Arickarees, 178 Arkansas River, 3 Arpan, Rose, informant, xv Arrows, 79, 91, 133, 134 sacred, 153 shafts of, broken, 166 See also Bow and arrows. Arthritis, 139, 140 Ash, 180 Assiniboin, 4, 173 Aunt, definition of, 68, 195 Awl, sewing, 27, 186 steel, 186 Awl case, beaded, 72 Ba’achinéna (red-willow or blood-pud- ding men), tribal division, 186 Back rest, 27, 106, 204 Bacon, sucked by infants, 220 Bad Faces, band name, 187 “Bad Pipes’, band name, 187, 191 Badgers, 89, 171 Bag, rawhide, 178 sacred, 176, 218 Ball, bouncing, 72 buckskin, 111, 114 shinny, 114 stuffed deerskin, 111 Band membership, 188-189, 230 Bands, family groups, 187-189, 230 names of, 187-188 Bannock, 3, 64 Barks, curative use of, 137 Ba’/sawunt/na (wood lodge men or big lodge men), tribal division, 187 Basket, game, 114 Bas-nak-than’, mixed with tobacco, 147 Bat’ati (The-Mysterious-One), 144 Bath, baby’s first, 21 Bathing, 108, 135, 227 Baths, Ceremonial, 147, 153, 227 steam, 141, 147, 148, 227 Ba&tigtu’be, game, 112 Battle-amulet, 130 Beads, 182, 186 Bear, Ida, informant, xv Bear-that-don’t-run, chief, 191 Bear Tooth, chief, 189 Bears, grizzly, 171 Beaver, 171 meat of, 142 testes of, 134 Beavers, band name, 188 Beds, 26, 27, a8; 106, 182, 203, 204, 206, 208 Beef, 179 ” Beggars’ Lodge, men’s society, 118, 119, 120 Behan, Susan, informant, xv 241 242 Bells, used as ornaments, 31, 32 Belt, 162 beaded, 157 buckskin, 123 girl’s, 72, 73, 74, 75 measuring of, 90 Benches, 99 Bénotix’wil, see Buffalo Lodge. Berries, buffalo (Shepherdia argentea), 1 dried, 177, 229 gathering of, 177 service (Amelanchier sp.), 177, 229 (Shepherdia canadensis), 177, 229 wild, 175 Berths, 181 Bét&hinin (Second Men’s Lodge), 118, 119, 120, 121 araphernalia for, 120 Big Pincers, time told by, 83 Big Horse, informant, 97 Big Lodge, men’s lodge, 120 Big Mouth, chief, 189 Biitahawu, men’s society, 119 Bird Chief, chief, 191 Birds, wild, 171 Birth, 15-24, 217-218 announcement of, 21 assistants at, 15-16, 19, 218 position of mother, 16-17, 18-19, 218 taboos connected with, 12-15, 217 Birthmarks, 6, 14 Bitner, Dorah, informant, xv Blackbirds, boy’s society, 118, 119 Black Coal, chief, 187, 190, 191, 205 Black Crow, chief, 191 Blackfeet, band name, 187 Blackfoot, 1, 12, 25, 95, 118, 180, 187, 212 Black-Hawk, mysterious deity, 145 Black Horse, Mary, informant, 176 Black-Man, medicine man, 128, 189 Bladders, use as buckets, 179, 229 Blankets, 88, 51, 52, 99, 100, 121, 148, 156, 158, 162, 164, 180 182, 202, 2038, 206 use in signaling, 98 worn by girls, 3, 74 Bloodletters, medicine men, 185, 227 Bloodletting, curative method, 139, 227 Boasting, 101-102 Boats, buffalo hide, 169 Bobtail, informant, 97 Bologna, preparation of, 176 Bone or seed game, 114 Bones, medicinal use of, 139 Boone, A. G., Indian Agent, 190 Bouncing game, 113 Bourke, John G., quotations from, 94, 191 Bow and arrows, 105, 112, 113, 171, 172, 229 toy, 106, 108 See also Arrows. Bow strings, buffalo sinew, 169 Bowl, pottery, 179 rawhide, 178, 229 wooden, 179, 229 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY {Buin 148 Boys, cermonial lodges of, 110, 119, 186, 226 clothing, 185, 229 duties connected with lodges, 120—- 121, 226 first success in shooting food ani- mal celebrated, 171, 229 games of, 110 haircutting, 48-44 instructors of, 70-71, 77, 78 physical training, 226 respected by girls, 69, 73 training of, 110, 229 Bracelets, 162 silver, 78 Bradbury, John, quotations from, 185 Breechclouts, 185, 229 Bridles, 170 buffalo hide, 169 British, relations with, 4 Broth, meat, 220 Brother-sister relationship, 68-70, 73, 195 Brothers, definition of, 48, 68, 195 Brothers-in-law, 211, 231 Buckskin, dressing of, 1838-184 use of, 30, 31, 35, 36, 89, 90, 182 Buffalo, 2, 28, 53, 57, 85, 98, 105, 146, 171, 205, 228 blood, curative value of, 57 bones, use of, 179, 183 calf, shooting of, 172, 1738 chief source of supplies, 169-170 cows, 173 dew-claws, use of, 185 dung, uses of, 178, 229 fetal, used for first clothes, 42, 220 hair, use of, 169 head, sacred, 122, 150 heart lining used, 169 hides, preparation and uses of, 86, 87, 106, 120, 185, 148, 149, 169, 170, 180, 181, 184, 203, 229 horns, use of, 121, 122, 140, 229 hunt, communal, 192, 229 hunting, 172, 178, 186 meat, 173, 174, 175, 177, 229 numbers of, 169 paunch, use of, 178, 229 robes made from skin, 122, 154, 155, 162, 170, 171, 179, 185, 192, 203, 205, 206, 229 shoulder blade, use of, 169, 179 sinews, use of, 169, 180, 186 skull, painted, 57, 153 Buffalo berries, dried, 229 Buffalo Dance, 39, 119, 120, 123 Buffalo Lodge, women’s society, 119, 121, 122, 123, 125 Bull roarer, use of, 93 Burial customs, 103, 168, 164, 228 rade ne Curtis, quotations from, Burton, Richard F., quotations from, , 180 Butchering, man’s duty, 172, 229 Butter, Indian, 176 Button, game, 115 Buzzers, 111, 226 INDEX Calf, pet, 226 Calf tail, 120 Calico, 27, 28, 137, 152, 153, 154, 156, 158, 159 Camp circle, 192-193, 230 Camp crier, professional, 26 Candy, gifts of, 99 rarely eaten by children, 99 Cannabalism, 105, 106, 225 Carter, John G., x1 quotations from, 2, 143 Catholic religion, 160 Catlin, George, quotations from, 177 Catlinite, pipestone, 103, 147 Cat-tails, roots eaten, 179 Cattle, taboos regarding meat as food, 13 Caul, disposal of, 21, 218 Cedar-bark decoction, medicinal use of, 55, 56 Cedar fumes, use of, 91, 127, 133, 134, 138, 165, 166, 167 Cedar poles, use of, 180 Cedar tree, offering of, 152 Celebration, ear-piercing, 24-28, 40, 43, 182, 218 first walk, 41, 219 first word, 42 Ceremonial, baths, 147, 153, 227 club, 192 marriage, 202-209, 231 paint, 153 peyote, 138 pipe, 153 purification, 153 religious, 148-151 smoking, 66, 128, 142, 147 sweating, 134, 141, 147-148 tipi sewing, 181, 182 Ceremonies, see Ceremonial. Chafing, treatment for, 219 Chairs, 99 Charms, 133 hunting, 175, 229 love, 200, 231 Chasing Hawk, Elizabeth, 30 Cheek slashing, punishment by, 212, 231 Cherry, wild (Padus serotina), 176, 177, 179, 2 , 229 “Cherry water,” drunk by dancers, 159, 160 Cheyenne, 1, 2, 3, 6,11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 21, 25, 26, 90, 116, 145, 153, 163, 174, 180, 185, 190, 204, 205, 214, 215 Northern, 21, 56 relations with, 3, 4 Southern, 3, 71 Pee anreveno Reservation, 4, 120, 21 Chi’chita’né, boy’s game, 113 Chief in Everything, headman, 189 Chief Little Raven, 125, 127, 146 Chief Ute, 64, 120, 127 Chiefs, 189-191, 230 life tenure, 189, 230 Chieftainship, not inherited, 190 _ g@ voting for, 189, 230 243 Child, adoption of, 50-51, 221 favored, 82-83, 224 naming of, 61-62, 222 Children, burial of, 163 diversions, 106-117, 223, 225-226 excluded from lodges, 156 mental training, 83-98, 224-225 methods of instructing, 75-78, 94, 223-224 moral training, 98-105, 225 naked, 108, 112, 220 of separated couples, 215-216, 232 play of, 106-109, 223, 225-226 prenatal period, 217 present at weddings, 209, 231 rewards, punishments, 78-82, 224 scolding of, 79-80, 22 tattooing of, 141 training of, 75-83, 102, 223-224 Chippewa, 6, 11, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, 39, 40, 43, 70, 74, 95, 100, 105, 106, 134, 139, 140, 153, 168, 194, 195 Chiricahua Apaches, 191 Chiva Niatha, good God, 146 Chokecherry, 30, 62, 79, 84, 85, 150 Phe) Ter ene friends, 106, 110, 171, 6 Cigarettes, 98-99 Circular patterns, making of, 90 Clans, lack of, 230 Clark, W. P., quotations from, 1, 95, 125, 135, 145, 146, 160, 162, 164, 178, 190 Clay, white, 120 Clothes bags, toy, 107 Clothing, 185-186, 224, 228, 229 offerings of, 57, 144, 152, 227 Clouds, weather forecasting by, 93 Club, ceremonial, 192 Cocheis, chief, 191 Coffee, 62, 220 Coition, 48, 49, 217, 221 Cold weather, prediction of, 92, 93 Colds, treatment of, 139 Collier, John, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 149 Collins, Herbert Edwin, quotations from, 179, 204, 216 Colostrum, discarded, 44, 220 Comanche, 110, 176, 180, 200 Comets, beliefs regarding, 92, 224 Conception, 4-6 beliefs regarding, 4, 12 Constipation, treatment for, 55 Conduct taboos, connected with preg- nancy, 12-15, 47 Contraceptives, 9, 217 Cooking, 170, 179 hot stones method, 178-179, 229 Cooper, John M., x1v Cordage, buffalo hair, 169 Jorn, 178, 181, 229 Corrals, wattled cane, 181 Cottonwood (Populus monilifera), 178 Coughs, treatment for, 137 Council, chief’s, 230 Counting and linear measurements, 88-90 244 Counting methods, 88-89, 206 Courtesy, 98-100 Courtship, methods, 199-200, 201-202, 231 Cousin, cross, 48, 195 Cousin, definition of, 68, 195 Cow, 171, 184 piven as gift, 53 hide, preparation and use of, 184, 186 horns, use of, 140 sinew, use of, 186 “Coyote gun,” war club, 192 “Coyote men,” scout organization, 192 Coyotes, 131, 168, 167 Cradle making, woman’s work, 35, 89, 209, 219 Cradles, 28, 29-38, 219 amulet attached to, 23, 24, 218 beaded, list of, 30, 33, 34 canvas, list of, 29 construction of, 29-38, 219 cover and pillow, 36 dismantling of, 37-88, 219 toy, 107, 108 Cranes, 92 feathers, white, 120 Crazy Lodge, men’s society, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122 paraphernalia for, 120 Crazy-man Dance, 51, 117, 122, 123 Cree, 168 Crier, public official, 215 Crook, men’s lodge, 121 Crow Indians, 28, 39, 53, 54, 59, 64, 122 Crows, 42, 98 Culin, Stewart, XII quotations from, 57, 111, 113, 114, 153, 226 Cupping, curative treatment, 140 Currants, dried, 177, 229 wild, 177, 229 Curse words, lack of, 80 Custer, General, 204, 205 Cut Finger, chief, 191 “Cut water,” circular tin disk, 93 Dakotas, 2 Dance, Buffalo, 39, 119, 120, 123 Crazy-man, 51, 117, 122, 123 Dog, 51, 117, 122 Forty-nine, 39, 117 Fox, 51,017 Gift, 64 Owl, 51, 107, 117 Rabbit, 39, 40, 51, 107, 117 Social, 107, 117, 160, 214, 215, 221 Spear, 122, 123 Squaw, 39, 40, 53, 107, 117 Sun, 2, 13, 25, 26, 27, 28, 39, 40, 51, 52, 538, 57, 62, 66, 83, 85, 86, 107, 120, 122, 127, 131, 135, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 148-151, 154-161, 176, 182; 187, 192, 193, 201, 202; 206, 219, 221, 227 Victory, 64 War-bonnet, 51, 107, 117 Wolf, 51, 107, 117 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLu. 148 Dance lodge, 107, 215 Dancers, relatives of, 156 Dancing, 158, 160 Daniels, J. W. , quotations from,"191 Daughter-in- law, 210 Dead, abode of, 228 dressing of, 162, 228 painting of, 162, 228 Death, 162, 228 Decoctions, 220 herbal, 54, 55, 137, 1388, 220, 222 mescal button, 138 Decorations, painted, 157 Deer, 89, 171, 175 antlers of, 224 call, used in hunting, 175 claws, use as ornaments,#31 hair, stuffing of, 182 hide, use of, 42, 43, 120, 185, 220, 229 meat, 142, 175, 229 Delivery, position of mother, 18-19, 218 presence of father at, 218 Densmore, Frances, quotations from, 64 De Smet, Pierre Jean, quotations: from 102-108, 169-170, 171, 173 Dewey, Flora, informant, xv Dewey, Rapheal, informant, xv Diapers, substitutes for, 28, 219 Diarrhea, treatment for, 55 Dice, buffalo bone, 114 Dice games, 111, 113 Dishes, 55 Divorces, 211-216, 231-232 Dog Dance, 51, 117, 122 “Dog Eaters,” see Arapaho, Dog Lodge, men’s society, 118, 119, 120, 121, 1238 Dogs, 175, 176, 229 beliefs regarding, 98, 162 howling of, 162 meat, eaten, 175, 176, 229 pet, 109, 226 Dog soldiers, policemen, 193 Dolls, 107, 108, 225 man, 108 rag, 107 woman, 108 Domestic economy, 169-186, 228-229 Dorsey, George A., x11, x111, 32, 143, 150 quotations from, 25, 28, 113, 152 Dresses, 73, 144, 185, 202, 229 buckskin, 90, 110 calico, 57, 153 mourning, 168 Drummers, 149, 156, 157, 158, 215 songs by, 27, 28, 157, 214 Drumming, 159, 16 Drums, 28, 115, 122, 187, 157, 160, 214, 215 toy, 107 Ducks, black- tailed, 171 red- tailed, 171 Dyeing, process, 37 Dyer, D. B., quotations from, 183 Dyes, commercial, 36 vegetable, 36. 16-17, INDEX Eagles, 98, 171 feathers, 120, 123 wing, whistle made of, 157 Eagle’s Head, chief, 191 Eagles of the Stars, boy’s lodge, 119 Ear piercing, 24-28, 40, 182, 218 curative value of, 57, 222 gifts given for, 25, 26, 27, 28, 40 Kar plugs, use of, 25, 27 Earrings, 25, 28, 78, 162 Eclipses, beliefs regarding, 91, 134, 224, 227 Elk, 89, 184 "hides, tanning and use of, 184, 185, 186, 229 teeth, "107 Elk horn, "hide scrapers, 87, 175, 183 records on, 87, 103, 22 4 Embracing, mark of respect, 100 Epidemics, 134 Eriogonum sp., 175 Everybody’s Father, name for God, 65, 66, 144 Exogamy, 193, 230 Eye trouble, treatment for, 140 Families, limitation of size, 9-10 Farnham, Thomas J., quotations from, 3, sora, 176 Fasting, 65, 70, 71, 223 as & sacrifice, 142, 154, 227 ceremonial, 120, 124, 127-130, 136 Father, definition of, 48, 68, 195 Father-in-law, 194, 209, 210, 211, 231 Fawns, hoof used, 185 Feasts, P7272 marriage, 231 naming, 65 wedding, 198, 202, 204, 205, 207 Feather switches, ’black, 158 Feathers, used as aid in birth, 16, 17, 19, 20 Fertility, ’ produced in men and women, Fetus, beliefs teearding, 5, 11, 217 burial of, 5, 217, 228 Fewkes, J. Walter, quotations from, 95 Fighting, man’s duty, 170 Fingers, sacrifice of, 141, 166, 167, 228. Firebrand, use in signaling, 98 Firedrill, 178, 229 Fire fan, turkey- -wing, 179 Fire making, 178, 229 Fireplace, 179, 203 Flageolet, 199° Flesher, skin dressing tool, 183 Fletcher, Alice C., quotations from, 193 Flint and steel, fire making tools, 178 Flutes, 200 Fontanels, 20, 41, 94, 218, 219, 224 Food and its preparation, 175- 179, 207, Food taboos, connected with pregnancy, 12-15, 47 Forearm’s length, measure of distance, “Forks of the River Men,’ band name, 187, 191 245 Forty-nine Dance, 39 Fox, boy’s society, 118, 119, 121 Foxes, gray, 171 silver, 171 Fremont, John C. , quotations from, 174 Friday, Ann, informant, XV Friday, Robert and wife, informants, XV, Fuel, patfalo ae 178, 229 wood, 179, 229 Fumigation, 217, 218, 228 curative, 54, 137, 222, 226 methods, 15, 22, 55 Funny Men, band name, 187 Gagging, helpful at birth, 218 Gambling games, 115 Game of buffalo meat, 113 of choosing erandfathers, 113 Game sticks, willow, 112 Games, 111- "115, 226 boys and girls, 112 dice, 111, 226 gambling, 115 guessing, 115 hand, 111, 226 of chance, 111 of dexterity, 111, 226 Garters, 123, 135, 229 Gentes, lack’ of, 230 Gentian (Gentiana lutea), 55 Gentiana lutea, 55 Gestation, 10-11 “Ghost arrow, ” belief in, 139 Ghost Dance religion, 160 Gifts, 171 acceptance of, 99 betrothal, 203 exchange of, 202, 203, 204, 206 given at adoption, 51 given for ear piercing, 25, 26, 27, 28, 40, 218 given for naming, 62, 63 list of, 98-99 marriage, 198, 199, 202, 203, 206, 231 Gila monster, lizard, 128 Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium) , 05, 56 Girls, clothing, 185, 223, 229 garnes of, 111 instruction of, 72, 73, 111 marriage age, 197, 230 marriageable qualities, 198, 230 no puberty customs for, 71, 223 prepuberty customs, 197, 230 puberty, 216, 223, 226 Glue, buffalo sinew, 169 Goats, mountain, 171 Goggles, Gertrude, informant, XV Golden seal (Hydrastis canadensis), 55 “Good Hearts,” Arapaho name for themselves, 96 Grand River, 3 Grandchild, definition of, 195 Grandfather, name for Sun, 142, 145 Grandfathers, choosing of, 121, 122 instruction by, 119 246 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 148 Grandmothers, instruction by, 75, 82, | Hé’ jabinéixi, name for God, 144 119 Hell, ignorance of, 161 Hemorrhages, treatment for, 137 Herbalists, medicine men, 54, 135, 136, 137, 218, 222, 227 Herbs, curative use of, 137, 227 roots and barks, 136- 139, 222, 227 Hidatsa, 118 Hide scrapers, elk horn, 87, 224 Hide tanning outfits, 88 relations with, 69, 206 Grandparents, children cared for by, 215, 232 definition of, 194 favorite children of, 82-83 instruction by, 75, vir 80 Grass, sweet, 120 “Greasy Faces,” band name, 187, 188, 189, 191 Hides, 187, 153 Great Kenyon of the Colorado of the] Hilger, Sister Marie, XIv West, 3 Hinanaei’ne (Arapaho proper), tribal division, 187 Hitdune’na (begging people), tribal division, 187 Hitu’/néna (begging men, beggars, “spongers’’), tribal division, 187 Hoes, bone, 178 Honesty, teaching of, 103, 225 Honey, wild, 178 Hoop and pole, game, 111, 113, 226 Hoops, used in games, 113 Hopi, 93 Horse racing, 123 Horses, 173, 176, 212, 213, 215, 216, 225 beliefs regarding, 93, 1383, 179 care of, 170, 216 enemies’, stealing of, 102, 225 given as gift, 25, 26, 27, 28, 40, 51, 52, 53, 55, 66, 70, 79, 102, 105, 109; 110,11 7;<137;- 167,071.) La, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 215, 219 measuring of, 90 sacrificed on grave, 164, 167, 228 toy, 107, 108 treatment of, 100 use of, 2, 85, 110 wealth of the Indians, 165, 188 Horse tail switches, used in Sun Dance, 158 Hospitality, generosity, kindness, 100- 101 ’ u Great Spirit, prayer to, 150-151, 179 Greetings, 99-100 Grinnell, George Bird, quotations from, 145 Gros Ventres, 3, 117, 118, 120, 187, 192 Grosbeck, Martha, informant, XV Ground, measured by pacing, "90 Grouse, "171 Haanaxwiine’na (Rock people), Tribal Division, 187 Hibssoreanar: used for muscular pains, 13 Hair braiding, done by husband, 216 Hair cutting, boys, 43, 220 infants first, 43- 44 mourning custom, 43-44, 162, 164, 166, 167, 168, 228 punishment by, 212, 231 Hairdressing, 74, 75 mourning, 167, 168 Half-breeds, 50, 54 Hall) aU. , quotations from, 87 Hammer, stone, 183 Hanahawunéna, extinct Arapaho band, 161 Ha’nahawuné’na, tribal division, 187 Hanatécha’hatiet, game, 112 Handshaking, 99, 225 Hand stretch, measuring device, 89 Hand-and-foot ball, game, 111, 226 Handkerchiefs, 155) Hannah, Susan, informant, Xv Harelip, beliefs ‘regarding, 1 14, 47 Hares, 171 Harris, Fanny, informant, xv Harris, Veronica, informant, XV Has Horn, Joe, informant, 30 Ha’ sindnen, meaning Our Father, 144 Hawk feathers, 120 Hawks among ‘the Stars, 119 Hayden, Ferdinand Wey quotations from, 5 Headache, 137, 138, 139 Head bands, embroidered, 119 Headdresses, 100 buffalo horn, 121, 122, 123 red, 123 Headshaping, 20 Health, 134-142, 227 Heammawihio, Cheyenne God, 145, 146 Heap O’Bears, chief, 191 Heart, treatment for ills of, 137 Heavenly Father, name for God, 144 Houses, fumigation of, 165,166 left after a death, 165 Hummers, toys, 93 Hungry Wolf, Jane, informant, xv, 123 Hunt, communal, 187, 192, 229, 230 Hunting, 170-175, 228 Hunt the button, game, 114-115 Husbands, 15 Hydrastis canadensis, 55 Iceman, Pete, 155 Illegitimacy, beliefs regarding, 49-50, 221 Ill treatment, cause for divorce, 232 Incest, 48-49, 221 Infanticide, rare, 49, 50, 221 Infants, atypical conditions, 46-57, 221-223 bathing, 135, 218 deformed, 47-48, 221 first bath, 21, 135, 218 first clothes, 42-438, 220 first smile, 40, 219 INDEX Infants, first step, 41, 219 first tooth, 40-41, 219 first walk, "219 first words, 41-42, 219 food, 135, 219, 220 haircutting, 43-44 headshaping, 20, 218 illegitimate, 221. lullabies, 38-40, 219 nursing and weaning, 44-45, 220- 221 sick, 54, 222 teething aids, 41, 219 toilet training, 29 transporting, 38, 219 Informants, information from, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18-20, 92. 35, 36, 39, 42, 43, 49° 53, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 63, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74-75, 76, Up 78-79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87-88, 90, 91, 92, 96-97, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107-108, 109, 110, 118, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 136, 138, 141, 142, 144, 145, 149, 151- 152, 159, 160, 161, 170, 183, 187, 193, 195, 198-199, 213, 214, 217, 220, 221, 224 list of, xv men, 4 women, 4 Inhalations, curative treatments, 222, 927 Inheritance, customs regarding, 165, 228 Interment and graves, 163-166 Interpreters, 42, 65, 66, 83, 84, 143, 168, 190, 209, 210 Interviewing, 99 Iron Piper, informant, xv 54, Javelin, toy, 106 Jealousy, among children, 82 between husband and wife, 212 murder due to, 105 Jén&ja’xibed, name for Sweat Lodge, 120 Jenkins, Clarice, informant, xv Jewelry, mourning customs regarding, 168, 228 Joking relatives, 211 Juggling, 111 Kaliher, Sister Deodata, xiv Kansas River, 2 Keeper-of-the-pipe, minor deity, 142 Kettles, iron, 179, 181, 203, 208 Killing, accidental, 104, 105, 225 Kindness, practice of, 100-101 Kinnikinnick, tobacco mixture, 147, 174 Kinship groups, unilateral, 194 Kiowa, 110, 140, 180 Kissing, 99, 110, 225 Knife case, beaded, 72 Knife sheath, toy, 107 Knives, 27, 179 bone, 179, 229 slaughtering, 212 247 Kroeber, A. L., x1, XII, XIII quotations from, 2, 22, 25, 26, 27, 30, 31, 35, 38, 43, 45, 55, 60, 70, 72,95. OO, 141, 113 184! 119, 124, 125, 129, 134-135, 137, 139, 143, 146, 149, 150, 152, 154-155, 164, 165, 167, 168, 176, 178, 179, 182, 183-184, 185-186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192, 195, 208, 211, 212, 217, 220, 229 Labor, division of, 170 Lambs, pet, 109, 226 Lances, ceremonial, 119 Language, 94-96 recording of, 94 sign, 95-96, 98 teaching of, 94 vocabulary of, 94, 95 Laws, enforcement of, 193 Left Hand, Arapaho Chief, 1, 3, 97, 116, 127, 147, 161, 186, 187, 189, 191 Leggings, 170, 185, 186, 229 offerings of, 57, 153 Levirate, 197, 230 Lewis, Meriwether, and Clark, William, quotations from, 1, 2, 3 Life after death, belief in, 160-162, 228 Lightning, interpretation of, 90, 224 Litters, buffalo hide, 169 Little Ant, informant, xv Little Biitahawu dancers, boys, 119 Little Raven, informant, 97, 150, 162, 178, 183, 189, 190 prayer of, 150-151 Lizards, 128 Lodge poles, wooden, 180 Lodges, 118, 226 boy’s ceremonial, 110, 226 men’s, 118, 119, 226 order of admission to, 119, 226 women’s, 226 Lone Bear, Pete, informant, 122-123 Lone Man, informant, 175 Lone Wolf, Pete, informant, xv Long, S. eae quotations from, 1, 126, 17 Long Hair, informant, xv Long Legs, band name, 188, 189 Looking-up or Looking-around, band name, 187 Lophophora williamsii, 138 Love charms, 200 “Love child,” illegitimate child, 49, 50 Lowie, Robert H., xu quotations from, 2 Lullabies, 38-40, 219 Lung-disease, treatment for, 137 Mackenzie, Alexander, 2 Magicians, 130, 135, 227 Magyer, Sister Hieronyme, XIV Mallery, Garrick, quotations from, 84, ‘96, 97-98 Mandans, 3, 4, 118 Manure, uses of, 17, 28, 29, 219 248 Marriage, 193-216, 230-232 ceremonial, 202-209, 231 cross-cousin, 195, 230 elopement, 200, 201, 202, 207, 208, 231 endogamous, 193 exogamous, 193, 194 feast, 231 incestuous, 195 monogamous, 193, 194 polygamous, 196, 197, 208 polygynous, 194 prepuberty, 196 prohibitions on, 48, 49, 195 regulations regarding, 196, 201-202 separation and divorce, 211-216 “sweetheart,” 200, 201, 206, 207- 208 symbol, lack of, 204, 207 Master oF Ceremonies, men’s society, 12 Mates, choice of, 199-202 Mats, 182 Maximilian, Prince of Wied, quotations from, 3 Meadow lark, beliefs regarding, 94, 219 fed to babies, 41-42, 94, 219, 224 Measuring methods, 89-90, 224 Meat, buffalo, 173, 174, 175, 177 burnt offering of, 179 deer, 142, 175, 229 dog, eaten, 175, 176, 229 gifts of, 201 preparation of, 175-177, 229 “Medicine,” definition of, 124, 226 powers of, 124, 187, 226 practiced by medicine men, 7, 8, 9, 10, 19, 48, 54, 55, 56, 65, 66, 124-134, 136, 226, 227 purification of, 127 use of, 180-134, 227 “Medicine” bags, 124, 125, 129, 130, 137, 153, 181, 204, 226 beliefs regarding, 15, 217 contents of, 126, 137 inherited, 125, 126 “Medicine” bundle, 125, 126 “Medicine making,” 127 amare man,’ 43, 54, 125, 133, 135, 22 assistant at birth, 16, 19, 22, 218 chief, 191 feasting of, 57 functions of, 119, 121, 126, 127, 133, 135, 148, 222 gift to, 7, 55, 222 naming by, 62 organizations, 126 payment of, 137 power of, 7, 8, 9 “Medicine woman,” 126, 136, 227 assistant at birth, 16, 22, 218 functions of, 126, 185, 222 training of, 136 Men, clothing, 185, 229 desirable qualities, 198, 231 197; BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLu. 148 Men, duties of, 170, 231 mmarriageable age, 198, 231 occupations of, 170, 228 societies, 186, 226 tattooing of, 141 treatment to produce fertility, 7 Menstruation, beliefs regarding, 71, 72 first, 71, 72, 73, 74, 223 Mental training, 83-98, 224-225 Mescal pUHen (Lophophora williamsit), 138 Michelson, Truman, x1, XIv quotations from, 2, 25, 26, 27-28, 38, 55, 72, °76, 77, 95, 126, 136, 142, 167, 168, 217 Micho, Sister Olivette, xv Midwife, 11, 16, 17, 19, 21, 185, 218, 227 Milkweed down, stufting of, 182 Milky Way, dead man’s road, 160 Minor deities, 144 Mirrors, use in signaling, 98 Mix Hair, Ana, informant, xv Moccasins, 42, 48, 73, 79, 100, 103, 109, 111, 162, 185, 186, 197, 202, 203, 206, 207, 216, 220, 229 making of, 170, 208 measuring of, 90, 224 offerings of, 57, 110, 144, 153 Monogamy, 193 Monroe, James and wife, informants, XV Months, lunar, 84-86, 224 names of, 85 Moon, beliefs regarding, 92 phases of, 84, 224 Mooney, James, Xi, XII, XIII quotations from, 1, 2, 90, 92, 93, 94, 103, 112, 118, 114, 118, 124, 160, 161, 176, 178, 180, 182, 186, 187, 192, 217 Moons, names of, 86 unnamed for time counts, 84 Morals, training in, 98-106, 225 Morning star, beliefs regarding, 92 start of day, 83, 224 Moss, Alonzo, informant, Xv Moss, Paul, informant, xv Mother, name for Earth, 142, 145, 179 Mother-in-law, 170, 197, 205, 208, 209, 231 Mothers, 218 birth customs, 15-24, 218 definition of, 48, 68 instruction of sons, 71, 74, 77 purification after birth, 21, 218 suckling of, 44-46, 55, 220 Mourning, 166-169, 228 Mules, 176 Mumps, treatment for, 140 Murder, 104-105, 225 recompense for, 105 Muscular pains, treatment for, 140 Mushrooms, oyster, 140 Mutilation, 213, 227 ceremonial, 135, 141 mourning custom, 166, 167, 168, 228 punishment by, 212 INDEX Na’kasiné’na (sage-brush men), tribal division, 186 Name changing, 62-64, 66, 222-223 as health restorative, 57, 60, 142, 222, 227 reasons for, 60, 63, 222 Te EE AnE, curative practice, 57, 60, manner of, 62, 65 Names, 66-67, 222-223 Arapaho chiefs, 67 men’s, 67 origin of, 58-60, 64-65, 222 used, 59-60, 222 women’s, 67 N&nihaxwii Lodge, men’s society, 118, 119, 120, 144, 145, 189, 193 Natural phenomena, interpretation of, 90-94 Nausea, treatment for, 139 Navaho, 40, 78 Navel bag, wearing of, 72, 73 beliefs regarding, 14, 15 treatment of, 16-17, 19, 20, 22-24, 89, 218 worn as amulet, 23, 218 Nawaoinaha’na, tribal division, 187 Nawathi’néha (southerners), tribal division, 186 Na’/wunéna (southern men), tribal"divi- sion, 186 Necklaces, 110 Needle, darning, 27 Nez Percés, 24 Niadaéta-root, used for coughs, 137 Nidda’, decoction made from, 138 Niece, 199, 200 RS npUDE ort, cause for separation, 214, 23 Northern Cheyenne, Cheyenne, Northern. Northern lights, beliefs regarding, 92, 93, 224 ’ Nose, cutting of, 212, 213, 231 piercing, not practiced, 24, 219 rings, not worn, 24 Notched sticks, time markers, 84 Nursing, 44-46, 220 customs regarding, 44-46, 220 see Obscenity, used in teasing relatives, 211 Oil of Neat’s Foot (oieum bubalum), 184 Old Lady Red Pipe, informant, xv Old Lady Salt Friday, informant, x11, xv, 18, 70, 88, 135, 168-169, 188 Old Man, Jerome, informant, xv Old nurse, midwife, 135 Old people, respect for, 100, 101 Omaha, 112 One Bull, Jane, informant, xv One Bull, Oscar, informant, 30 Origin myth, 1 Orion, beliefs regarding, 92 time told by, 83 Ornaments, buried with dead, 102 cradle, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36 silver, 78 tipi cover, 180, 181, 182 249 Osage, 3 Oscar White, keeper of the pipe, 153 Otter, 109, 171 Overshoes, 152 Owls, 161 Packing-each-other-over, game, 112 Paducas, 2 Padus serotina, 176 Paint, black, 120, 145, 153 ceremonial, 134, 227 green, 153 Indian, 145 orange, 153 red, 145, 153, 162, 167 war, 134 white, 120, 153 yellow, 153 Paiute Indians, 163 burial of, 163 Panaz quinquefolium, 55, 56 Pants, 55, 144 Parfleche, 110, 177, 179 toy, 107 Pawnees, 3, 102, 197 Pemmican, preparation of, 177, 229 Pendants, tipi ornaments, 182 Peppermint plant, used as medicine, 16, 57, 153, 178 Personal belongings, buried with dead, 164, 186, 228 burning of, 167 Pet animals, 109 Peyote religion, 160 Pheasants, 171 Photographs, 169 Physicians, 130, 135-136, 227 Physiotherapists, medicine men, 135, 227 Pickaxes, buffalo bone, 169 Pictographs, events recorded by, 86, 96, 224 Pictography, not formally taught, 225 Pillows, buckskin, 182 Pinching game, 113 Pine, lodge pole (Pinus murrayana), 180 white, 170 Pinus murrayana, 180 Pipe, 164, 174, 207 ceremonial, 103, 104, 159, 225 coverings of, 158, 159 keeper of, 159, 161, 193 sacred, 94, 121, 122, 130, 138, 141, 142, 143, 145, 148, 153, 154, 156—- 157, 158, 159, 187, 193, 230 Pipe bag, toy, 107 Pipe-bearers, 97 Piper, Ralph, Northern Arapaho, 152 Placenta, disposal of, 5, 17, 18, 20, 217, 218 Plains Indians, 87, 95, 103, 118, 149, 169, 178 Plates, 208 board, 179 rawhide, 179, 229 Platte River, 3, 4 Play, children’s, 106-109 250 Pleasant Men, band name, 187 Pleiades, time measured by, 83, 224 Pneumonia, 137, 138, 142 Policemen, camp officials, 193, 230 Polulus monilifera, 178 Polyandry, 193, 230 Polygamy, 196 Polygyny, 193, 230 Pony, buried with dead, 164 child’s, 109, 225 Porcupine quills, used as ornaments, 31, i 36, 73, 182, 185 P~ nsed for ear piercing, 25, 27, 28 Possessions of the dead, removal of, 165 Postnatal interests, 24-44, 218-220 Potion, given at birth, 16, 19, 218 Pots, 208 iron, 179 Pottery, buried with dead, 164 Poultices, use of, 137, 138, 227 Powder Face, chief, 179, ‘191, 203-204, 216 Prairie-dogs, 171 Prayers, curative treatment, 54, 56, 57, Pregnancy, taboos 12-15, 217 Prenatal period, 4-15, 217 Prostitution, 9 Protestant religion, 160 Psy a aa medicine men, Pus 70-75, 222 rules regarding, 68-70 Pumpkins, 181 Puppy, cooked, presented as gift, 70 method of cooking, 176 Purgatives, 135, 227 Purification, 22, 153, 167 Quarreling,*101, 224, 231 Quick-to-anger, band name, 188 Rabbit Dance, 39, 40 Rabbit Lodge, men’s organization, 154, 206 Rabbits, 13, 47, 89, 102, 171, 172 offerings of, 154 skins of, 93 Raccoons, 55, 220 Racing, 110, 111, 226 Rain, predictions of, 93-94, 224 Soin ley, SneerpEstane of, 90, 91, 94, Rattles, 115, 138 antelope, 36 buffalo toes, 155 gourd, 137 hide, 153 turtle, 72 Ravens, 98 Rawhide, making of, 183 Red clay, medicinal use of, 56, 57, 219 use as powder, 29 Red River of the North, 2 Red Willow Men, band name, 188 connected with, 135, BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Buty. 148 Reineamation, beliefs regarding, 5, 6, 1 RelatianP. definition of, 194, 195, 1 Relatives, joking, 211 Religion, taught by old men, 75, 223, 227 Religion and supernatural powers, 142- 160, 227 Reservations, 4, 32, 33 Respect shown to aged, 225 Rewards, corrections, punishments, 78— — 82 Rheumatism, 137, 139, 140 Ridiculous Men, band name, 188 Ring and pin, game, 111, 226 Rings, silver, 78 wedding, lack of, 204, 207 Roeder, Sister Immacula, xIv Roots, curative use of, 137 wild, 175, 178, 179, 229 Ropes, 170 Row of Lodges, chief, 191 Rowlodge, Henry, informant, xv Rowlodge, Jessie, informant, x11, xv, 26, 27, 52-53, 85, 100, 112, 113, 119— 121, 144-145, 164, 165 Rowlodge, Lucy, informant, xv Run Behind, Susan, informant, xv Running, 110 Sacks, burlap, offerings of, 152 Sacrifice, personal, 141-142 Sacrificial offerings, curative treatment, 54, 57, 222, 227 meat, 179 mutilation, 70 Saddle bag, toy, 107 Saddle covering, buffalo hide, 169 Saddles, 108, 170 Sage, 153 curative use of, 55, 56, 57, 140 offerings of, 137 wreaths, 153, 157 Sage, Ed, informant, xv Sage, Odilia, informant, xv Sage, Sherman, informant, wil, XV. 4, 20, 13, 24, 25, 39, 40, 47, 50, 51, 60, 64-66, 68, 69, 75-76, 79, 80, 83, 85, 89, 91, 92, 96-97, 100, 102) 103, 104, 120, 124, 128, 129, 133, 136, 145, 147, 160, 161, 164, 171, 172, 175, 178, 187, 188, 189, 192. 193, 194, 195, 197, 198, 200, 201-— 202, 204, 208, 209, 210, 212-213, 214-215, 216, 224 Sage Bark, Grace, informant, XV Sage Bark, Nelson, informant, XV Sagebrush, decorations of, 157, 159 Salt, 178 Saretika, name for Arapaho, 176 Saskatchewan River, 3 Sealps, trophies, 203, 204 Scarfs, neck, 155 Schmidt, Wilhelm, quotations from, 154 Scott, Hugh Lennox, quotations from, ai 161, 187-188 INDEX Scouts, function of, 97, 98, 190, 192, 230 Scrapers, elk-horn, 175, 183 tin, 183 wooden, 183 Scythe, 184, 185 Seasons, names of, 86, 224 Seat backs, rawhide, 204 Secundines, disposal of, 17, 18, 218 Seger, John Homer, quotations from, 150, 193 Separation of man and wife, 211-216, 231-232 causes of, 211-216, 231-232 children of, disposition, 215-216, 232 public announcement of, 214, 232 Servants, lack of, 53, 222 Sex, prediction of, 11, 217 Shakespeare, William, informant, xv Shamans, medicine men, 135, 227 Sharp Nose, Winneshead, informant, xv, 50, 190,0291; 197 Shawls, 110, 206 doll, 107 worn by women, 73, 74 Sheep, 176, 184 mountain, 179 Shepherdia argentia, 177 Shepherdia canadensis, 177 Shields, 174, 181 Shinny, game, 111, 114, 226 sticks, 114 Shirts, 55, 144, 170, 185, 229 buckskin, 73 Shoes, 144, 152 Short Nose, Chief, 187, 191 Shoshonie, 3, 4, 26, 64, 71, 74, 122, 133, 146, 176, 191, 200 Shotgun, Sam, informant, xv Siblings, 225 Sickness, cure and prevention , 54-57, treatment by medicine man, 57, 222 Signaling, 96-98, 225 methods of, 96-98, 225 smoke, 97 Sinews, 120, 180 Sioux, 2, 3, 26, 30, 39, 43, 53, 64, 103, 106, 108, 114, 147, 163, 164, 180, 204, 205 Sister-brother relationship, 68-70, 223 Sister-in-law, 197, 211, 231 Sisters, 216 definition of, 48, 68, 195 Sitting Eagle, Alberta, informant, xv Skin dressing, method, 183-185 woman’s job, 170, 183 Skirts, men’s 157 Skunks, 186 beliefs regarding, 14 Slaves, lack of, 53, 222 Smallpox, 136 ‘‘Smellers,’”’ name given to Arapaho, 96 Smith, Catherine, informant, xv Smoking, 62, 117, 207, 226 ceremonial, 66, 128, 142, 147, 158, 174, 227 Snakes, 128 251 Snakes, Indian tribe, 3, 180 Snow snake, game, 111, 112, 226 Societies, age, 2, 117-123 boy’s, 118, 226 men’s, 118, 226 women’s, 119 “Soldiers,” helpers, 123 Songs, 120 gaming, 115 Son-in-law, taboos regarding, 207, 208, 209-211 Sorcerers, 130 Sororate, not compulsory, 196, 230, 231 Soups, meat, 178 Southern Cheyenne, Southern. Spades, buffalo bone, 169 Spaniards, relations with, 4 Spear, men’s society, 118, 122, 123 Spear Dance, 122, 123 Spears, 174, 181 ceremonial, 123 Spider-above, name for God, 144 Sponsor of Sun Dance, 149, 156, 157, 158, 159 Spoons, buffalo-horn, 107, 229 mountain sheep-horn, 179 Spotted Face, chief, 189 Spotted Horse, chief, 187, 191 Spotted Wolf, chief, 189 Spotted Wolf, Helen, informant, xv Spunky Men, band name, 188 Squaw Dance, 39, 40 Squirrels, ground, 106 Staff, men’s society, 118, 121 Star Falcons, boy’s lodge, 119 Stars, boy’s society, 118, 119, 121 Stealing, attitude toward, 102-104 Sterility, 6-9, 10, 48, 217 cause for separation, 214, 232 proof of, 221 treatment for, 8 Sterilization, by fumes and magic, see Cheyenne, Stick, ceremonial, 122 Stillbirths, burial of, 163, 218, 228 Stingy House, trading post, 54 Stirling, Matthew W., XIV Stockings, 152 Stoic Lodge, men’s lodge, 121 Stolen articles, return of, 103 Stomachache, 137 Stories, 115 children’s, 116, 226 war, 116, 120 Storm, chief, 189 Storm predictions, 93 Strap, carrying, 186 Strong, William Duncan, from, 2 Suctions, curative treatment, 54, 55, 56, 139, 140, 222, 227 Suicide, 104, 161, 225, 228 forced, 104 Sumac, 30, 147 Summary, 216-232 Sun, beliefs regarding, 92 quotations 252 Sun Danee, origin of, 148-149, 227 prohibition of, 149 religious dance, 2, 18, 25, 26, 27, 28, 39, 40, 51, 52, 53, "57, 62, 66, 83, 85, 86, 107, 120, 122, 127, 131, 135, 141, 142, 148, 144, 145, 148-151, 151-153, 154-160, 176, 182, 187, 192, 193, 201, 202, 206, 219, 221, 227 Sun Dance lodge, 28, 57, 122, 123, 143, 151, 152, 153,193 diagram of, 156 (fig.) Sun” Dancers, rules regulating, 153 torture of, 85, 86, 141, 150-151 Sundials, lack of, 83 “Sun dogs,’”’ weather forecasters, 93 Supreme Being, 144, 227 Sweat Lodge, men’s society, 118, 119, 120, 189, 193 preparation of, 129, 134, 141, 147, 148 songs, 148 used in fasting, 129, 131, 141 Sweaters, 152 preating, ceremonial, 134, 141, 147-148, 22 medicinal, 141, 148, 227 Sweetheart child, illegitimate child, 221 Sweezy, Carl, informant, xv Swimming, 108, 110, 226 Swings, 111, 226 Tables, 99 Taboos, conduct, 12-15, 47, 217 copnixd with pregnancy, 12-15, iL food, 12, 13, 14, 46, 47, 217, 221 in-law, 207, 208, 209-211, 231 Talebearing, 101 Tally sticks, 115 Tanning, 183-185, 228 Tattooing, method of, 141 ornamental, 140, 141 Tempest, chief, 191 Tent, canvas, 182-183 given as gift, 70 peyote, 72 Tepee, see Tipis. The-Mysterious-One, name for God, 144 Thread, buffalo sinew, #169, 186 cow sinew, 186 Thunder, interpretation of, 90, 224 Thunderbird, mythical character, 90, 91, 224 Time measurements, 83-88, 224 Tinder, buffalo dung, 178, 229 cottonwood pith, 178, 229 Tipi cover, buffalo skin, 180, 181, 228 dead wrapped in, 162 decorations of, 180, 181, 182 Tipis, 2, 15, 37, 61, 62, 65, 71, 72, 74, 6, 91, 93, 100, 115, 121, 131, 156, 163, 171, 179, 180-183, 192, 196, 204, 207, 208, 228, 229, 230, 231 balloon, 131 birth, 18, 19, 217 care of, 170 ceremonial, 127, 133, 137, 230 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 148 Tipis, construction of, 180-181, 229 entrance, 180, 181, 203 furnishing of, 202, 203, 206, 208, 229, 231 gifts of, 109, 197, 198, 202, 203, 206, 215, 231 pegged down, 180, 181 play, 106 removal of, 165 ventilation, 180-181 Tiqtup, abbreviation for b&t{qtu’be, game, 112 Tobacco, 153 acceptance of, 99 gifts of, 98 mixtures, 147 offerings of, 137 plug, 99, 187 pouches, 73 refusal of, 99 smoking, 98-99 use as medicine, 99 Tomahawk, sacred, 122 Tomahawks, Men’s society, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 226 paraphernalia required for, 120 Toothache, treatment for, 139 Tops, toy, 106, 113, 226 used by boys only, 113 Totem sticks, 203 Towels, 208 Toys, 98, 106, 111 whirling, 107 Trade, with other tribes, 3, 4 Travois, used in traveling, 38, 57, 219 Treatments, curative, 54-57, 189-141 Tribal divisions, 186-187, 230 Tribal government, 186-193, 229-230 Triplets, undesired, 47, 221 Trophies, scalps, 204 Trosper, Baron, informant, xv Trunks, 208 Turkey, wild, 142, 175 Turkey call, used in hunting, 175 Turkey-wing fire fan, 179 Turtle, 128 heart, curative use of, 137 tail, worn as head- dress, 137 worn by girls, 72 Twins, beliefs regarding, 6, 11, 12, 13, 46, 47, 217, 221 Tylor, Henry Lee, informant, xv Ugly-faced men, band ee 187, 188 Uncle, definition of, 68, 195 relations to family, 77, 205, 207 Underwear, 152 Unfaithfulness, beliefs regarding, 212 cause for divorce, 215, 231 Utaha, 180 Utes, 3, 50, 53, 54, 59, 63, 96, 116, 131 Vapor-bathing, 54, 222 Villages, 174, 181 Visions, 128-130 Visiting, 115-117 Voting, men only, 189 INDEX Walker, Daniel, 155 Wallis, ‘Wilson De XIV War bonnets, 123, 162 War clubs, 120 Warren, Cecelia, informant, xv Warts, belief regarding, 103 Wash basin, 208 Washstands, 208 Water-dogs, 128 Water-Dripping-Old-Men, see Keepers- of-the-Pipe. Water-Sprinklers, see Water-Dripping- Old-Men. Water vessels, buffalo hide, 169 Waterman, Joe, 154 Watermelons, 89 Waxubaa, use for stomachache, 137 Weaning, 46, 220, 221 ee Pear, keeper of the sacred pipe, 18 Weather, forecasting of, 92-94, 224 prophets, 92, 224 Wheel, sacred, 149, 153, 159 Whipping, rare, 78, 81, 224 reasons for, 212, 213, 214, 231 resented, 43 Whips, 170 Whirlwinds, beliefs regarding, 161 Whistles, 175 ceremonial, 121, 122, 157 White Crow, chief, 189 White Man, chief, 191 White Plume, Hannah, informant, xv White Plume, Mae, informant, xv White-Man-Above, name for "God, 144} Yellow Plume, Agnes, Widows, marriage of, 197 Wild cat, skin used, "42, 220 253 Will-of-the-wisps, 134 Willow, red, 147 Willow, use ‘of, 30, 35, 148 Wind River Reservation, 4, 32, 33, 34, 108, 151, 153, 154, 199, 317 Winnebagos, 39 Wise-One-Above, Cheyenne God, 145 Wissler, Clark, quotations from, 137 Witch doctors, 131 Wolf, Ann, informant, MV, GO Oo: 36, 37-38, 39, 91, 92, 107, 110, 190-191, 195 Wolf Moceasin, informant, 71, 135, 145, 160, 164, 190 Wolves, band name, 187 Women, clothing, 185, 229 games, 114 influence of, 230 mourning customs, 166-169 occupations of, 170, 181, 228, 229 participation in lodges, 120, 156, 159 standard of virtue, 2 tattooing of, 141 treatment for fertility, 7 Woolworth, Arnold, informant, xm, xv, 62, 85, 115, 116, 121-122, 161, 163, 165, 166, 171-172 Woolw orth, Charles, informant, Xv Woolworth, Susie, informant, XV Wrestling, 110, 226 Years, not numbered, 86 Yellow Bear, chief, 191 Yellow Horse, chief, 191 informant, XII, xv, 30, 35, 36, 38, 39, 51, 107, 110, 168, 186, 190 O a : ae yee: A] 1 ar ad val : . : a a iN Cala! Se eS ‘ ee. iii 3 9088 0