UAIV.OF Toronto LIBRARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto vu http://www.archive.org/details/bulletin190113221 unit | ae Wy i 1 wih ph i i i ( Se if hy, nA ay Say ¥ he ain if JAS a mee Fi i i ‘ } 7 Hh ih Pre r \ fiat ‘ at NA ri ia we i ) a ae ee 7 ‘ i } ; ‘a Piet . Ne iy Any Ae arene 11 Athy “ee } roti e rae Male ans.) Wii, Ni v | Hy te 1 ee a 1 } (hp vey. hin | La ts : Yi ey j | AY | ay Ruby ie |) Wien i nas in eee me eet hte) Cent heme yee nie i) Ki vugiay ee ar ee ee ee aia a? Ff Se emery , Indunkey, Sey Lo, Art (UU. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE/ . BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN NO. 221.— 23 « B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. — DIMORPHIC LEAVES OF COTTON AND ALLIED PLANTS IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. BY O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Crop Acclimatization and Adaptation Investigations. Issurp NoveMBER 22, 1911. - WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1911. 221 to BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY. Assistant Chief of Bureau, WILLIAM A. TAYLOR. Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL. Chief Clerk, JAMES E. JONES. Crop ACCLIMATIZATION AND ADAPTATION INVESTIGATIONS. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge. G. N. Collins, Botanist. F. L. Lewton, Assistant Botanist. H. Pittier, Special Field Agent. A. T. Anders, J. H. Kinsler, Argyle McLachlan, and D. A. Saunders, Agents. C. B. Doyle and R. M. Meade, Assistants. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BurEAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., April 28, 1911. Sir: [ have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled “Dimorphic Leaves of Cotton and Allied Plants in Relation to Heredity,” by Mr. O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge of Crop Acclima- tization and Adaptation Investigations of this Bureau, and to recom- mend its publication as Bulletin No. 221 of the Bureau series. Numerous agricultural applications of the facts of dimorphism have been described in Bulletin No. 198 of this Bureau, entitled “Dimorphic Branches in Tropical Crop Plants: Cotton, Coffee, Cacao, the Central American Rubber Tree, and the Banana.’ The present paper reports additional information regarding the dimor- phic characters and variations of cotton and other plants and points out their relation to problems of heredity and breeding. It is believed that more definite knowledge of the characters and habits of growth of our cultivated plants will be of assistance in many lines of agricultural investigation. Respectfully, Wao. A. TayYLor, Acting Chief of Bureau. Hon. JAMEs WILson, Secretary of Agriculture. 221 3 CON PENT Ss an MEMES Noles O22) -15 Sais Sni8 SS a caye besos a8 HE pad pase ois aie ee ese sarg 3 RE haere as Dimorphism a phenomenon of alternative expression.........--.--.----------- Abrupt changes of leaf forms in Hibiscus cannabinus...........-.--.---------- Meat forms of varieties of. Hibiscus cannabinus_..-....--:-.---:----2+-++---5-- Ee nPer Matar TN AU COLLON 2725 25 55 ee eee) Uh en ret. aot fae Sele Se fwcariypes oO. Gimorphism of leaves in cotton. - 2... 224-222-225 fee ee ee ee ee =e ree TCA TORIAT WMNOKT YI .:3 tee NS Se a oS ae eres sian 2d lao ke Significance of parallelism in the study of heredity.................-.......-. hemudon ou parallelisn: to classification..........--2')-- 242-242-822 2.222 eee Poramomaialnorpuinn to, mutation. ../2.-. 5 22)222523 202 2222 see esse Relation of dimorphism to Mendelian inheritance..............-.....-...------ Praerenmt, types of dimorphic specialization.._....-..--+-..-.-20-0-+-.-----2-- Relation of dimorphism to sexual differentiation of plants...............-.-.-- Lie eee ee Pea ae 28 are Pith nS a OE ete 4 oe U™ ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES. Piate I. Dimorphic leaves from adjacent internodes of five plants of Hibiscus cannabinus, showing very abrupt changes of form...............-- II. Dimorphic leaves from adjacent internodes of four plants of Hibiscus cannabinus, showing somewhat gradual changes of form........... III. End of fruiting branch of Egyptian cotton with normal leaves, stip- ules, and involucralbracts=-=—— 222-2 ee IV. End of fruiting branch of Egyptian cotton with abnormally enlarged stipules and reduced leaf blades, without lateral lobes........... V. Hybridization of broad-leaved and ‘“‘okra”’ varieties of cotton... ..- TEXT FIGURES. . 1. Growing tips of stalks of Hibiscus cannabinus, showing changes from simple to lobed leaves:.:2------22---<225.-2 52%. 2 se eo er 2. Four leaves from successive internodes of the same stalk of Hibiscus cannabinus, showing slight differences among the simple leaves and abrupt change to the divided form... .....-.-..:----.-=2s-5s5 se eee 3. Leaves from adjacent internodes of Hibiscus cannabinus, showing tran- sition from the simple to the divided form, but with the lobes indicated in the simple leaf by prominent angles...............-..- 4. Simple-leaved Egyptian variety of Hibiscus cannabinus.............. 5. Three-lobed leaf of narrow-lobed variety of Hibiscus cannabinus, grown in Louisiana: .: .222..22.: 22-225. 222-2 ee ee 6. Five-lobed leaf of narrow-lobed variety of Hibiscus cannabinus, grown in ‘Louisiana... g2226t Soe. 26 oe i eee eee . Leaves of Upland cotton seedling from first seven nodes above the cotyledons, showimg changes of form...........-.-=-.-.-=-2622 =e 8. Mature leaf of ‘‘King” Upland cotton, parent of ‘‘okra-leaved” varia- “J 9. Leaf of ‘‘ Park’s Own,” an ‘‘okra” variety of American Upland cotton... 10. Leaf of ‘‘Ratteree’s Favorite,” an ‘‘okra”’ variety of American Upland COMO) le Apes ee ee oe ee ease aac one cee oe Sas aa Sees asSSsoarsisitte:: 11. Cotton leaf without lobes, a variation of the Triumph variety........-- 12. Simple leaf of fruiting branch of Egyptian cotton, produced under greenhouse conditions... .........-.-..2---22252:==-5"==== err 13. Young leaf from vegetative branch of Egyptian cotton, with five lobes and equal stipules. .......--=.-:----<--25+t-2sss+=ee=e er 14. Young leaf from fruiting branch of Egyptian cotton, with three lobes and unequal stipules... :...-----se%----i2-.24206s) oe 15. Leaf of fruiting branch of Egyptian cotton, with abuca reduced blade and enlarged, bractlike stipule ..........-.. == aoe 16. Plant of Ingenhousia ‘talloba, showing transition ap ae oa deeply divided leaves: ..-..2.-.<--32-d22-0e-se5- eee eee ee ee 17. Simple leaf of Culluche cotton from Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico . . ee 18. Lateral branch of the paper mulberry (Broussonetia), with leaves une- qual in size (anisophylly) and diverse in form (heterophylly) -----.- 221 6 Page. 52 52 52 52 52 12 13 27 32 4 B. P. I.—675. DIMORPHIC LEAVES OF COTTON AND ALLIED PLANTS IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. INTRODUCTION. Parallel series of variations in the forms of the leaves can be traced through numerous species of cotton and also in other genera of Malvacee, such as Hibiscus, Abelmoschus, and Ingenhousia. The parallel variations appear as characters of different cultivated varie- ties and are also represented by dimorphic specializations of leaf forms in different parts of the same plant. Though this class of variations has received little attention hitherto, the facts are of interest in relation to general questions of heredity and to the practical problems of breeding superior varieties and maintaining their uniformity by selection. Recognition of dimor- phism of the leaves and branches in cotton and related plants enlarges the range of characters that may be used in distinguishing varieties and in determining the influence of environment upon the expression of characters. The cotton plant affords unusually good opportunities for the study of environmental modifications, but it is essential that the characters and habits of the various cultivated forms be well known if the differences of behavior in different conditions are to be cor- rectly understood. Studies of environmental differences or of corre- lations of characters that do not take into account the normal diver- sity in the structure of the different parts of the plant may give very misleading results. Though different kinds of leaves or branches represent very definite facts of heredity, yet the expression of such characters can be influ- enced by external conditions. Thus it has been found that new con- ditions may seriously disturb the expression of characters in the cotton plant, even to the extent of a complete suppression of the fruiting branches, so that the plants remain completely sterile, although showing a high degree of vegetative vigor. The behavior of such plants may be compared with that of sterile hybrids. In both cases there is a failure to bring the full series of normal characters into expression." 1Cook, O. F. Dimorphic Branches in Tropical Crop Plants: Cotton, Coifee, Cacao, the Central Ameri- can Rubber Tree, and the Banana. Bulletin 198, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture, 1911, pp. 18-27. 221 7 8 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION. TO HEREDITY, For the purposes of the selection that has to be maintained in order to keep a superior stock in a condition of uniformity, it is quite as important to recognize varieties by the characters of their leaves and branches as by those of the bolls and seeds. Indeed, selection by vegetative characters can be made even more efficient than selection by fruit characters because it enables degenerate variations to be recognized and removed early in the season, thus avoiding the danger of spreading inferior characters through cross-pollination# Selection is our means of keeping undesirable characters from coming into expression, but it does not prevent the transmission of such characters. Even though all the lines of descent that show ten- dencies to the expression of undesirable characters be rejected, the possibilities of such expression remain in the other lines and are likely to be reawakened if selection be relaxed. One of the most important problems in the selective breeding of cotton and other seed-propagated field crops is to make selection more efficient by more adequate knowledge of the characteristics and behavior of the plants, so that deviations from a type can be more easily recognized and removed from the stock and the exciting causes of such devia- tions avoided. DIMORPHISM A PHENOMENON OF ALTERNATIVE EXPRESSION. The most important of the general facts or principles of heredity that may be illustrated by the phenomena of dimorphism is the fundamental distinction between expression and transmission. Unless this distinction is appreciated it is impossible to understand the measures of selective breeding that are required to preserve the uni- formity and maintain the agricultural value of superior varieties of cotton and other seed-propagated crop plants. Many efforts are being made to solve the problem of heredity by seeking in the proto- plasm of germ cells for microscopic organs or mechanisms that are supposed to transmit the characters from the parents to the offspring. While the discovery of such a mechanism would be of great scientific interest, the facts of heredity that promise to be of most value from the standpoint of agricultural application are facts of expression. Even without determining the mechanism of transmission it is pos- sible to investigate the effects of breeding and environment upon the expression of characters.’ The doctrine elaborated by Weismann that there is a funda- mental distinction between the germ plasm and the protoplasm of the somatic or vegetative tissues has doubtless tended to prolong the 1 Cook, O. F. Cotton Selection on the Farm by the Characters of the Stalks, Leaves, and Bolls. Cir- cular 66, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1911. 2Cook, O. F. Transmission Inheritance Distinct from Expression Inheritance. Science, n. s., vol. 25, 1907, p. 911. 221 DIMORPHISM A PHENOMENON OF ALTERNATIVE EXPRESSION. 9 confusion of the facts of expression with those of transmission. The phenomena of inheritance have been supposed to center exclusively in the germ cells, the assumption being that all the characters that are to be shown in the adult are determined beforehand in the germ cells. The facts of dimorphism suggest that the phenomena of heredity and breeding can be studied in the vegetative parts of the plants as well as in the floral or reproductive organs or in the proto- plasmic mechanism of the germ cells. The production of a succession of different kinds of internode indi- viduals by vegetative propagation shows that characters may be brought into expression and then suppressed and replaced by other characters without the necessity of new conjugations to form new germ cells. In all the higher plants the expression of the characters is changed repeatedly during the growth of each individual. This may be one of the reasons why the processes of heredity appear to be more susceptible to environmental influences in plants than in animals. That the leaves and other vegetative parts of many plants do not have the power of regenerating or bringing the characters of the other parts into expression does not demonstrate a fundamental difference between the germinal and somatic protoplasm. In some plants, such as the Begonia, it is evident that all of the tissues inherit all of the characters, since new plantlets are able to bud out freely from the leaf blades, petioles, and stalks. In Bryophyllum also young plantlets are produced from the leaves, but only from particular points along the margins instead of from the whole surface of the leaf. But even with the most definite limi- tations of expression there may be evidences of complete transmis- sion. Thus lateral branches of coffee, though apparently quite unable to produce upright shoots from vegetative buds, are certainly able to transmit all the characters of the species, for all the fruit is produced on the lateral branches. If there were a complete correspondence between expression and transmission, so that the transmitted characters of a variety could be fully known from a single individual or from a generation of uniform individuals, the characters of a pure-bred uniform variety might be expected to remain fixed for all time and further selection would be entirely unnecessary, as assumed in some theories. But in reality no such permanent uniformity has been found to exist. No refinement of the breeder’s art establishes an unchanging expres- sion of characters in any seed-propagated plant, or even in those that are increased by vegetative propagation. It is easy to under- stand that selected strains of wheat or other plants adapted to self- fertilization may show greater and more permanent uniformity than 95213°—Bul. 221—11——-2 10 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY, varieties of cross-fertilized plants like cotton and corn, but the idea of an absolutely fixed or constant expression of characters does not accord with the facts of biology. The successive formation of the different organs of the plant repre- sents a series of changes in the expression of the characters, often as definitely contrasted as differences between varieties or species. Even in purely vegetative organs like the leaves specialized dimor- phic changes of expression may be established in some: species, instead of more gradual or continuously varied changes that appear in related species or even in other varieties of the same species. In the study of heredity, as in many other fields of scientific explo- ration, there is a tendency to give special values to evidence drawn from remote or diflicult sources and to overlook the significance of familiar facts or of those that are capable of easy and direct observa- tion. Yet it must be recognized that any underlving principles or general facts of heredity that are to be of practical use must have relation to readily visible external characteristics of our most familiar domestic animals and plants. The more familiar the facts, the more ready and reliable should be the interpretation, were it not for the greater interest generally secured by more remote and more. doubt- ful considerations.. Though some of the facts described in this paper may not have been previously recorded in connection with the cotton plant and its relatives, sumilar facts are common enough in other genera and families of plants. The dimorphic leaves and branches of cotton and other related plants do not represent extreme types of specialization, but this may give them the greater interest from the standpoint of heredity because of the intermediate position between the more definite and less definite forms of alternative inheritance. It is usual to think of plants as simple individuals, but in reality they are compound individuals built up by the association of many individual internodes or metamers, each of which may be capable of an independent existence. The internode individuals are not all of one kind. In addition to the specialization of some of them as floral organs definite differences are often to be found among the vegetative metamers. The fact that many plants seem to lack definite specializations among the vegetative internodes only ren- ders such peculiarities the more interesting when they occur, for they throw another light on the facts of evolution and heredity. The development of any individual plant may be viewed as a progressive change of expression of characters, the juvenile charac- ters giving place to the adult, but the changes are generally so gradual as to suggest no analogy with the Mendelian form of definitely con- trasted alternative inheritance. Abrupt changes from juvenile to 221 ABRUPT CHANGES OF LEAF FORMS. iG adult forms of foliage have long been known in such cases as junipers and eucalypts, but these have not been considered as of the same nature as the contrasted inheritance of Mendelian characters. In the case of the cotton and Hibiscus, however, it appears that Mende- lian relations exist in characters that are also subject to abrupt change during individual development. Mendelian inheritance is associated with other contrasted changes in the expression of char- acters. The same characters that show contrasted expression in Mendelian hybrids may be as definitely contrasted, in related plants, in the growth of each individual. Mendelism, like the dimorphic differences, may be looked upon as representing alternative expres- sion of characters instead of alternative transmission. ABRUPT CHANGES OF LEAF FORMS IN HIBISCUS CANNABINUS. A very pronounced example of dimorphism of leaves was observed in Egypt, in May and June, 1910, in Hibiscus cannabinus, the so- called Deccan or Ambari hemp, a plant commonly grown along the borders of cotton fields. The object of planting the hemp with the cotton is to avoid the injuries of the plant lice, which are usually severe on the more exposed margins of the fields. Though the hemp plant is a rather close relative of the cotton, it is much less susceptible to the attacks of the insects and grows up more rapidly. The cotton field is protected against the drier outside air that might otherwise enable the plant lice to destroy the outer rows. Moreover, a bast fiber extracted from the Hibiscus is made into a coarse cordage used for many agricultural and domestic purposes. Variations of leaf forms in the hemp plant show a curious parallel with cotton. In addition to the entire or very broadly lobed leaves comparable to those of ordinary Upland varieties of cotton, there are other varieties with deeply divided narrow leaves, like the so- called ‘‘okra”’ varieties of cotton in the United States, and some with leaves parted to the base into narrow digitate segments, a condition also known in some of the tropical varieties of cotton. (Pls. I, II, and V.) Further similarity was found in the fact that the Egyptian variety of Hibiscus cannabinus with the lobed leaves produced entire leaves at the base of the stalk, as also happens with the narrow-lobed “okra” varieties of Upland cotton. The Hibiscus leaves show a very abrupt transition from the broad, simple form of leaves on the lower part of the stalk to the narrow, deeply lobed form on the upper part (fig. 1); this abrupt change in the characters of the leaves seemed the more worthy of notice on account of the fact that Mendelian segregation of the broad and narrow forms of leaves has been found to occur in the second generation of crosses between 221 12 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY, varieties of cotton representing two corresponding types of leaves. The hemp plants with the two kinds of leaves represent a segrega- tion of characters among the internode members of the same plant. The leaves of the upper part of the stem are all deeply lobed, while those of the lower part are without lobes. The transition is usually quite abrupt, though the leaves that are close to the transition are often slightly different from others of the same class. A premonition of the change may be found in the larger marginal teeth of the last of the undivided leaves (fig. 2), or the last simple leaf may have a prominent angle on one or both sides (fig. 3). A more definitely intermediate condition appears when a leaf is divided on one side Fic. 1.—Growing tips of stalks of Hibiscus cannabinus, Showing changes from simple to lobed leaves. (Natural size.) but not on the other. (See Pl. IJ.) In such cases there is usually a very pronounced difference between the two sides of the leaf, so that the change from the entire to the lobed condition is still quite abrupt in comparison with the very gradual changes shown in many plants in passing from the large basal or radical leaves to those of the upper part of the stalk. Specimens to illustrate the abrupt nature of the transition from the entire to the lobed form of leaf (Pl. I) were taken quite at random, except for the necessity of seeking plants that had unin- jured leaves at the nodes where the transition took place. Many of 221 ABRUPT CHANGES OF LEAF FORMS. 13 the leaves were badly mutilated by the bites of insects. It was also necessary to search a little farther to find examples of more gradual transition from the entire to the divided state. (See Pl. IT.) Those who prefer mathematical statements of such facts might measure the depths of the incisions of the leaves and construct curves or other numerical expressions of the differences of form, but the nature of the differences is apparent in the photographic reproductions. It is evident from the abrupt ness of the transition that curves representing measurements of the divisions of the leaves would show two very distinct and well- separated modes, quite as distinct as those that would represent the expression of contrasted characters in cases of Mendelian segregation in the second generation of a hybrid. It is difficult to imagine that any practical advantage can be secured by the plants by changing the form of the leaves thus abruptly part way up the stalk. Yet it is possible that the different forms of the leaves may be con- nected with the fact that there is a difference of function among the internodes of the stalk. The internodes of the upper part of the stalk produce fruit or fruiting branches, while those of the lower part do not. Some of the lower internodes of the cotton stalk give rise to large vegetative limbs with the same functions as the stalk, while other internodes produce only small abortive branches or none at all. Sev- eral of the barren internodes usually intervene between the highest of the vegetative limbs and the lowest of the functional fruiting branches, as though it were difficult to change abruptly “Cn-3 internodes of the same from one form of branches to the other. stalk of Hibiscus cannabinus, In Deccan hemp and the okra plant the aia ae Lanes fruits are borne directly at the axils of the abrupt change to the divided main stalk without the intervention of fruiting = '"™ (N*talsize) branches. It may be that the divided leaves indicate in advance the internodes that are to produce flowers and fruit. Change of leaf form marks the approach of the fruiting condition in such plants as Hedera helix and Ficus repens, but in such cases the change of leaf forms does not occur on the same axis of growth. The creeping stems of the juvenile stage represent an adaptive condition inter- 9971 Fic. 2.—Four leaves from suc- 14 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY, calated into the life histories of these plants, like the larval stages of insects. The joints of the stalk of the cotton plant may also be considered from internodes of 3.—Leaves Hibiscus cannabinus, showing transition from the simple to the divided form, but with the lobes indicated in the simple leaf by prominent Fia. adjacent angles. (Natural size.) as dimorphic with reference to the two kinds of branches that they produce, but it is a further step in hereditary specialization if the joints prove to be differ- entiated also by the forms of leaves that subtend the two kinds of branches. The external condi- tions often appear to influence the number of vegetative branches, but it is not yet known whether such changes are caused by direct transformations in buds already formed or are previously deter- mined in the growth of the pri- mary stalk. It may be that dif- ferences in the forms of the leaves will help to show when the char- acters of the branches are deter- mined. In Upland varieties of cotton the fruiting branches are pro- duced closer to the base of the plant than in the Egyptian cot- ton, and the seedlings of Upland cotton also begin to produce lobed leaves at earlier stages than Egyptian seedlings. The second or third leaves of Upland cotton often show distinct lobes, and in some varieties, such as “‘ Willet’s Red Leaf,” even the first leaf may be lobed. In the Egyptian cot- ton, where the vegetative branches are more numerous and the fruit- ing branches begin farther up the stalk, the seedlings usually produce from five to seven entire leaves before the lobed leaves begin to appear. In luxuriant plants the vegetative branches continue farther up the stalk than the entire leaves, but under other conditions the vegetative branches are less numerous. PPA Fruiting branches have LEAF FORMS OF VARIETIES OF HIBISCUS CANNABINUS. a been found on the Egyptian cotton in Arizona as low as the seventh node, as reported by Mr. Argyle McLachlan. LEAF FORMS OF VARIETIES OF HIBISCUS CANNABINUS. At least two varieties of the Deccan hemp are grown in Egypt, one with deeply divided, finely toothed leaves (Pls. I and IT) and the other with more coarsely toothed, undivided leaves (figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). It does not appear that either of these Egyptian varieties has been introduced into the United States, but a third variety with digitately parted leaf blades, not seen in Egypt but supposed to come from India, has been grown experimentally in Louisiana. (Figs. 5 and 6.) z Fic. 4.—Simple-leaved Egyptian variety of Hibiscus cannabinus. (Natural size.) The variety with the dimorphic leaves is much more generally planted in Egypt, but plants with broader, undivided leaves are often found growing with the others. At Tanta, to the north of Cairo, separate plantings of the broad-leaved variety were seen. The plants seemed larger, coarser, and of a darker green color than those of the narrow-leaved type growing in the same locality. The leaves are distinctly larger and with the margins much more coarsely toothed. A tendency to the lobed form of leaf seemed to be indi- cated in this variety only by the somewhat larger teeth at the ends of the largest of the oblique veins. There may be a general corre- lation between the shape of the leaf and the size of the marginal teeth. The teeth seem to be larger in the undivided leaves of the 291 16 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. dimorphic variety than in the lobed leaves. The smallest teeth are found on the specimens with the very narrow digitate lobes. (See figs. 5 and 6.) Examples of transition forms of leaves seem to be more common on plants with rather small, narrow-pointed, sharply dentate leaves than in plants with larger leaves and less numerous teeth. (See Pl. II, A, B, C, and D.) It is not impossible that these differénces represent distinct varieties or strains. There is no reason to suppose that the Egyptian varieties of this plant have been subjected to any more close or careful selection than the Egyp- tian varieties of cotton, which were found to exhibit a wide range of diversity. In Hooker’s ‘‘Flora of British India” the leaves of [Hibiscus cannabinus are described in two. slightly different ways, once ‘Lower leaves entire, upper lobed,” and again ‘‘ Lower leaves cordate, upper deeply palmately lobed, lobes narrow serrate.’ The narrow-lobed variety shown in figures 5 and 6 would seem to conform most nearly to this description, though none of the lower leaves are shown in the pressed specimens of this variety in the Economic Herbarium of the United States Department of Agriculture. The species seems not to be represented in the National Herbarium. The leaves of the Egyptian varieties would hardly be described as cor- date, though some of those in Plate II show a slight reentrant angle at the base. The lobing of the leaves of the dimorphic Egyptian variety is not unlike that of the plant depicted as Hibiscus cannabinus in Rox- Fic. 5.—Threelobed leaf of nare DUTgh’s “Plants of the Coast of Coromandel” row-lobed variety of Hibiscus (vol. 2, pl. 190), except that some of the upper aie ia Lousk eaves are shown with five lobes. Though no such leaves were seen on the Egyptian plants in July it is quite possible that they occur later in the season. Rox- burgh also gives a separate figure of a simple narrowly lanceolate leaf and states that this form occurs at the top of the full-grown plants. According to Wester a similar reduction of the later leaves is shown in the roselle plant (Hibiscus sabdariffa) .1 1Wester, P.J. Roselle: Its Culture and Uses. Farmers’ Bulletin 307, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1907, p.7. ‘‘The leaves on the young plants are entire; as the plant increases in size the leaves change to palmately five parted; later the leaves in whose axils the flowers are borne are three parted.’ 221 . DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. iif PARALLEL LEAF FORMS IN COTTON. The dimorphism of the leaves of Hibiscus cannabinus is the more interesting because a closely parallel series of leaf forms appears in the cotton plant. Entire or broad-lobed leaves are found in all varieties of cotton, at least during the early stages of growth, the lobes becoming more pronounced with maturity. (Figs. 7 and 8.) Narrow-leaved varieties of Upland cotton, popularly known as “okra”’ cotton, show a dimorphism corresponding quite closely to that of the dimorphic-leaved Egyptian variety (fig. 9), and others have a still more deeply divided, strongly digitate form, like the variety of Hibiscus cannabinus grown in Louisiana (fig. 10). Young plants of okra cotton have, at first, entire or broad-lobed leaves like the seedlings of other varieties of Upland cotton, but whether the change is gradual or abrupt has not been noticed. Individual plants with narrow-lobed leaves appear occa- sionally as mutative variations in broad- lobed varieties. Thus the narrow- lobed leaf shown in figure 9 represents a variety called “ Park’s Own.”’ said FIG. 6.—Five-lobed leaf of narrow-lobed variety of Hibiscus canna- ; binus, grown in Louisiana. (Natural size.) to have originated as a variation of the King variety. (See fig. 8.) Several other mutations have been observed in experimental plantings of the King cotton in Texas showing different degrees of expression of the tendency to narrow lobes. Transitions from entire to broadly lobed leaves are to be found on nearly every plant-of Upland cotton, though entire leaves are more abundant on some varieties. Vegetative branches often have small, entire leaves, like those of young seedlings, on the short basal inter- nodes. The proportion of entire leaves also seems to differ in varie- ties and is influenced by conditions of growth, humid greenhouse conditions having a distinct tendency to produce more of the entire leaves and to reduce the lobes of the others. An individual plant of Triumph cotton found in a field at San Antonio, Tex., in September, 1910, showed a marked variation 95213°—Bul. 221—11—— 3 18 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. toward the simple form of leaves. The seed, unfortunately, had all been picked, so that the inheritance of the variation could not be tested. The plant appeared unusually vigorous, but had the advan- tage of standing at the end of the row. Most of the leaves were simple and entire (fig. 11), only a few being three lobed and these with the lobes unusually short. A count showed 152 simple leaves and 41 with lobes. Some of the wild species of cotton have all the j i ' j Fig. 7.—Leaves of Upland cotton seedling from first seven nodes above the cotyledons, showing changes of form. (Natural size.) leaves simple, and thus complete the correspondence with the simple- leaved Egyptian variety of Hibiscus cannabinus. The tendency to reduction of the lobes under greenhouse condi- tions represents another phase of the general parallelism of leaf forms. This tendency seems to be very general, not only in different varieties of Upland cotton, but also in the Egyptian and Sea Island types that in open-air conditions have the lobes more highly devel- oped than those of Upland cotton. The fruiting branches of green- 991 PARALLEL LEAF FORMS IN COTTON. 19 house plants of Egyptian cotton have many of the leaves of the fruiting branches quite simple, a character that appears very seldom in open-air plants. A comparison of figure 12 with figure 14 will give an idea of the range of variation in leaf forms on the fruiting branches of the Egyptian cotton and of the extent to which the expression of the characters may be modified by external conditions. It may also be noted that the entire leaf of the Egyptian cotton grown under greenhouse conditions is broader and less pointed than that of the Upland cotton grown in Texas under open-air conditions. As the figure also shows, the texture of the entire Egyptian leaf is much more delicate than that of the Upland leaf, which is not true in outdoor plants of Egyptian cotton. The greater tendency of the Egyptian cotton to produce entire leaves is also apparent in the early stages. of growth. Lobed leaves develop on young plants of Upland cotton from lower joints than in Egyptian cotton, as al- ready noted. Hybrids between Upland and Egyptian cotton, grown at Bard, Cal., in 1911, were intermediate in this respect and usually be- gan to show lobed leaves on the third joint above the cotyledons. The transition from the en- tire to the lobed form of leaves was much more gradual among the hy- brids than in pure Egyptian plants. Very large luxuriant seedlings of the Egyptian cotton, with vegetative branches already pushing from the nodes of the cotyledons, seemed to show less definite transitions in leaf form than the somewhat smaller and more normal plants where the buds in the axils of the cotyledons had remained dormant. Fail- ure of the normal specialization of leaf forms would correspond with abnormalities in the formation of the branches that occur very fre- quently in the Egyptian cotton under conditions of too luxuriant growth. 221 Fig. 8.—Mature leaf of ‘‘ King’? Upland cotton, parent of ‘‘okra- leaved”’ variations. (Natural size.) 20 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. TWO TYPES OF DIMORPHISM OF LEAVES IN COTTON. The dimorphism of leaves in Hibiscus is of the same type as that of the narrow-leaved ‘‘okra’”’ cottons, as already indicated. But there is another type of dimorphism of leaves in cotton, connected with a definite dimorphism of the branches. The leaves of the fruiting branches of cotton are smaller than those of the main stalk and vegetative branches and often have nectaries on only one wr two of Fic. 9.—Leaf of ‘“ Park’s Own,” an ‘‘okra’”’ variety of American Upland cotton. (Natural size.) the principal veins, even when the leaves of the main stalk and vege- tative branches have three nectaries with much regularity. The dimorphism is not ‘so easily recognized in the blades of the leaves, because of the general freedom of variation in sizes and shapes, but appears much more definite when attention is given to the stipules. On the main stalk and the vegetative branches the leaves have the two stipules equal in size and narrowly lanceolate or strap 221 TYPES OF DIMORPHISM OF LEAVES IN COTTON. a shaped (fig. 13), while on the fertile branches of the same plant one stipule may be much broader than the other (fig. 14). Broadening of one of the stipules is a usual and apparently quite normal charac- teristic of the Egyptian cotton. (Pl. III.) It also appears in a related African type from the Niam Niam, in the upper valley of the White Nile. On the other hand, the enlargement of the stipules and the corresponding reduction of the petiole and blade of the leaf some- times represents a distinctly abnormal tendency, accompanied by fre- quent abortion of the flower buds. In such cases the leaves of the fruiting branches become reduced and more or less intermediate in form between the normal leaves of the fertile branches and the invo- lucral bracts that inclose the flower buds. (PI.IV.) These abnormal inter- mediate forms of leaves illustrate the nature of the | transformation that has taken place in the speciali- zation of the involucre of the cotton plant. Each of the three bracts that compose the external in- volucre represents a leaf with the blade much re- duced, the petiole entirely suppressed, and the stipules greatly enlarged and united with the blade. In the abnormal inter- mediate forms of leaves a reduction of the petiole Fiac. 10.—Leaf of ‘‘Ratteree’s Favorite,’ an ‘“‘okra”’ variety of and blade is usually ac- American Upland Cotton. (Reduced.) companied by a corresponding increase of the stipules, though one is generally much larger than the other. (Fig. 15.) In contrast with the other leaves of the plant, the bracts might be considered as an extreme case of dimorphism, since the differences of form are much greater than those of the different types of foliage leaves. The occurrence of the intermediate forms between bracts and foliage leaves is also quite rare. Under some conditions of growth such intermediate forms seldom or never occur, but under other conditions, or at the end of the season, the normal specializations of 221 29 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. inheritance seem to relax and the abnormal intermediate forms begin to appear. They are much more common in the Egyptian cotton than in the Upland and have shown themselves most frequently in a peculiar fastigiate variety of the Egyptian cotton introduced into Arizona under the name of ‘‘Dale,” perhaps the same as the variety called ‘‘Bamieh”’ in Egypt. Other series of abnormalities serve to connect the outer involucre of the cotton flower with the inner involucre, or so-called calyx, as though Fig. 11.—Cotton leaf without lobes, a variation of the Triumph variety. (Natural size.) ‘this organ were formed from another type of reduced and specialized leaves. The petals, on the contrary, seem to represent specialized stamens rather than specialized leaves. They are inserted on the base of the staminal column. Their development from stamens is also suggested by the small, expanded, petal-like organs that are sometimes found on the staminal column above the true petals. In such a case the petals or the stamens might be said to be dimorphic, or it might be considered that there has been a failure of the normally complete change in the expression of the characters in passing from the petals to the stamens. 991 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. 23 PARALLEL LEAF FORMS IN OKRA. The similarities of variations of leaf form in cotton and Deccan hemp do not exhaust the series of parallelisms. The okra plant (Abelmoschus esculentus) also shows the same general range of forms of leaves. Some varieties have broad leaves with very short, rounded Fig. 12.—Simple leaf of fruiting branch of Egyptian cotton, produced under green- house conditions. (Natural size.) . lobes; others have rather narrow lobes, separated to below the middle, and there is a third type with very narrow segments digitately divided to the base. Though attention has not been paid to the 221 94 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. nature of the transition from broad to narrow leaves, it is prob- able that varieties differ considerably in this respect, for Mr. W. R. Beattie informs the writer that broad-leaved varieties will some- times show a few deeply divided leaves late in the season. Two general types of pods are recognized, but there seems to be no very definite relation between the form of the leaf and that of the pods. Long, narrow pods are not confined to narrow-leaved varieties, but Fia. 13.—Young leaf from vegetative branch of Egyptian cotton, with five lobes and equal stipules. (Natural size.) are shared by broad-leaved sorts. Broad-leaved varieties seem to produce the thickest pods, but some of the narrow-leaved sorts have short pods.! The prevalence of the broad-leaved forms of okra in Egypt is doubtless the explanation of the fact that the name Bamieh or 1 Beattie, W. R. Okra: Its Culture and Uses. Farmers’ Bulletin 232, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905. pp- 12-16. Za PARALLEL LEAF FORMS IN OKRA. 25 “‘okra’’ cotton is given in Egypt to a variety having unusually broad and heavy leaves, the direct opposite of the variation to narrow-lobed leaves that characterizes the so-called ‘‘okra”’ cottons of the United States. The occurrence of broad-leaved varieties in Egyptian cotton corresponds to the narrow-leaved variations in Upland cotton. The normal foliage of the Egyptian cotton is of the same general form as some of the narrow-leaved or ‘‘okra” variations of the Upland type of cotton. There is a popular idea in Egy pt that the Bamieh or broad-leaved type of Egyptian cotton originated from natural crossing of cotton with okra, the same explana- tion that is given for nar- row-leaved variations of Upland cotton in Amer- ica. The Egyptian Ba- mieh cotton also produces all of its bolls close to the main stalk, like the okra plant. American Upland varieties of the ‘‘okra”’ type do not have this short-branched habit. The parallelism of leaf characters between cot- ton and okra extends even to the presence of a distinct red spot at the base of the leaf at the junction with the petiole. The presence of such a spot on the leaves of cotton plant is reckoned in Egypt as a distinctive character of the inferior Hindi type that is respon- Fic. 14.—Young leaf from fruiting branch of Egyptian cotton, 3 with three lobes and unequal stipules. (Natural size.) sible for a serious deterio- ration of the Egyptian stock. The leaves of the Hindi cotton are also a distinctly lighter shade of green than those of the Egyptian cotton, matching the color of the okra leaves very closely. These similarities are doubtless responsible for another popular theory, that the Hindi contamination of the Egyptian cotton is due to crossing with the okra plant. 95213°—Bul. 221—1]1—_4 26 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. The presence of the red basal spot in the okra and other relatives of cotton is of interest from the standpoint of heredity, in view of the Fic. 15.—Leaf of fruiting branch of Egyptian cotton, with abnormally reduced blade and enlarged, bractlike stipule. (Natural size.) fact that this character shows’ a somewhat con- trasted or Mendeloid ex- pression in hybrids of Egypt- an with Hindi or Upland arieties. The contrasting variations of color are not confined to the hybrids, but may appear in the different stages of the same plant.! Varieties of okra with the intermediate or narrow- lobed leaves seem to be most common in the United States, but in Egypt, where this crop is much more im- portant than with us, broad- leaved varieties are grown almost exclusively. Okra, as well as [/ibiscus cannabi- nus, is commonly planted with cotton in Egypt; but usually to take the place of hills of cotton that have ailed to grow, instead of being confined to the bor- ders of the fields. The only narrow-lobed okra plants noticed in Egypt were a few near Medinet, in the Fayum Oasis. Very little of this variety was said to be planted. The fruits are considered more deli- cate, but are smaller than those of the broad-leaved plants. Inthenarrow-lobed variety there was an abrupt change from the broad-lobed leaves of the lower part of the stem to the adult form of leaves, but even the broad-lobed leaves were more deeply divided than those of 1 Cook. O. F. Mutative Reversions in Cotton. Circular 53, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, March, 1910, p. 10. 221 SIGNIFICANCE OF PARALLELISM IN HEREDITY. ST a broad-lobed variety included in the same planting. In the latter the lower leaves were almost entire, as often occurs in broad-lobed types of cotton. SIGNIFICANCE OF PARALLELISM IN THE STUDY OF HEREDITY. The parallel series of leaf forms of cotton and related plants are of interest in connection with many problems of heredity and breeding. In view of the fact that the same widerange of diversity in leaf forms exists in Gossypium, Hibiscus, and Abelmoschus, it becomes easier to look upon such differences as within the usual range of variation for this group of plants. Changes of characters to wider or narrower leaves do not require us to believe that a new character has originated or that hybridization with a differ- ent type of cotton has occurred. The theory of hybridization as a cause of diversity of leaf formsis rendered the more unnecessary be- cause the wide range of leaf differ- ences appears not only in the same species or variety, but on the same individual plant. This is well shown in a wild relative of cotton, Ingenhousia triloba, native in Ari- zona. (Fig.16.) The young plants have entire and broad-lobed leaves, while the leaves of adult plants have long narrow lobes. The branches of Ingenhousia, grown under greenhouse conditions, do not show the same tendency as in cotton to return to simple leaves, but the three-lobed leaves at the base of the branches have very Fig. 16.—Plant of Ingenhousia triloba, showing short and broad lobes, quite unlike Rola Saakay teenie eines the tapering long-pointed lobes of subsequent leaves of the same shoot. The upper leaves have five lobes, as in cotton, okra, and Hibiscus cannabinus. The fact that a wide variation in leaf forms occurs on the same individual plants in primitive wild species makes it entirely unneces- 221 28 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. sary to resort to the idea that variations in such characters in culti- rated stocks must be due to previous hybridization. Some writers consider that uniform expression of characters, as in a carefully selected line-bred variety, represent the normal condition of heredity, and assume that this condition is found in wild species. The diver- sities that appear through variation are ascribed to hybridization, to the disturbing influence of the environment, or to mutativetransfor- mation into new species. Yet diversity is always found among the members of wild species as soon as the observer gains sufficient familiarity. The uniformity found in ‘‘pure-bred’”’ varieties is an artificial product established and maintained by selection. The inferior variations that appear in selected strains of Upland cotton show the same range of diversity that is found among the members of primitive, unselected stocks. Such variations may reasonably be considered as reversions. The return of latent characters to expression should not be looked upon as rare or exceptional, but as a normal phenomenon of heredity. Uniform expression of characters is rare and exceptional because the tendency to reversion is so general and persistent. Transmission is permanent, not variable like expression. Characters that have been suppressed for thousands of generations, like the incisor teeth of cattle, continue to be transmitted. Students of embryology recognize permanence of transmission by the law of recapitulation. The development of the embryo of a higher animal does not take a straight course from the egg toward the adult form, but remains closely parallel with the courses followed in lower groups. Many primitive characters are brought into slight or temporary expression, though they may disappear entirely before even the embryonic devel- opment is complete. In view of the continued transmission of primitive characters, the tendency of the diversities of the wild types of cotton and other plants to reappear in selected varieties is more easily understood. In a diverse, unselected type each individual inherits and transmits from its many ancestors a large number of characters that are not expressed in its own body, and this transmission of latent characters continues even in the most carefully selected variety. Though opposed by selection, the natural tendency to alternation in expression also continues and becomes effective in the occasional individuals that show mutative variations. It is true that examples of mutative reversion are usually not fre- quent enough to affect statistical investigations of other forms of expression of characters, but they are of essential importance in many questions of heredity and breeding. If the possibility of reversion and suppression of characters be left out of account, every definite 221 RELATION OF PARALLELISM TO CLASSIFICATION. 29 change of characters must be considered as the production of a new elementary species. Mutative departures of occasional individuals from the characters of the parent stock are not uncommon in cotton, and differences in ° the forms of the leaves are one of the most readily distinguishable types of variation. Most of the variations that produce small bolls can be recognized in advance by their smaller and narrower leaves, or by other differences of vegetative characters.! RELATION OF PARALLELISM TO CLASSIFICATION. The importance of recognizing the fact of a general parallelism of variation in leaf form running through the different types of cotton and related plants is shown also in the field of classification. The genus Gossypium contains a large number of locally different forms of cultivated cotton, as well as numerous wild types. The classi- fication of these into species and varieties is a difficult task of sys- tematic botany. Failure to recognize the parallelism of variations has allowed the possession of narrow leaves to be taken as a sufficient proof of relationship. Narrow-leaved forms that are probably quite unrelated have been associated in the same species, while broad and narrow leaved forms of the same type of cotton have been treated as distinct species. These difficulties are well illustrated in a most elab- orate monograph on the classification of cotton by Sir George Watt. The okra-leaved variations of American Upland cotton are repeatedly referred to in this work and add not a little to the complexities of the system of classification. Indeed, they are treated quite differ- ently in different parts of the book and are even assigned to different botanical species. The first suggestion is that the American okra-leaved forms repre- sent a variety of an Asiatic species, Gossypium arboreum. This variety is alleged to have been introduced into North America at an early date and afterwards discarded from cultivation, as the following statements will show: It was not until well into the seventeenth century that we possessed any trust- worthy evidence of the Asiatic cottons having been carried to the New World. The Levant cotton (G. herbaceum) was the first to be taken to the United States and grown in Virginia. The Indian cottons (G. obtusifolium, various races) were conveyed to the States by the East India Co., and the Chinese and Siamese cotton (G. nanking) was carried by the French colonists to Louisiana about 1758. G. arborewm proper does not seem to have been successfully acclimatized anywhere in the New World, though the most important Asiatic (? hybrid) form derived from that species (G. arbo- reum var. neglecta) was early carried to America and the West Indies by the East India Co., and is known in the United States to-day under the name of ‘‘Okra” cotton. There can thus be no doubt that Indian cottons were at an early date introduced into the West Indies and into the United States of America as well, and therefore 1 Cook, O. F. Cotton Selection on the Farm by the Characters of the Stalks, Leaves, and Bolls. Circular 66, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1910. 221 30 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. very possibly this particular form, as also the far-lamed Dacca cotton, stands every chance to have been carefully investigated in the New World. But the fact that G. arboreum var. neglecta has preserved in the United States, during probably close on 300 years of cultivation, identical characteristics to those it possesses under the widely different environment of India, argues strongly against the structural pecul- iarities by which it is recognized being viewed as merely geographical and climato- logical features, that change or disappear under altered conditions. * * * But with reference to the survival of this presumably Indian plant in America and elsewhere (after its cultivation had been abandoned), it may be observed’that once a particular species or race of cotton had been introduced into a favorable cotton- growing country, even though its regular cultivation might chance to be discon- tinued, it would be no great stretch of imagination to believe that a specially hardy stock, such as the present plant, might survive for centuries. * * * The fact, however, remains that G. arborewm var. neglecta has been repeatedly recorded as met with in the United States of America, and in the examples seen by me the plants in question could not possibly be separated botanically from the corresponding Indian stocks.! It has not been found possible to produce hybrids between our American Upland varieties and the Asiatic species, though large num- bers of experiments have been made in both India and the United States. In view of the failure to produce hybrids the Asiatic cottons can not be considered as close relatives of the American Upland type, though they show the same general range of variations of leaf forms. That the close similarity of leaf form should have led Watt to refer an American Upland cotton to an Asiatic species may be considered as a further testimony to the complete parallelism of variation. Another okra-leaved variation of Upland cotton was considered by Watt to represent a hybrid of Gossypium punctatum or G. hirsutum and G. schottii, the last being a new species described by Watt as a wild plant in Yucatan. The idea that the narrow-leaved condition could be reached as a ‘‘natural sport” or mutative variation from a broad-leaved variety like the King is tacitly rejected in the following paragraph: G. schottii, as defined by me above, must of necessity be a wild plant, since its inferior grade and low yield of wool would never justify its cultivation. It, how- ever, matches sufficiently closely a hybrid found in a field of King’s Improved cotton at Richmond, Va. (recently sent to me by Mr. Lyster H. Dewey of the Bureau of Plant Industry in the United States of America), as to countenance the belief that the so-called sport in question may have originated through the hybridization of G. punctatum or of G. hirsutum with the present species. The specimen came to me under the vernacular name of okra—a name that it will be recollected had on a former occasion been given to an American sample of G. arboreum var. neglecta. It is sug- gestive of the West Indian name ochro ( Hibiscus esculentus) and possibly thus denotes the deeply dissected condition of the leaves. From the remark on the attached label of the present specimen it may be inferred that the American authorities were induced to believe that, though widely different from King’s Improved, it was per- 1Watt, G. The Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the World, 1907, pp. 81, 101, and 102. 221 RELATION OF PARALLELISM TO CLASSIFICATION. 10 | haps but a natural sport. ‘‘Thousands of plants were grown from the seed, and but very few reverted to the broad-leaf type.”’ ! In a later paragraph of the discussion of Gossypium schottii still another interpretation of the okra-leaved variations is proposed: The bulk of the Upland American stock of present-day cultivation might be described , and accurately so, as consisting of forms of G. mexicanum. We read that repeated ' fresh supplies of seed have been procured direct from Mexico. It would thus be no great stretch of imagination to assume the possibility of hybridization of the cultivated stock of Mexico with the Yucatan G. schottii or some other allied form. Hence it is quite probable that King’s Improved may itself be a hybrid of this nature, the split- leaved plant which appeared as if a saltatory variation being a recessive manifesta- tion of the G. schottii characteristics. It is equally possible, however, that the fresh seed, imported from Mexico, may have been mixed and that the split-leaved plant had survived in the States for some years (and even got hybridized there) before its presence was recognized, just as the “‘Hindi weed cotton” of Egypt is reproduced year after year. In fact it might be possible to be a cultivated state of G. schottii in which no hybridization existed whatever, a weed of not sufficient importance to attract atten- tion, which; once mixed, the seeds could not very readily be picked out from the supply reserved for future sowings. If the narrow-leaved variations were a result of recent importa- tions from Mexico they might be expected to appear more fre- quently in the Texas big-boll type of cotton and other varieties that Watt assigns to Gossypium mexicanum than in the King and other eastern small-bolled varieties that Watt holds to be more related to Gossyprum punctatum and G. hirsutum. In reality the okra-leaved variations seem to be confined to the King and other small-boll types. They are certainly very rare in the big-boll varieties, if they occur at all. For American readers it is hardly necessary to add that the theory of the existence of Gossypium schottii or any other wild type in the cotton-growing districts of the United States is not known to have any warrant of fact. There is a wild cotton in southern Florida, per- haps the same as that which has been described from the West Indies as Gossypium jamaicense. A specimen recently received from Mr. T. Ralph Robinson, collected by Mrs. Robinson on Terraceia Island in the lower part of Tampa Bay, indicates that the wild cotton of Florida extends farther to the north than has been supposed hitherto. Yet it would be a mistake to assume that it represents a close rela- tive of our cultivated Upland varieties. The petals are yellow and have purple spots like those of the Egyptian or Sea Island cottons, instead of the white, spotless petals of the Upland varieties. As a further example of the extent to which parallelism of leaf form may confuse classification, mention may be made of a curious, small- bolled, narrow-leaved cotton found by Messrs. G. N. Collins and C. B. ‘ Doyle at Tuxtla Gutierrez in southern Mexico, under the vernacular 1 Watt, G. Op. cit., p. 207. 221 32 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. name ‘“‘Culluche.”’ The species has not been definitely identified, but Mr. F. L. Lewton suggests that it may represent Todaro’s Gossy- pium microcarpum variety rufum. The leaves of the Culluche cotton are extremely variable in form, and many of them are quite simple. Fic. 17.—Simple leaf of Culluche cotton from Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico. (Nat- ural size.) But instead of being broadly cordate like the simple leaves of Upland or Egyptian cottons, the simple leaves of the Culluche cotton are fusiform or lanceolate, much like the abnormal leaves of the Egyptian cotton shown in Plate IV and text figure 15. One of the simple leaves of the Culluche cot- ton is shown in figure 17. Comparison of this with the illustrations of the Egpytian cotton previously mentioned will show how close a resemblance of leaf forms may arise in species of cotton that are widely different in other respects. RELATION OF DIMORPHISM TO MU- TATION. Viewed as a phenomenon of heredity, dimorphism of leaves presents an analogy with mutative variation. The fact that the abrupt change or contrast of characters occurs in the same indi- vidual plant instead of in separate plants should increase the interest attaching to such variations, especially if it appears that they are of the same general nature as the mutations that give rise to new varieties. The change of characters involved in the production of dimorphic leaves has the most direct analogy with the rather rare phenomenon of bud muta- tion. Cases are known in which the expression of characters is changed in a single budofatree. Asingle branchofa tree shows a definite peculiarity not found in other branches or other trees of the same variety. A bud mutation of coffee seen in Guatemala some years ago had leaves as | definitely unlike the remainder of the tree as any of the numerous seminal mutations of coffee that had been previously studied. 221 RELATION OF DIMORPHISM TO MUTATION. 30 The most obvious difference between such a variation and the dimorphic branches and leaves of coffee, cotton, or cacao lies in the fact that the bud mutations are of rare and irregular occurrence, while the changes of characters shown in dimorphism are regularly repeated during the development of each individual plant or tree. The production of fertile branches in the cotton plant involves a mutative change of characters away from those that are expressed in the main stalk and the vegetative branches. But instead of pro- ducing normally only the one kind of branches with rare mutations to other kinds, the regular course of development for the cotton plant involves the production of two forms of branches, the vegetative form near the base and the fertile form farther up the stalk. In the Triumph variety of Upland cotton there may be said to be a double dimorphism, resulting in three forms of branches. The internodes of the lower fruiting branches are very short, like those of the branches of ‘‘cluster’’ varieties, though branches with internodes of normal length are produced farther up. De Vries has proposed to associate bud variations with the form of alternative expression of characters shown in accommodations to external conditions (dichogeny). Accommodations and mutations are alike in the general sense that both may be considered as phenom- ena of alternative expression, but the changes of expression are evi- dently determined in different ways in the two cases. Bud varia- tions represent definitely determined changes in the expression of the characters, like seminal mutations, but in the condition of dichogeny there is no such definite determination of expression on the part of the plant. Changes of expression continue to be dependent on the external conditions and are readily reversible if the conditions are changed. The analogy between bud variations and dimorphic branches is much stronger, for both of these changes of expression are determined by the plant instead of depending on changes of environment and after the changes are made they are not readily reversible. It is also to be noted that all the three kinds of changes of expression shown in accommodations, dimorphism, and bud mutations take place during the processes of vegetative growth without any apparent rela- tion to the special organs of the germ cells that have been supposed to control the process of heredity. For purposes of the study of heredity a very definite distinction is to be made between changes of expression of characters that arise by mutation and those that appear in response to differences of external conditions. The increase in the proportion of simple leaves on cotton plants grown under greenhouse conditions is not the same, 221 34 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. from the standpoint of heredity, as the variation toward simple leaves in an individual plant of Triumph cotton growing under field condi- tions, as already described on page 17. In the latter case the simple leaves were not induced by the external conditions, or the effect was limited to a single individual that must be supposed to represent an unusually susceptible condition. And in such cases of individual variation the change of expression is much more definite and perma- nent than when the change is shared by a whole series of plants or by plants of different kinds. The production of simple leaves on fruiting branches of Egyptian cotton in the greenhouse represents a general tendency to reduction of lobes manifested in many kinds of cotton under such conditions.’ This distinction does not turn, primarily, on the amount of differ- ence or the extent of the change of expression, but upon the manner and permanence of the change, and the same is true of the changes of expression that constitute the phenomena of dimorphism. The result in both cases is the production of entire leaves; but one case probably represents a definite mutative variation, the other a readily reversible environmental accommodation. Dimorphism and bud mutations may also appear to accomplish the same result, in that two definitely different kinds of branches are produced on the same plant, but in the mutation the change is permanent, whereas the dimorphic changes belong to the series of regular alternations, though maintained by the plants themselves instead of being induced by changes of external conditions. The substitution of vegetative limbs for fertile branches, as often occurs in the cotton plant, indicates that the external environment is a factor in modifying expression even in distinctly dimorphic char- acters, though it is not definitely known whether increase of vegeta- tive branches results from the formation of a different kind of buds in the first place or represents a transformation of buds that had a previous tendency to produce fruiting branches. There are indica- tions that both kinds of changes occur, depending on the time when the external conditions are changed. Although the normal course of development follows regular steps it is often influenced profoundly by external conditions, even with respect to characters that are known to be subject also to mutative changes of expression, such as the ‘“cluster’’ character in cotton. The occurrence of mutative variation has also been found to be influenced by external conditions, mutations being much more numerous in some localities than others, in fields planted with the same selected stock of seed. 1 Attention has been called by Mr. T. H. Kearney to the fact that similar modifications in oak leaves growing in shaded positions have been pointed out by Brenner in a paper on “Climate and Leaf in the Genus Quercus.’”’ Flora, vol. 90, 1902, pp. 114-160. 221 RELATION OF DIMORPHISM TO MUTATION. oD The two kinds of leaves borne by the two kinds of branches of the cacao tree, for example, are probably much more different than any mutations that have ever been reported. Changes of expression in dimorphic specializations are as great as or greater than in those that give rise to distinct mutative varieties or sports. Dimorphism not only covers at least an equal range of variation, but affects the same kinds of characters as mutative variations. This is shown very defi- nitely in the Upland type of cotton, where cases of okra cottons with dimorphic leaves arise as mutative variations from broad-leaved vari- eties. The dimorphic condition, at least in such cases, has to be looked upon as a direct product of mutative variation. Another form of mutation, more common in Upland cotton than mutations to narrow leaves, is the shortening of the internodes of the fruiting branches, as in the so-called ‘‘cluster”’ varieties. This vari- ation also has relation to dimorphism. The shortening of the inter- nodes of the branches, which characterizes the ‘‘cluster’’ varieties, affects only the fruiting form of branches. The vegetative limbs of ‘cluster’? cottons grow quite as long as those of other varieties. The expression of the cluster character is accompanied by the expression of the other characters of the fruiting branches, like the peculiarities that come into expression in only one sex of an animal though capable of transmission through the other sex. Breeders consider that special egg-laying or milk-producing qualities are transmitted by male ani- mals as well as by females. A further analogy between mutations and dimorphic changes of expression of characters may be found in the fact of coherence. Dimorphic branches do not differ in one character alone. One form of branch differs from another in all of its parts. A whole group of characters clings together, as it were, in expression. In a similar way a mutative change usually involves a large group of characters. The fact of coherence is of practical importance in relation to selection, for it enables mutative variations to be much more easily recognized than if each detail of structure or color were free to change inde- pendently. In dimorphism, as well as in Mendelism and mutation, there seems to be a tendency to contrasted expression instead of to blended or graded expression. In other words, these phenomena may be said to be free from the law of regression enunciated by Galton. Contrasted characters not only maintain themselves in expression, but the contrast gains reenforcement by combination with other alternative characters. When hybrids are made between different species, such as the Upland and Egyptian cottons, it becomes evident that some char- acters have much more freedom of combination than others. For 221 36 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. example, the purple spot at the base of the petal of the Egyptian cotton may appear in plants which otherwise bring only Upland char- acters into expression. But the expression of the yellow color of the petals of the Egyptian cotton depends very closely upon the pre- dominance of Egyptian characters in other parts of the plants. Egyptianlike hybrids often have white flowers, but Uplandlike plants with yellow petals are of very rare occurrence and are usually infertile or otherwise abnormal.' ° RELATION OF DIMORPHISM TO MENDELIAN INHERITANCE. Dimorphic leaf characters seem to have the same intimate rela- tions with Mendelian inheritance as with the phenomenon of mutation. Indeed, this might be expected from the fact that characters that appear as mutations generally show Mendelian inheritance when crossed with other varieties not affected by the same mutation. The leaves that follow each other on the same stalk of a plant of Decean hemp are as definitely different as those that appear on different plants in the second (perjugate) generation of crosses between broad-leaved cottons and narrow-leaved ‘‘okra’’ varieties. A cross of this kind between a narrow-leaved mutation of King and a Texas variety called Edson has been studied by Dr. D. N. Shoe- maker and found to represent an ordinary case of Mendelism. In the first or conjugate generation the leaves were quite uniformly intermediate, while the perjugate generation showed all three types of leaves—broad-lobed, narrow-lobed, and lobes of intermediate width like those of the conjugate generation. Deviations from the Mendelian proportions were not greater than could reasonably be ascribed to the effects of cross-fertilization.? ,; Hybrids between another broad-lobed Upland variety of cotton (Keenan) and an ‘‘okra”’ variety (Ratteree’s Favorite) have been made by Mr. H. A. Allard in Georgia in connection with his experi- ments to determine the extent of natural crossing. Photographic illustrations of the leaves of the parent varieties and the conjugate hybrid are shown in Plate V, from some of Mr. Allard’s specimens kindly furnished for this purpose. All of the plants of the conjugate generation, 84 in number, had leaves of intermediate form. The behavior of the characters in the perjugate generation has not been reported, but Mr. Allard states that a definite segregation of the parental leaf forms was shown.* 1 Cook, O. F. Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids, Bulletin 147, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, April, 1909, p. 16; and Hindi Cotton in Egypt, Bulletin 210, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1911, pp. 28-33. 2 Shoemaker, D. N. A Study of Leaf Characters in Cotton Hybrids. Proceedings of the American Breeders Association, vol. 5, p. 116. 3 Allard, Il. A. Preliminary Observations concerning Natural Crossing in Cotton. American Breeders Magazine, vol. 1, 1910, p. 247. 221 F vr RELATION OF DIMORPHISM TO INHERITANCE. 37 As the illustrations of the leaves of Hibiscus cannabinus have shown, the transition from the entire to the divided leaves is not equally abrupt on all plants, but neither is it usual for the two types repre- sented in a Mendelian progeny to have the contrasted characters equally expressed in all individuals. Narrow-leaved mutations from the broad-leaved varieties of cotton are not all equally narrow leaved, nor do the narrow-leaved members of a series of perjugate hybrids all have leaves with lobes of the same width. The range of varia- tion in the perjugate generation is not only vastly greater in total extent than in the first or conjugate generation, but also seems to be greater among the perjugate plants that represent the narrow-leaved group. It is to be expected, however, that these general differences in the range of expression will also be found to vary in different hybrid combinations, just as there may be differences in the abrupt- ness of the transition from one type of leaves to the other in different varieties. In progenies raised from the seed of okra-leaved mutations grown _in fields of the parent variety and subject to natural crossing, both broad and narrow leaves appeared, rather than leaves of intermediate form. Thus the progeny of a narrow-leaved mutation grown by Dr. Shoemaker at Waco, Tex., in 1906, showed the narrow-lobed type of leaves in only about a quarter of the plants, the remainder appearing to be normal broad-leaved examples of the King variety. The progeny of another okra-leaved mutation of the King, selected at San Antonio, Tex., in 1907 and tested at the same place in 1908, showed 20 plants out of 34 with broad leaves, 13 plants with leaves like the parent mutation, and 1 plant with a more extreme expression of the narrow-lobed tendency, as though another mutative step had been taken.! The second type of dimorphic leaves in cotton, that connected with the dimorphism of the branches, is similarly related with Men- delian inheritance as well as with mutative variation. Branch char- acters show Mendeloid expression of characters in hybrids, as well as leaf characters. Crosses between cluster and noncluster cottons of the Upland type do not manifest the cluster habit in the conjugate generation, but the cluster character returns to definite expression in the perjugate generation.’ The interest of the dimorphic leaves of Hibiscus cannabinus in relation to Mendelism is to show that a change of characters quite as extensive and abrupt as those that characterize Mendelian hybrids Cook, O. F. Local Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. Bulletin 159, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, September, 1909. 2Cook, O. F. Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids. Bulletin 147, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, April 7, 1909, pp. 22-23. 291 am 88 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. may take place in adjoining internodes of the stalk of the same indi- vidual plant. There can be no question, in such a case, regarding the separate transmission of the units of the two contrasted char- acters to different plants. The same plant not only inherits both of the contrasted characters, but brings them both into expression. Such facts may be considered as additional reasons for believing that Mendelian inheritance may be looked upon as a phenomenon of alter- native expression of characters. It no longer seems necessary to predicate an alternative transmission of characters, as often assumed in the study of Mendelism. That the phenomena of Mendelian inheritance are of much sig- nificance in the study of heredity need not be questioned, but what the significance may be is still in doubt. It is possible to interpret the facts of Mendelism in at least two very different ways. The mathematical relations of Mendelism are equally well explained, whether ascribed to an alternative transmission of contrasted char- acters or to alternative expression. Neither transmission nor expres- sion is understood in its essential nature—that is, as a physiological process—but this only makes it the more desirable not to confuse the two processes in attempting to understand them. The importance of distinguishing between expression and transmission is not so obvious, perhaps, as long as investigation is limited to cytological and statistical studies of typical cases of Mendelism, but collateral evidence of other kinds should not be neglected. On this question plants seem to afford better evidence than animals because of their habits of growth by the vegetative multiplication of internodes. Among the internode members of the same plant body there can be no question of differences of transmission, yet definitely contrasted expression remains the rule of development. Not only are there abrupt transitions from one class of internodes to another, but the tendency to contrasted expression is accentuated by dimorphic specializations within the same class. DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIMORPHIC SPECIALIZATION. If the internodes of plants be thought of as individuals, the definite differences that exist between the various kinds of internodes of the same plant appear closely analogous to the contrasted characters of the sexes of the higher animals or the several castes that compose the highly organized colonies of bees, ants, and termites. Species that are composed of two or more sexes, castes, or other ) distinct kinds of individuals have been called ‘‘ropic,” a term that denotes a definite tendency to contrasted expression of the characters, 221 TYPES OF DIMORPHIC SPECIALIZATION. 39 as though the relations that determine the expression of the char- acters had a definite polarity or repulsion so that the contrasted extremes of a series are manifested rather than the intermediate degrees. Arropic species, on the other hand, are composed of indi- viduals of only one kind, manifesting individual variations, of course, but with no definite tendency to the contrasted forms of expressions shown in sexual or dimorphic characters.! On the basis of these distinctions the cotton plant and its relatives would be reckoned as arropic species, since there is no sexual or other differentiation into distinct types within the species. At the same time it is obviously desirable to have a ready means of designating different forms of structural specialization in plant individuals whether they belong to ropic or to arropic species. Plants that show obvious differences of leaves and flowers are sometimes called heterophyllous or heteranthous, but these terms record merely the fact of diversity, which is often indiscriminate or intergraded, without any definitely established tendency to contrasted expression of characters. For the designation of cases of definite dimorphic or polymorphic specialization the word ‘‘ropic’? may be used in combination with other terms to indicate the part affected. Thus the variety of Hibiscus cannabinus with the definite dimorphism of the leaves may be described as phylloropic. Cotton, coffee, cacao, and the Central American rubber tree (Castilla) may be described as cladoropic, since they all show definite specialization of two or more forms of branches. Cacao and some varieties of cotton are phylloropic as well as clado- ropic, for the two types of vegetative branches are accompanied by definitely different types of leaves, which do not appear in coffee. According to Went’, Castilla also has two kinds of leaves. _ The banana plant and the Indian corn are familiar illustrations of a dimorphic condition of the flowers and may be termed anthoropic, each plant bearing two definitely different kinds of flowers. A more complicated case of specialization of floral differences appears in the Central American rubber tree. The male or staminate individuals bear only one kind of flowers, but the female or pistillate trees bear two kinds, each pistillate inflorescence being subtended by two small staminate inflorescences, not of the same form as those that are found on the purely staminate trees. The species as a whole shows a defi- nite specialization of the sexes, but the female trees may be described as anthoropic because of the two definitely different kinds of flowers. Many terms are used by students of plant pollination to indicate whether the stamens and pistils are present together in the same 1Cook, O. F. Aspects of Kinetic Evolution. Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 8, 1907, p. 369. 2>Went, F. A. F.C. Der Dimorphismus der zweige von Castilloa elastica. Ann. Jardin Botanique Buitenzorg, vol. 14, pp. 1-17. 221 40 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. inflorescences, separated in different flowers of the same plant or on different plants, or whether these organs are alike or different among themselves or ripen at the same or at different times. Yet these terms do not indicate whether the different conditions arise by gradual changes in the expression of the characters or whether the other floral parts are different, as well as the stamens and pistils. Technical terms can often be avoided in describing the details of structure or behavior in any one species or genus of plants, but they become a practical necessity in the scientific task of comparing and contrasting the behavior of different types of plants. Distinctions need to be carefully drawn so as to recognize as definitely as possible the different kinds of diversity that arise because of the different ways in which the expression of the characters is determined. In some cases it is plain that the external conditions are able to influence the expression of characters during the development of a branch, while in other cases determination of characters of branches and leaves seems to be entirely independent of the environment. It is desirable, there- fore, to review briefly the terms that have been applied by morpholo- gists to the structural diversities that most nearly resemble the present cases of dimorphic leaves and branches. Goebel refers to upright shoots of conifers and similarly specialized trees as orthotropes, and lateral or horizontal shoots as plagiotropes; he also considers that the specialization of the lateral shoots (lateral- ity) is of two kinds, called ‘‘labile induction”? when the lateral branches are able to assume the functions of uprights, as in Picea, and ‘‘stabile induction’? when such substitutions can not be made. There is also a distinction to be drawn between two kinds of “‘stabile induction”’ of laterality. In some cases the lateral branches are readily able to regenerate upright shoots from lateral buds, as in cotton, while in other cases the lateral branches seem to have no power of replacing the uprights, even from latent buds. This ex- treme type of specialization shown in coffee, Castilla, and cacao has also been demonstrated by Goebel in Phyllanthus lathyroides.' The terms clinomorphy and anisophylly have been used by Wiesner for adaptive modifications of leaf forms connected with differences of position or exposure, but not in relation to dimorphism or contrasted expression of characters as a definite fact of heredity.? 1 Goebel, K. Einleitung in die Experimentelle Morphologie der Pflanzen, 1908, pp. 86-88. 2 In Biologie der Pflanzen, Vienna, 1889, Wiesner states: ‘‘ Many formative processes in plants are induced by the inclination of the organs to the horizon. All phenomena of development induced through position, not explainable through the effects of gravitation alone, should be comprehended under the name clino- morphy. Clinomorphy appears if an organ in the course of its development is so inclined to the horizon that one can distinguish an upper and an under side, and consists in the fact that the upper half takes another form than the lower.” ‘(P. 28.) “« Anisophylly is only an inequality of the foliage of the shoot in relation to position and is shown in ti under leaves of a shoot becoming larger and heavier than the upper.” (P. 33.) 991 TYPES OF DIMORPHIC SPECIALIZATION. 41 Goebel considers Wiesner’s definition of anisophylly too narrow, and would include cases where the leaves on the under side of the shoot are smaller than those on the upper side, as the following statements will show: By anisophylly we mean that leaves of a different size and of different quality appear on the different sides of plagiotropous shoots; the leaves which stand upon the upper side are usually smaller than those upon the under side, but the converse is also sometimes the case. * * * All the examples have this in common, that the anisophylly occurs exclusively upon plagiotropous shoots and that it is a character of adaptation which has an evident relation to the direction of the shoot and especially to its position with regard to light. * * * Herbert Spencer in 1865 first directed attention to the anisophylly of lateral shoots in plants with decussate leaves, as well as to the connection of the anisophylly of higher plants with external factors, espe- cially with light. * * * The term has come to us from Wiesner, although his definition, which is as follows, is too narrow: ‘‘I mean by anisophylly that the leaves lying upon the upper side of prone shoots have smaller dimensions than those upon the under side, whilst the lateral ones are intermediate.’’ We know, however, that the leaves 6n the under side may be smaller, as is the case in the foliose Jungerman- nieze and in Lycopodium complanatum. ! An excellent example of anisophylly is found in the common paper mulberry (Broussonetia), as shown in figure 18. Indeed, Broussonetia may be said to combine two phenomena, for in addi- tion to the distinctly smaller size of the leaves that arise from the upper side of the branch there is a wide range of diversity in the forms of the leaves, which constitutes heterophylly. Anisophylly is to be considered as a physiological phenomenon, rather than morphological. The inequalities in the size of the leaves are supposed by Wiesner and Goebel to arise by direct accommoda- tion to the position in which they happen to be formed. An accident to a tree that changes the position or exposure of a growing shoot affects the condition of anisophylly by rendering the leaves more or less unequal than they otherwise would have been. Yet the in- . terpretations that have been placed upon anisophvlly do not seem to be altogether consistent. In some cases it is considered that the larger size of some of the leaves is connected with better exposure to light, but in Broussonetia it would seem that the light must be supposed to restrict growth, for the smaller leaves are produced from the upper side of the branch. Some writers look upon the small leaves as specially adapted to fit in among the large ones and thus utilize all the surface of exposure. In this view Broussonetia would seem to have overshot the mark. Figure 18 indicates that much 1 Goebel, K. Organography of Plants, Especially of the Archegoniatz and Spermaphyta, pt. 1, 1900, pp. 99-100. Additional cases of anisophylly in tropical plants from the Malay region have been reported by Hein- Ticher in a paper that concludes with a list of several other papers on the subject. (See Leinricher, E. Beitraege zur Kenntnis der Anisophyllie, Annales du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg, sup. 3, pt. 2, 1910, pp. 649-664, and pl. 25. 221 492 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. more space is lost between the rows of small leaves and the large ones than between the leaves in the rows. When a definite dimorphism exists the differences in the leaves or branches are not merely physiological, but morphological. There are two kinds of leaves or of branches, not merely two conditions of the same kind. Anisophylly presupposes only one kind of leaves, but with a wide range of accommodation to external conditions. Inequalities of leaves due to differences of exposure to sunlight may be con- sidered as a weaker form of the same kind of accom- modation shown in am- phibious plants that pro- duce either an aquatic or an aerial form of foliage, depending on the medium in which they happen to grow. A term that has a more definite signification from the standpoint of heredity is dichogeny, defined by De Vries as follows: I mean [by dichogeny ] all those cases where the nature of an organ is not yet decided during the early stages of its development, but may yet be determined by external influences. Thus, under normal conditions the runners of the potato plant form at their tips the tubers, but on being ex- posed to light, or when the main stem has been cut off, they de- velop into green shoots. * * * In such cases it is clear that Fic. 18.—Lateral branch of the paper mulberry (Brousso- netia), with leaves unequal in size (anisophylly) and diverse in form (heterophylly). (Reduced.) the possibility of developing in either of two different direc- tions is dormant in the young primordia, For this very reason I should like to apply the name dichogeny to this phenomenon. And it evidently depends upon external influences what direction is taken. Therefore, a selection must take place from among the available hereditary characters of the species, and this selection may be influenced by artificial interference. For the theory of hereditary characters such experiments are therefore of the highest interest. 1 De Vries, 11. Intracellular Pangenesis (translated from the German by C. Stuart Gager, Chicago), 1910, pp. 15-16. 291 TYPES OF DIMORPHIC SPECIALIZATION. 43 The phenomena of dimorphism of leaves and branches show a _general contrast with the phenomena of dichogeny, since. they appear to arise from a definite polarity or determination of ex- pression or nonexpression of certain characters that may not be subject to change through the influence of external conditions. In such cases as the dimorphic branches of coffee, cacao, and the Central American rubber tree (Castilla), it is evident that the nature of the organ is definitely predetermined even in the earliest stages of its development. From a bud in a certain position on the internode only one kind of a branch can arise, while another kind of branch comes quite as regularly from another bud in a different position. The lateral or fruiting branches not only do not transform themselves into vegetative limbs but may even be unable to produce new vege- tative shoots from buds. In the cotton plant vegetative shoots can be regenerated from axillary buds of the fruiting branches, but in coffee the fruiting branches can produce only inflorescences or other fruit- ing branches. The same is true of Castilla, except that the fruiting branches nearly always remain simple. In the cacao tree two kinds of branches are even more definitely specialized in their vegetative characters and functions, though both kinds bear inflorescences. The word “‘ropogeny”’ may serve as a general term to cover such cases of definitely predetermined alternative expression of characters resulting in dimorphism or polymorphism in the branches, leaves, or flowers of the same plant. Ropogeny is to be contrasted with dichogeny, in which the expression of the characters is not definitely determined in the early stages but remains subject to change by environmental influences during the development of the plant. Dichogeny and ropogeny, used in these senses, are strictly physio- logical terms. One of the problems in the physiology of reproduction is to understand, as far as possible, how the characters are determined and brought into expression. It is evident from the facts of dichogeny and ropogeny, as well as from the general nature of the processes of development in plants, that expression is differently determined in different plants and even in different parts of the same plant. Not only is there a general distinction to be drawn between transmission and expression of characters, but different forms of alternative ex- pression have to be recognized. The extent to which expression has been modified by specialization does not appear to have any direct relation to the method of pre- determination of the characters. In some cases all gradations may be traced between normal foliage leaves and minute bracts or bud scales, while in other cases there are definite differences between two kinds of large, expanded foliage leaves as shown in the cacao tree and still more strikingly in the related species Theobroma bicolor. 221 44 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. These facts may explain why some of the more definite but less striking differences have been overlooked, notwithstanding the attention that has been given to the study of the more reduced and apparently more specialized forms of leaves. In addition to bud scales and prophylla, special names have been given to the reduced leaves of underground shoots (kataphylls) and to those that subtend flowers or inflorescences (hypsophyls), but these terms seldom, if ever, refer to examples of definite dimorphic differences like those that sometimes exist among true foliage leaves, nor do they serve to distinguish gradual changes of characters from those that are more definite and abrupt. It is convenient to use a general term (hypophyll) to cover all forms of reduced leaves, since nearly all plants have such leaves, in addition to the true foliage leaves (trophophylls) and the floral leaves (anthophylls). Most hypophylls are formed by the reduction or suppression of the blade and petiole of the leaf, while the sheath or the stipules are retained or enlarged, as in the involucral bracts of the cotton plant. Both the hypophylls and anthophylls may be disregarded in the study of differences among the true foliage leaves. The terms that have reference to various kinds of differences among the leaves and branches of the same individual plant may be summarized briefly as follows: Heterophylly, a general term covering all kinds of diversity of leaf forms on the same plant without regard to whether the differences are definite or adaptive. Clinomor phy, a general term for differences of form arising through oblique or horizontal position. Laterality, a general name for special characters of lateral branches as distinguished from those of an upright trunk or branches. Anisophylly, inequality of leaves on upper and lower sides of hori- zontal or oblique shoots, as in Broussonetia. (See fig. 18.) Hypophylly, the production of rudimentary or reduced leaves, including prophylls, bud scales, bracts, and other less common condi- tions, such as the scale leaves above the cotyledons of seedlings of Persea gratissima and Citrus trifoliata and those near the ends of upright shoots of Theobroma cacao. Phylloropy, production of two or more definitely different kinds of foliage leaves on the same plant, as in the cacao tree and in narrow- leaved varieties of cotton, okra, and Hibiscus cannabinus. Cladoropy, production of two or more definitely different kinds of branches on the same plant, as in cotton, coffee, cacao, and Castilla. Cladoptosis, the self-pruning habit or spontaneous falling off of spe- cialized temporary branches, as in Populus, Quercus, and Castilla. 991 es Cis Aa ra BAe fas Mee. s * “0 RELATION TO SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION. 45 Heteroblasty, the production of a distinct type of juvenile foliage as in Eucalyptus, Juniperus, Pinus, Hedera, and Ficus. Homoblasty, the absence of a distinctive juvenile form of foliage. Dichogeny, expression of characters not completely determined in early stages, allowing different characters to come into expression as a result of accommodation to different conditions, as in Solanum tubero- sum, Ranunculus aquatilis, ete. ) Ropogeny, expression of characters completely determined in the early stages, not subject to modification by differences of external conditions, as in the fruiting branches of coffee, cacao, and Castilla that are unable to regenerate vegetative shoots. RELATION OF DIMORPHISM TO SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION OF PLANTS. Abrupt changes of characters during the development of plants are not limited to these more or less exceptional cases of dimorphic specialization of different kinds of leaves. Even where the leaves are all of one type numerous changes in the expression of characters ‘are required to form the different kinds of floral organs. This require- ment of numerous changes of characters during the process of develop- ment renders the phenomena of heredity in the higher plants some- what different from those that are shown in the higher animals, especially when viewed from a physiological standpoint. The fact that many of the higher plants are self-fertilized is often taken to mean that the principle of sexuality is less important with plants than with animals, but this idea represents only a partial view of the facts. The pollen grains and ovules of plants are not only as definitely differentiated as the sex cells of animals, but they are produced by plant individuals that have a sexual differentiation quite as definite as that of the higher animals. The plant individual is constituted in a different way from the individual animal, being made up of a large number of internodes or joints often capable of independent existence, if cut apart, or even provided with natural means of separation. In other words, the plant is to be considered as a compound individual or social organiza- tion of numerous internode individuals. The stamens and pistils also represent separate members of the series of internodes that make up the compound plant body. The process of conjugation in plants involves the union of sex cells derived from different individuals, no less than in animals. Self-fertilization simply means that crossing is confined to germ cells produced by members of the same plant colony. The close association of stamens and pistils in the same flower should not be allowed to conceal the fact that these two types of organs are entirely unlike, 221 46 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. not only with respect to their products of pollen grains and ovules, but in other characters. The same freedom of change and contrast of characters apparent in the external visible features may be supposed to exist in internal characteristics of the germ cells. Plants that produce both stamens and pistils in the same flowers are often described as hermaphrodite, but this normal bisexual condition should not be confused with an abnormal, partial, or intermediate expression of the characters of both sexes in the same individual, as sometimes oecurs among sexually differentiated ani- mals. In normally bisexual plants, on the contrary, the characters of both of the sexes are fully expressed in the separate individual members of the colony. Abnormal hermaphroditism, like that of animals, is shown in plants in the rare cases of malformed organs intermediate between stamens and pistils. The abnormal organs heretofore mentioned (p. 22) as intermediate between stamens and petals represent a similar failure of complete change in the expression of contrasted characters, as also occurs in abnormal intermediate forms of branches. Morphologists may object that the higher animals, as well as the higher plants, have a segmental or metameric structure in the sense that their bodies are made up by the union of structural elements corresponding to the more distinctly segmental bodies of the lower groups of animals. But whatever stress may be laid upon this idea from the standpoint of morphological theories, it is evident that the physiological differences are profound, involving different rela- tions among the primitive segments and different requirements for changes in the expression of the hereditary characters during the processes of development. The processes of heredity, as shown in the formation of the segments, might be described as simultaneous in animals and successive in plants. The segmental growth of the animal body is determinate at a very early stage, long before the growth in size is completed. In the higher animals the determinate condition is shown most definitely in the female sex, the whole complement of ovules being formed while the animal is still in an embryonic stage of development. In bees and related insects the male sex is more determinate than the female. The plant body, on the other hand, begins with only one or two segments and adds the others gradually during the process of growth. The individual stamen or pistil of a plant is determinate, but most plants can produce an indefinite succession of stamens and pistils as well as of vegetative internodes. Plants grow chiefly by successive additions of segmental units. The striking fact about the successive additions of new structural units to the plant body is that they are not all alike but are capable 221 RELATION TO SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION. AT of very abrupt and very extensive changes of characters. After forming, it may be, several kinds of vegetative internodes, the young plant begins suddenly to make floral or reproductive internodes, each kind of internode involving a practically complete change of charac- ters. ‘The idea that plants could produce the slight changes of char- acters shown in bud mutations has seemed highly improbable to those who have not witnessed such changes, though more exten- sive changes regularly take place in the development of each plant. Beginning with the formation of cotyledons or seed leaves, the plumule of the embryo has already provided for an abrupt change to the ordinary form of leaves. Some seedlings show more gradual transitions from the cotyledons to the ordinary leaves, and some have specialized reduced leaves between the cotyledons and the ordinary foliage leaves, as in Persea gratissima and Citrus trifoliata, The cacao tree often produces similarly reduced scalelike leaves on many internodes near the ends of the upright shoots in addition to two kinds of functional leaves, the ordinary leaves of the upright shoots being different from those of the lateral or whorled branches. Many plants have small entire leaves like those of seedlings at the base of each new shoot, as in the vegetative branches of cotton. In grasses and palms the basal joint of each branch or inflorescence bears a small bladeless sheath, called the prophyllum, similar to the first leaves of seedlings. Pines, junipers, and eucalypts have a dis- tinct juvenile type of foliage in young plants that entirely disappears in adults, though it is recalled to expression when growth is forced from dormant buds after severe cutting back. Many herbaceous plants have the so-called radical leaves at the base of the stalk much larger and of a very different form from those farther up, a condition that doubtless passes by numerous gradations into the more definite types of dimorphism shown in Hibiscus and Gossypium. The erect fruiting branches of the English ivy are upright and bushy and have more rounded leaves than the familiar creeping stems. De Vries has shown that the so-called variety arborea represents merely rooted cuttings of the fruiting branches that continue the upright habit of growth. De Vries also found that the seedlings of such a plant were of the usual creeping form, and came to the con- clusion that the upright habit was ‘‘not inherited.’ He states: + In 1893 I sowed the berries of an older plant of this kind, in this case an ivy bush of about 2 meters, and obtained over a thousand seedlings. These still grow in our garden and have made, up till now, exclusively creeping stems and branches. The arborea form is evidently not inherited. In the same way it might be said that the characters of butterflies are not inherited, since they do not appear in the caterpillar stage 1 De Vries, H. The Mutation Theory, 1909, vol. 1, p. 44. 221 AS DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. of the progeny. Or beards might be considered as not inherited because they are not developed in children. In all such cases there is a temporary latency or postponement in the expression of charac- ters, but no failure of inheritance in the sense of transmission. The adult characters remain latent during the larval or juvenile stages, and the juvenile characters are suppressed in turn during the adult stages. In the development of each individual plant several such changes in the expression of the characters are regularly required for the formation of the different kinds of vegetative and reproductive organs. In the cotton plant six different forms of leaf organs may be recog- nized, the cotyledons, the entire or broad-lobed leaves at the base of the stalk, the more divided leaves farther up, the smaller, narrower leaves of the fruiting branches, and the two still more reduced and specialized forms that compose the outer and inner involucres. To form the petals, stamens, and pistils requires three other changes of characters, making nine changes altogether during the course of development of each plant. The familiarity of the facts makes an adequate appreciation dif- ficult, but if the individuality of the internodes and their method of development, one after another, be recognized, it becomes plain that the changes of characters that take place during the growth of the plant are much more profound than those that are required in the postembryonic development of an animul. The whole complex of characters expressed in one internode individual may give place to the expression of an entirely different complex in the very next internode. Without any opportunity for new conjugations, segre- gations of characters in different germ cells, or changes in the numbers of chromosomes, one complex of characters after another is called into expression and the previous complex retired to a latent condition. Failure to effect the full change of expression results in the devel- opment of abnormal organs of intermediate form, as in the case of abnormal intermediate branches in the cotton plant. Such branches are usually sterile, or their flower buds are abortive, as in abnormal hybrids or hermaphrodites. The power to complete the various alternations in the expression of the characters determines the possi- bilities of development in the individual plant, in the same way that the evolutionary progress of a species is determined by evolutionary changes of characters. The phenomena of alternative expression have been studied largely from the standpoints of environmental modifications and diversi- ties in hybrids. These groups of phenomena are only a small part of the field of alternative ex»ression, which includes also the endless changes of characters that appear during the ordinary processes of 221 RELATION TO SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION. 49 development. Even evolutionary changes appear to depend largely upon the power of alternative expression. After a character has once been acquired transmission seems to be permanent. Characters that are discarded from expression are not dropped from transmission, but may be transmitted in latent or rudimentary form for thousands of generations, as the facts of recapitulation and reversion have shown. The transmission of latent characters should not be considered as a rare or exceptional phenomenon, but as the normal, universal condition. The internal agencies of the cells, that determine the expression of characters, remain active and capable of profound readjustments during the life history of each individual plant. The changes of characters shown in mutative variations are considered as very im- portant phenomena of heredity, and yet they are far exceeded by the changes that regularly take place during the development of every normal plant. Even the metamorphoses of insects hardly constitute such profound modifications of form and structure as the differences among the internode members of the same plant. Though the facts of plant development seem to afford little ground for the application of Weismann’s idea of a fundamental distinction between the germ plasm and the somatic tissues, a distinction is at least to be made between the processes of inheritance in plants and animals. The unknown internal mechanism that controls the ex- pression of the characters evidently remains in a much more active state during the development of a plant than in the case of an animal. This consideration may help to explain the generally recognized fact that the characters of plants are much more readily modified by changes of environment than those of animals. A recent writer has proposed to explain the greater adaptability of plants and lower animals to changes of environment by framing general laws of dimin- ishing environmental influences in passing from lower to higher groups.’ A study of the methods of reproduction and development followed in the various groups may reveal biological facts underlying this generalization. The higher animals, that show the least susceptibility to environmental modification, not only have a more nearly simul- taneous determination of the expression of the characters, but their warm-blooded bodies are able to maintain constant temperatures and thus protect themselves against the fluctuations of heat and cold that represent one of the most disturbing factors in the development of plants. Consideration should also be given to the possibility that the sudden and complete changes of characters involved in the production of the 1 Woods, F. A. Laws of Diminishing Environmental Influences. Popular Science Monthly, April, 1910, p. 313. 221 50 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. different kinds of internodes may influence the germ cells and the process of conjugation. The phenomena of sexuality are closely connected with contrasted expressions of characters. Sexuality is primarily a physiological fact, and only secondarily morphological. The physiological value of sexual differentiation must be sought finally in a greater efliciency of the process of conjugation. In the higher groups of plants and animals there is a double differ- entiation of sexual characters. The male and female germ cells not only become more and more unlike as the scale of organization is ascended, but sexual inequalities also become more and more developed in the organisms that produce the two kinds of germ cells. Not only the inequalities of the germ cells but also the sexual differentiation of the parent organisms must be supposed to relate in some unknown manner to an increased efficiency of conjugation. Many of the secondary sexual characters of plants and animals are like dimorphic differences in having no direct or obvious use in relation to the external environment, but they may have relation to the internal functions of heredity. Even if considered as mere reflections or antici- pations of divergent tendencies of expression embodied in the germ cells, secondary sexual characters would still have physiological significance as showing the fundamental tendency toward alternative expression of characters. In view of these and other indications that diversity and alternative expression of characters among the members of species have physiolog- ical functions in increasing the efficiency of reproduction, it becomes reasonable to consider the possibility that the series of sudden and complete changes in the expression of characters involved in the development of the successive types of internode individuals in plants may also be a factor of heredity. If contrasted parental characters and changes of external conditions affect the vigor of organisms, why may not frequent changes of characters during the process of develop- ment be supposed to have a similar advantage? The specialization of two or more different kinds of leaves, branches, or flowers on the same plant may be compared with the alternative inheritance shown in the sexes and castes of animals, and both classes of specialization may have similar relations to the physiology of reproduction. Fre- quent conjugations between germ cells representing different lines of descent may be rendered less necessary in plants because of the numerous changes of characters that take place during the ordinary processes of growth. CONCLUSIONS. A definite dimorphism of the leaves exists in an Egyptian variety of the Deccan hemp (Hibiscus cannabinus). The leaves of the upper | part of the stalk are deeply three lobed, while those of the lower part 221 CONCLUSIONS. 51 are without lobes. The change from one form of leaves to the other is usually quite abrupt. The various types of cotton and okra show the same general range of diversities of leaf forms as the Deccan hemp, and some of the varieties have the same tendency to dimorphic expression of the leaf characters. In other words, there is a general parallelism of variation in leaf characters extending through the many species and varieties of cotton, as well as the related genera of plants. The definite changes of characters involved in passing from one form of leaves or branches to another are analogous to the abrupt transformations that take place in mutative variations. The facts of dimorphism and of bud variation indicate that mutative changes of characters are not necessarily connected with conjugation or with the early stages of sexual reproduction from new germ cells. Dimorphic differences and mutations show that abrupt changes of characters are to be considered as phenomena of alternative expres- sion. It is obvious that such changes are not determined by alterna- tive transmission, as often alleged for Mendelian segregation of con- trasted characters. The same kinds of characters show dimorphic specialization in individual plants and Mendelian segregation in hybrids. Dimorphism and Mendelism may both be interpreted as phenomena of alternative expression. The general interest of such phenomena is in their relation to the recognition of a fundamental distinction between transmission and expression as a general law or principle of heredity. The facts of heredity and breeding can be better understood if transmission be considered as including the whole ancestral series of characters. Transmission inheritance is a comprehensive process, while expression inheritance is partial and alternative, different characters being expressed in different individuals or in different stages of individual development. The facts of dimorphism are worthy of being taken into account in breeding, as affording additional varietal characters and as one of the means of recognizing variations from the standard or typical form of aselect variety. Dimorphism must also receive attention in the study of the influence of environmental conditions on the expres- sion of characters. In cotton and other tropical crop plants the modi- fication of dimorphic differences represents one of the most serious disturbances of normal heredity induced by external conditions. 221 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Pxate I. Dimorphic leaves from adjacent internodes of five plants (A, B, C, D, B) of Hibiscus cannabinus, two leaves from each plant, the highest of t » simple leaves and the lowest of the divided leaves, showing the very abrupt change of form. (Natural size.) , Puate II. Dimorphic leaves from adjacent internodes of four plants (A, B, C, D) of Hibiscus cannabinus, four leaves from plant A and three leaves from each of the others, showing the more gradual changes of characters. The plant leaves shown in this and the preceding plate were collected from plants grown on the borders of cotton fields at Gizeh, Egypt, July, 1910. (Natural size.) PuaTE III. End of fruiting branch of Egyptian cotton with normal leaves, stipules, and involucral bracts. Photograph from living plant grown at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1910. (Natural size.) Piate IV. End of fruiting branch of Egyptian cotton with abnormally enlarged stipules and reduced leaf blades, without lateral lobes. Photograph from living plant, Sacaton, Ariz., 1910. (Natural size.) Puiate V. Hybridization of broad-leaved and narrow-leaved varieties of cotton: A, Leaf of Keenan variety; B, Ratteree’s Favorite; C, hybrid. Photograph from dried specimens grown by Mr. H. A. Allard at Thompson’s Mills,Ga. (Reduced.) 221 52 Bul. 221, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE l. . \ # * $ Ye gee : é ee 4 ] DIMORPHIC LEAVES FROM ADJACENT INTERNODES OF FIVE PLANTS (4, B, CU, D, AND 1) OF HIBISCUS CANNABINUS, SHOWING VERY ABRUPT CHANGES OF FORM. (Natural size.) i Bul. 221, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE Il. DIMORPHIC LEAVES FROM ADJACENT INTERNODES OF Four PLANTS (4, B, GC, AND D) OF HIBISCUS CANNABINUS, SHOWING SOMEWHAT GRADUAL CHANGES OF FORM. (Natural size.) Bul. 221, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. hm Pte.) ele END OF FRUITING BRANCH OF EGYPTIAN COTTON WITH NORMAL LEAVES, STIPULES, AND INVOLUCRAL BRACTS. (Natural size.) Bul. 221, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. END OF FRUITING BRANCH OF EGYPTIAN COTTON WITH ABNORMALLY ENLARGED STIPULES AND REDUCED LEAF BLADES, WITHOUT LATERAL LOBES. (Natural size.) Bul. 221, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. HYBRIDIZATION OF BROAD-LEAVED AND “OKRA” VARIETIES OF COTTON: (4) LEAF OF KEENAN VARIETY, (2) RATTEREE’S FAVORITE, AND (CV) HYBRID. (Reduced. ) EN Le x Abelmoschus esculentus. See Okra. Page. Abnormalities, relation to heredity in plants..................-.-- 19, 21, 22, 46, 48, 52 Accommodations, comparison with mutations...... ....--.--...------+..-- 33-34, 42 See also Environment. Mati eit eA-, or cotton -hybrids....:...---2----2 2-2 -22s5+sh= sth pn aR he 36, 52 Alternative expression. See Expression, alternative. Ambari hemp. See Hibiscus cannabinus. Animals, development compared with plants.....-.....-.....-. 9, 28, 45-46, 48, 49, 50 See also Insects. PoiepEMmily, application Of fefM..5..-- 5-25 - sagen doh Gases es =p 40, 41-42, 44 Poure application: Of term... 2. a. 2, see Ste eee lis = ed ses pe xe oe 44 Anthoropic, application of term to Central American rubber tree............... 39 milgonte, feld or observationsin dimorphism. ...-. <2. = 532<24-5s2-.+--..-+- LS; 52 PRPTCeAD OU OH! Ol LCE 5.2 — 222-25 on 2 She oete Jrisse Selene < Sess Fe 39 Bamieh cotton. See Cotton, Egyptian, Bamieh. tte sie ea HOPOPIC CHATACLED. 22 2)5)2 nc sec ajo e oe oe ee ee eee wee 39 Beatie. Wi i. on dimorphic features of okra....../...---...-...-......2.-- 24 Eeseeaer example Ol NEFEdIty....2-. 5-20 ce - ae s ec b- 2 2s cee Se ee see ed uceeee 9 Bolls, small, association with okra-leaved variations.......................--.. 31 Bracts, external involucre of cotton, morphology ...................... 21-22, 44, 52 Peirce PICARDIE S202 9.2/3 oS es es ole ee es ee oe oe 39-40, 44-45 dimorphism, association with leaf type...........-........... 10, 20-21, 52 dimorphism, compared with mutations...................2..2..... 33, 34 functions of different types in cotton..........-...-.....-2...2-2-. 13 intermediate, in cotton, abnormal like hybrids................ 2. 48 type, anfluenced: by external conditions....._-......:-.2-- 2220. .0- 7,43 bates seem ere Lavy Or CUIMOLPMISM 2... 2+ 22222252 eee. - eee det s2.- 2 TBO SI See also Selection. Brenner, Wilh., on modifications of oak leaves.......:.........--222-1-.5-2--- 34 Broussonetia, anisophylly and heterophylly...........................-- 41-42, 44 Pegeping lium: example oF heredity. . 2.22: 2.5.2.2 fee Seep eee nose stecee 9 Wacao,dimorphic leaves. and branches. ........25....222-22.22s0: 35, 40, 43-45, 47 California, experiments with Egyptian cotton. ......---.-02...22-022.20002.. 19 Sane apnormal siructure,, in cotton... ...2:-.=2.025. 2s. eee se eee 22 Casnilla,) dimorphic specialization....:-.......s2-+.-..22.-1---2...:- 39, 40, 43, 44-45 Central American rubber tree. See Castilla. Citrus trifoliata, reduced leaves, hypophylly..................2....-2...----.- 44 47 1 LOVE TES EG 2 Tn Tee SS ee ee a ee ee 44 Cladoropy, definition........- oP ce RES Ne rere ee RS SRE 7 RE ae 39, 44 Sreeinestion, relation of parallelism... ..... 22. --Gtiet.25 22-0 s.05+¥-oseue.. 29-39 See also Terminology. TENS Lae COS T1105 ee ae ee ee eg 40, 44 Cluster mutations of cotton. See Cotton, cluster mutations. 221 5 d3 54 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY Page Coffee: bud'mutation..:.<.<2cke peel cd Sk ee eee ee ee 39-33 dimorphic leaves and branches .:.:......ueseeeenep eee. ss 39, 40, 43, 44, 45 example of heredity... 2. (2.250.522 2225 cue eee. - se 9 Coherence, practical importance in selection.........................-.....-. 35 Collins, G..N., on occurrence of ‘‘Culluche”. cotton. ..........5............... Sdege Conclusions of bulletin . ... 0.05...) 120 eae oe ee & ea ee ee ee 50-51 Conjugation, relation to change of characters......................-- 9-10, 48, 50, 51 See also Heredity. Cook, O. F., publications cited... oer .ss.5es.. 05) 7/8) 26s aGeairae Cotton, Aamniie alleged introduc fa ne inner B.S TSE. os Ae _ Chinese, introduction into Louisianaso 5s. 2:2 0 ae ee 29 Classification... 5.25.5. $2405 sans Sen a So o> 2 oo 29-32 See also Terminology. cluster mutations...<.2. 24299220 2, oe A eae eee 34, 35 varieties... o. 5-25... .. 2 eee eel, ae 33, 37 color characters’ of by brids: .. 2:2 :5..'2 =. Soe eee 25, 26, 35-36 “Walltiche” sci hes boas Sosa tate ae ae Se ot ce O52 31-32 Edson; example of Mendeliam: : <=: .2.2:::.002..-2.95: 2 2 eee 36 Egyptian Bamieh, dimorphism: 7: =... 22..020202 2022. SE 22, 24-25 branches compared with Upland ..............-.-. ii. ae 14 broadening of stapules 222222. 202 022... ys 2 Se ee 21 compared: with okra:::+.0..55:521:-.2-:12)_:: See 25-26 Wales. 2 2 Sie ee eee en ae canes tn 3 2 er 22 hybrids with Uplands 2-3 .seee. oo. 5: >. 2 pen 35-36 in greenhouse.- 2-56. 65205 stan ee sae sao 3 ee 19, 34 leaf forms compared with hemp, etc.......-.-----..---- 18, 32, 52 petals compared, with Upland .. 52.22. 2.2.23. Sao eee 3] example of cladoropy:: ..- - 222.522 23ec-52* == Stee ane oe ne Se 44 flowers, structures... 2. .- no eaisk 22 2 oon Sea ees ee 22 Gossypium arboreum, alleged existence in the United States.......-.. 29-30 herbaceum, alleged introduction into Virginia.........--.- 29 hirsutum: classification. ==. = ee oe eee 30, 31 jainaicense, classification. .....:---5. =. -s-2~-555254eee 31 mexicanum, classification .........:22-a¢2-- == 425. 31 microcarpum var. rufum, classification.............-.--.- 32 nanking, alleged introduction into Louisiana ....------.-- 29 obtusifolium, alleged introduction into the United States. . 29 punctatum, clasification..... 200 --¢<:: as22 4. oe ee 30-31 schottii, supposed parent of okra varieties... -...---..--- 30-31 habits of growth...22.2- 0.222225. 22 S202 Sods oer 2 eee ee is Hindi, allesed hybrid of okra. -.-...- 2 3822228 ease eee 25, 26 hybrids, American with Asiatic <2i02.2s285.29. 92222 = >see 30 Egyptian with Hindi. . . ....... 998283 2 see 26 Upland... . 24. eee stannic lene 19, 26, 35-36 with okra varieties... .//.Gi4 Soh. apes eee es see 25, 36 See also Hybridization. involucre, structure ...:-. 2. ee < ee e e e 21-22 RMeenan 2... peter ae kee Mee 36, 52 King, parent of okra mutations. ...... >...22 22225 eer ae eee 17, 30-31, 36, 37 leaf forms, dimorphic specializations 7, 17-22, 27, 29-82, 34, 44-45, 47, 48, 51, 52 Levant, alleged introduction into Virginia. . .......-.2.-2:-:2-==s=8 29 mutative reversiolsts .. s22!. Kus. Se ee eee eae ee eee 28, 33 bo INDEX. 55 Page Pane Naam Niam, relation to Epyptian....:22..:25-s¢25.20.60svss0e2...--- 21 Sp Rata MNO CR 1 952, oft Sos cia ey= 5-1 gS SME RS Seed 17, 20, 31, 35, 36 Armonia alle, OKEAL NVATICLY(:.. 0.75% «9 Soot ees ee Ale ee wee 17, 20 Pee APE AMOnME= 2) et Roe. < ST Ea VO i Da, onl 21, 36, 52 relation to environment. See Environment. Sea Island, tendency toward simple leaves......................... 18 Semcte: imiroduction inte Lowisiana:-:-s.2. 2264220. / hc 8. ee 29 terminology of dimorphic specializations. ..................... 39-40, 44-45 MUNN, WabIAtiOn =: 0.152 eel 2 sts ee Ye eee eel: 17-18, 22, 33, 34 Upland, features of dimorphism... - - - 11, 14, 17, 18-22, 25, 26, 28-31, 33, 35-36 MembemmEIE REACH eee te 2 Src sw aha ef g, oar Ste aes rw ee xe Dew ee 31 Memlet a ied Weal, lowing of leaves. 2.2220... 5.2. 2. sees eee ee she 14 merone mraneltes Irom NOGeS..-.. 2.2.2 ..2t 2. oe ne eee eee ee 19 See also Seedlings. Deccan hemp. See Hibiscus cannabinus. Determination of characters in plants and animals........-.................. 46 Pieters ON (ONC VATIALION 2 2.2.5. .2..42-,05--5-0 22 bees kee. lek ee 33, 42, 47 meweve wit. on specimen of cotton hybrid-:J.-.--.. 2.22. 5..2.2 22.8. 2502: 30 Pema aapplication of. term....25...-.25...-..) Pesce. eles dk 33, 42-43, 45 Dimorphism, application of technical terms............-.....-........ 39-40, 44-45 Fae HALVe OMPFESSIOM= === =25 Stes Sie A eh A 8-11, 51 Contrastuwith diehogeniy: 222222292 PA es SEs Se 43 duervesiGas specitlizanone 24 i 25 sess see ls eek ekg 10. 10 pecdenrsrony law Of repression’s +. 2.425222 s2h2 2 sede. LL. 35 Parmleh lexiiorms im eothoneses2ss0e" 22le tet) eee 17-19 relation to Mendelian inheritance.........2..2.....-...0225.02. 36-38 See also Mendelism. MANION Ss. 2 Peo ls223e dee ote tes a S286 aL sextial differentiation.....i5!.2¢ 26:52 20i6 2. 35, 45-50, 51 cipsiieanes inobreedine oe se Attu. 2 ile de Se eee ee ae 7,51 See also Heredity. WYDES aetna asia set Saree enone ae eesss-.-... 20-22 38-45-59 Wavie. ©. b...on occurrence of ““Culluche” cottoi:+...-...222...2 0.22.0. 02-. 31-32 Egypt, field of observations in dimorphism..................-.-.-- 11, 15, 16, 24, 25, 26 English ivy. See Ivy, English. Environment, importance of resulting changes. ......-..--..-..-----....---. 7,51 | SIVANG LETC TRE oC cree ee SOIR mies ts PRU Aan eee ge Se ee 49 mowiyine dimorphic Characters. 2 223. <21..2952---4+- 0.6: 34, 42-43 Micalgpins, example of heteroblasty: .i-2..2.. to... 2-222 eee este a-e eee ee: 45,47 Expression, alternative, relation to dimorphism........................2.... 8-11, 51 mendelism. See Mendelism. changes caused by external conditions..............--...-.--+..-. (eee: See also Environment. Clanresecaused by miultation. 2...-+ 2522 6220220 sees eee end ae distinguished from transmission-......:--...-.-.-/---------.. 8-9,38, 51 CESSPE 18 pe Sec 0 a ie 8 ee ene ee, 0 9, 28 Se tices Wy aberihVie® in e42 Se eieee 3a ee fe ho de die yl ok oe 49 fie OTA cra fe rere ss oer etn et Ne p22 he ha ix xine 48 BALeOLLonn lin Oridss. 252.) 2 bea aeretreu ch Et! clad AGU so ben n'a n/e 2 BOBO Mondeioid.siehivibrideel 2 hers. in ee eas Sale yA dais bag oon ase dce Ri See also Mendelism. ho bo — 56 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY, Expression of sexual characters. See Sex. Page. successive changes in plants........................-.---.. 33-84, 47-48 tendency to contraat.s<...)0: 5.5 ones ee pene eee oss ts os oe 35 Fayum Oasis, Egypt, occurrence of narrow-leaved okra.................------ 26 Kicws, example of heteroblasty «..i¢.sc20 enim teen = Ae eee a eee Si 13, 45 Biorids, occurrence of wild cottonzses.)- sec eer oe eer ee 31 Mowers, Classification... ...2-.¢-s>.8.042seee eed eer oe ee 3940 Foliage; application of technical terms.2: ~< :25.4<-.25+s + ond ok ae 3940, 44-45 aquatic or aerial, relation to environment....................- eS 42 Galton, Francis, on law of regression. .2..-.-:.--..-.-./:--2:4-s2.6- ee 35 Georgia, field of observations in dimorphism. .........-----.-.-s<-.+ce-eueue 36, 52 Goebel, K., on application of terms in plant morphology...........--...----- 40, 41 Gossypium spp. See Cotton. Greenhouse, effect of conditions on habits of growth ........... 17, 18-19, 23, 27, 33-34 Guatemala, bud mutation of coffee... ..... 2.02/02 46). 92 2. 1 Sea ee 32 Hedera helix. See Ivy, English. Heinricher, E.., on anisophylly in tropical plants........-2.-..-.«---.-s4-eeee 41 Hemp. See Hibiscus cannabinus. Heredity, comparison of wild and cultivated species...................------- 28 expression and transmission’. 7. <5 eo se0ey sss see ee 28-29, 50-51 familiar facts overlooked. -... =: 2 2ss-2+s22-222. 3 725. on gee 10 in animals and plants-<... 32220523. s.-haet bdo bee ee 9, 46 Mendeloid characters: < ~ ....Awsseka See o eae ot ae ao 11, 26 significance of parallel -variations......<-.: -.2<-<. 1. ~-2-3 /- 23+ -=eeee 27-29 Hermaphroditism, distinguished from bisexuality... i220 <8 oe 46 Heteranthous, application of term... .-~-2-52322-252--4-- -2--=5. 2 39 Heteroblasty, application of term........2 .- 2-- - 2.) 22255-2522 == 45 Heterophylly, application of term. -.. :2.2t.2 3-2-2 -as asese- 2-2 eee 39, 41, 42, 44 Hibiscus cannabinus, example of phylloropy......:.--.-.. =... .-) ssp eeeeeee 39, 44 leaf forms dimorphic specializations . 11-16, 18, 27, 37, 50-51, 52 Hooker's description. ...--.:.-.522-.:.-2) epee 16 uses in Heypt.2:s2--.2:81 3-+ 262-2 Ssee ee eee 11, 16, 26 esculentus. See Okra. sabdariffa, leaf forms ?2-::..:.222- 222.2.) 22. 16 ap.; leaf forms, parallel seres. =: .-.2- = 27 eee = er 7,11, 47 iHomoblasty; application of term--c.t-257- + ~- 222 eo2 2 eee oe “IS eee 45 Hooker, J. D., on description of Hibiscus cannabinus: 2. ~~~ ->2_-=_2 22 eee 16 Hybridization, cause of diversity imleayves:---* 2. -22-2 22 == 27, 31, 52 failure between American and Asiatic cottons............-.-.- 30 Hybrids, generation, conjugate and perjugate --.--...----.-.---------------- 36-37 See also Cotton, hybrids. Hypophyll, application of term.........- 2 Le Cee eee nae 44 Hypsophyll, application of term. ...-.:....-222225-2------ === =~ 44 India, source of variety of Hibiscus cannabinus......-.-..-.---------+-5----25 15, 16 Indian corn. See Maize. Induction, labile and stabile, application of terms to branches of plants ---.-- 40 Tngenhousia, ‘variations of leaves. .. .-....2....2<-- 2282s 1,27 Insects, analogy in life history to plant forms..................------ 14,46, 47-48, 49 Internodes! asindividualls: : 72. Se. 2.255. 2552 ee eee eee 9, 10, 45-48 chanpes/aifecting germ cells. -.-.:.. =. --22eSeeer=. = oe =e 50 221 EE INDEX, 57 Page. Internodes, differences compared to metamorphoses of insects...........-.-..--- 49 diversity, compared to Mendelism. =:.i2-- 222i 222.2 3. ee 38 GHG TORN ease e t= 320 52 SNS ene on oe res Bae EL 13 RemramanTNeI Dy PUMILC DAI co eo ye tome oo so we ate ee Oe aS a 7-8 Ivy, English, dimorphism of leaves and branche.....................-..--. 18, 45, 47 minectmannicn, examples of anisophylly ....... +. 5.2.2 -.24.)-!4-s2-s4-+---- 41 Juniperus, example of heteroblasty.........-.-.- ee bee ote bee ete On ee 45, 47 miapeyls, application of term to plants... ...-......:¢-422%21. Ss4-gee Jone 44 imeseney. L. H., on modifications of oak leaves. -.....22.-222-:-)5-54+s5s:--- 34 Labile induction. See Induction. Semen Spl CAtION OF FORM). 2 6-2 29.2 S20 on oe os oS ee tain ye re ciel a and nes 40, 44 Leaf forms. See names of plants, as Cotton, Hibiscus, Okra, etc. Pa appliention of technical terms. -.--..-.052.22..-- - 24-12 242s. 24 39-40, 44-45 feemmienn i On Glassification Of Cottons 2.2.02 65-074. 2522 4 <4s% «s-/Gs5524~ 2054 32 MERE ONTEHoIE TITY 10 CONOR E2128. ooo ts ta Foblos' eoneea seuss ea abe Us ens's 11 Louisiana, field of observations in dimorphism.......-..-..-................-- 15, 16 PERRO LE HOU OL COU MINS). 98. ee tee a eae Aas oa oo eg. 2a YY 29 Lycopodium complanatum, example of anisophylly.............-.....--.----- Al McLachlan, Argyle, on habits of growth of Egyptian cotton.................... 15 Maize, anthoropic character -..........------ ee eae oe CS Pe 39 Medinet, Egypt, occurrence of narrow-lobed a Ve ered ede ee et aoe eco See _ 26-27 Mendelism, comparison with abrupt changes in leaf forms........-.....---- 10-11, 13 relation to dimorphism....... SR ee eee ee Se ey het eee 36-38, 51 Metamers. See Internodes. Mexico, source of cotton-ceed importation.......0:.-......225.-2se0ese+)2-05- 31-32 Mulberry, paper. See Broussonetia. Miuiainon, bud, distinction from dimorphism... ...-.......-.---24..¢/ss..50% 34 Buect an statistical imvestigations.....2.-..-4¢/.<225 <4 js. see cecues 28-29 Raaghnance tin Weredit yer: a2. S22 ode desl cle od ose Sade 17,49 Prat IOP EG LNCCO UhOHs. 20 jon 2h aa ao Aten oo. MC) cota! 17 felsiomor dimorphism. 222-8225 ees a: §- 4 s8-< 242: zee s S286; SILI Nectaries, occurrence on leaves of fruiting branches of cotton................. 20 Ochro. See Okra. DI EIMMEC AME UI G2 oso sche s Joes isa 222 - Saeed Jas gee 26 LLP SPSL AB RCs eee eA a) heed sn ee a ce ed 23-25 PES COMM VUOLO Di i.5--oesaeescss bees He oe et 44 fea forms, dimorphic specializations::...<.2../2. 224... 72¥. 4222.4 28=29,51 suppored hybridization with. cotton....2.2.2.22-2.2.24-2..22.2-42 5.22... 25 varieties of cotton. Sce Cotton. Sremuumenes: 2pplicaiaon Of tell... c.. 5205252 <= 224-2 2s on oe et woes nee cee 40 Paper mulberry. See Broussonetia. Roemer lent torinn-in OKrHE. 3.22. <2s.o5e0 oo ee 2 2 2 23-87 fPraidow to Classifieationes 2.22 52s Oe LL 2 2682 significance in the study of heredity... PROS IID SY IS TED EIT siete fedde ne genera eee Ve eS eee 7 Persea gratissima, example of dimorphic Apecialization!: PVE AS ieee inna AAA Phyllanthus lathyroides, habits of branching... ... Bete 2s 2 ee 8 ot ere 40 Ey loropy, application of term: ;:...-2525..022..2 20s05.2 00.602. Sie altos 39, 44 221 58 DIMORPHIC LEAVES IN RELATION TO HEREDITY. Page. ices; habits:of branchin’.::,2.1-naseo vonee ae ee eee ee ee ieee ee 40 Pinus, example of heteroblasty .. .. ..2....235, cde ae eee eben veo eb s hs Piariotropes, application of term. < o... 5. <),-. 55 -< ager eam eee 3 oa dw so 40 Plant lice. See Lice, plant. Plants, self-fertilized, importance of sexuality.......................-........ 45-46 Pods, variant forms, in relation to leaf forms... .......5..-02-<2.ss-es0ssseeess 24 Populus, example of cladoptesis: 60. Soh ec een eee ee eee 44 Potato; example oi dichopony.<...222525521.4.'L.ee ses soe a ene s oe 42, 45 Quercus, example of eladoptosis...525:25 2. 220) J.> sae ed sta os 44 modification of Jeaves'im shadelt. 2.20.2 02... 2- ose cane tee 34 Ranunculus aquatilis, example of dichogeny...........-.....<220s0c---seuE 45 Recapitulation, shows permanent transinission..............------------+---- 28, 49 Repression, relation 16 dimomphism.....-25---7--<-.-\- =<: -=-+-" => eee 35 Menravuction, physolopy.:-- 2255. ./.2¢-5- 0.2 ee oe ene 50 Reversion, mutative, occurrence and meaning...............---.-.--+--+----- 28-29 Robinson, T. R., on occurrence of wild cotton in Florida.................--..- 31 Ropic species. Sce Species. Roporeny, application’ of term... 1252 -3.. -e e eees oee 43, 45 Roselle. See Hibiscus sabdariffa. Roxburgh, William, on appearance of Hibiscus cannabinus.........---------- 16 Rubber tree, Central American. See Castilla. Seedlings; of Egyptian cotton. /2. 20222. sea oe ee oe a ee 19 of Upland: cotton.-.J:2 2 2022222 sees gee or ee on eee 14, 17, 18 transitions in leafage..........--.-- Ee pee eee Hs. =. - 47, 48 Selection; use in maintaining uniformity _-<-2-- =.= - =o eee 7-8, 9, 28, 35 See also Breeding. Self-fertilization, relation to uniformity of strains ..................-....-----. 9-10 Self-fertilized plants. See Plants, self-fertilized. . Sex, comparison with alternative expression. ...-....----.-...--.-- 2225-22 s2ee 35 differentiation, relation to dimorphism. —...--..2:2.--.225.2222-- eee 45-51 Shoemaker, ‘D. N., on cotton hybrids..:..:.:<./2-22. 302-22 25. 5. 36, 37 Solanum tuberosum. See Potato. Specialization, dimorphic, different types... .-..-----2.--- 2. -=---- eee 38-45 Species, TOPIC ANG ARTOPIC: =< .---- a= -ceo-= =< ook 38, 39 Spencer, Herbert, on occurrence of anisophylly-...----.---.------------------ 41 Stabile induction. See Induction. Sterility, relation to dimorphism: ......-..-+-.~-.--2.-2 7-46 -- 7 Stipules, abnormal, in Egyptian-cotton..............---2<-2224----4=2 = eee 26, 52 dimorphism in cotton... -.2--..2:c0: 5.22555. eae 2a 20-21 Structure, analogous, of plants and animals.---...2. 2222-252 922 2-2-2) eee 46, 49 Sunlight, effect on leaves of plants. .........--.-- 2-0-2 3-e--5 0 == >= ee 42 Tanta, Egypt, occurrence of broad-leaved Hibiscus cannabinus....-.-.------- 15 Technical terms. See Terminology. Temperature, factor of development in plants and animals. .......-.-.------- 49 Terminology, definitions of dimorphic specializations. .......--.------- 39-40, 44-45 Texas, field of observations in dimorphism..........-.------------- 17-18, 19, 36, 37 Theobroma bicolor, dimorphic leaves... ..223.-<<-/2--2c5-- -»- eee ee 43 cacao, example of hypophylly.. -.- 2s. -c: t2-2 --- i = 2 -e 44 Transmission, alternative, not essential in Mendelism .........-.------------- 38 distincwished from .expression...-<-.... <2 sek 24=ss oe 8-9, 51 221 INDEX, 59 Page Transmission, permanence, shown by recapitulation...............-....--- 28, 48-49 Mepnpe yl 2ppMeAtION Ol) TEM 5..\--25 20.2 225-53 0h. cee ate ke es os wn geen 44 Uniformity, maintenance in breeding. See Selection. Varieties of cotton. See names under Cotton; as Asiatic, Dale, King, ete. Memeaeore, on.okra-leaved cottons. ......2..--2..22-26--2 452022 noe eee en 29-31 Wetmnann.-Auprust, on theory of germ plasm. ..-----.----------------+----- 8-9, 49 Wenner.» C., on dimorphic leaves of Castilla -...........-.2-..2----+--- 39 Meeteteeao-..on leaves of roselle... 22.2.3. .2-. 22222. 2.2 se gence ee. ee 16 Wiesner, Julius, on clinomorphy and anisophylly.............-..---.-+-----.-- 40, 41 Wild cotton. See Cotton, wild. Woods, F. A., on diminishing environmental influences.................-..-- 49 Prema aapiiat of Gossypium schottii..2.......-22-2.2.2.-.5..042.2- ene ve 30 221 Peo OP PAR IMENT OF AGRICUETURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 222. \ B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE COTTON PLANT. BY O. F. COOK anp ROWLAND M. MEADE, Crop Acclimatization and Adaptation Investigations. e IssuED OcroBeER 3, 1911. WS oes = 3 WONoESSss WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1911, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY. Assistant Chief of Bureau, WILLIAM A. TAYLOR. Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL. sad Chief Clerk, JaMES E. JONES. 2 CROP ACCLIMATIZATION AND ADAPTATION INVESTIGATIONS. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge. G. N. Collins and F. L. Lewton, Assistant Botanists. H. Pittier, Special Field Agent. ape 8 te C. H. Kinsler, Argyle McLachlan, and D. A. Saunders, Special Agents. B. Doyle and R. M. Meade, Assistants. 222 2 se LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bureau or Prant Inpustry, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., May 10, 1911. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled “Arrangement of Parts in the Cotton Plant,’ by Messrs. O. F. Cook, bionomist, and Rowland M. Meade, scientific assistant, of this bureau, and to recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 222 of the bureau series. Notwithstanding the great agricultural importance of the cotton plant, its peculiarities have received very little study from the botanical standpoint. This bulletin describes the general structure and habits of the plant as affected by differences in the number, position, and arrangement of the various parts. Respectfully, Wy. A. Tayor, Acting Chief of Bureau. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. CO NATE NEES, Page Lo TLS i 7 Arrangement of the leaves on the main stalk of the cotton plant............. 8 New World cottons with three-eighths spirals..................-...-.-------- 9 Side arid cottons with one-third spirals... ....-...<.........2..--+s----de0 10 Arrangement of the branches on the main stalk........................-...-. 10 Arrangement of the leaves on the limbs and vegetative branches............... 13 Peereeoment of tne fruiting branches. ..:......25---s<.<--cnecec cs ceeceneee 14 Arrangement of the leaves and flowers on the fruiting branches..........-..... 14 Arrangement of the involucral bracts and bractlets...................-------- 16 mannnement OL the lobes of the calyx........-.<.2.--.-...-.---+-+-se5s-2550 16 DrmaAdeement Of tne intracalicary organs.........22-----.2--.--2-2++-0-22400% 18 Pre aE ROCCE CIALIS. |. ic. s Deca os ce daese op soca new eta e eens 20 Pere ee ne GUE RIAMIONS 633. 2o~ see soce wh tees on = oe sale Sec gece es ease 20 Pere reeraTE NE MOR MG CATPCIN ch. oo05 = 20. sve secieee - 3 beads. ss aeeic s bet sens bed 21 Arrangement of the hairs on the surface of the seed Sree Se rete eds A 22 Arrangement of the roots and underground shoots............--.---------+-+ 23 eR AMC DUE rad. Arse o lae E Oe Fe Sap e eer es ig tee 24 er ee kere hae a es We ees cae bose es ace oes 27 ILLUSTRATIONS. . Stalk of Lone Star Upland cotton, with vegetative and fruiting branches from the samie nodes....i..-2.-3026css0ee ee one ee eee . Two internodes of a fruiting branch of Upland cotton......-......---- . Diagram showing the relation of parts in the cotton flower.........-.. . Bracts of Upland cotton inclosing bud, showing twisted teeth........-. . Flower of Upland cotton, from the side, showing the position of the small calyx lobe opposite the smallest bract..........---.--.-------- . Flower of Upland cotton, from below, with bracts removed, showing the arrangement of calyx lobes, petals, and nectaries......-.....--. . Calyxes of Cochin China Upland cotton, showing intracalicary organs alternate with calyx lobes....2...--.0..----++-0s-s+s5s sep eee . Flower of Upland cotton, from above, showing the position of petals, ptiomas, and stamens_.........----ss< 00s55=> oe . Taproot of Egyptian cotton, showing the arrangement of lateral roots and underground shoots ......-------.-00-sss+ssssses5ss eee 222 6 Page. Aa 14 16 17 18 19 20 21 24 B. P. i1—678. ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE COTTON PLANT. INTRODUCTION. The basis of all scientific study of cotton, as of other agricultural plants, is the recognition and comparison of differences. Whether experiments are being made for the breeding of better varieties or to determine the most favorable conditions or methods of culture, account must first be taken of the differences that are shown in the characters and behavior of the plants. The scientific interest and practical value of the results must depend very largely upon the abjlity of the experimenter to recognize such differences and to under- stand their relation to the development of varieties and to cultural problems. Two principal kinds or classes of differences may be recognized in the study of such a plant as cotton. The component parts, such as the joints, leaves, flowers, or fruits, may differ, or there may be dif- ferences in the number and arrangement of parts that are otherwise alike. The body of the plant may be looked upon as a compound structure or colony built of several kinds of structural units, com- monly called joints or internodes. Changes of behavior that are of serious economic importance may be brought about by changing the number and arrangement of the parts of the plants, even without altering the characteristics of the leaves, flowers, or other component units of structure. Not only do the parts of an individual plant stand in relation to other parts of the same plant, but all the individuals of a pure strain or variety have the same system of arrangement of parts, though variously modified under different conditions of growth. The leaves and branches have definite positions on the stems, and the parts of the flowers and fruits have characteristic numbers and places, in addi- tion to their peculiarities of form and color. Hybrids, mutations, and reversions usually show differences in arrangement of parts as well as in other characters. Differences in arrangement are often the most obvious and assist the breeder in recognizing the superior indi- viduals and rejecting the inferior. 96654°—Bul. 222—11 2 7 8 ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE COTTON PLANT. ARRANGEMENT OF THE LEAVES ON THE MAIN STALK OF THE COTTON PLANT. The leaves of the cotton plant are not set at random along the stalks and branches, but are regularly arranged in ranks and spirals. In plants of normal growth it is usually easy to see that each leaf is directly above or below some other leaf and that there are three, five, or eight of these vertical ranks of widely separated leaves. The regular spiral arrangement of the leaves is found on the main stalk and the vegetative branches. It is not apparent on the fruiting branches, for these have the joints twisted so that the leaves appear to stand in two rows. The spiral arrangement of the leaves around a main stalk or a vege- tative branch can be understood by considering the relation of any given leaf to the one next higher on the stalk. An imaginary line that would connect the insertions of the leaves would form a regular spiral, since it continues around the stalk in the same direction, to the right on some plants and to the left on others. On plants with three-ranked leaves the spiral makes one turn around the stalk in going from any given leaf to the next leaf that is directly above it. If the leaves are in five ranks the spiral makes two turns in going up to the next leaf*on the same rank, while with eight-ranked leaves three turns are made. Many individual plants will be found with their stalks so bent or twisted that no regular leaf arrangement is apparent, but in the ma- jority of cases it is easy to ascertain which of the systems is followed. The regularity of the spiral is also destroyed if the growth of the stalk has been interrupted by dry weather or other injuries that cause the formation of very short joints. In such eases the direction of the spiral may even appear to be reversed. Instances of such irregularities have been brought to our attention in cotton raised at Palestine, Tex., in the season of 1909, by Dr. D. N. Shoemaker, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Some of the stalks had two or three sections of shortened jomts and apparent reversals of the spirals. A possible explanation may be found in the fact that boll weevils, which were unusually abundant in the early part of the sea- son, often eat out the terminal buds of the young plants. If the growth of the stalk were continued by an axillary bud it might be expected that the direction of the spiral would often be reversed, for the vegetative branches often differ from the main stalk in the direc- tion of the spiral. Botanists who have made special studies of the arrangement of leaves have found it convenient to describe the different systems by fractional numbers. The numerator of the fraction shows the num- ber of turns that the spiral makes in passing from any given leaf to the next member of the same rank, while the denominator indicates the 999 ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES. 9 whole number of vertical ranks of leaves. The fraction as a whole indicates the part of the circumference of the stalk included between two successive leaves of a spiral. The most frequent arrangement of the leaves of the cotton plant is in the three-eighths spiral. This means that the leaves stand in eight ranks, that three turns around the stem are made by the spiral in passing from any particular leaf to the next that is directly above it, and that successive leaves along the spiral are separated by three-eighths of the circumference of the stalk. NEW WORLD COTTONS WITH THREE-EIGHTHS SPIRALS. The arrangement of leaves in three-eighths spirals appears to be a normal characteristic of all pure strains of cotton belonging to the Upland and Sea Island species (Gossypium hirsutum and G. barbadense) and to the nearly related types that are natives of tropical America. This normal arrangement appears with much regularity in varieties introduced from tropical America, when planted for the first time in the United States. With the advance of acclimatization, the leaf arrangements are yaried by frequent examples of one-third and two- fifths spirals, and similar irregularities are found among native Upland varieties. Pure stocks are much more likely to have the regular three-eighths arrangement than those not carefully bred. Variations in the arrangement of the leaves were first noticed in Egyptian-Upland hybrids, but were found later in all hybrid stocks, including many crosses between different Upland types. Hybrid plants may have a one-third, two-fifths, or even a five-thirteenths spiral arrangement, although both parents may have had the normal three-eighths arrangement, or hybrids may have the normal arrange- ment of the parents. The very general prevalence of the three- eighths spiral among American types of cotton warrants the suspicion that any plant without the normal three-eighths arrangement is of hybrid origin or the result of recent mutative variation. On the other hand, there is a possibility that the regularity of the three-eighths arrangement in the newly imported stocks may rep- resent one of the tendencies of reversion that are very frequently shown in other characters of the plants. The simpler forms of spirals may be correlated with the smaller size and more fertile habits of growth of acclimatized stocks, but if this be true some varieties should be found with the simpler spirals as a regular feature. The systems of arrangement followed by the foreign cottons in their native coun- tries must also be ascertained before definite conclusions can be drawn regarding the effects of new conditions and acclimatization. Mutative stocks, as far as known, differ from hybrid stocks in that all the plants of a stock have the same leaf arrangement. This may be like the stock from which the type mutated or it may be different. The only type of Upland cotton that seems to show a regular deviation 999 10 ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE COTTON PLANT. from the three-eighths system of arrangement is a peculiar variety with deeply divided leaves called “‘Park’s Own,” which is said to have originated as a mutation from the King cotton. Small plantings of this variety have shown the two-fifths arrangement with appar- ent regularity. Three plants raised at Kerrville, Tex.,in 1908 from the seed of a Triumph mutation had a one-third arrangement. The leaf arrangement of the parent plants was not noted, but the Triumph variety has the usual three-eighths spiral. » OLD WORLD COTTONS WITH ONE-THIRD SPIRALS. In contrast with the three-eighths system of leaf arrangement of the Central American varieties, all the newly introduced Asiatic cottons show a one-third system of leaf arrangement. Among the hundreds of plants that have been grown from imported seed, in- cluding representatives of several Old World types that are reckoned as distinct species (Gossypium herbaceum, G. arboreum, G. indicum, G. neglectum, etc.), only one exception to this rule has been noted. A single plant of a variety from Bokhara, grown at New Braunfels, Tex., in 1909, appeared to have a two-fifths arrangement of the leaves along the vegetative branches. This plant had been injured when young, so that the main axis had not developed. Later generations of the Asiatic species from seed raised under conditions that would permit crossing with other Asiatic species have produced plants with two-fifths and three-eighths arrangements. Some of these plants with the more complex spirals were obviously hybrids, and others may have been. Although hybridization does not appear to take place between Old World cottons and New World types, crossing between different Old World cottons seems to have the same effect of inducing variations of leaf arrangement as among the Upland types of cotton, and the leaf arrangement also seems to change with the progress of acclimatization. There is a contrast, however, in the fact that in the New World hybrids or acclimatized plants the spirals tend to become more simple, while in the Olid World cottons they become more complex. ARRANGEMENT OF THE BRANCHES ON THE MAIN STALK. At the base of each leaf of a cotton plant two buds are to be found. The true axillary bud stands just above the middle of the base of the leaf. The lateral or extra-axillary bud stands at the right or the left of the axillary bud, depending on the direction of the spiral in which the leaves are arranged. The two buds differ in their power of forming branches. Only ‘limbs’? are produced from axillary buds. All the branches that bear flowers and fruit before again branching come from lateral or extra-axillary buds. Near the base of the plant lateral buds may ARRANGEMENT OF BRANCHES. Tt also develop into vegetative branches instead of fruiting branches, but no normal fruiting branches have been found to grow from axillary buds. The axillary buds usually develop into branches on only a few joints in the lower part of the main stalk. They usually remain dormant on the joints that produce fruiting branches. It often happens, however, that two buds develop at the same joint, one into a vegetative branch and the other into a fruiting branch. (Fig. 1.) In some va- rieties of cotton this double-branched con- dition of some of the lower jointsof thestalk is a regular feature. As already indi- cated, the differences of origin and position enable two kinds - of vegetative branches to be distinguished, the true axillary limbs and the vegetative branches that rise from extra-axillary buds. Though both kinds of vegetative branches have the same appear- ance and function, it is desirable to recog- nize the difference of arrangement because the extra-axillary veg- Fig. 1.—Stalk of Lone Star Upland cotton, with (A ) vegetative and : (B) fruiting branches from the same nodes. (Natural size.) etative branches often replace the fruiting branches, to the serious detriment of the crop. Two vegetative branches, one of each kind, may appear at the same node, but this is a rather rare occurrence. Though the limbs are always represented by buds in the axils of the leaves, the various types and varieties of cotton differ greatly in their tendencies to develop them as regular parts of the plant. In Hoo 12 ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE COTTON PLANT. some varieties the axillary branches are represented only by small rudiments or mere dormant buds, or they may die and drop off, leay- ing only minute scars, often difficult to detect in mature plants. When the limbs are produced they usually take a more upright position than the fruiting branches and often attain a height as great or greater than that of the main axis of the plant. In plants that have been injured or pruned or that have had their growth interrupted by dry weather, limbs may develop late in the season, either from basal joints of the stem or from joints that have already produced fruiting branches. At the base of the plant the vegetative branches usually grow more rapidly than the limbs, so that the latter may be forced to one side or their development arrested, but near the middle of the plant a limb and a fruiting branch may occur at the same node and may develop to about the same extent. In the Upland types of cotton the vegetative branches seldom occur above the fifth node from the base of the plant. The Egyptian cotton has a much stronger tendency to produce vegetative branches.1 Vegetative branches often grow as tall or taller than the main stalk and are generally larger than the limbs when both are produced on the same plant. They usually develop only at the base of the plant, but are often quite numerous and may even replace the fruiting branches over the whole plant, as often occurs in the first generation of foreign cottons introduced into the United States. Plants that develop only vegetative branches are rendered com- pletely sterile. Having no fruiting branches they are unable to form any flower buds. This condition of sterility is to be distin- guished from another that is still more common in unacclimatized stocks. Although fruiting branches are present the flower buds may all be abortive in the early stages, so that no flowers are pro- duced. Moreover, plants that are able to produce an abundance of flowers may still fail to set any bolls. Hybrids may also be rendered sterile in the same ways. An important step in the improvement of all cottons by selection is the removal of all plants showing a tendency to multiply vegetative branches at the expense of fruiting branches. Even though large branching plants may produce large quantities of cotton, seed from such plants should not be selected; furthermore, the crop ripens date and the yield per acre is generally less than can be secured from small plants. The presence of the boll weevil greatly increases the disadvantage of growing late varieties. A special study of the branching habit of Egyptian cotton in Ari- zona has been made by Mr. Argyle McLachlan, of the Bureau of Plant 1See “ A Study of Diversity in Egyptian Cotton,” Bulletin 156, Bureau of Plant Industry. Also “‘Dimorphie Branches in Tropical Crop Plants: Cotton, Coffee, Cacao, the Central American Rubber Tree, and the Banana,’’ Bulletin 198, Bureau of Plant Industry. 999 ARRANGEMENT OF BRANCHES. 13 Industry, who finds that the vegetative branches are produced for 12 to 14 nodes from the base of the main stalk in plantings of newly imported seed, whereas in acclimatized strains the number of vege- tative branches is distinctly reduced and the production of fruiting branches usually begins five or six joints closer to the ground. Weather that is dry enough to retard the growth of the plants also discourages the formation of limbs and vegetative branches, while humid conditions favor the production of both. After a prolonged drought at San Antonio, Tex., during the season of 1909, no plants of either New World or Old World cottons could be found with limbs, except as short rudiments, though many of the basal extra-axillary vegetative branches were well developed. The dry weather was ap- parently able to suppress the limbs without seriously restricting the growth of the extra-axillary vegetative branches that had begun to develop early in the season. With an abundant supply of water the limbs may be forced into vigorous growth and may gain a predominance over the vegetative branches, as was well illustrated at Del Rio, Tex., during the same season. There the cotton from the same stocks as those in the San Antonio experiment received a plentiful supply of water, and limbs were much more numerous than vegetative branches. The vegetative branches usually outnumber the limbs unless the latter have been forced into growth late in the season. ARRANGEMENT OF THE LEAVES ON THE LIMBS AND VEGETATIVE BRANCHES. The arrangement of the leaves and buds on both the axillary limbs and the vegetative branches is the same as on the main stalk of the cotton plant. If the main stalk has the normal three-eighths arrange- ment all the limbs and vegetative branches follow the same system, no matter how many branches the plant may have. Deviations from the normal spiral on the main stalk are also accompanied by abnormal arrangements on the vegetative branches. There seems to be little or no regularity in the directions of the leaf spirals on either the vegetative branches or the limbs. Often several succeeding vegetative branches will turn their spirals in the same (right or left) direction, while again they seem to alternate their direction with some regularity. The direction of the spirals of the vegetative branches often appears to agree with that of the main stalk in cases where the vegetative branches are few in number, but if the branches are numerous, differences in the direction of the spirals can usually be found. If a limb and a vegetative branch develop at the same node, their spirals may follow the same direction or may be opposed. 222, 14 ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE COTTON PLANT. ARRANGEMENT OF THE FRUITING BRANCHES. The fruiting branches of the cotton plant are developed from the extra-axillary buds that stand slightly above and at one side of the axillary buds of the main stalk and the vegetative branches. Fruit- ing branches are very seldom produced from the lowest nodes of the main stalk or the vege- tative branches. Even when no limbs or vegetative branches are developed at the base of the plant, the fruiting branches usually do not appear below the fourth or fifth joint of the stalk. When vegetative branches are present there is often an interval between them and the fruiting branches, a condition found by Mr. McLachlan to be especially promi- nent in the Egyptian cotton in Arizona. The node at which the fruiting branches are first produced on the plant varies con- siderably, not only in the different varieties and types, but also in different conditions of growth. In Egyptian cottons this zone is from the eighth to the fourteenth nodes, while in the Upland cottons it is from the fourth to the fifth. In Upland cotton fruiting branches may begin to be formed very low down, only one or two nodes above the cotyledons, while in Egyptian cottons they generally begin much higher up, between the tenth and the fourteenth nodes. When the vegetative growth is very luxuriant the fruitmg branches may be still higher up, or they may fail altogether, all being replaced by branches of the vegetative sort, as already noted. Fruiting branches have a nearly horizontal instead of a vertical or ascending position. The basal joints are also longer than those 2 ig y A ei hms vegetative branches, and the other joints fruiting branch of Upland cot- are usually shorter, twisted, and more or less ton. (Natural size.) ZIP ZAL. (Fig. 2.) ARRANGEMENT OF THE LEAVES AND FLOWERS ON THE FRUITING BRANCHES. As previously stated, the leaves of the fruiting branches do not show the definite leaf arrangement of those on the main stalk and vegetative branches. The twisting of the joints of the fruiting 999 ARRANGEMENT ON FRUITING BRANCHES. 15 - branches brings the flower buds into an upright position and allows the leaves to stand out in two alternate rows along the sides of these branches. If one joint of the fruiting branch is twisted to the right, the next is twisted to the left, and so on in regular alternation, bring- ing every second leaf nearly in line with the one two nodes distant. The direction of the twist of the basal joint also appears to have a regular relation to the position of the branch on the main stalk. Branches that come out at the right of the leaf axil usually have the basal joint twisted to the right; others to the left. The twisting brings the first leaf of the fruiting branch opposite the leaf on the main stalk, at the base of the branch. This alternation suggests the possibility that the fruiting branch may represent a specialized branch from the base of the axillary limbs. , The leaves of the fruiting branches, unlike those of the main stalk and vegetative branches, are often irregular in outline. If there is an odd number of lobes those on the side of the blade away from the branch are usually much larger than those alongside of the branch. These leaves often have two nectaries, or only one, instead of the three nectaries common to the leaves of the main stalk, one borne on the midvein and the second on the primary vein subtending the large lobe on the side of the blade away from the branch. The flower buds do not come out from the axils of the leaves, but often appear to be separated by almost half the diameter of the stem. In cluster cottons, or others that have abnormal branches, the pedicel, or stem of the flower, appears as a continuation of the joint of the fruiting branch and lacks the usual absciss-layer that allows the blasted buds to fall off or the bolls to separate at maturity. This may indicate that the fruiting branches have what botanists describe as the sympodial method of growth, as though each joint were terminated by the flower and the next joint formed by the devel- opment of a new lateral bud. In addition to the bud that continues the growth, there are buds in the axils of the leaves of the fruiting branches, and if these develop they may produce vegetative branches of the usual form. In other cases the axillary buds of the fruiting branch may produce very short vegetative branches, and these may give rise in turn to very short fruiting branches, so that one joint of a fruiting branch may appear to bear two or three bolls in an exceptionally fertile plant. Careful examination will show that only one boll is borne directly on the joint and that the others come from branches of the short axillary. In the Asiatic species the flowers are often pendent and are borne somewhat on the sides of the branch, more nearly opposite the leaves. The leaves are arranged the same as those of the Upland and nearly related types of cotton. 999 om 16 ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE COTTON PLANT. ARRANGEMENT OF THE INVOLUCRAL BRACTS AND BRACTLETS. Each flower bud of the cotton plant is protected by an involucre composed of three specially reduced and modified leaf-like organs, technically called bracts. Inside the involucre, between the bracts and the bud proper, still smaller leaf-like organs, the so-called bractlets, may occur. Both the bracts and the bractlets give indi- cations of regular arrangement. Two of the bracts are of equal size and are often appreciably larger than the third. The small bract is always borne on the side of the flower that faces outward, toward the end of the branch. (Fig. 3.) Bractlets are most likely to be associated with this small bract. If only two bractlets are present, as frequently happens, they stand at either side of this small outer - bract. In the Kekchi cotton and other Cen- tral American types the bract- lets often occur in pairs, alter- nating with the bracts, though it is rather unusual to find a com- plete set of six bractlets. When a fourth involucral bract occurs, it devel- ops at one side of the smaller bract, the side that is toward the leaf of the same node. This additional fourth bract has always been found to be smaller than the third and is even more likely to be accompanied by bractlets. The lacinie, or teeth, of the younger bracts are often bent or twisted in one direction and overlap those of another bract, completely inclosing the young bud. (Fig. 4.) At one node the laciniz twist in one direction and at the next the direction is reversed. This twisting is opposite in direction to that of the internode which bears the flower and in the same direction in which the petals of the same flower overlap. Fic. 3.—Diagram showing the relation of parts in the cotton flower. (Bracts and calyx teeth natural size.) ARRANGEMENT OF THE LOBES OF THE CALYX. The calyx of the cotton flower is usually very small, the usual func- tion of the calyx, to protect the young bud, having been assumed by the much larger involucral bracts. The calyx forms in most kinds of "on 222 ARRANGEMENT OF CALYX LOBES. uy cotton merely a shallow cup around the bases of the petals. The margin of the cup is more or less divided or produced into five lobes, sometimes short and broad, sometimes long and pointed. The assumption that these lobes represent as many sepals or bracts of some ancestral relative is warranted by their position and by the fact that a transparent line is also sometimes to be seen, extending from the sinus between two lobes to the base of the calyx. Seldom, if ever, is a calyx found with lobes of uniform size. Usu- ally there are two large lobes, two small lobes, and one of intermediate size. In the Egyptian cotton and in some of the Asiatic species, calyxes are found with the margin almost evenly truncate, but it is usually possible to distinguish the five lobes and to see that they are of unequal size. One of the small lobes stands between the two large lobes and is always on the outer face of the calyx, that is, opposite to the small outer bract of the involucre. (Fig. 5.) The other small lobe is between one of the large lobes and the intermediate lobe, but it may be on either side of the intermediate lobe. The position of the second of the small lobes with reference to the intermediate lobe has a constant relation to the twisting of the other parts of the flower. If the petals twist to the right the intermediate lobe is at the right of the small lobe, and vice versa. These rela- tions can usually be ascertained without much difficulty, though abnormal calyxes are occasionally found, especially in connection with irregularities in the petals and other floral organs. Fig. ae pled i . ° inclosing Hud, Showing twiste In view of the fact that organs of inter- teeth. (Natural size.) mediate form are often found, it is not un- reasonable to consider the so-called calyx as belonging to the same series of modified leaf organs as the outer involucral bracts. In other words, the so-called calyx may be looked upon as the inner involucre rather than as a true calyx. This view seems to give a better understanding of the arrangement of parts. It would explain, for example, the further fact that the smallest lobe, on the outer (distal) side of the calyx, seems to stand directly opposite to the small outer bract of the involucre, whereas none of the other lobes appears opposite to the bracts. The small outerinvolucral bract would commence and the smallest lobe of the calyx would complete one whorl or series of eight leaves in the usual system of leaf arrangement. 999 a 18 ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE COTTON PLANT. The two large lobes of the calyx alternate with two of the involu- cral bracts, and each of these lobes is usually provided with a nectary. The intermediate lobe and the remaining small lobe do not appear to be definitely alternate or opposite to any of the bracts. (Fig. 6.) Often the intermediate lobe approaches the size of the large lobes, especially in the Upland varieties. It then appears more nearly alternate with the involucral bracts and usually has a nectary at its base, like the other large lobes. In other cases the nectary is usually absent. ARRANGEMENT OF THE INTRACALICARY OR- GANS. Inside of the calyx of the cotton flower, between the calyx and the petals, a series of small, greenish, oboval or spatulate organs may often befound. (Fig.7.) The com- plete number of these organs is five and they are arranged in regular alternation with the lobes of the calyx. The size is extremely variable, so that the full number is sel- dom to be seen by the naked eye. Some of them are usu- ally represented by minute rudiments visible under alens Fic. 5.—Flower of Upland cotton, from the side,showing &S small tufts of hairs at the the position of the small calyx lobe opposite thesmallest bhaseof the calyx. When very bract. (Natural size.) large they may extend to the margin of the calyx, and in rare cases may project slightly above it. That these organs are arranged in alternation with the lobes of the calyx is rendered the more apparent by the fact that they stand in front of faint transparent lines that mark the sutures between the component parts of the calyx. This was first observed in the Willet’s Red Leaf variety of Upland cotton, where the deep-red color of the outside of the calyx makes the transparent lines more distinct. These lines are often very faint, but they seem to be generally present. The intracalicary organs may be free from the calyx to near the base or they may be united with the calyx at the back, along the sutures 999 ome INTRACALICARY ORGANS. 19 which separate the calyx lobes. They are somewhat thickened and fleshy at the base, but become very thin toward the apex. Like other parts of the calyx they are well spotted with oil glands and have faint veinlets radiating from a transparent median line. The fact that these organs are frequently adherent to the calyx lobes and that they often have a transparent median line, somewhat like the sutures that separate the lobes, suggests that they may repre- sent ingrown margins of the calyx lobes. Or they may be considered as stipular elements of the calyx lobes, brought into expression in an irregular manner, like the bractlets that appear on the outside of the calyx. If viewed as independent organs, apart from the calyx, it is necessary to sup- pose that they rep- resent rudimentary internodes or joints of the floral branch, intercalated be- tween the calyx and the corolla, perhaps analogous to the suppressed or rudi- mentary branches that occur from the interval- between the vegetative branches and the fruiting branches. If reckoned as parts of the calyx, the intracalicary organs add to the Fic. 6.—Flower of Upland cotton, from below, with bracts removed, é showing the arrangement of calyx lobes, petals, and nectaries. (Nat- merpnolosical — aralsize.) analogies between the calyx and the involucre. If supposed to rep- resent independent metamers, the intermediate position of the intra- calicary organs would indicate that the so-called calyx is really a part of the involucre, since it is separated from the corolla by the intra- calicary organs, which might even be considered as rudiments of the true calyx. It is possible that a study of the irregularities in the formation of the involucre in relation to different systems of phyl- lotaxy would give more definite indications regarding some of the morphological questions. The three bracts and the five calyx lobes would represent one complete whorl in a three-eighths system, but not in a two-fifths or a one-third system. 20 ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE COTTON PLANT. ARRANGEMENT OF THE PETALS. The five petals of the cotton flower stand in alternation with the five lobes of the calyx and are inserted on the base of the staminal column, one petal at the base of each of the five lobes or ridges of the column. Abnormal flowers sometimes occur with six or more petals or with small petal-like organs on the base of the staminal column, above the large petals—another indication of the relation of the petals to the staminal column. . The arrangement of the five petals of the cotton flower in the bud may be described as convolute; that is, each petal overlaps the next. Sometimes the petals overlap to the right, sometimes to the left. If the internode that bears the flower twists to the right, the petals of the flower overlap to the left, and vice versa. Looking into the flower, it appears that the petals and the stamens twist in the same direction. The direction of the twisting of the petals is re- versed in each succeeding flower, as is the case with the internode of the fruiting branch which bears the flower. Finally, the petals twist in the same direction as the teeth of the bracts and stamens of the same flower. (Fig. 8.) ARRANGEMENT OF THE STAMENS. So ee ee tne ee The cotton flower has a large cluster cotton, showing intracalicary organs alter- nate with calyx lobes. (Slightly en. Of stamens, often as many as 90, all areed) inserted on a tubular sheath of tissue known as the staminal column. This surrounds and covers the pistil, allowing only the stigmas and part of the style to project beyond the cluster of stamens. If the style is long, as in the Egyptian cotton, the stigma may be carried well above the stamens, so that insects may be required for fertilization. In the Upland cottons the style is generally shorter and the stigmas may remain buried among the stamens, insuring self-fertilization. Though the stamens may at first appear to have no regularity of arrangement, it is usually possible to see that they spring from five vertical ridges of the staminal column, often ending in as many teeth 999 ama ARRANGEMENT OF STAMENS. OF or lobes. The position of these ridges is opposite to that of the petals. Often there appear to be two rows of stamens on each ridge, one on either side. All of the filaments are usually bent in the direction of the twist of the petals and stigmas of the same flower. The staminal column is reckoned by botanists as one of the peculiar characteristics of the mallow family, to which the cotton belongs. Some of the relatives of the cotton have only 5 or 10 stamens and little or no development of the staminal column. Abnormal cotton flowers are sometimes found with the column very short or split to the base into five separate lobes that may represent as many original stamens. On some plants all gradations may be found between this form of separate short lobes bearing few stamens, sometimes only two, and the elongated col- umn of ridges bearing an in- definite num- ber of stamens. In. other words, the staminal col- umn may be looked upon as composed of the united fila- ments or bases of the many stamens that are separated only at theend. The presence of partly divided anthers and of branched filaments, bearing two, three, or four anthers, also suggests the possibility that the large number of stamens now present in a normal cotton flower may have been attained by the subdivision or branching of an originally small ring of stamens. This would explain why the staminal tube has been developed as a common base for all the stamens instead of having them separately inserted, as in most of the families of plants that have numerous stamens. Fic. 8.—Flower of Upland cotton, from above, showing the position of petals, stigmas, and stamens. (Natural size.) ARRANGEMENT OF THE CARPELS. The number of stigmas of the cotton flower is the same as that of the carpels, or “locks,” of the ripe seed pod or ‘‘boll.”” In contrast 999 a 22 ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE COTTON PLANT. with the generally constant number of bracts, calyx lobes, and petals, the number of carpels is always varied, even among the flowers of the same plant. No variety of cotton is known to have a constant number of carpels. In Upland cotton four-locked and five-locked bolls are the rule; in Egyptian and Sea Island varieties the bolls are three locked and four locked. Three-locked bolls are occasionally found in Upland cotton, and two-locked bolls in Egyptian. Six- locked bolls are of rare occurrence. Abnormal bolls with still larger numbers of locks result from fasciation, especially in the ‘ cluster” varieties of Upland cotton. When the number of carpels is less than five it does not appear that they have any regularity of arrangement with reference to other parts of the flower, but when five carpels are present dhey appear to stand in alternation with the lobes of the staminal column and the petals and opposite the calyx lobes. The stigmas are not usually twisted, but sometimes they are bent in the direction taken by the stamens and petals. ARRANGEMENT OF THE HAIRS ON THE SURFACE OF THE SEED COAT. Although not to be considered in detail in the present paper, the distribution of the hairs on the surface of the cotton seed is another subject worthy of study from the standpoint of position and arrange- ment. In most of the different species and varieties of cotton the seed produces two distinct kinds of hairs. The long hairs represent the commercial fiber, or lint, and the shorter, finer hairs represent the fuzz left on the seed after ginning. The fuzz may be white like the lint, but is often green or brown. If no fuzz is produced the seeds are left black and naked after ginning. Naked-seeded variations are quite common in some varieties of Upland cotton and are very undesirable because the absence of fuzz is nearly always accom- panied by a serious reduction in the amount of lint. In a few cases plants have been found with neither fuzz nor lint. Though the pres- ence of fuzz seems to be correlated with abundance of lint, very fuzzy seeds sometimes have very few of the long lint fibers; sometimes none at all. In the Upland type of cotton the two kinds of hairs are mixed together over the whole surface of the seed, but in other sorts there are definite differences in the position of the lint and fuzz. In the Egyptian cottons there is a strong tendency to restrict the fuzz to the ends of the seed and the lint to the intermediate position. A 29 ——— EE ARRANGEMENT OF LINT AND FUZZ. oe Lucas, in eastern Guatemala, between Cajabon and Senahu, shows the most extreme specialization of the two kinds of hairs on the seed. The lower half of the seed is without lint, but has a dense, velvety covering of bright-green fuzz. The upper half of the seed produces lint but no fuzz. In addition to the positional relation of the fuzz and ie there are also differences in the lengths of the lint fibers on different parts of the seed. Some varieties of Upland cotton have a strong tendency to have the fibers of the upper part of the seed distinctly longer than those of the lower part, so that when the lint is parted and combed out from the seed a ‘‘butterfly’’ outline is formed. The butterfly tendency is undesirable because inequality in the lengths of the fibers lessens the commercial value of the cotton for spinning purposes. Even when the long fibers are not all restricted to the upper part of the seed, the lower part may show an evident preponderance of shorter fibers. ARRANGEMENT OF THE ROOTS AND UNDERGROUND SHOOTS. The central stalk of the cotton plant extends into the ground to form the taproot. The lateral roots arise in four rows from four shallow vertical grooves, one on each side of the taproot. The regularity of arrangement is often obscured by the bending and twisting of the taproot, as well as by the fact that the lateral roots take different directions and develop very unequally. But most plants show definite indications of an arrangement of the roots in rows, and in occasional individuals, where all the roots happen to project at right angles, the four-ranked character of the root system is very plain, even in old plants. (Fig. 9.) In addition to the various kinds of buds and branches already described, the cotton plant is able to produce underground shoots from the same grooves as the roots. The underground shoots have at first a rounded or irregular form, lke root nodules or galls, and may represent modified root primordia. The nodules grow to various sizes, sometimes attaining a diameter of nearly an inch before showing the leafy bud that develops into a vegetative branch. The similarity to crown galls may prove interesting and even worthy of study from the standpoint of pathological tissues. Subterranean shoots seem to be developed much more freely in the Egyptian cotton than in Upland varieties. They seemed to be generally distributed over a whole field of several acres of Egyptian cotton at Bard, Cal., where nearly all of the plants were killed down to the ground in the winter of 1910-11. The roots of all the plants ano 24 ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE COTTON PLANT. that were dug up in different parts of the field were found to be alive and showed in May, 1911, many different stages of development of the subterranean shoots. Sey- eral of the lower leaves of such branches were small and distorted, but normal leaves were produced on shoots that had emerged from the ground. - In cases where the plants had not been killed too far down, new shoots had been formed at the axils of the cotyledons and no subterranean shoots or nodules were found. If the buds in the axils of the cotyledons had de- veloped into limbs in the previous _year, new adventitious buds were produced from the swollen bases of the limbs. The branches from such buds were very small and slender at first, quite unlike the large, fleshy excrescences that gave rise to the underground shoots. The lower part of the stalk, rep- resenting the hypocotyl of the seedling, between the cotyledons and the surface of the ground, seems to have no power of pro- ducing adventitious buds. Nor did any of the nodules appear upon the lateral roots of any of the plants that were dug up. They seem to be entirely confined to the same lines or grooves which give rise to the normal lateral roots, and often show very clearly the same arrangement in four vertical rows. (Fig. 9.) CONCLUSIONS. Fia. 9.—Taproot of Egyptian cotton, showing the : arrangement of lateral roots and underground Plants are compound organisms shoots. built up by many units of struc- ture, the internodes or metamers. In studying the anatomy of a plant like cotton, two principal classes of differences may be taken 999 CONCLUSIONS. 25 into account: (1) Differences in the characteristics of the component parts of the plant and (2) differences in the number or the arrange- ment of the component parts. The leaves and branches of the cotton plant have a regular arrange- ment in spirals. The normal arrangement in the Upland, Sea Island, and Egyptian varieties of cotton and nearly related types is in three- eighths spirals. Old World cottons, on the other hand, have the leaves and branches in a one-third spiral. Hybridization produces deviations from the normal number of spirals of the parent stocks. Among the Old World types of cotton, hybrids show a tendency to produce plants with the more compli- cated arrangement of leaves, while among the Upland hybrids the tendency is to arrangements simpler than normal. Mutative varia- tions may agree in leaf arrangement with the parent stock or may show different arrangements. The cotton plant has two kinds of branches, differing in arrange- ment as well as in other characters. Fruiting branches develop later- ally from extra-axillary buds at the side of the axillary buds, which produce the limbs. Extra-axillary buds may develop into vegetative branches and replace fruiting branches, but no normal fruiting branches are produced by axillary buds. The leaves of the limbs and vegetative branches of the cotton plant have the same spiral arrangement as those of the main stem, though the direction of the spiral on the limbs and vegetative branches may be opposed to that on the main stalk. Each internode of the fruiting branch is twisted in the opposite direction from the one preceding, bringing the leaves in two alternating series along the sides of the branch and the flowers into an upright position. The involucre of the cotton flower is composed of three bracts, two of equal size and one smaller. The small bract is always on the outer or distal side of the flower, toward the end of the branch. Two bract- lets frequently appear.on either side of the small bract in United States Upland varieties, while in certain Central American types a complete series of six is sometimes developed, one on either side of the three bracts. The teeth of the bracts when twisted follow the same direction as the overlapping of the petals The calyx of the cotton flower has five lobes distinctly unequal in size, two large, two small, and one intermediate. One of the small lobes stands opposite the small bract of the involucre, between two large lobes. The arrangement of the other lobes varies in relation to that of other parts of the flower. Small flaplike organs are often inserted between the calyx and he petals, arranged in alternation with the calyx lobes. These intra- calicary organs may be considered as supernumerary calyx lobes or as 222 26 ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE COTTON PLANT. representing free stipular elements of the calyx lobes. In either case they support the view that the calyx lobes are homologous with the bracts of the outer involucre. In other words, the calyx of the cotton plant may be looked upon as an inner involucre. The petals of the cotton flower are opposite the lobes of the staminal column and overlap in the same direction: as the stamens are bent. This direction conforms to the twisting of the internode of the branch bearing the flower and is reversed in the flowers at each succeeding node. The stamens are arranged on the staminal column in five vertical. rows, about the pistil, opposite the petals, and turn in the same direc- tion as the overlapping of the petals. The paired positions and fre- quent branching of the stamens suggest the development of the com- pound staminal column by the subdivision of a few primitive stamens. There is a persistent irregularity in the number of carpels, in the flowers and fruits of the same plant. The range of normal variation is from two to four carpels in the Egyptian cotton and from three to five. carpels in the Upland cotton. When the number is five, the stigmas and carpels alternate with the petals and the lobes of the staminal column. O Pio. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 223. \ B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. SEEDS AND PLANTS [IMPORTED DURING THE PERIOD FROM JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910: INVENTORY No. 24; Nos. 28325 To 28880. Issuep NovEMBER 27, 1911. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1911. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Chicf of Bureau, BEVERLY T,. GALLOWAY. Assistant Chief of Bureau, WILLIAM A, TAYLOR. Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL. Chief Clerk, JAMES E, JONEs. FOREIGN SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. David Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer in Charge. P. H. Dorsett and Peter Bisset, Expert Plant Introducers. George W. Oliver, Expert Propagator. Frank N. Meyer, Agricultural Explorer. Stephen C. Stuntz, Botanical Assistant. H. C. Skeels and R. A. Young, Scientific Assistants. Henry F. Schultz, Agent, in Charge of Subtropical Introductions. E. C. Green, Pomologist, in Charge of South Teras Plant Introduction Garden, Brownsville, Tez. Robert L. Beagles, Agent, Acting in Charge of Plant Introduction Garden, Chico, Cal. Edward Simmonds, Gardener, in Charge of Subtropical Plant Introduction Garden, Miami, Fla. John M. Rankin, Erpert,in Charge of Yarrow Plant Introduction Garden, Rockville, Md. Edward Goucher, John H. Allison, and W. H. F. Gomme, £rperts. 223 2 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BurEAv OF Piant INDUSTRY, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., June 6, 1911. Srr: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for publication as Bulletin No. 223 of the series of this Bureau the accompanying manuscript, entitled “Seeds and Plants Imported during the Period from July 1 to September 30, 1910: Inventory No. 24; Nos. 28325 to 28880.” This manuscript has been submitted by the Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction with a view to publication. Respectfully, Wo. A. TayLor, Acting Chief of Bureau. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculiure. 223 To a the 4 t ms J Y i "i an + a, s% ¥ % HA rite ART Wh Rat TS RUBSAK OF PARE OM Se . ; RTT AAT MP Pee AE pyrene: ayaa Tb ORL can) WN iraty oie \ Agee, j Bi eeu MORIA Ne usb »V hima: Of itt dgiarevad an ci} nomad abl en7y Wi yruli siclt. ty anctes. ail Te Rok OY. ciiatin'e’ AD Ded esigp tet | wbigal’t wie hy ae beat tiserss tq rita \ jimi AL 4 bendy ne ey pte aay ie a “. eee ov Cae mrvokrw el fee ilieorsps on? Ment et ei i wo Wie A Ales pepeitivide! rind s pixie. howd ime ~ “MISvP IU AALD, A cl PE 7) see et a eee July pie) Wy ast) rs ae ; ‘ee 7 ‘ a vent Tat ony. WwW on et ie CONTENTS: fe Page. mM MENENEAGHLOM bs. Ate oe col. sen ees oe Saks ao see ese sees 7 rrr tei ahi. ety rstie del jews ON ee ANE Bai SE RO RE lg r! , { ri 5 . ‘ uJ - - « RR the 14 potas WA ee : i : lan a i x ~- mt B. P. I.—680. SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED DURING THE PERIOD FROM JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910: INVENTORY NO. 24; NOS. 28825 TO 28880. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT. No satisfactory test can be made of a new plant to determine its economic value until many months, or even years, have passed since its introduction. To emphasize those included in this inven- tory before they are tested may therefore appear somewhat prema- ture, but it seems warranted for the reason that while in the printed descriptions new plants which arrive may seem much alike and equally interesting, to those who see all the correspondence which has led up to their introduction some of the new arrivals stand out as of special promise. Those interested in the cover-crop problem of the California orange growers will notice the importation of a half ton of seed of the Pales- tine kirsenneh (Vicia ervilia, No. 28761) and 500 pounds of seed of another Palestine legume (Lathyrus sativus, No. 28762), and will note also the opinion expressed by Mr. Aaron Aaronsohn that the Lathyrus will make a quicker growth in the California orange or- chards than Vicia ervilia and will have an advantage over the fenu- ereek that is now used there in that seed can be obtained cheaper. The unusual interest in the mango in Florida, Porto Rico, and Hawaii has made it desirable to get the best East Indian varieties as rapidly as possible to increase the collection, which now numbers more than a hundred sorts. Some of these are early and others late ripen- ing sorts; others have unusual keeping qualities; while still others are in the form of seeds imported for the purpose of originating new varieties. As pointed out by Mr. Walter T. Swingle in his citrus work, seeds like the mango, which are polyembryonic, are likely to give rise through the unfertilized embryos to strains of the original variety, which are characterized by increased vigor and produc- tiveness. So much interest has been aroused in the possibilities of the oriental persimmon through the introduction of the Tamopan variety and the perfection by Mr. H. C. Gore, of the Bureau of Chemistry, of new methods by which the tannin can be rendered insoluble in a practical way and the fruit hold its firm texture that a special search is being 223 7 8 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. made for all the species of Diospyros which may in any way be of value for breeding purposes or as a stock. Special interest may attach to Diospyros peregrina(No. 28584), from Sibpur, Calcutta, from the fact that the expressed juice when boiled with powdered charcoal is used on a large scale for paying the bottoms of boats and that an excellent glue is made from the juice by the natives of the Malabar coast. Diospyros montana cordifolia (No. 28684), a tree which is found from the Himalayas to Australia and which bears small fruits the size of cherries, and Diospyros microcarpa from Australia (No. 28343) have also been secured. Two strains of maize from the Kalahari Desert region of South Africa (Nos. 28614 and 28615) and a form from Zomba, Nyasaland Protectorate (No. 28661), may interest the corn breeders. Dr. A. Weberbauer, whose collections in the Peruvian Andes are well known, has sent two wild forms of Solanum from the region about Lima. One, which he believes to be Solanum maglia, is from the cool, cloudy Loma region and the other from the same vegeta- tion zone is an undetermined form (Nos. 28656 and 28657). Western China is known to have many wild species of Rubus, some of which are reported to bear fruit of unusual excellence. The vigor of the Chinese brambles and the early-ripening habit of certain of those already introduced have attracted the attention of plant breeders in this field, and the introduction of a species from the top of Mount Omei, on the Upper Yangtze, described by the sender, Dr. Edgar T. Shields, of Yachow, as ‘‘a delicious large yellow rasp- berry” can scarcely fail to attract their attention. Two of the best fruits of the Malay Archipelago are the ram- boetan and the kapoelasan, species of Nephelium. A Wardian-case shipment has been made from Java, containing three varieties of the latter (Nos. 28332 to 28334) and seven varieties of the former (Nos. 28335 to 28341), and an attempt will be made to propagate these on various stocks for distribution in Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the Panama Canal Zone. Dr. L. Trabut, the veteran experimenter of Algiers, has sent in seeds of the remarkably alkali-resistant grass Festuca fenas (No. 28355) from the Shott Khreida. A collection of medicagos and trifoliums from Beirut, Turkey, containing six species (Nos. 28788 to 28793) will be of use to those breeding these leguminous plants. The khat plant of Yemen, on the west coast of Arabia, has been in cultivation for generations. Its fresh leaves are chewed by the Arabs almost universally in that region. To them life and hard work would be unendurable without khat, and every coolie, even the poorest, buys the leaf. The plant yields a marketable crop the sec- 223 JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910. 9 ond year, is grown from cuttings, and is considered one of the most valuable cultures of the country. Plants have been secured and are now growing both from the Edinburgh Botanic Gardens and also direct from Aden, Arabia, through Mr. C. K. Moser, the American consul, who has furnished an interesting report on the industry. It is quite probable that this plant will grow in our southwestern country, but until the chemists and animal physiologists have closely examined the action of the alkaloid it contains, it will not be distri- buted to experimenters. Picea brewervana of Oregon and California, which because of its appearance may be called the veiled spruce, is one of the rarest of all the spruces, and the seeds, though sought after many times, have so rarely been obtained that the distribution of more than a pound of fresh seed, received from Miss Alice Eastwood, is of unusual interest. The nomenclature in this inventory and the notes on geographical distribution have been prepared in the Office of Taxonomic and Range Investigations by Mr. H. C. Skeels, under the direction of Mr. Frederick V. Coville. The inventory was prepared by Miss Mary A. Austin, of this office. Davin FarrcHitp, Agricultural Explorer in Charge. OFFICE OF FOREIGN SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION, Washington, D. C., April 24, 1911. 223 oe Fe a | 5 LN ode bg 28325 and 28326. AGAVE spp. Zapupe. From Tampico, Mexico. Purchased from Mr. Mordelo L. Vincent. Received July 5, 1910. Suckers of the following: 28325. AGAVE LESPINASSE! Trelease. Vincent. ‘‘A fiber-producing agave, similar in appearance to sisal, with leaves 4 to 5 feet long, light green, armed with reddish marginal spines. Yields its first crop of leaves for fiber three to five years after planting and annual or semiannual crops thereafter for three to five years. The fiber is of the same class as the sisal of commerce, but is finer and more flexible. ‘This variety, developed on the island of Juana Ramirez, is regarded as one of the best of the half-dozen different kinds of zapupe cultivated in that region. It can be cultivated successfully only in places free from severe frost in winter.”’ (Lyster H. Dewey.) 28326. AGAVE zAPuPE Trelease. Estopier. ‘‘A fiber-producing agave, similar in appearance to the henequen cultivated in Yucatan, but with more slender leaves. The leaves are 4 to 5 feet long, glaucous, and with dark-reddish marginal spines. The first crop of leaves may be cut three to five years after planting and annually or semiannually thereafter for three to five years, when the plant will send up a flower stalk bearing bulbils and then die. It may be propagated by both bulbils and suck- ers. The fiber is similar to sisal and may be used for the same purposes, viz, binder twine and other hard-fiber twines. ““Oultivated most extensively in the vicinity of Tuxpam, Vera Cruz, Mexico, where it is called ‘zapupe azul’ because of its bluish leaves. The variety Estopier has been improved somewhat by cultivation. Like all of the agaves cultivated for the production of fiber, it requires a climate practically free from frost.’’ (Lyster H. Dewey.) 28327. CaTHa EDULIS Forsk. Khat. From Edinburgh, Scotland. Presented by the regius keeper, Royal Botanic Garden. Received July 5, 1910. Plants. See No. 24714 for previous introduction, and No. 28825 for description. 28328 to 28330. From Kandawglay, Rangoon, Burma, India. Presented by the secretary of the Agri-Horticultural Society of Burma. Received July 2, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28328. PHYLLANTHUS EMBLICA L. Emblic myrobalan. See No. 25724 for description. 28329. TERMINALIA BELLERICA (Gaertn.) Roxb. Belleric myrobalan. See No. 25541 for description. 28330. TrERMINALIA CHEBULA Retz. Black myrobalan. See No. 25542 for description. 223 11 12 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28331. ANpROPOGON squarRRosus L. f. Cuscus grass. From Peradeniya, Ceylon. Presented by Mr. M. Kelway Bamber, government chemist. Received July 2, 1910. Clumps. “This plant grows in large dense tufts, with stout, spongy, aromatic roots, which are sparingly branched. It is grown to a considerable extent in the hills of Jamaica for the purpose principally of binding loose soils and forming embankments on steep hill- sides to prevent washing by rains. ‘‘Tn India the roots are used in making aromatic-scented mats, and also fans, baskets, and other articles. The roots also when distilled with water yield a fragrant oil which is used asa perfume. Used also as medicine in case of fever and bilious complaints.” (Extract from Botanical Department of Jamaica Bulletin B.S. vol.7, 1900, pp. 152-153.) Distribution.—Throughout the plains and lower hills of India and Burma, rising to an elevation of 4,000 feet, and in Ceylon and Java, and tropical Africa. 28332 to 28341. NEPHELIUM spp. From Buitenzorg, Java. Presented by the Director of Agriculture. Received July 2, 1910. Plants of the following; notes by Mr. F. W. J. Westendorp in ‘‘Teysmannia,’’ 1910: 28332 to 28334. NEPHELIUM MUTABILE Bl. Kapoelasan. 283834. Si babat. ‘‘Dark colored, almost black; not so common as some other varieties.”’ 28335 to 28341. NepPHELIUM LAPPACEUM L. Ramboetan. 28335. Aijeh lebak boeloes. ‘‘This variety, aramboetan of the second rank, is handled in large quantities.” 28336. Aijeh goela batoe. ‘‘A variety of the first class, but can not be obtained in large quantities.”’ 28337. Atjeh tangkoeweh. 28338. Atjeh sikonto. The same remarks apply to this as to No. 28335. 28339. Atjeh lengkeng. 28340. Si njonja. 28341. Atjeh matjan. ““The two preceding ramboetans are of the first class and are the best commercial varieties.”’ For a general note on these fruits, see Nos. 25163 and 25165. 28342. CoMBRETUM APICULATUM Sonder. From Komati Poort, Transvaal, South Africa. Presented by Prof. J. Burtt Davy, government agrostologist and botanist, Transvaal Department of Agri- culture, Pretoria. Received July 5, 1910. “Seed collected by me at an altitude of 600 feet. The climate is almost tropical and free from frost, the tamarind being grown there. I am not aware that this Com- bretum has any economic value beyond the fact that it is omamental; it would be of interest in a tree collection in Florida, Louisiana, or southern California.’’ (Davy.) Distribution.—In the woods in the vicinity of Magaliesberg, in the Transvaal region of South Africa. 225 JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910. 13 28343. DiIosPYROS MICROCARPA (Jacq.) Gurke. From Sydney, New South Wales. Presented by Prof. J. H. Maiden, director and government botanist, Botanic Gardens. Received July 6, 1910. ‘“*A large shrub or tree 20 to 40 or even 100 feet high; trunk sometimes 2 feet in diameter. Leaves oblong or oval, alternate, palish green, especially beneath. Flow- ers dicecious, tetramerous (or rarely trimerous). Fruit globular or ovoid, 4 to 2 inch thick, fuscous and glabrescent when ripe; edible; ultimately one-celled and one- seeded. Slender-growing tree with elongated trunk and elegant, rigid foliage. Wood close, very tough and firm.” (Extract from Hiern’s Monograph of Ebenacex, in Trans- actions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. 12, p. 246.) Distribution.—In the forest region along the coast in New South Wales and Queens- land, Australia. 28344. CROTALARIA CANDICANS Wight and Arnott. From Poona, Bombay, India. Presented by Mr. P. S. Kanetkar, superintendent, Empress Botanical Gardens. Received July 9, 1910. “This crop is used for green manuring in the Madras Presidency. Out of that presidency it is not known.’’ (Kanetkar.) *‘A copiously branched undershrub, attaining 4 feet in height, with short-petioled leaves and panicles of bright-yellow flowers, produced in great profusion at the beginning of January. It thrives in any fair garden soil and is propagated by seed.” (Extract from Woodrow’s Gardening in India, p. 277.) Introduced for experimental growing as a cover crop, for breeding purposes, and as an ornamental in our Southern States. Distribution.—Slopes of the Nilgiri and Madura Hills, in the southern part of India. 28345. VIcIA FABA L. Horse bean. From Dongola Province, Egypt. Presented by Mr. 8. E. Durant, inspector of agriculture, at the request of the Director of Agriculture and Lands, Sudan Government, Khartum. Received July 7, 1910. “‘This grain is never used for stock feed, but it is ground into flour and mixed with wheat flour, then baked into bread. The straw is fed to stock, the only preparation being that the grain is first thrashed out by hand. The natives do not consider that bean straw forms such a valuable fodder as that of wheat.’? (Durant.) 28346 to 28350. Oryza sativa L. Rice. From Philippine Islands. Received through Mr. William S. Lyon, Manila, July 1, 1910. Seeds of the following; native names and notes as given by Mr. Lyon: 28346. Inaplaya. Matures in 44 months. 28347. Inita. One of the earliest; often matures in 100 days. 28348. Dinalaga. Late; matures in 4 to 44 months. 28349. Minalit. Very late; matures in 5 or more months. 28350. Pimling-berto. Medium; matures in 4 to 44 months. 28351. Driospyrros piscotor Willd. Mabola. From Buitenzorg, Java. Presented by the Director of Agriculture. Received July 14, 1910. Seeds. See No. 26112 for description. 223 14 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28352. DiIosPYROS sp. From Baroda, Madras Presidency, India. Presented by Mr. B. 8. Cavanaugh, sunerintendent, State Gardens. Received July 14, 1910. Seeds. 28353. PASSIFLORA EDULIS Sims. Passion flower. From Madras Presidency, India. Presented by Mr. P. 8S. Kanetkar, superin- tendent, Empress Botanical Gardens, Poona, Bombay, India. Received July 14, 1910. ‘‘Rdible passion fruit grown for culinary purposes.’’ (Kanetkar.) 28354. TERMINALIA CHEBULA Retz. Black myrobalan. From Baroda, India. Presented by Mr. B. 8. Cavanaugh, superintendent, State Gardens. Received July 5, 1910. See No. 25542 for description. 28355 and 28356. From Algeria. Presented by Dr. L. Trabut, Algiers. Received July 5 and 11, 1910. Seeds of the following; notes by Dr. Trabut: 28355. Festuca FENAS Lagasca. ‘Grows in the very alkaline regions of Shott Khreida. This grass has a very remarkable resistance to alkalinity.” Distribution.—Southwestern Europe, extending from central Spain and southern France eastward to Croatia. 28356. Vicia FaBA L. Horse bean. ‘Grows wild on the plateau of Sersou, Algeria.”’ 98357. MELILOTUS SEGETALIS (Brot.) Ser. From Maison Carree, Algeria. Presented by the Botanic Garden. Received July 5, 1910. ‘This is a small, sparsely leaved annual melilot, native of Mediterranean Europe and Africa. ‘It was originally described from Portugal. In former tests carried on by the Office of Forage-Crop Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry it has attained a height of only 10 to 15 inches and its small growth makes it of doubtful value for the United States. This melilot has been received previously under S. P. I. Nos. 17003 and 27473.”” (H. N. Vinall.) 28358. CROTALARIA CANDICANS Wight and Arnott. From Sibpur, Calcutta, India. Presented by Maj. A. T. Gage, superintendent, Royal Botanic Garden. Received July 14, 1910. See No. 28344 for description. 28359. Merpicaco sativa L. Alfalfa. From Ecuador. Procured by Mr. Herman R. Dietrich, consul general, Guaya- quil. Received July 14, 1910. Guaranda. 992 ame JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910. 15 28360 to 28363. From Port Louis, Mauritius. Presented by Mr. G. Regnard. Received July 7, 1910. Seeds of the following; notes by Mr. Regnard: 283860. EryTHROXYLON LAURIFOLIUM Lam. “Mauritius torchwood.”’ Distribution.—A branching shrub common in the woods in the islands of Mauritius and Reunion and the Seychelles. 28361 and 28362. (Undetermined.) (Liliacez.) 28361. ‘Blue fruited.”’ 28362. ‘White fruited.”’ 28363. (Undetermined.) “‘Forest tree bearing scarlet berries.”’ 28364. GOSSYPIUM sp. Cotton. From Honduras. Presented by Mr. F.S. Chaffee, Trujillo, Honduras. Received July 8, 1910. “This is supposed to be wild cotton from the Aguan River, 25 miles east of here (Trujillo). I found it three years ago while hunting in that vicinity. At that time it was a tree some 8 or 9 inches in diameter and 25 or 30 feet high and full of bloom. It stood out in the middle of a savannah in a sand and gravel soil with no other trees around it and fully a mile from any house. No one in that vicinity has any knowledge of its origin or how long it has been there; but last fall it was burned down by a savan- nah fire. These bolls were taken from the sprouts that have come up from the roots. There are also two or three other trees about a mile apart located in the heavy forest.’’ (Chaffee.) 28365. TRITICUM AESTIVUM IL. Wheat. From near the shore of Lake Van, a few miles from Bitlis, Turkey in Asia. Presented by Mr. Hamilton King, American minister to Siam, who procured it from Miss A. C. Ely. Received July 12, 1910. **This is sown in drills and does not need to be irrigated. The soil is sandy, mixed fo) iY ? with volcanic ashes, and probably some moisture percolates from the near-by lake. This is a rather inferior sample.’’ (Ely.) 28367 and 28368. From Marash, Turkey. Purchased from Mr. Paul N. Nersessian. Received July 16, 1910. Seeds of the following; notes by Mr. Nersessian: 28367. Latuyrus sativus L. ““Agh jilban (white jilban). For cultivation, soil, and time and manner of sowing, see No. 28368.” 28368. Vicia ERvittA (L.) Willd. Bitter vetch. “‘Koushne. They do not cultivate these plants for green manuring but only for seeds which they use for cattle feed. The seed is sown here from about the middle of September until near the end of November. It sprouts or stools some in the fall and remains that way during the winter. In the spring it sprouts more, covers the ground perfectly, grows about a foot high, and is ripe enough to harvest in these days (about June 1?). Usually it is sown on poor or exhausted fields from which a good crop of grain can not be expected. Of course it does 223 16 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28367 to 28368—Continued. better in richer ground and especially in ground where potash predominates. The usual practice in sowing it around here is to irrigate the grain stubble field if there has not been rain enough, to sow nearly a bushel of seed to an acre right on the stubble and just cover the seeds with the old native plow, and then drag a pole over the field to smooth it somewhat, which of course helps the seeds to come up more evenly and also decreases the surface evaporation. It is sown broadcast. It likes the ground well drained, either naturally or arti- ficially, and the earlier it is sown the better it is, within the time mentioned.” 28369. BAMBOS ARUNDINACEA Retz. Bamboo. From Sibpur, Calcutta, India. Purchased from Maj. A. T. Gage, superintendent, Royal Botanic Garden. Received July 16, 1910. ‘“This bamboo does not spread rapidly and it is seldom necessary to keep the plant in check. It never becomes a troublesome weed, and it can be extirpated without difficulty, if desired.” (Gage.) See No. 21317 for further description. 28370. PICEA BREWERIANA S. Watson. Veiled spruce. From near Kerbyville, which is reached by stage from Grants Pass, Oreg. Col- lected by Mrs. A. J. Adams; purchased from Miss Alice Eastwood, Gray Her- barium, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Received July, 1910. ‘“ CARDINALIS (Delicatissima). (P. I. G. No. 6538.) 28421. GLADIOLUS QUARTINIANUS A. Rich. (P. I. G. No. 6526.) Distribution.—Mountains of tropical Africa from Abyssinia southward to Zambesia, Matabeleland, and Angola, rising to an elevation of 8,000 feet in Kassailand. 28422. GLADIOLUS QUARTINIANUS X (?). (P. I. G. No. 6531.) 28423. GuapioLus RAmosus (Ne plus ultra) X couvitin (Express). (P. I. G. No. 6379.) 28424. GLADIOLUS SALMONEUS Baker. (P. I. G. No. 6525.) Dzistribution.—Occurs at an elevation of 4,800 feet on the mountain slopes in the vicinity of Kokstad, in Griqualand, eastern part of Cape Colony. 28425. GLADIOLUS SALMONEUS X QUARTINIANUS. (P. I. G. No. 6204.) 28426. GLADIOLUS TRISTIS X COLVILLII. (BE. ExG« No. 6377.) 28427. GLADIOLUS TRISTIS X VITTATUS. (P. I. G. No. 6451.) 28428. GLADIOLUS VITTATUS X PRIMULINUS. (P. I. G. No. 6197.) 28429. GLADIOLUS WATSONIUS X GRANDIS. (P. I. G. No. 6202.) 20 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28371 to 28531—Continued. 28430. Hisiscus syriacus L. (P. I. G. No. 6546.) ‘‘A single-flowered, pure white seedling.” 28431. HEMEROCALLIS AURANTIACA (MAJOR) X CITRINA. (P. I. G. No. 6519.) 28432. HEMEROCALLIS MAGNIFICA Hort. (P. I. G. No. 6300.) 28433. HerMEROCALLIS MAGNIFICA X FLORHAM. (P. I. G. No. 6298.) 28434. HrIPPpEASTRUM RUTILUM X VITTATUM. (P. I. G. No. 6423.) ‘‘Fine, red-flowered varieties, blooming when foliage is fully developed.”’ 28435. HipPEASTRUM VITTATUM X (?). (P. I. G. No. 6413.) : 28436. Iris ATROPURPUREA ATROFUSCA Baker. (P. I. G. No. 6397.) 28437. Iris ATROPURPUREA Baker. (P. I. G. No. 6458.) Distribution.—Imported from Syria. 28438. Iris BARTONTI Foster. (P. I. G. No. 6469.) Distribution.—The vicinity of Kandahar in the south- ern part of Afghanistan. 28439. Iris BISMARCKIANA Baker. (P. I. G. No. 6402.) Distribution.—The province of Lebanon, on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, in Asiatic Turkey. 28440. Iris cristata Soland. (P. I. G. No. 6459.) Distribution.—Rich woods from Maryland to Georgia and westward to Ohio, Indiana, and Missour1. 28441. Iris DELAVAYI X SIBIRICA. (PE: 1... G: 6517.) 28442. Iris rutva Ker. (P. I. G. No. 6516.) ‘‘A very large-flowered copper iris, bred by selection from the wild plant.” Distribution.—In swamps from Kentucky and Illinois southward to Missouri. 28443. Iris craciires A. Gray. (P. I. G. No. 6466.) Distribution—In damp meadows in Nambu and in the vicinity of Hakodate on the island of Hokushu ( Yezo), Japan. 28444. Iris GRant-purri Baker. (P. 1. G. No. 6523.) Distribution.—Along the banks of the River Kishon in Palestine. 28445. Iris HELENAE Barbey. (P. I. G. No. 6396.) Distribution.—In the vicinities of El Arish, Ouadi-el- Gradi, Ouadi-Cheriah, and Nachel Aboukeila, in the desert between Egypt and Palestine. 28446. Iris HEXAGONA X MISSOURIENSIS. (P. I. G. No. 6463.) 223 JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910. 21 28371 to 28531—Continued. 28447. Iris nrmaraica Hort. (P. I. G. No. 6470.) Received in 1908 from Mr. W. R. Dykes, England. Not bloomed. This is probably Jris clarkei Baker, a native of Sikkim, India. 28448. Iris LAEviaaTa Fisch. (P.1I.G. No. 6303.) Distribution.—In the vicinity of Yokosuka, Shimoda, and Hakodate in Japan; in the province of Shengking, China, and near Port Chusan in Chosen (Korea). Also extensively cultivated in other countries. 28449. Iris KoroLtKow!1 Regel. (P. I. G. No. 6401.) Dzustribution.—Sent alive by Gen. Korolkow to St. Petersburg in 1870 from Turkestan. 28450. Iris PARADOXA X PUMILA. (P.1I.G. No. 6421.) ‘Very meritorious hybrids. Plants vigorous, free bloom- ing, and of easy culture.”’ 28451. Iris tacustris Nutt. (P. I. G. No. 6467.) Dzstribution.—Gravelly shores of Lakes Huron, Mich- igan, and Superior. 28452. Iris LortetT Barbey. (P. I. G. No. 6399.) Distribution.—On the slopes of the Lebanon range of mountains at an altitude of 2,000 feet, between Mais and Hussin, in the province of Lebanon, Asiatic Turkey. 28453. Iris MILESI X TECTORUM. (P. I. G. No. 6380.) 28454. Iris MILESII X TECTORUM. (P. I. G. No. 6464.) 28455. Iris MoNNIERI DC. (P. I. G. No. 6518.) Distribution.—The islands of Rhodes and Crete, in the eastern part of the Mediterranean. 28456. Iris oprusirotia Baker. (P. I. G. No. 6520.) Distribution.—The province of Mazanderan, on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, in Persia. 28457. Iris pattipa Lam. (P. I. G. No. 6462.) Distribution.—The islands of Crete and Rhodes, and in Palestine, Syria, and Morocco, rising to an elevation of 7,000 feet in the Atlas Mountains. 28458. Iris nr@RIcans Hort. (P. I. G. No. 6400.) 28459. Iris PARADOXA X SAMBUCINA. (P. I. G. No. 6465.) 28460. Iris srprrica X (?). (P. I. G. No. 6446.) 28461. Iris srprrica X (?). (Eee Ge No: 6521") 28462. Iris sIBIRICA X DELAVAYI. (P. I. G. No. 6301.) 223 9299, SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28371 to 28531—Continued. 28463. Iris sOFARANA Foster. (P.1I.G. No. 6398.) Distribution.—On the Lebanon Mountains in the vicinity of Ain Sofar, Asiatic Turkey. 28464. Iris strauss!i Leichtl. (P. I. G. No. 6515.) Distribution.—The vicinity of Sultanabad, in the prov- ince of Irak Ajemi, western Persia. 28465. Iris SUAVEOLENS X LUTESCENS STATELLAE. (P.-I. G. No. 6220.) 28466. Iris TEcTORUM Maxim. (P. I. G. No. 6522.) Distribution.—The provinces of Shantung, Hupeh, Ichang, Hunan, Shensi, Kansu, and Szechwan, in China, and in the vicinity of Yokohama, in Japan. 28467. Iris TECTORUM X MILESII. (1G. No. 62212) 28468. Iris TENAX Dougl. (P. I. G. No. 6514.) Distribution.—Northwestern America, where it is com-_ mon in open places from British Columbia southward to Oregon. 28469. Iris TENAX X VERSICOLOR. (P. 1. G. No. 6452.) 28470. Iris veRNA L. (P. I. G. No. 6468.) Distribution.—Wooded hillsides from Pennsylvania to Kentucky and southward to Georgia and Alabama. 28471. Iris versicotor L. (P. I. G. No. 6445.) Distribution.—In swamps from Newfoundland to Mani- toba and southward to Florida and Arkansas. 28472. JUGLANS CORDIFORMIS Maxim. (P. 1. G. No. 6449.) Distribution.—In the vicinity of Yokohama and of Hakodate on the island of Hokushu (Yezo), Japan. 28473. JUGLANS CORDIFORMIS X REGIA. (Pod. G: No: 6511:) 28474. JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA Maxim. (P. I. G. No. 6448.) Distribution.—In forests on the mountains in Kiushu and in the vicinity of Tokyo, Yokohama, Kamakura, Yokosuka, and Hakodate, in Japan. 28475. LAcHENALIA PENDULA Ait. ? (P. I. G. No. 6192.) Distribution.—Along the coast of Cape Colony in the vicinity of Hout Bay and Cape Flats. 28476 to 28478. LAcHENALIA PENDULA X TRICOLOR. 28476. (P.1I.G. No. 6191.) Cowslip. 28477. (P.1.G. No. 6193.) Delight. 28478. (P.1.G. No. 6194.) Rector of Cawston. 28479. LACHENALIA TRICOLOR Jacq. (P.1.G..No. 6195.) Distribution.—Along the coast of Cape Colony at Malmes- bury, near Cape Town, Saldanha Bay, Cape Flats, and Port Elizabeth, South Africa. 223 JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910. 23 28371 to 28531—Continued. 28480. Laruyrus Latirotius L. (P. I. G. No. 6491.) Leitchtlin Extra White. 28481. LitiumM HENRYI X SPECIOSUM. (P. I. G. No. 6553.) 28482. Litium HENRYI X SUPERBUM. (P. I. G. No. 6498.) ‘‘The largest flowered Hemerocallis.”’ 28483. LitiuM MACULATUM X MARTAGON. (P. I. G. No. 6552.) 28484. LitiuM PHILIPPINENSE X LONGIFLORUM. (P. I. G. No. 6562.) 28485. Littum PUBERULUM X LINIFOLIUM. (P. I. G. No. 6297.) ‘‘Very characteristic hybrids bearing large scarlet blooms of great substance, the small centers being yellow, dotted brownish purple. The other cross-pollinated lilies, as far as bloomed, do not show evidence of hybridity.”’ 28486. Litium speciosum Thunb. (P. I. G. No. 6381.) Variety magnificum. 28487. LitiuM SPECIOSUM X HENRYI. (P. I. G. No. 6551.) 28488. Litium sp. (P. I. G. No. 6382.) Ellen Wilmot. 28489. MALus BACCATA X SYLVESTRIS. (P. I. G. No. 6547.) ‘‘Matus sBaccata X ‘Baldwin’ xX ‘Yellow Trans- parent.’ Second-generation hybrids of considerable vigor.’’ 28490. NaRcISSUS INCOMPARABILIS X POETICUS. (E-1.G. Nox6209;) 28491. PaxroniA SUFFRUTICOSA Andr. (P. I. G. No. 6453.) 28492. PAEONIA sp. (P. I. G. No. 6454.) Seedling varieties. 28493. PHILADELPHUS CORONARIUS X MICROPHYLLUS. (P. I. G. No. 6495.) 28494. PHILADELPHUS CORONARIUS L. (P. I. G. No. 6492.) 28495. PLaTYCODON GRANDIFLORUM (Jacq.) DC. (P. I. G. No. 6432.) Variety Mariesi macranthum. 28496. PRUNUS SIMONII X AMERICANA. (P. I. G. No. 6548.) 28497. PyYRUS CHINENSIS X COMMUNIS. (P. I. G. No. 6510.) Chinese varieties, Kieffer, Le Conte, and Golden Russet, pollinated with Bartlett, Angouleme, Anjou, Seckel, and Lawrence. 28498. QUAMASIA LEICHTLINII X CUSICKI. (P. eG. No. 6223.) 223 24 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 283871 to 28531—Continued. 28499 to 28503. Promising hybrids between native gooseberry species and European garden varieties. 28499. RIBES CYNOSBATI X RECLINATUM. (P. I. G. No. 6565.) 28500. RIBES MISSOURIENSE X RECLINATUM. (P. I. G. No. 6217.) 28501. RIBES MISSOURIENSE X RECLINATUM. (PST: GiNot 6563.) 28502. RIBES MISSOURIENSE X RECLINATUM X ROTUNDIFOLIUM. (P. I.'G. No: 6218.) 28503. RrBes RECLINATUM X ROTUNDIFOLIUM (P. I. G. No. 6564.) 28504. Rosa CHINENSIS Jacq. (P. I. G. No. 6443.) Distribution—The provinces of Hupeh and Kwang- tung, in China, and the island of Formosa. 28505. Rosa LAEvIGATA X Frau Karl Druschki. (P. I. G. No. 6422.) ‘‘Attractive hardy hybrids bearing large semidouble sweet-scented blooms, blush white in color.’’ 28506. Rosa FERRUGINEA X Paul Neyron. (P. I. G. No. 6456.) ‘‘Nearly thornless variety with reddish foliage; bloom . very double, medium in size, bright rose pink in color.”’ 28507. Rosa LutTeA X Harrison’s Yellow. (P. 1. G. No. 6543.) ‘‘Very striking; buds nasturtium scarlet; blooms when opening light orange, turning to white and then to blush pink; semidouble, 2 inches across.”’ 28508. Rosa MULTIFLORA X LUTEA. (P. I. G. No. 6455.) 28509. Rosa RUGOSA X CHINENSIS. (P. I. G. No. 6539.) Victor Hugo. ‘‘Profuse, large, double, sweet-scented blooms, fiery scarlet-crimson in color. Apparently the best Rosa rugosa hybrid.”’ 28510. Rosa RUGOSA (ALBA) X CHINENSIS (Devoniensis). (P. I. G. No. 6540.) ‘‘Good double white Rugosa, resembling Mad. Georges Bruant.”’ 28511. Rosa rucosa X Ards Rover. (P. I. G. No. 6497.) 28512. Rosa RUGOSA X ?. (P. I. G. No. 6305.) 28513. Rosa RuUGOSA X ?. (P. I. G. No. 6541.) Souvenir de Pierre Lepredieux. 28514. Rosa souLIEANA Crepin. (P. I. G. No. 6569.) Distribution.—In the vicinity of Tatsienlu, in the prov- ince of Szechwan, western China. 28515. Rosa sp. (P. I. G. No. 6544.) ‘“‘Hybrids of Crimson Rambler.” 223 JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910. : 25 ae ‘ 28371 to 28531— Continued. as 29516. Rosa sp. (P. I. G. No. 6545.) Lyon. 28517. Rosa sp. (P. I. G. No. 6417.) ‘‘Lyon X President Carnot.” 28518. Rosa sp. (P. I. G. No. 6542.) Richmond. 28519. Rosa sp. (P. I. G. No. 6496.) Victor Hugo. (Hybrid Remontant.) 28520. Rosa spp. Miscellaneous fruits. (P. I. G. No. 6304.) 28521. Rosa spp. Seeds of hardy roses. (P. I. G. No. 6428.) 28522. Rosa spp. Miscellaneous fruits. (P. I. G. No. 6444.) 28523 and 28524. ‘Promising crossbred garden raspberries.” 28523. RuBUS NEGLECTUS X IDAEUS. (P. I. G. No. 6571.) 28524. RusBus NEGLECTUS X STRIGOSUS. (P. I. G. No. 6572.) 28525. TriromMa NoRTHIAE (Baker) Skeels. (Kniphofia northiae Baker, Jour. Bot., vol. 27, p. 43, 1889.) (P. I. G. No. 6509.) 28526. Tritoma tucku (Baker) Skeels. (Kniphofia tuckii Baker, Gard. Chron., ser. 3, vol. 13, p. 68, 1893.) The generic name Kniphofia was applied by Moench in 1794 (Meth., p. 632) to Aletris uvaria L., a species belonging to the same genus as the two given above, but Kniphofia had been published by Scopoli in 1777 (Introd., p. 327) as a generic name for Terminalia catappa L., and was therefore invalid as a desig- nation for the other and later genus. The next earliest name available for this genus is Tritoma, which was pub- lished by Ker-Gawler in 1804 (Botanical Magazine, vol. 20, pl. 744), based on Tritoma sarmentosa (Andrews) Skeels (Aletris sarmentosa Andrews), a South African species belonging to the same genus as the two listed above. These species are therefore recognized under the name given to the genus by Ker- Gawler, a name perhaps more frequently applied to them in horticultural liter- ature than Kniphofia. These plants are both indigenous to Cape Colony, T’ritoma northiae occurring near Grahamstown, in the Albany division of the coast region, and Tritoma tuckii in the Colesberg division of the central region. 28527. Tritrontia ‘Prometheus.’ * (P. I. G. No. 6427.) 28528. ViTIS VINIFERA X (AESTIVALIS X LABRUSCA). (P. 1. G. No. 6418.) Black Hamburgh x Gold Coin. 223 © 26 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28371 to 28531—Continued. 28529. Yucca FILAMENTOSA L. (P. I. G. No. 6419.) Variety variegata. Distribution—In dry and sandy soil from North Carolina to Florida and Mississippi. 28530. Yucca Fiaccipa Haw. (P. I. G. No. 6306.) Distribution.—On dry or sandy slopes in or near the mountains from North Carolina to Alabama. 28531. ZerPHYRANTHES SULPHUREA Hort. (P. I. G. No. 6216.) 28532. MerpicaGo CARSTIENSIS Wulfen. From Edinburgh, Scotland. Presented by Dr. Isaac Bayley Balfour, director, Royal Botanic Garden. Received July 21, 1910. See No. 27794 for previous introduction. 28533 to 28536. Carica PAPAYA L. Papaya. From Empire, Canal Zone, Panama. Presented by Mr. W. G. Ross, at the request of Mr. H. F. Schultz. Received July 21, 1910. Seeds of the following: 285338. ‘Fruit cylindrical in shape, very rich flavor, heaviest one here weighing 164 pounds.”’ (Ross.) ‘This variety has a very small seed cavity and less seeds than most others.”’ (Schultz.) 28534. ‘Fruit oblong in shape, extra size, 104 pounds, and having an excel- lent flavor.’’ (Ross.) 28535. ‘Fruit oblong and slightly tapering in shape, above medium in size, and having very sweet meat.’ (Koss.) 28536. ‘‘Fruit pearshaped. Tree was planted three years ago and nroduced 30 papayas last year, all very large and of very fine flavor.’’ (Ross.) 28537. TRICHOLAENA ROSEA Nees. | From Benguela, Angola, Portuguese West Africa. Presented by Mr. T. W. Woodside, A. B.C. F. M. Received July 20, 1910. ‘“‘A grass that grows spontaneously in old worn-out fields. Grows often to the height of 24 or 3 feet. It is very succulent and sweet, and cattle like it very much. From the fact that it grows in old abandoned fields I would judge that it dees not require rich soil.’’ ( Woodside.) 28538 and 28539. Mepicaco sativa L. Alfalfa. From the Bombay Presidency, India. Presented by Mr. P. 8. Kanetkar, super- intendent, Empress Botanical Gardens, Poona, Bombay, India. Received July 23, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28538. ‘‘From the Surat district, a few miles from the sea and at sea level. It is grown in fields in which sugar cane was grown in the rains and harvested in October. The seed is sown in November. No cuttings for green fodder are taken, but the crop is allowed torun to flowerand seed. The crop is harvested at the end of March. The cultivators near Sugat have only recently taken 223 JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910. oy 285388 to 28539—Continued. to growing lucern for seed only. The crop from this seed, however, is not as lasting a one as from the seed of the following (S. P. I. No. 28539).” (Kanetkar.) 28539. ‘From Poona, which is situated at a height of 1,900 feet and is dis- tant 80 miles from the sea. The soil is loamy and responds to manure and irrigation treatments readily. The lucern crop in Poona is kept for three years, the cuttings which are taken every four to five weeks being fed to cattle and horses. The plants are allowed to run to seed in March every year. The seeds are sold at about triple the price of seed of the preceding (S. P. I. No. 28538). A quart bottleful is sold at from 2 to 24 rupees, a rupee being equal to16 pence.” (Kanetkar.) 28540 to 28550. From Pretoria, Transvaal, South Africa. Presented by Prof. J. Burtt Davy, government agrostologist and botanist, Transvaal Department of Agriculture. Received July 23, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28540. TriIcHLORIS MENDOCcINA (Phil.) Kurtz. See No. 26651 for previous introduction. 28541. CerrRvicina UNDULATA (L. f.) Skeels. See No. 27520 for previous introduction. 28542. ERAGROSTIS LAPPULA DIVARICATA Stapf. Distribution.—On the Pellat Plains, between Matlareen River and Takun, in Bechuanaland, South Africa. 28543. Trisetum spicatum (L.) Richter. Distribution.—Alpine regions and in the Arctic and Antarctic zones. 28544. CHAETOCHLOA NIGRIROSTRIS (Nees) Skeels. See No. 26653 for previous introduction. 28545. ERAGROSTIS PLANA Nees. Disiribution.—In the Kalahari district and along the eastern coast of Cape Colony and Natal in South Africa. 28546. PaNIcUM MAXIMUM HIRSUTISSIMUM Nees. (Panicum hirsutissimum Steud.) Distribution.—The coast region of Natal and Cape Colony. 28547. Sprnirex HIRSUTUS Labill. Distribution.—Sandy shores of New Zealand, Tasmania, and southern Australia. 28548. TrRICcHLORIS MENDOCINA (Phil.) Kurtz. See No. 28540 for previous introduction. 28549. ERAGROSTIS GUMMIFLUA Nees. Distribution.—South Africa; in the Kalahari region and along the eastern coast of Cape Colony and Natal. 28550. Acacra roBusTA Burchell. “This is a characteristic tree of the dry bush veldt below 4,500 feet altitude (i. e., in the subtropical zone of the Transvaal). 223 98 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28540 to 28550—Continued. “‘T have not been able to learn much about the wood, beyond the fact that it is sometimes used for fence posts when the rarer and harder sorts, such as Olea verrucosa, are not available.” (Davy.) Distribution.—In the vicinity of Litakun, Bechuanaland, and at Magalies- berg in the interior of Cape Colony. 28551. MANGIFERA INDICA L. Mango. From Monrovia, Liberia, West Africa. Presented by Mr. E. L. Parker, Commis- sioner of Agriculture. Received July 20, 1910. Sierra Leone. 28552 to 28555. MANGIFERA INDICA L. Mango. From Poona, Bombay, India. Purchased from Mr. P. S. Kanetkar, superin- tendent, Empress Botanical Gardens. Received July 20, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28552. Alphonse. 28554. Pakria. 28553. Kadarapasant. 28555. Totafari. 28556 to 28563. Manorirera inpica L. Mango. From Sibpur, Calcutta, India. Purchased from Maj. A. T. Gage, superintendent, Royal Botanic Garden. Received July 20, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28556. Alphonso. 28560. Small Malda. 28557. Baromassia. 28561. Paranay. 28558. Bhadoorea. 28562. Peters. 28559. Large Malda. 28563. Soondershaw. 28564 to 28568. Manerrera rnpica L. Mango. From Colombo, Ceylon. Purchased from Dr. C. Drieberg, secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. Received July 22, 1910. Seeds of the following; descriptive notes by Dr. Drieberg: 28564. Dampara. ‘Prolific; fruit small in size, of second quality, rather fibrous; skin yellow brown; seed small; ripens early and keeps fairly well. The tree is a free grower and is hardy. It is not much cultivated.” 28565. Heart. ‘‘This is also called Bombay and is the commonest variety found on the market. Prolific; fruit medium in size, not much longer than broad, of second quality; skin golden yellow; seed of medium size; ripens early and is a fair keeper. The tree is a free grower and is hardy.” 28566. Jaffna. ‘The favorite variety here. Prolific; fruit medium in size, twice as long as broad, of first quality; skin green; seed of medium size; ripens early and is a fair keeper. The tree is a fairly free grower and is hardy.”’ 28567. Parrot. ‘Fairly prolific; fruit medium to small, of second quality; skin dark green; seed of medium size; ripens late and is a fair keeper. The tree is a free grower and is hardy. This variety has a slight turpentine flavor and is not very common.”’ 223 JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910. 29 28564 to 28568—Continued. 28568. Rupee. ‘This is also called ‘Two-Shilling.’ It is a sparse bearer; fruit the largest of local (Ceylon) varieties, of first quality; skin pale green; seed small compared to size of fruit; ripens late and is not a good keeper. The tree is nov a free grower and is tender. This variety is scarce and expen- sive. Requires very careful ripening.”’ 28569 to 28582. Musa spp. Banana. From Paramaribo, Surinam. Presented by Mr. Goldsmith H. Williams, manager, United Fruit Co. Received July 21, 1910. Suckers of the following; notes by Mr. Williams: 28569 to 28580. Musa sp. 28569. “Bas Joe. From southern China. Has seeds in very small fruit.”’ 28570. “Cinerea Sahramphur. Short, slim-pointed fruit of good flavor.”’ 28571. ‘Congo.’ 28572. ‘‘Dwarf banana, frequently called Cavendishit.’’ 28573. ‘Jamaica banana.” 28574. ‘“‘Large Horse banana. Sweeter than the plantain. Very good fried or roasted.”’ 28575. ‘‘Pisang Ambon. A trifle better than the Horse banana of Florida and much the same shape.”’ 28576. ‘‘Pisang Celat. Small, sweet fruit with 13 to 16 hands on a bunch.” 28577. ‘‘Pisang Kudjo. Red banana.’ 28578. ‘‘Pisang Siam. Much like the Horse banana of Florida.’’ 28579. ‘‘Pisang Susa. Similar to the ordinary Apple banana.”’ 28580. ‘Rubra India Sapientum Dacca. One of the silver-skin varie- ties. What we term silver skin is a fruit that is like the red banana in shape and flavor, but with a clear, yellow skin.”’ 28581. Musa rosacea Jacq. “Variety Chittagong. Very small, with seeds. New York Botanival Gar- den No. 9636.” Distribution —The lower slopes of the eastern Himalayas in Chittagong, upper Burma, and in the Konkan region on the western coast of India; said to have been introduced from Mauritius in 1805. 28582. Musa zEBRINA Van Houtte. “Reddish leaves. Very small worthless fruit, with seeds. Good as an orna- mental plant.”’ 28583. ARRACACIA XANTHORRHIZA Bancroft. Arracacha. From Caracas, Venezuela. Presented by Sefior Antonio Valero Lara. Received July 26, 1910. See No. 3511 for description. 223 80 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28584. DiospyROS PEREGRINA (Gaertn.) Guerke. From Sibpur, Calcutta, India. Presented by Maj. A. T. Gage, superintendent, Royal Botanic Garden. Received July 26, 1910. ‘“‘A dense, evergreen, small tree with dark-green foliage and long, shining leaves; common throughout India and Burma except the arid and dry zone in the Pun- jab and Sind. Distributed to Ceylon, Siam, and the Malay Peninsula; very abun- dant in Bengal. It is a beautiful tree; the fruit is eatable, but excessively sour. Its principal use is for paying the bottoms of boats. It is beaten in a large mortar and the juice is expressed. This is boiled, mixed with powdered charcoal, and applied once a year to the outside of the planks. The wood is of little value. The fruit is largely used in tanning, being a powerful astringent. The juice of the unripe fruit is used in medicine as an astringent. The tree produces a round fruit as big as a middle- sized apple, green when unripe, rusty yellow when ripe, and in the later stages con- taining a somewhat astringent pulp, in which the seeds are embedded. When ripe it is eaten by the natives, but is not very palatable. The leaves are also eaten as a vege- table. Ainslie mentions that the carpenters of the Malabar coast use the juice of the fruit as an excellent glue.”’ (Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, vol. 3, p. 145.) Seeds. 28585 to 28593. From Domine Niemiercze, Podolia, Russia. Presented by Messrs. K. Buszezynski and M. Lazynski. Received July 22, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28585 to 28587. Avena sativa L. Oat. 28585. Larliest, or Sixty-Day. 28586. Ligovo. 28587. The new oats (cross between Ligovo and Earliest). 28588 to 28592. Triticum AxEstivumM L. Wheat. 28588. Brown bearded. 28591. Triumph of Podolia. 28589. Crossed Wheat No. 1. 28592. White bearded. 28590. Improved Banat. 28593. Triticum puRUM Desi. ; Wheat. White spring. 28594 and 28595. From Spain. Presented by Mr. R. L. Sprague, American consul, Gibraltar, Spain. Received July 7, 1910. Seeds of the following; notes by Mr. Sprague: 28594. Vicia ERviiA (L.) Willd. Bitter vetch. ‘Vero. This vetch is sown throughout Andalusia, but never plowed under for green manure. When the crop is ripe it is gathered and given to cattle during the winter months.”’ 28595. lLaruyrus sativus L. ‘‘Alverjones. These are used for green manure and can be procured in larger quantities than the preceding (S. P. I. No. 28594). At about the same price the practical result is considered better.”’ 223 JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910. 31 28596. HoRDEUM sp. Barley. From Maison Carree, Algeria. Presented by Dr. L. Trabut, Algiers, Algeria. Received July 27, 1910. “‘Smooth-bearded black barley. This barley appeared as a mutation in some black barley from Australia; it is very early and very resistant to drought. Curious on account of its absolutely smooth beards.’’ (Trabut.) 28597. ALEURITES MOLUCCANA (L.) Willd. Candlenut. From Manila, Philippine Islands. Presented by Mr. William S. Lyon. Received July 21, 1910. See No. 24351 for description. 28598 to 28603. Artium cEePA L. Onion. From Puerto de Orotava, Teneriffe, Canary Islands. Presented by Mr. Solomon Berliner, American consul, Teneriffe. Received July 27, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28598 to 28600. From Wildpret Bros. (Specially selected seed.) 28598. Bermuda Red. 28600. Crystal Wax. 28599. Bermuda White. 28601 to 28603. From Mr. T. M. Reid. 28601. Bermuda Red. 28603. Crystal Wax. 28602. Bermuda White. 28604. CicreR ARIETINUM L. Chick-pea. From Byers, Colo. Procured by Mr. H. N. Vinall from Mr. Edelen. Received July 29, 1910. ‘*Mr. Edelen says the original seed of these peas was given to him by an Italian. He claims they yielded 2,500 pounds of grain per acre last season, and in the face of an extremely dry season this year he is counting on 1,000 pounds per acre. From the looks of his field I should judge that 500 or 600 pounds is nearer what the correct yield willbe. Chick-peas are very drought resistant and hail does them little injury, as the plant itself is tough and fibrous.”’ ( Vinall.) 28606. CROTALARIA CANDICANS Wight and Arnott. From Peradeniya, Ceylon. Presented by Dr. J. C. Willis, director, Botanic Garden. Received August 2, 1910. See No. 28344 for description. 28607. DENDROCALAMUS sTRICTUS (Roxb.) Nees. Bamboo. From Sibpur, near Calcutta, India. Presented by Maj. A. T. Gage, superin- tendent, Royal Botanic Garden. Received August 5, 1910. See Nos. 21548, 22819, and 23476 for previous introductions. 28609. Myrica nar Thunb. From Kiayingchau, China. Presented by Mr. George Campbell. Received July 25, 1910. ; Seeds. See Nos. 25908 and 26905 for previous introductions. 223 32 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28610 and 28611. ANONA spp. From Redland Bay, Queensland, Australia. Presented by Mr. James Collins. Received August 2, 1910. Cuttings of the following: 28610. ANONA sp. ‘*As far as I know this variety has never been named. It is a giant and far superior to any of the other anonas. It often attains a weight of 6 pounds, ‘being a veritable custard.’ It originated here about 30 years ago.”’ (Collins.) 28611. ANnona cHERIMOLA Mill. . Cherimoya. 28612 and 28613. Maneirera inpica L. Mango. From Poona, Bombay, India. Purchased from Mr. P. 8. Kanetkar, superintend- ent, Empress Botanical Gardens. Received August 4, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28612. Pyrie. 28613. Kala Hapoos. 28614 and 28615. Zra mays L. Corn. From the Kalahari, about 30 miles east of Kuruman, on the Kaapscheberg, South Bechuanaland, Africa. Presented by Prof. J. Burtt Davy, government agros- tologist and botanist, Transvaal Department of Agriculture, Pretoria, Transvaal, South Africa. Received August 2, 1910. Seeds of the following; notes by Prof. Davy: ‘“ White Botman flint maize. This seed was procured from a very dry region, of shal- low limestone soil, cold and dry in winter. It struck me that these strains might do for the extreme southwest of the corn belt of the United States (northwestern Texas). ” 28614. ‘‘Donovan’s strain (red cob) has been grown by him without selection or change of seed for 10 years, and came originally from a still drier region, Daniels Kuil, at the southeast end of the Kuruman Hills.”’ 28615. ‘‘Mayer’s strain, from the same vicinity as the preceding (S. P. I. No. 28614).” 28616. TRICHILIA DREGEANA E. Meyer. From Durban, Natal, South Africa. Presented by Dr. J. Medley Wood, director, Botanic Gardens. Received July 26, 1910. ‘*A handsome evergreen shade tree.’’ ( Wood.) Distribution.—In woods in the vicinity of Durban in South Africa. See No. 9482 for previous introduction. 28617. ViceNA uNeGuIcULATA (L.) Walp. Cowpea. From Para, Brazil. Presented by Mr. Walter Fischer, acting director, Campo de Cultura Experimental Paraense. Received August 4, 1910. ‘Probably identical with the Blackeye variety; I grew them on the campo and har- vested them just two months after sowing. This cowpea could hardly be called a forage variety, at least not here in this soil, where it soon goes to seed, but bears heavily.” (Fischer.) 28618 to 28625. ° From Russia. Received through Mr. Frank N. Meyer, agricultural explorer, July 25, 1910. 223 JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910. 33 28618 to 28625—Continued. Seeds of the following: 28618. Laruyrus sativus L. From Vladikavkaz, Caucasus, Russia. ‘‘(No. 1334a, May 4, 1910.) A legume very rarely seen, said to come originally from Russia. The seeds are used locally as a human food, being boiled in soups or mixed with chick-peas in stews. Suitable for trial as a forage crop in regions with a moderately light summer rainfall.’’ ( Meyer.) 28619. Pisum sativum L. Field pea. From Vladikavkaz, Caucasus, Russia. ‘‘(No. 1335a, May 4, 1910.) longiflorum, 28484. puberulum X linifolium, 28485. speciosum, 28486. < henryi, 28487. Lily, Ellen Wilmot, 28488. Mabola. See Diospyros discolor. Magnolia campbellii, 28660. Mahogany, swamp, 28682. Malus baccata * sylvestris, 28489. Mangifera indica, 28551 to 28568, 28612, 28613, 28627 to 28631, 28676, 28677, 28691 to 28703, 28748 to 28760, 28816 to 28822. Mango, Alphonse, 28552. Alphonso, 28556, Amin, 28627. Amin, Calcutta, 28700. Amini, 28816. Badami, 28817. Badsha, 28748. Baromassia, 28557. Bhadoorea, 28558. Bombay (green), 28755. Borsha, 28628. Bulbulchasm, 28699. Chickna, 28702. (Costa Rica), 28676, 28677. Dampara, 28564. Ennurea, 28694. Faizan, 28695. Fajri (long), 28757. (round), 28756. Faquirmala, 28703. Fernandez, 28629, 28749. Gola, 28752. Gopalbhog, 28693. Gudbeli, 28750. 99° “a0 Mango, Hathijhul, 28701. Heart, 28565. Jaffna, 28566. Kadarapasant, 28553. Kala Hapoos, 28613. Khaparia, 28753. Lamba Bhadra, 28758. Langra, 28754. * MalJda, 28759. (large), 28559. (small), 28560. Mulgoa, 28818. Najibabadi, 28760. Pakria, 28554. Paranay, 28561. Parrot, 28567. Peter pasant, 28630. Peters, 28562. P’ote (?), 28751. Puttu, 28819. Pyrie, 28612. Raspuri, 28820. Romani, 28821. Rupee, 28568. Sanduria, 28691. Sharbati (brown), 28698. Shendrya, 28631. Sierra Leone, 28551. Singapuri, 28692. Soondershaw, 28563. Sunahra, 28697. Sundersha, 28822. Tamancha, 28696. Totafari, 28555. Maple. See Acer oblongum. Medicago sp., 28790. carstiensis, 28532. hispida denticulata, 28788. _ orbicularis, 28789. sativa, 28359, 28538, 28539. tunetana, 28646. Melica violacea, 28778. Melilotus segetalis, 28357. Melinis minutiflora, 28767, 28768. Melocanna baccifera, 28781. Meriana sp., 28743. Meyer, IF. N., seeds and plants secured, 28618 to 28625, 28648, 28649, 28801 to 28809. Millet, Pearl, 28738. Ragi, 28737. Mimosa rubicaulis, 28726. Mimusops sp., 28797. imbricaria, 28670. Mondia whiteti, 28730. JULY 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1910. Moraea sp., 28871. bicolor, 28712. iridioides, 28727. Musa spp., 28569 to 28580. rosacea, 28581. zebrina, 28582. Myrica nagi, 28609. Myrobalan, belleric, 28329, black, 28330, 28354. emblic, 28328. Myrtus sp., 28635. Narcissus incomparabilis 28490. ; Nephelium lappaceum, 28335 to 28341. mutabile, 28332 to 28334. poeticus, Oat, Earliest, 28585. Ligovo, 28586. new, 28587. Sixty-Day, 28585. Oleaster, 28806. Onion, Bermuda Red, 28598, 28601. White, 28599, 28602. Crystal Wax, 28600, 28603. Ophiobostryx volubilis, 28729. Opuntia sp., 28626. Oryza sativa, 28346 to 28350. Paeonia sp., 28492. suffruticosa, 28491. ‘*Palo-de-vaca.’’ See Piratinera utilis. Panicum maximum hirsutissimum, 28546. Papaya (Panama), 28533 to 28536. Parmentiera cereifera, 28674. Passiflora capsularis, 28687. edulis, 28353, 28826, 28878. Passion flower. See Passiflora edulis. Pea, field (Russia), 28619. See also Chick-pea and Cowpea. Pectinea pauciflora, 28740. Pennisetum americanum, 28738. Pepper, Nepal, 28632, 28633. red, 28632. yellow, 28633. Persea meyeniana, 28636. Phaseolus max, 28765. Philadelphus coronarius, 28494. x microphyllus, 28493. Phyllanthus emblica, 28328. Picea breweriana, 28370. Pili nut. See Canariwm luzonicum. Piratinera utilis, 28785. 223 69 Pistache (Russia), 28807. Pistacia lentiscus, 28872. vera, 28807. Pisum sativum, 28619. Platycodon grandiflorum, 28495. Plum (Russia), 28808. “*Plumcot,’’ 28745. Podachaenium eminens, 28850. Potato (Arizona), 28770. (Chile), 28665. (France), 28705 to 28707, 28731, 28732. (Mexico), 28771. (Paraguay), 28747. (Uruguay), 28746. Prunus sp., 28745. cerasus, 28809. domestica, 28808. mume, 28685. simonti X americana, 28496. Psidium guajava, 28688, 28811. Pyrus chinensis * communis, 28497. Quamasia leichtlinii * cusickii, 28498. Quinoa, 28634, 28664. Ramboetan, 28335 to 28341. Raspberry, yellow (China), 28658. | Ribes cynosbati * reclinatum, 28499. missourtense X reclinatum, 28500, 28501. x rotun- difo- lium, 28502. reclinatum X rotundifolium, 28503. Rice (Philippine Islands), 28346 to 28350. Rollinia sp., 28704. Rosa spp., 28515 to 28522. chinensis, 28504. ferruginea X Paul Neyron, 28506. laevigata X Frau Karl Druschki, 28505. lutea < Harrison’s Yellow, 28507. multiflora * lutea, 28508. rugosa X ?, 28512, 28513. < Ards Rover, 28511. x chinensis, 28509. (alba) X chinensis (Devonien- sis), 28510. soulieana, 28514. Rose, Lyon, 28516. Richmond, 28518. Victor Hugo, 28509, 28519. 70 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. Rubus sp., 28658. Undetermined, 28361 to 28363, 28672, neglectus X idaeus, 28523. 28742, 28777. a UROL. Fre sven Vetch, bitter. See Vicia ervilia. giant. See Vicia gigantea. Salix humboldtiana, 28709, 28710. Viburnum tinus, 28874. vitellina, 28708. Vicia ervilia, 28368, 28594, 28761, 28815. Salvia sclarea, 28873. faba, 28345, 28356, 28621, 28645, Sanguisorba minor, 28779. 28659. Secale cereale, 28782. gigantea, 28824. Solanum spp., 28656, 28657, 28747, 28771. | Vigna wnguiculata, 28617,°28829. commersonii, 28707, 28746. Vitis sp., 28876. jamesit, 28770. vinifera, 28637 to 28642. maglia, 28705, 28706, 28731, x (aestivalis X labrusca) 28732. 28528. tuberosum, 28665. Voandzeia subterranea, 28744, 28830 to Sorghum (Africa), 28733. 28832. Spinifexr hirsutus, 28547. Spruce, veiled. See Picea breweriana. Sterculia diversifolia, 28683. Wheat, brown bearded, 28588. Crossed Wheat No. 1, 28589. Improved Banat, 28590. Tagasaste. See Cytisus proliferus. (Russia), 28622, 28623. Talauma mutabilis, 28794. (Spain), 28655. Tambourissa amplifolia, 28671. Triumph of Podolia, 28591. Tecoma berteroi, 28728. (Turkey), 28365. Terminalia bellerica, 28329. white bearded, 28592. chebula, 28330, 28354. white spring, 28593. Torchwood, Mauritius, 28360. Widdringtonia whytei, 28690. Trichilia dregeana, 28616, Willow (Chile), 28708 to 28710. Trichloris mendocina, 28540, 28548. Woandsu. See Voandzeia subterranea. Tricholaena rosea, 28537. Yucca filamentosa, 28529. Trifolium agrarium, 28791. flaccida, 28530. clypeatum, 28792. scutatum, 28793. | Zantedeschia elliottiana X pentlandir, Trisetum spicatum, 28543. 28374. Triticum aestivum, 28365, 28588 to 28592. rehmanii X pentlandii, 28375, durum, 28593, 28622, 28623. 28376. turgidum, 28655. Zapupe, Estopier, 28326. Tritoma northiae, 28525. Vincent, 28325. tuckii, 28526. Zea mays, 28614, 28615, 28643, 28661. < Tritonia, ‘‘Prometheus, ’”’ 28527. Zephyranthes sulphurea, 28531. Tulip (Turkestan), 28648. Zinziber sp., 28675. Tulipa sp., 28648. Zeiphus jujuba, 28764. 999 ~_=-0 O Ges. DEPARTMENT’ OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 224. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. TIMOTHY RUST IN THE UNITED STATES. BY EDWARD C. JOHNSON, Pathologist in Charge of Cereal Disease Work, Office of Grain Investigations. Issuep Avcusr 4, 1911. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOE, 1911. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY. Assistant Chief of Bureau, WILLIAM A. TAYLOR. Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL. Chief Clerk, JAMES E. JONES. TRAIN INVESTIGATIONS. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. Mark Alfred Carleton, Cerealist in Charge. C. R. Ball, Charles E. Chambless, and H. B. Derr, A gronomists. Edward C. Johnson, Pathologist. H. J.C. Umberger and H. F. Blanchard, Assistant A gronomists. Cecil Salmon, Physiologist. John F. Ross, Farm Superintendent. A. A. Potter, Assistant Pathologist. ¥. L. Adams, Manley Champlin, V. L. Cory, and H. V. Harlan, Scientific Assistants. F.R. Babcock, Assistant. L. C. Burnett, P. V. Cardon, J. Mitchell Jenkins, Clyde E. Leighty, and Clyde MeKee, Agents, 224 2 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL U. S. DeparTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BurEAv OF Piant INDUSTRY, OFrFIcE OF CHIEF OF BUREAU, Washington, D. C., May 26, 1911. Sm: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for publication as Bulletin No. 224 of the series of this Bureau the accom- panying manuscript, entitled ‘‘Timothy Rust in the United States,”’ by Mr. Edward C. Johnson, of the Office of Grain Investigations of this Bureau. Timothy rust, first reported in the United States in 1882, has become an important problem in recent years. In 1906 it was abun- dant in the timothy-breeding plats at the Arlington Experimental Farm, near Washington, D.C. Since then it has become widespread, causing considerable damage in many localities, and its ultimate dis- tribution over all timothy-growing regions where conditions are favor- able to rust development is to be expected. This paper discusses the present known distribution and relationships of the rust of timothy and summarizes previous investigations of this disease in Europe and America. New information on its physiological specialization and methods of winter survival and on the resistance of timothy strains and varieties to rust is also presented. Respectfully, eae M. A. TAYLOR, Acting Chief of Bureau. Hon. JAMEs Winson, Secretary of Agriculture. 224 3) averted % teeresteth ee rere (4201 Fo Vaart rau td aaie i) so wire : eee SEAL: ac icivveta hat, @ Pi Sy re Stats at a Reagyeit Wy. Ler BAe saad mitts ; ineatie ot) dewnih ait Toeanss 7 Bi Pee Ae sift aga Meanie heir lt oct pi teed ) i faentT > belies, Sopra fA biritl aorineeird jie Wi acd Pade Fy ptaradots . 1 =. * ‘ Pry : ft ie i Lb Fee APLOGVT Fete Jute VE = baa t ae Peso hf neahimneg Site: ee” baditscr acts Seb? . ae ainiq. eh ihaeyd—- Qe Set aL Zi i Tid Bale aye tea; 3! AE AS? (Csi VS Dota Sopa tt BR BS iareait z SP Ede" OL! WTS riti Yash fi hat ah Det ie Sega ete a OF er ait aifolnele = ¢ Pi tas - °F, rs His I nee te & ; tate cu heey rifs pec gees 25975. aay! (OL ED T2SvTE SAG Cre aie Ge erate ; Aint jOREA Lice ii © SSP Ly, - ya G) iets; t aitevie VP waiy Pi seas << 90: co bith Bee some 6 4 = " » . } ae rye teed ale 8 bast th Seema VG oho wre ~ CON LE Not. Meamrreniror «1 Ge Tosi Or tMOlly . 2... 2)... -<-.5-52--- 06+ senses ee neeerene scene Pepmmmmnsnemeinitinonity rust. S279 2290. eo) seek ee eee sacle onion ohare ss Relationship and physiological specialization of timothy rust.............--- Acidial stage and nomenclature of timothy rust................-.......----- PmELMe taal On Glo My Push. 22 0. 22s 8 ee oe aaa So ogee oe bn pee © Mae ein puLion Of timothy Trust... ......-5---9.---------<<2%s see > Resiniamceror varictiesot timothy torust.-..2 20-222. 222 fc. lsc es see cmos sas = Smnnemnnnr sce oe StS 2 isa ees LS a a Seta ees Ais. er Page. 7 al a ae . « Je) =, =e , 7 ee v hs i ' - a m . as (ts Li deprad a o rr be bos S ; - riftcena |) ber det eae ‘ eet vel ain)? lyotuibaiey ae haw u u }. ew ihren Sear Vit kate 9p p tionff) tO tee Avert toed B. P. I.—672. TIMOTHY RUST IN THE UNITED STATES. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RUST OF TIMOTHY. Rust of timothy was reported in this country by Trelease as early as 1882.!. Farlow and Seymour, on the basis of this report, mentioned Puccinia graminis on Phleum pratense L. from the United States in their “‘ Host Index of the Fungi of the United States’’ (1888). Rust of timothy was reported as causing considerable damage in the experimental plats at the Iowa experiment station in 1891.2. From 1891 to 1906 the parasite seems to have been little in evidence throughout the country, and the writer has been unable to find any mention of it during those years. In 1906 the rust became epidemic in the experimental plats at the Arlington Experimental Farm. In 1907 it was epidemic at points in New York and Virginia; it was also reported from Delaware, West Virginia, and Ontario, Canada. In 1908 this rust was widespread and caused much damage in New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia; it was also reported from West Virginia, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. In 1909 the rust was common in many of the States mentioned and in addition was reported from Indiana, Kentucky, Iowa, and Maine. In 1910 it was observed in many States from which it had been previously reported, and in considerable quantity in Virginia, New York, Michigan, and Minnesota. In the last State it was collected at both New Richland and Owatonna, and in August was exceedingly abundant in timothy pastures around Crookston. Thus, from being only locally observed in 1906, this rust was widespread in 1909 and 1910, having been reported from Maine to Ontario and northern Minnesota, and south to Towa, Kentucky, and Virginia.’ 1Trelease, William. Parasitic Fungiof Wisconsin. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, 1882, p. 131. A specimen collected in Wisconsin was kindly sent to us for examination by Dr. Trelease from the Missouri Botanical Gardens. It was rather unsatisfactory, as it consisted of only one rusted leaf, and thus may have been inaccurately determined, leaving some doubt as to the authenticity of this early report. . 2 Wilson, J.,Curtis, C. F.,and Kent, D. A. Time of Sowing Grass Seed. Bulletin 15, lowa Agricultural Experiment Station, 1891, pp. 285-286. 3 The writer is indebted to botanists and plant pathologists at the various agricultural experiment sta- tions and to J. J. Davis, M. W. Evans, E. M. Freeman, R. A. Harper, Frank D. Kern, W. J. Morse, C. V. Piper, H. N. Vinall, H. J. Webber, and others who have answered letters of inquiry in regard to the rust on timothy or have given information as to its prevalence in various localities. 224 8 TIMOTHY RUST IN THE UNITED STATES. DESCRIPTION OF TIMOTHY RUST. The timothy rust is very similar in general appearance and mor- phological characteristics to Puccinia graminis Pers. on wheat. It attacks both leaf and stem, forming long, yellowish-brown uredo pustules and dark-brown to black teleuto pustules, which rupture the epidermis. At times it also attacks the head, often preventing the formation of seed. The uredospores are most ae while the teleutospores are less abundant. The uredospores are 18 to 27» in length and 15 to 19y in width; the teleutospores, 38 to 52 » in length and 14 to 16y in width. This is the same range as that of the corresponding spores of Puccinia graminis Pers. on wheat, but the variation is not quite as great as in the wheat rust. The teleutospores are constricted in the middle and have a much thickened, round or pointed apex and pedicels of medium length, and closely resemble those of the typical Puccinia graminis Pers. RELATIONSHIP AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SPECIALIZATION OF TIMOTHY RUST. In 1908 and 1909 inoculation experiments on various grasses were undertaken at Washington, D. C., to determine the relationship of the rust of timothy to rusts of other hosts in this country and to ascertain whether or not it is the same form as that which occurs in Europe. Collections were made at the Arlington Experimental Farm, and fresh material in the uredo stage was kept growing in the greenhouses at Washington, D. C. All inoculations were made on young, fresh leaves of the host plants growing in pots. The plants were kept moist for 48 hours after inoculation by placing the pots in moist chambers consisting of large bell jars placed in pans containing sand and a little water. In this way a thin film of water soon con- densed on the leaves and remained as long as the plants were covered. This gave ideal conditions for spore germination and for infection. The results of these inoculations are reported in Table I. 224 RELATIONSHIP AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SPECIALIZATION. 9 TaBLe I.—Results of experiments in inoculating various grasses with uredospores of rust. | Number of suc- cessful 7" ; F ‘ Number | ne Serial} Date of inocu- ource of inoculating ‘ott F of leaves ase No. tation. eaaterinle Varieties of plants inoculated. Pease caring lated: || -2GRRe; tion pe- | riod of 17 to 21 days. i) Jaa. 25,1908 |’ Phleum pratense... -- 2:2... -. Triticum vulgare............-- 10 0 2) Feb. 3,1908 | Triticum vulgare..........-. Phieum pratense: 22352222 -2 528 25 0 3 | Jan. 25,1908 | Phleum pratense............ Hordeum vulgare....-........ 10 | 0 Ll eee (3S RE ee) ee GO ee oe se esos ee ee Avena sativa...24275:..52422-2 10 6 5 | Feb. 18,1908 |..... (6 ee ae a eee nee GOs as See eae ik es 20 | 11 6| Feb. 3,1908 | Avena sativa........-....... Phleum pratense............-.- 23 0 (ee Gee oe Phieum' pratense. 2.5522 3622 s222 OCR ete SE eae Ser Sh 25 19 8 | Jan. 25,1908 }...-- ole Se eee ee eee eae 2 Secale:cereale... ----.--2 2222. § 1 9} Feb. 18,1908 |...-- 6 one SS ieee Sey RN ee [ee GOs sce esos sede Sea 36 vf 10 | Feb. 7,1908 |...-- Hoke he sess es ee Festuca elatior..............-- 24 | 6 i Keb: 451909" |. 2. Se ee ee Fe CHSE Sat Ass Sees sacle ane 42 | 0 12} Feb. 20,1908 }....- (CES! SS Soe a Gees eee D pete glomerata.....-.....- 22 | 6 13 | Jan. 23,1909 |....-. Oe oe. pasa eee eee SEA eG ate ee eee Swern eee Sb 25 | 1 14| Feb. 4,1909 |..... GOL EE te A) eS ES ah BS Seabee nada mess 16 | 6 LalBeb., 13,1909’ |: .. 2. (ot IE Sas eae fee SE te GORE ae ty ns earn 5a « 59 | 9 16 | Feb. 20,1908 |.---- eee eae ee eee Arrhenatherum elatius......-- 18 0 17 | Jan. 27,1909 |..... / GA eR? "SERS da 8 peed na) ae ak 18 | 6 18 | Feb eo 1909) ))5 40 Ta A LEE 2c Site 9 RB ies De ed 8 1 ER ee (010 EAS ns 8s Se a Sena 3 2 i) | | pceet be AE eae GOs reas seat ae 2 ee eS POs COMPFESSBas 5.)5(- ean 18 6 20 | Feb. a A000. 12 = 22 Goee sh. esate betes bs es oe GOs. .52 esos este 29 7 24 0) aa (Cir ei aa GOS ee cee eer eas Poa pratensis.......---------- 33 0 22 || Feb. 7,1908|....- GOCE aes. Sos Elymus virginicus............ 60 0 23} Jan. 27,1909 |..... (3 (oe ee Be ee ee sere Hao GO ae eee a cee ae 33 0 24| Feb. 4,1909 |..... VERSE Se Sa eee hl Eee GO), Sees se tee hese ees 10 0 25 | Jan. 23,1909 |..... WOcre aan. ee ae ee es canadensis........-.-. 25 0 26 | Feb. 8,1909 |..... OTE Rao ken eee dO eee sre oe Boe BO 9 0 we Mare 94,1908. |- Titi wr } SG irvTe *" iat od ia ne GTatastal ia icy Tracer coe inasie sito) banter eae ae 5 j " a m ye 4 * : i la Teen ot. a site ' hel taift was fe Bil uly ehie thou yon ihrag? ye fidade Hifi rine Petal. Mish “je 5 09 Ys eves? Ani eibrnd 16h at Liye a ot reel Ciibyseneit aC in gs : on ‘et a oe i ee ete a: if iy WACa SEHe aot ae EP a faye 1; y ; ‘ * i tePrtcl geese ' . Jert'o(2 te ae 7 te SGudimieth hig wit 4 fe aeeks tere vcinhah t +' iBeetilt + atid i. inte h ida besiiie of soyk4 Bde Reha AY ot yn Boe sie bias HED PS a K fon aaitbacte ete oF Fv beet cre mia aide eee ee lo enelrieetter odio Stan ; P4y 7 Paiet. a a tw IS lhorci4 ef sagas eae ‘ni ier) dar one saat al me titty’ th tele ee of ton ye > ee ich Patrice oc ES he ahi ny 8 Es INDEX. Page mexopyron occidentale, host of timothy rust... ..-..- -.2-..-2.2000csseee--~--- 9 Beretta HOS OF moth y TUSt_...- 5-22... ae sews oa eben seests cases e 9 Bereenameriim clatius, host of timothy rust.......-.....-.2..s-.+--e6+.----- 9, 10 MURR Oi CE HEIMNOR NY PUB oc c.0e 3 oe a vo Haye a5) cin acinomae sh os oie a = = 9,10 Barberry, attempts at inoculation with timothy rust............... 10-11, 12, 16-17 Berberis vulgaris. See Barberry. Birds, agency in the dissemination of rust spores -.....-......--------------- 13,17 Breeding, rust-resistant varieties, methods.......- BSE OS RE RR ET a 14-17 Promusnmuoloides: hostof timothy 1st. ~.2...255 2/eon5 see 9 Seymour, A. B., and Farlow, W. G., on the rust of timothy...............--. 7 Summary of bullet. =~... 2.22. t oe ee = cae an cee - op ne ee 16-17 Timothy, unaffected by barberry rust. -.-...-.:.-.-:---------.+<-=-s-ese0enee 10 varieties; resistance to rust.....2.-.-.------- +9 --<-25++-+5 35 14-16 See Rust, timothy. Trelease, William, on the rust of timothy.....-......-.----<<4--555--5 =e 7 Triticum vulgare, host of timothy rust.............--..-. -----+<55- 55) 9,10 Uredo graminis, comparison with timothy rust ............-...--------.----- 11 Uredospores, measurements of timothy rust.....-..-.---- «<0... ------«--ageee 8 Wilson, J., Curtis, €. F., and Kent, D. A., on the occurrence of timothy rust. . i Wind, agency in the dissemination of rust spores..........--..-.------------ 13, 17 224 O Bas. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 225. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. \ A SPOT DISEASE OF CAULIFLOWER. BY LUCIA McCULLOCH, Scientific Assistant, Laboratory of Plant Pathology. Issurep AvaGust 29, 1911. Nin WI x Ni SO Sos WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1911, 225 BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY. Assistant Chief of Bureau, WILLIAM A. TAYLOR. Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL. Chief Clerk, JAMES E. JONEs. LABORATORY OF PLANT PATHOLOGY. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. Erwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge. R. E. B. McKenney, Special Agent. Florence Hedges, Assistant Pathologist. A. W. Giampietro, Assistant Physiologist. Nellie A. Brown, Lucia McCulloch, and Mary Katherine Bryan, Scientific Assistants. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BuREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., May 31, 1911. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled “A Spot Disease of Cauliflower,’ by Miss Lucia McCulloch, scientific assistant in the Laboratory of Plant Pathology, and recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 225 of the series of this bureau. This paper deals with a disease which is shown to be of bacterial origin and which has not been reported hitherto. The investigations of this disease have been carried out according to the advice and suggestions of Dr. Erwin F. Smith. Respectfully, Wm. A. TAyLor, Acting Chief of Bureau. Hon. JAMEs WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. 225 ware’) sar wo Bree) Goubfitidy jorcecinee + fipviad Junenalt of Ton aidta MELNING uM? Slick FCA TS tel OVP ately enti le a tleyhe bite s ee TECTIME7 ARE WO MEETS ; nner suo uceo baie yragtard bk FED ere ee THe oN Aas iO aia Oy eignrdanh ve > 7 ‘ : 1 (WA aio ore ors wollen) ae a ee 2 it ety hte Srnofeioot. lial T Ve vieiendael ae fait to esttad ud? to, BUS OV) cet id dewosle =f dhody oceonth a ire Bie ¥ j { a rreadill fewhoont 69d Ton ence w ior. \geana. Ct To OR er uP Oe: Rai: } > QAR ; P i S) notes ating) hor Qi’ CONTENTS. IIIT eines 9 tr Faia Si ee NOL ae re ee ee ee MIN scr eS eS arc ators Se Pee wie wc [Suda Wed Dan ERO ee = Description of the cauliflower leaf-spot organism............2...2.22.0....05- i mMMAMaTR ee eres ce ye ee eee th tte a tank a tans fot. al aS eS : C1 TE SECS 8 ORs ap 4 ee es 2 ep EN a Aa eS Ak 0 ROSS bs en eA TE a Pee a eR one ie I Rem ee ele fae ne Ae ea a are EMER MER eS eee ttn tare ose a da aa toe Hed) Ae seta ee ae LOSI? [Suey ov Sk aM pA An eS Si 3 eI enh J tk A On a ie Wg Sore , RIPE OOONRCRIIN G2 acres tee ocr ae ete es en UMC See |S EEUU RT ce ea ca en iat Lie I Adenia na in Geeta di) od Ry dl Leh TELE (of) 2 REA es ai pe ai ee Re Ras 2) ee Penge ee yay pee tira 2 TET. TET et eS Mam a ase me pce rs ie Nak Pe ede ala hs an nfs a wa Oo Pur OS sy Naat Et) igang ie aie tet pe sepia hate = agai hale Peer bies etalon eae aan ENB ener T Le pSEIstl CHAO ty ors sae 8 see yi So ea SER Aon ee oes LP STS TLD TTOTD THM OPS ee COSTER ICR tees ae ea Set ee ye wy Se Seeder OTORUGCHOM. 5.0 Je detec ee oe oe ste pea asa ae Pere sears yo Sah a eb i ete hd SW Ee a Be ee ae 2 ESSE TUS 0 |S I On I ga ene enHre KEIAINONE 6.3.40 50... «PLE eee ae ot Se gu eae (7 TL Sy PRE TTS 077) 1 aR PR i a eR pe RSL URN ERI) "EY Ce Ry et ad eae ea ge BRMRETITEEE CORUOCTAUUDG 520d 2 S82 ange SL. Cale Jt en capi ee et yo MMEMPPILIM@TDERAPITO! |. vols c< 3 anus sees yee eee ene Hae eens 7 SD 107 ene ead a ee SECS USED Ra egg” 2M AS Ae ee ee a Stee ee i ey SINTON 0 ook Lo 82'S fase Ya rele ene ae die pees wns Ou eG rs [Ee RT a 1 Name of organism........ Site Gye ace ae aes ital on og | a UR A La Sn ee eas 2 SU ee ee er ESE on 0 Ee ee ee 225 ILLUSTRATIONS. PuaTe I. Upper surfaces of cauliflower leaves, showing natural infection with agi Bacterium maculicolum........2.....-+--+--- a et ae 9 eh SS bo bo bo bo bo bh bo bo dS tv ow oo Pow OTIS OOF R&D LO ee) eo 6 CONTENTS. Diseases of truck crops—Continued. ae) Diseases of wild and cultivated grasses. ...-..--5.2---------. o-oo Bermuda, grass. ..:-cs.2--------~< 55+ soe. Lemeeet eee GUAM OTARS ee ewe =o es einin o a eee eee ee ee Johnson grass Jungle rice. - Panicum. ..-- Silver beard-prass.. .2 5-2 - <=. -. ...2< 2.226 ao2ee eee oe ce ee eee eee Althseas--oo- Black haw. -- Black locust. Box elder.... Buckeye....- Bumelia.....- Buttonbtish. 2... ee se cee oo ee pee bee eee eee bere Pee eee Cottonwood.. Crape myrtle 226 CONTENTS. 7 Diseases of trees and shrubs—Continued. : Page. PRRMMEID eps Bar eS Keen rere temper oer eee ecceh See OoEe 65 eNO A Sse cheese pa hf oer orcas eee ened aacavesl Se mp ree BED 65 PON of ESE eet meee psee Mae eae eb eas 5 pec eee 65 eM eA oe oor s foP et be ota ds Lobes cece ay ae epee tee 67 REM Renee oh Sie re eines Cor tent rare hen ese danuee asia eee 68 Hackberry. ..26. 2. 250cc. 52 Pech Cee a oA betes et ed ee Oe ee 69 i MINER ae She see Sa get Atte ted Paes eee a er ce CREE ES 69 ETD TED S - erS aE Co eT IR eR hee SERENE EERE 70 aE St ort BEE Oo are Sew amiss 2s ae e eS Bees 7 RRP 52h A la ee epee peer face Ae ye Ee 70 NRT es nS rE ey phe een be CHK ee Aa 50 ney 71 2 TIED ALS Sag Rae eee eT en ne RRR 71 EI tN 5 2 fC NEP AA eed ooo 2G SE 71 LLL TS a Eee bee BE ata Oe ee loys ae 72 NNR 2 ae ee ee A eee ne Se cinek aeie cece 2 a 73 ET Rs P og ey de gna ae eee ee mis ae 4s + SR 74 i te a ei SR ee as ae nets 75 (PSL) LSD a eA eee eles ne oe ee ee = ee IRN oS, 2 75 Sees RO ES eons yy Ae os os ns PO 75 DTD) D0 aN, - _ Rm ee an, See ere TS Cee 2 76 Oo UD LER S ee pn ee CM TATE ae) et 76 IN AAR a A ce ens efea ck iA IS eee ed a 77 SR net ee 2 a ei BE an Sd el Oe so eer ae 1 eM eae oa iis 8 fg A ee oS os Doh 7 emt hee TT IRAE REMI SE on! 5 oe Sci Hes ms 3 mat, SS Soa aa ke a ee ee 78 rae re eg ies Ry 8 ee ohn es ee 78 PRRMM PRU DEGSS "2-25 2/8 Bribe §is) Ue See bo ee Nea 2 78 SOUS TSTTVTS 2 Ss ee ee Ne es, See eee A wee DLL 78 PUUMPRIRETIE EATEN 2 ee ee SoS 5, ects 9s eA RS a a Seas SE 79 DEE ELST ene ee 2 Se OES repr cy Sc ae reese a 79 SMEMITEI DE HCLEC DOA Mss 5 teas $4 eas ass Ln SR 79 “ULD UH eS A ee ae mn a ee eee ee 80 inabneWarchinattees eae Se) ee ey ps ea ES 2 Se 80 I URRREMGTIOR SOF ce) eo a Neg ly 9 yh aaa 2 DEE eo 80 (03 TE ee ee nce eee eee eee 81 SLR ERAS SCS te soho pts ESS oa a es Sf tie mya wed ee ge BEE SE ee 81 ER en pte Es US Wa ee ON siatha SS oS 9 82 MR UERRI Se es x oe de ss hs SALE ia a SORE Ls Soe See 82 DRMUERETMCOEUATICHEAL DIAIDS oo. 5 cans «ts olen ol hep 4 Pow syns na SAREE Be 82 Es lishiani egy 00) Cee aan ME Se ge eee ae a ee ee mer TS 6/5 Sgt 82 RRC OTAT SUN eee oe hs RSA oy ie ke, eee AGN ehh a5 oe 1a SCE a 82 ME RGRA RR eee ee oe Rk aa fe os wea e/a SRE Ee 2 ed Sorin emis ee meee 86 POU YROCR sas asa tens eos on SR hon owe = 0 a eee 86 LT ee ey ee rege Se i= fs ol Me ye 86 May-applesc< sos cenen ssn ceca ere RRR REES «aaa > ss ne hoe = epee een 87 Mexican bluebell. -2....0c 5: -< ccc uo See es Se oe ee ene ee 87 Periwinkle ene ccc ede ix « DEI se RPI IO ee ae ee ea 87 IROSGi. cow dic cis bie e ce wares been ORT OES oe Se ee a 88 NBR AIRE OU DEO os cates ave beh bee (On eeee seedy een -<) oe 88 Sweab alyssuM.. 2555 cei esos Se eek ewes pee cel ee ee 89 DWORh DOS. -o. cs nsceice pec eee nee hen ce eee ac oe k ai main ae 89 WO LGB cdc ce wots Ure, oie Recie reterre re cece gee 89 PA STNTUN A so te perra ore rere ratte me etc So RNS wR AE OE RO eae er eee ee 89 Diseases of wild planta . <<. 2.- oe ens winnie coast ene sreweeee eee sen 90 ATTO Wr Gdln.-< cmos ter eu t coup bnew bone k PSE E Se oe cane eee 90 Bluebonnets:2%. oan onc Conc oe a beam tee Kseone hee lee ee 90 Blu Chea sere CSc ee ok. Sem ceased Soon EOE ORE ee Ree eee 90 IBoerhawias ouishe cee ox bene ot che tec nwns Gein Oe ee 90 Broom Wee sos set Boe Ec a as cles ces ao ee eee 91 Bullsnettlevseesaceecd schist den cc ae ea ae hie we eee 91 Carolina: Glovers asses os sncccenc cc cece eet ee eee 91 Ofo'ol dl (2) cy hee = ae er re etree ee N Se 8 91 Gonwol vhs 25 52 oe mace sso Sie repzis orrn rape oe ee eee 92 Goral bead: = 5p eype ccf toerce ee e 92 Orane’s-bill <2. a4 noncee-s ee nals soe eS eee 92 GrOtOn wis. Sos asiee oa ee eis She Oe eee 93 Growabeard) = =. -d55 crshscc cos oateg de eee ae eee 93 DayAOWer 2s o aes sid = sis ee a er 94 Dok op ona. eo esi eB ee ie See ee 94 Evening primrose... =<. =... 52.2055 tiesee esse 552 745 94 Buphorbia. o... 2 anys soe ns oe sine ae aa eee 94 alse:dandelioncaz...cccoce.. Saccacosrns sages oc a onlae eee 94 WMireweed <2 ove nc khedee coe sae tine cent en geciec aoe ere 94 Hleabane w205~ 2sscsgeecesu oto sions adawace mince ee eee eee 95 Galan d.. cies ocureoe eo toa aed Soh. ee 95 Giant ragweed - .....5< 2. 2.25-24 525245520525 Ses5seees5e5e Lee 95 Goldeurad ho ges poee So ee ona cuand Saws daeuee eee 95 Ground-cherry..«...... a80.0 G24 22 dac = eee knees see ee 96 Horse nettle... - jasniesinienie oan ace 545 a 96 Hydrocotyle oe. 32426 sa eg ee eee 96 Indian mallow <2... 245-4 <= 2 so. c sons 5 geese ag eee 96 Indiso plant... 229 22... Ses... ~ 52 ae sens see eee 97 Knotweed . -:s-2c22a252sc.-des as cae ce eee ee ee 97 Mallow: «2 2-%.;...cice Hise cee < s-seb neti 97 Mint~.~ 2.5.20 sconce ee s+ ooo ee 2 ee ee ee 98 Momine-olary... 5c sadgs ie. < ~~) <0 <2 <> See XV. Fig. 1.—Leaf of the Japanese privet affected with leaf-spot due to Cercospora ligustri. Fig. 2.—Small branch of mesquite, showing three galls of possible bacterial origin. Fig. 3.—A single large gall on. a small branch of mesquite...........-.5.-.--->-<.ce20eeeeeee XVI. Fig. 1.—Portion of leaf of century plant affected with blight due to Stagonospora gigantea. Fig. 2.—Margin of same leaf slightly enlarged, showing the distribution of pyenidia...................- XVII. Fig. 1.—Leaves of geranium affected with bacterial blight. Fig. 2.—Leaf of begonia affected with bacterial blight. . brs XVIII. Fig. 1.—Leaf of wild morning-glory attacked by Mico ipomoeae: panduranae. Fig. 2.—Small branch of mountain cedar, showing the gelatinous sori of Gymnosporangium exiguum. Fig. 3.—Leaf-curl of trompille due to nematodes: .... . 22-2: + =<-+«24-seeeneeee eee XIX. Fig. 1.—Leaflet of the wild China tree affected with Cylindrosporium griseum. Fig. 2.—Buds of yucca blighted by Cercospora floricola. Fig. 3.—Inflorescence of yucca blighted by Cercospora floricola. TEXT FIGURES. Fig. 1. Map of a part of the State of Texas, showing the territory covered and places visited in connection with the plant-disease survey.........- 2. Map of that part of the State of Texas presented in figure 1, showing the rainfall for 1909. . 22... +.22-4 + -- ase beengs oe ee oe 226 Page. 112 112 112 112 112 112 112 112 B: P. I.—685. A PLANT-DISEASE SURVEY IN THE VICINITY OF SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS. INTRODUCTION. During the summer and fall of 1909 and the winter and spring of 1910 a plant-disease survey was made of a portion of Texas in the vicinity of San Antonio. The object of this work was to determine the diseases which were prevalent with a view to a later and more detailed investigation of those which are either new or imperfectly known. The emphasis has been placed upon the diseases of plants due to bacteria, fungi, or other parasites, but environmental factors have not been overlooked. The field is an exceedingly fruitful one, since but little has been published concerning the parasitic fungi or plant diseases of this part of the country. Besides the report of Jennings (34), issued some years ago, and a short list by Cooke (9), but few scattered records of Texas fungi exist. It will not be surprising, then, if a detailed examination of a restricted area should show many new and interesting forms. The work outlined in this report was carried out by the writers, with headquarters at the University of Texas. Acknowledgment is here made of the helpful suggestions of Mr. W. A. Orton. Mrs. F. W. Patterson, and Miss E. C. Field, of the Department, have very kindly assisted in working over the doubtful specimens and in the determination of most species which appeared to be new, with the exception of the Uredinales, which were submitted to Mr. F. D. Kern, Lafayette, Ind. Several specimens were also referred to Prof. C. H. Peck, Albany, N. Y. In addition, the senior writer visited the herbaria at Washington and the New York Botanical Garden in order to compare our material with their collections which are rich in type specimens. Specimens have been deposited in the herbarium of the University of Texas, at Austin, while duplicates, including type specimens, 1The serial numbers in parentheses used in this bulletin refer to the index to literature, pp. 107-108. 226 11 12 A PLANT-DISEASE SURVEY IN TEXAS. have been placed in the herbarium of pathological collections, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C. New species have been de- scribed as such in different numbers of Mycologia. TERRITORY COVERED BY THE SURVEY. The territory covered by this survey is included within a circle having a radius of 100 miles from San Antonio. One trip was made to the south of this region, and collections were made at Falfurrias and Alice, outside of the territory described. The accompanying map (fig. 1) shows the territory studied, and all of the points at which collections were made are indicated by name and solid black circle. It will be observed that more attention was paid to the eastern and southeastern portions of the territory than elsewhere. The explanation for this will be evident by reference to the discus- sion of crops, native vegetation, and topography of the region. PHYSIOGRAPHY AND SOILS. The region studied occupies the coastal plain of Texas in the south- and east and extends into the Edwards Plateau and Llano country im the northwest. It is traversed diagonally, beginning in the northern part, by the Colorado, Guadalupe, San Antonio, Medina, Frio, and Nueces Rivers, most of which rise in the edge of the Edwards Plateau and cross the coastal plain to the gulf. A gradual rise characterizes the elevation from the low coastal prairie in the south- east to the rough mountain country of the Edwards Plateau in the northwest. Table I shows the elevations for different stations. TABLE I.—E#levation for principal stations. Less than 250 feet. 250 to 500 feet. 500 to 1,000 feet. Over 1,000 feet. Beeville, 225. Flatonia, 465. Austin, 593. Blanco, 1,350. Cuero, 177. | Gonzales, 299. | Georgetown, 750. | Boerne, 1,412. Hallettsville, 235. Luling, 418. Hondo, 901. Fredericksburg, 1,742. Victoria, 187. | Runge, 308. New Braunfels, 720. Kerrville, 1,650. Sabinal, 964. | Llano, 1,040. San Antonio, 701. San Marcos, 588. Uvalde, 937. The region under consideration includes part of the three units of the coastal plain. In the extreme southeastern portion, in Victoria, Goliad, and Bee Counties, may be found the interior border of the coast prairie region, which is flat, low lying, and generally treeless, with the exception of the river valleys. In parts of this area the 226 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND SOILS. 13 mesquite and other timber is encroaching upon the prairies where its natural spread is not held in check by agricultural development. << /Georgetona, RAV 19 Mage ~-¥ , Austin . flatonia ok Halle (| LAMV\A Sere Gontalee B } ONZAS wi SanAntonio ,f W--t"? ’ s . s o" Seock £ aN x +~. Floragvilte pes A WLS OW- LET \ z Sena RACOBA \ re ef Psseae sane 1G. ee ee 1.—Map of a part of the State of Texas, showing the territory covered and places visited in connection with the plant-disease survey. , The prevailing soils in this area except in the bottom lands are stiff, waxy clays, generally with an impervious clay subsoil, and 226 14 A PLANT-DISEASE SURVEY IN TEXAS. ranging in color from black to chocolate. They are of residual origin. The coast prairie region is succeeded by the Tertiary forested area, which extends from Bastrop County in the northeast to the south- west. It includes a considerable part of the post-oak lands of the lignitic belt. The region is much more hilly than the coast prairies, and the rise in elevation is gradual. The southern portion is level or only slightly rolling and less forested than the more hilly northern part. The soils in this area are mainly residual, varying according to the character of the underlying formation. In various localities may be found sands and sandy loams well adapted to truck crops, as in portions of Bastrop, Caldwell, Gonzales, and Wilson Counties. Clays and clay loams may also be found, while rich alluvial soils occur along the river valleys. A narrow extension of the rich Cretaceous prairies of northern Texas extends southward through Williamson, eastern Travis, Hays, Comal, and Bexar Counties. The typical soil is black and waxy, derived from the underlying Cretaceous chalks, clays, and marls. The land is exceedingly fertile and produces good yields of cotton and corn when there is sufficient rainfall. The region investigated includes a small part of the Llano country, in the northwest along the Colorado and Llano Rivers and north of the Edwards Plateau. The region is rough and hilly, with low mountains, the elevations ranging from 1,000 to 1,800 feet. The underlying rocks are largely granite. In many places they are sparsely covered with soil, but the valleys in many localities have fertile soils suitable for the culture of a variety of crops. The northwestern portion of the region south of the Llano country is occupied by the southern extension of the Edwards Plateau. The region extends west and northwest from the Balcones escarpment, a line of cliffs or hills which terminate abruptly just west and north of a line connecting Austin, San Antonio, and Uvalde. In contrast to the Llano country, the region is essentially a limestone country and is rough and rugged, being cut by the rivers which have their source in this region. The rivers which cross the area under investi- gation either originate in the Edwards Plateau or rise at the base of the escarpment. The Edwards Plateau is poorly adapted to agri- culture, since it is a rugged, hilly country, with scant soil in many places and a rainfall which ranges from 20 to 25 inches. 226 CLIMATOLOGY—RAINFALL. 15 CLIMATOLOGY. RAINFALL. The rainfall of the territory under investigation decreases pro- gressively from the eastern border to the northwest and southwest, reaching the lowest limit in the southwest. The average annual rainfall in Lavaca County in the extreme eastern portion of the sec- tion is more than 30 inches, while at Llano, in the low mountain country in the northwest, the average annual rainfall is only about 22 inches. In the extreme southwestern portion some localities report as low an average as 20 inches or somewhat less. TABLE I1.—Annual precipitation for 1909 in the region of San Antonio, Tex. | | Total | Departure Total | Departure Stations. precipi- from | Stations. | precipi- rom tation. normal. | tation. normal. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. LST SUES -) See SOE eee eg 20. 57 =13.78"|| Kerrville: 25222252 -25--e 2! 26. 02 — 3.83 IRD ee See ne 30. 81 25) || wuling 2: >--£ 2.5 saeeeeee oe. = 21. 26 — 7.93 DISTCh A ae oe eee ee 24.13 = Siok le MarbleWalls: <2 52250... DALEY | ee ee oe IIBEINe Eee ese a a2cs 2 - 25. 76 — 6.11 |} New Braunfels........-..-.- 19. 66 —10. 45 (CHOOT 36402 CeeneL eee 23. 43 —10566))|| Rossvaller 30555 si 22 eee ae 16508| 325420 Cte a | 2042 NF soo os = =~ Runge. 2 3.4.22. faseee 18.94 —11.29 WIEOHI t=. 005. 2.520. - |S OSRADE Dees Ss eee Sapinaties 2. 253°. Fo fee TONS tyes eS 2 Fredericksburg... ..-.------- 21.86 — 6.52 || San Antonio.....-...-...--- 14, 92 —11.91 Georpetowlls. ...-2=-------- 19. 68 =1'5..79)|| San Marcos>s22 32525-2222: 29. 81 — 1.51 (7 ee eee NTRS enon Sncece (Ravloreseasee ae anee aac | 20.72 —14.75 Haitetisville....25- 2.5... ==. 31.93 =. 122: wUivaldess 2-2. <5 St ee IRR IB eas en ee es oth ee 17. 54 == 10 530}! VaACLOUIAS. ~ p 22 ones = 33. 58 — 2.96 Table If shows that the total rainfall for the year varied from 14.92 inches at San Antonio to 33.58 inches at Victoria. AI! stations except Beeville show less rainfall than normal, the departure varying from about 4 to 15 inches in the greater portion of the territory. For the year 1909 only a narrow strip of territory about 25 miles in width, occupying the extreme southeastern portion, had a rainfall slightly over 30 inches. (See fig. 2.) The greater part of the terri- tory north of Bexar County had a rainfall of 20 to 30 inches, while a strip 25 or 30 miles wide lying just west of the more humid south- eastern portion had a rainfall similar to the northern half. In asmall area at the extreme north in Williamson County the rainfall was only 10 to 20 inches. The extreme west and the entire southwest had a rainfall of 10 to 20 inches with the exception of a small part of Zavalla and Dimmit Counties, where it dropped to less than 10 inches. From the above it may be seen that about one-half of the entire area had a total annual precipitation ranging from 10 to 20 inches, 226 16 A PLANT-DISEASE SURVEY IN TEXAS. TEMPERATURE. Table ITI shows an average mean temperature for the year ranging from 66.1° in the low mountain country of the Edwards Plateau to 72° in the southern portion. epseepeewe wei ee access neers : iss Austin . f ‘\ A KENDALL, aoe HAYS %. . me an Marege oro¢ meesedenen at CALDWELL +” wr ar - ee Gpernee’ y > L Tr meets ewe sce ectn eg s ‘ ZAPATA Fic. 2.—Map of that part of the State of Texas presented in figure 1, showing the rain- fall for 1909. CLIMATOLOGY—EVAPORATION. A Taste IlI.—Mazrimum, minimum, and mean temperatures for 1909 in the region of San Antonio, Tex. Maximum. Minimum. Station. i Tem- Tem- | Mean Date pera- Date pera- ture. ture Soe me ore JA TS ytd Jan eee ae eC O Seen REO ESSE a Se aera Aug. 19 102] Jan. 11 19 67.9 Ga ules sence ne oe oo ii seed ct ce ss eh eS ne eee #200222. 106))222d02~--'4 23 72.0 ESIC Renee ers Othe ees ee oe Eases aie Aug. 18 107 | Jan. 12 14 66.1 TRS EEN en aca neti noe emiae onic heme cecies Aug. 19 109 | Feb. 16 14 67.5 USGI A eas =e eas Ae enn eos Sema Seine Aug. 20 109 | Jan. 12 21 71. 2 NO EEE Tee ee fae cers cicraie ein oc sins Gee ae eats Aug. 18 107 | Feb. 16 23 74.1 Hol EOE ar sec Sac uss ck we ke Soe Be sae ac BS eee Sere 107 | Jan. 12 18 70. 5 RUNRIEONU RS PTE R eee onal ec miacie ee nr ree tec emeeene BeedOsess 104 |...do..... 11 66.8 GOUIP DIO WM ae eee = aS aaa swe awed cecien se cicinciewe ae maaeas ae Oto s Ds eens =e 16 67.4 Tet? TAL: eae eae ee eee SAP Se Gere Sy as eC Aug. 20 104 | Jan. 11 20 71.0 PIGHHOM Res ae me. ater oe tein oecok se tastieaen ssa ebay Aug. 18 LOSiscoteose uote seca mecee as SORT Geer eo ors cee = cma e qactrs seems salaeninae cise Aug. 19 105 | Feb. 16 11 66. 6 apm A02 LA iD tt yo Ae ke Aug. 18| 105 {7a 33 |} 19 | 69.5 Wibyy LARSEN GES. 5 aguas ee ee Caan eee eS > AER Se ee te Aug. 19 105 | Jan. 12 19 69.5 LAPSE Gh. 2.568668 Geese Bae nannine REPEE ae sea Sects ae SL dOea es 108 pee: e 20 72. 1 . an. 1 $i eememenn ste ee FIT AP PMY, TUE tie! Aug. 4| 110 {fer iit at} 72.0 Sic Aarti 552 22.5 aaa aes © Se ee ee ee ee AP Aug. 20 107 | Jan. 12 20 70. 3 CUNT RROM ce var OR a ans Sales Aug. 18] 105 (ioe. ib \ 19| 68.4 TS AGR 52 550 eae ee eS ne A 8 =-d0=- 109 | Jan. 12 15 68.0 ‘ Jan. 13 - Cy fe: UE Fe ee ee ee do 110 {Fep. 3 \ 2 aad VOMMyat 2 <1, ob Boe Se ee cee Bese eee ee do 101 | Feb. 15 22 71.0 The month of August was marked by excessive heat, some localities showing a temperature as high as 110° to 112° F. The continuance of the high temperature for several days following or subsequent to the maximum recorded was general for the entire territory. The con- tinued high temperatures and the lack of the customary amount of rainfall caused a very considerable decrease in crop yields. Through- out the area cotton did not make half a crop, many fields of corn were a total failure, and other vegetation suffered in a corresponding degree. EVAPORATION. The relative total evaporation for the vicinity of San Antonio is high, with a rate between that of a desert center and a deciduous forest. Table IV shows the average daily evaporation in inches for the year 1909, and the first three months in 1910, at the San Antonio Experi- ment Farm. The data were obtained from Mr. C. 8S. Scofield, who recorded the daily evaporation from an open-air tank. 100833°—Bull. 226—12 2 18 A PLANT-DISEASE SURVEY IN TEXAS. TaBLe IV.—Average daily evaporation at San Antonio Experiment Farm, | Evapora- Month. “ten Average for— Month. or ald Average for— 1909. | Inch. 1909. Inch. January...2s--- 0.103 | Entire month. October. ........ 0.182 | Entire month. February......- - 149 Do. | November..... 127 Do. March..........| - 188 Do. December...... - 092 Do. 0} eit Ga espero - 235 | 26 days.1 May. : . 237 | Entire month. 1910. Une: SF re. <\se . 331 | First 27 days. January... -. -090 | First 24 days. 5 Se ee .357 | Last 25 days. | February. ..... - 1038 | Last 26 days. August: >..--.-- 274 | First 30 days. |) Maren! oe. .0 -191 | Entire month. September. .... - 241 | Entire month. : 1 No records for Apr. 17, 18, 19, 20. CROPS AND NATIVE VEGETATION. The climatological character of the San Antonio area excludes cer- tain crops which are extensively grown in more northern localities and in regions of greater rainfall, but makes possible the culture of some crops which are characteristic of semitropic conditions. FRUITS. Apple orchards conducted on a commercial scale are excluded. In a few localities small numbers of trees are to be found in family orchards which generally appear to be seriously affected with black- rot. In the sheltered valleys in the low mountain country to the northwest the most favorable conditions for the growth of apples are found. Several nurseries in the territory grow large quantities of apple stock for shipment to old Mexico, Arizona, and the Pecos coun- try in Texas. The young trees in the nursery were unusually exempt from diseases. Pears are more successfully grown than apples, but commercial orchards are rare. Most of the small pear orchards have been very seriously neglected, and it is not surprising to find them affected with such diseases as black-rot and bitter-rot. With proper care and culti- vation pears could be more extensively grown, since they are much freer from fire-blight than in the more humid coast country. Peaches are common in the eastern half of the territory and are grown to some extent in the sheltered valleys to the west and north- west. The crop for 1909, however, was a complete failure, owing to the severe freezes of the previous winter. The sudden drops in tem- perature following warm periods which had started vegetative ac- tivity killed many peach trees. This condition will explain the rarity of such diseases as brown-rot and peach freckle (Cladosporium carpophilum), which are very abundant when there is an average crop. The entire absence of the peach leaf-curl which is so common farther north may be noted. Present records give only a single 226 CROPS AND NATIVE VEGETATION. 19 instance of this disease in Texas, and that from the northern part of the State (34). The die-back appears to be the most serious disease. Apricots are grown to some extent where peaches are found, but are rather rare. Plums are not uncommon, but they are grown less than peaches. The crop for 1909 was a failure, and this will explain why the common brown-rot is not reported. The failure of the crop is not, however, the explanation for the absence of “ plum pockets,” since this disease appears to be absent during normal seasons. Black- knot was not found in any of the localities visited, either on wild or cultivated species. No cherries are grown in this territory, and apparently the only portions of the State where they can be successfully grown are the Panhandle country, the Llano Estacado, and portions of the Red River Valley. Persimmons are not uncommon, especially in the eastern half of the territory. The various Japanese varieties do well, but the lim- ited demand has prevented their extensive planting. Figs are grown throughout the easterp and more humid portion of the region, although more favorable conditions are found in the humid coast country extending from Beaumont to Brownsville. In many local- ities visited the fig trees were killed back to the ground by the severe winter, but they generally sprouted up again from the roots. Most of the trees which were not killed failed to produce fruit on account of the abnormally dry season. In many places the half-ripened fruit dried up on the tree. For this reason no information is at hand concerning the prevalence of fig diseases which attack the fruit. Citrus fruits are grown to a limited extent in the extreme south- eastern portion, in Victoria and Bee Counties, while some nurseries farther north are growing large quantities of Citrus trifoliata stock which is used for the propagation of the Satsuma orange, the variety most commonly grown. Most of the plantings of citrus varieties are only a few years old (33). The date palm is planted to some extent in the citrus-fruit territory, but none of the trees are more than a few years old. Grapes are quite generally grown throughout most of the territory, and adapted varieties do well when properly cared for. The black- rot is generally prevalent and is apparently responsible for many of the failures which are attributed to drought. Strawberries can be grown in most of the region in sufficient quantity for home con- sumption, but the main strawberry region lies to the east in the more humid section. In much of the drier portion of this area the plants die out during the long dry period of the summer unless specially protected or grown under irrigation. Blackberries are grown to some extent, but they are relatively rare as compared with dew- berries, which are extensively grown throughout the entire area. 226 90) A PLANT-DISEASE SURVEY IN TEXAS. Raspberries, currants, and gooseberries are practically unknown in any part of the area studied. The pecan is a common nut crop in favorable localities. It is native throughout the area, and many large trees may be found along the fertile valleys of the Llano, Colorado, Guadalupe, and Nueces Rivers. Most of the crop is obtained from the natural growth, but some groves have been planted along the river valleys where the rich, deep soil is adapted to their growth. TRUCK CROPS. The main truck-growing section of the State les farther to the east, in Smith, Cherokee, Anderson, Henderson, Rusk, and Angeline Counties, or in the Brownsville district to the south, but nearly all kinds of truck crops are grown to some extent throughout the ter- ritory. In nearly all of the localities west of the ninety-eighth meridian truck crops grown without irrigation are uncertain, and most of the localities in the western half of the region do not supply even a sufficient quantity for home consumption. The principal truck crops which are grown extensively for ship- ment to northern markets are potatoes, watermelons, and onions. La Salle County produces large quantities of onions, but Webb County, just to the south and beyond the limits of our area, has a much larger acreage. Watermelons are grown commercially in the sandy soils of Bastrop County and in smaller quantities in many other sections. Most of the home gardens have an abundance of okra and peppers and other common vegetables, such as peas, beans, lettuce, radishes, and eggplants. The Kentucky Wonder bean is grown more extensively than any of the wax-podded varieties, and the black-eyed pea (Vigna unguiculata) is common in the vegetable garden, being frequently substituted for the less hardy Phaseolus varieties. Cabbage and spinach are grown on a commercial scale in several localities from Austin southward. Spinach is marketed throughout the entire winter even as far north as Austin. The tomato is a common crop in all of the irrigated sections, but produced a light yield during 1909 on account of the excessive heat in the early part of the season, followed by a long period of drought. The greater number of the irrigated truck patches suffered heavy losses from nematodes, and tomatoes were more seriously affected than any other crop. Cucumbers and squashes are quite generally grown, the main varieties of squash being the cushaw and the small bush varieties (cymlings). Asparagus is rare, the only large field ob- served being at Austin. Its limited culture is apparently due to the lack of demand for this article in the local markets. 226 CROPS AND NATIVE VEGETATION. 21 FIELD CROPS. Cotton and corn constitute the main field crops throughout all of the agricultural portion of the region. The western half of the area contains but a small acreage adapted to these crops, and only small yields are obtained even in the more fertile valley lands. In the black-land regions of Williamson County, eastern Travis County, and much of Hays and Comal Counties may be found continuous fields of cotton and corn, with but little land devoted to forage or other crops. Oats is the principal small grain, but wheat is grown to some extent in the more elevated sections of the west and northwest. But little rice is now planted in this area. In recent years the limits of the rice-growing country have been gradually pushed more into the coast region or into the more humid territory to the east. FORAGE CROPS. The semiarid conditions which prevail throughout the greater part of the area make the different sorghum varieties the principal crops cultivated for forage. Cane, Kafir corn, and milo maize are exten- sively grown. In the region surrounding Austin, especially to the north and east, may be found extensive meadows of Johnson grass. Cane and Johnson grass are the most common kinds of hay on the local markets. Alfalfa is grown only to a very limited extent in any portion of the region. In a few localities it is grown without irriga- tion, but under irrigation it is a very profitable crop, some fields yielding as high as 7 to 8 tons per acre. In some localities in the southern part of the region a number of weedy grasses are cut for hay. Among these may be mentioned Panicum texanum, Echino- chloa colona, and Hleusine indica. In some places the weedy grasses grow so abundantly in cornfields that a crop of hay is obtained following the harvesting of the corn. The western half of the area is devoted very largely to stock raising, and many of the 300 species of Texas native and introduced grasses may be found within the territory studied. The most important of the native species are Bulbilis dactyloides, Bouteloua curtipendula, and various species of Bouteloua and Andropogon. In certain portions of the more eastern part pastures of Bermuda grass are common, and in some places bur clover (Medicago arabica) furnishes valuable winter and early spring forage in the same pastures. Bermuda grass is the only species used extensively for lawns. NATIVE GROWTH. The greater portion of the territory lying west of the Colorado and west of a line connecting Austin, San Antonio, and Uvalde is 226 22 A PLANT-DISEASE SURVEY IN TEXAS. a part of the low mountain country of the Edwards Plateau. <+05Ggs> - ae 53 Beet, diseases tn Texas. ceccccc0 esos cs aol pmnce oo be ace Ns noo no 38 Begonia ap., diseases in 'TOXAs . « Tae ee 27, 29 Blossom-end blight and rot. See Blight and rot, blossom end. Blotch, occurrence on hawthorn..........:..i.:+--.-s2e.032 450 =- ogee 69-70 See also Leaf-blotch. . Bluebell, Mexican, diseases in Texas.........-.-...-.--- eee 87, 109 Bluebonnet, diseases in Texas. -..-..-.4- .2uee'd-26 = seeeee ee 90 Bluet, diseases in Texas... a .2-.2--0..-..-25¢¢2. 522222 452- ae 90 Boerhavia spp., diseases in Texas. .........+22.--=>sas=e) -<- eee 90-91 Botrytis cinerea, occurrence on cymling in Texas.............-.------------ 43,111 Bouteloua spp. See Grass, grama. Box, diseases in Texas... 08. < (o5 s-2.. + - «ms ene= -Bhee Ee Bee eee eee eee 59 elder. See Elder, box. 226 INDEX. ESA Page Erabes cedar mative prowth in hoxass £0225 T2S4 ea ees SEN gee aoe 22 rete apy, ciscased il TOKAd. 6 Foc nn ec ba ce ae tase eseinces 38-39, 44-45, 98 Bray, W. L., on native vegetation in Texas...........------.-------+--- 22, 64, 107 Bromus spp., host plants for Puccinia tomipara. .......-......----.--------- 104 mMENE eCInE ARES IN NOKAG: - So 556, S08 Nace Pees oe baw ona eghs. 2s cases 91 Paown-ral occurrence in, Texas... 256-000. gg ees - + - eRe oe hee 18, 19 Bubakia crotonis, occurrence on croton in Texas........................-..-. 93 pee eaiseaned in Texas...) -\... . aa 91 Cocklebur, diseases 3 mm Texase Jo... Le Tee eee 91-92, 109 Coleosporium vernoniae, occurrence on fireweed in Texas. ........-......--- 95 Collection of specimens of plant diseases. See Specimens. Colletotrichum spp., differentiation of certain forms ..-....-......-.---- 36, 52, 54 occurrence on grasses in Texas .......... 51-52, 53, 54, 110, 111 trees and shrubs in Texas... 27-28, 67, 68, 110, 111 truck crops in Texas.... 34-36, 39, 40, 41, 43, 110 Colocasia esculenta. See Elephant’s-ear. Columbine, diseases in "Texas... . .........-).<-.+ Jia ee 85 Commelina virginica. See Dayflower. Coniothyrium spp., occurrence on plants in Texas. .. bed coe er Convolvulus hermanioides, occurrence of white- ee in oD 1 we 92 Cook; O. F:, on vegetation of Texas. ............ 2uutee ). eee ~. V2207 Cooke; M. ©, on diseases of plants... ... . Asad ae Jee 11, 39, 107 Cooperia drummondii. See Lily, rain. Coral bead. See Bead, coral. Corn, Indian, culture and diseases in Texas. .......-....-.--------- Leger. ae 21, 46 Kafir, cultivation and diseases in Texas. .......-.--..2.---+-0.2----- 21,53 Cornus sp. See Dogwood. Corticium: spp., occurrencedia Temas: .)-bc |4saaceeeee~. 25-25 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 57, 111 Cotton, culture and diseases in Texas... ..:...2.22s+52--2-5-555- eee 21, 54-57, 111 226 INDEX. 7 Page Cottonwood, diseases in Texas... .. 2.22222 ..6202000: aR Rie RIAL = oe 64 Cottony leaf-spot. See Leaf-spot, cottony. Covered smut. See Smut, covered. Cowpes, culture and diseases in’ Texas: .:- (2. .22c205 deseo sane 20, 38, 48-49, 55, 109 Crab-grass. See Grass, crab. Crane’s-bill, occurrence of downy mildew in Texas........................---. 92-93 Crape myrtle. See Myrtle, crape. Crassina elegans. See Zinnia. Crataegus spp. See Hawthorn. Sremser ininpet, diseases in Texas... nica) 4i date eh dete eet ce 79 Wireimts, diseases im lexase=. 20-282 4.022222 02.5. 2.2...2 22822: eee 80, 109 Cress, water, occurrence of leaf-blight in Texas.................... Sites: 104, 109 Cretaceous, physiography and soils of prairies in Texas..................22.2.. 14 Crops, field, forage, etc., culture and diseases in Texas...... 20-21, 34-49, 109, 110, 111 See also names of crops; as Bean, Corn, Rye, Sorghum, etc. Beeummmeer. 0 Isedsen: 11k Texas’. cod. so) te nO Poa Eo A oe 93 mempeienund, Giseasesih Dexass. 0.0. 022.0. 00SS 2 Pe PE 93-94, 109 Crown-gall, occurrence on plants in Texas.......... Eat A «Sala: ba 24, 28, 29 RPI IOCCUEFONCS Oli Cate IN Texas sees I MLR 47 fpemuver, culture and diseases in Texasiiu: 22: des Soke ee 20, 39 Cucumis spp., diseases in Texas........- Bag She BLTRT as IST SO see Cucurbita spp., culture and diseases in Pema Re hes AUS) EES! BEES 20, 43-44, 105, 111 Currant, nonoccurrence in region studied in Texas........ 20 Cuscuta spp., occurrence on plants in Texas. .....-- 83, 85, 87, ‘88, 89, 93, 94, 95, 97, 103 Cushaw, culture and diseases in Texas.........- ie Ay ee ts 3 Seer as Cyanospora albicedrae, occurrence on coda in Texas. Se eet eae ates oe ee MO Oycus revoluta, occurrence of blight'in Texas... ../..:. 0222/20 22...2...22-- 85 Cylindropuntia, native thicket growths in Texas. ........................... 22 Cylindrosporium celtidis, occurrence on hackberry in Alabama........-..... 69 defoliatum, comparison with C. celtidis....................-. 69 negundinis, comparison with Septoria marginata............ 60 Spp:, occurrence om plants in Texas. 25.0.592... 2030-924 25 22: 25, 32, 57-59, 66-67, 69, 71, 81, 110-112 Cymling, culture and diseases in Texas........--.....--......-------- 20,48, 44,111 Cynara scolymus. See Artichoke, globe. Cypress, standing, occurrence of powdery mildew in Texas.............. ..-. 88 swamp, occurrence of leaf blight in Texas.......-.....--.....0..-..- 78 meatmemimivcaser Wt TONAS. 2.52256 saci. sadscers eee 2 55 «Beet S en ol 88 2 3 85, 109 Damping-off, occurrence on young citrus plants in Texas. .................-- 27 Paudelion; false; occurrence of rust in, TéXas:.-... 2222+ 22-2225) 202002 e-2..0 5s 94 Date palm. Be Palm, date. Daucus carota. See Carrot. Pariower ecutrence of ruspin Texas. 222225 25! tek 94 Delacroix, G., and Prilleaux, E. E., on occurrence of bacterial leaf-spot..- - - - 83, 108 Dendropogon usneoides. See Moss, ball and Spanish. Mewourreyculsure and: diseases in ‘Texas... 2.2.0.2 oo). ee eee 8 19, 33 Dianthera americana. See Willow, water. Dianthus caryophillus. See Carnation. tie-back,,occurrence on plants im Texas: 2! 2092.24.22... S- 19, 25, 26, 28, 32, 73 Dimerosporium parkinsoniae, prevalence on retama in Texas..........----- 78, 111 Diospyros spp. See Persimmon. Pipa spp., occurrence on plants in ‘Texas.:-::2.:6.2..2.....---5.0.0.22-- 26, 27 226 118 A PLANT-DISEASE SURVEY IN TEXAS. Page. Disease, Rhizoctonia, occurrence on plants in Texas.......... 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 111 Diseases, plant, collections of specimens in region studied in Texas.......... 11-12 literature, selected Jit... :.).et ne ee s sere otek ee 107-108 relation to environmental factors in Texas................. 11, 22-23 survey. See Survey, plant disease. See also names of different plants and diseases. Dock, occurrence of dodder in Texas.............../0. csi. 0. nese Lee eee 94 Dodder, occurrence on plants in Texas............. 83, 85, 87, 88, 89, 93, 94, 95, 97, 103 Dogwood, occurrence of leaf-spot in Texas................-...-. i... Sano 65 Drought, relation to plant diseases in Texas...............................- 20,22, 23 Earle, F. S., on occurrence of leaf-spot on hackberry in Alabama..........-.. 69, 107 Early blight. See Blight, early. Echinochloa colona. See Rice, jungle. Edgerton, ©. ‘W., on diseases of plants-* .42--- 2222 }. sao. fo sa 2 52, 55, 107 Edwards Plateau, physiography and soils..................---.-.-.+.---- 12, 14, 22 Eggplant, culture and diseases in Texas.............-........--------- 20, 23, 39-40 Elaeagnus sp. See Oleaster. Bilder, box, diseases in. Texas..-........-.<.--19-b +s 8s 1852 eee 59-60 Elderberry, occurrence of leaf-spot in Texas....................----.-.--.---- 65 Elephant’s-ear, occurrence of blight in Texas...................2+..2-2-22--. 85-86 Eleusine indica, use as forage crop in Texas.................------ 3. 21 Elevations, principal stations in region studied in Texas......................- 12 Ellis, J. B., and Anderson, F. W., on diseases of plants....................-- 91, 107 Everhart, B. M., on diseases of plants........................ 24, 31, 43, 48, 49, 56, 57, 60, 61, 90, 96, 107 Kellerman, W. A., on diseases of plats: soeeess. re Martin, G., on diseases of plants-.:>./..25:¢1:20. 22 60, 108 Elm, diseases in Texas........- cusses Jes ose tuendiel 4 ey SOS Engler, A., and Prantl, K,, on fungi. Jie le. sekoe cee oe 66, 108 English ivy. See Ivy, English. Erigeron canadensis. See Fleabane. Erysiphe spp., occurrence on plants in Texas... 37, 41, 42, 45, 73, 90, 94, 95, 97, 98, 103 Buonymus japonicus, diseases in Texas... .. .j22022 20 .sP252i2. eee 68, 110, 111 Euphorbia spp., occurrence of rust in Texas... 2... .-.--¢-. 45. _ see 94 Eustoma russellianum. See Bluebell, Mexican. Evaporation, actual and average, for region studied in Texas. ..............- 17-18 Evening primrose. See Primrose, evening. Everhart, B. M., and Ellis, J. B., on diseases of plants.............-----.-..- 24, 31, 43, 48, 49, 56, 57, 60, 61, 90, 96, 107 Exosporium concentricum, occurrence on Euonymus japonicus in Texas..... 68, 111 Eye-spot, occurrence on mulberry in Texas.............-..-.---------- 74, 110, 111 Fabraea maculata, occurrence on the pear in Texas. ...............--------- 30 False dandelion. See Dandelion, false. Feather grass. See Grass, feather. Fiber plants. See Cotton. Ficus carica. See Fig. Field, E. C., assistance in determination of species.............-----.----.--- 11 Field crops. See names of crops; as Cotton, Corn, etc. Fig, culture:and diseasegmm Texas x... .......2 8 evens soe aco 19, 26-27, 55, 109 Fire-blight. See Blight, fire. Fireweed, diseases In Texas... 22sec. occ Be cieid adwte acta oe ee eee 94-95 226 Page. rarnoey Pd. onvcinesace of planta /295- 1d5e a sere sino ninebie wet wisi eiciie bt es 25, 108 Picabane-.occurrenceof leaf-spot in Texas. . . . . scjccmn-cawisdicis de siniesicice «nls 95 Floret sterility. See Sterility, floret. Blorida, occurrence. of smut on date palm: .~. . 2i.scem cowed sek « awmseles 25 Mibawar oni senipneasediin: LOX asia. 0.0) Sse Sot ae eee gee oas tae KtSicieas 105 Hly-speck, oceurrence on the pear in Texas... -. - 25... csc cale Ogle - nce nadnns 29 Forage crops. See names of crops; as, Alfalfa, Cane, etc. Four-o’clock, occurrence of white-rust in Texas................-..------.-- 86 Fragaria spp. See Strawberry. Fraxinus spp. See Ash. Precio peach: OCCURenCO In 1 OXAS. ccs ot 5 ete s vos oo See Ys 18, 28 esunane GG. 2, OM Giseases Of plants... /-- 22s. bbe eS. oo Soe ee 48, 108 French, G. T., Wilson, J. K., and Stewart, F. C., on diseases of plants... ... 48, 108 Fruit-rot and leaf-spot. See Persimmon, Mexican. occurrence on truck crops;in Texas....... 222.205... 2252282 2522 39, 43, 111 spot, occurrence on sweet pepper in Texas..................------------ 42 Fruits, culture and diseases in region studied in Texas............-.-. 18-20, 24-34 See also names of different fruits. amallenmiture ana diseases In Texas: <5). 2... s222052 222. dacs 19-20, 33-34 Punaco vagans (7), prevalence im Texas... .. 2. ..050500 2.02225. .0¢ 34, 39, 61, 62, 77 Fungi Imperfecti, illustrations of occurrence on different hosts in Texas.... 109-112 Fusarium spp. (?), occurrence on plants in Texas...................-... 29,83, 84 Fusicladium effusum, occurrence on the pecan in Texas................-.-- 76 Gene eaccurrenee on plants’ in Texas ) v2.22 25 2 se ees vee waa OM) See also Crown-gall. Gardenia jasminoides. See Jasmine, Cape. Gate cocemes, occurrence of rust in Texas. .,.2:-\.0.0 2023.28 022254 ee 95 Georgia, occurrence of Graphiola phoenicis on date palm..............--..-.-- 25 Bromertaniepp, diseases 1m Nexas: . 25 00.00..2 5522 oen 22 See oth ek. 2 86; 92-95, AZ Giant ragweed. See Ragweed, giant. Gilia rubra. See Cypress, standing. Globe artichoke. See Artichoke, globe. Gloeosporium spp., occurrence on plants in Texas........ 39, 59, 71-72, 78, 80, 85, 100 Pioimreciin fpp-..occirrence in Texas: -<. 925-222 27.22 S21 a 29, 55 Gnomon ulmea; occurrence on elm in Texasis!22 222.40... 22sec. 32-22 66, 111 Goldenrad, occurrence of leaf-spot in Texas. 222.2... Lens ie seen ce ~~~ - 95 Gooseberry, nonoccurrence in region studied in Texas.............-.-..------ 20 Gossypium herbaceum. See Cotton. (Gourd, wild, occurrence of leaf-spot in Texas: :........22 4.4.2 -25--5---2--5-- > 105 Grama grass. See Grass, grama. (Geape, eulture-and diseases in ‘Texas.__......--.-2---0-26-+-5-+ =~ 19, 33-34, 109, 111 Graphiola phoenicis, occurrence on the date palm in Texas................... 25,111 Grass, beard, silver. See Beard-grass, silver. iberaigas, tse ang diseases In, TExas-.-¢--. 22225. 2) osa-25--s-----> 21, 00/401 BREE CORON aT) MOMAST coe Oho eke ee BE rs ak be tes Cate 50 feather wdiseases Invhexas-. ce doe ice eee ee oe aE ee Sener ener 50-51, 111 prim, occurrence and diseases In. Texas: ....---.22--5522-+-2<--2-2----+ ou, OL Johnsons culture.and diseasesiimi Texas: 2s..5-...-22s-+--.----e52s6 21, 51, 110 pepper. See Peppergrass. med. ocecurrence. of leaf-spot In Texas s sow. sense. se. sist Sic oe eet 53 silver beard. See Beard-grass, silver. 226 120 A PLANT-DISEASE SURVEY IN TEXAS. Page Grasses, wild and cultivated, occurrence and diseases in Texas............ 21, 50-54 See also names of different grasses. Gray-spot, occurrence on grasses in Texas...............---.---- s/t. . COR eee 50, 52 Ground-cherry. See Cherry, ground, Guignardia bidwellii, occurrence on the grape in Texas...............-.--.-- 33 Gutierrezia spp. See Broomweed. Gymnosporangium spp., occurrence on plants in Texas...............-. 30, 63, 70, 112 Hackberry, diseases im. "TSXB8. o.oo. ~ cen en samen ven sss eeeies neh eee 69, 110, 111 Halsted, B. D., on determination of fungi................-.-.--../ ee 36, 108 Hauyjilla, native thicket growths in Texas. ..... ..02004. « sree eee 21 Head smut. See Smut, head. Heald. EF’. D.,.on diseases of planta... .oced: sian de cae nes «sae 31, 32, 60, 61, 65, 67, 70, 77, 80, 82, 93-94, 98-99, 102, 110 Physalis sp. See Cherry, ground. Physiography, character of region studied in Texas................------...-. 12-14 Physopella fici, occurrence on the fig in Texas. .........-....----------e-ee- 26 Phytolacca americana. See Pokeweed. Pigweed, diseases Im "Texas oo... 2 joe Rew acne see = een a 99 Pileolaria toxicodendri, occurrence on poison oak in Texas.............-....- 76 Piricularia grisea. See Gray-spot. Pisum sativum. See Pea. Plant, century, diseasesan Texas. oa 4.3. tee es ons a 84, 110, 112 disease survey. See Survey, plant disease. indigo, diseases in Texas.......-......d25. iJ_cvces2u.- bas ae 97 Plants, fiber. See Cotton. ornamental;. diseases,in Texas. . 2522.2 0.221222... 0:. ose eee 82-89 See also names of different ornamental plants. wild, diseasesiin: Texas... 220.202 cen. tot ness sees sae ee 90-106 See also names of different wild plants. Plasmopara viticola, occurrence on the grape in Texas................--..-.-- 33 Platanus occidentalis. See Sycamore. Plates, description... .2..0=. 2000.22 2 2882 SSS Ds eee 109-112 Platyopuntia, native thicket growths in Texas. ......-.-22.5..-55.. - -se ease 22 Plum, culture and diseases in Texas. . ame ~s.......- 19; 25)28-29;31=s2 ee pockets, nonoccurrence of disease i in Tees bedsit 62 See 19 Podosphaera leucotricha, occurrence on the apple in Texas............-...---- 25 Poison oak. See Oak, poison. Pokeweed, occurrence of leaf-spot in Texas..../......-1-.-.5.203. 5) =e 99 Polygonum spp. See Knotweed. Pomegranate, occurrence of leaf-spot in Texas...........---..----------- 76-77, 109 Populus deltoides. See Cottonwood. Portulaca spp. See Purslane. Potato, Irish, culture and @iseases in Texas: ...2522./. 22 2222272522 20, 23, 42, 111 sweet, diseases In Pexas...........--.-25---5 a5 - See ae ee 44, 98 Powdery mildew. See Mildew, powdery. Prairie, coast, physiography and soils in Texas.........-....-.---.--------s-55 12-14 Prantl, K., and Engler, Aj, on diseases of plants ~:~... <..-.-- i222 22-5 eee 66, 108 Precipitation, annual, for region studied in Texas................-..-..-.----- 15-16 Prickly ash. See Ash, prickly. 226 INDEX. 15 Page. Prickly pear. See Pear, prickly. Prilleaux, E. E., and Delacroix, G., on occurrence of bacterial leaf-spot..... - 83, 108 Primrose, evening, occurrence of powdery mildew in Texas.................. 94 innivetndsseasedan: Nexass WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOB. 1911. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY. Assistant Chief of Bureau, WILLIAM A. TAYLOR. Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL. Chief Clerk, JaMES E. JONES. * FOREIGN SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. David Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer in Charge. P.H. Dorsett and Peter Bisset, Expert Plant Introducers. George W. Oliver, Expert Propagator. Frank N. Meyer, Agricultural Explorer. Stephen C. Stuntz, Botanical Assistant. H.C. Skeels and R. A. Young, Scientific Assistants. Henry F. Schultz, Agent, in Charge of Subtropical Introductions. E. C. Green, Pomologist, in Charge of South Texas Plant Introduction Garden, Brownsville, Tez. Robert L. Beagles, Agent, Acting in Charge of Plant Introduction Garden, Chico, Cal. Edward Simmonds, Gardener, in Charge of Subtropical Plant Introduction Garden, Miami, Fla. John M. Rankin, Erpert,in Charge of Yarrow Plant Introduction Garden, Rockville, Md. Edward Goucher, John H. Allison, and W. H. F. Gomme, Experts. 227 2 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bureau oF Piant INpDusTRY, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., June 16, 1911. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for publication as Bulletin No. 227 of the series of this Bureau the accom- panying manuscript, entitled ‘‘Seeds and Plants Imported during the Period from October 1 to December 31, 1910: Inventory No. 25; Nos. 28883 to 29327.” This manuscript has been submitted by the Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, with a view to publication. Respectfully, B. T. GaLLoway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James WILson, Secretary of Agriculture. 227 . 3 Leen atl Oa, >) > teupemeill A , Be | ppousi o4 Sa) i ‘id E ay : oe a st Ty t.bets | eee ’ vidi iI + YT ‘fi f ’ :? { on ) , qi ‘ od ‘ b “ j wine Wr cal le woe ae = >'* Y; vi . y ~ CON FEMT St Dem REAP CRELOTIONG 2 35 baa = on 5.5 oc to ale fa Sa dee a BoE < ulna so st eee PE GTPEINy cee Se SR Oe Ee ee er ere oe eee et Index of common aad SCleMtIHGMIAINGIs ClGs ake eee sea crac ree 227 5) 2THATHOD well olf a w bos B. P. I.—689. SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED DURING THE PERIOD FROM OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1910: INVENTORY NO. 25; NOS. 28888 TO 29327. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT. The present inventory includes the material collected during the period from June to September, 1910, by Mr. Frank N. Meyer, the only agricultural explorer in the field, who was exploring the region which lies along the Zerafshan Valley and in the vicinity of Samar- kand, Tashkend, Old Bokhara, the oasis of Merv, Chartchui, Andijan, Guldscha, Terek-Dawan, Osh, Kostakos, Kizil-Kurgan, and Khokan in Russian Turkestan, and the cities of Kashgar, Kan-Shugan, Ulukshat, and Irkestan in Chinese Turkestan. Although Mr. Meyer was hindered from making several important side trips which had been contemplated, he still secured during his stay in this region 141 different specimens, some of which are of special importance, Among them is a hardy dwarf Prunus (Nos. 28943 and 28944) from the mountain slopes near Wishist at an altitude of 3,000 to 7,000 feet, which Mr. Meyer suggests may be of value in the breeding of bushy forms of the almond or as a stock for the almond in dry regions. Possibly the suggestion of an economic bush cherry may be realized by American breeders and Mr. Meyer’s Prunus prostrata (No. 28945) and Prunus microcarpa (No. 28946) be utilized in the creation of such a fruit, while the various forms of Prunus cerasifera divaricata (Nos. 28948 to 28951 and No. 29224), called ‘‘ Alitcha”’ in Turkestan, may be of distinct value to the plum breeders because of their early- fruiting character, their remarkable productiveness, and their resist- ance to drought and heat. The apricot growers of Turkestan grow varieties which have sweet instead of bitter kernels, which they use for confectionery purposes just as we do the kernels of the almond. Mr. Meyer has imported 11 varieties of these (Nos. 28953 to 28962 and No. 29223) and recom- mends that the whole subject of the utilization of apricot kernels be studied. This may resolve itself into a comparison between the price of the kernels as a source of prussic acid and their price as a table delicacy. 1933°—Bul. 227—11——2 7 8 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. Probably there is no work so extensive and successful in the bind- ing of drifting desert sands as that carried on at Chartchui, Turkestan, by the Russian Government. The railroad, which was previously in continual danger of being covered by shifting sand dunes, has been completely protected by the use of certain drought and alkali resistant plants, seeds of which Mr. Meyer secured for similar experi- ments in this country (Nos. 28973 to 28977). The oleaster is remarkable for its extreme hardiness and resistance to drought, and the importation by Mr. Meyer of a large-fruited form (No. 29225) will interest the horticulturists of the Northwest, who are beginning to see the possibilities of this plant as a hardy fruiting shrub. The rose breeders will be interested in the wild roses from this region (Nos. 29251 to 29258); the melon growers, in an unusual col- lection of watermelons and muskmelons; the nut growers, in the almond and Afghanistan pistache; the currant breeders, in the black and red currants which Mr. Meyer has secured. Of material sent in by correspondents, it is worth while to em- phasize a new relative of the guava, Psidiwm araga (No. 28911), from Minas Geraes, which is said to be sweeter in taste than the guava; a new variety of alfalfa, which originated in Norway and which is reported to be hardier and larger than the ordinary types grown there (No. 28919); three distinct varieties of the Chinese jujube (Nos. 28926 to 28928); a remarkable citrus relative which lives on the seashore in mangrove swamps in India (No. 28933); a quantity of the wild wheat of Palestine for use in breeding drought- resistant varieties (No. 29026); a leguminous plant, Cassia mimo- soides, from Assam, recommended as a cover crop in banana plan- tations to keep down the weeds (No. 29031); the kameel-doorn of South Africa, an extremely hard-wooded, drought-resistant tree (No. 29046); Passiflora ligularis (No. 29090), from Mexico, and a variety from Java (No. 29319), relatives of the southern maypop, for breed- ing experiments with this fruit; one of the largest of the large-leaved trees of the Chinese forests from Hupeh, central China (No. 29095); a new hybrid of the giant wild rose from Burma, Rosa gigantea (No. 29096); the Paraguayan tea plant, from which the maté of South America is made, a drink as highly prized by millions of South Americans as tea is by Europeans (No. 29097); four varieties of Jap- anese sugar cane for trial as a forage plant in the South (Nos. 29106 to 29109); four species of tropical persimmons, related to the edible oriental species, from the island of Ceylon (Nos. 29111 to 29114), for the breeders of this fruit; the yeheb-nut plant, a newly discovered leguminous shrub which occurs in the poor sandy soils of the dry regions of Italian Somaliland and produces nuts which are so sweet and nutritious that in their season the Somaliland natives live on 227 OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1910. 9 them in preference to rice and dates; a spineless lime and a seed- less lime from Trinidad (Nos. 29123 and 29124); the Aomori chestnut from Hokushu, Japan (No. 29132); the Sampson tangelo, a hybrid between the pomelo and the tangerine which has been originated by the Office of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations (No. 29159); and the Etonia or flowering citrange, a hybrid between the common orange and the hardy Japanese trifoliate orange which promises to be a remarkable ornamental tree, with its large white blossoms which nearly hide the foliage (No. 29160), also a product of the same office. This inventory was prepared by Miss Mary A. Austin, and the botanical determinations are those of Mr. H. C. Skeels, working under the supervision of Mr. Frederick V. Coville, of the Office of Taxo- nomic and Range Investigations. Davi~ FarIRcHILp, Agricultural Explorer in Charge. OrricE OF FoREIGN SEED AND PrLant INTRODUCTION, Washington, D. C., May 16, 1911. 227 INVENTORY. 28883 and 28884. From Teneriffe, Canary Islands. Procured by Mr. Ross J. Hazeltine, American vice consul, from Sefior Luis Diaz. Received October 3, 1910. , Cuttings of the following: 28883. Prunus armentaca L. Apricot. Yellow. 28884. PRUNUS gp. Plum. Yellow. ‘‘One of the finest I have ever seen.’’ (Hazeltine.) 28885. HorpEUM SPONTANEUM Koch. Barley. From Haifa, Palestine. Presented by Mr. Aaron Aaronsohn, director, Jewish Agricultural Experiment Station. Received October 3, 1910. 28886. SPoNDIAS sp. From Mauritius. Presented by Mr. G. Regnard, Port Louis, Mauritius. Received October 14, 1910. ‘“‘This is much like the species dulcis as regards appearance of the tree and fruit, but not the seeds. The only specimen in Mauritius grows at the Botanical Gardens, Pamplemousses; it has not been classified and seems not to have been noticed.” (Regnard.) 28887. CARICA PAPAYA L. Papaya. From Camp Overton, Mindanao, Philippine Islands. Presented by Maj. Charles H. Muir, Twenty-third Infantry, Fort Clark, Tex., through Mr. E. C. Green, in charge, South Texas Plant Introduction Garden, Brownsville, Tex. Re- ceived October 3, 1910. ‘“This seed is from the best variety of this fruit I have ever met with in either the Philippines or Cuba; it is spoken of as the Dapitan by some and as the Java by others.” ( Muir.) 28888 to 28893. VicNA une@uIcULATA (L.) Walp. Cowpea. From the Province of Para, near the town of Braganga, Brazil. Presented by Mr. Walter Fischer, acting director, Campo de Cultura Experimental Paraense, Para, Brazil. Received October 3 and 4, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28888. Large brown eye. 28889. Pinkish clay-colored seeds. 28890. Brownish clay-colored seeds. 28891. Reddish brown. 28892. Under color brownish clay thickly marked with purplish lines or marblings. 288938. Like the preceding, except that the ground color is almost completely obscured by the purple marblings. ‘The two preceding numbers (I believe one of them is a hybrid with some speckled variety) are said to give a luxuriant growth of foliage, but further than this I heard nothing.”’ (Fischer.) 227 ll 12 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28894. RAJANIA PLEIONEURA Griseb. ‘““Waw-waw.”’ From Dominica, British West Indies. Presented by Mr. J. Jones, curator, Botanic Station. Received October 6, 1910. “The ‘waw-waw’ isa native of Dominica. It occurs wild in the forests and does best in the deep shade. It is not cultivated in this island, probably because an abundance of fhe yam can be obtained by digging in the forest. “The ‘waw-waw’ is considered by many people to be superior to the yams produced by the dioscoreas.’’ (Jones.) Distribution —Common in the woods on the island of Dominica, and in Cuba and Porto Rico. 28895 to 28898. CoFFEA ARABICA L. Coffee. From Reunion Island. Presented by Mr. G. Regnard, Port Louis, Mauritius. Received October 7, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28895 and 28896. ‘Cafe du Pays.” 28895. From Campon. 28896. From St. Louis. 28897 and 28898. ‘Cafe le Roy.” 28897. From Campon. 28898. From St. Louis. 28899. SoLANUM MURICATUM Ait. Pepino. From Grand Canary, Canary Islands. Presented by Mr. M. Moniz, American consular agent pro tem., at the request of Mr. Ross J. Hazeltine, American consul, Teneriffe. Received October 8, 1910. See No. 23650 for description. 28900. Drosprros piscoLor Willd. Persimmon. From Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Islands. Presented by Mr. J. B. O. Colman, Bureau of Public Works. Received October 7, 1910. “This is a species of persimmon which has a thick and pleasantly flavored meat. The fruits from which these seeds were taken were unusually large and perfect.” (Colman.) See No. 26612 for further description. 28901 and 28902. PirTosPoRUM spp. From Greendale, Canterbury, New Zealand. Presented by Mr. T. W. Adams. Received October 14, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28901. PrrrosrpoRUM RALPHI Kirk. Distribution.—In the Patea district on the southern coast of North Island, and on the Great Barrier Island, off the northern coast of North Island, New Zealand. 28902. PrrrospoRUM TENUIFOLIUM Gaertn. Distribution.—Along the eastern coasts of the islands of New Zealand extend- ing from the northern island southward to the province of Otago. “These are small, hardy trees that will bear 20 degrees of frost, but I suppose they will not be hardy at Washington, D.C. (Adams.) 227 OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1910. 13 28903 to 28905. The following material presented by Dr. Walter Van Fleet to the Plant Introduction Garden, Chico, Cal., November 30, 1909. Numbered October 17, 1910. 28903. BrERBERIS (VULGARIS X THUNBERGII) X STENOPHYLLA. Barberry. “‘An interesting blend, combining blood of four species: Berberis stenophylla Lindl., being a supposed hybrid of B. empetrifolia and B. darwinii, an evergreen species from southern Chile. One plant has light-purple foliage and the droop- ing habit of B. thunbergu. (P.I.G. No. 8395.) (Van Fleet.) Plants. 28904. QUAMASIA LEICHTLINII X CUSICKI. “A fine, vigorous hybrid, intermediate between parent species. These bulbs are six years from seed. Grown at my place in Little Silver, N. J. (P.1.G. No. 6291.) (Van Fleet.) 28905. Iris ALBOPURPUREA Baker. ‘A beautiful large-flowered iris from Japan, allied to I. laevigata. Fall petals white, marbled blue. (P. I. G. No. 8394.) (Van Fleet.) 28906. STIZOLOBIUM ATERRIMUM Piper and Tracy. Mauritius or Bengal bean. From Herbert River, Queensland. Presented by Mr. J. H. Maiden, director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia, who obtained them from the Macknade mill of the Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Received October 15, 1910. “This species is considerably cultivated in the island of Mauritius, Brazil, New Zealand, and Australia. It much resembles the Florida velvet bean, but the vines grow larger and the seeds mature considerably later. This variety is so late, in fact, that it matures in this country only in the southern half of Florida.’’ (Piper.) 28907. SAcCHARUM SPONTANEUM L. From Sibpur, Calcutta, India. Presented by Maj. A. T. Gage, superintendent, Royal Botanic Garden. Received October 17, 1910. ‘*A coarse perennial grass, with long creeping roots, abundant throughout India and up to 6,000 feet in the Himalayas. This grass is largely used as a thatching material, and the leaves are manufactured into ropes, mats, etc. It is a favorite fodder for buffaloes and is also, when young, given to elephants. Native name, Kans.’ (C. V. Piper.) 28908. MepicaGco saATIvA L. Alfalfa. From Ti-tao, Kansu Province, western China. Presented by Mr. Berthold Laufer, Field Museum, Chicago, Ill., who procured them from Mr. D. P. Ekvall, an American missionary of Ti-tao. Received October 17, 1910. 28909 to 28911. Psrprum spp. From Theophilo Ottoni, Minas Geraes, Brazil. Presented by Mr. Fred Birch. Received October 17, 1910. Seeds of the following; notes by Mr. Birch: 28909. Psipium quasava L. Guava. ‘‘Seeds from an all-white guava. The tree bears only white fruits, which are about 2 inches in diameter.” 28910. Psipium euasava L. Guava. “‘Seeds from the largest and finest tasting guava I have ever seen or tried. It was nearly 3 inches in diameter, and the flesh and jelly were pinkish red as in the common varieties. The tree grows by a stream near Theophilo Ottoni, Minas Geraes, and most of the fruits have comparatively few seeds.”’ 227 14 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28909 to 28911.—Continued. 28911. Psrprom araga Raddi. Guava. ‘The araga grows to about 15 feet (the size of a hazel), and the very pleasant sweet fruits are about an inch or an inch and a quarter in diameter. With good cultivation I feel sure it could be improved. The fruits are just like small guavas, clear yellow when ripe. They taste sweeter, however, and would make excellent preserves.”’ See No. 26757 for previous introduction. 28912. IrvinerIA GABONENSIS (Aubry-Lecomte) Baill, Oba. From Victoria, Kamerun, Africa. Presented by Mr. F. A. Deistel, director of the experiment station, at the request of the Imperial Colonial Office at Berlin, Germany. Received October 8, 1910. This is a tree 30 to 50 feet high, with shining leaves, which produces edible fruit said to be about 24 inches in diameter. The seeds are the source of ‘‘ Dika butter.” This is called ‘‘wild mango” by the English residents of Princes Island, where it grows. It is also reported from the Muni and Kamerun rivers in western Africa. 28913. IPoMOEA TUBERCULATA Ker. Grown at Brookland, D. C., and presented by Miss Carrie Harrison, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, October, 1910. “Last spring I purchased in the Center Market of Washington a promising young perennial plant said to be a passion flower. It was planted in a corner with a choice of tumbling over a wall, following wires and climbing a tree, or trailing on the ground; it did all three with a decided preference for trailing. About August it produced a few pinkish-violet, morning-glory blooms with a pansy-purple center, so far as I know the most decorative of the order. ‘This species has been in cultivation since 1815, is from the East Indies, and prob- ably reached the market from the Botanical Gardens in Washington, D. C., where they have some plants growing. It belongs to the group which contains the sweet potato. “Tt has a large spiral root and sends out about 30 branches, each between 20 and 30 feet long. The enormous growth would make it a desirable forage plant, and as closely related species in India are used for this purpose the presumption is in its favor. The general aspect of leaves and branches is that of Akebia quinata. It will have to be grown from cuttings, quite an easy matter, as it roots at the leaf nodes, because it would not bear fruit out of doors north of Washington, D. C.”’ (Harrison.) Cuttings. 28914. LapAGERIA ROSEA R. and P. Chilean bellfiower. From Coquimbo, Chile. Presented by Mr. Andrew Kerr, consular agent. Received October 15, 1910. See No. 14948 for previous introduction and description. 28915 to 28917. SoLANUM spp. Wild potato. Collected by Mr. J. C. Blumer, Tucson, Ariz. Received October 27, 1910. Tubers of the following; notes by Mr. Blumer: 28915 and 28916. ‘Collected October 5, 1910, on the steep northeast slope of the Santa Catalina Mountains, at an elevation of 7,800 feet, under white and Douglas fir, in fine humous loam. Vines fresh, succulent, and fruit- ing. Slope burned clean in June.” 28917. ‘‘Collected October 17, 1910, on Rincon Mountains, at Spud Ranch camp site. Since potatoes were once cultivated here these purplish tubers may be escaped from cultivation.” 227 od ae OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1910. iis 28918 to 28922. From Christiania, Norway. Presented by Prof. Dr. Wille, director, Botanic Garden. Received October 24 and 25, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28918. Mepicago Fraucata L. 28919. Mepicaco sativa L. Alfalfa. Variety malthei. ‘‘This is a new variety which has not yet been described and which is larger and much hardier than the main variety. Medicago sativa is used very little in Norway for its economic importance, as it is not very hardy. A dealer in dyestuffs, O. Malthe, was very much interested in this question. He experimented and finally succeeded in discovering this variety and endeavored to disseminate it. The farmers, however, did not want to cultivate lucern because they find Trifolium pratense and Phlewm pratense more profitable. “T wish to call your attention to the fact that the seed of M. sativa var. malthei may possibly represent crosses with the closely related main variety; however, only to a limited extent. If all the seeds are planted some plants of the pure variety will likely be obtained.”’ ( Wille.) 28920. MepicaGco saTIva VARIA (Mart.) Urb. Sand lucern. 28921. Metitotus sutcata Desf. Distribution.—Throughout the Mediterranean region from Portugal and the Canary Islands to Palestine, and in the oases of the Libyan Desert. 28922. TRIGONELLA CAERULEA (L.) Ser. See No. 27146 for previous introduction. 28923 to 28925. ASPARAGUS spp. Asparagus. From Tunis, northern Africa. Presented by Mr. L. Guillochon, J ardin d’Essais de Tunis. Received October 27, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28923. ASPARAGUS CRISPUS Lam. Distribution.—In the coast region of Cape Colony in the vicinities of Hope- field, Table Mountain, Simons Bay, and in British Kaffraria. 28924. ASPARAGUS OFFICINALIS L. 28925. ASPARAGUS SPRENGERI Regel. Distribution.—The vicinity of Port Natal in Natal, South Africa. Com- monly cultivated in the United States as an ornamental house plant. 28926 to 28928. From China. Presented by Mr. T. J. League, Tsingtau, China, who obtained them through Rev. G. E. Baker, English Baptist Mission, Tsingchowfu, Shan- tung, China. Received October 27, 1910. Cuttings. Nore.—Three tubes were received in this shipment, although from Mr. League’s letter it would appear that four different lots of material were sent. There were apparently no markings on either tubes or cuttings, so S. P. I. numbers could be assigned only to the three bundles. The notes on this material, furnished by Mr. League, appear on the following page. 1933°—Bul. 227—11——3 16 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28926 to 28928—Continued. ZizIPHuS JUJUBA Miller. This being an unusual name for the common jujube, the following dates and synonyms are given to avoid confusion: Ziziphus jujuba Miller 1768. (Rhamnus zizyphus L. 1753, Z. sativa Gaertn. 1788, Z. vulgaris Lam. 1789, not Z. jujuba (L.) Lam. 1789.) See No. 28129 for further information. ““Ch’ang Hung tsao. (Long red ‘date’ or jujube.) Yiian Ling tsao. (Foremost honorable ‘date’ or jujube.) | Hsiao tsao. (The small ‘date’ or jujube.)”’ Diospyros sp. (?) Persimmon. Juan tsao. ‘‘A wild persimmon on which, as a stock, they graft the edible persimmon.”’ 28929. AracHIs HYPOGAEA L. Peanut. From Kia-ying chau, China. Presented by Mr. George Campbell. Received November 2, 1910. ‘‘These seem to be more drought resistant than some received from the States. The plants also have a running habit.’’ (Campbell.) 28930 to 28932. From Costa Rica. Presented by Sefior don Anastasio Alfaro, secretary of the Society of Agriculture, San Jose, through Mr. Lyster H. Dewey, Botanist in Charge of Fiber-Plant Investigations. Received October 4, 1910. Notes on the following by Mr. Dewey: 28930. AGAVE FOURCROYDES Lem. Henequen. ‘‘Bulbils and suckers from plants introduced in the garden of the Museum of San Jose, Costa Rica, supposed to have come from Mexico. ‘These plants appear to be the same type as those cultivated for fiber pro- duction in Yucatan. “The fiber from the leaves of this plant is called sisal in English-speaking countries. It is used more than all other fibers combined in the manufacture of binder twine. The true sisal plant, Agave sisalana Perrine, is a distinct species having a wider range but not so extensively cultivated.” Distribution.—The provinces of Yucatan and Campeche in Mexico. Culti- vated in Tamaulipas, Sinaloa, and Chiapas in Mexico, in Cuba, and in German East Africa. 28931. AGAVE sp. Agave. ‘“Young plants collected on the island in the Gulf of Nicoya on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica. ‘These plants belong to the narrow-leaved group of the large agaves and may be useful for the production of fiber.”’ 28932. FURCRAEA sp. Cabuya. ‘‘Bulbils and young plants from the garden of the Museum of San Jose, Costa Rica. Collected by Sefior don Adolfo Tonduz. “This species belongs to the group of furcreeas that are being cultivated in Costa Rica for the production of fiber.” 227 OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1910. 17 28933. GoNnocirrus ANGULATUS (Willd.) Kurz. From India. Presented by Maj. A. T. Gage, superintendent, Royal Botanic Garden, Sibpur, Calcutta, India. Received October 31, 1910. “This is a large shrub or small tree growing on the seashore in mangrove swamps and presumably able to endure a high degree of salinity in the soil. It is armed with ferocious spines half an inch long that usually occur in pairs at the side of the leaves. The fruit is most curious, being angled, and contains a few very large seeds embedded in a gum s0 sticky that Rumphius compared it to birdlime. “The fact that this plant grows only along the seashore in mangrove swamps would lead us to believe that it possesses high powers of alkali resistance, since sea water contains over 3 per cent of dissolved salts and the mangrove and other plants growing in the mangrove swamps are able to withstand unusually large amounts of dissolved salts in the soil.” (W. T. Swingle.) Distribution.— In the mangrove swamps and tidal forests along the coasts from the mouths of the Ganges south of Calcutta eastward to the Molukka Islands. 28935 to 28939. From Aintab, Turkey, Asia. Presented by Mr. H. H. Bakkalian, secretary to Mrs. F. A. Shephard. Received October 19, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28935. CIcER ARIETINUM L. Chick-pea. 28936. LatTuyrus sativus L. 28937. LENs ESCULENTA Moench, Lentil. 28938. MeEDICAGO FALCATA L. 28939. Vicia ERvitI4 (L.) Willd. 28940 and 28941. MepicaGco FALoaTa I. From Copenhagen, Denmark. Presented by Mr. Axel Lange, curator, Botanic Garden, Copenhagen University. Received October 31, 1910. 28942 to 29012. From Turkestan. Received through Mr. Frank N. Meyer, agricultural explorer, October 18, 1910. Seeds of the following: 28942. PRUNUS sp. Buckthorn almond. From Zerafshan Valley, near Sangar, Samarkand, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1342a, July 14, 1910.) A central Asian form of buckthorn almond, found on stony, sterile, sunburned mountain sides at elevations of 4,000 to 6,000 feet. Of possi- ble value as a stock for almonds and peaches in dry and hot regions. Out of the bitter kernels, collected from the wild trees, the natives of Turkestan pro- duce an oil which, after heating, can be used for culinary purposes.’’ ( Meyer.) 28943. Prunus LycrompEs (Spach) Schneider. Buckthorn almond. From Zerafshan Valley, near Wishist, Samarkand, Turkestan. ‘‘(No, 1343a, July 14, 1910.) A spiny buckthorn almond of shrubby habits growing from 3 to 8 feet in height and found on stony and rocky mountain slopes and in cliffs at elevations of 3,000 to 7,000 feet above sea level. Of possible use in breeding a bushy type of almond or as a stock for almonds and peaches in dry, hot re- gions. Oil is produced from the kernel of this the same as from No. 28942.” ( Meyer.) 227 18 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 28942 to 29012—Continued. 28944. Prunus tycromes (Spach) Schneider. Buckthorn almond. From Zerafshan Valley, near Wishist, Samarkand, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1344a, July 14, 1910.) A large-fruited variety of the preceding number, to which the same remarks apply.”’ ( Meyer.) 28945. Prunus prosrrata Labil. Bush cherry. From mountains near Stood and Peki, Samarkand, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1345a, July 9 to 11, 1910.) A bush cherry found on stony and sterile mountain slopes and in cliffs. Grows from 1 to 8 feet tall and bears multitudes of small red cherries of a sour taste that vary much in flavor and size on different plants. This cherry apparently stands a great deal of cold and drought. After some improvement it might be made into a fruit for the home garden in the more northern sections of the United States. It may possibly be hybridized with the large-fruited sweet and sour cherries and therewith give rise to a race of bush cherries suitable for growing in the drier sections of the United States. It may also be tested as a possible dwarfing stock for cherries in dry and sterile localities.’’ ( Meyer.) See also remarks under No. 1331a (S. P. I. No. 28022). 28946. Prunus microcarpa ©. A. Meyer. Cherry. From mountains near Bacharden, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1346a, June 5, 1910.) A wild cherry growing into a tall bush up to 10 feet high. Found between stony débris in dry river beds and on rocky mountain sides. Apparently stands great drought. Perhaps of value as a stock for cherries in stony and dry localities.’”’ ( Meyer.) See also remarks under Nos. 473 (S. P. I. No. 27303) and 1266a (S. P. I. No. 27337). 28947. PRUNUS sp. Cherry. From Askabad, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1347a, June 9, 1910.) A small, dark- red, sour cherry, very juicy; said to come from Persia. Used stewed in com- potes, and in spirits. To be tried under irrigation in the dry and hot sections of the United States.’ ( Meyer.) 28948. PRUNUS CERASIFERA DIVARICATA (Ledeb.) Schneider. Plum. From Askabad, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1348a, June 9,1910.) A small sour plum, round, not larger than a marble, of green color, with red cheek, clingstone. Said to come from Persia. Used stewed in compotes and with meats. Called Alitcha. To be tried as a garden fruit under irrigation in the oo and hot sec- tions of the United States.’’ (Meyer.) 28949. PRUNUS CERASIFERA DIVARICATA (Ledeb.) Schneider. Plum. From Askabad, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1349a, June 9, 1910.) A small sour plum of green color, larger than the preceding number, but otherwise the same remarks apply to it. Called Alitcha.’’ ( Meyer.) Norr.—‘‘These plums are apparently not grafted, but are raised from seed. Although small and sour, their early-fruiting capacities recommend them for hybridization work.’’ ( Meyer.) 28950. PRUNUS CERASIFERA DIVARICATA (Ledeb.) Schneider. Plum. From Old Bokhara, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1350a, June 20, 1910.) A small, red, round plum of very sweet taste, called Alitcha. Used fresh like ordinary plums. Of value like preceding numbers.’ ( Meyer.) 227 OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1910. 19 28942 to 29012—Continued. 28951. PRUNUS CERASIFERA DIVARICATA (Ledeb.) Schneider. Plum. From Zerafshan Valley, near Wishist, Samarkand, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 135la, July 14, 1910.) A wild plum found sparingly along watercourses at an eleva- tion of about 4,500 feet; grows as a dense shrub or small tree and bears in most remarkable quantities small, round, green plums with a reddish hue. Owing to their great productiveness and their resistance to long periods of drought and heat these plums may prove valuable in hybridizing work.’”’ ( Meyer.) 28952. PrRUNUs sp. From near Kulikalan, Samarkand, Turkestan. ““(No. 1352a, July 9, 1910.) An ornamental species of Prunus which grows to be a small tree; it has large light-green leaves and bears long racemes of small, scarlet, oval fruits of a sweet- bitter taste. Found along a watercourse in the mountains, altitude about 6,000 feet. Of value as an ornamental park and garden tree.”’ ( Meyer.) 28953 to 28962. “The following numbers of apricots should be sown to obtain some superior varieties of apricots with sweet kernels which would bring a much higher price on the market than the present bitter kernels do.’’ (Meyer.) 28953. PRUNUS ARMENIACA L, Apricot. From Askabad, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1353a, June 9, 1910.) A small pale-yellow apricot, flesh rather hard, freestone, kernel large and sweet. Said to come from Persia.’’ ( Meyer.) 28954. PRuNUS ARMENIACA L, Apricot. From Askabad, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1354a, June 9, 1910.) A smooth- skinned apricot of pale-yellow color; looks like a nectarine. Said to have come from Geok-tepe, Turkestan.” ( Meyer.) 28955. Prunus ARMENTACA L. Apricot. From Askabad, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1355a, June 9, 1910.) A waxy- white variety of apricot of a very sweet and melting taste; clingstone; sweet kernel. Said to come from northern Persia.”’ ( Meyer.) 28956. PruNUS ARMENIACA L. Apricot. From Askabad, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1356a, June 9, 1910.) A large orange-yellow apricot of a sweet melting taste; somewhat fibrous; semi- clingstone; kernel sweet. Said to come from Persia.” ( Meyer.) 28957. Prunus ARMENTIACA L, Apricot. From Askabad, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1357a, June 9, 1910.) A yellow apricot of remarkable clingstone properties.”’ ( Meyer.) 28958. PruNUS ARMENIACA L. Apricot. From Old Bokhara, Turkestan. ‘‘(No. 1358a, June 20,1910.) ) = J ~ 2 zr ~ a a 7) 5 ALL THE OTHER SPIKES ARE HEAVILY LOADED AND TOGETHER BEAR ABOUT 130 NuTS. DISEASED COCONUT TREE, SHOWING ONE SPIKE (AT “‘X’’) THAT HAS LosT ITS NuTs. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 228. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. \ THE HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. BY JOHN R. JOHNSTON, Assistant Pathologist, Laboratory of Plant Pathology. Issued February 5, 1912. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOE. 1912, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY. Assistant Chief of Bureau, WILLIAM A. TAYLOR, Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL. Chief Clerk, JAMES E. JONEs. LABORATORY OF PLANT PATHOLOGY. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. Erwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge. R. E. B. MeKenny, Special Agent. Florence Hedges, Assistant Pathologist. Nellie A. Brown, Lucia McCulloch, and Mary Katherine Bryan, Scientific A ssistants. 228 2 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bureau or Piant INDUSTRY, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., June 22, 1911. Sm: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for publication as Bulletin No. 228 of the series of this Bureau the accompanying technical paper by Mr. John R. Johnston, entitled ““The History and Cause of the Coconut Bud-Rot.” This paper deals with a very destructive and widespread disease of coconuts which has been known to occur in Cuba for more than 30 years, and undoubtedly the same disease occurs also in Jamaica, in the Cayman Islands, in British Guiana, and in British Honduras. The results presented are based on investigations covering a period of four years, the extent and nature of the disease having been studied in Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad, and British Guiana. Respectfully, B.. T... Gaimoway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. JAMes WItson, Secretary of Agriculture. ay) 1" iu” 5 ¢ voit —- a es ii To at : i i en) = ° ¢. Tee onl 4 pally i Oy awit CONTE WES: SPEEA a ene ce Poe Lg Nn tc manecene AY et Peay a ae per PrenCrolCIstr DION OL tne Giseases j2402 saci te eo eS id cpap Wan, ans ap heres mo STANTS ELE ee RSE SS ee eee See See See Gods Ser CE TELIT TE ASU a0 FE ee a ee Ee Se a erie ON GUT AS! 225 ceecs Ay oR bp ce BB kel ee ea J ULUTSLA CALE ee. ee ene en Se teeny Meee os” Ce ee BETIS NR STS cee ee ea SR en See ae bali pinerislands' <2 29 32.8 4s 5. a ee od a ee Re a General investigation of the disease in the West Indies..................--.--- Investigations of the disease by the writer..........------.-.-.--------------- PeErCEOE THO COCONUL WEG... <...2s)-s'sik ede = on 3s a2 ee at aae oes er EIEIO LHC CISCARO. — f15 52% oa ela) oat te ois ome 5 eee es oe MME BEPMLIRL SIAL DR 08 yn Ss 3a = 38 Os ee chee es oS oS eA ee EMP IMOG MAM ONG oc stoke aes ee Ase at ite 5, ae ee 5S Sel Bape LUOM see fee te a at eh Se net es ees ad Remedial and preventive experiments...........--.....----------------- LECLERC ne ee? Oe: AR ee See ae es eee aaa Laboratory and greenhouse studies of the disease..............--.-+--------- STINE SIGE aia ayer T2501 Ps a a ane ee ene et ne Studies of the group characteristics of the organism......-.....-.---.- Morphology of organism and colony...-...---------------+------- Stoning iti ame WEtNOUWL Alls... - oo. - ea coirms aa eels Ss 2 Liquefaction of gelatin......:.... Ey eA eee Production of acid and aoe in Aenea. RUS Sexson pines Produchion of acid and vas in lactose..2.-2..¢---<--eln-<424-202- Production of acid and gas in saccharose.............-.---------- Growth in nitrate bouillon Color Prom tie tates ee ia i adios GrOwtlh OW Biate a TC Nme me kk ee eh oy oad ona Production of acid and gas in glycerin.............-.-.---------- Group number of the coconut organism............-.----------- i) i) ie) 6 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. Laboratory and greenhouse studies of the disease—Continued. Cultural experiments—Continued. Page. Special test reactions for the identification of the organism........... Vc Dolt‘s synthetic medium \No.. 1. sec css one's. ot dace 79 Neutral red used in various media... 0 <6. cea 2 teetee ae eee 80 MacConkey’s bile-salt agar with neutral red...............-....- 83 Test of TD: Bavas,. ..ceceea sca eee kb be ele 85 Dest 3 of D: Hives. :.. ecceeeresecivey sos daddies ead cee ae 85 Growth on’ EBndo’s fuchsin arari-s —. +. -..22 52.5.6 ee eee 88 Stoddart’s plate medina. : sof) Sicad22 222 PL eneae 91 Hice’s tube mediums: 322.5022 5iesie.26 tie a 91 Growfth'in sterile malk.::2050..1:2. 1c eo oe 92 Growth iss tetas wale 2s 32.22 Ss See eee son soe 5 ee 92 Products of growth of the organiom:: - 2.02. 2.2 2e sc eee 92 Production ofindol and phenol.......::......:2 5550s 92 Production of hydrogen sulphid.....:..:..:....-2.2-22¢2..eeee 93 Production of ammonia... 225-250. -).21255.4 221 ee 93 Hinz ypam milk... ie koe oie ities 2c) 94 Production of alcohols, aldehydes, and acetone............-...--- 96 Production of ‘volatile and fixed acids... ...-../2)._-/2.. eee eee 97 Reductionior colors... ....-...52+-2-0-6-255.2- 2one «ee 100 Growth on miscellaneous culture media.............--..---.-------- 101 Nitropen-iree media..-..-2.222.. 205.12. 2.25-.+-2 25. eee 101 Fischer’s mineral solution with various nutrient substances...... . 104 Media with malachite green..-...-.--.-..0:.....5--. 5.3 106 Beef agar'containing caffein.............--. 2... 262+ ee 107 The media of Capaldi and Proskauer-::-........5...---s2eeeee 107 Beef bouillon of various degrees of acidity.........-..----..------ 109 Dunham’s solution with various proportions of sodium chlorid..... 111 Uschinusky sisolution..-.-< 2.0.02. .2...-.0-..2-26 252 ee 113 Colin’sisolirion. ...: 1 2....252222 25 225.106 2. ee 114 Potato aparee ss ). .. ook eee ee ee 114 Garrot Seatieecs.:-. 2s cei e oe kote dee oee es, eee 114 Titmus-hetose agar... 22229.L22i5 22525220 ee 114 Oxalic-acid agar... 2.2.20. 022555 5 2228 ee eee 114 Mereuric.eblorid . . -. 22232-5552. 2252-2. 2. eee eer 114 Monocalenim phosphate... ..... 52.2 .52--22 ee eer 115 Peptone solution containing rosolic acid........-..--.--..-------- 115 AU pM ee eee 5... SSS ES ate cee Sees ee eee 116 DBUeCCINIE ACIG...... 2522.22 20h epee nee ose ee 116 Coconut cylinders. .::: 2.022252) 55321. Sebo Se 117 Test 2 of Di Mivas:... 0... 0222 2 oe oe ee 118 Peptone with levulose, galactose, and mannit in fermentation fbiesteanees. 130 PAPMORIMTCEEL IN Otter t oe car sepa men ry ete Me as oi eh wlohe AU Say ne Meee one 131 BE PeRMeMb NOs On uo eer eae eM ela FA a the 135 ESEPCERMIOMGH NOs Gira kare lia ian Se ike ates sl coe es oo Racial hae as hol 136 Bacthincolt ihe cause of bud-rot.': 222 sso. 022. ke bese seek anes 2 136 Comparison of Bacillus coli with various organisms isolated from the coconut.. 142 Bud-rot attributed to causes other than Bacillus coli.......................--- 146 Mecurrence of the disease on other palms: 2. 2 2. nc send cpp n mew nnennd se 152 PEE ENISECSASEMCEV OS oe oct eo cio eeda 2 peg TR a cy 156 nemo me COCOTIUE PTOI io. os oie oie Bite Be eee oe a a ae ae og 159 © TDS Tg 2 ace RS eRe See RR ac Py one DS Bt 161 SeearRAE ATUL UNI Sto onc ofp alah ee te RS he ee eee 163 IRM eres 3-50 Sos oe eae aa Bee ea oy occa Nee Ak oN 165 REL US RAE ONS: PLATES. Page. Puate I. Diseased coconut tree, showing one spike that has lost its nuts. Frontispiece. II. Fig. 1. Open flower spike of coconut palm with diseased, black- ened tips. Fig. 2. Same, more advanced; wilted. Fig. 3. Water- soaked spots on inside of petiole; healthy sword at base........ 10 III. Fig. 1. Rotted sword of coconut palm. Figs. 2 and a Water-soaked SPOON ITSIGe at, DEBe\OF, PEblOle so 2. elie. 15 oee secant sicie cys 2s Se 14 IV. Diseased coconut tree at Montego Bay, Jamaica..................--- 18 V. Figs. 1 and 2. Bacterial and fungous spots on middle leaves of coco- nut palm. Fig. 3. Fungous spots on middle leaves.............- 22 VI. Fig. 1. Diseased coconut trees 3 miles inland from Baracoa, Cuba. Fig. 2. Top of coconut tree blown over on account of rotted base OF TVD: CEng SU en I UL a a 26 VII. Diseased coconut trees at Baracoa, Cuba ..........0....-.......---- 30 VIII. Bacterial inoculation, showing destruction of fundamental tissue about woody fibers of coconut palm; cross and longitudinal sec- GIONS 50 9s ae ami Sea CRN US a oe 40 IX. Fig. 1. Bacterial inoculation of coconut palm No. 380, showing dis- 228 coloration of the sheath. Fig. 2. Bacterial inoculation of coco- nut palm No. 248, showing decay of inner tissues ......---------- 44 a a HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT., <. Fig. 1. Diseased coconut tree, showing blackened part of sheath above the white, healthy portion. Fig. 2. Diseased coconut tree, showing dark water-soaked spots at base and side of petiole...... . Seedling coconut split open to show parts..................-.-.-.-- . Result of inoculating Bacillus coli into coconut seedlings .......... . Fig. 1. Drawing from microtome section of diseased tissues of bud- rot, showing bacteria in stomatal cavity. Fig. 2. Drawing from microtome section of diseased tissues of bud-rot, showing bacteria between the walls of normal cells..................33-.2..2--t-0. . Fig. 1. Microtome cross section through small leaf bud of coconut palm. Fig. 2. Enlargement of a portion from midrib of leaflet... TEXT FIGURES. . Map of the eastern ‘end of Cuba-.-...:-...025252.2.0..50-.s56 see . Map of Jamiaieas ico... ole es ke ence ee ee Map of Trinidad! 22222256 tions. belie a2 ees ke en Map of @ portion’ of British Guiana... -.-.-..2-----.-.-5--22-5- eee . Map of the tropical countries of the world...............-..--.------- . Diagram showing diseased coconut trees in Trinidad..............-..-- . Map of Porta feos? - 2... ta ns obec eee toe ee Diagrammatic cross section of bud of the coconut palm..............- . Diagrammatic longitudinal section of bud of the coconut palm. ....... . Diagrams showing the progress of the bud-rot in a coconut grove at SOMDNAMNRWN YE Baracoa, Cuba, from March 10 to October 21, 1908..........-.-.... 228 B. P. I.—691. THE HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-kOT. INTRODUCTION. For more than 30 years the people of Cuba have discussed the cause of the gradual dying off of their coconut trees and have tte mpted to overcome it, but without success. As a result of the unchecked progress of the disease the coconut groves have now almost disappeared from the western part of the island and are con- fined in a commercial way to a very small strip along the coast in the Baracoa district at the extreme eastern end. Ten to eighteen million nuts have been exported from this locality to the United States annually for the last few years. Dr. Erwin F. Smith, working on the disease in 1904, in the neighborhood of Baracoa, writes as follows: “If it continues to spread as it has done during the past 10 years it will inevitably destroy the coconut industry of the island, and that, too, within the next 10 or 15 years.”’! This disease of the coconut is by no means confined to Cuba. It has caused great loss in Jamaica, British Honduras, Trinidad, and British Guiana, countries that are important sources of coconuts for the United States. The trouble occurs also in less important places in tropical America. A dying off of coconut trees in the Eastern Hemisphere is thought by some to be caused by a disease identical with that in the West Indies. It is probable that this is a widespread trouble, occurring wherever coconuts are grown. Desultory studies have been made of this disease at intervals ever since the early eighties, and it has been ascribed to various causes, such as insects, fungi, bacteria, atmospheric conditions, and soil. A malady so actively destructive in certain districts demands more attention from scientific investigators. The present work has been carried on with the hope of establishing the cause and finding a remedy. The writer believes he has suc- ceeded in showing that the disease is infectious and that it is due to 1 Smith, Erwin F. The Bud Rot of the Coconut Palm in the West Indies. Science, n. s., vol. 21, Mar. 31, 1905, pp. 500-502. 228 10 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. certain specific bacteria, but methods by which it can be absolutely controlled remain yet to be found. - 35. 0 0 0 0 0 OCU | iy ee One bubble. il 13 10 10 Cr Cii ns ee 0 0 0 0 0 @oconuti4: <4. 2... - 0 0 0 0 0 Pocrnipine eos! Few bubbles. 10 ll ll 10 CURT Ty ok Ronee 0 0 0 0 0 In Table X it is seen that cultures Nos. 2 and 5 have produced gas in the glycerm medium while the others have failed. This experi- ment was repeated to determine if the same result would again be obtained at a higher temperature. The results appear in Table XI. iSavage. W. G. The Characters of the Bacillus Coli as an Indicator of Excretal Contamination. Lancet, London, vol. 168, Feb. 4, 1905, p. 287. * Giddings, N. J. A Bacterial Soft Rot of Muskmelon, Caused by Bacillus Melonis,n.sp. Bulletin 148, Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, January, 1910, p. 400. The author reports 6 per cent of gas formed in nutrient broth cultures of Bacillus coli containing 2 per cent glycerin. 228 76 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT, TaBLe XI.—Amount of gas (in mm.) produced by various cultures in 1 per cent peptone plus 1 per cent glycerin at 87° C., June 18-27, 1910. Culture. 2 days. | 3 days. | 4 days. | 7 days. | 9 days. Maconh.1.... oo scans deity cdetoomiddevae stele semen epeake eeseees 2). ee (t 1 2 ROMS TEULG athe cee perce tte ne De pe omen et peo Ee be ie eee e 336 ry y | ¢ Ys “) 40 papray CL LELE G Ad ci, 22 DLS OS AI CT aR La (1) (1) a (1) (2) SITE CHT AE RY aR PPR © aN San PS TRS aS OS Aes Pe (1) Q) | a3 () (2) WOCUNUMD Hse unss oboe seat Savi f Be SM ifaee. Roca Aeon Lip ye 4 | 832/ (4) 32 32 30 MOGDOUMG Ec cuehs Gets ee aici a cn ccs See ueb nee ene beet ee (1) (1) (1) (1) (2) Bacws Coll WGChings) eh ace ew iat aces comet cap seve ace oes ans 0 (1) () 18 21 BacihhtsGolt GB) AVL ice. ode doedsse Ge oe ree aces teen cee 1) 5] @ ill 27 32 Baclns coll Cctv) 2 oak 5 4 aoe hee oe ere ee 4 (4) (®) 29 32 SBCUIMNIS COMO LUI V—-OD) |< ars ciclo ristaniat ne min woes wae can emotes ¢ 5 17 27 27 BOM mee eaELS. ccet cca Jee een eet ee rege (6s) | (8) (6) (8) (8) 1 No gas; barely clouded in closed end. 4 About as before. 2 No gas; thinly clouded in closed end. 5 Two large bubbles of gas. 3 Moderately clouded in closed end. 6 Clear in both ends. GROUP NUMBER OF THE COCONUT ORGANISM. It has been found in some of the preceding experiments that the six coconut cultures were neither constant nor identical in their reac- tion in every medium. In the case of liquefaction of gelatin, No. 1 liquefied the gelatin after several weeks, the others not even after six months. In dextrose medium all produced gas; No. 1 more than the others. In lactose medium all produced gas sometimes, but not always. In media containing saccharose as the only carbohydrate all the cultures produced gas at one time or another. In nitrate bouillon all the cultures reduced the nitrates to nitrites. As to color of the colonies, all may be considered nonchromogenic. As to growth on starch media, the coconut organisms have been definitely proved to have a variable effect on the starch, sometimes converting it rapidly into amylodextrin but more frequently feebly or not at all. In glycerin media the production of gas occurred only in Nos. 2 and 5. Doubtless the other strains might also produce gas if grown under the right conditions. It seems more reasonable to believe this than not for this reason: Nos. 2 and 5 are cultures isolated from two different coconut seedlings which were inoculated with Nos. 1 and 4, respec- tively, and 1 and 4 have here behaved alike. Moreover, Nos. 2 and 5, after being isolated, were reinoculated into two different coconut seedlings and from them were derived cultures Nos. 3 and 6, respec- tively, these being identical in this case with Nos. 1 and 4. That in such a set of experiments Nos. 3 and 5 are different species or varie- ties is an idea scarcely conceivable. Granted that this organism, represented by the six strains is capable of producing gas in glycerin media, it then appears that for this organism the following formula according to the chart of the Society of American Bacteriologists must be used: 222.1111021. The identity of this formula with that of Bacillus coli is at once apparent. Under these circumstances many more biological features of the coconut organism must be ascertained in order to distinguish it from or to identify it with the colon organ- 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. ver ism. As much work has been done by various investigators toward ascertaining a ready means of identifying Bacillus coli, it has been deemed advisable to consider these special means of identification before taking up the many miscellaneous biological features com- monly discussed in this sort of work. SpecraL Test REACTIONS FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE ORGANISM. Various bacteriologists, working in connection with public boards of health or independently, have adopted routine methods for deter- mining the presence of Bacillus coli in drinking water or elsewhere. In some cases these methods are considered by their users as sufficient to ascertain definitely the presence or absence of this organism. In other cases the probabilities are that the organism in question is Bacillus coli or some closely allied form. The tests made consist of only one or two or of several reactions. The adoption of the special methods here will be of service, not only in characterizing the coconut organism, but also in ascertaining any differences that there may be between it and Bacillus colt. Of those reactions described in the following pages Dr. Theobald Smith * claimed that the production of gas to the amount of 40 to 70 per cent in dextrose media demonstrated the presence of the colon group of bacteria, the hog cholera group, Bacillus lactis aerogenes, and Friedlander’s bacillus. In order to determine from among these various bacteria the true Bacillus coli, Dr. Smith suggested? that the following reactions were sufficient: Growth on gelatin in the form of delicate bluish or more opaque whitish expansions with irregular margins; actively motile when examined in a hanging drop from young surface colonies taken from the gelatin plates; coagulation of milk within a few days; growth upon potato either a rich, pale or brownish yellow deposit, or merely glistening, barely recognizable; also gives a distinct indol reaction. Behavior of the organism in the fermentation tube must conform to the following scheme: Variety A: One per cent dextrose bouillon at 37° C. Total gas about one-half the volume of the closed arm. Proportion of hydrogen to carbon dioxide about 2:1. Reaction strongly acid. One per cent lactose bouillon. As in dextrose bouillon with slight variations. One per cent saccharose bouillon. Gas production slower than in the preceding. Total gas finally about two-thirds. Proportion of H to CO, nearly 3 to 2. The final reaction in the bulb may be slightly acid or alkaline according to the rate of gas produced. Variety B: The same as variety A, except that in saccharose bouillon neither gas nor acid is formed. 1Smith, Theobald. The Fermentation Tube. The Wilder Quarter-Century Book, 1893, p. 229. 2 Smith, Theobald. Notes on Bacillus Coli Communis and Related Forms. American Journal of Medical Science, vol. 110, 1895, pp. 283-302, 228 78 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. Dr. B. H. Stone ' describes a rapid method of identifying Bacillus coli in water. A fermentation tube is filled with 2 per cent glucose bouillon and this is inoculated with 1 cubie centimeter of the water to be examined and grown 24 hours at 38° C. If from 25 to 70 per cent of gas is formed in the closed arm Bacillus coli is probably present. From those tubes which produce this amount of gas transfers of 0.5 c. c. are made to tubes containing 10 ¢. c. of neutral broth to which has been added 0.3 c. c. of Parietti’s solution, and the tubes are grown 24 hours at 38° C. From those tubes containing Parietti’s solution transfers of 0.5 ¢. c. are made to fresh fermentation tubes, and if gas is produced as before there is reasonable certainty that the organism is Bacillus coli. Further confirmation is obtained by ascer- taining the gas formula, that of the colon group being H:CO,::2:1. Further transfers from the supposed Bacillus coli may be made into gelatin stab cultures, into litmus milk, and into Dunham’s solution for indol. Also the morphology may be ascertained. These reactions are considered by Dr. Stone sufficient to verify the identification of Bacillus colt. Drs. F. F. Longley and W. U. C. Baton? have published their routine method for identifying Bacillus coli in water, as follows: 1. Incubation in ordinary dextrose broth and fermentation tubes at 40° C. for 24 hours. From those tubes showing gas within 24 hours transfers are made to litmus- lactose-agar plates. 2. The litmus-agar plates are incubated at 40° C. for 18 to 26 hours. From those colonies which appeared red on these plates transfers are made to agar slants. 3. Agar slants are incubated for 24 hours at 40° C. Those slants which have the typical cultures characteristic of Bacillus coli are not examined microscopically. Atypical colonies are examined before discarding. 4. A. Those agar slants which show typical cultures are transferred to dextrose broth fermentation tubes and incubated at 40° C. for 24 hours. The absence of gas is con- sidered negative. The quantity of gas present and the proportion of CO, are not determined. 4. B. Milk. Transfers to milk cultures are incubated at 40° C. for two days and examined daily for coagulation and digestion of the casein. Coagulation indicates Bacillus coli. 4, ©. Nitrate broth cultures. Incubated at 40° C. for two days and then tested for nitrites. The presence of nitrites indicates Bacillus coli. 4. D. Peptone broth. Cultures incubated for three days at 40°C. and tested for indol. Presence of indol indicates Bacillus coli. 1Stone, B. H. A Rapid Method of Detecting Bacillus Coli Communis in Water. American Medicine, vol. 3, Jan. 25, 1902, p. 154. 2 Longley, F. F., and Baton, W.U.C. Notes on the Determination of Bacillus Coliin Water. Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 4, 1907, pp. 397-416. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 79 Dr. W. G. Savage ' studied the following points in identifying Bacil- lus coli: Motility, liquefaction of gelatin, type of colony on gelatin, indol production, acid production, milk coagulation, and fermentation of dextrose and lactose. ‘Dr. D. Rivas? states that the usual method for identifying Bacillus coli is as follows: Plating out in Wurtz’s litmus-agar plates with 1.5 to 2 per cent Parietti’s solution. Examined after 24 hours’ incubation at 37° C. All the pink colonies are isolated and transferred to sugar media for fermentation. Transfers are made to Dunham’s solution to test for indol. Also to nitrate bouil- lon to test for reduction of nitrates to nitrites. Further transfers are made to gelatin tubes for liquefaction or nonliquefaction. Dr. J. J. Kinyoun uses Endo’s fuchsin agar for the determination of Bacillus coli. His method of making up the medium is one that he considers as furnishing a very distinctive test, as follows: Take 2 liters tap water, 40 grams Liebig’s meat extract, 40 grams Witte’s peptone, 20 grams sodium chlorid, 160 grams agar flour. Put intoa tall beaker and steam for three hours. Let settle over night. Cut off dirty part and throw away. Melt the remainder and neutralize to phenolphthalein. Add 4 c¢. c. off hydrochloric acid. Steam one hour. This forms the stock, which should be clear. The crux of the whole for- mula lies in the following: Take 200 c. c. of this hot stock and add to it 2 grams of lac- tose. Then add 2c.c. of a solution of basic fuchsin (half-saturated solution) and 10 c. c. of fresh sodium-sulphite solution (5 grams to 100 c. c. of water). Divide into eight lots of 25 c. c. each to form the triallots. Make upa10 percent solution of sodium carbonate, and add of this to the trial lots, in varying amounts, as follows: 0.01 c¢. c., 0.02 c. c., 0.03 c. c., 0.04 c.c., ete. Pour into large plates, cool, and streak for colon, typhoid, etc. Incubate 24 hours at 37° C. The standard of alkalinity to be used on the remainder of the stock is that of the plate which has given the most characteristic results. Fill and set away the stock in 100 c. c. portions in bottles plugged with cotton. As there is much water of condensation, the agar is hardened in the plates uncovered in a clean place. Air germs (exclusive of molds) seldom grow on it. These points are stated to be the most essential in the identification of Bacillus coli. The growth of the coconut organisms in various other media is de- scribed on the following pages. DOLT’S SYNTHETIC MEDIUM NO. 1. On slant cultures in Dolt’s medium a good pink growth appeared within 24 hours, and the agar became partly reddened. Evidence of gas appeared in tubes of coconut No. 2 and Bacillus coli. Repetition of this experiment gave exactly the same result with the exception of no gas production. The growth along the streak was for the most 1Savage, W.G. The Characters of the Bacillus Coli as an Indicator of Excretal Contamination. Lan- cet, London, vol. 168, Feb. 4, 1905, p. 284. 2Rivas, D. B. Coli Communis, ‘‘The Presumptive Test,” and the Sewage Streptococci in Drinking Water. Journal of Medical Research, vol. 16, 1907, pp. 85-98. 228 80 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. part wet shining, smooth, and with raised margins. Near the top the growth consisted of more or less isolated colonies. In tube No. 1 a subsequent tendency to bleaching of the litmus appeared. In all the tubes the litmus was first reddened. This medium is made up as follows: Cubic centimeters. Puriied sger (3 per cent solutios) -< -2.. 22. .> 2. 40s-<+ ss = anes eee 500 CSTV CLIUN sae enya < oie ars 5 grams Ammonium phosphate..1 gram} -/)..'.--. 2... papoose ee 500 Distilled*wateri.: 5-2. $2.5 3c NaOH was used to neutralize, and 1 per cent lactose added just before sterilization. Litmus was added in sufficient quantity tomake a good blue color. NEUTRAL RED USED IN VARIOUS MEDIA. The use of neutral red in differentiating Bacillus coli from other species has been widely recommended. A few other organisms be- have in a similar way, but the reaction at least differentiates a group of organisms if not a single one. A useful way to use neutral red in determining Bacillus coli is in fermentation tubes. This method and others are here described. TaBLE XII.—Growth of coconut and Bacillus coli cultures of March 15, 1910, in fer- mentation tubes, using neutral red with 1 per cent dextrose and 1 per cent peptone solu- tion in river water, incubated at 37° C. Culture. 3 days. 6 days. 8 days. | 15 days. | Coconut 5....-- Greenishinclosedend;} Pink in open end; | Pale pink in closed | No change. 30 mm. gas. greenish-yellow in end: bright | ge in closed end. or end; mm. Coconut 5a....-. Pink in both ends; 25 |....- GOs5 janceose roe Greenish yellow in Do. mm. gas. closed end; pink in open end; 28 mm. | gas. Bacillus coli...| Pink in both ends; 26 | Pink in bothends..... Pink in both ends; 32 Do. mm. gas. mm. gas Bacillus coli a. . cea inclosedend;| Pink in open end; | Pale pink in closed Do. 24 mm. gas. bleached in closed end; bright pink in end. open end; 27 mm. gas. The greenish-yellow color seen in tubes 5 and Bacillus coli a of this experiment is typical of the neutral-red reaction. Tubes 5 and 5a, Bacillus coli and Bacillus coli a, derived, respectively, from 5 and Bacillus coli, did not show the same reaction. As the two tubes each from different cultures were made under the same conditions from the same tubes, this difference in results suggests an unreliability in the reaction. Further work, however, tends to show that the greenish- yellow or canary-yellow color is generally present. In other media it is demonstrated more clearly. 1Dolt, Maurice L. Simple Synthetic Media for the Growth of Bacillus Coli and for Its Isolation from Water. Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 5, 1908, p. 625, 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 81 Cultures with peptone and dextrose plus neutral red were made in ordinary test tubes. The check was an orange-red color. The culture tubes became in four days a magenta. In nine days they were a deep magenta with the exception of tube No. 1, which had paled to an orange red. The change to an orange-red color may be accounted for by the production of ammonia, a small amount of which is found in peptone cultures of this organism. (See p. 93.) This experiment was repeated with the same results. The color of the culture solutions (except No. 1, almost bleached) in transmitted light corresponds to Tyrian rose, tint No. 3, Répertoire de Couleurs, Publié par la Société Frangaise des Chrysanthémistes. Cultures without dextrose were made. In four days these still re- mained a pink color, though a trifle paler than the check. In nine days all were orange red. This experiment was repeated with the same result. The color of the culture corresponded to reddish terra cotta, tint No. 2, Répertoire de Couleurs. The check tube very closely corresponded to the red- dish old rose, tint No. 4. In none of these cultures in peptone solutions with neutral red in straight test tubes was there any of the canary-yellow color pro- duced. This is undoubtedly due to the strictly aérobic condition of the straight tube containing a liquid, while in the straight tube with the solid agar or in the fermentation tube anaérobic conditions existed which apparently are necessary for this canary-yellow re- action. The change of color under aérobic conditions with and with- out dextrose was caused by the acid production. In the presence of sugar acids are produced which change neutral red to a magenta color. The production of acid was not tested except in the presence of dextrose, saccharose, lactose, and glycerin; but gas, which is an indication of acid production, was observed to form in the presence of levulose, galactose, and mannit. TaBLE XIII.—Growth of various cultures of March 18, 1910, on agar, containing neutral red and dextrose, at 37° C. Culture. 1 day. 3 days. 5 days. Checks 2 sis cess-022 Redren=2s< =e. Sei fs Denese: RG S See AS scenes secre as Red. Coconut) 222222 2.-2 Red; gas; pink surface} Lower three-fourths canary | Practically all bleached growth. yellow; upper part pink; to a canary yellow. pink growth on _ surface; color somewhat bleached at top. Coconut:27... = .,..-2 Yellowish-green_ spots in | Lower three-fourths canary | Same as _ before. agar; gas; pink growth. yellow; pink growth on surface. COPORUt SG. 22 22-5 4--|-.0-6 (a (Sema rees a I S| ema 5 CE Bec eanaE ee naaeeee Do Coconuy4. 255. ik. 2|..-.2 GO sss feos Pe Eee OMe ee Soe senses eee Do Caconitt Gi e- 2 3.55 |255 doze. 32 32 eS. ei GOF San sates 2 soe skies Do CoconntG. Me. .2--|..- <6 COs a eens eee oe nes coe GOR eee eae Seaeeue wank Do Bacilns Cole .< 22..-|. 2.<. (0 Pie pees OOP tok eee ee ee ery OSs Sse eee ae Se Do 6389°—Bul. 228—12——-6 82 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. This experiment was repeated with another lot of neutral-red agar, believed to be the same as the first lot, with the exception of titrating three degrees higher on the Fullerscale. Whatever the cause may have been there was no change in the color of the medium from pink to canary yellow. A moderate amount of pinkish growth appeared on the surface, but otherwise there was no characteristic reaction. This medium was made up in each case with 1 per cent agar flour, beef bouillon made with distilled water, 2 per cent dextrose, and enough neutral red to make a bright pink. In MacConkey’s bile-salt agar (for full description see p. 83) con- sisting of peptone, sodium taurocholate, lactose, and neutral red, the canary-yellow color in the lower part of the medium was very striking. According to Hunter,! Rosenberger,? and Moore and Revis,’ the neutral-red reaction is characteristic of Bacillus coli and a few other organisms. This reaction is thus useful in separating this group of organisms from others. Moore and Revis have found that under certain conditions the canary-yellow reaction does not always result. In particular they found that in the presence of glucose the reaction seldom occurred. Lactose was considered to be the best sugar to use, and the result in MacConkey’s bile-salt agar containing lactose seems to verify this. It is stated by these authors that the canary- yellow color is only transitory when resulting in glucose media. For a further test of the constancy of this canary-yellow reaction experiments were made with agar media without sugar, with lactose, with dextrose, with saccharose, and with glycerin. The six coconut organisms and Bacillus coli were grown in these media in two different experiments. Table XIV shows the results of these experiments with B. coli and coconut No. 5. 1 Hunter, William. The Diagnosis of the Presence of Bacillus Coli Communis by Meansof Neutral Red. British Medical Journal, Sept. 21, 1901, pp. 791-792. % Rosenberger, R. C. The Identification of the Colon Bacillus by Reactions Produced in Culture Media Containing Neutral Red. Philadelphia Medical Journal, vol. 9, Mar. 8, 1902, pp. 446-449. 3 Moore, Ernest W., and Revis, Cecil. The Neutral-Red Reaction for Bacillus Coli Communis. Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, vol. 10, 1904-5, pp. 97-104. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 83 TaBLE XIV.—Growth of Bacillus coli and coconut No. 5 on agar containing neutral red and various sugars, May 9-21, 1910, at 37° C. Culture and | Te 1 day | 2 days 7 days 12 days Bacillus coli: Without sugar.| Pink growth; liquid | Excellent growth | Both growth and | Orange color in V greenish flu- in each tube. agar entirely throughout. orescent. changed toagreen- ish-orange yellow. With lactose. ..| Pink growth; slight |...-. (6 (ie eee ee Growth on surface | No sign of change greenish color in V bright pink. of color to green- ish; all red. With dextrose.| Same as without |..... COs ck eee cee lara ts (6 (NE eee secre Allred. sugar. With saccha- |..-.. Ox weeeecie oscal eases COs isneaeee Almost entirely | Greenish-orange rose. greenish yellow. yellow through- out. With glycerin. .|..... DOue seasescceccsle sete GOs Saeotece ae Growth on surface, | Pink growth; agar ; pink; one-third of greenish yellow, agar greenish yel- fluorescent. low. Coconut 5: Without sugar.| Pink growth; bright | Same as before, | Changed from pink | Orange color green fluorescence only in each case to orange yellow throughout. in V the green ex- with a green tinge. tends to bottom of tubes. With lactose. -..|....- dO sete: 2 /sionjs eis =| Dae = GOs ess sacs sese Bright red; shows | Bright red. no sign of greenish yellow. With dextrose.|...-. GOGa. se seas eae le ses C6 (eR ape ea cee does aere es A Do. With = saccha- |..... GOs -seeseieee sce | ated GO x cesecsse22 Greenish yellow in |} Most of growth is rose. lower part of front. pink; firm part of agar greenish yellow. With glycerin.|...-.. GOs ce sees secs cleess2 (5 Co eae ae Bee Bright red; shows | No change in color. no sign of greenish yellow. In these experiments coconut No. 1 reduced the color in nearly every instance. The remainder were for the most part like Bacillus coli and coconut No. 5. In nearly every case the culture in medium without sugar changed to the greenish-fluorescent and then to an orange-yellow color. In the media with lactose, dextrose, and gly- cerin the same greenish-fluorescent reaction took place over a part of the medium and growth, and then a darker purplish-red color appeared. In the medium with saccharose there is the same appar- ently permanent change to orange yellow from the pink to greenish fluorescence as in the tubes with no sugar. MACCONKEY’S BILE-SALT AGAR WITH NEUTRAL RED. The sodium taurocholate and the lactose in this medium are said to have an inhibitive effect on nearly all but the intestinal bacteria. The addition of neutral red further aids in separating the species. The medium here used was made up according to the method in Eyre’s Bacteriological Technique, page 169.1 1 See also Grunbaum, A. S., and Hume, E. H., ‘‘ Note on Media for Distinguishing Bacillus Coli, Bacil- us Typhosus, and Related Species,’’ in British Medical Journal, June 14, 1902, pp. 1473-1474, 228 84 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. TaBLE XV.—Growth of coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli on MacConkey’s bile-salt agar with neutral red in slant tubes, April 22 to May 2, 1910, at 87° C. Culture. 1 day. 3 days. 6 days. 10 days. 18 days. 1 aera Greenish fluorescent | No gas;upperpart} Somewhat|Somewhat| Same as on liquid in lower ofagardullpink;} bleached. bleached tenth day. part of V; in up- lower part green- throughout. per part, pink sus- ish yellow; pale pension; no gas; pink growth on good pink growth slant. like that on ordi- nary agar. Dioceses Gas; otherwise like | Gas; colorlikecul- | Same as on]! Bright pink] Bright pink culture 1. ture 1, except third day. owth on sur- throughout. for bright pink ace; portion of growth on slant. agar is greenish yellow. pore escs No_ gas; otherwise |..... OOewcrbats-cre|ocons GTS a Same as culture 2, | Only a tinge of like culture 2. only more green- eenish yel- ish yellow. ow. CEES Ree ah aaa ease Ss No gas; growth |....- dOLs ES s-s Bright pink| Bright pink and color like throughout. throughout. culture 2. | Peer Same as culture 2....| Gas; like culture 2.|..... dO 2 oso aloes 2 fs aR ek Do. Gioseesee Same as culture 3....|....-. GES cee see Se | cee Cs (ne ee ea es! Do. Bacillus |..... | eee el a i (ee ee ie a 2 a a | a fae cc (ee ee ee 8 Do. coli. Taste XVI.—Growth of coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli on MacConkey’s bile-salt agar with neutral red on plates, April 26 to May 2, 1910, at 87° C. Culture. 2 days. 4 days. | 6 days. 14 days. 1 eee eee Numerous fairly large | Round, wet-shining, | Same as on fourth | Same as on sixth white colonies. semitransparent, day. day. slightly pinkish col- onies; agar translu- | cent. Paes a ee Many tiny submerged | Numerous tiny sub- |..... doe) tere er Pink surface colonies; bright pink colonies; merged pink colo- | bright pink sub- surface colonies nies; moderate num- merged colonies; small, round, white ber of surface white agar semiopaque. or with pinkish or pinkish colonies; tinge. agar dull pink, opaque. Saeeiseess dure Few colonies with pe- | Numerous tiny sub- |..... (eee ere Same as culture 2, culiar tiny projec- merged pink colo- only agaris translu- tions. nies; moderate num- cent. ber of surface white : or pinkish colonies; agar translucent. le en Few colonies; not at all| Same as culture 3...-.)..... dO sacs ecnenteee Do. characteristic. : Gi osssdece ce Same as culture 2....-. Same as culture 2.....|..-.. dO s.3225 s22ssce2 Like culture 2. 6:ftes 3 Se Few colonies; notatall} Like culture 5, only |...-.- G0 sss eeseeeee Pink surface colonies characteristic. agar is translucent. bright pink sub- merged colonies; agar translucent. Bacillus | Like culture 2........ Like cultire\S..2--+-les-e< GOE ses sceccsseee Like culture 2. coli. | | From these experiments it will be seen that the organism in question grew very well on this medium, equally well with the Bacillus coli used. There was a little variation in the plates, but all the tubes were prac- tically alike with the exception of No. 1. It will be noted that the greenish-yellow fluorescence was only a transitory character, and that subsequent to it a bright pink or slightly purplish-pink semiopaque color was produced quite in contrast to the semitransparent orange- red of the check tubes. This reaction appears to be similar to that already discussed in the foregoing pages. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 85 TEST 1 OF D. RIVAS.! One-fourth c. c. of a 48-hour culture in neutral dextrose bouillon was rapidly boiled in about 5c. c. of 210 percent solutionof NaOH. Tests made with both the coconut organism and Bacillus coli gave the typical clear lemon-yellow color reaction of this test. The color in this reaction is discharged by acid and restored by alkali. This reaction depends upon the biological action of the bac- teria upon the sugar. This experiment was also tried using beef bouillon +14 instead of neutral, with the same results. Cultures in 1 per cent peptone with 2 per cent dextrose, titrating +3 likewise gave the same lemon-yellow reaction. TEST 3 OF D. RIVAS. According to Dr. Rivas,' Bacillus coli does not exhaust all the sugar from a medium, at least if there is any large amount. On this ground he would separate this organism from closely allied ones which he would place in a so-called saccharolytic group, i. e., those capable of exhausting all the sugar. So incomplete is the exhaustion of sugar by Bacillus coli that it is inadvisable to use it for the purpose of freeing beef bouillon from the small amount of muscle sugar it may contain. Bacillus cloace is said to be much preferable. At least a partial ex- planation of this condition is that Bacillus coli produces so much acid in the presence of sugar that it prevents the extensive growth that would otherwise take place. For the purpose of identifying the coconut organism with Bacillus coli tests were made of cultures in sugar solutions to ascertain the relative amount of sugar used in the growth of the organisms. Two methods were used for determining the amount of sugar remain- ing in the cultures after a certain amount of growth. Fehling’s solu- tion was diluted with an equal amount of water and divided among a number of small test tubes, 1 cubic centimeter being placed in each. To these the cultures were added in increasing amounts, beginning with one, two, three, etc., drops up to 1 cubic centimeter, and the mixture was then boiled. In the other experiments a less accurate method was used. Fehling’s solution was added directly to each 10 c.c. of the culture tubes. Amounts from 2 to 3 c. c. were added at a time and then boiled to bring about the reduction. Fehling’s was added only until the light orange-red color of the heated solution began to change to a greenish tinge. (1) Cultures of February 26 in medium 4192, tested after 55 days in Dunham’s solution with 2 per cent dextrose. The average of six 1 Rivas, D. Contribution to the Differentiation of Bacillus Coli Communis from Allied Species in Drink- ing Water. Journal of Medical Research, vol. 18, 1908, pp. 81-91. 228 86 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. tests with check solutions resulted in four drops of the sugar solution being sufficient to reduce completely 1 c. c. of Fehling’s solution. The cultures gave results as follows: No. 2: 2 drops reduced 1 c. c. of Fehling’s; that is, twice the amount of sugar. (This must be incorrect.) No. 5: 4 drops reduced 1 c. c. of Fehling’s; that is, no measurable amount of sugar was consumed. No. 6: 5 drops reduced 1 c. c. of Fehling’s; that is, one-fifth the amount of sugar. Bacillus coli: 6 drops reduced 1 c. c. of Fehling’s; that is, one-third the amount of sugar. No. 3: 5 drops reduced 1c. c. of Fehling’s; that is, one-fifth the amount of sugar. No. 4: 5 drops reduced 1 c. c. of Fehling’s; that is, one-fifth the amount of sugar. (2) Cultures in medium 4268 tested after five days in Dunham’s solution with 1 per cent dextrose, incubated at 37° C. Bacillus coli: 10 c. c. reduced 16.5 c.c. Fehling’s = one-fifth of the total amount. Bacillus coli a: 10 ¢c. c. reduced 18 c. c. Fehling’s = one-tenth of the total amount. No.5: 10c. c. reduced 17 c. c. Fehling’s = three-twentieths of the total amount. No. 5 a: 10 c. c. reduced 18 c. c. Fehling’s = one-tenth of the total amount. According to calculation the check tube of 10 c. c. with 1 per cent dextrose requires 20 c. c. of Fehling’s to reduce it. (3) Cultures similar to those in experiment 2 tested after 47 days. These cultures were dried down to less than one-half their original amount. As only a portion of each tube was tested the cultures were diluted to their original amount and well shaken up before using. It was found by repeated experiments with tubes of Bacillus coli and coconut No. 5 that 1 c.c. of the culture solution just completely reduced 1c.c.of Fehling’s solution. As10c.c. of Fehling’s is supposed to reduce 0.05 grams of dextrose, 1 c. c. must reduce 0.005 grams, and as the amount of dextrose used was 0.01 grams to the cubic centi- meter, one-half the original amount had been consumed by the bacteria. (4) Cultures in medium 4193, 1 per cent peptone and 2 per cent dextrose, tested after 12 days. Ten c. c. of culture No. 5 in this solution were able to reduce only 30 c.c. Fehling’s, thus showing that about one-fourth of the sugar had been used. It required 40 c. c. of Fehling’s solution to be completely reduced by the 10 c. c. of the check culture solution. (5) Cultures of February 26 in medium 4192, tested after 23 days. (See experiment 1.) The number of cubic centimeters of Fehling’s solution reduced by 10 centimeters of culture was as follows: No. 5, 38; Bacillus colt, 20; No. 1, 15; No. 3, 30; No. 6, 32; No. 4, 38; check, 43; check, 43. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 87 (6) Cultures in medium 4229, neutral beef bouillon plus 1 per cent dextrose, after 48 hours at 37° C. The number of cubic centimeters of Fehling’s solution reduced by 10 centimeters of culture was as follows: No. a, 10; No. 1a, 10; No.5, 10;"No: 1,:10;"No. 4 9,11: 'No.’4, 5; No. 3, 10; Bacillus coli, 10; check 2, 20; check 5, 10. The results in this experiment indicate that on an average one-half of the sugar was exhausted in 48 hours. The experiments may be summarized as follows: Experiment 1: In 2 per cent dextrose after 55 days. Bacillus coli used one-third of the amount of sugar. Coconut used one-fifth of the amount of sugar. Experiment 2: In 1 per cent dextrose after 5 days. Bacillus coli used two-twentieths to four-twentieths of the amount of sugar. Coconut used two-twentieths to three-twentieths of the amount of sugar. Experiment 3: In 1 per cent dextrose after 47 days at 37° C. Bacillus coli used one-half of the amount of sugar. Coconut used one-half of the amount of sugar. Experiment 4: In 2 per cent dextrose after 12 days. Baciilus coli not tested. Coconut (No. 5) used one-fourth of the amount of sugar. Experiment 5: In 2 per cent dextrose after 23 days. Bacillus coli used one-half of the amount of sugar. Coconut used one-twentieth to one-third of the amount of sugar. Experiment 6: In 1 per cent dextrose after 48 hours at 37° C. Bacillus coli used one-half of the amount of sugar. Coconut used one-half to three-fourths of the amount of sugar. In these experiments the amounts given for coconut are the average of the coconut organism series 1 to 6. The results indicate that from small quantities up to one-half! the amount of sugar in a 1 per cent or 2 per cent solution of dextrose is broken up by the organism. In experiment 6 the limit of coconut is given as three-fourths. This unusual amount may be due to error in the test, for it is difficult, even with the utmost care, to ascertain the exact end of the reduction in each case. In general, it seems safe to assume that any error lies on the side of reckoning too much sugar used rather than too little. It is a very easy matter to allow a little of the blue Fehling to stand unnoticed in the intense orange-red of the reduced solution. In these experiments, however, it is shown that Bacillus coli and the coconut organisms behave much alike in their relation to the sugar content of the medium. 1Scruel, M. Contribution 4 l’Etude de Ja Fermentation du Bacille Commun de I’Intestin.’”? Archives Médicales Belges, ser. 4, vol. 1, 1893, pp. 9-33, 83-107. M. Scruel records, for the amount of sugar consumed, the following: 1 day, 0.92 out of 3; 2 days, 1.22 out of 3; 3 days, 1.25 out of 3; 6 days, 1.28 out of 3. And another time: 1 day, 0.50 out of 2; 2 days, 0.78 out of 2; 3 days, 0.81 out of 2; 4 days, 0.88 out of 2. 228 88 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. GROWTH ON ENDO’S FUCHSIN AGAR. Endo’s method has been particularly discussed by Herford! and Ruata.2 By the latter it has been stated that one difficulty with the method is the instability of the medium, due to the looseness of the combination of fuchsin with the sodium sulphite and the inconstancy of the color reaction. Notwithstanding this objection, the writer believes that the variation of the medium will be the same for Bacillus coli as for the coconut organism, so that the behavior of the organisms on this medium can be compared regardless of any such difficulty. The method of making Endo’s fuchsin agar as given by Ruata, is as follows: Half a kilogram of powdered meat, 1 liter of water, 10 grams of peptone, 5 grams of sodium chlorid, and 30 grams of agar are boiled together; the mixture filtered and neutralized. Then 10 c. c. of a 10 per cent solution of sodium carbonate are added in order to render the fluid alkaline. Finally, 10 grams of lactose and 5 c. c. of an alcoholic solution of fuchsin are added. The medium assumes a deep-red color which disappears on the addition of 25 c. c. of a 10 per cent solution of sodium sulphite. The medium is then poured into tubes, each containing 15 c. c., and is sterilized by steam. In order to obtain good results all the constituents of this formula must be obtained pure, the solution of sodium sulphite must be kept well stoppered, and the solution of fuchsin must be filtered before using and must be kept in a dark place. When using this medium the agar, melted and cooled to 40° C., after inoculation is poured into sterilized petri dishes where it is allowed to solidify. These dishes are kept at 37° C., and after 15 hours colonies of the colon bacillus may be seen. After 24 hours these colonies become completely red and assume the greenish iridescence characteristic of fuchsin. In contrast to this reaction on the part of the colon bacillus, the typhoid bacillus remains colorless. Ruata states that in his experiments both the bacillus of typhoid fever and Bacillus coli either turn the medium red or do not color it, according to the variety of the germ and the particular source in each case, as well as according to the nutrient medium in which they have been cultivated, the age of the cultures, the quantity of the material used for infection, etc. 1 Herford, Max. Das Wachstum der zwischen Bacterium coliund Bacillus typhi stehenden Spaltpilze auf dem Endoschen Fuchsinagar. Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte, vol. 24, 1906, pp. 62-67. 2 Ruata, Guido. Il Metodo di Endo per la Differenziczione del Bacillo di Eberth del Bacillo del Colon. Reforma Medica, vol. 20, Apr. 27, 1904, pp. 449-453. Reviewed in the New York and the Philadelphia Medical Journal, July 16, 1904, p. 126. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 89 TasLeE XVII.—Growth of coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli on plates of Endo’s medium (made by Ruata’s method), April 21 to May 4, 1910, at 37° C. pha 1 day. 2 days. 4 days. 5 days. 7 days. 9 days. 13 days. 1 | Fairly thickly | White colon- | No sign of | Still uncol- | Still uncol- | Nocolor..|......_... sown with ies; no color, pink. ored. ored. colonies; or sign of white to iri- iridescence. descent. 2} Same as cul- | Small area | Halfofplate | Two-thirds | Less than |...do.......].......... ture 1. still white; with white} of plate one-sixth rest bright colonies ; brightly pink. pink. other half colored. with pink. 3 | Whitecolonies} Almost all of | Bright red | Same as be- | Same as be- | Brightred | At 45°C. without iri- many colo- colonies fore. fore. allover. | remains descence. nies are through- same. bright pink. out; same The light- as B. coli. colored ones are irides- cent; colo- nies are smooth, wet shining. 1) [eet do:.-. Part of plate | Small area |..... GOle =e FeNOusionsHof INO COLOR s [seas eaeeae bright pink. on one side pink. bright red. 5 | Same as cul-| Bright pink | About one-} Bright red | One-sixthof |...do.......|.......... ture 1, with over two- halfbright|} color over plate still aslight pink thirds of red. one-fourth pink. tinge to sur- plate. of plate. face of agar on one side. 6 | Whitecolonies| Portion ofcol- | Small area | Nopinkcol- | No sign of |...do.......|.......... without iri- onies are on one onies what-| pink. descence. bright pink, side bright ever; onl some with red. a pinkish denser cen- caste re- ters than maining in margins. a few. Bacil-| Wellsown. A | All colonies | Redthrough-| Brightred..| Remains |} Brightred | At 45°C. lus decided and all of out. bright red allover. | remains coli. pink color agar bright all over. same. throughout red; some plate. Col- colonies zon- onies pink in ate. direct light; iridescent in reflected light. From this first experiment it is seen that the reaction is not com- plete in all cases, and, moreover, it is not permanent in all cases In Bacillus coli and one of the coconut cultures (No. 3), which were placed in the thermostat at 45° C. after 9 days, the color reaction 13 days after inoculation was complete and apparently permanent. In other tubes portions of the plates became red and then bleached out. One culture (No. 1) failed to show the reaction. 228 90 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. TABLE XVIII.—Growth of cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli on plates of Endo’s medium (Ruata’s formula), April 26 to May 6, 1910, at 87° C. Culture. 2 days. 4 days. 6 days. 10 days. | Coconut 1- | Numerous white colo- | Numerous white colo- | Numerous white colo- | No color. nies. nies. nies. Coconut 2..; Numerousround white | About one-fifth of colo- | Same as before........ Only a trace of | colonies. nies are pink. pink Coconut 3..).....d0.................] Numerousround white | Many pink colonies Do. colonies. about circumference; center white. Coconut 4..|.._.. dor tet Pee Some of colonies are | Same as before........ Do. | iridescent. Coconut 5..)..... DOD. Sree se Colonies same form; all |... .. Go:sdas Fee Do. bright pink in color. Coconut 6..|..... GOSAEE sve eee ae ee Some of colonies are | About one-eighth of Do. iridescent and some the plate is pink. | pink. Be coli. b-22 | Numerous round white} Colonies all same form; | About one-fifth of the | Bright red all over. and some pink colo- all bright pink in colonies are bright nies. color. pink Slant-tube cultures on Endo’s medium, May 4 to 11, 1910, at 87° C. Two days: Bacillus coli and Bacillus colia were bright pink. Some of the others showed a tinge of color but nothing more, although the growth was good. Three days: Nos. 1 and 1 a are slightly pink. Bacillus coli and Bacillus colia are bright red throughout the medium. All others show a bright pink surface growth, but the bottom of these tubes is colorless. Five days: Nos. 1 and 1a are slightly pink. All the others are bright red through- out. Bacillus coliand Bacillus colia are a trifle brighter than the others. The. growth is good in all cases; pink, smooth, and wet shining. Seven days: No change. All but 1 and 1 astill retain their bright color. From these experiments it may be seen that the reaction of the medium seems to be the same for the coconut cultures as for Bacillus coli. Luxuriant white colonies which appear in transmitted light like drops of water first develop on the medium. Then appears a slight pink color, as seen in direct light, or an iridescence passing from pink to green and blue, as seen in reflected light. Later the pink darkens to a deep red and the colonies appear opaque. Thereis no sign of the greenish metallic fluorescence characteristic of fuchsin and mentioned by Ruata as a part of the typical reaction with Bacillus coli. In an attempt to obtain this reaction on old cultures two plates were placed at 47° C. until they were completely dried down. The bright red deepened to a dark magenta, but in no case were there any signs of the fuchsin metallic luster. In the original make-up of the medium ‘the fuchsin is decolorized by the sodium sulphite. This action probably results in the forma- tion of sodium sulphate and some colorless derivative of fuchsin. As a result of the growth of the organism some reducing agent is formed which removes the atom of oxygen from the sulphate and restores it to the fuchsin, thus yielding sodium sulphite and fuchsin if good growth takes place. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 91 STODDART’S PLATE MEDIUM. Stoddart’s plate medium is used to distinguish Bacillus coli from Bacillus typhosus. Its value depends upon the fact that a nonmotile or slowly motile organism forms a thick nonspreading or slightly spreading growth on the surface, while a moderately or rapidly motile organism will quickly diffuse throughout the medium and over the surface. The efficiency of this medium seems to the writer to be impaired by the fact that not only Bacillus typhosus is rapidly motile but many forms of Bacillus coli are also. For the purpose of com- paring the coconut cultures with those of Bacillus coli, however, the medium may well be of service. The composition of the medium was that described in Novy’s Bacteriology, page 492. It consisted of gelatin 5 per cent, peptone 1 per cent, agar 0.5 per cent, and NaCl 0.5 per cent. The method of using it was to pour into petri dishes and allow it to solidify. The organism to be tested was touched by means of an inoculating needle to the center of the surface of the medium. The Eberth bacilli are said to spread over the entire surface of the plate exposed at 35° C. for 18 hours and to form a transparent, scarcely visible growth. The nonmotile colon bacilli will form a small white colony on the surface without any diffusion. The motile colon bacilli will diffuse, but unlike the Eberth bacilli the growth will be opaque and easily visible. Stoddart’s plates, March 18, 1910, at 22° C. After 18 hours: Bacillus coli, and Bacillus coli a: Semiopaque growth over four-fifths of the late. esau: 5, 5a, 3, 3a: Entirely overgrown with semiopaque growth. Coconut 2, 2a, 6, and 6a: Same as B. coli. Coconut 1, 1 a, 4, and 4 a: Nine-tenths overgrown; semiopaque growth. The growth in all of these plates was very rapid, semiopaque, and wet shining. There was practically no difference between Bacillus colt and the coconut cultures. Evidently the strain of Bacillus coli here used and the coconut organism are rapidly motile. HISS’S TUBE MEDIUM. Dr. P. H. Hiss has used for differentiating the typhoid bacillus and the colon bacillus a certain ‘‘tube medium” and another ‘‘plate medium.”’ Only the tube medium? has been tried by the writer. It consists of dextrose 1 per cent, beef extract 0.5 per cent, gelatin 8 per cent, agar 0.5 per cent, NaCl 0.5 per cent. Ordinary stab cultures are made. The colon bacilli give rise to. gas bubbles, whereas the Eberth bacillus does not. 1 Hiss’s tube medium. Novy, Frederick G. Laboratory Work in Bacteriology, p. 494. Also Studies from the Department of Pathology of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, vol. 5, 1897-98, pt. 2; and Journal of Medical Research, vol. 8, 1902, pp. 148-167. 228 92 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT, Hiss’s tubes. April 14, 1910, at 22°C. One day: All the tubes, both Bacillus coli and the coconut, show abundant gas bubbles which are well distributed throughout the medium. Twodays: Same. March 18, 1910, at 37° C. One day: In all the tubes the medium is clouded through- out, and many gas bubbles are scattered throughout. In these tubes, as on the Stoddart plates, Bacillus coli and the coconut organism behaved alike and showed active motility. GROWTH IN STERILE MILK. Cultures of the coconut organism grown in sterile milk at room temperature coagulated the milk in from three to four days. It became a solid homogeneous mass and little or no whey was extruded. No subsequent digestion of the curd took place. Incubated at 37°C., the organism usually caused coagulation in two or three days; but some variability was shown. GROWTH IN LITMUS MILK. Cultures grown in litmus milk (lavender blue) usually changed the color of the medium within 24 hours to a dark lavender red, and within 48 hours it became lighter. At the end of two or three weeks the lower part of the culture became bleached. The milk itself gradually coagulated, as in the case of the sterile milk cultures, and usually no whey was extruded. (For further discussion of growth in plain and litmus milk see pp. 94-96.) Propucts OF GROWTH OF THE ORGANISM. PRODUCTION OF INDOL AND PHENOL. Cultures of the coconut organism were made in Dunham’s solution, which quickly clouded. After six days sulphuric acid was added, which, even after standing, failed to show any reaction. The addition of sodium nitrite to this, however, turned all of the tubes strongly pink in color, showing the presence of indol. This experiment was repeated with cultures of eight days’ growth and a light pink resulted from the test. A repetition of this experiment, using a five days’ growth and comparing with Bacillus coli, gave a light pink identical in each case. It is evident that this organism develops indol much the same as Bacillus coli, but whether in the end it develops as much is uncer- tain. Cultures of the coconut organism, together with four strains of Bacillus coli, were grown in Dunham’s solution. The tubes were incubated at 37° C. and tested at the end of 10 days. The results showed that all four of the Bacillus coli strains produced an equal amount of indol, and that each of the coconut organisms produced 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 93 nearly the same amount, respectively, except coconut No. 3, which showed as much as Bacillus colt. Other cultures of the organism were made in ordinary bouillon, and an attempt was made to separate indol and phenol, if present, by distillation. No results were obtained, either by the sulphuric-acid and sodium-nitrite test for indol or by the Millon’s reagent and the ferric-chlorid test for phenol. These experiments were repeated several times, and the same results were obtained. It would seem, therefore, that a small amount of indol may be produced, but no phenol. PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN SULPHID. Cultures of the coconut organism made in an iron-peptone solution had in a week’s time a slightly or wholly blackened precipitate, and the solution was either inclined to be a greenish black or was intensely green and black, thus indicating the production of hydro- gensulphid. Lead acetate paper used for testing the solution became discolored, also indicating the presence of hydrogen sulphid. Cultures were also made directly in a lead acetate solution with peptone and showed a good growth. The precipitate in all of the cul- ture tubes was black, indicating the production of H,S, while in the check tube the precipitate was white. These cultures were also tested with lead acetate paper, which showed the brown-black discol- oration typical of H,S. PRODUCTION OF AMMONIA. A 250-c. ¢. flask containing 100 ec. ¢. of beef bouillon +15, was inoc- ulated with the organism and incubated for 18 days. The culture was then distilled with the addition of 2 grams of calcined magnesia, and to 50 ¢. c. of the distillate was added 1 ¢. c. Nessler’s solution. A bright orange-yellow color was produced. Checks were made by dis- tiling over uninoculated bouillon which gave a gray-black color with Nessler’s solution and by the use of solutions of ammonium hydrate, 1 to 1,000, 1 to 5,000, 1 to 4,000, and 1 to 3,3334. All of the solutions containing ammonia gave an orange color on the addition of Nessler’s solution. The color of the reaction of the culture most nearly corre- sponded to the check solution containing 1 to 4,000 of ammonia. Cultures were made in Fischer’s solution, plus 1 per cent dextrose, plus 1 percent KNO,. The solution contained dipotassium phosphate, magnesium sulphite, and calcium chlorid. The growth of the organ- ism after three weeks was fair. The culture was distilled over and tested for ammonia. The distillate showed the presence of a very small quantity of ammonia, about 1 to 80,000. Unfortunately, how- ever, a check flask on being distilled over also showed about the same 228 94 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. amount present. The only conclusion is that there was some impu- rity in the chemical used. It is probable that ammonia would be produced.only in the presence of some product as peptone or such as might be in beef bouillon. In a solution containing merely peptone plus NaCl (Dunham’s solution) check tube titrated +9, and cultures grown 11 days were only +5, indicating a slight alkali production. ENZYMES IN MILK. In the coagulation of milk by the coconue organism the question arises whether the reaction was due to the acid formed or to an enzyme produced. This question has been discussed by O’Hehir' and by Savage,’ both of whom claim that there may be a small degree of enzymatic action as well as acid coagulation. Cultures of both the coconut organism and Bacillus coli were made in sterile litmus milk tubes. After incubation for nine days, when a good coagulation had taken place in all the tubes, ammonia was added to the tubes in quantity more than sufficient to neutralize the acid in the cultures. Practically complete dissolution of the curd quickly took place. The only residue left might be attributed to the small amount of fat in the tubes, as it had not been completely removed in the preparation of the medium. This experiment would indicate the coagulation to be entirely an acid one. Attempts were made to free milk completely from its fat by repeated boiling and subsequent skimming off of the film formed on the surface, but without success. Dr. Erwin F. Smith suggested the addition of calcium carbonate to the milk to take up the acid formed by the growth of the organism. Accordingly, cultures were made in litmus milk and in plain sterile milk, both containing 10 per cent CaCO,. Coagulation took place, and the tubes were subsequently treated with ammonia. Their behavior and appearance are shown in Tables XIX and XX. 1 O’Hehir, C. Jocelyn. A Note on the Coagulation of Milk by Bacillus Coli Communis. Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, vol. 11, 1906-7, pp. 405-407. 2 Savage, W.G. The Coagulation of Milk by Bacillus Coli Communis. Journal of Pathology and Bac- teriology, vol. 10, 1904-5, pp. 90-97. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIBS. 95 TABLE XIX .—Coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli in litmus milk with calcium carbonate, at 87°C, May 27 to June 6, 1910. Untreated. Ammonia added in excess. Culture. ; 4 days 5 and 6 days. Immediate effect. awe 3 landia...| Soft curd with one- | Pale lavender and | Does not appear to fifth whey; laven- semisolid. dissolve the curd. der color. 2and2a...| Bleached except for | Sameasonfourthday.} Apparently all dis- thin pink layer at solved. top; curd. : 3 and 3a...| Lavender; semisolid. .|.....do............---- Apparently no dis- | No residue remain- solving. ing. BNE GE ooo aro i sos Gencce = Basel BeBe aoe aranr ce sco scesecie| | peace ane Jussocee aceee Sand 5a Pink: firm curd....... Lavender; firm curd... No teolyine, discern- Do. ible. 6 and 6a...| Sameascultures3 and | Pale lavender; semi- | No dissolving action... Do. 3a. solid. Bacillus| Half bleached, rest | Sameason fourth day.|..... GOseieis . Jed22- 32252 Do. coli and pink; curd firm; Bacillus some whey. coli a. TaBLE XX.—Coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli in plain sterile milk with calevum carbonate, at 37°C., May 27 to June 6, 1910. Untreated. Ammonia added in excess. Culture. 4 days. 5 and 6 days. Immediate effect. After standing 3 days. 1lbandiec.....| A soft curd; | Part firmcurdandrest} Apparently no effect | Curd appears com- about one- whey; less whey in in dissolving. pletely dissolved. fifth whey. 1 cthaninib. 2iband 2G. -|2. 52 do... ..2.--| 2 b; fairly firm curd; |-...- WO nae s sete ee ae 2 b, appears completely 2 c, almost solid; dissolved; 2 c, shows moderate amount of a translucent gelati- whey in both. nous portion. Spand 3e@----<2|25.22 Goss. 23252 3 b, almost solid; 3 ¢, }..... (6 (ee ee eee Both show a translu- semisolid. Moder- cent gelatinous por- ate amount of whey tion. in both. 4band4c..... [eons GOs = 33225; Hairly firmcurd=mod- |5..5-d0-----...-------- Appear completely dis- erate amount of solved. whey. : 5. piandisie sec: 6522 do. -| Solid curd with small |..... Govt fe Licn uses Thick gelatinous, amount of whey. translucent mass. 6 biand Gic. 255.2 -.--< Oem scen22 Soft; slightly acid to |..... does. 5s. 4-te ee 6b, shows a thin gelat- neutral litmus paper. inous, _ translucent layer at bottom. Bacillus coli b |..... dO oss se Solid curds with small }.-.... GO weit ys os aces Both have a translu- and c. amount of whey. cout gelatinous por- ion. From these experiments it will be seen in the first place that the CaCO, did not entirely prevent the acid from producing an effect on the litmus, i. e., reddening it. Consequently, the curd produced may have been the result of this acid. When the ammonia was added it appeared to have no determinate immediate effect. The curd was finally broken up by means of a glass rod and thoroughly mixed with the ammonia. The broken fragments of curd showed no sign of immediate disappearance; but after the tubes were allowed to stand for three days there were no signs whatever of the curd in certain tubes. These cultures were diluted and strained through a 228 96 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. filter paper without leaving the slightest trace of residue other than what was apparently the CaCO,. In other tubes, on the contrary, there still persisted, not a distinct curd, but a residue, gelatinous in appearance—a small amount in several tubes, but a large amount in others. The nature of this mass was not ascertained. It was by no means similar to the cheesy curd of acid formation; yet it appeared to represent a coagulation of some sort. These experiments seem to justify the conclusion that the major part of coagulation is caused by. the acid formation, but that a small amount of coagulation may also be due to an enzymatic action. PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOLS, ALDEHYDES, AND ACETONE. In testing for alcohols, aldehydes, and acetone 500 c. c. of a medium consisting of peptone and dextrose, to which 10 c¢. c. of calcium carbonate was added, was inoculated in a liter flask and incubated at 37° C. In two days the organisms had produced a large amount of gas which, however, had completely disappeared in seven days. Then a cubic centimeter of paraffin was thrown into the cultivation and the flask was connected with a condenser for distillation. The paraffin was for the purpose of forming a thin layer over the sur- face of the fluid to prevent frothing up and running over into the condenser. The distillate obtained was about 300 ¢. ¢., which was then tested for alcohols, aldehydes, and acetones. It was divided into four portions and tested. To one portion was added Lugol’s iodin (iodin, 1 gram; iodid of potassium, 3 grams; distilled water, 300 c. ¢.), then a little NaOH solution to the liquid, which was stirred with a glass rod. Abundant pale-yellow crystalline precipitate was formed, which indicated the presence of iodoform, which was very evident also from the odor. This reaction indicated that either alco- hol, aldehyde, or acetone was present, and further tests were made for their identification. To a portion of the solution enough ammonia was added to make the solution strongly alkaline and then gradually a solution of iodin in ammonium iodid was added. A black precipitate formed,’ but no other change took place, thus indicating the absence of acetone. 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The two experiments show very much the same results, the only difference being a browning of the solution and precipitate of the scantily growing cultures in the second experiment. In these experi- ments cultures Nos. 1, 2, and 5 seem to be identical; and 3, 4, 6, and Bacillus coli identical with each other and different from 1, 2, and 5. This variation may not, however, be constant, and is cer- tainly not of specific value. Considering these groups different, it would show the following improbable results: No. 8 (505 N) was inoculated into a tree producing a disease from which was isolated No. 2 (505 S) identical with it. No. 2 was inoculated into a tree and produced the disease and from it was isolated No. 1 (505 R), an organism differing slightly in the growth in the nitrogen compound. No. 1 was not tried to see if it has the same pathogenic properties as No. 2. Again, No. 6 (508 N), identical with No. 3, was inoculated into a tree and produced a disease from which was isolated No. 5 (508 S), identical with Nos. 1 and 2, but different from No. 4. Then No. 5 was inoculated into another tree, and from the resulting dis- eased tissue was isolated No. 4 (508 R), different from No. 5, but identical with No. 6. The assumption must be either that the organ- ism is variable or that there are numerous organisms to be found in such places which are so nearly alike that they may be considered identical for practical purposes—that is, all have an identical disin- tegrating action on the plant tissues. Moreover, the chance in favor of there being separate forms is reduced to a minimum by the method of inoculation and isolation, every precaution being taken to avoid contamination. FISCHER’S MINERAL SOLUTION WITH VARIOUS NUTRIENT SUBSTANCES. For determining the source of nitrogen and carbon for the organ- ism various compounds containing these substances were added to Fischer’s mineral solution, which contained neither nitrogen nor car- bon. The mineral solution consisted of dipotassium phosphate 1 gram, magnesium sulphate 0.2 gram, and calcium chlorid 0.1 gram, all dissolved in 1,000 c. c. of distilled water. Taste XXII.—Exzperiment 1. Fischer's mineral solution with various additions. Inoc- ulations made from fluid coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6, February 3 to 18, 1910, at 22° C. Medium. 1 day. 3 days. 6 days. 11 days. 14 days. Fischer’s mineral | All equally and | Same as 1 day-.| Barely clouded; | Practically | Same as 11 solution (4110). slightly cloud- no precipitate.| clear; no appre- days. ed. ciable precipi- tate. Fischer’s + dex- | All equally and | Thinly cloud- | Slightly cloud- | 1 thin; others Do. trose (4113). thinly cloud- ed. ed; minute clear; minute ed; nots ogood precipitate. precipitate. as in dextrose +KNOsz. o Fischer’s +KNO;| All equally and | Slightly cloud-| Barely clouded; | Clear; minute Do. (4112). slig tly cloud- ed. no precipitate. precipitate. ed. 228 TaBLeE XXII.—Experiment 1. LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. Fischer’s mineral solution with various additions. 105 Inoc- ulations made from fluid coconut cultures Nos. 1to 6, February 3 to 18, 1910, at 22° C.— Continued. Medium. 1 day. 3 days. 6 days. 11 days. 14 days. | Fischer’s + cane | All equally and | Slightly cloud-| Barely clouded; | Practically | Same as 11 sugar (4115). slightly cloud- ed. no precipitate. clear. days. ed; notsogood asin dextrose. Fischer’s + pep- | All equally and | Moderately | Moderately | Moderately Do. tone (4116). thinly cloud- clouded. clouded; small clouded; mod- ed. precipitate. one precipi- ate. Fischer’s + pep- | Moderately | Sameasiday.| Nos. 2 and 5/| No.5 moderate- | Thin; large tone + dextrose clouded; some moderately ly clouded; precipitate. (4118). gas; best clouded; oth- large precipi- growth. ers nearly tate. clear; all good precipitate. Fischer’s + pep- | Moderately |..... dots sses- Moderately | No.5 moderate- | Same as 11 tone + glycerin clouded; no clouded; good ly clouded; days. (4119). gas. precipitate. others thin. Fischer’s+glycer- | Allslightlycloud-! Thinly cloud- | Barely clouded; ! Allbarely cloud- Do. in (4117). ed; a trifle bet- ed. minute precip-| ed. ter than plain itate. Fischer’s. Fischer’s + cane | Nos. 1 and 5 | Sameas1day-| Same as 1 day-..-.} No. 5 moderate- Do. sugar + KNO3 moderately ly clouded; (4114). clouded; oth- No. 1 thin; ers slightly. Nos. 3, 4, and 6 barely; No. 2 clear. Fischer’s + dex- | Slightly but dis- | Allthinly and | Same as 3 days..| Bavely clouded; Do. trose + KNO3; tinetly cloud- equally well small precipi- (4111). ed. clouded. tate. TaBLeE XXIII.—Experiment 2. Fischer's mineral solution with various additions. Inoculations from fluid coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli, February 15 to LE ntI107at.22™ C. Medium. Fischer’s solution (4110). Fischer’s + dex- trose + KNO3 (4111). Fischer’s + KNO3 (4112). Fischer’s + dex- trose (4113). Fischer’s + cane sugar + KNO3 (4114). Fischer’s + cane sugar (4115). Fischer’s+ peptone (4116). Fischer’s+glycerin (4117). Fischer’s+ peptone + dextrose (4118). Fischer’s+peptone + glycerin (4119). 1 day. All but the checks are barely clouded. All thinly clouded; B. coli is a trifle better than others. All barely clouded. . All very clouded. Nos. 1 and 5 moder- ately; others thin. thinly All very thin....... All thin; B. coli a trifle thinner than the others. All barely clouded. . . All well clouded ex- cept No. 3. All are moderately clouded; B. coli a little thinner than others. 3 days. 10 days. Same as 1 day....-! All thinly clouded. All just barely clouded. Nos. 1 and 5 thin; others barely clouded. -| All just barely clouded. All moderate; B. coli a trifle thin- ner than others. All barely clouded; No. 1 a little more than oth- ers. Nos. 3, 4, and 6 almost clear and heavy white pre- cipitate; others still clouded and good precipitate. Well clouded and large white pre- cipitate. All clear and no ap- preciable precipi- tate Thinly clouded and small precipitate. Thinly clouded and very small precipi- tate. Thinly clouded and small precipitate. Nos. 1 and 5 moder- ately clouded; others clear; all small precipitate. No. 1 thin; others clear. Well clouded with small white pre- cipitate; no film. Slightly clouded; minute precipi- tate. Nos. 1, 2, 5, and B. coli moderately clouded; abun- dant precipitate; others thin; and abundant precipi- tate. All are moderately clouded; abundant white precipitate. 13 days. Checks titrated+-5; cultures +8. Check titrated + 5; eultures+11.5. Check titratec + 9; cultures+5. Check titrated + 9; cultures+ 24. Check titrated +8; cultures+21 228 106 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. Bacillus coli was used for comparison in the second experiment, but not in the first. There appear to be no great differences between these organisms and . coli. The experiments show in general that in Fischer’s mineral solution alone or when KNO, is added the organism barely clouds; when peptone is added moderate growth results; adding glycerin either with or without KNO, gives slight growth; when either dextrose or cane sugar, either with or without KNO, is added poor growth results; when peptone with either dex- trose or glycerin is added moderate growth results. From this table it will be observed that the organism can obtain its nitrogen and carbon easily from peptone alone, but somewhat bet- ter when dextrose is present. It can not obtain any nitrogen from KNO,, and carbon from glycerin only with difficulty (p. 75). The organism can obtain carbon only with difficulty from either cane sugar or dextrose alone; undoubtedly some nitrogenous substance, such as peptone with either cane sugar or dextrose is necessary for good — growth. MEDIA WITH MALACHITE GREEN. The use of malachite green as a differentiating medium between Bacillus coli and Bacillus typhosus has been recommended by Loeff- ler, according to Kiralyfi,! who has also tried it but without success. In view of the variable results obtained by Kiralyfi the effect of mala- chite green as inhibitory to Bacillus coli is not taken here as a diag- nostic character. As a matter of fact, notwithstanding that Kiralyfi in some experiments found that a 0.02 per cent solution of malachite green prevented good development of Bacillus coli colonies, in the fol- lowing experiments with the same amount Bacillus colt grew well. The only points to be ascertained here were whether Bacillus coh and the coconut organism grew equally well, producing colonies of the same form and causing a reduction of the color. The experiments. were carried out as follows: (1) Agar slant cultures with malachite green. In 24 hours the growth was wet shining and irregular, the same as in ordinary agar tubes. The growth appeared slightly greenish, but this may have been due to the medium. After three days all the tubes showed good growth and all were entirely or nearly bleached. Culture No. 5 had entirely reduced the malachite green, but in Bacillus coli a very distinct green was still at the bottom. After four days none of the cultures showed even a trace of the green color. (2) Agar plate cultures with malachite green. The malachite green became entirely reduced on all the plates within three days, Bacillus coli accomplishing the reduction more slowly than the others. Plates from cultures No. 5 and Bacillus coli showed only round or nearly round colonies. All the other plates showed a mixture of the round colonies and deeply lobed or radiate-branched ones. As some of the smallest colonies 1 Kiralyfi, G. Ueber den Wert der Malachitgriinnihrbéden zur Differenzierung der Typhus- und Coli- bacillen. Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, pt. 1, Originale vol. 42, 1906, pp. 276-279, 371-375. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 107 showed a tendency toward branching, this condition probably is due to the medium rather than to varieties of bacteria. In all of the cultures Bacillus coli and the coconut organism be- haved alike in that they grew well and reduced the color of the mala- chite green. BEEF AGAR CONTAINING CAFFEIN. The use of caffein in media as a means of differentiating Bacillus colifrom Bacillus typhosus has been discussed, among others, by Roth,' by Birt,? and by Courmont and Lacomme,? who have not, however, presented evidence of the reliability of this means. The one point in agreement among the workers is that 1 per cent, or sometimes less, caffein in the culture media will completely inhibit the growth of Bacillus coli. Under certain conditions it is said also to imhibit Bacillus typhosus, but that is of little importance here. Cultures were made in slant agar tubes containing 1 per cent caf- fein with all the organisms used in this comparative work. After eight days no sign of growth appeared on any of the slants. Other cultures on the same medium were made in petri: dishes. These were kept for several days, but gave no sign of colonies either in the coconut plates or the Bacillus coli plates. THE MEDIA OF CAPALDI AND PROSKAUER. Two media,‘ designated Capaldi and Proskauer No. 1 and Capaldi and Proskauer No. 2, are used in these experiments. No. 1 is made as follows: J 810212) 1 ee ek a mr eee CRD te ae ae ea gare grams.. 0.2 ETRE nage RAS ER re EER POR CECE AL. AS rect ered es ape does ae “GIS CTIEL GL CLI Tt 6 ENR ee A I gt A a me el ge SR dowe2 . 02 MAP ReHIMM SUN ALCt. oe Sate sh 8s ye 2 ae avd «ess cite « doz= 32 O01 “DEUBTI Te Pe, oll for 2 (0 EAS ie ae eee ae oe Pr dd do: . 02 PRiaetuns MOnOPhOspHALe 95622 2 os sono sp os = oe sae 2 3 die = . 20 EES R ETS GTS) I 20 1 a Sa ed Ie See eee ea at eels ea eee c.c.. 100 No. 2 is made as follows: \NVIUIS HEN 0G) ORO et oe se eancisae Ron Gree erence ons Seto grams. . 2.0 [Tanto R eS a Oe 8 apes AU Reed es Role eg Oe ee a ea dose all Reaver (Castil!l @cl)) epee = were = arate, fe een ner RE IME) ae Onan Old In the first of these media, which is free from albumin, Bacillus coh is said to grow well and produce acid freely. The second medium 1 Roth, Emil. Versuche tiber die Einwirkung von Kaffein auf das Bacterium typhiundcoli. Zentral, blatt fiir Stoffwechsel- und Verdauungs Krankheiten, vol. 5, 1904, p. 125; Versuche iiber die Einwirkung des Trimethylxanthins auf das Bacterium typhiund coli. Zentralblatt fiir Stoffwechsel-und Verdauungs Krankheiten, vol. 6, January to December, 1905, p. 557. 2 Birt, C. Caffeine Enrichment Method. British Medical Journal, October 28, 1905, pp. 1110-1111. 3 Courmont, J., and Lacomme, L. La Cafféine en Bactériologie. [Discusses certain distinct uses of caffein as an aid in bacterial diagonsis.] Journal de Physiologie et de Pathologie Générale, vol. 6, March 15, 1904, p p. 286-294. 4 Muir, Robert, and Ritchie, James. Manual of Bacteriology, p. 329. 5 Potassium biphosphate, monobasic, Merck, was used by the writer in making up this medium. 228 108 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. contains albumin, and is such that Bacillus coli is said to grow well but to produce no acid. After its constituents are mixed and dissolved each medium is steamed for 14 hours and litmus solution added; the medium is then made neutral, filtered, tubed, and sterilized. Tubes were made up according to these formulas and inoculated _ with the coconut organism and Bacillus coli. TABLE XXIV.—Growth of coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli in Capaldi and Proskauer medium No. 1, at 22° C. Experiment 1, Apr. 7 to 11, 1910. Experiment 2, Apr. 13 to 30, 1910. Culture. 1 day. 4 days. 1 day. 3 days. 17 days. Cheeks 2-2-8 Light reddish | Light reddish | Light reddish | Light reddish | Light reddish purple. purple. purple. purple. purple. i eee ee eee 2 Bright pink gas. |....- doz. 4-f.<5.- Bright pink with} Purple. tinge of purple. a ee Are eee (0 (es St BES Seed Sasa. 02 fesse -< Reddish purple above; _ light pink below. Hes a asl 2 te ae G02. ocnene2" Somewhat pur- |...-. Ci ee |e (le Ps a ple in upper third; ight red below; precipitate bright red. eee eee ons Slight change; |..... G0p sce csce al seus shee es Light urple no gas. nearly through- out. Li ee soe No change. .....|...-: 1G See. 32522 3 eee doses. 5.22 Reddish purple above: light pink below. Greece csscecee se Bright pink; no }|..... doSenscsese- Changed only a |...-.. doz22: .t22e8 gas. trifle. Bacillus coli...; Bright pink; gas.}...-.- dows eee Bright pink |...-.. do? eee with tinge of } purple. | TaBLE XXV.—Growth of coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli in Capaldi and Proskauer medium No. 2, at 22° C. Experiment 1, Apr. 7 to 11, 1910. Experiment 2, Apr. 13 to 30, 1910. Culture. 1 day. 4 days. 1 day. 3 days. ne } Check. =-.-- Light purple blue...} Almost clear solution | Solution light blue; with blue-purple recipitate deep precipitate. lue. Vcssceecaes Gas; purple-red pre- | Practically colorless | Abundant gas; solu- | Same as on first day. cipitate; very light solution; purple pre- tion almost colorless; color in solution. cipitate. precipitate reddish purple. ps ree ee ee | Clipe eee eS aes Practically colorless |..... G0. 2: 8. Abscess Precipitate partially solution; white pre- bleached. cipitate. oer e alee toe dots: oe eeeeeeeee Practically colorless |..-... Gort roe ene Do. solution; purple pre- cipitate. Ae pase aloes oe dO... cgec5ante ees === Gis Secacenssece eres GOz sesteeecee eee Do. eee cee eee one dO. ne seco cere Practically colorless |....-. GON ee con aera Do. solution; white pre- cipitate. Gee smimcmccel sce cs (se, Sr Practically colorless |..... (0 (a peas per ne eee * Do. solution; purple pre- cipitate. Bacillus coli 2 Seapeeye| ees = GOA cere el eeaee COs eee secs cee cee cee ee (a be eee ey Do. ‘' LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 109 Check tubes of these media were treated as follows: No. 1+-acid =bright salmon pink. No. 1+-alkali—deep blue. No. 2+-acid =bright salmon pink. No. 2+-alkali=no change. In the first medium the culture grew well and produced acid, as shown from the change in the color of the light reddish-purple check to the bright pink cultures, Bacillus coli acting in the same way as the coconut cultures. In most cases the color subsequently became bleached and in the upper part a distinct blue (after 17 days). These tubes tested with neutral litmus paper indicated an alkali formation, as the change in color of the culture from bright pink to blue also indicates. The reaction in medium No. 2 was unsatisfactory. In ‘the check tubes as in the cultures the blue color precipitated in the form of fine particles. This precipitate remained blue in the check, but became a distinct purple in the cultures, and in 17 days was bleached almost white. A distinct, though not striking, change from deep blue to purple took place in the color of the precipitate. This change would suggest some acid formation, although the medium is not supposed to permit of acid formation. The reduction of the litmus is the only striking part of the reaction in medium No. 2. BEEF BOUILLON OF VARIOUS DEGREES OF ACIDITY. Table XXVI gives the results of four experiments, showing very little constant difference in the growth of cultures in beef-bouillon media of various degrees of acidity or alkalinity. Any sort of bouillon from —12 to +30 on Fuller’s scale seemed to furnish the means for luxuriant growth of the organism. The cultures show a tendency to clear sooner at +23, +25, and +30 than at the lower degrees of acidity. 228 110 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. TABLE XXVI.—Growth of coconut cultures Nos. 1to 6 and Bacillus coli in beef bouillon of varying degrees of acidity or alkalinity, at 22° C., as shown in experiments 1, 2, 3, and 4, February 5 to March 14, 1910.) Titra- ( fon grade - of acid- 1 gay Fey sic tae ity or alka- linity). 7: <5 ae All well clouded; Nos. 3 and 6 have thin films (experiment 1). =65 004 All well clouded with thin films (experi- ment 2). —12....| All well clouded with very thin films (ex- periment 2). +2..... All well clouded; No. | Lhas good film; oth- ers heavy precipitate (experiment 2). sf All well clouded; Nos. 3 and 1 have thin films (experiment 1). +23....| All well clouded; thin films (experiment 1). +25....| All well clouded; No. 1 has good film; oth- ers barely percepti- ble films (experi- ment 2). +30....| Same as +23, only more heavily cloud- ed (experiment 1). 3 days, experiments land 2. 4 days, experiment 3. | 7 days, experiment 1. Nos. 2,3, 4,and 6 have good films; all well clouded (experiment 1). Nos. 3, 4, and 6 have good films; all heay- ily clouded (experi- ment 2). All heavily clouded with films (experi- ment 2). All well clouded; good precipitate (experi- ment 2). Nos. 2,3, 4, and 6 have good films; others have thin films, ex- cept B. coli (experi- ment 1). All good films; well clouded (experiment 1). All well clouded; good precipitate; good films (experiment PE All but Nos. 4 and 6 have good films; all well clouded (experi- ment 1). All heavily clouded; All heavily clouded; B. coli has no film; Nos. land 5and B. Nos. 2and 6 good. coli have no films. All heavily clouded; B. coli and No. 2 have partial films; others none. All well clouded; abun- dant white precipi- tate; Nos. 1 and 5 have no films. All heavily clouded; B. coli has no film; Nos. 2 and 6 good films. All heavily clouded; Nos. 1 and 5 and B. coli have no films. All heavily clouded; good films; large white precipitate. All heavily clouded; good films. All heavily clouded; good films; large white precipitate. 1 Experiment 1, Feb. 11 to Feb. 25; 2, Feb. 5 to Feb. 25; 3, Feb. 21 to Mar. 14; 4, Feb. 25 to Mar. 14. 228 “=r LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. PEL -Tapie XXVI.—Growth of coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli in beef bouillon of varying degrees of acidity or alkalinity, at 22° C., as shown in experiments 1, 2, 3, and 4, February 5 to March 14, 1910—Continued. Titra- | tion (orade 10 days, experi- | 11 days, experi- | 14 days, experi- | 17 days, experi- | 21 days, experi- Bg ment 2. ment 4. ment 1. ment 4. ment 3. alka- linity). Ey sn || ae Ral I a a pe ee All have good |............-...!...| All well clouded; | films but No. ‘ B. coli has no 1 and B. coli. film and no crys- tals; all others | have crystals. Lge PME NECIOHGEC Mies Fas 2 Sa So EN} os eae ce mbc cee eeteens Allheavily clouded; abundant white B. coli has no precipitate; B. film but many coli has no film; crystals. No. 1 thin film; all others have good films. ie ee H eClOUGeds fiie,s <== aa0 Oe seen ees sass ooos actclliedsasonse des ase tled All heavily clouded; abundant white Nos. 2and 6 have precipitate and heavy films. with films. eee eeAlneavily ClouUd= |... << ..s<5-2--5- (GREER e Se ei se een se ee oe All well clouded; ed; films and B. coli has no abundant white | crystals; all have precipitate. | films. 3 of lace cence Gee eee | All heavily} All heavily | All well clouded clouded; all clouded. but No. 5, which but B. coli. is partly cleared; have filmsand all have heavy crystals. precipitates; all * but B. coli have films and crys- tals. ete Bee seen acts dace ssea|lteecccecelececue Se AM pabeNos: 42) |= 550-e.'ccne=ee eee All well clouded; and 4 heavily No. 2 has pretty clouded. well cleared; all the rest have moderate films; all but B. coli and No. 2 have numerous crys- tals. Sepa) 2 UU iL ce Can (6 (20 aT | ee eee ee eee Bap eee All well clouded. abundant white | precipitate and good films. } OU MAIAROR EN 9-5 -<=--|once= do.... .| No. 5 titrated + clouded than 3; check titrat- with 1 per ed+4.5. cent. Al Mane stbinly7|--2=--- 29-22 —- All moderately | No.5 titrated + | All well cloud- clouded. clouded; thin 4; check titrat- ed; re- films. ed+5. Pi 0.2 g to clear; no films. AM sire rihiniby a Al vt Bd yl) eee eee All thinly cloud- | Allthinly cloud- clouded. B. clouded; ed; small pre- ed; small pre- coli is a trifle very thin cipitate. cipitate. thinner than films. the rest. Nos. 1 and 5 are |-.---- ; (1 ne ee mie ned (eon era im Allthinly cloud- thin; others ed; small pre- are practically cipitate; no clear. films. All clear except) | All thinly, |, -.2...--2--22--- All thinly cloud- | Nos. 1, 3, and 4 No.1, whichis clouded; ed; small pre- are thinly very thin. barely per- cipitate. clouded; ceptible small precipi- films. tate. All are clear... .- AN) -tinsimilry |e eee eee ee Nos. 1, 3, 4, and | Nos. 1, 3, and 4 clouded. 6 thinly cloud- thinly clouded ed and small small precipi- amount of pre- tate; others cipitate; Nos. barely cloud- 2 and 5 barely ed, with v clouded; B. small precipi- coli appears tates. clear. 228 1 Experiment 1, Feb. 8 to Feb, 25; 2 and 3, Feb. 17 to Mar. 14. LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 113 TaBLeE XXVII.—Growth of coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli in Dunham’s solution with varying amounts of sodium chlorid, at 22° C., as shown in experiments 1, 2, and 3, February 8 to March 14, 1910—Continued. Medium. Dunham’s solu- tion— With 1 per eent NaCl (4137). With 1.5 per cent NaCi (4138). With 2 per cent NaCl (4139). With 2.5 per cent NaCl (4140). With 3 per cent NaCl (4141). With 4 per cent NaCl (4159). With 5 per cent NaCl (4160). With 6 per cent NaCl (4161). With 7 per cent NaCl (4162). 10 days, experi- ment 1. 14 days, experi- ment 2. 17 days, experi ment 1. Moderate growth; small _ precipi- tate; thin films. Moderately cloud- ed; No. 1 has floceulent —sus- pension;all have thin films. All thinly cloud- ed; small precip- itate. All thinly cloud- ed; moderate precipitate. Nos. 1, 3, and 6 thinly clouded; Nos. 2, 4, and B. coli only slightly clouded. B. coli and No. 2 are barely clouded; others are thin. No. 2 and B. coli are practically clear with very small _precipl- tate; others are thin with small brownish _ pre- cipitate. No. 2 and B. coli are clear with small brownish precipitate; others are slightly clouded with small brownish pre- cipitate. Moderately cloud- ed; abundant white _ precipi- tate; No. 6 has brownish pre- cipitate. Same as with 1 per cent except that No.3 has brown- ish precipitate. Same as with 1.5 per cent except that B. coli has brownish pre- cipitate. All except No. 1 thinly clouded; No. 1 moderate; all have abun- dant white pre- cipitate. Same as with 2.5 per cent except that B. coli and No. 4 have brownish _ pre- cipitate. 25 days, experiment 3. Same as 17 days; addition of H2SO, gave no result; H2S04+ NaNOsz gave in 1, 2, and 5 bright red, which after shaking be- came pink; other tubes were copper red. Same as 17 days; in indol test, Nos. 1,2,and 5 rose- violet; the others darker. B. coli is thin; others moderate; in indol test No. 1 barely pink; Nos. 2 and 5 bright pink; others dark rose as with 1.5 per cent. Same as with 2 per cent. Same as before; in indol test B. coli barely pink; others same. B. coli is clear; others as before; in indol test all show a trace of pink. B. coli is clear; No. 5 is clear; others thinly clouded; in indol test Nos. 1, 2, and 5 show a distinct pink, others a mere trace of pink. B. coli is clear; in indol test all tubes show a mere trace of color reac- tion. USCHINSKY’S SOLUTION. Growth in Uschinsky’s solution becomes moderate in 48 hours, but never heavy. 6389°—Bul. 228—12——8 114 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. COHN’S SOLUTION. Cultures 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli show only a very slight indication of growth, with the exception of No. 5, which in one experiment became well clouded. In a repetition by Miss Lucia McCulloch, an associate worker, the same results were obtained. The six coconut strains and four Bacillus coli strains were inoculated from agar slant cultures three days old, using one 1-mm. loop. The tubes were incubated at 33° C. No growth occurred in any except coconut No. 5, which formed a heavy pellicle and numerous crystals. POTATO AGAR. Excellent widespread, wet-shining, white growth with raised irreg- ular margins in all the tubes within 48 hours. CARROT AGAR. Growth on tubes of carrot agar is thin, wet shining, white, but very restricted, never extending over the surface of the medium. LITMUS-LACTOSE AGAR.! Growth on litmus-agar slant tubes is barely perceptible, thin, trans- parent, and spreads along the streak. Occasionally it develops into small colonies, in which case it reddens the litmus. On plates both Bacillus coli and the coconut organism form small colonies which redden the litmus and are semitransparent and zoogloea-like. OXALIC-ACID AGAR. Growth on agar containing 0.2 per cent oxalic acid is similar to that on litmus-lactose agar, being very slight. MERCURIC CHLORID. Solutions of beef bouillon containing different percentages of mercuric chlorid were made up for the purpose of ascertaining how strong a solution this organism was able to withstand. In one experiment none of the cultures were able to survive in a solution containing mercuric chlorid as strong as 1 to 3,000. In another experiment the cultures became heavily clouded when the tubes contained mercuric chlorid in the proportion of 1 to 1,000, as well as in weaker propor- tions up to 1 to 7,000. . Miss Lucia McCulloch made additional tests as follows: A flask con- taining 250 c. c. of mercuric chlorid water (1 to 1,000) was inoculated with one 1-mm. loop of the cloudy water in the V of an agar slant culture (48 hours old) of coconut No. 5. After 1 minute of vigor- ous shaking two plates were poured. At the end of 3, 5, and 10 1 For description of the use of litmus-lactose agar or gelatin, see Wurtz’s “Method for the Differentiation of Bacillus Typhi from Bacillus Coli,” Technology Quarterly, vol. 6, 1893, pp. 241-251. 228 ————— LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. #15 minutes, respectively, other plates were poured. For inoculation one 3-mm. loop from the flask was used. A similar set of plates was made from 250 c. c. mercuric chlorid (1 to 5,000) and from 250 c. ec. sterile water. In all three cases inocu- lations were of the same amount and from the same culture, and the plates were poured at the same intervals of time. The plates were incubated at 33° C. ' After 24 hours the plates poured from sterile water had numerous colonies (about 1,500 in each plate). The plates from HgCl, 1 to 1,000 had a total of two colonies; the plates from HgCl, 1 to 5,000, a total of three colonies. After 9 days no more colonies had developed in. the plates from the HgCl, solutions. Another experiment with similar a lt of HgCl, was made with plates poured at end of 20, 30, and 40 seconds. No colonies appeared even after six days at 33° C. The check plates from sterile water gave 450 to 500 colonies in 24 hours. MONOCALCIUM PHOSPHATE. Two solutions, A and B, were made up, each containing 1 per cent peptone, 1 per cent dextrose, 0.5 per cent sodium chlorid and neutral red, and into A was put 1 per cent monocalcium phosphate and into B, 0.1 per cent. The amount of calaum phosphate in normal coconut tissues is 0.05 per cent. After 1 day: A tubes were clear. B tubes were well clouded, but had produced no change in color. After 16 days: A tubes were perfectly clear. B tubes all moderately clouded with moderate amount of precipi- tate. No change in color. PEPTONE SOLUTION CONTAINING ROSOLIC ACID. Two solutions, A and B, were made up, each containing 1 per cent Witte’s peptone and suf cient rosolic acid to make a bright red, and into A was put 1 per cent dextrose. After 1 day: A tubes were yellow; good growth. B tubes remain red; good growth. After 4 days: A tubes were orange yellow; well clouded. B tubes unchanged in color; well clouded. Aiter 11 days: A tubes, same as before. B tubes, same as before. This experiment was repeated, and the colors in the tubes were compared with the color chart of the Répertoire de Couleurs: A check tubes were pink. A culture, tested after 17 days, resembled honey yellow, tint No. 3. B check, a trifle darker than the culture tubes. B culture, tested aiter 17 days, resembled cardinal red, tint No. 1. 228 116 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. Thus in solution A an acid was produced in the presence of the dextrose and in consequence the rosolic acid changed from pink to yellow. In solution B, on the other hand, where no sugar was present, no acid was produced, and hence practically no change in color of the medium. ALBUMIN. Tubes were made up containing the white of eggs. In order to prepare them the surfaces of the eggs were sterilized in mercuric chlorid and some of the albumin drawn out through the broken sur- face by means of a sterile pipette and put into sterile test tubes. To several tubes was added a small amount of sterile dextrose. The tubes were then allowed to stand a week to ascertain if they re- mained sterile, and then inoculated. The cultures were examined after 20 days incubation and appeared as follows: No. 6: With sugar; moderately clouded; no odor. Bacillus coli: Without sugar; clouded; no odor. No. 3: With sugar; thinly clouded and small precipitate; no odor. No. 1: And all others with sugar; a little clouded, but the albumin did not appear in any way to be affected. Transfers were made into beef bouillon from these tubes to ascer- tain if the organism was still living. After 30 days all the transfer tubes were well clouded. There was a slight clouding in the check tubes themselves, due to the fact that the albumin from the egg is not perfectly homogeneous, and in consequence it was difficult to tell whether growth actually took place or not. In some cases there appeared to be distinct clouding, but in no case was there any evidence of disintegration of the albumin as evidenced by an odor. At no time was there any odor other than that of a fresh egg. It appears probable that the coconut and Bacillus coli organisms do not have the power of disintegrating albumin to any appreciable extent. SUCCINIC ACID. In a chemical analysis of a peptone-dextrose medium in which the coconut organism had been grown for some days it was found that an abundance of succinic acid was formed. In order to ascertain if it was the production of this acid that inhibited long growth of this organism, a culture solution was made containing 1 per cent peptone and 1 per cent dextrose plus 0.5 per cent succinic acid in one case and plus 1 per cent acid in another case. It was found that even after incubation for 21 days no growth resulted in either medium. Weaker acidities were then tried, as it was thought the organism could not grow when so large an amount of acid was present. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. Bally; November, 1910, Miss Lucia McCulloch made the following addi- tional tests: A medium containing 1 per cent peptone, 1 per cent dex- _trose, and 0.1 per cent succinic acid was inoculated from slant-agar cul- tures 3 days old of the six coconut strains and four Bacillus coli strains. Another medium containing 1 per cent peptone, 1 per cent dextrose, and 0.05 per cent succinic acid was inoculated from the same agar cultures. One 1-millimeter loop was used for inoculation and the tubes were incubated at 33° C. At the end of 48 hours a very moderate growth appeared in all the cultures, represented by thin clouding, flocculent particles, and precipitate; no pellicles. Seem- ingly there is no particular difference in growth in the two media. After 10 days the medium containing 0.05 per cent succinic acid was moderately cloudy, while that containing 0.1 per cent succinic acid was much clearer. The amount and character of the pre- cipitate in the two media are very similar. After 18 days the 0.05 per cent succinic acid was still cloudy while the 0.1 per cent succinic acid was practically clear. There seemed to be slightly more precipitate in the weaker acid medium. COCONUT CYLINDERS. Small pieces of firm coconut tissue from the petioles of leaves were placed in test tubes and a solution of 1 per cent dextrose was added in amounts to cover the lower half of the cylinder. The sugar was for the purpose of facilitating the growth of the organism, the tissues used being too hard to furnish much nutriment. After 1 day at 37° C.: Growth in each tube indicated by clouding of the liquid. After 2 days: The liquid and pieces of coconut much discolored. Slow growth on some pieces, blackening and reddening of others. After 10 days: Check, liquid clear; cylinder hard. Bacillus coli a, cylinders blackened—not softened, nor slimy. B. coli, one cylinder soft, but not disintegrated; microscopic examination of section shows no change. No. 4, brown, slimy growth on a portion of the cut surface of the cylinder which is reddish black; portion of the side blackened; by squeezing the cylinder drops of reddish thick liquid are forced out; no soft rot; the cylinder remains firm. No. 6, blackening of the tissues as in others; also a rotting of the soft tissues. No. 2, abundant orange-yellow precipitate and same brown slime as in No. 4; tissue woody, not soft rotted. No. 3, same abundant orange-yellow precipitate as in Nos. 2 and 4; cylinder blackened but not soft rotted. No. 5, same as Nos. 2, 3, and 4. No. 5 a, same orange-yellow precipitate and same brown slime on cut surface of blackened cylinder. No. 1, same abundant orange-yellow precipitate as in others. This experiment was repeated under the same conditions, but there was only a flocculent clouding which quickly cleared away. 228 Tis HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. No change appeared in any of the cylinders but No. 1, and that was one of the Bacillus coli tubes which blackened the cylinder without showing any growth on the surface. It is evident in any case that such woody tissues of the coconut tree furnish a poor medium for the growth of the organism. TEST 2 OF D. RIVAS.! One c. c. of a 10 per cent solution of NaOH and ke. c. of a 50 per cent solution of H,SO, are added to 5-hour cultures incubated at 37° C. in neutral sugar-free bouillon. A purple color resulting from the addition of the NaOH and H,SO, is the test. The color is said to appear upon the addition of acid and to be discharged upon the addition of an alkali in excess, and is not produced in the presence of sugar. The reaction is thought to be closely allied to indol pro- duction and is dependent upon the action of the bacteria upon some proteid substance. Experiments were conducted as follows: 1. Neutral bouillon cultures grown at 37° C. Tubes inoculated at 10 a. m. on March 17 and tested at 4.30 p.m. of the same day. No purple coloration appeared either then or after allowing the tubes to stand 16 hours. 2. Sugar-free neutral bouillon tubes were inoculated at 11 a. m. on April 12 and tested at 4 p.m. The tubes were moderately clouded, but no purple color appeared on the addition of the reagents. This bouillon was made sugar-free by growing Bacillus coli in it and then filtering, titrating, retubing, and sterilizing. The tubes after sterilization titrated zero on Fuller’s scale. 3. Sugar-free bouillon as before. Tested after three days, but no purple reaction appeared, although the tubes containing the reagents were allowed to stand 48 hours. The failure of the cultures, both Bacillus coli and those of the coconut, to respond to this test is not clear. Possibly bouillon only normally free from muscle sugar should have been used. PEPTONE WITH LEVULOSE, GALACTOSE, AND MANNIT IN FERMENTATION TUBES. Table XXVIII shows that all the coconut cultures grow well in levulose, galactose, and mannit, and at the same rate as Bacillus coli. The gas production in Jevulose averaged in 15 days 15 mm.; in galactose 35 mm.; and in mannit 25 mm. 1 Rivas, D. Contribution to the Differentiation of Bacillus Coli Communis from Allied Species in Drinking Water. Journal of Medical Research, vol. 18, 1908, pp. $1-91. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 119 TasLe XXVIII.—Growth and production of gas (in mm.) in peptone with levulose, galactose, and mannit in fermentation tubes, February 21 to March 8, 1910, at 22° C. 1 per cent peptone+1 per cent levulose. 1 per cent peptone+1 per cent galactose. 1 per cent peptone+1 per cent mannit. Culture. 2 3 4 15 2 eo 4 15 2 3 4 15 days. | days. | days. | days. | days. | days. | days. | days. | days. | days. | days. |days. Woronmtite sens. o> 2h =. 252: () 11 20 51 | 216 26 35 69 30 11 20 32 COCONUT gases ss 5 eob os so: 38 18 20 20 40 21 30 37 | (6) 16 22 28 Cocanmitganse 2s: 28 = 2 se 2.6 (8) 14 16 14 40 22 30 33 | (®) 15 20 26 Govgnainates-—s. 22845. ~~. 310 15 17 14} 315 27 35 32 | 317 20 22 22 CacenuinG anes... 5: 54-58: (7) il 15 15} (8) 24 33 37 48 16 22 23 Broil kc | se a (9) 16 19 15} 311 18 22 43 | (9) 16 19 22 1 Well clouded in both ends; a few bubbles of gas. 2 Well clouded in open end; thin in closed end. | 3 Well clouded in both ends. 4 Moderately clouded in both ends. 5 Moderately clouded in both ends; three small bubbles of gas. 6 Well clouded in both ends; one large bubble of gas. 7 Well clouded in open end; moderate in closed end; many small bubbles of gas. 8 Well clouded in both ends; a few large bubbles of gas. § Well clouded in both ends; many small bubbles of gas. KASHIDA’S LITMUS-LACTOSE AGAR. Kashida’s medium * consists of bouillon containing 1.5 per cent of agar, 2 per cent of milk sugar, 1 per cent urea, and 3 per cent of tincture of litmus. The culture medium should be blue. When liquefied, inoculated with the colon bacillus, poured into petri dishes, and allowed to stand 16 to 18 hours in the incubator, the blue color passes off and the culture medium becomes red. If a glass rod dipped in HCl be held over the dish, vapor of ammonium chlorid is said to be given off. The typhoid bacillus produces no acid in this medium, and there is consequently no change in color. TaBLE XXIX.—Growth of coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli on plates of Kashida’s medium, April 14 to 18, 1910, at 22° C. Culture. 2 days. 4 days. Coconut 1...-.-- Numerous round, wet-shining colonies; | Densely sown with minute colonies; plate plate blue. blue. Coconut 2....... Numerous roundish, wet-shining colonies; | Numerous large bluish, wet-shining colo- plate somewhat reddened. nies; agar blue. CACOHT oss. '2|Ls =< OG Sets Beh eee Sc ee Bt Numerous large slightly pinkish colonies; agar reddened all over. Coconut 4......- Like culture 2 only with larger colonies___.| Almost entirely reddened. Coconut 5.....-- | Hake culture 22220 dee se toch nee Medium entirely reddened. Coconut 6... ...- | Like culture 2 only with larger colonies... . omen of medium reddened; portion still ue. Bacillus coli....,; Only two colonies of distinct size; many | Fewcolonies have reddened the medium. minute ones; agar partly reddened. A glass rod dipped into hydrochloric acid which was not fuming was held over each of the plates, and in the cases of cultures 1 and 2, which were still blue, white fumes arose from the hanging drop. In none of the other plates, all of which were entirely red or partly 1 MacFarland, Joseph. Textbook upon the Pathogenic Bacteria, p. 487. 228 120 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. so, did any fuming take place. As a check a small drop of HCl was held over a solution of ammonia which was not fuming, and from the hanging drop fumes arose. TaBLE XXX.—Growth of coconut cultures Nos. 1 to 6 and Bacillus coli on plates of Kashida’s medium, April 21 to 25, 1910, at 87° C, Culture. 1 day. 2 days. 4 days. Coconut 1...| Shows a reddening; several colo- | A number ofcolonies; some on the | Same as on 2d day. nies on one side. blue side; some on the red. Coconut 2.__| Slight reddening on one side; no | Number of colonies; yee all red Do. istinct colonies. and partly bleached. Coconut 3...| Reddened on one side; about 20 | Number of colonies; part reddened Do. pink colonies surrounded by a and bleached, part still blue. pink halo. Coconut 4__.| Slight reddening on one side; no | Several red colonies on red side; a Do. colonies visible. ie light brown ones on blue side. Coconut 5___|-..... vee rape REIS PN ee ete A few small red colonies........... Do. Coconut 6...| Reddening on one side; several | Several red colonies on red side; Do. pink colonies. several pink colonies on blue side. Bacilluseoli._| Reddened on one side; a number | Number of red colonies; agar all Do. of pink colonies surrounded by a red; some small colonies with pink halo; in direct light all the reddish-black centers, then a plates of this date are a dense pink zone, and outermost a yel- blue black. lowish zone. The reaction, although apparently sometimes not complete, is characterized by the appearance of the red colonies on the medium which changes from blue black to red under the influence of the bac- terial secretions. The color of the colonies themselves may first be blue black or a slate color, eventually becoming red if the reaction takes place. There is probably an incomplete union of the litmus with the other constituents of the medium, bence, the unevenness of the reaction, remaining blue on part of certain colonies and becom- ing red on the other part. The statement of Kashida as to the reaction of the drop of hydro- chloric acid to the gas arising from the colonies is not clear. If the drop of HCl held over the colonies fumes it is due to the formation of ammonium chlorid. Why this result would not take place with Bacillus typhosus, which blues litmus and presumably forms ammonia, is not clear. It seems to the writer that Bacillus typhosus would cause HCl to fume as well as Bacillus coli and more so. The latter organism, it is true, forms ammonia, but only in small amounts. It reddens litmus, and thus the bulk of the product is an acid. In fact, the foregoing experiments showed no response to this test of Kashida’s when the colonies became red. When they remained blue it was probably the result of a failure to produce an acid, and of the positive production of an alkali. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. a REMY’S SYNTHETIC MEDIUM.! Remy uses an artificial medium approximating a potato in com- position, but without dextrin or glucose. The composition is as follows: Composition of Remy’s synthetic medium. Grams. DisiMled Waker se 2 stops made sa Geet aise mbissls- sears ee 1, 000. 0 J 0 oe a ee eS or eee di ho eee 6.0 EERE SRE 2 ede SI en oC. .5 MRM I tone eo Gays ee Ric son oe Seeele wes eel aeies Se 15 RG tara ACICae sates i= Re Ie. om eee eermiat ss felts 3. a5 stea's 15 Misdie phosphate: ....-....--.- - SAR Se Oe OP aa OPP Ae 5. 0 MOMETEHINY AU PHALC 0. 2 occ smal an oone metas ews Sn sisenn 2.5 1? SU SPECRCICD 3] 10) Oo tga SI SRS SO RS eS ee 1. 25 CUTE CHILOTI Gs - seas, eee nese. See ey eht thee set eke aoe 2. 00 All the salts excepting the magnesium sulphate are powdered in a mortar and introduced into a flask with the distilled water. Thirty grams of Witte’s peptone are then added and the mixture heated in the autoclave under pressure for 15 minutes. As soon as removed the contents are poured into another flask into which 120 to 150 grams of gelatin have previously been placed. The flask is shaken to dissolve the gelatin, and the contents are then made slightly alka- line with soda solution. The mixture is again heated in the autoclave at 110° C. for 15 minutes, then acidified with a one-half normal solu- tion of sulphuric acid, so that 10 c. c. have an acidity neutralized by 0.2 ¢. e. of one-half normal soda solution. This acidity is equal to 0.5 ce. e. sulphuric acid per liter. After shaking the flask is placed in a steam sterilizer for 10 minutes, then the solution is filtered, and the acidity of the medium verified and corrected if necessary. Finally the magnesium sulphate is added, dissolved, after which the ee is tubed and sterilized by the intermittent method. At the moment of using, 1 c. c. of a 35 per cent solution of lactose and 0.1 ¢. ¢. of a 2.5 per cent solution of carbolic acid are put into each tube. Upon this medium the Bacillus coli colonies are said to be yellowish brown, the typhoid colonies bluish white and small. Fine bubbles of gas from the fermentation of the lactose often occur about the Bacillus colt. Plates with Remy’s medium, April 14 to 18. Two days: No. 4, densely occupied by tiny white colonies. The other coconut plates and Bacillus coli just the same. Three days: Plates just the same as two days. Four days: Coconut and Bacillus coli. The colonies are very numerous on each plate. Where the medium is fairly thick they appear white, and where it is 1Remy, L. Contribution & l’Etude de la Fiévre Typhoide et de Son Bacille. Annales de l'Institut Pasteur, Paris, vol. 14, August, 1900, pp. 555-570. 228 133 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. thin they are colorless or transparent. They do not have a perfectly smooth surface, the tiny colonies, especially, appearing more or less conical. All of these plates are identical with one another. Doubtless these plates were too thickly sown for a characteristic reaction. At any rate, the yellowish-brown color said to be produced by Bacillus coli was entirely lacking, while on the other hand the slightly bluish color considered characteristic of Bacillus typhosus on this medium was seen in the colonies where the medium was extremely thin. . ELSNER’S POTATO MEDIUM. Cultures were made on Elsner’s potato medium several times, but in each instance the medium became liquefied owing to the high temperature, so that no satisfactory results were obtained. Finally the poured plates were put in a temperature of about 15°C. Within: two days tiny white colonies appeared. They were rather numerous, so that even after several days they did not become large. The smallest colonies appeared colorless or white, the larger ones a very light brown. The distinct brown color in the colonies, said to be characteristic of growth on this medium, failed to appear. The medium was made up according to the method given in Novy’s Laboratory Work in Bacteriology, page 490. COCONUT ABSORBENT-ORGAN CYLINDERS. The absorbent organ of the coconut consists entirely of a spongy tissue which by the time the coconut is well sprouted, completely or almost fills the entire nut. In it are enzymes which convert the insoluble food material in the coconut meat into soluble material for the use of the growing plant. This organ is in actual contact with the meat, at least in the upper end, and thus is able to conduct the con- verted material directly into the young shoots. The arrangement of these parts’ is seen in Plate XI. In order to see if there was food material in the absorbent organ sufficient for the growth of the coconut organism, cylinders were steamed in the usual way and the tubes were inoculated with cultures of the coconut organism and with Bacillus coli. The tubes were then incubated at 37° C. The results were as follows: After 1 day: All the tubes were moderately clouded and all but coconut No. 1b and Bacillus coli (Hitchings) a and b had produced some gas. After 2 days: Only a tiny bubble or so of gas in some of the tubes; nosigns of rotting of the cylinders. After 6 days: No gas; moderately clouded; no signs of rotting of the cylinders. After 27 days: Same appearance; the organisms seem to have been able to grow well in the water but not to affect the tissues of the cylinders. 228 Bul. 228, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X| SEEDLING COCONUT SPLIT OPEN TO SHOW PARTS. a, ABSORBENT ORGAN; b, COCONUT MEAT. Me yee LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 123 COCONUT ABSORBENT-ORGAN PLATES. Pieces of the absorbent organ were sterilized by means of alcohol, mercuric chlorid, and distilled water, and then placed in petri dishes. The plates were then inoculated, but even after eight days there ap- peared to be no growth on the tissues. COCONUT-MEAT CYLINDERS. Cylinders were made in the usual way from coconut meat and placed in test tubes with enough water to cover the lower half of each cylin- der. The tubes were sterilized on three successive days by steam- ing and were then inoculated. The growth resulted as follows: After 6 days: The submerged parts of the cylinders were pink in the culture tubes and white in the check tubes. The top of the cylinder was dark and translucent. The liquid was moderately clouded. After 27 days: All the checks were pink under water; coconut Nos. 2 and 5, and Bacillus coli (Hitchings, XIV, and VI-11-V-09) were greenish white under water, and the water was of the same color; the others, including Becillus col (B. A. I.) were dark pink under water; no definite film in any case; the growth appears to have been only moderate. COCONUT LEAFSTALK-TISSUE PLATES. Large pieces of leafstalk of both old and very young leaves were sterilized in alcohol, mercuric chlorid, and distilled water and then placed in plates and inoculated. After 12 days: Bacillus coli (Hitchings) on a large hard piece of leafstalk, surface mottled, but no rot. Bacillus coli (VI-11-V-09) on a very fibrous piece of leafstalk, covered with a brownish slimy mass; not soft rotted to any extent. Bacillus coli (XIV) on rather young leaf tissues, black, soft rotted as in similar portions of a naturally infected tree; exactly the appearance of the leaf-base rot in the mature tree. Bacillus coli (B. A. I.) on two slender leaflets became completely dried up. Coconut 5, one of the pieces of young tissue was black, soft rotted as in typi- cal cases. No other coconut organism was tried. COCONUT-WATER CULTURES. The ordinary water from the ripe coconut was sterilized in tubes and inoculated. All of the tubes became moderately clouded in two days at 37° C., but they produced no gas and did not remain clouded long. In 15 days all were practically clean except coconut No. 1, which was well clouded. COCONUT-OIL MEDIA. Coconut oil was pressed out of finely cut coconut meat both before and after cooking, and this was purified by mixing with alcohol and then drying out completely. After purification it was a perfectly 228 124 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. clear oily liquid. Cultures were made into tubes of this material, but in none of them was there the slightest sign of clouding. DETERMINATION OF CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ORGANISM BY PHYSICAL METHODS. Optimum temperature.—Cultures in beef bouillon (+15) were placed in different temperatures and it was found that good clouding resulted in 24 hours and heavy clouding in 48 hours at any tempera- ture from 25° to 45° C. Surface films formed more quickly at the higher temperatures, and the bouillon showed an inclination toward clearing sooner than at the lower temperatures. Cultures have remained heavily clouded at 30° C. for one month; at 22° C. (room temperature) for two months and more; at 39° C. for one month and more. The point of most luxuriant growth appears to lie between 30° and 35° C. Maximum temperature—The maximum temperature is not known Cultures kept at 46° C. for two weeks became heavily clouded with a good surface film and afterwards gradually thinned, as though having passed their best growth. Minimum temperature.—Cultures in beef bouillon (+15) were kept at various temperatures ranging from 3° C. up to room tem- perature. After one month cultures at 4° C. and below showed no clouding. Cultures at 8.5° C. failed to cloud until after one month, when one-third of the tubes became thinly clouded. Cultures at 10°C, clouded slowly and within a week were moderately well clouded. Thermal death point—Cultures in beef bouillon (+15) were exposed for 10 minutes in water heated to various temperatures. Cultures exposed to an average temperature of 54.9° C. (variation from 54.4° to 55° C.) for 10 minutes failed to grow. Cultures exposed to an average temperature of 51.6° C. (variation from 51.4° to 51.8° C.) failed to cloud in 24 hours, but in 48 hours showed a retard- ing of growth, though not inhibition. Cultures exposed to an average of 51.° C. (the variation from 50.8° to 51.2° C.) were moderately clouded in 24 hours. Another set of experiments was made and the culture in bouillon clouded in 24 hours after an exposure of 10 minutes to an average of 54° C. (varying from 53.85° to 54.05° C.). Cultures exposed to 53.35° C. (varying from 53.20° to 53.40° C.) clouded well in 24 hours as did cultures exposed to 52.80° and 52° C. The experiment was repeated, and cultures exposed for 10 minutes to an average of 54° C. (53.95° to 54° C.) clouded in 18 hours. Cul- tures exposed to a temperature of 55° C. (54.85° to 55.15° C.) became lightly clouded in 18 hours and well clouded in 24 hours. Three of the six culture tubes exposed to a temperature of 56° C. (56° to 56.10° C.) clouded in 24 hours, the three remaining tubes 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 125 failed to cloud. Higher temperatures were not tried. The thermal death point is at least above 56° C. A repetition of this experiment gave the following results: The six coconut cultures and four strains of Bacillus colt exposed 10 minutes to a temperature ranging from 59.2° to 59.6° C. failed to cloud in 48 hours at 37° C.; the same series exposed for 10 minutes to a tempera- ture ranging from 57.4° to 57.8° C. failed to cloud in 48 hours at 37° C.; the same series exposed for 10 minutes to a temperature ranging from 56.4° to 56.6° C. failed to cloud in 48 hours at 37° C. with the exception of Bacillus coli (Hitchings). None of the coconut cultures and only this one strain of the four Bacillus cola strains sur- vived this experiment. Itis reported in some textbook of bacteriology that 59° C. is the thermal death point of Bacillus coli. However that is, it is certain that none of the organisms used survived 57° C. in this experiment. It was seen in the preceding experiment that all the coconut cultures exposed to a temperature of 54.85° to 55.15° C. grew well, and that after an exposure to a temperature from 56° to 56.10° C. three of the six tubes grew well. From these experiments it would seem that the thermal death point of the coconut organisms and of Bacillus coli is between 56° and 57° C. Miss McCulloch carried out the following additional tests in November, 1910: Six coconut and the four Bacillus coli strains in newly inoculated beef bouillon were subjected for 10 minutes to temperatures of 56°, 57°, and 58° C., then incubated at 33° C. In 24 hours two of the Bacillus cola (B. A. I. and Hitchings) in the 56° C. set were clouded; no growth in the 57° C. set; coconut No. 1 was clouded in the 58° C. set. In 48 hours three of the Bacillus colt .(B. A. L., Hitchings, and VI-11-V—09) were clouded in the 56° C, set; no changes in the others. In 10 days no further change. Other experiments were made, trying 55°, 56°, and 57° C. In 48 hours at 34° C. all of the 55° C. set, with the exception of coco- nut Nos. 4 and 5, were clouded. Three strains of Bacillus cola (Hitchings, VI-11—V-09, and XIV) and coconut No. 2 were clouded in the 56° C. set. Coconut No. 1 and two strains of Bacillus coli (Hitchings and B. A. I.) were clouded in the 57° C. set. In six days coconut Nos. 4 and 5 were still clear in the 55° C. set. Coconut Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and three Bacillus coli, in the 56° C. set clouded. No further change in the 57° C. set. Desiccation.—Clean cover glasses were sterilized and drops of the cultures were placed upon them, after which they were set away in sterile petri dishes to dry out at room temperature. Cultures dried two days clouded well in 24 hours. Those dried six days clouded but little in the same time. Cultures dried 15 days were still able to cloud the bouillon. 228 126 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. Sunlight.—Agar plates were made and half of each of them covered with black paper; they were then set on ice in direct sunlight, the ice serving to counteract the heat effect of the sun’s rays. This experiment was carried on in the middle of January, about 1 p.m., with a somewhat hazy sun. The plates were thickly sown. Those exposed for one hour failed to show any effect whatever from the sunlight, and developed in an apparently normal manner. This experiment was repeated on February 2, at moon, in bright sunlight, and salt was added to the ice to reduce to a minimum the liability of the sun’s heat affecting the organism. Exposures to the direct sunlight were made for 30, 45, 75, 90, and 120 minutes. In 24 hours all the plates showed good growth on the unexposed half of the dish. On the plate exposed for 30 minutes only about half as many colonies appeared on the exposed side as on the unexposed. On the plate exposed 45 minutes the reduction was still greater, but the colonies could not be definitely counted on account of their ten- dency to coalesce. On the plate exposed for 60 minutes about one-eighth as many colonies appeared on the exposed as on the unex- posed side. On the plate exposed 75 minutes no colony appeared on the exposed side. The same condition was true for the plates of 90 and 120 minutes exposure. In 36 hours six submerged colonies were visible on the 120-minute plate, and some were visible on all the others, in addition to the spread of the colonies from the unex- posed side of the plate. INOCULATIONS FOR THE COMPARISON OF THE COCONUT ORGANISM AND BACILLUS COLI. In earlier pages of this paper it has been shown that a certain’ organism could produce diseased conditions by artificial inoculations into healthy coconut trees, identical with typical bud-rot. On subsequent pages it has been shown that this coconut organism is practically identical in its cultural features with the common Bacillus coli. The next step was to produce conditions similiar to bud-rot by means of inoculations with Bacillus coli derived from animals. For this purpose several experiments have been carried out in the green- house with coconut seedlings. The coconut organism was inoculated into some seedlings for comparison with the Bacillus colt inoculations. EXPERIMENT No. 1. Inoculations with the coconut organism and with Bacillus coli (from animals) were made into coconut seedlings on February 17 from cultures of February 16. At the same time a solution of ammonium oxalate was injected into a seedling. No check inocula- tions other than this were made at this time. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. £27 The inoculations were examined from time to time, and finally on -March 7, 18 days after the injection, the material was collected and attempts were made to isolate the organisms inoculated. The methods of procedure for identifying the coconut organism and Bacillus coli were the same and were based on some of the char- acteristic reactions of these organisms. Dolt’s’ synthetic medium No. 1 (a litmus-lactose-glycerin agar, p. 79), litmus milk (p. 94), nitrate bouillon (p. 71), fermentation tubes containing peptone and dextrose with neutral red (p. 80), and, in some instances, gelatin, were used. These media have been recommended by various investigators who have carried out extensive work with Bacillus coli in connection with their “board of health’ investigations and full discussions of them are given on the pages cited. Following are the results of this experiment: Inoculation No. 1, with ammonium oxalate: The inoculation point was about the same as with Bacillus coli, only drier. Inoculation No. 2, with Bacillus coli: Discoloration for only a short distance from the inoculation hole; a water-soaked discoloration but not appearing like a soft rot. Inoculation No. 3, with coconut No. 5: Discoloration extended a distance of 4 centimeters from the hole and the tissues appeared under the microscope to be full of bacteria. Inoculation No. 4, with coconut No. 5: Discoloration appeared for only a short distance about the inoculation hole; discolored tissues appeared under the micro- scope to be full of bacteria. On the agar plates poured in the usual way from these diseased tissues there appeared round, white colonies, typical of the coconut organism in the case of the coconut plates; but round, thin, white colonies, some with dentate margins, both typical and atypical forms of Bacillus coli, in the case of the Bacillus coli plates. Transfers were made of selected colonies from these plates to litmus milk, and after five days all of the tubes had produced red surface rings, but in only one case (from coconut inoculation No. 3) had the medium turned entirely red. These cultures were also transferred to agar containing neutral red, to Dolt’s synthetic medium, and again to litmus milk. In each case negative results were obtained for both the coconut organism and Bacillus coli. Plates were again poured from dilutions of the original bouillon tubes containing the diseased material, and this time Dolt’s litmus- lactose-glycerin agar was used. In five days pink colonies typical of both the coconut organism and of Bacillus coli were formed on their respective plates. Twelve out of the fourteen plates poured showed these colonies. Transfers were made from these pink colonies to nitrate bouillon, and two days afterwards test for the reduction of nitrate to nitrite 228 128 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. showed in tubes from two of the Bacillus coli plates, in tubes from three of the plates of coconut inoculation No. 3, and in one of the plates from coconut inoculation No. 4. Before the nitrate tubes were used for the test transfers were made to beef bouillon and subsequently transfers from these were made to litmus milk. In two days each of the litmus-milk tubes, from nitrate tubes that had responded to the reduction test, showed the typical reddening of the litmus and coagulation of the milk that is found in the coconut organism and in Bacillus coli. The tests for these organisms were not carried out further, it being considered that the typical reaction found in the litmus-lactose- glycerin agar, in the nitrate bouillon, and in litmus milk were suffi- cient for identification. The only further means of identification was to make transfers from the origimal bouillon which contained the diseased matter directly to various media without the preliminary plating out of individual colonies. In this way transfers were made to litmus milk, in which case all but one of the tubes reddened and coagulated the milk; to beef agar containing neutral red, in which case all the tubes produced gas and turned the color of the medium to a canary yellow at the base; and to litmus-lactose-glycerin agar, in which good pink colonies were formed, as in Bacillus coli and the coconut organism, and the agar was entirely reddened. ‘These tests were considered sufficient to indicate that the same organisms were to be found in the diseased material as were originally injected into the healthy tissues. It appears from this that not only the coconut organism but also Bacillus coli (from animals) is capable of producing a destruction of the heart tissues of the coconut plant. Although this was not altogether a surprise after making the extensive com- parison of the two organisms that has been described on previous pages and the close similarity of the organisms that has been shown, yet the fact that Bacillus coli or any bacterial organism that is com- monly associated with animal life is capable of producing a plant disease was so unexpected that further confirmation was thought desirable. The one inoculation of Bacillus coli described in this experiment, while on the face of it appearing to have all the points necessary for verification, yet demands several repetitions before it can be accepted as an incontrovertible fact. To this end further inoculations were carried out. EXPERIMENT No. 2. Along with the other inoculations just described as being made on February 17 a second injection of Bacillus coli (derived from animals) was made into a coconut seedling and likewise another 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 129 solution of ammonium oxalate. This work was done in the usual way and left until April 5, at which time (after 47 days) the material was collected and platings from the diseased tissue were made both by the writer and by Miss Lucia McCulloch. The appearance of the inoculations was as follows: Bacillus coli—The outermost point of the inoculation was merely a trifle browned and water soaked and not at all extensive. The next inner leaf and the one inclosing the central leaf had uppermost an inoculation hole which was browned and water soaked, but only 8 millimeters in extent. On the other side of this same leafstalk was a soft-rotted white area about 5 centimeters long. The innermost leaf, which was still folded, showed the result of the inoculation extending over a distance of 9 centi- meters. The diseased part at the lower end was only slightly browned and dry, the middle was soft rotted and water soaked, and the upper part was considerably black- ened. The rot was a typical soft rot, although it had not reduced the tissues to a watery fluid. Ammonium oxalate-——In the outer tissues this inoculation had no characteristic effect. In the inner tissues the leaf was somewhat blackened and dry. No soft rot was in evidence. The action seems to have been a poisonous one rather than one having any effect in dissolving the tissues. The isolation of the organism from the diseased material as carried out by Miss McCulloch is described in the following paragraphs: Young coconut leaf, brown to black with rot at base. Bacteria only moderately abundant as seen by the microscope. Some mycelium found. Plates poured with ordinary beef agar showed in 20 hours numerous round, white colonies up to 2 millimeters in diameter. Transfers were made to agar and to litmus milk. In 48 hours the agar colonies which had been white were cream color, opaque, and not quite round. Transfers were made from the agar tubes to fermentation tubes containing | per cent peptone water plus 1 per cent dextrose plus neutral red and to tubes containing nitrate bouillon. In three days the fermentation tubes contained gas to the amount of 2.5 to 3 centi- meters and the closed arms were canary yellow. Five out of the six tubes showed this reaction. The nitrate-bouillon cultures were then tested for the reduction of nitrates to nitrites and the same five out of the six tubes responded to the test. Transfers were made from the five fermentation tubes which produced gas to slant tubes of Dolt’s synthetic medium. In two days the medium became reddened and the cultures showed a good pink, wet-shining growth. Transfers were made from these slant agar tubes to litmus milk and to agar con- taining dextrose and neutral red. The litmus-milk cultures made directly from the plates, for the most part, reddened and coagulated. The litmus-milk cultures, from the slant-agar Dolt’s medium, likewise reddened and coagulated. The agar tubes containing dextrose and neutral red after inoculation showed good growth and a subsequent bleaching of the color, but no change to canary yellow. As the reaction is an inconstant one, however, it can not be considered evidence against the identification of Bacillus coli. Thus, in Miss McCulloch’s isolations of the organisms she obtained bacteria which coagulated milk, reddened litmus, grew well on Dolt’s litmus-lactose-glycerin agar, produced gas, and caused a change to 6389°—Bul. 228—12 9 130 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. canary yellow of fermentation tubes with peptone and neutral red, and reduced nitrates to nitrites. The writer of this paper likewise made attempts to isolate Bacillus coli from the same diseased seedling used by Miss McCulloch. The process was similar to that in experiment 1 and showed results as follows: The agar plates which were poured from the diseased material showed in 24 hours numerous round, white, raised, wet-shining colonies typical of Bacillus coli. Some of the colonies were irregular in shape, even to radiate branching, and some were bluish and iridescent in transmitted light, but these are variations often met with in what passes for Bacillus colt. Transfers were made from the various colonies to plain beef-bouillon tubes and thence to nitrate-bouillon tubes. After three days in the nitrate bouillon, tests were made for the reduction of nitrates, and it was found that 6 out of the 13 tubes responded to the test. Of these six, two were from round, white colonies; one from round, white, iridescent; one from blue iridescent; one from radiate branched; and one from an irregular blue iridescent colony. Those cultures which failed to show the reduction were largely from round colonies. Fermentation tubes containing dextrose, peptone, and neutral red were inoculated, and after two days at 37° C. showed the typical canary-yellow color in the closed arm, together with an average of 35 millimeters of gas. Four out of seven of the tubes tried responded to this test. From these four tubes transfers were made to Dolt’s litmus- lactose-glycerin agar slant tubes where all grew well, reddened the agar, and produced good pink growths. Transfers were made from these same tubes in gelatin and placed in the thermostat at 37° C., where an excellent growth took place. After 48 hours the tubes were placed in an ice box and the medium soon became entirely solidified, showing that no liquefaction had taken place. From these results it will be observed that the same conclusion may be derived as from Miss McCulloch’s platings, that is, that Bacillus coli was isolated from the diseased material obtained from an inoculation of Bacillus colt. EXPERIMENT No. 3. On April 14, 1910, two inoculations were made into coconut seed- lings with cultures of Bacillus coli. The point of inoculation on the seedling was washed with a solution of mercuric chloride before inoculation. On May 16, just 32 days afterwards, these two inoculations were cut out and examined. They appeared as follows: (a) Dry, brown discoloration about upper part of hole. At extreme lower end were water-soaked discolorations and slight signs of rot. At the lower part the tissues were considerably split up. The edges of the cracks were yellowed, and in the cracks were masses of what appeared to be bacteria, but little active motility was discernible. (b) Good water-soaked, brown, soft rot extending about 5 centimeters (Pl. XII). Diseased material from these inoculations was carefully rinsed in alcohol, soaked in mercuric chlorid, and rinsed in distilled water; then, by means of sterile knives and forceps, small pieces were put into test tubes containing beef bouillon and there thoroughly cut up. 228 PLATE XII. Bul. 228, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "SAVG GE SSWIL “SONITGSSAS LNNOOOD OLNI NOD SNIMNOVG DNILVINOON| 40 11Ns3¥Yy LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. nied These tubes were allowed to stand over night, and on the following day dilutions of the tubes were made in the customary manner and plates were poured, using Dolt’s synthetic medium. In two days every one of the 10 plates showed pink colonies, and where there were more than two or three colonies the agar was entirely reddened. In some plates the colonies were few, while in others they were numerous. For the most part they were round and to all appearances like Bacillus coli. The fact that they red- dened the litmus and grew well in this lactose medium is good evidence of their identity. Transfers were made on May 21 from the pink colonies to litmus milk and incubated at 37°C. In 24 hours the four tubes were red, coagulated, and showed abundant whey. Transfers from these litmus-milk tubes were made to nitrate bouillon on May 28 and three days afterwards were tested for the reduction of nitrates to nitrites. Each one of the tubes showed the reduction well. On June 2 transfers were made from the litmus-milk tubes to fermentation tubes containing peptone and neutral red to test for the canary-yellow color. The tubes were incubated at 37° C. After two days light clouding took place, but no gas formation nor reduc- tion of color. This behavior being entirely contrary to that of Bacillus coli, the medium was tested for dextrose, which it should have for the complete reaction. It was found by the use of Fehling’s solution that not a particle of reducing sugar was in the fermentation tubes, so a fresh medium containing the peptone, dextrose, and neutral red was made up. These tubes were incubated at 37° C. After 18 hours a small amount of gas appeared, but little change in color. In 24 hours the tubes showed 31 to 34 millimeters of gas, and each one was changed to the canary yellow in the closed end and to a bright red in the open end. Transfers from each of these four fermentation tubes were made to beef gelatin and incubated for 48 hours at 37° C. At the end of that time all the tubes showed heavy precipitate, several large clots in suspension, and moderate films. The tubes were placed in an ice box and allowed to harden. Eventually each one of these became solidified and showed absolutely no sign of liquefaction of the gelatin. Thus, in this third experiment the same organism that was inocu- lated, viz, Bacillus coli, was isolated from the decayed tissues. EXPERIMENT No. 4. On May 7 Miss McCulloch inoculated several coconuts under the supervision of the writer. Strains of Bacillus coli (Hitchings and V1I-11-V-09) which had not been in the hands of the writer at all were used. The coconuts for this experiment had but recently been 228 132 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. set out after their arrival from a locality in Florida where the bud-rot does not occur. They were just beginning to make good growth. The following notes are from Miss McCulloch: Seedlings 6 to 12 inches out of nut: At base of stalk a spot was washed with 1:1000 HgCl,, rinsed in sterile water, then with sterile needle a puncture made to heart or center of stalk. The bacterial growth from agar slant was washed off in sterile water and this water (cloudy with bacteria) was injected with a hypodermic needle into the center of the plant. Inoculations Nos. 1 to 4 from agar slants | to 4 Hitchings strain of Bacillus coli; inoculations Nos. 5, 6, and 7 from agar slants1, 2, amd 3 of VI-11-V-09 strain of Bacillus coli. After inoculation the agar from the tubes was taken out on the cotton plug and bound over the point of inoculation. Checks Nos. 8 and 9 were punctured with sterile needle and the binding of agar and cotton put on as with inoculated plants. Inoculation No. 4, collected June 8: The path of the inoculating needle is brown. In the youngest inner leaf there is a brown, water-soaked area about the inoculation point; extends 1.5 centimeters above and 1 centimeter below the inoculation point. Brownish tissue 1.5 centimeters above used for plating. Tissue was washed in alcohol, mercuric chlorid, and water, and then crushed in the test tubes. June 10: No colonies on these plates. They have been at 37° C. for 24 hours, and at room temperature for 24 hours. A new set of plates was poured from same tubes. June 13: A few white colonies only, on original plate; discarded. Same with second set. Inoculation No. 5: Inoculating needle missed the center of the growth. There is no discoloration about the path of the needle except in the leaf base last punctured, where there is considerable water-soaked, reddish tissue, some of it 3 centimeters from inoculation point. Some of this diseased tissue farthest from inoculation was washed in alcohol, mercuric chlorid, and water, and crushed in test tubes. No organ- isms responding to Bacillus coli tests were isolated. Inoculation No. 7: The central leafstalk seems unaffected by the inoculation. The base of the leaf just outside this shows discoloration and is slightly water-soaked around the opening made by the needle. All the dark part was cut off from the remainder of the leaf. The hole was laid open—the loose soft part in the opening removed—then the whole discolored part was immersed in 95 per cent alcohol 15 seconds, then in HgC1, for 2 minutes, and washed in several changes of distilled water for half an hour. The material was then crushed finely in beef bouillon and allowed to stand with frequent shaking for 3.5 hours before plates were poured. After 2 days at 37° C. only a few white colonies appeared on the plate. Plates were again poured on the Dolt’s synthetic medium, but as before only white colonies appeared. Plates discarded. The remaining inoculations of May 7 were examined by the writer, using the customary precautions of rinsing in alcohol and soaking in mercuric chlorid. The results were as follows: Inoculation No. 1, collected on June 8: The tissues about 2.5 centimeters above inoculation point showed a browning; a rather dry rot. Plates were made in the usual way on June 9 in Dolt’s syn- thetic medium and incubated at 37°C. June 10: Plate 1b thickly sown with irregular, luxuriant pink colonies. Plate 1c?, no colonies. Plate 1c, numerous pink colonies. Plate 1b, Five round pink colonies; one irregular mass. 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. iao Plate 1a, numerous pink colonies. Plate 1, numerous pink colonies. Plate 1’, Four tiny pink colonies. Plate 1a”, Four tiny pink colonies. Thus, some of these plates suggest the presence of Bacillus coli. Four tubes were made from the diseased material, marked thus: No. 1, No. la, No. 1b, and No. 1c. From these dilutions were made, marked the same, and from them second dilutions were made, marked No. 1’, No. 1a?, No. 1b?, and No. 1c”. Plates from these tubes have already been described for one day’s growth. In two days they appeared as follows, in the order of their dilution: No. 1: Well sown with round pink colonies, mostly typical of Bacillus coli. No. 1’: Five round pink colonies, unlike Bacillus coli. No. la: Many luxuriant pink, irregular, smooth colonies, unlike Bacillus coli. No. 1a?: Six colonies, unlike Bacillus coli. No. 1b: Well sown with round, pink colonies, typical of Bacillus coli. No. 1b*: Several colonies; none like Bacillus coli. No. 1c: Well sown with small, round pink Bacillus coli colonies. No. 1c?: Four colonies, unlike Bacillus coli. These notes were made on the plates after transfers, so that some colonies which might have been Bacillus coli were destroyed by the needle. Transfers from these plates to litmus milk were incubated at 37°C. All the tubes became reddened and coagulated in 48 hours. Transfers were made from the litmus-milk cultures into nitrate bouillon and incubated at 37°C. for 48 hours. At the end of that time they were tested and all showed reduction of nitrates to nitrites. Transfers were then made from the litmus milk to fermentation tubes containing neutral red and dextrose, and these were incubated at 37°C. After 48 hours every one of the 10 tubes showed the typical greenish-yellow color reaction in the closed arm of the fermentation tube characteristic of Bacillus coli. Transfers were made to gelatin and incubated at 37° C. for 48 hours. They were then placed in an ice box to permit hardening. After i0 hours all of these tubes were found to be perfectly firm, thus showing that no liquefaction of the gelatin had taken place. No further tests were made, as it was believed that sufficient had been shown to indicate that Bacillus cola was in the tissues into which it had been injected in inoculation No.1. ; Inoculation No. 2, of May 7: The outer sheath was very slightly water soaked about the inoculation hole. The under leaves were rotted only a slight distance; more than in the checks, but scarcely enough to plate out. Inoculation No. 3, of May 7: The outer sheath was brown rotted 2 millimeters about the inoculation hole on the inner side. Above the hole were numerous brown spots, apparently stomatal infections 228 184 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. from the excess of bacterial liquid inoculated. These tiny brown spots were surrounded by water-soaked areas. The inner part of the tissue was browned and rotted for a distance of 2.5 centimeters. The tissues were not soft rotted. The middle leaves were densely covered with brown water-soaked spots up to 2.5 centimeters from the brown-rotted area. From this inoculation 6 plates were made on June 7 using Dolt’s synthetic medium. On June 9 all of the plates showed one or more pink colonies. Transfers were made from the pink colonies to litmus milk and incubated at 37°C. After four days two of the tubes had reddened and coagulated; five had red- dened but remained uncoagulated; and one had turned the litmus blue. Transfers to nitrate bouillon showed after 48 hours that all of these cultures except the one which had blued litmus were capable of reducing nitrates to nitrites. Transfers were then made to fermen- tation tubes containing neutral red and dextrose. These tubes after incubation for 48 hours at 37° C. showed the greenish-yellow reaction in the closed arm as in the case of the same cultures that had both reddened the litmus and coagulated the milk. Those which had only reddened the litmus without coagulating the milk produced a deep-red color in both ends of the fermentation tubes. Thus two, at least, of these cultures appeared to be Bacillus coli. Inoculation No. 6, of May 7, collected on June 8: The outer sheath was brown and water soaked for 8 millimeters about the hole. The inner leaves were brown rotted 25 millimeters from the hole, but there was no soft white rot. No platings were made. Inoculation No. 8, check: Browning of the tissue was only immedi- ately about the inoculation hole. This discoloration did not extend any appreciable distance. Absolutely no sign of rot or of destruc- tion of tissue. The results of these inoculations show that all of the cultures produced much more effect on the coconut tissue than did the bare check inoculation; that in some cases there was a distinct rot and that in two inoculations apparently Bacillus coli was reisolated. These inoculations were all made with Bacillus coli, a strain desig- nated as Hitchings, and made by one unaccustomed to work with the coconut plant—a very important matter. Moreover, the plants were in poor condition for the purpose, as they were just starting a rapid growth which in several cases caused the central leaves to develop into firm, resistant tissue before the rotting effect could - take place. The work would probably be more successful if the husk were partly removed about the young shoot and the inoculations made in the thickest part of the stem. As it was, all the moculations were made outside of the husk in the more or less unsatisfactory 228 LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE STUDIES. 135 green hardened tissues (Pl. XI) and in plants not making one- quarter as rapid growth as they would have made in the Tropics. EXPERIMENT No. 5. On August 15, 1910, three inoculations were made into coconut trees in Baracoa with a strain of Bacillus coli obtained from Dr. Theo- bald Smith. The three trees were each about 6 years old and were apparently in a perfectly healthy condition, although they were bordering a grove of some 1,200 trees that had just been entirely destroyed by the bud-rot. On September 28 these inoculations were examined. Inoculation No. 1 proved to have been made too low. It was below the heart and in the woody tissue. The tissue was entirely rotted about 1 centimeter around the hole from the outside to the interior. On the outer sheaths the brown discoloration extended several centimeters. Inoculation No. 2 was the same as No. 1. Here also the inocula- tion was in the wood below the heart. Inoculation No. 3 was in the soft tissues above the heart. The hole itself was perfectly dry and uninfected in the interior. Extend- ing from the hole upward for 1 meter and only on the inoculated side was the typical soft white rot of the bud-rot disease. The infec- tion was visible on the upper part of the central leaves. There were no insects or other signs of carriers of the disease. It could not be determined if the rot was caused by the inoculation, because, (1) it became more conspicuous from a point 8 centimeters above the hole, but this may have been because of tissues better suited to infection at that point and upward, infectious fluid being injected into all this area; or because (2) by rapid growth the soft injected tissues were carried up beyond the level of that part of the puncture passing through the older tissues. The method of inoculation consisted first in boring a hole to the center of the trunk by means of a 9-millimeter steel bit and then injecting the fluid containing the germs by means of a large syringe. As the terminus of the hole in this case was made into the soft tissues it is very possible that the syringe did not follow the hole throughout, but was pushed to one side in the soft inner tis- sues. Such acondition could not be determined for the reason that the end of the syringe was small and would make only a very small hole, and the tissues were rotted at this point so that any hole, unless very large, would be indistinguishable. The writer considered the rot due to the Bacillus coli introduced by him. On the other hand, it might be claimed that the inoculation failed and that the infection was entirely an outside one. However, if the same kind of organism that was injected could be isolated from the diseased tissues it would 228 136 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. go a long way toward proving the relation of Bacillus coli to the disease. Material from each of these three inoculations was secured, rinsed in mercuric chlorid, then in water, and finally pieces of it transferred by means of sterile knives and forceps to tubes containing Dolt’s synthetic medium. These tubes were taken to Washington and there plated out. It was found, by the usual method of isolation described on other pages, that in the case of each of the inoculations, Bacillus coli, the same organism that was injected was present in great numbers, although in no case were pure cultures obtained. The results of these inoculations by themselves are rather unsatis- factory, but taken together with the earlier results they afford good evidence as to the relation of Bacillus coli to the disease. EXPERIMENT No. 6. Ten inoculations into coconut seedlings were made with Bacillus coli (Theobald Smith XIV) on October 14 in the greenhouse at Washington. Examined on November 10 they showed the following conditions: Six of the inoculations showed only a slight browning of the tissues about the hole and some water-soaked areas, but no rot nor dis- coloration of the sheaths. Two inoculations showed a good brown rot for a short distance about the hole and brown staining for a distance of about 3 centi- meters above the hole. One showed a typical soft wet rot 3 centimeters long and a brown stain 5 centimeters above the hole. One showed splendid brown soft rot for a distance of 12 centimeters in middle leaves. Outer leaves were well water-soaked and rotted for a distance of 2 centimeters all around inoculation hole, even on the outside sheaths. No isolations were attempted from any of this series of inoculations. BACILLUS COLI, THE CAUSE OF BUD-ROT. Cultures of true Bacillus coli have produced infections in the heart tissue of the coconut crown similar to those infections caused by the coconut organisms. Isolations from the Bacillus coli moculations and from the coconut organism inoculations have shown cultures identical in nearly every particular. From the early coconut inocu- lations, isolations, reinoculations, and reisolations (described on pp. 43-46) the cultures which were obtained have appeared identical in most cases. When difference has existed, it has usually been a matter of degree rather than of kind. 228 BACILLUS COLI, THE CAUSE OF BUD-ROT. 137 The proof of the cause of the bud-rot will depend for its verity upon the similarity of the various cultures isolated from diseased tissues and upon the constancy of the reactions. Dissimilarity or variation will require satisfactory explanation, or it will count against the statement to be proved. For the proof, so far as inocu- lations are concerned, the results cited seem sufficient. There can be no question that good infections were obtained. If now the simi- larity of the organism injected into the tissues and of the organism isolated from the tissues In various experiments be shown, the cause of bud-rot, and, moreover, Bacillus coli as the cause, will be demon- strated. In order to show briefly and in a concise form the similari- ties and differences among these organisms as ascertained in the cultural work, Table XX XI has been prepared. TaBLE XXXI.—Summary of characters of the coconut organisms and of Bacillus coli. Coconut culture. Detailed features. ——| Bacillus | coli. 1 2 3. 4 5 6 MorpHalory On OLeanist=).> 2 -2- =-=2 Fischer’s mineral solution: long As 2.2: 2 SS ei eae SS ee With @eaxtrose.... oni aude ag or tives 3 eves BB. ee caithts, Dachh LY PUI 94 SMe Te etl ies | ii wes Vere ree aged, vie th it al pr >. INDEX. Acetic acid. See Acid, acetic. Page. Acetone, product of growth of bud-rot organism.......-...-. ect peaks SEL a 96-97 Acid, acetic, product of growth of bud-rot organism........... Eee See 98-100 carbolic, use in testing bud-rot orgamism................--....----... 121-122 Princ aise in) testing, bud-rot orpanism.<- 2-2...) -04 -«ase gh -ns 8 121-122 formic, product of growth of bud-rot organism......... ere -. Saeee 98-100 hydrochloric, use in testing bud-rot organism.................--.-...- 119-120 lactic, relation to growth of bud-rot organism...........-.-.--.----- 98, 121-122 oxalic, usein testing bud-rot orgamiem.....2--. 02.6.4. e- eee ee ess 121-122 pyrogallic, use in tests of bud-rot organism... . . Peta Beacon eras ale 65-66 relation to growth of bud-rot orgamism.............------22--see00-2-- 65-66, 68-71, 75-77, 81, 94-100, 107-111, 115-122, 137-138, 144, 145 rosolic, use in testing bud-rot organism................2-.-.2-----.- 69, 115-116 succinic, product of growth of bud-rot organism.........-....-- 98-100, 116-117 sulphuric, use in testing bud-rot organism..................... 71,118, 121-122 wiries, source of coconut products... ;'-)-25 on 3 ogee eee 2 eevee he 20, 161, 162 Agar, beef, with caffein, medium for growth of bud-rot organism.............- 107 carrot, medium for growth of bud-rot organism............---..--.-.- 114, 138 Dolt’s synthetic, medium for growth of bud-rot organism ................ pie 79-80, 127, 129-132, 134, 136, 137, 141, 153 Endo’s fuchsin, medium for growth of bud-rot organism.....- 71, 79, 88-90, 137 Kashida’s litmus-lactose, medium for growth of bud-rot organism...... 7A 119-120, 138, 139 litmus-lactose, medium for growth of bud-rot organism................- ae feegien Dolt’s synthetic... 2. .2.+.420¢sse-te< 79-80, 114, 119-120, 127, 138, 139 MacConkey’s bile-salt, medium for growth of bud-rot organism... 82, 83-84, 137 medium for growth of bud-rot organism.........-....- Be Be 19, 51, 64-67, 71, 79-84, 88-91, 106, 107, 114, 119-120, 127, 129-132, 134, 136-139, 141, 144, 153 oxalic-acid, medium for growth of bud-rot organism.............-...- 114, 138 potato, medium for growth of bud-rot organism..............-..------- 114 Wurtz’s litmus, medium for growth of bud-rot organism... . . ‘oe ae ks 79 Air, eect, on growth of bud-rot organiam...o.2.230 . 22: Paces ece eee eke 65-66 Albumin, medium for growth of bud-rot organism.........-..-..-.------ 107-109, 116 Alcohol, relation to growth of bud-rot organism..............- 96-97, 100, 123, 130, 132 Aldehydes, products of growth of bud-rot organism.........-----.--.2-------- 96-97 Alkali, effect on growth of bud-rot organism............-.---.----- 109-111, 118, 120 Alsberg, C. L., on analysis of products of bud-rot organism.........-..-..--. 99-100 America, tropical, source of coconut products.......-.....-----+----+---+- 159-161, 163 Ammonium, relation of salts to bud-rot organism..............-.----2-e2--00-- 80, 93-94, 101— 104, 119-120, 126-129, 137-140 Amylodextrin, product of growth of bud-rot organism.................------- 73-76 Animals, relation to spread of bud-rot.......-...-....-- 11, 47, 49-52, 61, 126-136, 163 See also Insects. Anisolabis janeirensis. See Earwigs. 228 165 166 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF THE COCONUT BUD-ROT. Page Annotto Bay, Jamaica, nonoccurrence of coconut bud-rot...............-...- 30 Ants, presence in palms affected by bud-rot.............- cserenwies 105 40, Areca, species of palm subject to disease resembling bud- rot. Syst ease oan 154-156 Artemisa, ‘Cuba, occurrence of bud-10b, ...0-'. 2a» s+. vb eeasy ss sseukees> shee 12 Asparagin, use in testing bud-rot organism...........- 101-104, 107, 121-122, 138, 139 Bachiller, Antonio, on occurrence of coconut bud-rot in Cuba.............--.. 13 Bacillus amylobacter, relation to coconut bud-rot............-..-...------+-- 39, 151 coli, causal organism of bud-rot...........-..--.-2... . 52-53, 136-142, 163 See also Bud-rot, causal organism. comparison with coconut bud-rot organisms...............- 64-146, 163 differentiation of various species...............-2-00eeeseeeces 53, 140 effect on tissues, microscopic studies...............-..--- 156-159, 163 identification teste: 2220 so25 22.022 as eb Bee eee 53, 77-136, 163 occurrence in digestive tract of insects............-...seeeeeee 51-53 summary of chatacters. ...:.22 20h)... oss. tee ele pee 137-142 typhosus, comparison with Bacillus coli...........:.... 91, 106, 107, 120-122 Bacteria, cause of bud-rot...............- 9-11, 19, 22, 24-26, 38-48, 52, 55, 63, 151, 163 effect on tissues, microscopic studies. . 22, 25, 26, 39-46, 55, 151, 156-159, 163 See also Bacillus and Bud-rot. Bahamas, accounts relating to occurrence of bud-rot.............-.---++---+-- 24, 36 source of coconut products....22.....050..0.5-.25.-5c55 =e 160 Balmaseda, F. J., on occurrence of bud-rot in Cuba..........---------------- 13 Banes, Cuba; occurrence of bud-rot./..22...550.0252. 22.6 ee ... 12,162 Baracoa, Cuba, occurrence.of bud-rot-......2.22....22.50.05 255.222 oe 9, 12, 14, 22, 27-29, 40, 42, 48-49, 51, 61-62, 135, 141-142. 152, 162, 163 Barrett, O. W., on occurrence of bud-rot in Trinidad. .................... 25-26, 32 Bartlett, A. H., assistance in investigations of bud-rot................------.- 34 Baton, W. U. C., and Longley, F. F., on identification of Bacillus coli....... 66, 78 Beef, medium for growth of bud-rot organism. See media; as, Agar, Bouillon, Broth, Gelatin, etc. Beetles, presence on palms affected by bud-rot ................--.------ 61, 148, 154 Bessey, E. A., on nonoccurrence of bud-rot in Florida..........-.-..------.- 36 Betel-nut, species of palm subject to disease resembling bud-rot............- 154-156 Bile-salt agar, MacConkey’s. See Agar, MacConkey’s bile-salt. Birds, possible disseminators of bud-rot...........-....--------------- 49, 51-53, 163 Birt, C.; on test for Bacillus coli®.....25.04.2¢2.22 5 eee 107 Blabera fusca. See Cockroaches. Blanford, W. H., on occurrence of bud-rot in British Honduras.............-.- 16 Bordeaux mixture. See Mixture, Bordeaux. Botryodiplodium, association with bud-rot.................-.-.--2.- 25, 47, 158-159 Bouillon, medium for growth of bud-rot organism...........-......-.---2----- 51, 52, 65, 67, 69-71, 76-79, 82, 85, 87, 91, 93, 94, 109-111, 114-116, 118, 124-125, 127-134, 142, 143, 145, 153 Brazil, source of coconut products... .-.22227..2255.2.2215c.ces2s eee ae 160 British Guiana. See Guiana, British. British Honduras. See Honduras, British. Broth, medium for growth of bud-rot organism..................-20s+eeeees- 78, 142 Bud-rot, attributed to causes other than Bacillus coli.............-..-....--- 22; 38-39, 47-48, 146-152, 155, 158-159, 163 causal organism, characteristics by physical methods.............- 124-126 comparison with Bacillus coli....... 52-53, 64-146, 153, 163 See also detailed features of comparison; as, Acid, Color, Gas, Morphology, etc. INDEX. 167 Page. Bud-rot, causal organism, cultural experiments..............-.....-..-- 64-126, 163 descniptionies doaj eter stusetshs JU see 64-65 proup charmetenstiest? s- Js te eho. ei Ue ee 64-77 Mumibers SU AG Nee ate She cos ed 76-77 growth in various media............... 64-124, 136-146, 163 See also names of media; as, Agar, Bouillon, etc. products -of-crowthts:2 22sec sd eee 22 92-101 reisolation from artificial infections............ 129-130, 134 See also Isolation. special test reactions for identification.............. 77-92 simnimney ob charactets:: 3). 2609s ae a eee 136-142 control of disease, methods and experiments........... 10, 20, 23, 30, 54-63 See also Bud-rot, sanitation. diagnosis. See Bud-rot, indications of presence of disease. EN MUR NGNOS ce = 35 Stabe eet nests ceweaseda HUY. 02 2S abe eas 38-63, 163 Feoctapnic disthi bution 722 soos OS ose esee es HR see 9, 11-21, 161-162 RIGICHONS Or presence ol, Ginease: WS ees sees 36 se Uawsleoe tie ties 10-11, 15-20, 22-26, 32-34, 41, 49, 54, 55, 149-153, 157-159, 161 muecthious nature Of The disease. co. -eeeeeeene 161 Solution, Cohn’s, medium for growth of bud-rot organism. ............- 113-114, 138 Dunham’s, medium for growth of bud-rot organism. ...........-.-- 51, 52, 67-69, 78, 79, 85, 86, 92-94, 100-101, 111-113, 138, 139, 144, 145 Fehling’s, medium for growth of bud-rot organism......- 85, 86, 87, 100, 131 Fischer’s mineral, medium for growth of bud-rot organism.......... 93-94, 104-106, 138, 139 Nessler’s, medium for growth of bud-rot organism .................- 93 Parietti’s, medium for growth of bud-rot organism .................- 78, 79 Uschinsky’s, medium for growth of bud-rot organism.............. 113, 138 South. America, source of coconut products..22s2/:\/. -. 232500. 2k eee 160-161 Spraying, treatment for control of bud-rot.....................----- 24, 56, 61-63, 162 Stains, use in morphological studies of bud-rot...................---2220200- 64 Starch, use in testing bud-rot organism................-.. 71, 72-75, 76, 137, 139, 140 Stein, Pflanzer, on occurrence of bud-rot in German East Africa.............. 20 Stockdale, F. A., on diseases of the coconut palm........-. 17, 25, 32-33, 148-150, 162 Stoddart, plate medium for growth of bud-rot organism................-- 91, 92, 137 Stomata; relation to infection of. bud=rot...2. 71 ju. eee aoe ea ee pees 156, 163 Stone, B. H., on method of identifying Bacillus coli.....................---- 78 Strainer rot. See Wet-rot. Structure of coconmt ireessullaiess-ee eee ee eee ee eee eeeee 36-38, 156-157, 162 Studies, microscopic, of cocomm@t bud-rot:\..2.)..2.2..2222-00es0 1+ ees ee eee 22, 25, 26, 39-46, 55, 72, 127, 129, 150, 151, 156-159, 163 Succinic acid. See Acid, succinic, 228 INDEX. LTS Page. Sugar, cane, use in testing bud-rot organism............-- 70-71, 101-104, 106, 138, 139 grape, use in testing bud-rot organism.......-..-.-........-.-. 65, 69, 100-101 relation to growth of bud-rot organism. :.....-.4..--2.-:s-secsnees6 70-71, 85-87, 100-106, 116-119, 131, 137-139, 142, 144 See also Carbohydrates, Saccharose; and Sugar, grape. Sulphuric acid. See Acid, ee ea BPIBETEE OL INC INTE sae 2 eo nied ob i caren Phe eye alten owes ec Sembee ae 161-163 Sunlizht,.effect on growth of bud-rot organism............------222-0-s000e05 126 Syringe, use in making inoculations of bud-rot.............2...2--2..200-200-- 135 Tahiti, Society Islands, occurrence of coconut bud-rot....... Bee eae SO oe 20 Tamayo, Dr., on diagnosis of Uredo coccivoro..........-.--------- Set aero 39 Temperature, effect on growth of bud-rot organism........... CL eas 124-125, 138 dumper, use of coconut logs for buildings... ..2.....-.0-.2..s-<2-eceeeses0en=s 61 More. Carloside la,on cause of bud-rot.....---..seess-e--- + +5. ee eee) axeo, coconut, structural studies... .....-.-.-2...-.--..+.-: - 36-38, 156-157, 162 frogs. See Frogs, tree. Seta el OC CHITENCE Of DUG-FOb. «< -mec ee Sole is we eeinee se es a's gedoseses ens 9, 11, 16-17, 24-26, 30-33, 61, 143, 145, 148-150, 161, 162 BGurCe Of COCONUE PrOdUCIS .. 525-2) cad ss os 4p 2 iene d's os segues 160, 163 Tropics, eastern, source of coconut products..........-. 9-11, 18-21, 152, 159-161, 162 See also names of countries and places; as, Ceylon, India, etc. Tubes, fermentation, use in testing bud-rot organism ........................-. 51, 52, 65-67, 70, 77, 80-81, 100, 118-119, 127, 129-134, 137-138, 142-144, 153 Hiss’s, medium for differentiating bacilli... -..............-.2-seb-5--0 91-92 Turkey buzzard. See Buzzard, turkey. Tutuila, Samoa Islands, source of coconut products....................2-+--- 161 Pireaenee inh Testing biud-Trob Orcanism. 42. 26 gs. cece nsw sk a Ss os veins eecioeees cn 119 Predoicoceivoro, reputed cause of bud-rots... 2.2... csoccecee oe cna ceccecewe nee 38, 39 Uschinsky’s solution. See Solution, Uschinsky’s. Nareline, ice in. testing bud-rot orgamism....<..6. <6. -.0ceesdccctecececes 65-66 Mereiibics, susceptibility to soft rote: :.. 0.52. ccc sea ccc we eee cceenasdue 44, 145-146 Menezes lasource/ On. COCOnNt producisscs saeco esi) cietace ode ome ioes 36, 160 Vera Cruz, Mexico, reported occurrence of bud-rot..............-.-.-..00020-- 18 Washington, D. C., bacterial inoculations of coconut seedlings in greenhouse.. 45-46, 126-136, 139, 141-142 Weather. See Climate. Weevils, presence on palms affected by bud-rot....................-.-. 61, 148, 154 Meer ladies, investications of bud-r0t.. 0.0. -.00-5-ce sacs. scas- .. 11-16, 22-36, 162 BOUTCO OME OCONUM POD UCtS ssn 5 seas ee ciae aac. aa) siaic aiewisocs 23.40 bie 160 Weir, precursor of cemtel coconut bud-rot 2.222222 2 ele dee cee cee es 55 Wand. relation to spread of coconut bud-rot....2 2.026526 cco cs ceee eee sees 48, 49 Witte’s peptone. See Peptone, Witte’s. Wood lice. See Lice, wood. Wounds, relation to infection of bud-rot........... EPR eae cc hs Pee a Pe 156 See also Inoculations. Wurtz’s litmus agar. See Agar, Wurtz’s litmus. Wamu, Cuba, occurrence of. coconut bud-rot-...-.--.......-------------- 22, 28, 51 228 O hig dT)! Sear AA OOF PEt Lenihan, RTO. PL AME, AM iy nee nec tse tins 10 See I A, od ree Wid wel Be ak ens P COLNE RARE ah PRT cet Sate Vl: Fos RSs A Ol Seas 8 Pa, i ‘i Riba "L ok) with ' 1 a ei a tedinaas eA \heleotalelee i eae, x stand) hurled fell wala ike Paps ry Mae vs ow Mele Te a pele Oe Cow Ogee Oe kh Ce hees ri ace ea Me Se o.deiys Mile Dewy tase pis by wie aeteig hi Mie AWy BOF hua die (lbw aa) ye RE ae s,s 4 ieee ale brine Ta wear eel £3's Oh -7 = pie ah» exit tli ai it as lg evel ae 4 wbiae oe ¢: ved vy po ay Pare avers Ate fin tondall, Ay bn i‘ MS 4 ee Pe wel roi gaye 2)! po A IWOte Ce oe ie = ; vo } ‘ oini« sp Tn Lae kal 4 3 bad ( hea 4 / . i rs ¢4 a0 4 Pes ni 6 gia : Ey + a sit Wey ted ey Were a a” ef ; 4. rf : ry bs fod ‘« teh ang f q “es é ia] ¥ o¢ Liefiweg a ge: * ees i¢ey af! wi eee 21 tx oD heli 6a he 4 Z a! / rite atl, (ahs al b a Pero 7, Oana eae SEEDLINGS OF COWPEA (LEFT AND CATJANG PLATE I. RIGHT), SHOWING RELATIVE SIZE. ne-half natural size.) U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 229. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA AND IMMEDIATELY RELATED SPECIES. BY Cs..V; -PLPER, Agrostologist in Charge of Forage-Crop Investigations. Issued February 29, 1912. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1912, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY. Assistant Chief of Bureau, WILLIAM A. TAYLOR. Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL, Chief Clerk, JAMES E. JONES. FoRAGE-CROP INVESTIGATIONS. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. Cc. V. Piper, Agrostologist in Charge. J. M. Westgate, Mronomist. R. A. Oakley and H. N. Vinall, Assistant Agrostologists. S. M. Tracy, Special Agent. A. B. Conner, A. B. Cron, M. W. Evans, Roland McKee, and W. J. Morse, Assistants. 229 2 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DerarrmMent or AGRICULTURE, Bureau or Piant Inpustry, Orrice oF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., July 3, 1911. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for publication as Bulletin No. 229 of the series of this Bureau the accom- panying manuscript, entitled “Agricultural Varieties of the Cowpea and Immediately Related Species.” This paper has been prepared by Prof. C. V. Piper, Agrostologist in Charge of Forage-Crop Investigations. The cowpea is now the most important legume grown in the cotton States. At the present time about 15 varieties of this crop are in common cultivation in these States. The varieties grown in a small way number perhaps twice as many more. Owing to the fact that the seed is still largely hand picked, the tendency is for whatever variety was first introduced in a locality to persist. The increased commercial handling of cowpea seed in recent years has to a consid- erable extent changed this condition of affairs, but varieties of relative inferiority are still too largely grown. In investigating the varieties of cowpeas the effort has been made, with the assistance of the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction, to obtain as many as possible of the existent varieties from all parts of the world, so that a comprehensive idea of them could be obtained with the end in view of determining which are most valuable. In this collection are also included many varieties of the closely related species, the asparagus bean and the catjang. While it is very certain that the list of varieties that have been brought together for com- parison and study is far from exhaustive, yet it is believed that the series is sufficiently complete to exhibit all of the characteristics which occur in this group of plants that are likely to be of value either directly or to the plant breeder. On account of the importance of the cowpea various extensive investigations of the crop have been undertaken by this Bureau. The present bulletin presents the results obtained by a comprehensive 229 3 4 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. study of the varieties, not only of those already occurring in this country, but of numerous lots from abroad obtained mainly by the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction. Largely on the basis of facts ascertained in these studies a great amount of breeding work is being conducted by Mr. George W. Oliver, with the idea of developing im- proved varieties by combining the best of the traits exhibited. In close connection with this work Prof. W. J. Spillman is studying the Mendelian behavior of the hereditary characters. The work of Mr. W. A. Orton in hybridizing Iron and other cowpeas to develop varieties with high yield of forage and seed, together with resistance to wilt and other diseases, is also closely allied with these investi- gations, In the preparation of this paper the author desires to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. W. F. Wight on various botanical problems involved. Mrs. K. S. Bort has rendered much painstaking aid in the compilation of the voluminous notes which have accumulated and in authenticating the specimens which have been preserved each year so that possible errors might be avoided. Very respectfully, B. T. Gatioway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James WILson, Secretary of Agriculture. 229 > CONTENTS. Page BEER ECU BOCCICH OF WARTS 6 8 oo on a ie a na aoe cena secs s ee i The botanical history of the cultivated vignas ................--------------- 9 02 RTE SN SES Toe Sly Sy tas lee ec Oh Ae ee 9 ONTOS Seep ae iS eS I ee eee 10 oo LEP Deletes RSE eG A brain gt ee age oe age arent es 11 Desirable characters in varieties of cowpeas ........-.----------------------- 14 rama OL tHe COW POR .oo--- 75 Serre ee terete de le SL et Sin: es Se oy th Po es 142 eR ee ee So BA oo eo dade sce fe aoe oso eameaeee 145 229 ILLUSTRA TTUN. ys. Page. PiaTE I. Seedlings of cowpea and catjang, showing relative size. ..... Frontispiece. II. . Flowers and young pods of catjang..... .«.-2..+--se0ss.s sdb ewan 8 III. Flowers and young pods of the asparagus bean and of the Cream COWDPCR oan 2c 2's cance es 4 ccna Uaine scleee oe A= cela ee 10 IV. Fig. 1.—Photomicrograph of a section of extra-floral nectary of the cowpea flower. Fig. 2.—Two samples each of seven varieties of cowpeas, showing the different types of color distribution...... 20 V. Seeds of sixteen varieties of Vigna, showing range in variation of shape, size, and color. 2.2... ..<<.<939s55~s=s999545550 5S 22 VI. Pods of catjane No. 22888 . . . . ...22-ccomecenscneses scence oe nee 24 VII. Pods of two varieties of cowpeas having curved or coiled pods. ..... 26 VIII. Greenhouse-grown plant of Cream cowpea No. 0632, showing cyatho- phylly and other abnormalities of leaves. .........-.-..-..------ 28 IX. Pods of two varieties of cowpeas with kidney-shaped seeds......-.- 100 X. Pods of two crowder varieties of cowpeas ...................------- 114 XI. Greenhouse-grown plant of cowpea No. 22958, showing the peculiar swelling on the base of the stem characteristic of this variety. - .-. 120 XII. Pods of two varieties of cowpeas with half crowder seeds. .........- 136 229 6 B. P. I.—693. AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA AND IMMEDIATELY RELATED SPECIES. THE CULTIVATED SPECIES OF VIGNA. The botanical genus Vigna, to which the cowpea belongs, is closely related to Phaseolus, which includes the common kidney bean. The chief diagnostic distinction is that the keel is only slightly curved in Vigna and is twisted or spirally coiled in Phaseolus. Vigna has also been much confused with Dolichos, which has a keel similar to Vigna but has a terminal stigma, while in Vigna the stigma is lateral. Botanical works contain descriptions of about 60 species of Vigna. Omitting the three cultivated species hereafter mentioned, according to Mr. W. F. Wight, these species are distributed as follows: Africa, 40; Madagascar, 2; Asia, 5; Java, 2; Australia, 2; Hawaiian Islands, 2; South America, 1; and cosmopolitan, 3. Most of the species of Vigna are annual, but some are perennial. Several are more or less woody. Judging from descriptions alone, very few of the noncultivated species seem to possess any characters that would be desirable for the plant breeder. Thus far, none of the wild species have been grown excepting the common Vigna luteola (Jacq.) Benth. (V. glabra Savi), cosmopolitan in subtropic regions, and V. vexillata (.) Benth., obtained from Matanzas, Cuba. The latter has the keel somewhat curved and bearing a lateral horn very like that of Phaseolus calcaratus. It would therefore seem that the original reference by Linneus of the plant to Phaseolus is correct. The cultivated species are three, namely, the asparagus bean, Vigna sesquipedalis (l.) W. F. Wight; the catjang, Vigna catjang (Burm.) Walp.; and the cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (.) Walp. The differ- ences in the botanical characters by which these species are distin- guished are comparatively slight (Pls. I, II, and III) and, further- more, the species are connected through intermediate varieties. Whether we consider that all the varieties are referable to one botanical species or to more is of little practical importance. All three of them can be readily hybridized, as proved by the work of ld 229 d 8 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC, Mr. George W. Oliver, and it is not improbable that some or all of the forms connecting these species may, in fact, be hybrids. The most ancient cultivation of*the vignas seems to have been in India and to have spread in prehistoric times to China, the whole of the Malayan region, and probably much of Africa. It was known in southern Europe at least as early as the beginning of the Chris- tian Era.t As might be anticipated, varieties received from different sources are in the main distinct, even if the differences in many cases are slight. The very long cultivation of the cowpea in Africa is attested by the fact that the varieties from different parts of that continent are with few exceptions distinct from those grown else- where. The numerous varieties of cowpeas that have become established in America during the past hundred years probably came, in part at least, either from India or China, as the black-eyed and brown-eyed varieties are, and probably always have been, practically the only ones cultivated in southern Europe.’ In regard to some of the more important varieties, special data will be found in connection with their descriptions. Notwithstanding the great difficulty in defining clearly the three supposed species, each, nevertheless, represents a group of varieties having much in common. For the present purposes the species may be contrasted as follows: Vigna sesquipedalis—Seeds elongated kidney form, 8 to 12 mm. long, their thickness much less than their breadth; pods pendent, much elongated, 1 to 3 feet long, fleshy and brittle, becoming more or less inflated, flabby, and pale in color before ripening, and shrink- ing about the widely separated seeds when dry. Vigna catjang.—Seeds small, usually oblong or cylindric and but slightly kidney shaped, 5 to 6 mm. long, nearly or quite as thick as broad; pods small, not at all flabby or inflated when green, mostly 3 to 5 inches long, erect or ascending when green, remaining so when dry or at length becoming spreading or even deflexed. Vigna unguiculata.—Seeds mostly 6 to 9 mm. long, varying from subreniform to subglobose; pods 8 to 12 inches long, early becoming pendent, not at all flabby or inflated when green. As thus defined the great majority of the varieties classify readily into one of the three species. In each species there is a wide range of closely similar seed colors, greatest in Vigna unguiculata, least in V. sesquipedalis. The small seeds and erect or semierect pods of the catjangs are seemingly correlated characters, the erectness of the pods apparently being due in large measure to their relatively small 1Compare Wight, W. F., Bulletin 102, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. 8S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1907. 2Compare notes given under Dolichos monachalis, p. 11. 229 Bul. 229, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTe Il.‘ FLOWERS AND YOUNG Pops OF CATJANG: No. 11076B ON Lert, No. 21508 ON RIGHT. (Natural size.) THE BOTANICAL HISTORY OF THE CULTIVATED VIGNAS. 9 weight. It is an interesting fact that several varieties here referred to V. unguiculata that have become naturalized in the South have unusually small seeds. It is quite possible that V. catjang and V. unguiculata are merely varieties of a single species, the small-seeded varieties only tending to persist when growing wild or constantly subject to weevil attack. It is undoubtedly a fact that the forms with small and hard seeds are less injured by weevils than those with larger and softer seeds. It may, indeed, be true that this one factor tends constantly to eliminate the large-seeded forms when growing wild so that only the small-seeded ones persist. Of the three species the cowpea is by far the most important, and excepting where specially indicated the following pages particularly refer to this species. Where all three species are considered collec- tively they are spoken of as “ vignas.” THE BOTANICAL HISTORY OF THE CULTIVATED VIGNAS. In view of the very numerous varieties of cowpeas, catjangs, and asparagus beans, it is not at all surprising that descriptive botanists have confused them greatly. It must be borne in mind that the older botanists had as material for investigation only one, or, at any rate, only a few forms, and were, therefore, unable to judge properly of the weight to be given to each character. The earliest history of the cowpea has been very fully given by Wight.1. The following data regarding the purely botanical history of the three agricultural species present the conclusions arrived at from the study of the large amount of material we have grown. ASPARAGUS BEAN. The asparagus bean was first described by Linneus, in 1763, under the name of Dolichos sesquipedalis. His material came from America, though the plant is undoubtedly native to southern Asia. There could seem to be no question regarding the identity of this species, and no other specific name has ever been given to it. Its proper botanical name is Vigna sesquipedalis (L.) W. F. Wight. Martens (Die Gartenbohne, ed. 2, 1869, p. 100) makes the error of identifying it with Dolichos sinensis Stickman, which name unques- tionably applies to the cowpea. He further quotes Dolichos ses- quipedalis as a synonym. This species does not seem to have been figured by any pre-Linnezan authors, but a handsome colored plate is given by Jacquin. (Hortus Botanicus Vindobonensis, 1770, vol. 1, pl. 67.) 1Wight, W. F. Bulletin 102, pt. 6, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agri- culture, 1907. 229 10 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. COWPEA, Since the beginning of the use of binomial nomenclature in botany, at least eight different specific names have been given to the cowpea. (1) The name Dolichos unguiculatus L. (1753) was based on plants grown in the Botanic Garden at Upsala, Sweden, the seeds haying been obtained from Barbados. Linneus briefly describes the plant in his Hortus Upsaliensis, 1747, and again in his Species Plantarum, 1753. He states that the seeds were purple black. There can be but little question that Linneeus’s plant is the cowpea, but most sub- sequent authors did not recognize this fact. Even Linneus himself later (1758) referred to this species Rumphius’s Cacara nigra, a wholly different plant. The figure of Dolichos unguiculatus in Jacquin, Hortus Botanicus Vindobonensis, 1770, volume 1, plate 23, is really that of a catjang.’ (2) The name Dolichos sinensis Stickman (1759) was based on the excellent description and plate of Rumphius’s Dolichos sinensis. (Herbarium Amboinense, vol. 5, p. 375, pl. 134.) This is clearly the cowpea, but a very vining variety. Rumphius had a wide knowl- edge of East Indian plants, but apparently knew but two varieties of cowpea—one with white and the other with reddish seeds. (3) The name Phaseolus sphaerospermus lL. (1763) is based pri- marily on Browne’s description of the black-eyed pea (Civil and Natural History of Jamaica, p. 292), and secondarily on Sloane’s description in his catalogue of the plants of Jamaica and the figure of the Calavance in his natural history of Jamaica. Both authors give practically the same description, describing the plant as erect. There is scarcely any doubt that the variety is the cowpea known as Blackeyed Lady or sometimes Gallivant, characterized by its small, globose, black-eyed seeds. (4) Thunberg (Transactions Linnean Society, 1794, vol. 2, p. 339) gives a brief description of Dolichos umbellatus, but does not describe the seeds. He mentions, however, the plant that he had previously described and referred to D. unguiculatus L. (Flora Japonica, 1784, p- 279). In this first description Thunberg gives the Japanese name as “ Sasage ” or “ Naga sasage.” Under Sasage the Japanese include, according to Useful Plants of Japan, both the asparagus bean (Juroku sasage) and the cowpea (Sasage, Aka sasage, Hata sasage, etc.).. To what variety the name Naga sasage refers is uncertain, but Sasage alone seems to be used for vining varieties, especially one with white seeds. To judge wholly by the figure in Useful Plants of Japan, which represents a variety not as yet obtained from Japan, Thunberg’s plant would be referred to Vigna unguiculata. Among the varieties the Japanese cultivate are forms referable to V. catjang, V. 1See note on page 143. 229 Bul. 229, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. \ FLOWERS AND YOUNG PODS OF THE ASPARAGUS BEAN (LEFT) AND OF THE CREAM CowPEA (RIGHT.) (Natural size.) THE BOTANICAL HISTORY OF THE CULTIVATED VIGNAS. UT sesquipedalis, and V. unguiculata, as well as others that are probably of hybrid origin between these species. It should be pointed out, however, that Maximowicz, followed by Prain (Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1897, voi. 66, p. 429), inclines to the view that Thunberg’s plant is to be referred to Vigna vewxillata (.) Benth. (5) Dolichos monachalis Brotero (Flora Lusitanica, 1804, vol. 2, p. 125), commonly called “ Feijao fradibono,” is said to be cultivated throughout Lusitania, Portugal. Brotero describes the plants as bushy or but little vining and the seeds as subreniform, 23 lines broad, 4 to 5 lines long, white or whitish with a black eye. He states that this color is the most frequent, but that varieties with yellowish, red, black, and black-spotted seeds occur. He considers the plant to be either an American degenerate or more likely a hybrid between Dolichos catjang and D. sinensis, both on account of its close affinity and also “ because occasionally, though very rarely, it produces seeds like the parents.” Under his description of Dolichos sinensis, Brotero says the plant is twining and the seeds whitish, adding that it “ de- generates very quickly and is changed into Dolichos monachalis.” Under Phaseolus nanus, he notes that it is a dwarf variety arising under cultivation “ just as our Dolichos monachalis is a dwarf variety of D. sinensis.” From these notes there can be practically no doubt that Brotero based his species largely on its bushy form and that his type is one of the common varieties with black-eyed white seeds. (6) The name Dolichos melanophthalmus DC. (1825) is based on a black-eyed variety of cowpea cultivated in Vasconia (Gascony, France, now the provinces of Landes and Gers) and in Italy. (7) The name Dolichos oleraceus Schumacher (1827) is based on a plant from Guinea, West Africa, the seeds of which are de- scribed as variegated. It is in all probability a variety of cowpea. (8) The name Dolichos bicontortus Durieu (Actes, Société Lin- néeme de Bordeaux, 1896, vol. 27, p. lil) is based on two Japanese varieties, one with buff (fulvous) seeds, the other with red, the pods in both being circinate or coiled. The variety with buff seeds is illustrated by a beautiful colored plate in Flore des Serres, 1873, volume 19, plate 1985. It is very similar to S. P. I. No. 21296A, from Rangoon district, Burma, India. The red-seeded form is certainly the same as No. 29278 from the Tokyo Botanic Garden. The distine- tion of the curved or coiled pod seems to be of formal value only. Under botanical rules, the proper name for the cowpea is Vigna unguiculata (4) Walp., all of the other names being synonyms." CATJANG. The catjang has had a much simpler botanical history than the cowpea, with which many authors have united it as a variety. 1See note on page 143. 229 12 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. (1) Burmann (Flora Indica, 1768, p. 161) gives a brief description of Dolichos catjang and refers to Rumphius’s description and plate of Phaseolus minor (Herbarium Amboinense, vol. 5, p. 383, pl. 139). Rumphius’s plate is excellent and there can be no doubt as to the identity of his plant, which was a bushy, nontwining, low variety with black-eyed white seeds. Linnzeus (Mantissa, 1771, vol. 1, p. 269) refers to Burmann’s description of Dolichos catjang, the description and plate of Rumphius above cited, and Rheede’s description and plate of the Paeru (Hortus Malabaricus, 1688, vol. 8, p. 75, pl. 41). Rheede’s figure is without doubt the catjang. He speaks of the seeds being yellowish to red. In the Systema Plantarum, edition 13, 1796, volume 2, part 2, page 1105, the specific name is changed to a Latin form “ catianus.” (2) Forskal (Fl. “gypt, Arab., 1775, p. 133) states that Dolichos lubia is frequently cultivated in the fields of Egypt. The plant is described as diffuse and procumbent. The size and color of the seeds are not given but the pods are said to be erect and scabrous. The Arabian name is given as “ Lubia baeladi.” This plant is probably the catjang, but the scabrous character of the pod is suspicious. No varieties of either cowpea or catjang have been imported from Lower Egypt. (3) The plant Dolichos tranquebaricus Jacquin (Hortus Botanicus Vindobonensis, 1776, vol. 3, p. 39, pl. 70) is beautifully figured by Jacquin from specimens grown at Vienna, the seeds from Tranque- bar, Madras, India. It is a twining catjang with purple flowers, blooming late, small pods 24 inches long, and buff seeds 4 mm. long. It is very similar to, if not identical with, S. P. I. No. 29305. The technical name of the catjang under botanical rules is Vigna catjang (Burn.) Walp. It is not unlikely that some of the other botanical names under the genera Phaseolus and Dolichos also apply to the above species of Vigna. It probably would require an examination of the original specimens to determine this positively. Some botanical authors have considered that the catjang and the cowpea are mere varieties of the same species, and have thus classified them. Exactly the same argu- ments, however, apply to the asparagus bean. As a matter of con- venience it would seem preferable to maintain all three as species, though a complete series of connecting forms exists. Besides the above three species of Vigna two others have been re- ported to be cultivated. One of these is Vigna nilotica Delile, which Sir J. D. Hooker (Niger Flora, p. 311) says occurs in Lower Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, Senegambia, German East Africa, Mozambique, and also in Syria, adding that it is known as “mash” by the Arabs. The original description of this plant was by Forskal, who errone- ously referred it to Dolichos sinensis. He states that it occurs in wet 229 THE BOTANICAL HISTORY OF THE CULTIVATED VIGNAS. 13 fields in Egypt near the Nile, the roots frequently being immersed. Delile later published a beautiful figure of the plant, and states that it is abundant in Egypt on the borders of the Nile, especially about Byrimbal (Berimbal) and Metoubis (Matubis). Delile’s figure, as well as authentic botanical specimens, shows this species to be very different from any of those described above and easily recognizable by its small, sharp-pointed, hairy pods, which are borne in clusters of 5 to 10. It seems not unlikely that Hooker confused the cowpea with this species, as the cowpea is abundantly cultivated throughout Africa, and thus far we have not obtained Vigna nilotica from any source. , Under Vigna capensis Walp., Hiern (Catalogue of African Plants collected by Welwitsch, 1896, vol. 1, p. 257) gives a field note of Welwitsch on a single specimen to the effect that this is planted in fields of sugar cane near Boa Vista, Portugese West Africa. It is quite likely that this particular specimen is really the cowpea, as this is commonly grown by the natives in Africa. Two different plants have been named Vigna capensis, both from South Africa, where no botanist has spoken of them as being cultivated plants. The treatment of the agricultural varieties of cowpeas and cat- jangs by botanical writers is very diverse. Hasskarl, 1842 (Flora, 25th year, vol. 2, Beiblatter, pp. 50, 51), calls the cowpea Dolichos sinensis and describes four varieties: Ater with black seeds; rubigi- nosus with reddish seeds; elongatus with pods 14 to 18 inches long and punctulate reddish seeds; and maculatus with reddish seeds spotted with chestnut. His “ var. elongatus” is perhaps a variety of asparagus bean. Miquel, 1845 (Flora Indiae Bataviae, vol. 1, p. 187), adopts all of Hasskarl’s varieties under Vigna sinensis. Voigt, 1845 (Hortus Suburbanus Calcuttensis, p. 232), apparently unites the cow- pea and the catjang under one species, Dolichos sinensis, calling the former “ var. eccremocarpus” on account of its pendulous pods and the latter “ var. orthocarpus”’ owing to its erect pods. Martens, 1869 (Die Gartenbohne, ed. 2, p. 99), takes up DeCandolle’s name Dolichos melanophthalmus for the black-eyed cowpea and describes as “ var. oryzoides” a buff-seeded form he. obtained in Venice. As a sub- variety of this he also mentions a brown-seeded form from Berlin, Lisbon, Tivoli, and Stuttgart. For the asparagus bean he errone- ously adopts Dolichos sinensis in preference to DP. sesquipedalis, and under it lists the four varieties of Hasskarl mentioned above. Mar- tens’s conception of Dolichos catjang L. is given under four different varieties, viz, niger, rufus, luteolus, and variegatus. The first two are catjangs mentioned by Louriero (Flora Cochinchinensis, vol. 1, p- 539) under the vernacular names “ Dau den” and “ Dau dea,” the former with black, the latter with reddish seeds; var. luteolus is Vigna luteolus Jacquin, a perfectly distinct species; var. variegatus is based 229 14 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. on seeds secured in Berlin, the seeds being yellowish sprinkled with dark specks. DESIRABLE CHARACTERS IN VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. The numerous varieties of cowpeas exhibit a considerable range of characteristics, but owing to the indeterminate nature of the plant’s growth, and the great fluctuating variations caused by soils or sea- son, the characters are often obscured. The characteristics that are most important in the cowpea when considered purely as a forage crop are as follows: ? Size and vigor. Habit, especially erectness and height. Prolificness. Disease resistance. Weevil resistance of seeds. . Ability to retain leaves late in the season. . Time of maturity, or life period. . Evenness of maturity. MAD om ob} From our present knowledge of the cowpea we would define the ideal forage variety to be planted alone as follows: Tall; vigorous; bushy in habit; leafy, the leaves persisting late; prolific, the pods well filled and held well above the ground; the seeds hard and there- fore rather small; medium early, maturing in 80 to 100 days; and immune from or resistant to serious diseases. Toward the north earlier maturing is desirable. For planting in corn or sorghum, a strong vining habit is an additional desideratum. Fortunately, some varieties are half bushy when planted alone, but sufficiently vining where a support is available. Where cowpeas are to be used as human food or to be pastured by hogs, the yield of pods and seeds is most important, the erectness of the plant being a secondary consideration. A number of existing varieties, as Whippoorwill, New Era, and Tron, approach the foregoing ideal. There can be little doubt that by the judicious crossing of these and other varieties this ideal, or any similar one, can be closely realized. The seeds of white or nearly white cowpeas usually sell for a higher price than do other varieties, owing to the fact that they are used as a table vegetable. It is therefore desirable, if possible, to develop a first-class forage cowpea with white or nearly white seeds. Unfortunately, none of the white or nearly white seeded varieties have the habit most desired in a forage cowpea. The crosses thus far made to develop such an all-purpose cowpea are not satisfactory, but the end is worthy of much more effort. 1Compare Galloway, B. T., Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, for 1908, p. 147. 229 VARIABILITY OF THE COWPEA. LS It is doubtful if any of the very late varieties of cowpeas, which means those that require, under American conditions at least, 120 days to mature their first pods, will find a place in our agriculture. According to Prof. P. H. Rolfs, a very late cowpea that could be planted in May and would not mature until late September would be desirable in Florida, as it would shade the ground during the summer and mature at the best season for curing hay. A large num- ber of very late varieties were tested in Florida in 1909 with this end in view, but none proved satisfactory, and it seems probable that other legumes will meet the need much better than cowpeas. VARIABILITY OF THE COWPEA. Under different conditions of soil or climate most varieties of the cowpea exhibit marked fluctuating variations. On rich soil, or when planted early, the general tendency is to produce a large amount of vine and but few pods. Unusually moist seasons seem to have the same effect. On poor and especially on sandy soils, or when sown late, the plants tend to be much more prolific of seed and to produce decidedly less herbage. Moderate drought has a very similar effect. Very severe drought, however, prevents most varieties from producing pods. Thus, at Chillicothe, Tex., in 1910, the drought was so severe that such varieties as Whippoorwill, Brabham, Groit, Iron, and others produced scarcely a pod, though making fair vegetative growth. In marked contrast, Blackeye No. 22050 produced a good crop of pods. A number of varieties, like New Era and Whippoor- will and to a less extent Iron, are half bushy when grown thickly. When grown isolated, all these will produce long, trailing branches and be decidedly decumbent; when planted in corn their vining char- acter is accentuated. These fluctuating variations are so marked, the number of varieties of cowpea so large, and the seed so often mixed that the idea has not unnaturally arisen that the cowpea is in an almost continuous state of change, new varieties arising constantly, many of them not permanent. This idea has been upheld by a num- ber of writers on cowpeas, but in no case has satisfactory evidence of its truth been advanced. A few varieties, such as Whippoorwill, New Era, Iron, and others, have been well known for at least a decade. If these were constantly varying, we should expect that seeds from different sources would yield different looking plants. To test this, seeds of Whippoorwill were obtained from the following different sources : Richmond, Va.; Fayetteville, Ark.; Hickory, N. C.; Newbern, N. C.; Felton, Del.; Memphis, Tenn. ; Blodgett, Mo.; and Coulterville, Tl. These seeds were planted in 1908 at Arlington Farm and grown in comparison with a strain of the same variety that has been grown 229 16 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. at Arlington for five successive years. A careful study of these plants during the season failed to show any marked differences. They were as nearly identical both in habit and time of maturity as the plants of the same variety that had been grown at Arlington Farm for the preceding five years. In 1909 seed of Whippoorwill or supposed Whippoorwill was obtained from 101 additional sources in the following States: Vir- ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Geor- gix, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas, and Arkansas. These were planted in rows at Arlington in 1910 for comparison with several pedigreed lots that had been grown there for at least three years. With a few exceptions, the striking thing about these lots was their exceed- ingly close likeness with respect to habit, size, and date of maturity. Indeed, it was difficult to select rows that showed any evident supe- riority. There can be no question as to their representing the same agricultural variety. No evidence whatever was shown in these lots of any tendency for northern-grown seed to mature earlier or for extreme southern-grown seed to mature later. Six numbers of the lot were found to be somewhat earlier and of lower stature, and these all proved to have diverse seeds, varying in some cases from marbled to brown, even in the same pod. As this is exactly what occurs in certain Whippoorwill crosses, the hybrid origin of these lots is scarcely to be questioned. Indeed, they match certain known hybrids of Whippoorwill almost exactly. Two lots were identical with Peerless, S. P. I. No. 26495, the seeds of which are scarcely dis- tinguishable from Whippoorwill. One lot, Office No. 01122, from Brookhaven, Miss., was so late that it matured no pods. This is almost certainly the same as S. P. I. No. 25369. The evidence, therefore, indicates that Whippoorwill is a very uniform variety, but that at least two other varieties, namely, Peer- less and No. 25369, have practically identical seeds. Of the New Era variety, seven lots from different sources were tested in 1908 and several additional lots in 1910. They all proved to be identical in size, habit, and life period. Black-seeded cowpeas with subreniform seeds, so far as American sorts are concerned, belong mainly to two varieties, Early Black or Congo, S. P. I. No. 17336, and Black, No. 29292. Forty-nine lots of seed were obtained in 1910 from as many different sources, and most of these belong to one or the other of these two varieties. In- - deed, only two of the lots are really different, S. P. I. No. 29302 and Office No. 01054. Some slight degree of difference is shown in the maturing of the various lots of Black and of Early Black, amounting to about a week in each case. Such differences may be permanent or merely fluctuations. 229 VARIABILITY OF THE COWPEA. LY In a few instances it has been noted that varieties of cowpeas which matured together in one season showed differences in another season; thus, Blackeyes Nos. 17335, 17329, and 22050 all matured together in 1909. In 1910, No. 17335 was ten days later than No. 22050 and five days later than No. 17329. Such differences have not, therefore, been considered of varietal value unless accompanied by other characters. In the case of these three black-eyed varieties the difference in time of maturing seems quite clearly a fluctuating variation, but it is by no means certain that all or most such differ- ences are of this character. With buff-seeded cowpeas the case is far more complicated. Lots of buff-seeded kidney cowpeas obtained from 142 different sources in the States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Indiana, and Kansas were planted in 1910 and compared with about 20 lots pre- viously obtained. After eliminating several lots identifiable with Tron and two lots that proved to be Cotton Patch, the remainder showed great similarity in habit but varied greatly in their life periods and correlated size. They could be fairly well classified into four groups as regards their time of maturity—early, medium, me- dium late, and late—requiring respectively about 70, 80, 90, and 115 days to mature their first pods. The early lots are apparently identifiable with what has been commonly known as Warren’s Hy- brid or Warren’s Extra Early; the medium and medium late make up most of what is currently known as Clay; while the late is what is known for the most part as Unknown or Wonderfu!. It must be ad- mitted that each of these groups shows much more variability in life period than Whippoorwill, for example. Indeed, almost every pe- riod of maturity was represented in the series, from the earliest to the latest. A number of lots in each group might properly be con- sidered distinct varieties except for the fact that, under Arlington conditions at least, the difference amounted principally if not wholly to a few days more or less in time of maturing. It would require several years’ testing to determine whether these differences in life period are permanent or only transitory. Most American cowpeas with maroon kidney-shaped seeds go as Red Ripper. About forty different lots with such seeds were tested in 1910. These clearly represent at least eight distinct varieties by habit and seed characters. If slight differences in life period are considered, twice as many varieties could be distinguished. Great discrepancies in published data concerning the Red Ripper are, there- fore, to be expected, and unquestionably several different varieties have been used by different experimenters under this name. 2968°—Bul. 229—12 2 18 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC, It is quite possible that marked differences in earliness, prolific- ness, etc., may be developed in any variety by selection either natural or artificial, but no good evidence of any such change has yet been shown where selection does not enter. It is doubtful, indeed, how much selection alone will do toward improving the cowpea. But little work has been done along this line so far, because hybridizing has seemed to offer better promise. It must not be assumed from the above discussion that a variety should be of equal value regardless of soil or climate. On the contrary, it is perfectly certain that varieties that are valuable in certain parts of the country are of distinctly less value elsewhere. For example, the Brabham cowpea, a new variety, has proved its high value in the sandy lands of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, in the semiarid lands of the Texas Panhandle, and elsewhere. Farther north it is unreliable, tending to go largely to vine. This was also the experience with it on the rich muck lands near Stock- ton, Cal. At Arlington Farm it produced very little seed in 1908, a normal season as to rainfall, while in 1909, an abnormally dry season, it was at least equal to the best of over 100 varieties grown. A study of the data accumulated regarding this variety points to the conclusion that it has too great vegetative vigor under favorable conditions to seed heavily and that the retarding effects of com- paratively poor soil or of light rainfall are necessary to make it highly productive of fruit. On the other hand, it is well to remem- ber that such well-known varieties as the Whippoorwill and New Era are grown with satisfaction over a wide area with many different soils and climates. In apparent contrast to the above conclusions, Newman * records that different lots of seed of Whippoorwill, Clay, Unknown, Black- Red Ripper, New Era, and Blackeye gave greatly different results as regards yield of hay when planted side by side. ‘Thus different lots of Whippoorwill varied in yield per acre from 1,300 to 2,200 pounds; Clay, 3.800 to 8,700; Unknown, 3,300 to 7,000; Red Ripper, 2,300 to 4,600; New Era, 700 to 1,900; Blackeye, 700 to 4,000. Prof. Newman hazards the suggestion that these wide variations in yield are— probably due, in part at least, to the greater or less adaptability of the soil or climate, or both, where the tests were made as compared with the soil and climate where the seed was grown. Anotber cause for the variation may be due to the development of strains of the different varieties from their having been grown in certain localities for a number of years. The point is one of importance and needs to receive further atten- tion. The testing work at Arlington has in no case, where the identity 1 Bulletin 80, Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 73. 229 DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF COWPEA VARIETIES. 19 of the variety was certain, shown any notable variations in size or vigor of the plants. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF COWPEA VARIETIES. The distinguishing characters of cowpea varieties are, except for the color of flowers and color and shape of the seeds, subtle and diffi- cult to define. In the descriptions here given the following categories of characters are considered and their various differences defined as indicated. HABIT OF PLANT. The different varieties of cowpeas show every possible habit stage from perfectly prostrate to perfectly erect. With a very few ex- ceptions the branches are viny and also twining, at least toward the tips. Notwithstanding the great differences in habit the type of branching is the same in all the cultivated vignas. The great differ- ences displayed are dependent primarily on the degree of develop- ment of the branches. The development of the lower or basal branches is much greater when the plants are isolated. When grow- ing close together the development of these branches is inhibited or else they become ascending, due to crowding and shading. For com- parative purposes it is perhaps most useful to consider the type of habit exhibited by a variety when planted in rows 24 to 3 feet apart, a common method of planting. When planted in corn the vining habit of the plant becomes more greatly developed and when sown thickly broadcast the bushy habit predominates. For convenience five types of plants as to habit may be recognized and defined as follows: 1. Prostrate-——The whole plant lying prone on the ground. 2. Procumbent.—Stems and branches weak, forming a low, flat mass. When planted in a row the mass of vines is two to four times as broad as high. 3 Low, half bushy.—Mass of vines in rows once to twice as broad as high; basal branches prostrate or but slightly ascending; pods, therefore, held low, many of them touching the ground. 4. Tall, half bushy.—Main axis tall and comparatively stout, usually twining at top; branches mostly ascending, few, if.any, prostrate; pods, there- fore, held comparatively high. Examples, Whippoorwill and New Era. 5. Treelike or erect.—Main axis tall, erect, twining not at all, or only at the top; branches mostly short, the long basal ones being absent or only occasionally found. Unsatisfactory as this or any such classification may be, it never- theless indicates with a reasonable degree of clearness the range of habit exhibited by the cultivated vignas. All these characters show much variation due to vigor, stoutness, and richness of branching, in which there is practically every possible step represented in our 229 20 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. series. The most important characteristics from an agronomic stand- point are height, vigor, and prolifieness. Practically all of the really valuable varieties fall in groups 3, 4, and 5, the very best being in group 4. The ideal habit for field use would seem to be exhibited by the more vigorous arborescent varieties, such as catjangs Nos. 21292, 21602, and 22759, but unfortunately the best of these are very late and, under American conditions at least, not prolific. The procum- bent and prostrate varieties are of little value except for use as pas- ture or as a cover crop. It would seem highly improbable that the seed of any of these last could ever be grown cheaply enough to com- pete with the half-bushy varieties, notwithstanding that several of the procumbent sorts, such as No. 21006, are the most vigorous growers of all. There is often marked difference in the appearance of plants grow- ing isolated and those of the same variety when more or less crowded. This is especially marked in the half-bushy varieties. In these the basal branches grow inordinately when the plants are isolated so that the result is a procumbent mass. On the contrary, when the plants are grown close together the development of the basal branches is usually much inhibited and the main stem is correspondingly ta!ler so that the plants are much more bushlike in habit. In the varieties that are normally procumbent or prostrate this effect is much less marked, as the vines of such varieties are seldom stiff enough to hold up. The few truly upright (arborescent) varieties, which have no trailing basal branches, seem to maintain this character whether growing isolated or close together. STEMS. The stem possesses very few characters which are of value as dis- tinguishing marks. Such differences in stoutness as exist may be characterized by the terms coarse, medium, and fine. The color of the stems is correlated with that of the leaves. Thus, pale stems are associated with pale leaves and purple stems with purple leaves, but the stem may show all degrees in the extent of purple color. The coloring is most common at the nodes and on the peduncles. A small amount of purple in the stems may or may not be associated with purple coloration in the leaves even in the same variety. The first cold nights of autumn not only cause an increase in the amount of purple coloration but also cause it to appear in varieties where it was not before evident, especially on young pods. LEAVES. Economically, the most important leaf character is the ability to persist on the vines till the pods are mature. This is very character- istic of the Iron variety. Other characters observable but difficult 229 Bul. 229, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PEATE. IVa. FIG. 1.—PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A SECTION OF EXTRA-FLORAL NECTARY OF THE COWPEA FLOWER. FROM A SECTION PREPARED BY DR. ALBERT MANN. Fic. 2.—TWwo SAMPLES EACH OF SEVEN VARIETIES OF COWPEAS, SHOWING THE DIF- FERENT TYPES OF COLOR DISTRIBUTION. (Natural size.) DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF COWPEA VARIETIES. 21 to define are the size of leaves, varying from small to very large; color, ranging from very pale to very dark; and number, varying from few to very numerous, the number being correlated with the length of the internodes. Such characters are of definitive value only when approaching one extreme or the other. In a few cases closely related varieties may be distinguished by the leaf surface; for example, Iron has nearly plane leaves, while most other buff-seeded varieties have leaves decidedly undulate. FLOWERS. The flower of the cowpea occurs principally in two colors: White, or nearly white, and pale violet or purple, in each case the eye being yellow. The violet color merges by almost insensible degrees to the white. The back of the standard is paler and often yellowish in the white flowers or greenish in the violet. White flowers are mainly associated with white or partly white seeds. The violet-flowered sorts are far more numerous. SEEDS. Seeds of cowpea varieties differ in color, shape, and size. These seed characters are by far the most useful by which to distinguish varieties. Unfortunately, however, there are many examples of per- fectly distinct varieties whose seeds are indistinguishable. On the other hand some varieties are distinguishable only by the seeds. Color.—tThe seeds of all three species of Vigna have practically the same range of colors. These may be classified into two groups, (1) those in which the coloration is not uniform over the whole seed and (2) those in which the color or pattern is uniform. Seeds whose color or color pattern is not distributed over the whole surface exhibit four types of variation: (1) Spotted, with round or roundish spots. (2) Marbled, with spots elongate and running together, as in Whippoorwill. (8) Speckled with minute dots; as, for example, in Taylor and New Era. (4) Marbled and speckled; as, for example, in Groit. The commonest type has the second color concentrated about the hilum, as in Blackeye, Browneye, etc. The term hilum as here used refers to the scar at the place where the seed was attached to the pod. It is always nearest the chalazal end of the seed and is lanceolate in out- line, the broad end being next to the micropyle. The hilum is always whitish in color, excepting its sides, which are nearly always dark olive. In most cowpeas the raised circle about the hilum is different in color from the body of the seed, in which case it is referred to as the iris. This “eye spot” varies in different varieties from small (in seeds designated “eyed”) to very large (in “saddled” seeds). 229 22 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Where a larger area is colored, the color tends first to cover the micropylar end of the seed. ? cease Whippoorwill Clay. Virginia; Hutcheson..........- Whippoorwill) Iron........-. New Era.....- Black. ...-225 Unknown. VARIETIES Most CULTIVATED, IN ORDER OF ACREAGE GROWN. Alabama; Duggar.........---- Whippoorwill| Unknow ae Be ee Pe Se C= 525-2 Arkansas: MON AIG pone eee ara ee Ooo S.. Olay ees soe = Blacks 2226 Unknown....) Blackeye. Wewmair: :2 3222. .4-- 52 eee dete: icalsesee UO rer Ee ae 00: 2. 4.51"2. 55-25 Delaware; Grantham.......-.|----- Oe: => 2. - New Era.....-| Blackeye... +2); --sca-saeeee Wloridsa;, Scott: ---cece rs. al2- =e dols222s: Clayt ee New Era.....]..... semaee Poa Illinois; Center: Gentral? 72S ee Michigan | Blackeye.....|..... do.e24332 Favorite. Norther s2. 222 2252 5-2 |e GOs 2 seen GOs": 8 eel aman eew res Sena paces Southerae. 2 eo secs | so Whippoorwill] New Era...-..|.....-...-- Indiana; Wiancko== - 2. 2:<2=2 -|925-2 do: 3%, Early Black- | New Era...-..|. eye. iKeansas. Nensyck2-..s2:|-2--2 Gs. .385 New Era.:...| Black...-2-.- Unknown.... Mississippi and Alabama; |..... G0. =ssss Irons. 2225 New Era... 22. < cesccews ee Crosby. MISSISSIP ON; racy. 2 o-<- -<2oo-| eee dO: . 2525 OB. occ enceclbeeaes see anee ease ee Missouri; Grantham-.......-.-|----. G0ssc22. abs dozeeee.: New Era.....] Black.......- North Carolina; KHPOre acess} G0-see ee Taylor: 225-25 Black =22-c255 Clays. 2 New Era. Oklahoma; Burlison.......-..-|....- do: 5. = 232 Cal ifox311 a) 2525.45 = eh tee eee Blackeye. South Carolina: IHeampert = 22). oce ag meee se Unknown....| New Era.....| Clay.....---- Whippoorwill) Iron. iING@winsie 584 Sess ee Clays so eeey Whippoorwill Tianna .--| New Era....-| Black. Penneasee: Mooerse oa soca W ppooraal Clay. sees Black... 3.23. Gouna ceee exas: Conner =. 25-5262 eee ees GO..55-% Blackeye.....] Michigan | Clay.....-.-- Tron. Favorite. Youngblood --- ~~~ -------|--e == GOon eae Clay. - .s-5552 Unknown....| Black.....-..- Virginia: ErutCHesone. 25-6 eee Blackeye.....| Whippoorwill] New Era.....]...-. d0ssc2ae ee Boiner./..23..32222.22225"3 eee 6 ee ome GO.es 252 (Hose dos. He Unknown.... 0. 229 COMMERCIAL VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 43 COMMERCIAL VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. In order to ascertain the status of the commercial sale of cowpea seed, a letter was addressed in 1910 to a number of the principal seeds- men handling cowpea seed, asking them to send a list of varieties in the order of the demand for them. The results are as follows: The Griffith & Turner Co., of Baltimore, Md., write that they handle cowpeas in about the following order as to quantity: Black, Whippoorwill, New Era, Wonderful, mixed. J. Bolgiano & Son, of Baltimore, Md., write: We usually sell from two to three times as many of mixed peas as we do of the separate varieties. Next in popularity to the mixed is New Era; third, Black. Other varieties, such as Clay, Wonderful, Red Ripper, and Gray Crowder, are little called for. T. W. Wood & Sons, of Richmond, Va., give the relative commercial importance of the varieties as follows: Whippoorwill, Black, and New Era. Other varieties class about as follows: Blackeye for table pur- poses, Clay, Unknown, Iron, Red Ripper, and Taylor or Gray Goose. Wood, Stubbs & Co., of Louisville, Ky., state that their demand is in the following sequence: Whippoorwill, Black, New Era, Clay, and Gray Goose. They sell very few of any of these with the exception of Whippoorwill and Black. The Plant Seed Co., of St. Louis, Mo., state that their demand is almost exclusively for Whippoorwill, a few inquiries being received for Clay, Black, and Unknown. A small demand exists for Red and certain sections call for New Era. The Barteldes Seed Co., of Lawrence, Kans., state that the best selling varieties are Whippoorwill and New Era. Only limited quan- tities are sold of Black, Clay, and Blackeye. The Texas Seed & Floral Co., of Dallas, Tex., write that their demand is principally for Whippoorwill, 80 per cent of their sales being of this variety. The 20 per cent is made up of Clay, Large Blackeye, Unknown, and Cream. The Amzi Godden Seed Co., of Birmingham, Ala., state that of the bunch sorts their demand in the order of importance is for Whip- poorwill, Early Blackeye, and New Era; and of the running sorts, Unknown, Clay, Black, Red Ripper, Late White Blackeye, White Grayeye, and Small White Lady. They further write: So far as our own section is concerned, these varieties could be safely limited to the Unknown, which is unquestionably the best of all the running sorts, and - for eating purposes to the late White Blackeye, the White Grayeye, and the small White Lady. In bunchy sorts there is really no excuse for more varieties than the Whippoorwill, and in white sorts the large Early White Blackeye. The J. Steckler Seed Co. (Ltd.), of New Orleans, La., give the following list : Tennessee Clay, Carolina, mixed, Unknown, Red Rip- per, Whippoorwill, Blackeye, Lady, and Louisiana Wild. 229 44 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. The N, L. Willet Seed Co., of Augusta, Ga., write as follows: Three-fourths of our shipments to-day are branded Mixed Clays [a group name including Iron, Unknown, Clay, and others]; one-fourth of our demand for mixed peas goes to higher latitudes as mixed Whippoorwill. These are the great standard shipments. * * * We get few Clays; we grow large amounts of Unknown, and we can say that straight Unknown constitutes 50 per cent of the demand and Iron and Whippoorwill 25 per cent each. H. G. Hastings & Co., of Atlanta, Ga., respond : In our trade, the demand seems to be pretty evenly divided between Unknown, Clay, and mixed. Within the last two or three years there has been quite a demand for the Iron and New Era varieties, but the older sorts are still the best sellers. The Crenshaw Brothers Seed Co., of Tampa, Fla., give the follow- ing list in the order of popularity: Whippoorwill, Clay, Red Ripper, Black Crowder, Two Crop, Conch, and California Blackeye. NAMES THAT HAVE BEEN APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS AND RELATED SPECIES. The list of names which have been applied to different varieties of cowpeas is a very large one. The old names, such as Clay, Black, Red Ripper, Unknown, and Blackeye, have been preserved through tradition by seedsmen. At present from 5 to 20 varieties can be purchased in the United States under each of these names. They therefore may be regarded as group names rather than varietal names. Most of the names more recently used for varieties of cow- peas have been applied without a due realization of the large number of varieties. In many cases descriptions have been given of the varieties, but even these do not, as a rule, suffice to identify them. Furthermore, different experiment stations have, in some instances at least, experimented with very different varieties under the same name. In a compilation, therefore, of the agronomic data concern- ing varieties of cowpeas, the element of doubt constantly arises as to the identity of the variety experimented with. In a number of cases seed has been obtained from experiment stations so apparently authentic that the identity of the variety is practically certain. In many other cases, however, authentic seed is no longer available, so that a certain degree of doubt must remain regarding the variety under test. In view of the great confusion which has already arisen, it is hoped that future experimenters with cowpeas will endeavor to work as far as possible with pedigreed seeds. Following is a list of names and notes concerning pedigreed seed, largely the work of Mrs. Katherine S. Bort. The serial number references relate to the chronological list beginning on page 75. 229 NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 45 Afghania,—A vernacular name for a catjang, Agrostology No. 1628, obtained from the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, India. Algerian.—Mentioned, without description, in Bulletin 6, New Mexico Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1892. Ankok.—See 5222. Argen Everbearing—A variety grown by Mr. Kline O. Varn, Fort Meade, Fla., said to have been introduced from Argentina and to be exceptionally valuable (Southern Planter, Mar. 19, 1904). Efforts to obtain seed of this variety have been without success. Arkansas.—Mentioned, without description, in Bulletin 81, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908. Asby.—Said to be a prolific bunch variety with buff-colored seeds, and pods standing erect above the foliage and so early that two crops can be grown in Louisiana in the same season. (Farm and Ranch, Natchitoches, La., Feb. 16, 1907.) Efforts to obtain seed of this variety have been unavailing. The descrip- tion points strongly to its being a catjang. Asparagus bean.—The common name applied to Vigna sesquipedalis. Ayrshire.—See 17409. Backwoods.—Agronomie notes, but no description, are given on the variety under this name in Bulletin 62, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900, page 466. Perhaps the same as Pea of the Backwoods. BarbatiOne of the common vernacular names applied to catjangs or cow- peas in India; also spelled Burbuti, Burbudi, and Burbadi. Bass.—A name employed by some of the early writers for a variety with red seeds. It is described by Edmund Ruffin (Essays and Notes on Agriculture, 1855, p. 352) as follows: The Bass (red) pea is used extensively on the lower Roanoke, in North Carolina, and preferred to the buff pea, because of its being much less liable to rot after ripening, and many of the seeds will remain on and in the ground (trodden down by grazing stock), during all the winter in North Carolina, and will germinate in the following spring. This quality (of other kinds as well as of this pea) is valuable for a mere forage crop; but is of less account, if not objectionable, for a manuring crop for wheat, when the peas are plowed under in September or October. The Bass pea is also one of the best vine bearers—but too late in maturing for this region. Also mentioned in Transactions of the Virginia State Agricultural Society, 1853 (vol. 1, p. 178), as the Red, Tory, or Bass pea. Apparently, this variety is closely similar to Red Ripper, 17350. Bhadela.—A vernacular name used in India. See 17378. Big Mush.—Brief agronomic and descriptive notes published in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900 (p. 20), refer to this variety as follows: “Late; good growth of vine; loses leaves early.” Black.—A name generally applied to any black-seeded noncrowder variety. See 29292. Black and White.—Described in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1895 (p. 582), as follows: A black-and-white speckled variety; vine a vigorous grower, running low and near the ground; pods medium length, imperfectly filled with small peas; yield per acre, 8.6 bushels. In Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896, the following descriptive note is given: “Small seed; habit, trailing; early.” It is also mentioned, without description, in Bulletin 62, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900 (p. 466). This is probably much the same as Holstein, 17327. 229 46 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC, Black-and-White Speckled.—Described in Bulletin 84, Texas Agricultural Ex- periment Station, 1895 (p. 582), as follows: Black-and-White Speckled.—Vine a vigorous grower, running low and near the ground; pods medium length, imperfectly filled with small peas; yield per acre, 8.6 bushels; sown May 11. Black Betty.—Name mentioned in Lunan’s Hortus Jamaicensis, 1814 (p. 454) ; presumably refers to a black-seeded variety of cowpea. Black Bunch.—Name with agronomic notes, published in Bulletin 77, Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station (p. 81). See 0589 under 29292, Black Crowder.—See 22052. Argonomic notes under this name are given in Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, volume 61, No. 6, 1910. Black Early.—Agronomic notes on a variety under this name are given in Bulletin 73, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, 1906; and in Dulletin 81, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908. Probably same as Early Black. Blackeye.—The earliest occurrence of this name in this form seems to be in the Farmers’ Register, 1835 (vol. 2, p. 752), as follows: Common and in general demand among our sailors. Of this kind there are two varieties, one much larger but less productive than the other. The smaller black- eyed pea is very productive; but as an improver of land, it stands at the bottom of the scale, having less vine than any other kind. Similar notes occur in Transactions of the Virginia State Agricultural Society, 1853 (vol. 1, p. 175) ; and Ruffin, Essays and Notes on Agriculture, 1855, page 848. In experiment-station literature, descriptions or agronomic notes occur as follows: Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 12, 1890. Georgia Experiment Station, Bulletin 26, 1894. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 34 (1895) and 59 (1901). Louisiana Experiment Station, Bulletins (ser. 2) 40 (1896) and 72 (1902). Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 40, 1896. North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 133, 1896. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 44, 1900. Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin (vol. 11, no. 3), 1898. Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Report for 1900 (p. 504). Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 46 (1900) and 81 (1908). Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 199 (1902) and Special Bulletin 81 (1905). Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 80, 1903. Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 73, 1906. South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 123, 1906. Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 160, 1909. So many varieties of cowpeas have black eyes that the name is really a group name. Blackeyed Bird’s-Foot.—See 2082. Blackeyed Lady.—See 17420. Blackeyed White.——Mentioned in the American Agriculturist, 1876 (vol. 35, p. 189). Described as “cream colored with a distinct black eye.” Probably the same as ‘“‘ Blackeye.” Black Field.—Mentioned in the American Agriculturist, 1876 (vol. 85, p. 189). Described as ‘“ Jet black with a small white scar.” Black King.—Mentioned in Bulletin 28, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Sta- tion, 1894 (p. 974). Black Self-Seeding.—See O588 under 29292. 229 NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 47 Blue.—Mentioned in various publications of the Louisiana Experiment Sta- tion. Descriptive notes are given as follows: A small, blue, bunch pea. An excellent bearer and early, maturing peas in from 50 to 60 days after planting. (Bulletin 27, Louisiana Experlment Station, 1889, p. 488.) Blue pea, a bunch pea and small, blue colored, bears well but makes very little vine; very early. (Bulletin 40, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1896, p. 1459). The identity of this variety, which has been mentioned under this name only in bulletins of the Louisiana Experiment Station, is uncertain, but it is probably the New Era. The New Era is locally known as the ‘*“‘ Blue pea,” as the Groit is locally known in southern Illinois. Bilue-Black.—Agronomic and descriptive notes of this variety are given in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900. It is said to be “ Late; bluish-black seed; vines inclined to stand up; yield of vine, fair.” Perhaps the same as Watson, 17425. Blue Huil.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 180), as follows: Semirecumbent; stalk and leaf small; tint, a moderate green; trails slightly at end of vines; blossom—vexillum light purple, wings white; form, kidney ; pod—medium in size, blue-black; pea, large, white, wrinkled; very late; moderate producer of both vines and peas. The same name with descriptive notes occurs in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1896: ‘“‘ Seeds white, large; habit, half trailing, early.” Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900 (p. 21), has the following note: “ Very late; trails; moderate yield of vine.” Boss.—This name has been mentioned in several bulletins of the Louisiana Experiment Station, together with descriptive and agronomic notes. It is there stated to be identical with Unknown. Brabham.—See 21599. Breack.—This name is published in the American Agriculturist, 1876 (vol. 35, p. 1389), with the following description: “ Purplish-brown or reddish-chocolate colored, with a dark line at the eye.” Brown and White.—This name, without description, appears in Bulletin 62, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900, page 466. Browneye.—tThe earliest publication of this name seems fo be in the American Agriculturist, 1876, quoted on page 586. Descriptive or agronomic notes in experiment-station literature occur as follows: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report *or 3890 (p. 131) and Bulletin 80, 19038. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 54, 1895. Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 40, 1896. Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 46 (1900) and S81 (1908). Brown-and-White Speckled Crowder.—Described in Bulletin 34, Texas Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1895 (p. 582), as follows: Brown-and-White Speckled Crowder.—A speckled crowder variety; vines erect, running vigorously; first ripe September 18; pods long, well filled with brown-and-white speckled peas of medium size; yield per acre, 14 bushels; sown May 11. Brown Coffee.—See 17404. Agronomic notes occur in Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture (vol. 31, no. 6), 1910, but this variety is somewhat different from 17404, See 25512B. 229 48 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Brown Crowder.—See 17370. Agronomic notes occur in Bulletin 80, Arkan- sas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1903; and in Bulletin 81, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908. Browneye Crowder.—See 17348. Agronomic notes occur in Bulletin 118, Ala- bama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902; and in Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture (vol. 31, no. 6), 1910. Browneyed Sugar.—Appears by name only in the 1896 catalogue of the N. L. Willet Seed Co., Augusta, Ga. Buckmoran.—Mentioned with agronomic, but without descriptive notes in Bulletin 62, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900 (p. 466). Buckshot.—Mentioned by name only in the 1908 catalogue of the N. L. Willet Seed Co., Augusta, Ga. Buff—tThe following descriptive notes are found in Ruflin’s Essays and Notes on Agriculture, 1855 (p. 351). The buff-colored pea, usually called either the cow or clay pea, has seeds of a uniform pale-buff color, except the eye, which is in a small spot of pale green. The buff tint is more or less deep in different crops, but is very uniform through any one, raised from seed of one appearance. This kind is understood to be productive in grain, and I know it to be so in general growth (or of vine and leaf). It is too late in ripening for my locality,’ so that in the series of years when I cultivated this kind prin- cipally, and preferred it as the best vine bearer, I could not save seed ex- cept insufficiently, and at more than usual cost of labor. It will not bear much exposure to wet weather after ripening without rotting. * * * Mr. J. Cotton, of Halifax, N. C., an experienced and judicious pea farmer, says that two very different buff-colored peas are usually confounded as one. The tender pea (1) described above he calls the cowpea, and as the claypea he raises a kind much more productive in grain, and of which the ripe peas will lie on the ground all winter without rotting. This last is a late kind—and he has made it earlier, and without any loss in its produc- tion, as he thinks, by every year saving the earliest ripened pods only for planting. Burbudi.See Barbati. Bush Conch.—This name appears in catalogue for 1910 of Crenshaw Bros. Seed Co., Tampa, Fla., apparently a synonym for Conch. Calavance or Calavence.—A name used by early writers for the cowpea. Barham (Hortus Americanus, 1794, p. 28) used it for a variety with small, white seeds, while Lunan (Hortus Jamaicensis, 1814, p. 434) used it for a red- seeded variety. Among later spellings of this name have been Calivant, Gali- yant, and Gallivant, apparently applied to different varieties. Calico.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 180), as follows: Recumbent; tremendous trailer; small leaf and stalk but dark green and vigorous; extremely late; no blossoms August 18; form, kidney; pod, very large, yellow; pea, very large, red mottled on white ground and quite pretty; very heavy producer of both peas and vines. Descriptive and agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1896; Bulletin 21, New Mexico Agricultural Ex- perimental Station, 1897; and in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Ex- periment Station, 1900. A variety is described in Bulletin 98, Kentucky Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1902 (p. 44), under the same name, but which may be different. The description is as follows: Trails moderately; foliage gray green; planted May 3; numerous green pods August 10; some ripe pods August 31; pods 6 to 7 inches long, with a 1In Virginia, probably near Marlboro, 229 NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS, 49 compound curve; plump; 0.37 inch from front to back; 15 seeds in a pod; length of seed, 0.52 inch; diameter from scar to back, 0.25 inch; thickness, 0.20 inch; color, cream white, with an extensive area about scar drab, and frequently with scattered dots of this color. Product of vine, medium; of seed, 10§ to 134 bushels per acre. Seems well adapted to this region. Seed bought of C. 8S. Brent, Lexington, Ky. Perhaps both of the above descriptions refer to the same variety, which may be identical with 173389. This has buff-and-white blotched seeds, but the buff quickly deepens in color to red. California.—A variety is mentioned under this name in Bulletin of the Ten- nessee Agricultural Experiment Station (vol. 11, no. 3, 1898, p. 96): and in Bulletin 160, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1909. Apparently this is California Blackeye, practically the only variety at present grown in Cali- fornia. California Bird’s-Eye.—A name mentioned in Bulletin 61, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, 1893 (p. 385). In all probability identical with California Blackeye. California Blackeye.——See 17338. Agronomic notes on this variety are found in the following publications: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 70 (1901) and 80 (1903). Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 73, 1906. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 1905 (p. 368). Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 81, 1908. South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 103 (1905) and 123 (1906). Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 130, 1904. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 74, 1907. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 69, 1903. Calivant.—Briefly described in Transactions of the Virginia State Agricul- tural Society, 1853 (vol. 1, p. 173), as follows: ‘‘A small, round, white pea, good bearer, and making good crop of vines; better as a variety for the table.” See also Calavance. Calvins.—Mentioned without descriptive notes in Bulletin 62, Louisiana Ex- periment Station, series 2, 1900. Probably the same as Colvin. Camden.—See Early Camden. Capehart’s Red Pea.—Described in Bulletin 98, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, 1894, p. 142, as follows: Seems to be a strain of the Red Ripper; has larger seeds and seems to be rather more prolific; herbage about the same. Cardinal._See 0599 under 17349. Carolina.—Name without description published in Bulletin of the Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station, 1898 (vol. 11, no. 8, p. 95). Carramunny-pyre.—See 21294. Chang kiang tow.—See 23214. Chauli.cSee Choli, also 17376. Chavali.—See Choli, also 21602. Chickasaw.—Described by Ruffin (Essays and Notes on Agriculture, 1855, p. 353), as a favorite early red pea, said to be very productive but not as pro- ductive as the Shinney. Later writers use the name principally as applying to the mung bean (Phaseolus radiatas). Chinese Browneye.—See 17329. Chinese Red.—See 17328. Chinese Whippoorwill.—See 17330. 2968°—Bul. 229124 50 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC, Chocolate.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 181), as follows: Semirecumbent; vigorous; medium leaf and stalk; blossom—wings white, vexillum purple; form, kidney; pod, medium yellow; pea, medium brown (or chocolate), mottled on white ground, wrinkled; very early; light yielder of vines; moderate producer of peas. Descriptive and agronomic notes also occur in Bulletins 53 (1898) and 62 (1900), series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station; and in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. Chola.—See Choli, also 21296. e : Choliim—A vernacular name employed in India for both the catjang and the cowpea. Variant spellings of this word are Chauli, Chola, Chowall, Chowlee, and Chavali. See 17377. Chowder.—Mentioned without description in Bulletin 160, Kansas Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1909. Chowlee.—See Choli, also 21296. Claret-Colored Crowder.—Described in Farmers’ Register, 1835 (vol. 2, no, 12, p. 752), as follows: Possesses all the most valuable qualities of the cow or Yeatman pea, together with such a degree of hardiness that many of them will remain in the ground all winter and come up in the following spring. Of this fact I was assured by the North Carolina gentleman who gave them to me. He also stated that they were deemed more valuable in that State—at least in the eastern part of it—than any other Indian pea; so much, indeed, that in renting out land, it was a common stipulation that the whole of the corn land should be planted with these peas, from a general belief that, if the vines were all left on the grourd it might be cultivated every year without being impoverished. Clay.—The first published reference to a variety under this name seems to be in Transactions of the Virginia State Agricultural Society, 1853 (vol. 1, p. 178), as follows: The Clay or Gray pea is a gray or light yellow, a good bearer, and yields heavy vines. It is a soft pea, and for this reason is preferred by stock and hogs to the coarser varieties, such as Tory, etc. Not so forward as the Shinney pea, nor will it bear so late. Is a heavy pea. Preferred for stock and perhaps more generally cultivated than any other variety. Will not bear exposure to bad weather. Is liable to be stained and turned dark by wet. See also 17340. Claybank.—This name, which is perhaps merely an amplification of the word “Clay,” has been published by a number of writers. In the American Agriculturist, 1876 (vol. 35, p. 139), it is described as “drab, usually dark at the eye.” In Bulletin 146, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, 1897 (p. 251), brief agronomic notes are given. Clay Colored.—This name is probably merely an amplification of the name Clay. Published in Bulletin 12, Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, 1890. Clovin.—Name with very brief description published in The Cowpea, a pub- lication of the North Carolina Horticultural Society, issued about 1906. It is perhaps merely a misprint of Colvin. Coffee—The following description occurs in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 181): Tall, upright grower, does not run at all; heavy stalk; leaf, medium and dark green; form, kidney; pod, large, yellow; pea, medium, brown mottled, on white ground; medium early; yield of vines, large; of peas, very large. 229 NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 51 Apparently the same variety is described in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Ex- periment Station, 1895 (p. 582). Agronomic and descriptive notes under this name have also been published in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; Bulletin 58, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1898; and in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. It is doubtful, however, if all of these notes refer to the same variety. In eastern North Carolina the name “ Coffee” is also more or less used for the Taylor variety. Collard.—See Green Collard. Colvin.—This is described in Bulletin 29, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 1044), as follows: Colvin is a medium large, light-red pea, resembling somewhat the Red Ripper. It is the bunch kind, very prolific and early, fruiting in 8 or 9 -weeks. Not much vine. Descriptive notes also occur in Bulletins 29, series 2 (1894), and 72, series 2 (1902), Louisiana Experiment Station; and in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1896. Conch.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 181), as follows: Flattest grower of all the peas; lies close to the ground like a sweet potato vine; weak and slow grower; light-green leaves; pod, medium yel- low; pea, medium white; unproductive; very late and absolutely worthless. Agronomic and descriptive notes under this name also occur in the following publications: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 81 (1894) and 80 (1903) ; Annual Report, 1895 (p. 12.). Louisiana Experiment Station, bulletins 21 and 22 (1889), 7, series 2 (1891), 16, series 2 (1892), and 62, series 2 (1900). Georgia Experiment Station, Bulletin 26, 1894. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 34, 1895. Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 40, 1896. Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Reports for 1892 (p. 32) and for 1895 (p. 8). North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 98, 1894. Congo—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 13894, p. 181, as follows: Recumbent, though not a trailer; leaf and stalk moderately large; light green; blossom light lilac; form kidney; pod large, yellow; pea, very large, jet black; very early; yield of vines, moderate; of peas, heavy. Descriptive and agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; and in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1896. It is apparently identical with Harly Black, 17336. Constitution.—This variety is described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 181), as follows: Semirecumbent, but does not trail; leaf and stalk small, medium green; handsome grower; blossom pale iilac; form kidney; pod small, yellow; pea, very small, jet black; very late; yield of vines, heavy; of peas, lightest in the list. Descriptive and agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; and in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1896. Cotton Patch.—See 29291. 229 52 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Couch.—Apparently a misprint for Conch. Under this name notes occur in Cireular 69, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908; and in Bulletin 130, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, 1904. Cream.—See 17698. : Cream White.—Published in the 1896 catalogue of the N. L. Willet Seed Co., Augusta, Ga., by name only. Crowder.—This name is properly used for any variety of the cowpea in which the seeds are so closely placed in the pods as to be flattened at the ends. Crowder varieties occur in nearly all of the seed colors. The name, however, without any qualifying adjective, has sometimes been applied to a particular variety, as in Bulletin 77, Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station (p. 31); and in Bulletin 6, New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, 1892. Cuckold’s Increase.—A name used in the West Indies for various varieties of cowpeas, but perhaps mainly for varieties with white or nearly white seeds. The descriptive notes of the older writers, such as Hughes (Natural History of Barbados, 1750, p. 216), Lunan (Hortus Jamaicensis, 1814, p. 435), and Romans (Natural History of East and West Florida, 1775), are insufficient to identify the variety definitely. MacFadyen (Flora of Jamaica, 1857, vol. 1, p. 288) states that the seeds of Cuckold’s Increase are said to be “light- reddish buff.” Delicious.—See 17373. Dennis's Field.—Published as a synonym of White Table in the American Agriculturist (vol. 35, 1876, p. 139). Dixie.—Descriptive and agronomic notes on a variety of this name are published in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900. Downs Early Ripener.—See 17331. Identical with New Era. Dwarf Whippoorwill—Agronomic and descriptive notes were published on this variety in various bulletins of the Louisiana Experiment Station, especially Nos. 22 and 27, 1889. Probably same as Whippoorwill. Early Amber.—A variety under this name is mentioned by Prof. C. L. New- man in the Orange Judd Farmer (vol. 38, 1905, p. 673). Early Black.—See 173386. Early Blackeye.—See 17335. Early Boolock.—See 8418. Early Brown Dent.—Descriptive and agronomic notes under this name are given in Bulletin 118, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902; and in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900. Early Bulloch—Descriptive and agronomic notes under this name are given in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station. 1900; and in Bulletin 118, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902. Barly Bush.—See quotation on page 36. Early Camden.—Identified as Conch by C. R. Ball. Early White Blackeye.—Mentioned without description in Bulletin 62 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900 (p. 466). Dureka.—Mentioned by name only in Bulletin of the Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station, 1898, (vol. 11, no. 3, p. 95). Everlasting —Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 181), as follows: Everlasting.—Semirecumbent ; small leaf and stalk; light green; blossom, light lilac; form, kidney; pod, medium yellow; pea, small, pinkish buff: late; yield of vines, heavy; of peas, very light; said to remain in the ground all winter without injury. 229 NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS., 53 Notes under this name have also been published in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1895; Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experi- ment Station, 1896; Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; and in Bulletin 62, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900. There is reason to believe that this variety.is identical with Iron. Extra Early.—Mentioned without description in Bulletin 160, Kansas Agri- eultural Experiment Station, 1909. Extra Early Blackeye.—Descriptive notes have been published in Bulletin 98, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902. Agronomic notes are also published under this name in Bulletin 70, Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1901 (No. 17235) ; Bulletin 118, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, 1902; Bulletin 103, South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, 1905; Bulletin 78, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, 1906; Bulletin 81, Del- aware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908; and in Bulletin 160, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1909. Eatra Early Browneye-—Agronomic notes are published under this name in Bulletin 53, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1898. Field White Table—Mentioned by name only in the 1896 catalogue of the N. L. Willet Seed Co., Augusta, Ga. Flat Red.—The following descriptive notes are from Bulletin 34, Texas Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1895 (p. 583): Flat Red—vVine erect and runs vigorously; first ripe September 20; pods, medium length, fairly well filled with small flat peas; yield per acre, 12.4 bushels; sown May 11. Notes under this name are also published in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1896; and in Bulletin 62, series 2, Louisiana Ex- periment Station, 1900. Flint.—Mentioned by name only in the 1910 catalogue of the N. L. Willet Seed Co., Augusta, Ga. Forage.—The following description is from Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 181): Forage or Shinney.—Semirecumbent; trails; makes an enormous amount of vines; leaf and stalk small, but dark green and vigorous; blossoms, purple; form, kidney ; pod, large, yellow; pea, medium, jet black; very late; yield of vines, very heavy; of peas, light. Under the same name descriptive and agronomic notes are given in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900. Forty-Day— Under this name a variety is advertised in the 1904 catalogue of the J. Steckler Seed Co., New Orleans, La. Gallavant or Galivant or Gallivant.—See also Calavance. Descriptive and agronomic notes occur in Bulletin 84, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1904; and agronomic notes in Bulletin 160, Kansas Agricultural Experi- ment Station, 1909. In seed catalogues this name is commonly published as a synonym of Lady. Gentleman pea.—See extract published under ‘ Ladies pea,” page 56. Giang don.—See 22903. Gourd.—tThis is described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 181), as follows: Gourd.—Synonyms: Mathews, Polecat. An excellent pea, but too much of a runner on rich land; large amount of foliage, though leaf and stalk are small; very vigorous; blossoms—wings white, vexillum purple; form, kidney; pod, very long, sometimes 18 inches, yellow; pea, large, black blotches on white ground—hence its synonym “ Polecat;” very late, but productive, both in vines and peas. 229 54 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Under the same name descriptive and agronomic notes are published in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; Bulletin 62, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900; Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1895; and in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Ex- periment Station, 1896. Apparently in all cases where this name is used it is exactly synonymous with Taylor. Granite Crowder.—Described in the Industrialist, Kansas State Agricultural College (vol. 28, 1902, p. 462). Probably identical with Taylor Crowder. Gray.—See citations on pages 35 and 36. Grayeye.—See 17390. , Gray Goose.—This name is usually, if not always, an exact synonym of Taylor. Agronomic notes under this name have been published in the fol- lowing: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 70, 1901. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 69, 1903. South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 103 (1905) and 128 (1906). Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 130, 1904. Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 160, 1909. Gray Prolific—Notes on a variety under this name were published in Bul- letin G1, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, 1893 (p. 335). Grecian.—See 17333. Agronomic notes are published in Bulletin 81, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908. Green.—Descriptive and agronomic notes are published in Bulletin 40, Missis- sippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. Green Collard.—Described in Bulletin 53, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1898 (p. 45), as follows: Presents every shade from a dirty white to a blue black. Unfortunately, the contrast does not show as nicely in the photograph as it does to the eye. The normal seed of this variety is a dirty white with dark stipple- like dots, giving it a darker color about the eye. It was noticed that some of these seeds were a little darker than others, and some of the darkest ones were selected for a separate planting. As a result from this harvest some seeds were obtained that were considerably darker than the ones planted, while others were not as dark, the majority returning to the ordinary color of the normal seed. Green Colored.—Described in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1895 (p. 583), as follows: Green Colored.—A greenish pea with vine very erect and running vigor- ously; first ripe September 18; pods medium length, well filled with small peas; yield per acre, 17.5 bushels; sown May 11. The name may perhaps be a corruption of Green Collard. Green-Eye White——Described by Ruffin, Essays and Notes on Agriculture, 1855 (p. 855), as follows: A small pea, of delicate flavor, and valued for table use by those who would reject the early black because of the dark and ugly appearance when cooked. The growth is too small for use as a stock-feeding or manuring crop. Grey Crowder.—Descriptive and agronomic notes are published in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900. Grey-Eye.—A variety advertised by the Amzi Godden Seed Co., Birmingham, Ala., in 1905. Same as Grayeye. Groit.— See 178384. Guernsey.—See 17408. 229 NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 55 Guess.—A synonym of Iron, according to an unnumbered pamphlet on the Iron cowpea, published by the United States Department of Agriculture, Jan- uary 16, 1904. § Gungi Rawani.—See 21295. Halesteine.-—Agronomic notes published in Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, 1910 (vol. 31). Apparently a typographical error for Holstein. Hammond’s Black.—Agronomic notes published in Bulletin 160, Kansas Agri- eultural Experiment Station, 1909. See 29292. Hammond's Extra Larly.—Agronomic notes published in Special Bulletin 28, Experiment Station of Michigan Agricultural College, 1904. Han chiang doh.—See 233807. Hollybrook.—Agronomie notes published under this name in Circular 69, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, 1903; and in Bulletin 130, Pennsyl- vyania Department of Agriculture, 1904. Holstein.—See 17418. Indian.—This name was once originally applied to all cowpeas. See “A Description of South Carolina,” by B. R. Carroll, Historical Collections of South Carolina, vol. 2, 1710 (p. 248); American Husbandry by “‘An American,” 1775 (pp. 447, 448); and article from Farmers’ Register, 1835, quoted under “ Claret-Colored Crowder” (p. 50). The name was apparently based on the supposition that the plant was native to America and cultivated by the Indians. In later years the name has been applied to a variety having red-and-white blotched seeds. Under this varietal name descriptive and agronomic notes occur as follows: Louisiana Experiment Station Bulletins (ser. 2) 27 (1889); 8 (1891); 16 (1892) ; 19 (1892) ; 29 (1894) ; 40 (1896) ; 62 (1900) ; and 72 (1902). Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 40, 1896. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 69, 1903. Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 130, 1904. Indian Red.—Agronomic notes on a variety under this name published in Bulletin 28 series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1894. Innominate.—Said to be identical with Unknown. Notes, either descriptive or agronomic, published in bulletins of the North Carolina Agricultural Experi- ment Station Nos. 1388 (1896) and 146 (1897). Tron.—See 8418. Ironclad.—A synonym of Iron, published in 1908 catalogue of the N. lL. Willet Seed Co., Augusta, Ga. Tron Mountain.—See 174238. Java.—Agronomic notes published in Bulletin 11, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1890 (p. 96). This name, and also Speckled Java, and its corruptions Jervy and Jervis, are probably older names for Taylor. Jervis.—See Jaya. Jervy.—See Java. Jhunga.—A vernacular name applied in India to the cowpea or the eatjang. Joiner’s Long-Pod.—See sitation on page 36. Jones’s Perfection White-——Agronomic notes published in Bulletin 118, Ala- bama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902. Probably the same as Jones’s White. Jones’s White.—Descriptive notes published in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; and agronomic notes in Bulletins 118 and 120, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902. Juroku sasage.—See 6311. 229 56 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Katikha.—A vernacular name applied to a catjang from India. King.—Under this name descriptive and agronomic notes have been pub- lished in various bulletins of the Louisiana Experiment Station, namely, Nos. 22 and 27 (ser. 1), and Nos. 8, 16, 19, 29, 40, and 72 (ser. 2); also in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. It is described as having large black-and-white pied seeds. Kintohi.—See 6328. Kurakake.—See 6827. Kutohi.—See 6328. Ladies pea—Under this name the following description in the Farmers’ Register, 1835 (vol. 2, p. 752), occurs: The Ladies’ pea, as some call it, or the Gentleman pea, as it is called by others, is the smallest I know; the most tasteless of all that I have ever tried; another variety differs from that last mentioned only in size and in being somewhat longer in proportion to its thickness. The only name which I have ever heard given to this was “ the Gentleman pea,” and it is well christened, if the term gentleman, according to little Harry Sanford’s notion, means something that is good for nothing. Lady—See 17359. Lady Finger.—Advertised in the 1905 catalogue of the Amzi Godden Seed Co., Birmingham, Ala. See 17388. Lal-rawani.—See 21292. Large Black.—Ruffin, Essays and Notes on Agriculture, 1855 (p. 355), de- scribes this variety as follows: Large Black or Tory (late) pea.—This is as great a vine bearer as the Buff pea, and still later in ripening. The seeds have a very thick skin and will lie through winter on the ground, unrotted, and sprout in spring. The pods burst open soon after ripening and scatter and waste the seeds, which is the great defect of this [variety] as a manuring crop. Large Blackeye.—Under this name descriptive or agronomic notes have been published as follows: Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 40 (1896), 838 (1904), and 84 (1904). Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 70 (1901) and 80 (1903). Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 59, 1901. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 118, 1902. Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 98, 1902. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 149, 1903. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 69, 1903. Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 130, 1904. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 1905. Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 160, 1909. North Carolina Department of Agriculture, Bulletin (vol. 31, no. 6), 1910. Large Early Black.—Agronomic notes under this name were published in Bulletins 118 and 120, Alabama Agricutural Experiment Station, 1902. Large Lady.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 181), as follows: Large Lady.—Recumbent; small leaf and stalk; medium green in tint; vines vigorous; trail slightly at ends; pure white bloom; form, kidney; pod, small, yellow: pea, small, white; medium early; heavy producer of both peas and vines. Descriptive and agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 40, Massachusetts Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1896. Large Red.—Descriptive and agronomic notes under this name occur in Bul- letin 34, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1895; and in Bulletin 40, Mis- sissippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. 229 NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 57 Large White.—Under this name descriptive notes occur in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1895 (p. 583), as follows: Large White—Vine a vigorous grower, running low and near the ground; first ripe July 30; pods long and well filled with large white peas; yield per acre, 17 bushels; sown May 11. Large White or Purple Hull—A white pea with black eye; vigorous grower, erect, and running habits; first ripe August 15; pods, long and well filled with large, black-eyed peas; yield per acre, 17 bushels; sown May 11. Agronomic and descriptive notes also occur in bulletins of the Louisiana Ex- periment Station Nos. 22 and 27 (ser. 1), and Nos. 8, 16, 28, 29, and 40 (ser. 2) ; and in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. Large White Blackeye.—Descriptive and agronomic notes on this variety are published in Annual Report, Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1890 (p. 131) ; and agronomic notes in Bulletin 118, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902; and in Bulletin 72 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Station, 1902. Large White Crow.—Name only published in Bulletin 77, Arkansas Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1903 (p. 31). Large White Crowder.—Agronomic notes published in Bulletin 118, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902. Large White Spot.—See 22726. Large Yellow-Eye.—Mentioned by name only in the 1909 catalogue of the N. L. Willet Seed Co., Augusta, Ga. Leland.—Agronomie notes published in Bulletin 118, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902 (p. 18). Lestones.—See 6228. Lilac Red-Pod.—This is described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 181), as follows: Recumbent; moderate-sized leaf and stalk, but dark green and vigorous; an even, pretty grower; blossom white; form kidney; pod dark reddish brown or black, medium sized; pea large with lilac-colored mottles on white ground; medium early; light producer of both peas and vines. Agronomic and descriptive notes also occur in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; and in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1896. Little Iron—A name sometimes used for the Iron. Little Lady.—Probably the same as Lady. Name published in Bulletin 21, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1889 (p. 275). Liver.—Descriptive and agronomic notes published in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; and agronomic notes in Bulletin 62 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900. Lobia.—A vernacular name for cowpeas and catjangs in parts of India. See 21791. Long Lady.—See 17401. Louisiana Wild.—See 17405. Macassar.—A name applied to all cowpeas in Brazil, according to Mr. W. Fischer. See 21006 and 21299. Mammoth Black.—Agronomic notes published under this name in Bulletin 199, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902; and in Bulletin 130, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, 1904. Manmoth Clay.—Agronomic notes published under this name in Bulletin 199, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902; and in Bulletin 150, Pennsyl- vania Department of Agriculture, 1904. Masri.—See 25016. 229 58 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Mathews.—A synonym of Gourd, which see. Descriptive and agronomic notes under this name have been published also in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. McNiel.—Notes are published on this variety in Bulletin 14, Florida Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1901, as follows: The MeNiel pea, which originated in this town (Lake City), and popular as a shipper, being a good bearer and hardy, was also tested. It is a little later than the very early varieties, but a bunch pea of good size and full pod. This pea is very scarce and all raised were saved for seed. Popular market pea and desired by shippers. o Mealer’s Clay.—A typographical error for Melear. See Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture (vol. 31, no. 6), 1910. Melear.—See 173838. Michigan Favorite-—See 138472. Miller.—See 29301. Monkey’s Tail.—See 242138. Mottled.—Agronomic notes published in Bulletin 81, Delaware College Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1908. This name has been used as a synonym of Shinney, which see. Mount Olive.—Agronomic notes published in Bulletin 77, Arkansas Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1903; and in Bulletin 160, Kansas Agricultural Ex- periment Station, 1909. See 17540. Mountain Crowder.—See 29288. Mush.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 182), as follows: Semirecumbent; large leaf and stalk; vines trail at ends; blossom, pur- ple; form, crowder; pod, small, yellow; pea, medium, white; medium early ; yield of vines, moderate; of peas, very heavy. Agronomic or descriptive notes are also published in the following: Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 46, 1900. Louisiana Experiment Station, Bulletin 62, series 2, 1900. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 118, 1902. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 34, 1895. Mississipi Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 40, 1896. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 11, 1890. New Era.—See 21088. New Revenue.—A name published in the 1910 catalogue of William Henry Maule, Philadelphia, Pa. Exactly the same as Michigan Favorite. Nigger.—Described and illustrated in the Industrialist, Kansas State Agricul- tural College, 1902 (vol. 28, p. 462). “Seeds black, small.” No Name.—A synonym of Unknown, published in Bulletin 183, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. Northern Prolific—Agronomic notes published in Bulletin 130, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, 1904, and in Circular 69, Illinois Agricultural Ex- periment Station, 1903. Same as.Sherman’s Northern Prolific. Old Man.—See 17354. Old Man’s Friend.—A synonym of Pea of the Backwoods. Pale Red.—Described in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1895 (p. 5838), as follows: Pale Red.—A pale, red variety; vine medium growth, erect, and bunched; first ripe September 25; pods medium length, imperfectly filled with small, pale-red peas; yield per acre, 11.9 bushels; sown May 11. Descriptive and agronomic notes are also published in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. 229 NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 59 Panmure Barly Wonder.—See 27199. Pea of the Backwoods.—Described in Bulletin 22, Louisiana Experiment Sta- tion, 1889 (p. 319), as follows: This pea was brought to notice two years ago by the letters of Mr. Ed- ward Fonville, of Onslow County, N. C., in the Southern Cultivator. It was recommended as the earliest bunch pea, and excellent for table use. It has so proved; two weeks ahead of any other, a larger bearer, and as a shell pea for table use, tender, marrowy, and palatable. Are ripe for table use just six weeks after planting. It is a bunch pea strictly, therefore, af- fording not much vine. The seeds are small, cream colored, slighily “ pied.” Very prolific. At Calhoun it matured in forty days. Two crops a year were grown on same ground last year at Baton Rouge. a Other notes occur in bulletins of the Louisiana Experiment Station No. 27 (1894), and in (ser. 2) Nos. 8, 16, 19, 29; also in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1896. Peerless.—See 25314. Polecat.—A synonym of Gourd, which see. Agronomic and descriptive notes are published under this name in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experi- ment Station, 1896. Pony.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 182), as follows: Pony.—Recumbent; leaf and stalk of medium size, but dark green and vigorous; blossom, pure white; form, kidney; pod, small, yellow; pea, medium, white, wrinkled; heavy yielder of both peas and vines; medium early. According to additional notes by Mr. C. R. Ball, the seeds are white with a black eye, medium sized, short and broad, and finely wrinkled. Descriptive and agronomie notes under this name also occur in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900, and in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1896. Poona.—Mentioned in the Agricultural Gazette, New South Wales, 1909 (vol. 20, p. 882). Mr. H. W. Potts, Richmond, New South Wales, says: This is a variety formerly called Upright. It was secured originally from Caleutta, India, and after eight years’ testing is the best of all that we have tried. Poor Man’s Friend.—A synonym of Pea of the Backwoods. Described in Bulletin 19, series 2, Louisiana Experiment Station, 1892 (p. 540), as follows: Originated by Edward Fonville, of North Carolina. An early bunch pea, but little vine; ripening in six weeks from planting; seed small, cream colored, slightly pied; excellent for table purposes; two or three crops may be grown in a year. Agronomic and descriptive notes occur also in Bulletins 21 and 22, Louisiana Ex- periment Station, 1889. Powell’s Harly Prolific—See 17392. Agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, 1910 (vol. 31. no. 6). Accord- ing to Dr. B. W. Kilgore, Raleigh, N. C., the origin of this variety is as follows: Powell’s Early Prolific was obtained from William Powell, Merry Oaks, N. C. It is stated that he found six peas, five or six years ago, in some coffee, which he supposed came from Brazil. These seeds were planted, and the variety came in this way, according to our understanding. Purple-Lye.—Descriptive and agronomic notes are given in Report of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture, 1900 (p. 504), as follows: The large Blackeye and Purple-EHye are typical of one another. * * * The Blackeye and Purple-Hye are of the same ground color, differing only in the color of the ring surrounding the eye. 229 60 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Purple Hull.—Descriptive or agronomic notes under this name oceur in bulletins (ser. 2) of the Louisiana Experiment Station, 28 and 29 (1894), 72 (1902), and 40 (1896). In Bulletin 40 (p, 1458) it is described as follows: Purple Hull, so called on account of color of hull; a large white pea; yield small, with fair amount of vines; medium early. This variety has also been advertised by the Amzi Godden Seed Co., Birming- ham, Ala., who write concerning it as follows: Very popular in our immediate section; grown principally for eating pur- poses, being of extra good quality; exceedingly prolific, very, hardy, vigorous grower; produces great area of foliage and seems to be less bothered by weevil than many others; very large long pod, of a rich purple color, about the time the peas are mature. Purple Hull Crowder.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Sta- tion, 1894 (p. 182), as follows: Semirecumbent; vines trail at end, but growth even and pretty; leaf and stalk small and dark green; bloom, purple; form, crowder; pod small, purplish black; pea, medium, dull red; very late; yield of vines, light; of peas, heavy. Descriptive and agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1896, and in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1900. ‘ Quadroon.—Published as a synonym of Unknown in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 188). The name is also published in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. Queen of Carolina.—Agronomic but no descriptive notes occur under this name in Bulletin 146, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, 1897. Quick.—A variety advertised under this name by H. G. Hastings & Co., of Atlanta, Ga., No. 27930, not yet tested. Ram’s-Horn.—A variety with black-eyed white seeds, which has been adver- tised by Peter Henderson & Co., New York City, 1903, and by T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va., 1909 and 1910. The name first appears in Vilmorin’s The Vegetable Garden, 1885 (p. 74), with the following description : Dolichos unguiculatus L.; Black-eyed Dolichos. Years ago Mr. Durieu de Maisonneuve, director of the botanic garden at Bordeaux, introduced a very singular variety of this plant, the pods of which instead of being straight are curved round and round, from which peculiarity it received the name of Ram’s-Horn bean. Culture and uses are the same as those of the ordinary variety. The name has also been applied by some seedsmen to a black-seeded variety. Ram’s-Horn Blackeye.—See 27548. Rawan.—A name with various modifications, such as Rawang and Rawani, which is applied to the catjangs in various parts of India. See 21298 and 21297. Red.—A name that has been quite generally applied to any red, i. e., maroon, colored cowpeas. A very early reference occurs in Lunan (quoted under “ Cala- vance’). In Transactions of the Virginia State Agricultural Society, 1853 (vol. 1, p. 173), it is described as follows: The Red, Tory, or Bass pea.—tits distinguishing characteristic is its ability to withstand wet and bad weather; a very valuable crop for late winter feeding of hogs and stock. Will last through the winter. A hard coarse pea, and stock will not eat it as long as the softer kinds last. A good bearer; yields a very heavy crop of vines. Does not mature early. Is a dark chocolate red, and its color is not affected by the weather; said to volunteer. 229 NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 61 Ruffin, Essays and Notes on Agriculture, 1855, also describes a ‘‘ Red” cowpea. (See quotation under “ Bass.”) In recent literature descriptive or agronomic notes occur as follows: Georgia Hxperiment Station, Bulletin 26, 1894. Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins (ser. 2) Nos. 40 (1896) and 72 (1902). Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 40, 1896. Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 46 (1900) and 81 (1908). Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 98, 1902. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 69, 1903. Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 130, 1904. Missouri Agricultural College Experiment Station, Bulletin 73, 1906. It is impossible to identify any of these excepting where pedigreed seed may still be available. See also notes under ‘‘ Red Ripper” and “ Red Crowder.” Red-and-White Speckled.—Described in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Ex- periment Station, 1895, as follows: Red-and-White Speckled (Red Pod).—A red pea with white specks; vine vigorous, running low and near the ground; first ripe September 7; pods medium length, imperfectly filled with peas of medium size; yield per acre, 12.5 bushels; sown May 11. Red Carolina.—This name appears in the 1905 catalogue of T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va., and agronomic notes have been published in Bulletin 168, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, 1907. See 17519. Red Cow.—See citation on page 36. Red Crowder.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 182), as follows: Recumbent; lies quite flat; leaf and stalk of moderate size, but of good color and vigorous; peas radiate in bunches horizontally and at right angles to stem; blossom light purple; form, crowder; pod, very small, yellow; pea, medium, dull red; early; yield of vines, medium; of peas, heavy. Descriptive or agronomic notes also occur in the following: Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 40, 1896. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 34, 1895. Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 46 (1900) and 81 (1998). North Carolina Department of Agriculture, Bulletin, 1910 (vol. 31, no. 6). See also 17361. Red-EHye.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 182), as follows: Trails; leaf and stalk, medium, light green; blossom—wings white, vexil- lum purple; pod, medium, blue black; pea, medium, white with red eye; early ; light yielder of both peas and vines. Descriptive or agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1896; in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; and in Bulletin 62 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900. Red-Eyed Red Pod.—Described in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Experi- ment Station, 1895 (p. 588), as follows: Red-Eyed Red Pod.—A white pea with red eye; vine made a moderate growth, running low and near the ground; first ripe September 7; pods medium length, well filled with peas of medium size; yield per acre, 14.3 bushels; sown May 11. 229 62 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Red-Hulled White.—See citation on page 36. Red Iron.—A name published in the Agricultural News, Barbados, 1909 (vol. 8, p. 178). This variety, grown in Victoria, Australia, was said to have been found originally mixed with the seed of ordinary Iron. It is stated to be similar to the Iron in habit, pods maturing in 115 days as against 106 for the Iron. Red Pod.—This is very briefly described in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1896, as having “ mottled and speckled ” medium- sized seeds. Red Ripper.—See 17350. ad Red River.—Agronomic notes occur in Bulletin 160, Kansas Agricultural Ex- periment Station, 1909. Probably a misprint for Red Ripper. Red Running.—Descriptive and agronomic notes occur in the Annual Report of the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station for 1890 (p. 131): Produces much vines but less productive of peas; vines grow very long and lie flat, remaining green long after peas have ripened; the pods were long and well filled, medium size, of dark-red color. Red Sport.—See 29290. : Red Tory.—Described in Bulletin 19 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Station, 1892 (p. 541), as follows: A red pea of wonderful powers of vitality, often remaining sound in the soil for many months. The matured pods on the vines which are turned under in the fall, on land planted in smal? grain, will germinate and givea good crop of peas after the grain has been harvested. Produces a large amount of vines and foliage; one of the best for green manuring; remains green till frost. Agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 146, North Carolina Agricultural Ex- periment Station, 1897. Red Unknown.—Agronomic notes occur in Bulletin 103, South Carolina Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1905, and in Bulletin 160, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1909. Red Whippoorwill.—See 17374. Red Yellowhull.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 182), as follows: Semirecumbent; leaf and stalk medium; dark green; blossom, violet; form, kidney; pod, medium, yellow; pea, large, dull red; early; yield of vines, medium; of peas, very heavy. Descriptive or agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1896; in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; and in Bulletin 62 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900. See 29286. Red Yellow Pod.—This name appears with brief descriptive notes in The Cowpea, published by the North Carolina State Horticultural Society, about 1906. It is apparently a typographical error for Red Yellowhull. Redding.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 182), as follows: Semirecumbent ; small, light leaf and stalk, but vigorous, making a large amount of vines; purple bloom; form, kidney; pods, very small, yellow; pea, small, dull red; very late; yield of vines, very heavy; of peas, very light. Descriptive and agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1896, and in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1900. 229 NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 63 Regular Lady.—This name is mentioned in Bulletin 28 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 974). Perhaps synonymous with Lady. Rice.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 182), as follows: Semirecumbent; small, light-green leaf and stalk; trails at end of vines; snow-white bloom; form, kidney; pod small, yellow; pea small, white; very late; yield of vines, medium; of peas, heavy. In Bulletin’ 1338, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896 (p. 342), additional descriptive notes occur as follows: Pea small, oval, white, semitranslucent, resembling rice; vine creeping; very vigorous grower; stem 4 to 8 feet long; leaves small to medium; matures in medium season, with us planted May 1, ripe October 10; yield of vines moderate, of seeds heavy. The table quality of this pea is con- sidered superior to that of any other of the cowpea family. It deserves a more extended trial. The Station has a small supply for distribution to citizens of the State in spring of 1897. Descriptive or agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1896; in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1895; and in Bulletin 168, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, 1907. Ross White.—Agronomic notes occur in Bulletin 118, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902 (p. 138). Running Speckled.—This name is published in the 1908 catalogue of the N. L. Willet Seed Co., Augusta, Ga. It is the same variety which has since been called Peerless. Saddleback.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 182), as follows: Recumbent; leaf and stalk small, but dark green; form, kidney; pod medium, purplish black; pea small, with dark red mottles on white ground, wrinkled; early; yield light in both peas and vines. Descriptive or agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1896; in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; and in Bulletins 53 (ser. 2), 1898, and 62 (ser. 2), 1900, Louisiana Experiment Station. Sand.—This name appears in the 1908 catalogue of Henry A. Dreer, Philadel- phia, Pa., as a synonym of Southern Blackeye. Sanjak sasage.—See 4974. Sherman’s Northern Prolific—Grown for three years under the designation Agrostology 1213 by Mr. C. R. Ball, who reached the conclusion that it is identical with Warren’s Extra Early. Shinney, or Shinny.—A name commonly employed as a synonym of Whip- poorwill. The first reference in literature seems to be in Transactions of the Virginia State Agricultural Society, 1853 (vol. 1, p. 173), as follows: Most valuable variety; a speckled pea; may be a cross between the Gray or Clay pea and the Blackeye. Very prolific, yielding on favorite soil, with good seasons, as much as fifty to one. Produces very heavy crop of vines. Matures early and continues to bear until frost. The pea is large and heavy, of delicate flavor, and excellent on the table. Hogs prefer it to the Tory, or Bass. Will not bear exposure to the winter; liable to mold and sprout after prolonged wet, followed by warm weather ; however, equally hardy with the Gray or Clay pea and other varieties. Will not bear exposure to the winter like the Tory, or Bass, and the Black. 229 64 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Ruffin, Essays and Notes on Agriculture, 1855 (p. 353), writes: The mottled or Shinney pea, which has been so much celebrated in latter years, differs in some respects from all others. The seeds are of a light- brownish color, thickly streaked or mottled with a deeper brown. It is deemed by farmers who have tried it longer and more fully than myself, to be one of the heaviest vine bearers, and also by far the most productive in grain. Mr. Robert Chisolm, of Beaufort, S. C., in 1850, first brought this pea into general notice. This gentleman, whose intelligence and observation deserve all respect, made careful comparisons both by observa- tion and by weighings of this with other then most valued kinds of pea, and reported of them as follows, in the American Farmer, of May, 1851: “From the few seeds first obtained and planted in the spring, he gathered the earliest ripe seeds, and sowed them again in July, along with the cowpea (or buff?) obtained from four different localities, a red pea (called Chickasaw) said to be very productive, and also another favorite early pea. The products of seeds were not measured; but, to the eye, there was no doubt as to the superior production of the Shinney pea.” [An accurate experiment is quoted showing a greater weight for the Shinney.] It is probable that the much greater weight of the pods of the Shinney was in some measure increased by the greater thickness of the covering hulls of this variety. Still there must have been also an important increase of the grain alone. This mottled or Shinney pea I saw in Pendleton, S. C., in 1843, and heard it recommended as a valuable kind by different farmers. One of them was the Hon. John C. Calhoun, who gave me a supply of seed. After some years’ trial and of comparison by the eye of this with various other kinds, I abandoned the mottled pea for some of its peculiarities which recommended it to other persons. These were, first, the long time of successive ripening of the pods, requiring different times of gathering, and slow work; and second, the difficulty of beating out the seed, from the hard, tough, and closely joined hulls. But neither these nor any other objections counterbalance the greater produc- tiveness of the mottled pea—which quality I did not test by measurement, and therefore did not suspect. I found the mottled pea began to ripen (it does not cease until killed by frost) soon after the Blackeye, and the pods were mostly ripe on August 26. * * * The green-eye white pea ripened next in order—the buff (or cow) next—two kinds of black peas (large and small grain) next, and last a red pea (probably the Bass) obtained from North Carolina. * * * The buff, both the blacks, and the red pea all exceeded the mottled in general growth of vine and leaf. It was also noted as a peculiar value found in the mottled pea, that the vines were pulled up, still green and full of leaves, after most of the pods were ripe and were thus cured for hay. See also quotation from American Agriculturist, on page 36 of this bulletin. The name has not been much used in experiment station publications. As used in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894, it is for a black-seeded variety. (See citations under name Forage.) The “Shinney” described in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896, is probably the same as the last mentioned. Shrimp.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 183), as follows: Semirecumbent; small, light-green leaf and stalk; trails slightly at ends of vines: blossom, light purple; form, kidney; pod, small, yellow; pea, small, clear pink; very late; yield of vines, medium ; of peas, very light. Descriptive and agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1896, and in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900. Siz-Oaks Field.—See quotation on page 36. Sirty-Day—See 17386. Agronomic notes published in Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, 1910 (vol. 31,no. 6). Mr. G. T. Bulloch, Rocky Mount, N. C., writes as follows: I find after much inquiry that the Sixty-Day pea has beer a distinct variety in this locality for 25 years. How and where it originated is 229 ——E NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 65 unknown to the oldest settlers here. Until recent years this pea was grown only in small plots for table use, and think this is the reason it does not do so well broadcast. Small Black.—Under this name agronomic notes occur in Ruffin’s Essays and Notes on Agriculture, 1855 (p. 355), in Bulletin 118, Alabama Agricultural Ex- periment Station, 1902; in Annual Report, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, 1905 (p. 370); and in Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, 1910 (vol. 31, no. 6). Small Blackeye.—Descriptive notes in Bulletin 84, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1904, as follows: “‘ Bunch variety, small seed, medium bearer, very early.” Agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, 1910 (vol. 31, no. 6). Small Lady.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 1838), as follows: Recumbent, trails at ends of vines; leaf and stalk small, but vigorous; pure white blossom; form, crowder; pod, very small, yellow; pea, very small, round, and white; may be a retrograded Sugar Crowder, though smaller and much earlier; yield of vines heavy, but of peas light. Descriptive notes also occur in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1895, and in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. Agronomic notes appear in Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, 1910 (vol. 31, no. 6). Small Red.—Descriptive notes appear in Bulletin 84, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1895 (p. 588), as follows: Small Red, or Tory.—Vine of medium growth, running low and near the ground; first ripe September 8; pods, long, well filled, with small, red peas; yield per acre, 16 bushels; sown May 11. Descriptive notes occur also in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. Small White.—Described in Bulletin 40 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Sta- tion, 1896 (p. 1459), as follows: “ Very late, small, white pea, with small! yield of vines and berries.” Agronomic notes also occur in Bulletins (ser. 2) Loui- siana Experiment Station 62 (1900) and 72 (1902). Descriptive and agronomic notes appear in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. Under the same name a variety is mentioned in Romans’s Natural History of East and West Florida, published in 1775. Small White India.—Agronomic notes under this name are published in Bul- letin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, 1910 (vol. 31, no. 6). Smallporz.—See 24185. Smiley—A synonym of Iron. The name is thus published by Orton in an unnumbered pamphlet on the Iron cowpea, issued by the U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, January 16, 1904. Smith—Agronomic notes under this name are published in Bulletin 40, Mis- sissippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. Smith’s No. 4.—Agronomiec notes under this name are published. in Bulletin 62 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900. This and other varieties bear- ing the name Smith were originally obtained from Mr. Pinckney Smith, of Dunean, S. C., who had in his collection about 40 different varieties in the year 1900. Smith’s No. 7.—Described as follows in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Sta- tion, 1894 (p. 183): Recumbent ; medium-sized leaf and stalk; dark green and vigorous; does not trail at ends of vines; pure white bloom; form, kidney; pod, small, yellow; pea, medium. Originated by Pinckney Smith, Duncan, S. C. 2968°—Bul. 229—12——5 66 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Smith's No. 9.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1804 (p. 183), as follows: Recumbent: short stalks; medium-sized leaf; blossom purple; form, kidney ; pod, medium, yellow; pea, large, white; yield medium in both peas and vines.—Pinekney Smith. > Agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 62 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Sta- tion, 1900. Smith's No. 14.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 183), as follows: Recumbent; trails slightly at ends of vines; moderate-sized leaf and stalk; medium green tint; blossom purple; form, crowder; pod, small, yellow; pea, small, white; very late; medium producer of both peas and vines.—Pinckney Smith. Agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 62 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Sta- tion, 1900. Smith’s No. 15.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 188), as follows: . Semirecumbent: does not trail at euds of vines; small leaf and stalk; dark-green tint; vigorous: bloom, white; form, kidney; pod, large, yellow; pea, medium, white: medium early; yield of vines, medium; of peas, light. Mr. Smith thought this the Rice pea, but it is entirely different. Southdoirn.—This name seems to have been pnblished in the 1902 catalogue of T. W. Wood & Sons, of Richmond, Va. See 17339. Agronomic notes occur in Bulletins 83 and 84, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1904; in Cir- cular 69, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, 1903; Bulletin 130, Pennsyl- vania Department of Agriculture, 1904; and in Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, 1910 (vol. 31, no. 6). Southdown Jottled—Same as Southdown. Southdown.—This name seems to have been published in the 1902 catalogue in general. It has sometimes been given to special varieties. (See 4316.) Agronomic notes concerning this were published by Orton in Bulletin 17, Bu- reau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1902 (p. 19), and in Bulletin 149. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, 1903. Southern Blackeye—This name appears in the 1908 catalogue of Henry A. Dreer, Philadelphia, Pa. Agronomic notes under the same name have been published in Bulletin 168, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, 1907; and in Bulletin 57, New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station, 1S9S. Southern Whippoorwill—Probably the same as Whippoorwill. This name appears in the 1892 catalogue of William Henry Maule. Philadelphia, Pa. Southern Yelloweye.—Agronomic notes occur in Bulletin 57, New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station, 1898, and in Bulletin 168, Virginia Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1907. Samples of this variety received in 1903, under Agrostology 1494, show a small-seeded Browneye. Speckled.—A name very commonly employed as a synonym of Whippoorwill. Descriptive and agronomic notes under this name appear in the following pub- lications: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 1890 (p. 181). Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 11, 1890. Louisiana Experiment Station, Bulletins (ser. 2) 28 (1894), 40 (1896), and 72 (1902). North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 98, 1894. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 34, 1895. -Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 40, 1896. 229 NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 67 Speckled Crowder.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station 1894 (p. 183), as follows: Recumbent, lies quite flat; small leaf and stalks of light-green tint; blossoms, purple; they close very early in the morning; form, of course, crowder; pod, medium, yellow; pea, large, with brown speckles on gray ground; very late; yield of vines, very light; of peas, heavy. Descriptive or agronomic notes under the same name appear in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896; in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; in Bulletin 62 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900; and in Annual Report, Arkansas Agricultural Dx- periment Station, 1890 (p. 131). Speckled Java.—See quotation on page 36. Probably the same as Taylor. See 17412. Speckled Rio.—A name locally used in parts of South Carolina for the Brab- ham. Speckled Whippoorwill.—Probably the same as Whippoorwill. See quotation on page 36. Speth.—Agronomic notes under this name are given in Bulletin 23, Georgia Experiment Station, 1893 (p. 105). No other information concerning this variety has been obtainable. Sport.—See 17427. Stewart.—Described in Bulletin 98, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 142), as follows: Seeds blotched brewn and white; grew fairly, herbage rather scant; pods ripened after Whippoorwill. Agronomic notes also occur in Annual Report, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1892 (p. 32), and in Bulletin 61, Cornell University Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1893 (p. 335). Sugar.—This name is mentioned in the Farmers’ Register, 1835 (vol. 2, p. 752). See citation under ‘“ Indian.’ The name also appears with descriptive notes in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896, as fol- lows: “‘ Spherical; white; small seed; half trailing; late.” Sugar Crowder.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 183), as follows: Recumbent; small leaf and stalk; medium green; twists and trails at ends of vines; blossom—wings white, vexillum purple; form, crowder; pod, small, yellow; pea, small, white; quality, rich and sweet; the best table pea of all—so superior that birds will select it from all the other va- rieties; very late; yield of vines, light; of peas, heavy. Descriptive and agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900. Agronomic notes appear in Bulletin 28 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Station, 1894. See also citation from the American Agriculturist on page 36. Stranger.—Mentioned in the Agricultural Gazette, New South Wales, Octo- ber 2, 1906, as ‘“‘a promising new variety.” The seeds are buff-and-white blotched. Taylor.—See 17342. Taylor’s Prolific—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 183), as follows: Semirecumbent; small leaf and stalk; dark greet: and pretty: twists, but does not trail at ends of vines; pure white blossom: form, kidney; pod, medium, yellow; pea, medium, white; yield of vines, light; of peas, medium. 229 68 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. According to additional notes by Mr. C. R. Ball, the seed sample represented a medium-sized, short, kidney-shaped Blackeye. Descriptive and agronomic notes also occur in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900. Tennessee Crowder.—Descriptive and agronomic notes of this variety appear in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900, as follows: Very early; a rather light vine, inclined to run some; pods borne on long stems, standing well above the vines; heavy yielder of peas with a fair weight of vine. Its chief merit is its earliness. Three Crop.—See citation from Transactions of the Virginia State Agricul- tural Society, 1853, on page 36. Torg.—This name is published in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Experi- ment Station, 1895 (p. 583), where it is said to be a synonym of Everlasting. The name also appears with brief descriptive and agronomic notes in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Staton, 1896. Tory.—For early use of this name, see quotations from Farmers’ Register, 1835, on page 85; from Transactions of the Virginia State Agricultural So- ciety, 1853, under “Red”; and Ruffin, Essays and Notes on Agriculture, 1855, on page 36. Under this name descriptive and agronomic notes have also been published in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1895; in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Staton, 1896; and in Bul- letin 146, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, 1897. Townsend.—See 26844. Tribus.—See quotation from Transactions of the Virginia State Agricultural Society, 1853, on page 36. Tsai don.—See 22902. Turney’s Blackeye—See 22050. Two Crop.—This is briefly described in the 1910 catalogue of the Crenshaw Bros. Seed Co., Tampa, Fla. The name was apparently first published in the Industrialist, Kansas State Agricultural College, 1902 (vol. 28, p. 462), the seed color not being given. See 29291. Unknown.—See 13468 and 27545. Unknown Black.—See 27549. Upright.—See 21934. Vacuum.—This was first described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Sta- tion, 1894 (p. 183), as follows: Recumbent, short stems; small leaf, light to medium green; blossom, purple; form, kidney; pod, large, yellow, but with vacancies at intervals unfilled with peas—hence its name; pea, large, white, wrinkled; very early; yield of vines, very light; of peas, medium. Descriptive and agronomic notes also appear in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1896; and in Bulletin 62 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experi- ment Station, 1902. Volunteer.—See 22054. Warren.—See 11236. Warren’s Extra Early.—This varietal name seems to have been first pub- lished by William Henry Maule, Philadelphia, Pa., in the catalogue of 1899. It is there said to be the earliest of all varieties. Agronomic notes on it have been published by many of the experiment stations, as follows: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 70 (1901) and 80 (1903). Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 69, 1903. Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 130, 1904. 229 NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 69 New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 1905 (p. 368). South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 103 (1905) and 123 (1906). Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 73, 1906. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 168, 1907. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 74, 1907. Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 81, 1908. Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 160, 1909. North Carolina Department of Agriculture Bulletin, 1910 (vol. 31, no. 6). See also 17352. Warren’s Extra Early X Sugar Crowder.—See 17422. Agronomic notes pub- lished in Bulletin 81, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908. Warren’s New Hybrid —This name was apparently first published by William Henry Maule, Philadelphia, Pa., in the seed catalogue for 1901, and is there said to be three weeks earlier than Warren’s Extra Early. Under this name agronomic notes have been published by the following experiment stations: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 70 (1901) and 80 (1903). Tilinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 69, 1903. Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 130, 1904. South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 103 (1905) and 123 (1906). New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 1905 (p. 368). Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 73, 1906. Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 81, 1908. Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 160, 1909. North Carolina Department of Agriculture Bulletin, 1910 (vol. 31, no. 6). See also 17345. Watson’s Hybrid.—See 17425. Whippoorwill.—See 17349. Whippoorwill Crowder.—See 17371. Whippoorwill Saddleback.—See 17409. White—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 184), as follows: Recumbent; small leaf and stalk, medium green; trails at ends of vines; white blossom; form, kidney; pod, medium, yellow; pea, very small, white; medium early; yield of vines, heavy; of peas, very heavy. The original seed samples, according to Mr. C. R. Ball, represented a small to medium-sized, rather broad Blackeye. Under the same name descriptive and agronomic notes are published in The Cowpea, issued by the North Carolina State Horticultural Society. White and Brown Speckled.—Described in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1895 (p. 584), as follows: White and Brown Speckled.—A brown-and-yellow speckled variety. Vine made a moderate growth, erect and bunched; first ripe August 20; pods long and well filled with peas of medium size; yield per acre, 14.4 bushels; sown May 11. Descriptive and agronomic notes occur in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. White Blackeye——Agronomic notes under this name appear in bulletins (ser. 2) of the Louisiana Experiment Station, Nos. 28 (1894) and 62 (1900). White Browneye.—Agronomic notes under this name appear in Bulletin 118, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902. 229 70 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. White Brown-Hull.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894, as follows: Recumbent; small leaf and stalk, but dark green and vigorous; blossom— wings white, vexillum purple; form, kidney; pod, tfnedium, dark brown or black; pea, medium, white; medium early; very heavy producer of both vines and peas. Descriptive and agronomic notes appear in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. White Crowder.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 184), as follows: , Recumbent; small, light-green leaf and stalk; trails at ends of vines; blossom—wings white, vexillum purple; form, crowder; pod, medium, yel- low; pea, large, white, and very ugly, but of excellent quality—richer than Sugar Crowder and almost as sweet; yield of peas, however, light, and of vines, very light; late. The name was early published in the American Agriculturist, 1876. (See cita- tion on page 36.) It was still earlier published by Romans in his Natural His- tory of East and West Florida, 1775. Descriptive and agronomic notes appear in Bulletin 34, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1895; in Buleltin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896; in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; and in Report, Kansas State Board of Agriculture, 1900 (p. 504). White Era.—Name published with agronomic notes in Bulletin 74, Okla- homa Agricultural Experiment Station, 1907. According to Prof. L. A. Moor- house, the variety was the New Era and the published name apparently due to an error. : White Florida.—Descriptive and agronomic notes of this name appear in 3ulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900. White Giant.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station, 1894 (p. 184), as follows: Recumbent; does not trail at ends of vines; short stalk; leaf medium in size and medium green in tint; blossom—wings white, vexillum purple; form, kidney; pod, large and long, yellow; pea, very large, white, wrinkled ; very early; yield in vines, very light; in peas, light. Under the same name agronomic notes appear in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1896; in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1900; in Bulletin 62 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experiment Station, 1900; and in Bulletins 118 and 120, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902. See also 17366 and 29299. White Grayeye.—A variety is advertised under this name in the 1907 cata- logue of the Amzi Godden Seed Co., Birmingham, Ala. White Lady.—This name with descriptive and agronomic notes is mentioned in Annual Report, Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1890. Appar- ently the same as Lady. White Prolific.—Variety with black-eyed white seeds concerning which de- scriptive and agronomic notes are published in bulletins of the Louisiana Experiment Station, Nos. 22 and 27 (1889), and (ser. 2) Nos. 8 (1891), 16 (1892), and 17 (1892), and in Annual Report, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1888 (p. 63). White Sugar.—This name appears in Bulletin 19 (ser. 2), Louisiana Experi- ment Station, 1892 (p. 541). Said to be a white pea of excellent table qualities but of no value as a forage plant. White Table.—See citation from the American Agriculturist on page 36. Agronomic notes are also published in Bulletin 11, Minnesota Agricultural Ex- 229 a i tt a ia et ta ial NAMES APPLIED TO VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. v1 periment Station, 1890; and the name appears in Bulletin 98, Kentucky Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1902 (p. 46). Whittle—Same as Taylor. According to Mr. F. I. Meacham, Statesville, N. C., this variety is there generally known as the “ Whitley,” instead of Whittle. The latter name is applied to it, according to Dr. B. W. Kilgore, by a man who grows it near Raleigh, N. C. Wight Biack Crowder—See 17372. Wild Goose.—A name published in Bulletin 77, Arkansas Agricultural Experi- ment Station, 1903 (p. 31). Wiliams.—Under this name descriptive and agronomic notes appear in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896; and in ‘‘ The Cowpea,” published by the North Carolina State Horticultural Society. Prob- ably the same as Williams Hybrid. Williams Hybrid.—Described in Bulletin 26, Georgia Experiment Station. 1894 (p. 184), as follows: Trailer; very flat and close to ground in habit; small leaf and stem, but yigorous, though light green; pure white blossom; form, crowder; pod, me- dium, yellow; pea, medium, light-brown mottles on white ground; late; yield of vines, light; of peas, heavy. Descriptive and agronomic notes also appear in Bulletin 46, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1900; in Bulletin 62 (ser. 2), Louisiana Ex- periment Station, 1900; and in Bulletin 40, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896. Wonder.—This name appears without description in Bulletin 57, New Hamp- shire Agricultural Experiment Station, 1898; and in Bulletin 199, Michigan Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1902. Perhaps an abbreviation of Wonderful. Wonderful.—Same as Unknown. See 13468 and 27545. Woods Wonderful.-This name appears in Bulletin 146, North Carolina Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1S97 (p. 251). Apparently the name of the seeds- man from whom the variety was obtained was prefixed. Yeatman.—See citation from the Farmers’ Register on page 35. Yard Long.—One of the common names given to the asparagus bean. Yellow Cow.—See sitation from the American Agriculturist on page 36. Yellow Crowder.—Agronomiec notes under this name appear in Bulletin 11, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1890; in Bulletin 118, Alabama Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1902; and in Report, Kansas State Board of Agri- eulture, 1900 (p. 504). The name was still earlier referred to in the American Agriculturist. See citation on page 36. Yellow-Eye.—This name is commonly used as a synonym of Browneye. De- scriptive and agronomic notes under this name appear in the Annual Report, Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1890, (p. 181) ; and agronomic notes in Report, Kansas State Board of Agriculture, 1900 (p. 504). The name also appears in catalogues of various seedsmen. Yellow Pod.—This name appears in the 1896 catalogue of the N. L. Willet Seed Co.. Augusta, Ga. Yellow Prolific.—This name is published in Bulletin 61, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, 1893 (p. 335). Yellow Sugar.—Perhaps the same as Yellow Sugar Crowder. The name appears in Bulletin 160, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1909. Yellow Sugar Crowder.—Agronomic notes under this name appear in Bulletin 118, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902; in Builetin 81, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908; and in Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, 1910 (vol. 31, no. 6). Yohorn.—See citation from the Farmers’ Register on page 35. 229 72 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. SYNOPSIS OF VARIETIES BY SEED COLORS. The following brief synopsis will indicate the relative abundance of varieties in each seed color and aid in their identification. They may be classified into 12 groups by seed color, namely, white, yellowish, buff, pink, maroon, violet, smoky gray, brown, black, marbled, speckled, and marbled-speckled. Where the whole seed is not uniformly colored, the ground color is nearly always white, and the two-colored seeds may be eyed, blotched, or whitened, the last including those which are white only at the chalazal end. Cowpeas, but not catjangs and asparagus beans, may also be grouped into crowders and noncrowders. The number of varieties is very large and their differences rela- tively small. The identification of any particular variety is, there- fore, often a difficult matter, in many cases determinable only by com- parative cultures. Furthermore, artificial hybrids are not difficult to obtain, and in some places natural hybrids are abundant. On these accounts no key to the varieties has been attempted. The descriptions will indicate the range of characters that occur in the varieties that have been brought together. From the best of these varieties numer- ous hybrids, involving in some cases new color combinations in the seeds, have been made by Mr. G. W. Oliver. White-seeded varieties—In this group the entire seed is white except the sides of the hilum and sometimes the iris. Five varieties are described as having white seeds, namely, Lady (17359), Cream (17693), 21813, Rice (29300), and 29308. It is probable that the number of varieties is considerably greater, especially as 17359, 29300, and the variety called Conch in Florida all have similar seeds. They are valued principally for table use. No pure white-seeded asparagus beans or catjangs are known to occur. Yellowish-seeded varieties—Four varieties are here included, namely, Old Man 17354, 17354A, differing only in having a speckled eye, Yellow Sugar Crowder 17394 and 17422, a hybrid with the last mentioned as one parent. None are particularly desirable, except, perhaps, for table use. All are cowpeas. Buff-seeded varieties —Bufi is the commonest seed color in cowpeas and catjangs, and is nearly as common in asparagus beans. Indeed, the great number and close similarity of the varieties make them difficult even to distinguish, aside from describing them. Buff crowder cowpeas include Michigan Favorite 13472, Brown Crowder 17370, Mountain Crowder 29288 and 22053. Among other buff cowpeas are Iron 8418, Unknown 13468, Unknown 27545, Clay 17340, Warren’s New Hybrid 17345, Melear 17383, Sixty-Day 17386, Powell’s Early Prolific 17392, Purple-Podded Clay 18519A, Clay 229 SYNOPSIS OF VARIETIES BY SEED COLORS. ies Self-Seeding 22724, Wild Louisiana 17405, 21296A, 21509A, 21538, 99054, 22793, 22960, 23524, 23721, 24186, 24341D, 24566B, 25965, 25965B, 26302, 27199, 27503, 27586, 29282, 29287, 29301, and 29306. The varieties with buff-eyed seeds are also numerous, and include Browneye Crowder 17348 and many varieties that go as “ Browneye,” among them 16167, 17341, 17390, 17855, 21539C, 22408, 22760, 24192, 23307D, 24566, 25016A, 25147, Townsend 26844, and 25857. Several varieties have buff-and-white blotched seeds, including Southdown 17339, 21296B, 22728, and 29281. One variety, 21816, has seeds all buff but the chalazal end. Buff catjangs are quite as numerous in varieties as buff cowpeas and include 8687, 11075, 17377, 21292, 21293, 21294, 21535A, 21602, 21934, 25714, 26580, 29271, and 29279. Buff-eyed catjangs are repre- sented by 17376, 21295, 21296, 21535, 21565.A, 22758, 26362, and 29272. Two varieties, 21535B and 21295D, have buff-blotched seeds. In asparagus beans buff-colored seeds occur in 21559, 21559C, 91559D, 21569B, 22747B, and 27887. Pink-seeded varieties—Included under this group is a range of colors from vinaceous to brick-red. When the peas are aged these colors darken so that they are very difficult to distinguish from ma- roon. This is a common color in catjangs and asparagus beans as well as cowpeas. Cowpeas with the seeds wholly pink are 17328, 17405D, 17405G, 20980B, 21509, 21561, 22635, 25146, 29278, 29290, and 29283, and pink with the chalazal end white 17856, 23307A, 94186A, and 29303. Pink asparagus beans include 11091, 20005, 21558, 22648A, 22902, 99935, 23214, and 25148. No. 25149 has the seeds white blotched with pink and 23328 has only the chalazal end white. Catjang 21293B has its seeds pink-and-white blotched, and the following have the seeds wholly pink: 17380, 21293A, 21296A, 21563, 91564, 21565, 21603, 21792, 22888, 25144, and 29275. Maroon-seeded varieties —Maroon color occurs in cowpeas, not oc- curring, however, in catjangs or asparagus beans, though in both these there are colors closely approximating maroon. American cowpeas with kidney-shaped maroon seeds are commonly called Red Ripper, but there are at least eight varieties with these character- istics. Seeds with this color include Red Ripper 17350, Red Crowder 17361, 17405B, 17420A, 21539A, 22722, 22959, 24341 B, 24919, Early Red 25088, 25145, 25512C, 26403, Red Yellowhull 29286, 29289, and 29307. Among maroon-eyed varieties are 21793 and 29293, and among maroon-blotched 18617, 21539, 21539B, 22887, 22903, 23307B, 29997, and 29298. Violet-seeded varieties.—Violet as here used is undoubtedly only diluted black, or more accurately the black of cowpeas is really 229 74 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC, intense violet, as may be seen in extracted solutions of the color as well as in immature seeds. Seven cowpea varieties have their seeds wholly or more or less clouded with violet, namely 21006, 22929, 22930, 24341C, 25965D, and 29277. All of these except the first are from South Africa, and all but the last very vigorous, late, procum- bent sorts. One variety 21006A has its seeds violet and _ finely speckled with blue. 20980C has violet-eyed seeds and 20980D has violet-blotched seeds. All are cowpeas. Smoky-gray seeded varieties —Only two scarcely distinguishable cowpea varieties have seed coloration described as smoky gray, Wat- son 17425 and Sport 17427, neither of much value. This color ap- pears in hybrids of Black and Blackeye. The same color has been observed in catjang seeds, but they were not viable. Brown-seeded varieties—Four varieties have their seeds burnt umber in color, namely, Brown Coffee 17404, 17398A, 25512B, and 29984. The first three are closely similar and of moderate value. Asparagus bean 22648 has seeds of walnut-brown color. Black-seeded varieties —Black-seeded varieties are but little less numerous than buff-seeded. This color also occurs in all three species. Among cowpeas the following black-seeded ones are crowders: Black Crowder 22052, Wight Black Crowder 17372 and 29285. Nonerowders include Chinese Black 16796, Early Black 17336, 17405F, 20980A, 21508, 21511, 21817, 22718B, 26399, 27549, 29292, and 29302. Black-eyed varieties are also abundant and as a rule they are very similar to each other. Among them are 16167A, 17329, 17335, 17346, 17366, Blackeyed Lady 17420, 20980, 21297, 21510, 21587, P1815, 22050, 22382, 24190, 24191, 24566A, 25016, 27504, 27548, 29976, and 29299. Black-eyed varieties have always been grown as a table vegetable since ancient times, which accounts to some extent for the numerous very similar varieties. With black-blotched seeds are Holstein 17327, 21297A, 24188, 24566C, 29280, and 29309. Black catjangs are not numerous, only three varieties, 21295C, 91297K, and 27502, having been obtained. Two others, 21293D and 91295F, have black-blotched seeds. Asparagus beans have black seeds in four varieties, 6311, 6567, 17332, and 20006. One variety grown only a single season, 01422A, has black-blotched seeds. Marbled-seeded varieties —The marbled type of coloration, repre- sented by the well known Whippoorwill, occurs in catjangs and as- paragus beans as well as in cowpeas. Among the cowpeas in this group with the seed wholly marbled are Whippoorwill 17349, Whip- poorwill Crowder 17371, Red Whippoorwill 17374, Brabham 21599, Peerless 25314, Chinese Whippoorwill 17330, 17849, 21085, 23307, 229 CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTIONS OF VARIETIES. 75 and 24185, and unnamed sorts 21814, 25369, 25512D, and 25786A; with only the eye marbled, Guernsey 17408 and 29304; with all the seed but the chalazal end marbled 17849A and 23307C, the last with the ground color red. Nearly all of the Whippoorwill on the market is true to type, but the seed can scarcely be distinguished from the later Peerless or from the very late 25369 and 25512D. Catjangs with marbled seeds are 11076, 21295B, 21295G, 21603B, 29273, and 29274. Asparagus beans wholly marbled include 21562, 21569, 22746, and 99747, and with the chalazal end white, 22747D. Speckled-seeded varieties —The speckled type of coloration occurs in cowpeas and catjangs, but is not known in asparagus beans. It is most common in varieties from South Africa. Cowpeas with the whole seed speckled include New Era 21088, Taylor 17342, Speckled Crowder 22051, 21006A, 22931, 22933, 23720, 24341A, 25785, 25786, 25787, 25965A, and 29296; with only the eye speckled Ayrshire 17409, 17354A, and 22727; with the speckled color in blotches 17363, 22715, and 29293. Catjangs with speckled seeds are 11076A and 21297D. Marbled and speckled seeded varieties—This type of coloration occurs fixed in two cowpeas, Groit 17334, a cross between Whippoor- will and New Era, and 29295, a cross between Whippoorwill and Taylor Crowder; also in catjang 11076B. It has also been found heterozygote in three other catjangs, 1n each case the progeny including plants with marbled and with speckled seeds. CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTIONS OF VARIETIES. The following is a complete list of the varieties of cowpeas, cat- jangs, and asparagus beans secured through the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction, arranged chronologically according to their S. P. I. numbers. For a good many of the early numbers no critical varietal notes are available, so their identity is not certain. In many cases other varieties were found mixed in the original seed or in the field plats. Such are indicated by the S. P. I. number with a letter added, thus, 17396A. Many additional lots were given tem- porary numbers. All such begin with 0, thus 0424. The catjang and asparagus beans are named in each case. All others are cowpeas. The descriptions are based mainly on the cultures at Arlington Experimental Farm, in 1909 and 1910, though most of the varieties have been grown from three to five years. In the former year they were planted June 17 and 18, in the latter June 20 and 21. 229 76 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. The year 1909 was an exceptionally dry year, very little rain fall- ing from the time the varieties were planted until September 23; consequently the plants were below normal size, though they showed no other suffering from the drought. The season of 1910 was more favorable, though drier than normal. The varieties generally grew about one-fourth larger than in 1909. In 1910 about 450 lots of seed from American sources were grown. Some few of these proved to be very distinct varieties, and the more interesting are mentioned or described. Others which differed only in minor points are referred to in only a general way. 2080. From France, 1899. Seeds maroon. An original seed sample shows a mixture of three varieties, two of them cowpeas and one an aspara- gus bean. Very strong grower; leaves large, smooth, and shiny; pods not very numerous, 6 to 8 inches long—W. R. Beattie, Arlington Farm, 1900. 2081. “Tonquin bean.” From France, 1899. Origina seeds oblong, small, 4 by 5 to 6 mm.; white with a small, indistinct, grayish eye; not matched by any later number. Very dwarf; leaves very small; pods numerous and ripening very early —W. R. Beattie, Arlington Farm, 1900. 2082. Blackeyed Bird’s-Foot. From France, 1899. Original seeds subreniform, smooth, 5 by 7 mm.; white with a small black eye. About half of the seeds have a larger maroon eye. Very strong grower; leaves large; pods very numerous, 5 to 8 inches long.—W. R. Beattie, Arlington Farm, 1900. 2932. From Panama, 1899, under the name “ Colorado.” (Pale brown.) Origi- nal seeds buff, half crowder, 6 by 8 mm. Has most vigorous growth of any, and continued green until killed by frost. No pods formed.—W. R. Beattie, Arlington Farm, 1900. 2934. From Panama, 1899, under the name “‘ Morado” (brown). Original seeds maroon, rhomboid, 6 by 7 mm. Very strong grower, trailing close to the ground. Leaves deep green, shiny; pods abundant, 6 to 9 inches long.—W. R. Beattie, Arlington Farm, 1900. 2940. Asparagus bean. From Panama, 1899. Original seeds maroon with chalazal end white, 6 by 8 to9 mm. No cultural notes. 3610. From Smyrna, Asiatic Turkey, 1899. Original seeds plump, taneratealy wrinkled, 6 to 7 by 8 to 10 mm., white with a medium-sized maroon eye. About one-fourth of the seeds have black eyes, but are otherwise similar to the rest. Good grower; leaves large; pods long and numerous; ripens late.—W. R. Beattie, Arlington Farm, 1900. W. A. Orton’ records notes of observations at Monetta, S. C., in 1901, as follows: ‘‘An early cowpea, which made a vigorous growth in the early part of the season, but was all killed by wilt before the end.” 1Orton, W. A., Bulletin 17, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1902, Ds Los 229 3627. 3670. 3889. 4144. 4284. 4315. 43516. 4317. 4377. 4379. 4381. 4382. CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTIONS OF VARIETIES. Ti From Alashehr, Asiatic Turkey, 1899. Original seeds subreniform, much wrinkled, 5 by 7 mm.; white, with an olive or yellowish iris. Moderate grower; very productive; pods 4 to 7 inches long and very well filled.—W. R. Beattie, Arlington Farm, 1900. W. A. Orton’ records the following note of observations at Monetta, S. C., in 1901: “An early variety of medium growth and quite prolific; quite subject to wilt.” From Smyrna, Asiatic Turkey, 1899. Original seeds plump, wrinkled, subreniform, 5 to 6 by 7 to 8 mm., white, the iris olive yellow. A few seeds similar but with maroon eyes are intermixed. Rather dwarf and stocky; leaves slightly wrinkled; pods very numerous, 4 to 6 inches long, well filled and ripen early.—W. R. Beattie, Arlington Farm, 1900. W. A. Orton’ records the following note of observations made at Monetta, 8. C., in 1901: “An early sort of larger growth than the preceding (8627) and notably more resistant to the wilt disease, though not free from it.” From Honolulu, 1899, originally from China. Seeds reddish, small, oblong, 4 by 5mm. No varietal notes. From Naples, Italy, 1899. Seeds oblong, white with maroon eye, 8 by 6 mmm.; identical with those mixed in 3670. No varietal notes. Taylor. From Virginia, 1900. See 17342. Wonderful. From North Carolina, 1900. See 17344. Southern. From North Carolina, 1900. Has marbled seeds and is appar- ently Whippoorwill. Black. From North Carolina, 1900. Seeds indistinguishable from 29292. From Naples, Italy, 1900. Seeds apparently buff, subreniform, 5 by 7 mm. No varietal notes. From Naples, Italy, 1900. Seeds buff, oblong, 5 by 7 mm. Perhaps the same as 4877. From Naples, Italy, 1900, under the name Dolichos bahiensis, of which no published description can be found. Seeds black, small, 4 by 5 mm. From Naples, Italy, 1900, under the name Dolichos bicontortus. Original seeds buff, subreniform, 5 by 7 mm. A few of other sorts inter- mixed. No varietal notes. . Asparagus bean. From Yokohama, Japan, 1900, under the name “ Jin- roku sasage.” Seeds apparently pink, reniform, 6 by 9 mm. . Asparagus bean. From Yokohama, Japan, 1900, under the name of “ San- jak sasage.” Seeds very similar to the preceding. . New Era. From Georgia, 1900. See 21088. . Asparagus bean. From Sinaloa, Mexico, 1900, originally from Asia. Seeds black, 5 by 9 to 10 mm. Insufficient varietal notes. . Asparagus bean. From Sinaloa, Mexico, 1900. The same as 5118; the local name given as ‘‘Ankok.” . From Calcutta, Iidia, 1900. Seeds pink, oblong, 6 by 8 mm. No varietal notes. . From Calcutta, India, 1900. Seeds subreniform, wrinkled, 5 to 6 by 7 to 8 mm.; white, with a medium black eye. No varietal notes. 1Orton, W. A., loc. cit. 229 78 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. 6223. From Negros, Philippine Islands, 1901. Vernacular name ‘“ Balatong.” Seeds marbled like Whippoorwill; rhomboid, 5 by 7 mm. No varietal notes. 6228. From Negros, Philippine Islands, 1901. Vernacular name “ Lestones.” Seeds buff, subreniform, 5 by 8mm. No varietal notes. 6311. Asparagus bean. From Tokyo, Japan, April, 1901, under the name “ Black Juroku sasage.”’ Plants suberect, half bushy, the row mass 12 to 18 inches high and as broad; stems rather stout, little inclined to vine at the tips; trailing branches few or none; leaflets pale, rather narrow, conspicuously angled at the base, much affected by rust and by red leaf-spot; flowers pale violet purple; not prolific; pods pale or a little purplish, little inflated, 8 to 12 inches long, the first maturing in about 85 days; seeds reniform, dull black, 6 by 10 mm. This is the most upright growing of all the varieties of asparagus bean tested. The rather small pods and upright habit suggest that it may be of hybrid origin. According to Orton' it proved a prolific early variety at Monetta, S. C., 1901, but some- what subject to wilt and injured by dry weather. 6327. From Tokyo, Japan, 1901, under name of ‘“ Kurakake.” Original seeds oblong, 5 by 6 to 7 mm.; white, with black eye. Orton’ records notes for Monetta, S. C., 1901, as follows: “ Early and small, but fruiting fairly well; pea white with a black eye; badly injured by wilt and nematodes.” W. R. Beattie (Arlington Farm, 1901) has the following observation regarding it: “A very dwarf variety with short pods, ripening early and very prolific.” 6328. From Tokyo, Japan, 1901, under name of “ Kintohi.” Original seeds subglobose, maroon with the iris nearly black, 5 by 6 mm. Orton1 records Monetta, S. C., 1901, notes as follows: Early; a small, prolific variety, with small red seeds; injured by wilt and dry weather. W. R. Beattie (Arlington Farm, 1901), records the fol- lowing: More dwarf than 6327, but with longer pods. Early and prolific. 6413. From Pingyang, Chosen (Korea), 1901. Original seeds pink, 6 by 8 mm., sharply keeled. Not matched by any later number. A very small-growing variety which sets an enormous crop of pods, maturing early; pods 6 to 8 inches long.—W. R. Beattie, Arlington Farm, 1901. 6431. From Athens, Greece, 1901. See 17338. 6557. From Hankow, Hupeh, China, 1901. See 17328. 6563. From same source as preceding. See 17329. 6566. From same source as preceding. See 17330. 6567. Asparagus bern. From same source as preceding. Seeds of this variety are black, 6 by 10 mm., with longitudinally impressed strie. The only field notes are from San Antonio, Tex., 1904, where it was planted March 23 and began to mature pods June 28. “It is a vigorous variety, but produced only a few pods.” 6568. Asparagus bean. From same source as preceding. Seeds maroon, some- what striate longitudinally, 5to 6 by 10 mm. This seed failed to germinate. 8354. Asparagus bean. From Morioka, Japan, 1902. See 17332. 1 Orton, W. A., loc. cit. 229 8418. $498. $499. S500. S501. S687. CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTIONS OF VARIETIES. 79 Iron. From Mr. T. S. Williams, Monetta, S. C., 1901. Half bushy, quite viny, vigorous; the row mass 24 to 28 inches high, 30 to 36 inches broad; trailing branches green, 4 to 5 feet long; leaflets large, dark, plane, immune to rust, very slightly subject to white leaf-spot, but sometimes attacked by mildew, held late; flowers violet-purple; moderately prolific; pods well filled, held medium high, straw colored or often purplish, usually rough, 6 to 8 inches long, the first maturing in 90 to 100 days; seeds rhomboid, cream buff to vinaceous buff, 4 to 6 mm. broad by 7 to 9 mm. long. According to Orton! the first authentic knowledge of the Iron cowpea was its discovery by Mr. T. S. Williams, who found it in Barnwell County, S. C., in 1888, and later called the attention of the Department of Agriculture to it. Seedsmen and others have modified the name into such forms as Ironclad, Iron Mountain, and Little Iron. Iron yolunteers more readily than any other cowpea, being in fact the only variety that volunteers at Arlington in abundance. The at- tempt was made to increase this tendency by selecting seed from such volunteer plants, but with no apparent success. Where the seeds are plowed under in the fall a fair stand may result, but not if they are simply scattered on the surface. Selection in this variety has given no appreciable results. It has been grown under many numbers: 11370, 18466, 18462, 18464, 17367, 17591, 17395, 17396, 17397, 17419, 17423, 17430, 17431, 17488, 17484, 17485, 174386, 19777, 21832, 22055, 22391, 27544, and 27872. All but the last six are known to be the progeny of seed originally from Monetta, 8. C. No. 22391 is from Manila, P. I., where it was received from Venezuela. It apparently differs in no particular from Iron. No. 0701, received from the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station as Early Boolock, is apparently identical with Iron. Iron is especially valuable on account of its resistance to wilt and to root-knot. On this account it is largely grown where these dis- eases prevail, but its excellent qualities are such that it is grown over a much wider area also. Its moderate seed yield is its chief weakness. Progeny of 6311. Progeny of 6327. Progeny of 6328. Progeny of 6413. Catjang. From Surat, India, 1902. Vernacular name ‘“ Chowali,” “Chola,” or ‘ Choli.” Tall, very vigorous, suberect, very viny, the row mass 2 to 3 feet high and 4 feet broad; trailing branches many, 4 to 7 feet long; leaflets large, dark, not affected by rust, but somewhat subject to red leaf-spot; flowers violet purple; very late, not even blooming at Arlington Farm; pods grown in green- house and at Chico, Cal., straw colored, slender, torulose, thin, 4 inches long; seeds buff with a yellow to brown iris, about 5 by 5 mm., oblong. This variety has been grown at Arlington Farm for four seasons with similar results; at Chico, Cal., it has produced small crops of pods in about 140 days. The seeds retain their viability to a much greater degree than most vignas, some of the original seed still germinating over 90 per cent in 1908. This is one 1 Orton, W. A., loc. cit. 229 80 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, BTC. of the most vigorous of all the catjangs and fairly erect. It has been used in making numerous hybrids with the view of combining its good characters with those of the best cowpeas. 11074. Asparagus bean. From Abyssinia, 1904. See 17492. 11075. Catjang. From Abyssinia, June, 1904. Procumbent, very viny, the row mass 12 to 18 inches high, 3 to 4 feet broad; trailing branches few, 5 to 6 feet long; leaves not affected by rust or leaf-spot; very late, no flowers forming in any of the three years in which it was grown; in greenhouse-grown specimens the flowers were pale violet; seeds buff, oblong, with truncate ends, 4 to 5 mm. long. This variety has very much the same habit as 11076, from the same source. It is too late and prostrate to be of much value. 11076. Catjang. From Abyssinia, June, 1904. Plants procumbent, vigorous, very viny, the row mass 18 to 24 inches high, 4 feet broad, rather dense; trailing branches many, 3 to 6 feet long, very viny, green; leaflets medium sized, pale, free from rust and leaf-spot; not even bloom- ing at Arlington Farm in 1909 in 132 days, nor did it bloom in 1905, 1907, or 1908. In greenhouse-grown specimens the flowers proved to be violet purple in color; pods small, erect, 3 to 44 inches long; seeds buff, more or less heavily marbled with brown, the brown sometimes predominating, oblong, mostly 38 by 4 mm. An interesting variety of catjang, but apparently of no value under American conditions. (See Pl. IT.) 11076A. Catjang. Identical in every way with 11076 excepting as to seeds, which are buff, thickly speckled with blue, as in New Era, but of the same size and shape as those of 11076. In some cases the seeds had irregular splotches of black, and in rare cases one entire side of the seed was black. Such proved to be heterozygote. 11076B. Catjang. Exactly like 11076 in all respects excepting as to seed, these being a combination of the markings of 11076 and 11076A, between which two it is without doubt a hybrid. The marking is a com- bination of the marbling of 11076 and the speckling of 11076A, and sometimes with the irregular black splotches which also occur in 11076A. Such seeds proved to be heterozygote. When growing in the field at Arlington Farm these three varieties can not be distinguished. (See Pl. II.) 11090. From Abyssinia, June, 1904. No seeds or data concerning this number are preserved. 11091. Asparagus bean. From Abyssinia, June, 1904. Plant procumbent, very viny, the row mass 12 inches high and 24 to 30 inches broad; trailing branches 2 to 6 feet long; leaves considerably affected by rust; flowers violet-purple; prolific; pods pale, 8 to 12 inches long, moderately inflated, the first maturing in about 85 days; seeds reddish buff, 5 by 9 mm. An undesirable variety owing to rust susceptibility. No. 17493 is the progeny of this number. 11236. Warren. From the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1904. There are no critical varietal notes on this number, but it is prob- ably the same as 17352. Agronomic notes from various cooperators indicate that it is an early productive sort, semierect with trailing branches 3 to 4 feet long. 11344. Michigan Favorite. From Mr. E. BH. Evans, West Branch, Mich., July, 1904. See 13472. 229 11370. 13454. 13455. 13456. 13457. 13458. 18459. 13460. 13461. 13462. 13463. 13464. 13465. 13466. 13467. 13468. 15469. 13470. 13471. 13472. CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTIONS OF VARIETIES. 81 Iron. Progeny of 8418. Early Black. From J. M. McCullough’s Sons, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1902. See 17348. Large Blackeye. From Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, March, 1902. See 17355. Extra Early Blackeye. From Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station March, 1902. See 17335. California Blackeye. From Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, March, 1902. See 17388. Clay. From South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, March, 1902. See 17340. From T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va., April, 1904, as Clay. The available notes on this lot are brief. The seeds seem to be identical with Iron. Iron. From South Carolina, 1902. See 17430. Iron. Progeny of 11370, Dwight, Nebr., 1904. Iron. Progeny of 11370, Cedartown, Ga., 1904. Iron. Progeny of 11370, Willshire, Ohio, 1904. Tron. Progeny of 11370, Kentucky and Illinois, 1904. Iron. Progeny of 113870, Wakonda, S. Dak. Iron. Progeny of 113870, Bridgeton, N. J. Iron. Progeny of 11370, Kearney, Kans., 1904. The foregoing eight lots were grown in comparison at Arlington Farm in 1905, but no difference could be detected. From Texas Seed and Floral Co., Dallas, Tex., March, 1902, as Wonderful. Different lots of the progeny of this number have been numbered 17344, 173538, and 17356. Very vigorous, viny, the row mass 2 feet high, 23 feet broad; trailing branches medium in number, 3 to 5 feet long, moderately coarse, green; leaflets large, dark, with undulated surface, immune to rust and but little affected by leaf-spot, held late; flowers violet-purple; moderately prolific; pods well filled, held medium high, straw colored, 6 to § inches long, the first maturing in about 90 days; seeds vinaceous buff, subreniform, 5 by 8 mm. This variety resembles 17340 closely, but is later and larger. Owing to its long culture in the Arlington Farm trials it has come to be leoked upon as authentic Wonderful or Unknown, but this apparently must remain a maiter of doubt. For a discussion relative to this problem see page 17. See also 27545. From T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va., as Wonderful. No varietal notes on this lot. The seeds, which are buff, rhomboid, 7 by 9 to 10 mm., are not distinguishable from Jron. Warren’s Extra Early. From Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, March, 1902, but originally from William Henry Maule, Philadelphia, Pa. See 17352. Warren's New Hybrid. From Louisiana Experiment Station, March, 1902. See 17345. : Michigan Favorite. From Mr. E. E. Evans, West Branch, Mich., May, 1904. Moderately vigorous, viny, the row mass 14 inches high, 2 feet broad; branches medium in number, coarse, 3 to 5 feet long, prostrate or nearly so; leaflets large, dark, shed early, immune to rust, but much subject to both red and white leaf-spot; flowers violet-purple; prolific; pods well filled, held low, straw colored or 2968°—Bul. 229—12——_6 82 13473. 13474. 15475. 15476. 13477. 14499. 16166. 16167. AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC, more or less purplish tinged, 5 to 8 inches long, turgid, the first maturing in about 85 days; seeds buff-pink, crowder form, strongly keeled, about 7 by 8 mm. This variety has been grown for six seasons at Arlington Farm, as well as at Chillicothe, Tex., Audu- bon Park, La., and elsewhere. It is not a first-rate variety, though on account of its earliness considerably grown in Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan. Like most crowder cowpeas the pods are close to the ground. This variety was first extensively introduced by Mr. EB. E. Evans in 1901. He writes concerning its history: I have diligently searched for many years in an attempt to fix the origin of this variety, but so far without result. It has been grown in this State (Michigan) about 20 years, but it was grown in Illinois prior to this. I first obtained my seed from a man named Wood, or Woods, near Kalamazoo. This man had named it Michigan Favorite. Other numbers of this variety, all tracing to the same source, are: 11344, 18473, 16812, 17402, and 17406. It has been widely dis- seminated and tested in all parts of the cowpea region. Northward it is held in considerable esteem, and southward is often grown for table use, especially in Texas. Michigan Favorite. From same source as preceding. Michigan Favorite. Progeny of 11344, grown at Wakonda, 8. Dak., by Mr. Han Abild. Received March, 1905. Whippoorwill. From T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va., March, 1902. See 17349. Taylor. From Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, March, 1902. See 17342. New Era. From T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va., April, 1904. See 21088. From T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va., June, 1905, as Wonderful. No available data on this lot. From Italian exhibit, Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 1904, labeled “Cosenza.” Seeds plump, rhomboid, 6 by 10 mm., transversely wrinkled, white with a medium black eye, indistinguishable from 27548. They would not germinate in 1906. From Reggio, Calabria, through the Italian exhibit, Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 1904. Low, half bushy, moderately vigorous, the row mass 14 inches high, 2 feet broad; trailing branches rather few, about 4 feet long; leaflets of medium size and color, immune to rust, much affected by red leaf-spot, shed early; flowers white; not prolific; pods fairly well filled, moderately high, straw col- ored, 5 to 10 inches long, the first maturing in about 80 days; seeds white with a small brownish eye, smooth or transversely wrinkled, subreniform, about 6 by 10 mm.; iris dark brown. This is one of the earliest varieties of browneye included in the trials. In the three seasons grown, there has been a decided change in the color of the seed. In the original seeds the eye was very large, dark reddish brown, perhaps due to age, the edge uneven and breaking into fine spots on the chalazal end. The progeny in 1908 showed a few seeds of this character, but most of them had only a small tan-brown eye, which was sharply delimited ; in about one-tenth of the seeds the eye was black (16167A). In the crop of 1909 the eye is brown in some seeds, black in others, 229 CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTIONS OF VARIETIES. 83 and in a few black with a brown margin (these probably heter- ozygote). In 1910 both the brown-eyed and black-eyed kinds bred true. 16167A. Suberect, half bushy, moderately vigorous, the row mass 14 to 16 16168. 16229. 16794. 16795. 16796. 16812. 17327. inches high, 18 inches broad; leaves medium sized, free from rust, much affected by white leaf-spot and somewhat by red leaf-spot; flowers pale violet purple; moderately prolific; pods medium well filled, held rather low, straw colored, 6 to 84 inches long, the first maturing in 85 days; seeds subreniform, 6 by 8 to 9 mm., white with a medium-sized black eye. This variety is very similar to Early Blackeye 17335, but not quite identical. Same source as preceding, labeled ‘‘ Caserta.” Original seeds identical with original seeds of 16167. None of them were viable in 1906. From Mr. Herman Ockels, Bristol, Conn., 1905. Identical with New Era 21088. Asparagus bean. From Hangchow, Chekiang, China, December, 1905. Original seeds reddish, reniform, 5 to 6 by 10 mm. No cultural notes. From same source as 16794. ‘This lot consists of a maroon adsuki bean with a few small maroon cowpeas intermixed. There are no cul- tural notes on the latter. Chinese Black. From same source as 16794. Half bushy, vining but little, the row forming a mass 18 to 24 inches high, 24 to 30 inches broad; trailing branches 2 to 4 feet long; leaflets shed early, much affected by rust; flowers violet purple; fairly prolific; pods held rather low, not well filled, 5 to 8 inches long, straw col- ored, the first maturing in 70 to 75 days; seeds black, variable, 5 to 6 by 6 to9 mm, An undesirable variety on account of its suscepti- bility to rust. The same variety has been received as 22647, also from Hangchow, and 24189, from Soochow, Kiangsu, China. Ex- cepting for susceptibility to rust, these numbers hardly differ from Early Black 173386. : Michigan Favorite. From Ogemaw Seed Co., West Branch, Mich., 1905. See 13472. Holstein. From the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, through Prof. C. L. Newman, 1903, a cross between Black and Blackeye. Rather low, half bushy, viny, vigorous, the row mass 16 inches high, 2 feet broad; trailing branches coarse, medium in number, green, 2 to 4 feet long; leafiets dark, medium sized, held fairly late, immune to rust, somewhat affected by both red and white leaf-spots; flowers pale violet purple; quite prolific; pods well filled, held medium low, straw colored, often purplish tinged, large, 6 to 8 inches long, the first maturing in about 100 days; seeds black-and-white blotched, oblong rhomboid, 7 by 9 mm.; grown six seasons; not a first-class variety. It has also been tested at Chillicothe, Tex.; Stillwater, Okla.; and Audubon Park, La., at none of which places does it show particular merit. No. 22720, a eross of Blackeye and Black, from the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station and grown two seasons, is indistinguishable from this. No. 17425A, out of Watson 17425, from the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station in 1903, grown three seasons, is precisely identical. No 22725, from the South Carolina Agricul- 229 84 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. tural Experiment Station, through Prof. C. L. Newman, grown two seasons, is also identical. No. 17410, a cross between Black and Blackeye, 17417, a cross between Black and Extra Early Blackeye, and 17418, a cross between Early Blackeye and Black, are from the same source as 17327, and not distinguishable from it. No. 0605, from the same source, is very similar. Besides the foregoing, a number of lots of similar seeds have been obtained from Mr. J. W. Trinkle, Madison, Ind., on whose place they origi- nated, probably as natural hybrids of Black and Blackeye. Of these lots, 0912, 0918, 0914 are indistinguishable from 17327, and 0420 matures in the same time but is somewhat inferior. Nos. 0615 and 0616 are closely similar in habit, but a little larger and mature about five days later. Nos. 0419, 0421, 0612, 0613, 0617, and 0917 are taller and more erect, 0918 being the best of the lot. No. 0614 is quite like 0917, but 10 days later. The last is the best variety we have grown with this coloration of seed, and it is perhaps worthy of general culture. 17328. Chinese Red. The progeny of 6557, from Hankow, Hupeh, China. Half bushy, viny, the row mass 24 inches high and as broad; trailing branches few, 2 to 3 feet long; leaflets dark, medium sized, shed early, very much affected by rust, a little subject to red leaf-spot; flowers violet purple; not prolific; pods poorly filled, held medium high, straw colored, 5 to 6 inches long, the first maturing in 80 days; seeds vinaceous rufous, rhomboid, 5 by 7mm. This variety has been grown six years at Arlington Farm. The above notes are for 1909. In 1910 when rust was absent it proved to be the best cowpea with pinkish seeds, being prolific and of excellent bushy habit. No. 22635, from Sheklung, Kwangtung, China, is nearly or quite identical. 17329. The progeny of No. 6563, from Hankow, Hupeh, China. Half bushy, vigorous, the row mass 16 inches high, 24 feet broad; trailing branches many, 3 to 5 feet long; leaflets dark, medium sized, im- mune to rust, considerably affected by leaf-spot, held medium late; flowers white; prolific: pods well filled, held medium high, straw colored or somewhat tinged with purple, 6 to 10 inches long, the first maturing in about 80 days; seeds subreniform, white with a narrow black eye, about 6 by 8 mm. Very similar to Early Blackeye 17335, except as to seed; one of the best blackeyes. Grown for six seasons and at various experiment stations. 17330. Chinese Whippoorwill. The progeny of 6566, from Hankow, Hupeh, China, 1901. Tall, the row mass 30 inches high, 3 feet broad, viny, moderately vigorous, tips of stems viny and continuing to grow late; trailing branches medium in number, 3 to 4 feet long; leaves medium in size and color, much affected by rust; flowers violet purple; fairly prolific; pods well filled, held high, straw colored, 5 to 6 inches long, the first maturing in about 90 days; seeds sub- reniform to rhomboid, about 4 by 6 mm., brown marbled on buff. A variety of good habit, but too subject to rust to be first class. At Chillicothe, Tex., and Amarillo, Tex., this variety was among the best, being decidedly drought resistant. The pods, however, shatter rather easily. 17331. Downs Early Ripener. From Mr. L. W. Downs, Watkinsville, Ga., November, 1902. This is identical with New Era. See 21088. 229 CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTIONS OF VARIETIES. 85 17332. Asparagus bean. Progeny of 8354, from Morioka, Japan. Plants pro- cumbent, very viny, forming a mass 12 inches high, 2 to 3 feet broad ; stems medium coarse with few trailing branches, these 4 to 7 feet broad; leaflets dark, much affected with rust, and a little with leaf-spot; flowers pale violet purple; moderately prolific; pods much inflated, green, not becoming pale, 16 to 30 inches long, the first maturing in about 65 days; seeds dull black, 4 to 5 by 8 to 10 mm. Quite distinct from 20006 and 6311, which also have black seeds, but unpromising. 17383. Grecian. The progeny of 6431, from Athens, Greece. The original seed of this is exactly like the original seed of 16167, and the 1909 progeny of seeds is also like that of 16167. The plants are identi- cal in habit and earliness of maturity. 17333B. Buff seeds mixed in 6431. Somewhat procumbent, moderately vigor- ous, viny, the row mass 14 inches high, 2 feet broad; trailing branches 3 to 4 feet long; leaflets medium sized, immune to rust, but considerably subject to red leaf-spot; flowers pale violet purple; prolific; pods straw colored, well filled, held medium high, 5 inches long, the first maturing in about 85 days; seeds pinkish buff, subreniform, about 6 by 7 mm. A prolific, medium-early variety, but not of much value. 17334. Groit. From the Iowa Seed Co., Des Moines, Iowa, March, 1903. Plants suberect, half bushy, vigorous, the row mass 24 to 26 inches high, 3 feet broad; trailing branches rather few, 2 to 4 feet long; leaf- lets medium in size and color, immune to rust and considerably affected by white leaf-spot; fiowers violet purple; very prolific; pods well filed, held high, very pale straw color, almost straight, 7 to 9 inches long, the first maturing in about 80 days; seeds rhomboid, about 6 by 8 mm., with a ground color of buff, marbled with brown and thickly sprinkled with minute blue specks. Identi- cal with the above and from the same source is 17347; also 17403 from T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va.; 17411, ‘‘a selection from New Era” from the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, through Prof. C. L. Newman in 1904; 25078 and 26497 from Coulterville, Ill.; and 0720 from Mr. J. C. Little, Louisville, Ga. The Groit cowpea is unquestionably a hybrid between New Era and Whippoorwill; indeed this hybrid has been made artificially by Mr. G. W. Oliver, who produced a plant with the seeds exactly like Groit. It is probable that the Groit originated spontaneously, the first authentic record that we have of it being the seed ob- tained in 1903 from the Iowa Seed Co. as New Era. This lot is said to have been grown by Mr. J. C. Little, of Louisville, Ga., who did not at the time notice that it was distinct from New Era. Groit has been much confused with New Era, all of the above lots having been obtained under the latter name. It also appears that all the records concerning New Era, published by the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, actually refer to Groit and it is probable, in the light of our present knowledge, that most of the New Era grown in the States of Illinois and Missouri is also really the Groit. Groit is a most excellent cowpea, being in a general way from 20 to 25 per cent superior to New Era, which variety it is likely largely to replace. The Groit has been extensively tested during the past few years, and over practically the whole of 229 86 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC, the cowpea belt maintains its superiority in comparison with New Era. The origin of the name Groit is unknown; it was first pub- lished and described in Bulletin 73 of the Missouri Agricultural experiment Station in 1906, but spelled “ Groite.”’ See also Bul- letin No. 81, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, and Yearbook, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, for 1908S (p. 256). 17335. Early Blackeye. The progeny of 13456, from the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1903, as Extra Early Blackeye. Low, half bushy, very viny, vigorous, the row mass 18 inches high, 2 feet broad; trailing branches many, 4 to 5 feet long; leaflets large, dark, immune to rust, but somewhat affected by both red and white leaf- spot; flowers nearly white; prolific; pods well filled, held rather low, straw colored, 6 to 10 inches long, the first maturing in about 85 to 90 days; seeds oblong, about 6 by 8 mm., white with a medium-sized black eye. Grown six seasons. The same thing is represented in California Blackeye 17338, from the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1903, and several lots from mis- cellaneous American sources. 17336. Early Black or Congo. From J. M. MeCullough’s Sons, Cincinnati, Ohio., March, 1902. Half bushy, forming rows 18 to 20 inches high, 2 to 24 feet broad; trailing branches rather few, 2 to 4 feet long; leaflets held late, immune to rust, but quite subject to red leaf- spot; flowers violet purple; prolific; pods borne rather low, purplish when immature, becoming straw colored or purplish when ripe, 6 to 8 inches long, the first maturing in about 60 days; seeds black, 7 by 9 mm. This variety differs from Black 29292 in being 10 days earlier and in having larger seeds. It is identified with little doubt with ‘Congo,’ as described by Starnes. See page 51. Early Black is not a desirable variety for the same reasons given under Black—it has too low a habit and too great a tendency to vine. Nos. 13454, 17337, and 17343, from the same source as 17336, are identical, all received as Early Black. Other lots that are identical or virtually so are Black Bunch, 0589, from the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1903; 0571, from Milford, Del., 1903; Hammond’s Early Black, 01370, from the Kansas Agri- cultural Experiment Station as Kansas No. 202, 1909; and 23 other lots from various American sources grown in 1910. 17337. Early Black. ... KS: 2 > cece 78 Clanewigiano ho0s = a4 Soe, =. «Ae ok a cee 49, 121 slain Katie reascur gs perenne Soe er th Rbigoiah sis (ore mane iar 2.) Weel ee eos 3 Se ee 10, 55, 78 Katine: belach: See IAS ie. fi ihe = os oe oe 110-111 GB le ee DS SSD oz = myers eee 109-111 aCe oe, Camis so MTHS 25's ee ae 109 2968°—Bul. 229—12 10 145 146 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Page. Bean, asparagus, varieties, Lobia. ............ sin of oak ee ar ae 57, 106, 112 miscellancous, uUnnamMed........=sse>s be seenenee 73-80, 83, 99, 101, 110, 111, 116-120, 122, 127, 131, 132, 141 BipmmS YS TMA. yo vasa axe av acme sees eae 58, 124 Baniak eames. 6). 100i ss cawcienc eee apace 3 ee 63, 77 "TAAL OM. sonidos od ee. n 6 ok oie ee ee Se 68, 119 WOM pctcre 2 snis'aaiea dice tei Woh oe ER 134-135 Yard Long... .... dees epedess Shenae ovals eae 71 Yueng pian doh... 2cus.+ bs i aes eee 122 China or Chinese, variant names for cowpea............-.-- 7... .dayeee 34 Kafir, variant name for cowpes...........so52s- ks sac oh de 35 Beattic, W. R.; on varieties of wienasis. 25. owOT SLA, 22.550. . ees o 76-78 Biloxi, Miss. See Experiments. Bohanan, William, distributor of cowpea seeds...............-.-.-2---220-2- 141 Bolgiano, J., & Son, distributors of commercial cowpea seeds........... 43, 103, 125 Bort, Katherine 8., notes on pedigreed seed of cowpea varieties.............- 44 Brabham; A. W., distributor:of cowpea seeds. 2.22.22 .20.00-24... 2 89, 111 Brazil, source of varieties of cowpeas................-....-....--. 57, 59, 102, 107, 120 Breedlove, J. H., distributor of cowpea seeds. .........-.-.--.--2-202--0eseee8 128 Brent, C. S., distributor of seed of Calico cowpea..........:....2--.22scnsenes 49 Brewer, J. B:; distributor'of cowpea seeds2. 42... ..2..00b./J.4- 2 114 British East Africa, source of varieties of vignas............-.--.-.-.-.- 101, 130, 136 Brush, C. E., distributor. of cowpea seedsseis: oo. o2/. s2t 222i. ae 92 Buchanan, W. F., distributor of cowpea seeds. .:).. 5. 2-- -uusesbiss2 oS 138 Bulloch, G. T., on Sixty-Day variety of the cowpea...............-.--------- 64-65 Bumblebee, agency in crossing the cowpea.......5....-...22.1--.25.sbedseens 26, 32 Burlison, W. L., on the best varieties of cowpeas for Oklahoma..............- 40, 42 Butterflies, agency in crossing the cowpea.................2-2.2--52220008 26-27, 32 Byrd} S. M., distributor of cowpea seeds). s1.252.02.2.202..5 28.02. ee 99 Cacara nigra, synonym for Vigna sinensis. :...+..0..220..22.2. 9:2i) 0a 10 California, source of varieties,of vignas. .....5-...2-.8959S 2) Ree eee 79, 133, 141 Calvin, M. V., on the best varieties of cowpeas for Georgia..............------- 39, 42 Cameron, L., distributor of cowpea seeds..-...52c.022L4) 2822. 02 92 Carroll, B.; R:, on the Indian ‘cowpea... ...-.-- S-- eeses e 55 Catalogue, alphabetical, of varieties of vignas............-...-25-0.-22220. 86 44-7] chronological, ‘of varieties of vignas. 22: .. 2. J222:.4020. 22 ee 75-142 Catjang, sourcesof varieties. Seenamesofdomestic States and foreign countries. varieties, Afphaniaves. . . 0. +2220 ee ee ee » iii 45 ASDY <2-cens . 2522 seca 5 SR Se ee 45 Barbatiscs..- -- 20-2 = = See 2 eee 45 Bhadelasss . -. 2 ¥o5. WOO Te ee 45, 93 Burbudas..: ............ BOSSE J ee eee 48, 108 Carramunny-pyres.252)-9.5.-.82 22014: 2 eee 49, 104 Ghauli-2).. ......:l2. eee... 2 49,93 Chawallise..- 0. bn ote 49, 112, 131 Chole... ae alae Mee ee 50, 79-80, 105-106, 112. Choke... ....... ul eee 50, 79-80, 93 Chowallt. .- 2. cee ace See See oa 50, 79 Chowlees ........ 542. eee Nh 50, 105-106 Dau demfand Dau dea..3osi2d.20el tee... 2... 222) eee 13 Gunpi Wawanl..... 02. G@8ieG. 3c22 one aa ee 55, 104-105 SWB GA a «20 0 cae deco ae oe ee 55 INDEX. 147 Page meer wartetion, Katich oon oes oe be Ss LS ea 56 Matjane landesezee esas es 2 Ste A 110 Mee irene ee ed ce 110 al raw antes eee eee ere ro em we So 56, 103-104 eine eee eae wk ee es be oye 57, 106, 112 nuseellanenus, lmhaMed 2.2522 225,2 eee. utes o-< 2 es ee ae 20, 73-75, 80, 93, 104-108, 110-112, 118, 119, 124, 126, 129, 132, 135 LES priya Sa fae a ARAN To iret MN ce Cre PE aa Re 131 BREWS Shs oe ese Ss Bi ees Be Eo overt net 60, 104, 106 prints Sass Wee oe oes 2h: SCR EP ea nee ee 68, 113 Gercbes, source’ ol varieties’of vignas. 2.222.202 20.5222. 5.2.2 ee eee cee 29,113 Center, O. D., on the varieties of cowpeas most cultivated in Illinois. ....._. 41, 42 Cercospora cruenta. See Leaf-spot. Chang kiang tou, Chinese name for asparagus bean............................ 121 peereyeel sb distriptmtor OL Cowper seeds 22222222002 022 ere... ec lie 94 Maile Source Of varieties OF vienas«.2-. 2.002 20. el 122, 124 Chillicothe, Tex. See Experiments. China bean. See Bean, China. China, source of varieties of vignas......- AAs oF 5) 28-29, 77, 78, 83, 84, 100, 101, 108, ape 116, 119- 124, 126, 127 130, 135, 141, 143 Chinese bean. See Bean, Chinese. Wiosen\( Korea), source of variety of cowpea..:::2-.........2)...222..2222-- << 78 Sironvlozy Oi ivirodiction of vignas: = ::2.0.2552254. 2... 2..222--..--2-...-. THN? wunmaic, milnence on rowth of cowpeas... 2-2. 222-.--.. 22.2) sess. 18, 89 Color of seeds, relation to varieties of vignas...._.- 11, 14, 21-23, 28, 29, 33, 72-75, 143 oo) Lg TEL DIDS LS 2 Reg ey ee <> Aen eee ROS ae ea 142-143 Mmmcettcut,Ssource Ol variety Ol Cowpea. -. 2257 eel 83 Conner, A. B., on the best varieties of cowpeas for Texas.................... 40, 42 Cotton, J., on varieties of the cowpea in North Carolina....................... 48 Cowpea, characters most desired. ee ae omeeereeee 2. St eee. i ia commercial varieties in the United States 3 Eee 3 ee a 43-44 Seitimctive characters of vanetiess. 2-222... 2. SPST TIS ee. 19-25 BeAenspUIe Gist Umotne. 92h esas. se wemas 2 AOR A MES SI oes 8 See also names of domestic cates A foreign countries. bie OE pFelerred yaMleties== 4 =s.4s2e 2.2 seess. - SII 3 SB AP IS methods of testing different v eee ie Sees - 5: SUNG ys ee 37-38 origin of new varieties.............. SA eer ee eS similarity in habit of varieties from en Bate SOURCE Se eae eee 28-30 sources of varieties. See names of domestic States and foreign coun- tries. The, publication of notes of varieties of cowpeas...........--.-.- 62, 69, 71 fme-of plantin@en- Arlington Warm. 0s2ve:. PPL e ee 75-76 use as table vegetables. :22..2¢.42.220.4ek-. - 14, 38, 39, 40, 65, 72, 82, 100 RAtIeDLCs AUP CTIAT 55 (Ser nee Wars set ane eee ee 45 Arcen.Bverbearina.35.--. Ges see: ae: Pooh 9 et 45 UAT KT SA Sete ens ets yey eR EY.) AEE Ltn! va 45 Pealibiy ee aerseyore ee eee emer El 4S ee 45 fe lh Te Sais ge pee al a . S222. 36) 4596081 6s Biadclame suas esas ieee 2 ec ge 45, 93 145 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Page. Gowpea, varieties, Big Much... ... 2. 20-5 sn eecneres oy ne nednebee th ivaeee as 45 Block victor 6. ets es.. a iit ee eee 16, 18, 30-36, 38-45, 63, 74, 77, 83-84, 86, 97, 98, 116, 127, 134, 139, 141, 143 ONG WHIbS Sh so ie se cb oy Deedee eee 45 Speckled eis ns ee eresy peel. ane 46 Bothy ss ccc - « » easinn ssid - wiikey Gee eee 46 BR 8 dtd a HOS edd ni EP BG cin Stee 46, 86, 98, 139 CHOWGOE 2 ie ¢ pete vee er eee eRe 40, 44, 46, 74, 114 Barly coas sc0et flac ebro nna ig ee 46 Blackoye:: Vis sas sn'e e eo 17-18, 21, 30-33, 36, 38-44, 46, 59, 63, 74, 83, 84, 96, 98, 99, 116, 143 Blackeyed Bird’s-Foot. ......c0.-2le-setioesiev-0d bnted eee 46, 76 PAOY 2. os 2d eee 10, 31-32, 46, 74, 97, 143 Whitee is x cticcws and awe soe ee) Se 36, 46 Black Mieldt2 20. .7ase\0 heel ee a eS 36, 46 Kinga 22200. 0w 2). coe ee eae eee 46 Self-Seeding s.200 ss. . se ee 47 Speckled. Crowder. <= :/...)..-»224 =. «epee 47 CaHeR?. 2250 Siw bd sedsehers SG ee 30, 47, 74, 95, 128 Crowdler: .:.. ....5225., 2a2d3 eee seal aoa 36, 48, 49 CalViMS! = ..: <=. cec ste coe ns sede oo eee eee 49 Caniden. 22.2... 26... -c..y:.tvercs isc eee 49 Capehart’s Red Pea..... CaO SEE Te SEY. SER gs Meee dd 35-36 SG reerUEG ee Steed 5 Se ROT Bat esiap ag 30, 31, 43, 52, 72, 100 WES Si 7. Oe en AL ise ee 52 Crowmderaauerc. sins ee eee: Cen 30-32, 35, 41, 52, 148 Guckoldts Inicrease S35. eos SS ot eee 52 imelaware. Peds. 26. 220. She EAee.. 2.22 tPapeee. ot ee DBNCIOUA See cs ss Sees eee rae 52, 92 Wevninn Pields oi ees spares 2S Ae oo ee ae 36, 52 110.512 eR a REE rie SERRE eres. cs «gh eS teen 52 Downs Wary Kipeaer_s case acs. Seee e 52, 84, 103 wart Wip peor walle <2 oe SS 5 OS tee 52 Banlye number... eos oS ed A Se 52 Blacks. 2: 5255352052 See, AG BGG, SAD D, 74: Sl 86, eS ae Blarkayets> (rAisse ee doe & 41-43, 52, 84, 86, 114 Bollocks 5 55 Se ae nee Te Ee 52, 79 Brown. Deni.222.2 eee: 6 Pe ee 52 Prulloriy er 22 eee eee PUT a uo co ee 52 | 301s | 0 eed peers te ho) - OM Ge 3 he Cee ee 36, 52 Camden hae 2 eStats oa ae ee as 49, 52 SO Ahi a os AE Le wee LO Ra ow 73, 126 IWiticedBinelkeye tis: Sasi soo sindbs 5255225: 43, 52 RR See on nda eh SLES SU aL FTP 52 UV GbisnUIN eS co ec eee oo Cee Oe: ce SSMS Sone 52-53, 68 | ed He 1 cana Spee RR sc | TORN Boe, CMe ee aye 53 Blackevercewcces tore 34, 39, 53, 81, 84, 86, 97, 98, 116 BLO WIE C ta eee epee... =. Ne Ris oe a eae 53 Henaomh oriupuese) 545 be Sees. ee aT 11, 102, 120 VEL MO MAT raee cs beni] samme ope E) i'5 ae ar Rae eal 53 LUTE el Rivers |e te og Se ye rein a. eet me ge 53 LD LEEST ype! pe a Rae Dae oT OS bs ag es ee 53 HOLAC Soe at ey eee oe oo oe Si eee e 53 MOLL Ia Viet Ste ccety nae eee TY oes Rye 53 Galivant, Gallavant, or Gallivantes. bie. ....2-22250h8 10, 48, 53 Gentleninierpeeies er cee eee oe 2 oo PATS oss ob bo 150 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC, Page. Gowpea, varieties, Giang. don. .-..........--.-inss0e0s0 debe pyen es dee eae 53, 119 (ROUT ao BAe Oicoteinc Serr il a ee 53-54, 58 Granite Crowd er:.. 24.0... iui see enemy es ieee ee oe ee eee 54 Gitiyr Peeks be l 2 oes. SEL EE os. kta ROWIOT x cthinei gx>.oie-oiey sn 0d oe pee ae 35, 43, 87 Grayeye, or Gteyeye. ...--.2...1- i. ieeed es een es cee eee 54, 94 Gray. Goonies. ic: 2... 2. - < eee aaa ae ... 40, 43, 54, 88 Lo) tb Rr A il 54 GPOCIOR.. ccc oo ond ates = cine ee eee 54, 78, 85 Oe TER eT P. .. cnn 54 Collards... 3 sis senna oi nite ee 51, 54 Colomed c= 22s acice an oss ps ents ak ee 54 Eye White. - 2. -.- -.- -.<..-- sine sis, au de oe 36, 54 Grey. Crowder... --- 5-2... < + +2¢53 hab pane ee 54 Eye. See Grayeye. Grothe, tie cae. 2 on hb inl e, atinini bisa ge Oe ee a = ee 15, 21, 22, 29, 38, 40-42, 47, 54, 75, 85, 88, 89, 97, 103, 126, 131, 143 (Guernsey esas he aes a Be ee 54, 75, 89, 96,97 GLOBES fo 5> S926 eee 55 Hollybrook:..------+-2:-25. -sudge.e)-2 eee ae 55 Holstein...............-.-.. 22, 30-31, 33, 34, 45, 55, 74, 83-84, 96,87 Tn dam.2<3 2 es «8h 2, da,5 sake bee 35, 55 Red. 222... ctsuen sed ence tip’). ost eee 55 Tnnominates.<.. . 2525-2. --2.0 onc -4. n> ee ee 55 Thy. =. Cae - «eae 14, 15, 17, 21, 25, 28, 38-44, 55, 57, 62, 65, 72, 79, 81, 92, 94, 95, 99-101, 111, 113, 115, 125, 127, 132, 134, 143 “ Tron clad. Sees. << acice ten sche eee ee ee 55, 79 Tron! Mounigin: « <<. 2 .225262cne..e ree noe eee 55, 79, 98 Baek e . - 2 - cnc = ho Cee Re 127, 134 Large Blackeye... .. =. -..2su:k45=. =. 3-2 134 Wibippoorwill. |. >... t235) apa? eee 127, 128, 134 Java, Jervis, or Jervy.:.-.-.---. 2228: ee 55, 88 Jet Black: =: rrr a ee 35 SPUN G4 een ee: .. aawiee 222 > os RE 55, 93, 108 Joiners Long-Pod ....2-,...--2:-2-22-. be eee 36, 55 Jones’s Perfection White and Jones’s White.............-- 5d Khed. jing. ... 2. --22625.2. 5-2-5 po eee 109 Kime. gapce-- - --- 22. Sebo: Sooeee, ee 56 Kintohy, or Kutohi. .cccccccc0.< eee eeeeee 56, 78 Kurakaké.:..-:..:.2..-3- A223 eee 56, 78 Tiadiesiies:....2.f2<1 2) ae oe 2 eee = ay By ee ToadyinSs =. 30-32, 34, 36, 40, 42, 48, 53, 56, 57, 63, 70, 72, 91, 117, 141 Finger. - - - 0:6 5-2 <-dee eee Sete ee ee 56, 94 Large BlgBK. ..--.. 2-205. sop pete cee ee eee 36, 56 plaeke ye =o... .-220% > eee eee 39, 40, 43, 56, 81, 88, 91, 134 Bray Black....-----ss--2+++5ccndeeee seen 56 TANG ~ 5 scutes sca duee ct «2 dco eee rr 56 Ree. ....villeD we. tee Sa eee ee 56 Wiiite «0 doreddh scan soncanea denier hoe ame ae 57 229 INDEX. plas Page Sewpes, varieties, Large White Blackeye:... 2202. 55 2244-).snts. sesdaeen- 57 (Crees eres oo te eee ct eetee coe 50 ORO Wid Clg cian Ck Nl ae Seam LD come 57 SIGE feo alow oa aie tee» he eee ea Lana tas 57, 116 SYS@L OWEN C ce emp te sahara dice Be agereh REY RS Ll ete a ps 57 Tbe ain Ces eee ee eee a a Se A ep NS wet eine 57 WeRtOnes Ayer ee sa seem eee te to. el RO a Salas 57, 78 JOO" Bevo SL Bay Ls ae pee pee ayn ye sme eye Ae Po Peewee ene rete 57 Dear tlenilin omic a5 2 = 4s epee eae Swe Re ON Dye BB TERY Teli ona Se Site er eee Sao Sia Re 57 JTC An a ER an Se Et ato in ee 57 Ib renee ees eee yeas & ee 5) A vee es eves a8 57, 106, 112 Bomewhadyc tse ese ton on haa = eee: FL esc e os 57, 91 Louisiana Wild. See Wild Louisiana. Ju NOT VSISF Nes Rane nS CO Ne AO Ne A ARR GP Net Dns ne ae 57, 102 IMIGINGTG Laces ere ED WON Pe REE Pale Ro OE at sei ok Baer 58 BNA casera tga seas cee ayy reg eee, = re ey 8 Vee 20 ae 57 Cie ere ye een ss Mee Oi ed Ye aes 57 J EHS y eye OR ee, Bea gS” COR ei erey 2, 0S mane ete ney tee Bue 57, 126 Min til Swiss aati versie: Bae Seis a le eats Sees 53, 58 Meal erissG@laiyis An, 4 sac) sopra = 52 Cees eaves em ge rege eee 58 Melesinesiuc Shoe 5 carotene 2s Mpg OE Oe ke 7 58, 72, 87, 93-94 Michigan Favorite............-. 30, 40-42, 58, 72, 80-83, 95-96, 99 1 DIETER pA Se eee ein. ~ nne eke ee Nee 58, 141 miscellaneous Unnamed! sess oem cena weasee oss ee 72-80, 82-85, 88, 90-91, 93-103, 107-109, 112-117, 119-132, 135-137, 139-142 NACHE CUO) Ns © ener eek ees 22 Oe Ae EI aoe wenn ae eh eee 76 IVE GG el ees se este i> So ee a a = ae ee 36, 58 Mount Olliwieisi oor. ee eens. 5 Sere ee eran 1d 58, 87, 99 Miouimarbarias @ row Ghss = eee eet = le Yee 58, 72, 138 Miypenditt 4 ear eee rates os I eee, selene. = pe 1380-131 IVA a Ta 2 eee = Sy ee oe er tas, 1 8 er 36, 58 SNe py reat, ec ile ac ee ett hl Pg 88 is 14-16, to 18,19, 21, 29, 38-44, 47, 52, 58, 70, 75, 77, 82-85, 95, 97, 101, 103, 106, 132-133, 142, 143 Rievienilener.. 7st: seenee. Asya Lae ES 58 UT 7 a oR ere ae Ee -R S y ob RR AE 58 Nico Niet Gg ee epee etme. SE RS i ee ee 58 INorthy Caro lima st re eee ekg) opt ioe Bie he Se : is 35 NorthembRrolific 9 20s: Gsapeee 2 ied fo Sales = ee ee 58 Ole Mises te. ated eh eae eee Sc erie eh 58, 72, 90-91 VERON DH aS 01CG Wek ae a eee se 8 RR ee CRN eae eRe ela 58 JEWS) TRWEVGl oe aia tee i ICS! One n § eee NR tee eae 58 Panmure Marly Wonderaso5- ces otis eae aoe ele 59, 132 Rea ofthe Backwoods: sa0k see - 0 eee eee eee 45, 58, 59 Puerless: 6 yaseeen 4c 2. anh 38; 59263, 74575, S99 27=128, 13) 1 B10 FeTeE Se cree ct) enn RRR com eT ne Pe 53, 59 | ESTEE sees enh RASS Ege ECR, ie: ah er a aa keel ee 59 2G OTA ae eee ene. ean OU eS ee 59 Poor Man’s Friend. See Pea of the Backwoods. PowellfeBarbyeProlifies 22. Pek ice. 22 tubes ee 59, 72, 87, 94 Purple-lig erat scek 2 pea occ buted. ena ea dain 59 ce irer ees ee ee 1 8 Ola 18 .... 2:22... ..26s8¢2225. Se ee 63 oY. atte 2 Oi ae wie Cel hid 63 Seli-Seeding@lay 63-52... . 222-35 oso eat 138 Shermans Northern: Prolific. ...-- 228222. 232-2 58, 63 Shinviey,. OF SHINNY « «= 222s a2 oe eae 36, 53, 58, 63-64, 88, 89 Shrimps cee = - petra nt 64 Six-OQaka Wield =. 20d 02 2s ee) eee 36, 64 Sixty-Dayete. -.~- Seeeeuc ed eee eee 64-65, 72, 87, 94 Small. Blaelse. ; «2.001. nc cose os.nt 2 2 eee ee 36, 65 Blaek:Crowder.-... 2 -.. -VOUlt DEUS. 22-2 ae ee 137 Blackeye... 2.2 sos 5-5 5542 eee 65 Lady .....2-23-2 7F RO 2 ee © ee 65, 92 Smallpox... +--+ I A eee 65, 122 Snniall Red}or Tory . 2:: 4¢.4ae-4-~e 2. ee ee eee 65 WIE... << sccinr nen Soe hee 65 India. ...2s2enessncees 5 See ee eee 65 Smileyee cts... .c 22s corer een 627 oe oe 65 Smite Jae. 222 04 2 es. . A 65 Smith’s.Nae. 4, 7,9, 14, andideel «teach 8 oeged_ eee 65-66 Southdown, or Southdown Mottled-......-...-- 39, 40, 66, 73, 86-87 Southern es... 620 cittc btn st eR ee ee 36, 66, 77 Blackeye... <2. sc204c-0: a.55 0a Sess ee eee 63, 66 229 INDEX. 1s Page Cowpea. varieties, Southern Whippoorwill. .................-..----20- 222000. 66 icllowemerss smo s < SOG ooo eeck emee 66 Sperekind Spe eee seo ee eee Ce Aes ee wea c ome 66, 88 Gieailentr oo. EE wk 39, 67, 75, 91, 114 eee) casein Hee BOR, 2 21) 36, 55, 67, 87-88, 97 ik Re Perec ee.) .te Ras eet 67, 111 Wilppoonwillt. S225 82 ee Ne ee eee 36, 67 Spctiie se sete: Meet ance 222 SOE oh 2 ee az cence 67 POE ipower sae o re figs eee Oe ee eee We Sod fe 67, 74, 99 Sie Wage ae is RIE oe Oe cena 3 67 Sra DECOY Pare eases et thnks. Fan aes 67 ShraneCaldreds@romders ss <.< i. chss PRR ee cee 35 pe See Soe seiie os go gdes< 2 BRO ee. oS ek ee Suan Crowder ossted s Sistat beet 0. 2 ee A oo 34-36, 39, 67 Pi sgl che ee Spey Pe ee ft AN 21-23, 29-32, 34, 39, 41-43, 51, 54, 55, 67, 71, 75, 77, 82, 87-88, 91, 92, 95, 97, 116, 117, 143 Crowd ers Se as Se ee et es 31, 54, 75 Taylor Sib TOMBE bie Sete oe tk 2 SS Se ee Be 67-68 Mennessee\ Clays... So. cree es es ee ae yee tae oe 43 Crow Gercaes tea 2 Se ees oes EE 68 (MhreeOrap2 erect See eek eb ets ee Sts eae eee 36, 68 Penguins, LES ee LB Nest Ten Pe ne teas 76 PB GLG ioc 53 2S A Ras 2 1 SSS. SERS eee 68 4 100) i/o Rs na So eS eRe LE 35, 36, 45, 56, 60-61, 63, 65, 68 TO WAISCINGS eon Re eee SF SRE asd ae ocr tee 68, 73, 132 STribugs . 2 ASae et See ee nS ya ee As sae eee 36, 68 Drinkde’s;Holsteines-£:2 Sas TR OR Eee 84, 142 Turney’s Blackeye.......-.--- OG, OPES BT IS 68, 113-114 DwoCraperiw: janie sia ee eels ee a 44, 68, 138 (Winkeniaiwai eee S ee Se 801s SES FES ile 18, 38-44, 47, 58, 60, 68, 71, 72, 81, 87, 90, 91, 133, 141-143 Bincis 6 nc hd BB eee Re 68, 133 Upright. See Poona. Vac niin: sae rn tO Ah ee 68 Volumbecne Sse* oe see. 2 9s See ee Pty Sa ee 68, 115 Worumiconnpiiren YP ye! osciy oot = fo cshawee snes e= dues 115 Warren’.or. Wanrens 325.2. ees See ee eee 41, 42, 68, 80 Warren‘ts: Extra: Barly: 222 22-22eS 17, 30, 34, 40, 42, 68-69, 81, 90 MeiSucamGrowd ers -o2-5 5255255 ee 69, 98 Hybridiier Newsiyird 2. 282520 MT oa e We 40, 42, 69, 72, 81, 87, 88, 90, 117 Watson, or Watson’s Hybrid........- 22, 30-33, 47, 69, 74, 83, 98-99 Whippociwalllet © sons sree Ot ase, 21255. S22 eS S 14-19, 21, 24, 28-31, 34, 36, 38-44, 52, 63, 66-67, 69, 74, 75, 77, 82, 88-89, 91, 96, 101, 102, 111, 125, 132, 134, 143 Crawdersoes ee Speer! 2 ie tren ee 31, 69, 74, 92 SACLGLe ata kee es ete > ts ee a. SUS 69, 97 Wilner eae eater > Ses ee SE 85, 369169 and Brown), Speckledsau ss Sa sa2e te Si LOTS S. 69 Blackeyess Siete! ese 2 Pass Jose Ise Z ae, 5 43, 69 awake yorsepe fie aE ees ek 2 8 SP. 69 Browneianllis: Ais Se SOO Se, S09 Se ee SR 70 Growilerssnsatassoe yg yi 2 . 35, 36, 70, 88, 91 Era, or New Era.....---- Sn a 2 Eee ns 70 229 154 AGRICULTURAL VARIETIES OF THE COWPEA, ETC. Page. Cowpea, varieties, White Midld, »...........0sseswid ene eee 36 Bigridesd2¢ heen een ee 71 Den rh (afi: eaenieean sede ean Se 29, 43, 57, 73, 95, 115, 128 Williams, or Williams Hybrid. ... sits scte2.vstect - a5 ae 71 Wolider: o-83 ed. nd depo stim cn sedsceen ee oe 71 Widinderntuh- sew <2 80 eos ee 17, 43, 71, 77, 81, 82, 126, 133 Woods) Wondertul: ..: ..2.2....... cee be Ge eee eee 7 WeSGNORN 2 5 os os Goon Ss deen oe ee eee ee tno aa 35, 71 Yellow: Gow: oi. --2i5.ocns050 52,00 bee Be oe 36, 71 Crowder). 32..2 8. Mere JA Se 36, 71 ELV 0 n= a= caine 2d octeinin = os b meni & Se 71 Yellowish, Brown Crowder... <5 <.. <<: oes —=.- eee 35 Yellow, Pod: i202. 5 22600 A sancs-eecen ecto eaee eee a7 6! PTOUNG Sq. «, a caress oe cee oe eee 71 Sugar, or Yellow Sugar Crowder. ....-.-.---- 71, 72, 94-95 YoROmleiscest ae 43 Growth of the cowpea. See Habits. Guinea, Africa, source of variety of the cowpea: 2°. 7... . o>. 5. = ne ee i Habits of growth of the cowpea, distinctive characters...............- 19-20, 28-30 Harper, J. N., on varieties of the cowpea in South Carolina .....-. =... 08 39, 42 Hastings, H.G., & Co., distributors of commercial varieties of the cowpea... 44, 60, 138 Hawaii, source of varieties of vignas.....-.2 2+. 200.4580he ss oF TYP Oe 7; 77, 1388 Henderson & Co., Peter, distributors of commercial varieties of the cowpea... .. 60 Heterodera radicicola. See Root-knot. Heterozygosis of seeds of the vignas........--.-..- SUEY Wh A 29, 75, 80, 82-83, 134 Hickory Seed Co., distributors of cowpea seeds...........2-..-----200-eeee 87, 103 History of the vignas, agricultural and botanical........................ 7-14, 34-37 See also Catalogue and Chronology. Hopan,.J..P..; distributor ef cowpea seeds... 2... ....5.66200:ensscssbee eee 115 Honeybees, relation to pollination of the cowpea............-.-------------- 26 Hooker, J; D:, ‘on the. occurrence of wignass—./iss04h6.. 22... 522.22 ee 12-13 Hutcheson, T. B., on varieties of cowpeas in Virginia. ............-.-....--- 38, 42 Hybridization, relation to origin of varieties. ................-.---- 27, 28, 30-34, 37 See also names of hybrids or sorts used in hybridization; as, Groit, Holstein, Iron, etc. Illinois; source of yarietiesiof vignas . ... «s2 -2-teeeediee +2 oe et 2. So 15, 41, 42, 49, 52, 54-56, 58, 61, 66, 68, 69, 81, 82, 85, 126, 131 India; source of varieties of vionas... =. .c.depoeey steers eee 8, 10-12, 25, 28, 45, 56, 57, 59, 60, 77, 79, 93, 100, 103-109, 112, 113, 118, 129, 131, 134, 135, 143 Indiana; ‘souree of-varieties of vignas. . ./.2.220s22 221k .5: J.-S ee i, 30, 32, 41, 42, 82, 84, 90, 95, 99, 114, 116, 133, 137, 141, 142 Industrialist, The, articles descriptive of the cowpea. ............----------- 58, 68 Insects, relation to pollination of the cowpea..........--------+-2----5+-- 26-27, 32 Iowa Seed Co., distributors of cowpea seeds... .......-2-..250--52250-seeoee 85 Iowa, source of variety of cowpea...:-.2..2).-..25.c20s0 4 See ee 85 Italy, source of varieties of vignas................- 13, 77,82, 114, 129; 136 50S lees Jamaica, source of variety of the cowpea... ..~ -.-<--=- +4-e.tes 86 - eee eee 135 Japan, source of varieties of vignas...............-.. 10-11, 77, 78, 85, 106, 107, 136, 143 Java. SOUnCE.OL Varieties OL AACN AR See el i ee ee ee 7, 109-111, 117, 118 Johnson, J..M., distributor of cowpea SeCCd8s ja. once 2-10 =~ Soa tain tee wig 95 Johnson, M. W., Seed Co., distributors of cowpea seeds. ........------------- 89, 92 Junge, Henry, distributor,of cowpea seeds.........2-- -- -- = «22--56---52- eee 141 Kafir bean. See Bean, Kafir. Kansas, source of varieties of Vignas. _... = 2s een een ee ive 40, 42, 43, 46, 49, 50, 53-56, 58, 59, 62, 69-71, 81, 85, 86, 88, 90, 99, 103, 140 Katjang, vernacular name applied to varieties of vignas............----..-- 109-111 Kentucky, source of varieties of vignas...-......- 41, 42, 43, 48, 49, 53, 56, 61, 71, 81, 88 Kilgore, B. W., on varieties of cowpeas in North Carolina. .........-.-- 39, 42, 59, 71 Koiner, G. W., on varieties of cowpeas in Virginia..............-...-------- 38, 42 Korea. See Chosen. Krauss, F. G.; distributor of cowpea seeds... 2.02.2 22. ccnan dt oee ese see 133 229 sn INDEX. 157 Page. Leaf-spot, susceptibility and resistance of the cowpea. .......-..- 25, 78-98, 100-142 Tiesyes of cowpea, distinctive characters.- =: .,.2+- +... --.20--.-osieee- nee 20-21 Life period of cowpea. See Maturity. Dinnseus, Catolus,.on speciesiof Vigna..-.. 2. :...c22..2.20.2..0.202. 7,9, 10, 12, 148 futile, J. C., distributor of. cowpea seeds. ..... =... - 2-0-2 en ceeencee 85, 93, 103 Louisiana, source of varieties of vignas..... 2. =.<225.<20acevciesscasened 16, 17, 29, 40, 42-63, 65-71, 81, 83, 88, 89, 92, 95-97. 99, 100, 103, 114, 115, 128, 141 Pabia bacladi, Arabian name for Dolichoslubia q.:2i6. cscccsigsclsas-2 60 -e 12 McCullough’s Sons, J. M., distributors of commercial varieties of the cowpea. 81, 86, 87 McLean, J. H., & Sons,.distributors of cowpea seeds. .......-..2--.-2-2200- 87, 126 Meeneic,Jonn, on Varieties Of-the cowpeas. 2: 2. 2 25. Sa. oe 28s 35 meteon, A. D., distributor of cowpea seeds... - - ...... 2222.25 ose s... 2.222.020... oe ee eee 15-17, 39, 42, 45-51, 55, 56, 58-71, 77, 87, 91, 94, 95, 103, 114, 128, 139, 140 Nubia, oceurrenceof Vigna niloticea sc: 0c) tv et ee ee eee 12 O’Bier, W..S.,.distributor of cowpea seeds, .....252'2.22 22.2 2222S 103, 138 Ockels, Herman, distributor of cowpea seeds 22':).'. --. 24.200). 2t eee 83, 103 Ogemaw Seed Co., distributors of commercial varieties of the cowpea.......... 83 Ohio, source of. varieties ol -vignaa.<23.0s9 A220 Ae eee 81, 86, 87, 99 Oklahoma, source of varieties of the cowpea..-...:.:2..............5.0/20 16, 40, 42, 46, 49, 69, 70, 83, 88, 92, 96, 97, 100, 103, 114, 140-142 Oliver, G. W., hybridizing work with cowpeas...........-...-.------- 7-8, 34, 72, 85 Orange Judd Farmer, article.on: the cowpea: 22. )..1.2.0/2..2:21. 0. ee 52 Orton, W. A., and Webber, H. J., on diseases of the cowpea.............----- 25 on the cowpedz-.. 442/255 =-- ene is rag Ef 2. Portuguese East Africa, source of varieties of cowpeas...........----.-.------- 122 West Africa, source of cultivated Vigna ~-..-.--.-.--2-2 eee 13 Potts, H. W., distributor of eowpea seeds_.-.. 221.2 25522 42 =- eee 59, 131 Powell, William, on origin of Powell’s Early Prolific cowpea.............---- 59 Rayn; W. J., distributer of cawpea seedss. ».. 3. 222. 2 2-+ <<. 22 ee 140 Redson, 0:)Z., distributor of cowpea seeds... 2. =... ..--- -a 445. 2 128 Register, J. R., distributor of cowpea seeds. -. 2.2. 2... o- te en ee 2 138 229 INDEX. 159 Page. Rhodesia, South Africa, source of varieties of vignas..........- 29, 119, 120, 131, 143 Hachardson, RK. R:, distributor of cowpea seeds-: 2)... 020 Piet lee i sl 140 Rolfs, P. H., on desirable characters of the cowpea...-....-..----.......-...- 15 Romans, Bernard, on varieties of cowpeas in Florida ........--........... 52, 65, 70 Root-knot, susceptibility of the cowpea..........-..-....----- 25, 28, 34, 79, 111, 127 Ruffin, Edmund, on the cowpea.........- 36, 45, 46, 48, 49, 54, 56, 61, 64, 65, 68, 89, 139 Rust, susceptibility and resistance of the cowpea.....-.--..-.- 25, 28, 29, 78-98, 100-143 Sasage, Japanese name for the asparagus bean and the cowpea.......-......--- 1OP77 Schmitz, Nickolas, on varieties of cowpeas in Maryland........-..-.....--...- 41, 42 tteor Wi. 'on Varieties of cowpeas im Plorida.._....-502 22.2: 1s 422-22... - = aL ae Seeds of cowpea, distinctive characters....................--. 8-9, 21-23, 28-29, 72-75 pediereed, Motes CONGOMHING 2222 oct oo vice 2 ae cigs a Sneek 44-7] Bemcunhia, occurrence of Vigna nilotiea.__2--. 5.2. 22....---..--....----2-- 12 Shomas, Mrs. H. W., distributor of cowpea seeds.........-.......-------.----- 128 pmo. G. M., distributor of cowpea seeds..-...2--.-...-------+--- 25s eee) e 92,114 peipper tt. £ distributor of cowpea seeds... . 52-52-22 nee = 2c ls--- ees 87 Sloop, J. E., distributor of cowpea seeds... .-- Be eee eis gs sem eee 87 Peer CUnthibUtor Gl Cowpea seGds... 22.22.5022. at 4.22. doce dee teen 128 Pinckney, originator of varieties of the cowpea.............---.-..---- 65-66 Soil, influence on habits of growth of cowpeas.........-.-.-------.------+---- 18 Sources of species and varieties of cultivated vignas........--....2..2..----- 7,143 See also names of domestic States and foreign countries. Sudiapairics, source’ of varieties of Vigmas .--.-..2.-..------+-----4- eee 45 Vaulx, Joseph, on volunteer variety of cowpeas. .....-...-----------2-eee0e- 115 Venezuela, source of variety of cowpea... - ---- 4» <<0<>fim--16- = tre pp Oe 79, 115 Victoria, Australia, source of variety of cowpea. .. ..- .-+--.<--s\0s-0. - een 62 Vigna capensis, cultivation in Africa... ...5.-.-- 007s .c0ya5inaca: = ee 13 catjang, botanical name of the catjang......---.... - --+--.-.2 s#=.as ene 7-8, 12 comparison with Dolichos and Phaseolus..............-------+------- 7,12 glabra, synonym of V. luteola.. - -- 4. - 2. bn bane ain ci 7 luteola, cultivation in dubtropic regions Be. am ~ ee pe ees rg eo ee 7 luteolus, relationship to the catjang........- 2+... ..-«++ snes on4ce eee 13 nilotica, culture in Africa and Syria.: .. ~~ ~~. -.2 .:--.-- t= a w NS CONTENTS. SOMES ION eon 52 ons oe set eae eee Se to Nos ee a Te eee aee 0 RE TRY LST EEE eRaRe RS al BA Dee aA gO oe Nd or Te Ie Wax-seal method for determining the wilting coefficient...................... Essentials in determining the wilting coefficient.......................... Pema paton. Gite MOtnOG! 2s... aaa e ey. Ole SS SE PERE eee MaiaerettON OL, LH; WAX, BOL. Motte nk a to ek ced ee PENCE AL OTR 8 a2 cats un bens abies A yt Pi Beef Comparison of the soil- moisture content at the wilting point and the death INS aah li De Re Ne hae ee at Sends ola de EE Wilting coefficients for different plants grown in a series of soils............... Relative influence of the soil and the plant on the wilting coefficient......... Relative wilting coefficients for different plants........................2...--- Comparison of the wilting coefficient for different plants by growing them simul- see MEERTE RNC YOTING TOG so. 52598 Aso 55 cacy anys ela ache oes Si pcine ae ee Method for determining the wilting coefficient for plants having no definite MOREE Pee A Se te oi, Mek eke oa Oars Ge as ara ee Causes of variation in wilting-coefficient determinations...................--. Causes for determinations having a value less than normal.............-. Causes for determinations having a value greater than normal............ Indirect methods of determining the wilting coefficient...................... Relation of the wilting coefficient to the moisture equivalent.............- Additional data on the relation of the wilting coefficient to the moisture Pe TSr Ser Ps eg Sea I ie ek a Te SA EO a AR eA Cs Application of indirect wilting-coefficient determinations to the interpre- tation ot field moisture determinations! .-.. 2.2... yo. cece sen ee een Other indirect measurements of the wilting coefficient...............---- Relation of the wilting coefficient to the hygroscopic coefficient... .-. Relation of the wilting coefficient to the saturation coefficient and to the moisture-holding capacity of soils.....................-------- Relation of the wilting coefficient to soil texture as expressed by sBee banical analyeis st: < s3h am ays a Pee 8k. os loca. darseee Graphical representation of the relationship between the wilting coefficient and the physical measurements of moisture retentivity..........-..---- Comparison of the accuracy of the indirect physical methods for deter- iinet Wali CObMICIENt..- ..o Sab ae ne ese et. ts. ok ad fees Formulas showing relationships between physiological and physical measurements of moisture retentivity...............--.-----.---+----- PHPLIORE AT FO CMB i Pee Si sic Jo era) eter Ile oie es aS a Sass Determination of the moisture equivalent..................--..------ Determination of the hygroscopic coefficient..........---..-.-------- Determination of the moisture-holding capacity.............-.-+----- Determination of the maximum available moisture............-...--- JI sl] Co DO bo bo 3 (ft | ow ww ~J a Prate I. Fig. 1.—Balanced system containing Opuntia and squash. Figs. 2 or ~I ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. and 3.—Pots sealed with wax, showing Kubanka wheat seedlings pushing ‘through the wax seal.....-22 200.00 002 2.222. ee II. The simultaneous wilting of plants growing in the same soil mass.... TEXT FIGURES. . Apparatus for preventing sudden changes in temperature during the determinations of the wilting coefficient......................------ . Apparatus for determining the wilting coefficient for plants with water- atorage HasUeR 2. loti Sl iec kdeeneacdece somo oe ee . Simple apparatus for determining the wilting coefficient for plants with water-storage HISSUGS. ..-... os cacs sec c amen ea ae os ee ce E eee . Simple apparatus for determining the wilting coefficient for plants which have no sharp wilting point.....--.-.......---»-scneseeeeee . Diagram showing construction of knife-edges...................------- . A convenient counterpoise weight for use in adjusting the balancing . Chart showing the linear relationship between the wilting coefficient and the moisture equivalent for thirty-five types of soil ranging in texture from sands to the heaviest clays.--....-.--...-.--teseeeeee . Chart showing the daily moisture determinations in 1-foot sections to a depth of 6 feet in a soil on which Kubanka wheat was growing...... . Chart showing the linear relationship between the wilting coefficient and physical measurements of the moisture retentiveness of soils... . 230 6 age. 12 38 62 70 B. P. ¥.—695. THE WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS AND ITS INDIRECT DETERMINATION. INTRODUCTION. The wide range in moisture content of different soils at the time of wilting of the plant cover appears to have been first clearly recognized by Sachs! in 1859. The differences which extreme types of soil exhibit in this respect are truly remarkable, ranging, as we shall show later, from 1 per cent in coarse dune sand to 30 per cent or more in the heaviest types of clay. Sachs’s experimental work in this field was confined to a single plant. Later investigators in extending this work concluded that not only do soils show a wide range in moisture retentiveness, but that different groups of plants differ widely in their ability to reduce the moisture content of a given soil. Thus, the experimental work of Gain (1895),? Heimrich (1894),? Hedgecock (1902), and Clements (1905) ° all indicates considerable variation in the moisture content of the soil at the time of wilting of different plants, which has been interpreted to mean that some plants are capable of reducing the moisture content of a given soil to a lower point than others; in other words, that the nonavailable moisture varies according to the kind of plant used as an indicator. In fact, this view is the one usually presented in the standard works on plant physiology and plant ecology. The difference exhibited by plants in this respect has also been considered to be an important factor in drought resistance, the additional supply of water thus made available to some plants being supposed to be sufficient to carry them through a dry period when other plants would succumb to drought. With this point of view in mind the present writers have made an extensive series of determi- nations with a number of plants, including native plants from semi- 1 Sachs, J. Bericht iiber die physiologische Thitigkeit an der Versuchsstation in Tharandt. Land- wirthschaftlichen Versuchs-Stationen, 1859, vol. 1, p. 235. 2Gain,E. Action del’Eau duSol sur la Végétation. Revue Générale de Botanique, vol. 7, 1895, p. 73. 3 Heinrich, R. Zweiter Bericht iiber die Verhiltnisse und Wirksamkeit der landwirtschaftlichen Versuchs-Stationen zu Rostock, 1894, p. 29. 4 Hedgcock, G. G. The Relation of the Water Content of the Soil to Certain Plants, Principally Meso- phytes. Studies ia the Vegetation of the State, pt. 2, 1902, pp. 5-79. In Botanical Survey of Nebraska, vol. 6. 5 Clements, F. E. Research Methods in Ecology, Lincoln, Nebr., 1905, p. 30. 230 8 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS, arid and arid regions, to determine the variation exhibited in their ability to reduce the moisture content of the soil before permanent wilting takes place. The results of these investigations have led us to conclude that the variation exhibited by different plants is much less than has heretofore been supposed and that it is insignificant compared with the range in moisture retentiveness exhibited by different soils. As the work developed it became evident that many precautions which had not heretofore been observed were necessary in determin- ing accurately the moisture content of the soil corresponding to the wilting point of plants. This led to the development of the wax-seal and balanéing methods. In connection with the study of the moisture requirements of plants in semiarid regions it is necessary to be able to determine quickly the soil-moistare content at the wilting point. This consti- tutes the datum from which the moisture available for growth can be calculated and without which field determinations of soil moisture are of little value. Owing to the difficulty of making direct determi- nations in the field of the moisture content corresponding to the wilting point, we have compared the wilting-point determination with the moisture retentiveness of the soil as measured by physical methods, which has resulted in the development of several indirect methods applicable to field conditions. These methods are described in the last part of this paper. WILTING COEFFICIENT. If the roots of a plant are well established in a mass of soil the plant eradually reduces the water content until permanent wilting occurs. The water remaining in the soil under this condition has been termed “nonavailable”’ by previous writers. We have found, however, that plants can reduce the soil-moisture content below the point corre- sponding to the permanent wilting of the leaves, so that at the wilting point a part of the soil moisture must still be available. In fact, as we shall show later, this loss of water from the soil to the air goes on through the plant tissues even after the death of the plant, and appears to be limited only by the establishment of a state of equilibrium between the soil and the air. The plant during the drying stage acts simply as a medium for the transference of water, and, while the rate of loss is reduced, the final result is the same as if the air and soil were in direct contact. The nonavailable water in a soil is then, strictly speaking, the soil- moisture content when in equilibrium with the moisture of the air. Such a condition of equilibrium can at best be only approximate, since the saturation deficit of the air is constantly changing with the 230 WILTING COEFFICIENT. 9 temperature. It is important then to recognize that the moisture in a soil is not nonavailable until it has been reduced to the moisture content of air-dry soil. Since growth practically ceases when the plants are in a permanently wilted state, any reduction of the soil moisture below this point constitutes an actual deficit which must be made up before the growth of any plant can be resumed. This deficit may be brought about either by direct evaporation from the soil to the air or by indirect evaporation through the plant when in a wilted or a dying condition. The permanent wilting of the plant does not then mark any limiting condition in the movement of water from the soil through the plant to the air. It is simply a point on the moisture curve corresponding to which the forces opposing the further removal of soil moisture exceed the osmotic force exerted by the cell contents of the plant. Under such conditions transpiration will exceed absorption—that is, a part of the water transpired will be supplied from that stored in the leaf tissues—and loss of turgor will result. It consequently appears advisable to use a more specific term for the moisture content of the soil corresponding to the wilting poit of a plant, and we have employed the term ‘wilting coefficient”’ in this sense in the present paper. The wilting coefficient of a soil is then defined as the moisture con- tent of the soil (expressed as a percentage of the dry weight) at the time when the leaves of the plant growing in that soil first undergo a permanent reduction in their moisture content as the result of a deficiency in the soil-moisture supply. By a permanent reduc- tion is meant a condition from which the leaves can not recover in an approximately saturated atmosphere without the addition of water to the soil. In the case of most plants wilting accompanies this reduction of the water content of the leaves and is the criterion used to determine the wilting coefficient of a soil for that plant. The definition as stated is applicable also to those plants which, owing to structural peculiarities, do not give visible evidence of a reduction of the moisture content of the leaves. The wilting coefficient for such plants is determined by means of the balancing method to be de- scribed later. Two independent variables enter into the determination of the wilting coefficient: (1) The moisture retentiveness of the soil used and (2) the kind of plant used as an indicator. Any determination is therefore to be considered as the wilting coefficient of the particular soil employed for the particular plant used as an indicator. The nonavailable moisture must, then, strictly be considered as the moisture content of the soil when in equilibrium with the air; while the available moisture is of course represented by the difference 230 10 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. between the actual and the nonavailable water at any time. The water content which is available for growth is represented by the difference between the actual moisture content and the wilting coefficient. WAX-SEAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE WILTING COEFFICIENT. The method which we have employed for determining the wilting coefficient consists essentially (1) in the use of an impervious pot, (2) in sealing over the soil surface in the pot with wax so as to prevent all evaporation from the soil, and (3) in keeping the soil mass at an approximately constant temperature. Under these conditions the percentage of water remaining in the soil at the time the plants wilt is termed the wilting coefficient. ESSENTIALS IN DETERMINING THE WILTING COEFFICIENT. In determining the wilting coefficient of a soil we have found that the following precautions should be observed: (1) The soil mass should be as uniform as possible, since the wilting coefficient varies with the texture of the soil and is con- sequently affected by stratification or other nonuniformity of the soil mass. (2) The soil should be brought to a uniform moisture content before being placed in the pots. Otherwise, small volumes of soil may remain dry and thus introduce an error in the final moisture determinations. (3) All loss of water from the soil should be prevented except that resulting from the transpiration of the plant. Otherwise, the surface soil may dry out below the wilting coefficient before the inner soil mass has reached this limit. (4) All sudden fluctuations in temperature should be avoided. Otherwise, condensation will occur on the inner walls of the pot as the result of distillation from the soil, due to the difference of temperature. This condensed water will be absorbed by the roots in contact with the inner walls of the pot and the moisture content of the principal soil mass may thus be reduced below the wilting coefficient. DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD. In working out a practical method embodying the above require- ments, which have not been fully complied with in the methods heretofore described, we have adopted the following procedure: (1) The air-dried soil is sifted through a 2-millimeter screen to remove gravel and to insure greater uniformity. The soil, after 230 WAX-SEAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING WILTING COEFFICIENT. 1] sifting, is thoroughly mixed, special care being taken to avoid the separation of the fine and coarse particles. Variation in the amount of gravel and coarse sand in the different pots causes irregularities in the wilting-coefficient determinations, due to the fact that the coarse particles add to the weight of the soil without appreciably contributing to its water-holding properties. In certain soils, notably those deficient in lime, it is best to add a small amount of calcium carbonate to the soil before planting to insure the growth of the seeds. (2) The proper amount of water to be added to the air-dried soil is dependent upon the soil texture, varying from 5 per cent for sand to 30 per cent or more for clay. The quantity to be used is best determined by adding water slowly from a graduate to a small weighed portion of soil until a condition of good tilth is reached. A heavy soil can be moistened without puddling by placing it on a slab or table in a cone-shaped pile with a large crater in. the top into which the required amount of water is slowly poured. The crater is then filled with dry soil from the sides, and the whole mass is covered to prevent evaporation and allowed to stand until the water permeates the mass. The soil is then thoroughly mixed. During the process of mixing it is sifted through a screen of 4-inch mesh so as to remove any pellets of soil having more than their proportionate amount of water. After mixing, the moist soil should be kept in a tight receptacle until ready for use. Impervious pots must be used, of course, in order to prevent the soil in contact with the pots from drying out below the wilting coefficient. We have found that ordinary straight-walled drinking glasses are very satisfactory for this work when seedling plants are used. During the process of filling, the soil is slightly compacted by jarring the bottom of the glass against the hand. Three to five seeds are planted in each pot, about 1 centimeter in depth, after which the surface soil is smoothed and compacted slightly. The soil surface after planting should be about 1 centimeter below the edge of the glass. It is often advantageous to plant seeds which have just begun to germinate. This method insures a perfect stand and avoids excessive respiration beneath the wax seal. (3) In sealing the pots the wax is heated slightly above the melting point and a sufficient amount is poured into the pot to cover the soil surface to a depth of about 3 millimeters. The pot is rocked slightly so as to bring the wax into thorough contact with the inner walls of the pot, after which the excess wax is poured off. If the wax is at the proper temperature this will give a perfect and uniform seal over the entire surface. If the seal is not perfect the process is repeated. The wax layer should be approximately 1 millimeter in thickness and 230 12 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. should be in close contact with the soil. If the wax does not adhere to the soil surface the pots should be resealed, since the plants may buckle under the wax cover if it is not adherent. In the case of monocotyledons we have found that the wax seal can best be added immediately after planting the seeds. On germi- nation these plants will grow readily through the wax, which forms a perfect seal around the stems. (PI.I.) In the case of dicotyledons it is advisable to keep the pots in a moist chamber to reduce evapora- tion until the seedlings appear above the ground, when the wax seal can be applied without injury to the plants. Even in the case of dicotyledons this wax seal is often applied at the time of planting. This prevents the soil from drying out between the time of planting and complete germination. Plants which do not raise the cotyledons above the soil surface and those with very small seeds often push through the wax without breaking the seal. Other dicotyledons push their way through the wax cover without any difficulty, although it is often necessary to reseal these pots after the seedlings are all up, especially in the case of plants with large coty- ledons, such as the bean, squash, cucumber, etc. Aeration, when necessary, can readily be accomplished by making two small holes through the wax to the bottom of the pot on opposite sides. A glass tube drawn to a small opening and connected with a wash bottle is forced into one hole to supply moist air, and a similar glass tube is forced into the opposite opening and attached to an aspirator to withdraw the air from the pot. The wax forms a perfect seal around the glass tubes. In this way many pots can be aerated and the holes resealed with a hot wire in a comparatively short time. The wax-seal method is also particularly adapted to the study of transpiration, since by its use all loss of water is avoided except that taking place through the plant tissues. This fact has been determined by repeated measurements. _ (4) Serious fluctuations in temperature can be avoided by immers- ing the pots to within 5 millimeters of the top in a tank of water in which a circulation is constantly maintained. An apparatus for this purpose which has been found very convenient is shown in figure 1. It consists of a copper tank 36 inches wide, 72 inches long, and 4 inches deep, which is divided by means of a series of longitudinal partitions into 10 compartments. These partitions are open at alternate ends, so that a stream of water introduced at one side of the tank flows back and forth the full length of the tank 10 times before finally reach- ing the exit on the opposite side. The water is thus kept constantly in motion around the pots. The circulation of water is effected by means of a small centrifugal pump, as shown in the illustration, This pump takes water from the 230 Bul. 230, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE |: Fic. 1.—BALANCED SYSTEM CONTAINING OPUNTIA AND SQUASH. FIGS. 2 AND 3.—PoTsS SEALED WITH WAX, SHOWING KUBANKA WHEAT SEEDLINGS PUSHING THROUGH THE Wax SEAL. THE WAX IS APPLIED IMMEDIATELY AFTER PLANTING THE SEEDS. ° | : ; ‘ - baad ° 7 eh i 4 i . r e \ - , 4. ad _ ‘ «t * ~ > J 4 t ° as « ¥ - ‘ ‘ : ‘ , j \ ; 7 ‘ * * ’ J i : i ¥ ! : « , ‘ 6 % : ; ‘ " Ps \ * ‘ sar + é& : " a ~ . ‘ ‘ x P 4 WAX-SEAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING WILTING COEFFICIENT. 13 bottom of the wooden supply tank, so that a complete circulation of water is maintained throughout the whole system. The water level is automatically regulated, since the amount of water delivered by the centrifugal pump is lessened as the head against which the pump operates is increased. The opening from the immersion tank is so situated as to be partly above the level of the water, and all dust and impurities collecting on the water surface are thus swept into the supply tank, leaving the water in the immersion tank perfectly clear. The apparatus as figured is capable of holding 250 glass pots, and has given excellent service in the experiments in which it has been employed. As soon as the plants in a pot have been reduced to a wilted condi- tion from which they can not recover when placed in a damp chamber, Fic. 1.—Apparatus for preventing sudden changes in temperature during the determinations of the wilt- ing coefficient. The propeller in the central tube causes a constant circulation of the water around the pots. the water content of the soil is determined. The soil mass can usually be removed intact by breaking the wax seal around the walls of the pot and gently jarring the edge of the inverted pot against the bench. The lower two-thirds of the soil mass is taken for the moisture deter- mination, since the roots do not usually develop so extensively in the upper portion. The moisture determination is based upon the loss of water taking place when the soil is dried to constant weight at 100° C., the percentage of moisture being based upon the dry weight of the soil. COMPOSITION OF THE WAX SEAL. For sealing the pots, paraffin, petrolatum, beeswax, and tallow were tried in various proportions. A wax composed of 80 per cent paraffin (melting point 45° C.) and 20 per cent petrolatum was found 230 . 14 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. to be most satisfactory for use at ordinary temperatures, the exact proportions being unimportant. This mixture melts at so low a tem~ perature and has such a low heat conductivity that it can be poured into a pot around the most delicate seedlings without injury. This feature is important in experimenting with delicate dicotyledons. On cooling, this wax adheres well to the glass and to the soil, forming a perfect seal. Other mixtures, notably those containing beeswax, show a decided tendency to separate from the glass on cooling, neces- sitating the resealing of the edges with a hot iron. None of the substances mentioned give good results when used alone. Soft paraffin (45°) stretches, petrolatum creeps, and beeswax, tallow, and the higher paraffins crack. Except when soft paraffin is used, the plants show no difficulty in penetrating the wax cover, even when a wax as hard as that with which the ordinary commercial phonograph records are made is employed as a seal. During the winter in the greenhouse the paraflin-petrolatum mix- ture gives excellent results even when left in direct sunlight. During the warm portion of the year, however, direct sunlight is likely to melt this wax and in this way break the seal and cause damage to the plants, due to the wax creeping over the plant surface. This creeping does not occur if the pots are kept in the temperature-control tank. A mixture of 10 to 30 per cent of beef tallow with beeswax or of 8 to 12 per cent of petrolatum with beeswax has been found to be an excellent material for use in warm weather both in the greenhouse and for out-of-door work. Modeling clay has also been used to seal the pots, but it is not so easily applied as the wax and is not suitable for use with delicate seedlings. EXPERIMENTAL ERROR. In determining the wilting coefficient of a given soil for a particular plant some variation will be found in the results obtained from the individual pots. This variation appears to be due in part to the lack of uniformity of the soil in the different pots, but mainly to the fact that in some pots the roots are distributed through the soil mass much more uniformly than in others. When the root distribution is defec- tive, the mean distance through which the soil moisture must move through capillary action is greater. Since capillary movement be- comes very slow as the moisture content approaches the wilting coefficient, these portions of the soil not penetrated by roots will have asomewhat higher moisture content. The wilting coefficient deter- mination in the case of an imperfect root distribution will conse- quently be somewhat too high. On the other hand, errors arising from the distillation of water on the walls of the pot will result in giving a wilting coefficient below the true value. Some uncertainty also arises in connection with the determination of the wilting point. Plants often wilt during the day and recover 230 WAX-SEAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING WILTING COEFFICIENT. 15 during the night. The wilting of a plant in the hot part of the day is, therefore, not conclusive evidence that moisture is not available. A wilted condition in the early morning is considered the best proof that the moisture content has been reduced to the true wilting point. Check determinations were repeatedly made by placing the pots con- taining wilted plants under’a bell jar in nearly saturated air. These plants were unable to recover their turgidity. Since the wilting point is influenced to some extent by sudden changes in the temperature and humidity of the air of the plant house, these conditions should be determined and kept as uniform as possible during the growth of the plants. The degree of accuracy which may reasonably be expected with the wax-seal method when suitable precautions are taken is shown by the series of determinations presented in Table I, which gives the wilting coefficient for Kubanka wheat in each of several pots for three types of soil. The plants were grown in an ordinary plant house, where the average temperature was about 70° F. and the relative humidity about 85 per cent. TaBLE I.—Individual pot measurements of the wilting coefficient of three types of soil for Kubanka wheat. Wilting coefficient of — Wilting coefficient of— Plant. : Plant. ‘ Fine ane Clay F ee Giang sand. ae loam. sand Toure, hy Jose Kubanka wheat..... Paid |B eae 16.9 || Kubanka wheat.... 2.6 9.8 16.3 OUP a so 22 2s 7 te 16.8 Doses cee ae cs 2.5 9.3 16.3 DOR eee. ee 7s fed ee eee 16.4 Dost zeus: = be 2.7 9.7 16.7 Dee Ae 2 2.8 9.7 16.2 Down ote eee reat | 9.4 16.3 1D) i 2.6 9.3 15.5 Dom eee 25s: 20 9.9 ib Sy / Meanteo 72 2. 59 9. 66 16.3 1D ie Zt 10.1 17.3 Probable er- L003 Be 2.6 9.7 16.7 ror of mean. + .03 + .05 + .09 Des oee eae PAS 9.4 15.6 Probable er- IDO 2 Set ed eee 2.6 9.6 16.0 ror of sin- iG. ote See 2.4 9.3 16.0 gle observa- lDype eo eee PART | 9.4 16.2 TION) <\, 5p hee ee 8.5 Tate Nach ae oe a ee eae ae eee 8.7 CR fied | Sse ee* sete bee foes 8.6 7.6 1 ee Seer ene soasec 8.6 6.7 1 ee eee nr Ae = 2 = 8.2 Mee GY cor Sos Co eh ee ee eee 8.5 7.8 1 7 (2k eS Ree es Ie 7.8 (jan) 1 See eee See eSoeree of 5: 8.0 (P63 19.8. 235s sees | 7.5 ian Mean?! ee | 8.2 7.5 Mean) 1/3050: seat s2 07 Probable error of Probable error of Wears .0 S30. see ee + .05 + .04 mean's.2.235.. sons + .05 + .10 Probable error “of | Probable error of + .21 + .18 single observation. + .16 + .30 single observation.) | a nnn 230 WAX-SEAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING WILTING COEFFICIENT. 17 The means of the determinations given in Table II show that in the interval between wilting and death the plants reduced the soil moisture 0.7 per cent, or to 92 per cent of the moisture content at the wilting point. The loss from the dying plants in the constant- temperature room was somewhat less, due to a smaller saturation deficit. Another similar series of determinations was made for Kubanka wheat and for water cress, except that the observations were ex- tended to include the period following the death of the plants. The results are given in Table IIT. Taste II1.—The water content of the soil in sealed pots at the wilting point, at the death povnt, and at a later period for Kubanka wheat and for water cress. sags Time Ti 4 . . Wilting | « Death | ; Final Designation of pot. F interval A interval point. in days. point in days T cent Kubanka wheat: ee eee eco, 12.500 Sake UNS SU Nee 7.0 28 522 126 3.1 Gees os oaSc close assed sae Sectecweebeasee 7.9 25 5.9 126 2.6 Vitae se US eC0e Be OEE ee ee ee ee 7.0 25 5.5 126 BA) Sh 1 e ndoch sSeo Se ae ES SORE Se BSS CODE SEDs SaSree 6.6 19 6.4 126 4.9 eae eases 2 2se2 Seco s ee wk ee ceeemeaamce 7.1 27 5.9 134 4.8 Renae Aaa icin cc cis wciawiomrganc te oasis 7.8 27 6.9 134 at) Meese eats eats Sasa igs Soe cseenceseeuse ces 6.9 19 5.9 126 4.3 ZANE anoint aclecisecmis «cece seccecesecloa ton 7.3 27 6.6 134 5.7 ee ee ee a nin cw Scicla Sloe a oes. lns media aslons Soe 8.0 27 6.9 37 6.1 ARE pees ee neaas oc ones aeceacnectecececesesosecccs 7.3 27 6.2 134 4.9 EGAN aera eis soci Sele sic lote dein Sierstbicle wa eeeidieleteloe TAB ees aes 2 652, Bosses 4.6 iPropapleierroriof, mean... 2... = accent se ace se SP ON eee. oer sey LZ somos heey oer sate Probable error of single observation........... SE OOM ec tee oe SSN eaceaaoe eee oneness Water cress: ee ea eal ne Cos cel tios ce welwia sie'daoaaeacee s 7.6 7 6.0 51 4.6 PRR ea Sas occ eicd Sa Sces se pons see sveeee ced 7.8 7 6.5 129 2.4 eee seh Siete (cei a se iaidieiaicic asians wis Saiggneis ae ae (hors U 6.3 129 4.3 PD ea etree eke = saa aie, Sajaisajefepcieiala eAncic/elcie Smisle le 6.5 10 5.5 119 4.2 WI SEW ee as < chatsicns Sots eet ance sacdo hace ean loos ae (ie es 5c 3.9 The plants were grown in sealed pots containing about 250 grams of soil. Column 2 of the table gives the water content of the soil corresponding to the wilting of the plants. Column 3 gives the num- ber of days intervening between the wilting and the death of the plants, at which time the moisture content of the soil had been materially reduced, as shown in column 4. A still greater loss of water occurred during the subsequent period, at the end of which the moisture content of the soil had been reduced to the point indi- cated in column 6. The mean moisture content of the soil at the death point of Kubanka wheat had been reduced to 85 per cent of the water content at the wilting point, while the mean soil-moisture con- tent at the end of the experiment was only 63 per cent of that at the wilting point. An even greater reduction occurred in the pots con- taining the water cress. It is evident, then, from the data already presented that water is being steadily removed from the soil by dying or dead plants and 8477°—Bul. 230—12——2 18 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. that a limit is reached only when the soil moisture comes into approxi- mate equilibrium with the moisture content of the air. The soil- moisture content at the wilting point can not then be considered as nonavailable to the plant, and for this reason has been designated in the present paper as the wilting coefficient. In a recent paper! the writers referred to a proposed investigation of the relative advantages of the wilting point and the death point of plants as criteria in comparing plants in their relation to soil mois- ture. The data given in Tables II and III provide a basis for com- paring these criteria. A comparison of the probable errors for single determinations is the most satisfactory way to judge of the relative accuracy. These errors are given in Table IV, expressed as a per- centage of the numbers which they affect. That part of Table III referring to water cress does not contain sufficient observations to give a probable error of any significance. TaBLE IV.—Relative magnitude of the probable errors of a single observation using the wilting point and the death point as criteria. Number For For Designation of data. of obser- | wilting death vations. | point. point. Per cent. | Per cent. Wiheat- control tank, -Vaplo wie soe pens a8 oe eo cen eens Seen ase eee eee ee -o 2; ~ Wheat, dark room, TTS 1 aaa ON SEN an NR Res OP SSM Ey 9 2.0 3.9 Wheat, pits | oj (ol! Dil Dea at SG Sa ee es 8 a OE See Een eS Sab Gas: 10 4.5 6.3 1. (22) Ep ee ee Eee ie See pee emi SENET ee tn a ae a, (SMa S55: 3.0 4,2 It will be seen from Table IV that the average error in determining the wilting coefficient is considerably less than that accompanying the determination of the moisture content corresponding to the death point. Death-point determinations showing a very satisfac- tory agreement can, however, be obtained-with seedlings by the use of the temperature-control tank, as shown by the results given in the first part of Table II. But other and more important considera- tions combine to make the wilting point decidedly superior to the death point as a physiological criterion of soil-moisture conditions. The wilting coefficient is practically independent of the kind of plant used as an indicator, as will be shown later, while the death point varies with the plant used, some plants dying much more quickly after wilting than others. The time required for a determination is also shortened by using the wilting point. But the great advan- tage of using the wilting point is that it practically marks the cessa- tion of growth and so constitutes a datum from which the water content available for growth in a particular soil may be determined 1 Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L. A Wax Seal Method for Determining the Lower Limit of Available Soil Moisture. Botanical Gazette, vol. 51, 1911, pp. 210-219. 230 WAX-SEAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING WILTING COEFFICIENT. 19 when the total water content is known. This could not be deter- mined directly by means of death-point observations, but would require a correction term more or less dependent upon the plant used. EFFECT OF THE AGE OF THE PLANT ON THE WILTING COEFFICIENT. In making wilting-coefficient determinations it is much more con- venient to use seedlings than old plants. The question then arises as to whether determinations made with seedlings as indicators represent the moisture content of the soil corresponding to the wilting point of more mature plants. The determinations given in Tables V and VI were made with reference to this point. A series of experiments with Kubanka wheat plants, six soils in each series, using plants of three different ages, is given in Table V. The actual wilting-coefficient determinations for each soil are given, together with the ratio of each individual determination to the mean of each soil. The ratios indicate a slightly higher wilting coeffi- cient for the younger plants, the means being 1.01 for plants 20 to 30 days old, 0.99 for plants 75 to 80 days old, and 0.98 for plants 104 days old. This is what would take place if the concentration of the leaf-cell contents increased with the age of the plants. The same effect would, however, be brought about by the more uniform root penetration in the case of the older plants, or by an increase in woody tissue in the leaves which would tend to retard the appearance of wilting. Furthermore, when the differences are considered in con- nection with their mean probable errors it becomes evident that the influence of the age of the plants upon the wilting point is very slight. TaBLE V.—E fect of the age of wheat plants on the wilting coefficient. Wilting coefficients of plants at stated ages. 20 to 30 days. 75 to 80 days. 104 days. Soil number. Ratio, Ratio, Ratio, Actual. | actual to} Actual. | actual to} Actual. | actual to average. average. average. 0. 86 1.00 0. 80 0.93 0. 78 0.91 1 . 86 1.00 87 1.01 88 1.02 eee nse res ee to ee ee kt yy, 1.00 Ri Pe aerets oe he See ie ot ese ehae oo eeitias . 80 CSS LS aie 5 sein (eae Te 6 RS 2k SAU bey ate ta A 225 -97 7 1. 04 2:7 1.04 2.7 aS ee eee Peer io ee ne ree 2.8 THORS egress. toe [cS te seule ee See ee ee e's 2.6 a LSC) ae Pe ee eee Se ae 2.0 TaN | i men aaa a NS i Oe betes wh LE Dol AUPE GREE. . loo ch ee ee lS dts So ee eee PS Ia e care oem ai ci a eran etnies ert eae mene 2.6 OOM Mista: lc cke esa slallasiecie aren go Roe meen 2.6 i LSCN 1) 8 ash St) Se ses el Ne esesey eee a ene eb 2.5 a ee es os Lice iat shore [Das Sore cae etait 2.6 BYU Nets ee Lene aOR ae ard I aA) i rae plat et 2.4 Tet epee ae (eer emewe el Nee reece (meee Coe 2.7 OE Aetna Msc cus uee cee, nte [ance ace ete ee eee har 2.6 DHOOM ee care. 2 fies eee oe Sollee aes eterete 230 20 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS, Taste V.—Jlffect of the age of wheat plants on the wilting coefficient—Continued. Wilting coefficients of plants at stated ages. 20 to 30 days. | 75 to 80 days. 104 days. Soil number. it disis ai pear aaeree He ; Le | | Ratio, Ratio, Ratio, Actual. | actual to} Actual. | actual to| Actual. | actual to average. average. average. so 5. ap Nonoor =" —" a SELESeoeo sre eeo frm pm md eh ped ed ed oo . ’ . ‘ . . ’ ‘ . . ’ . ‘ . . . . . . ’ * . . ‘ . . . ’ : . nll eal aaalil eal em ee ee oe NIC OO OW SE ie de Ded Monte On-1-) a a Mean i obese bees eees oe cee [ELS eS oe AOL Ate eee up a Te eee 5 - -98 Probable error of a single determi- MAHON. oe esas cae ee eer eas see ec lceee eee 9-028. |= Seicoanee + .019 |P eaeeee + .026 Similar determinations were made with seedlings and old grass plants, but the same species were not available for use in both experiments. These determinations are given in Table VI. The soil used throughout these determinations was the same, so that the observed wilting coefficients can be directly compared. In this case the seedlings gave a slightly lower mean wilting coefficient than the older plants. This is probably due to the slightly better root distri- bution on the part of the seedlings, which were planted rather thickly. The difference, however, is only 0.2 +0.1 per cent,’ so that the determinations are in practical agreement. 1 The probable error of the difference of two numbers, each of which is affected with a probable error, is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the two probable errors. 230 WAX-SEAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING WILTING COEFFICIENT. 21] TaBLE VI.—Comparison of the wilting coefficient for seedling and old grass plants. a Old . Seed- Species. plants Species. lings. Asropyron LenerUumM: -< - . 2b. cane ese sie 8.7 BEOMIUS INERIMNISS: 4-5 = Seek es kee ane 9.4 ae dich SSS aa REE ee pee pemtie tee 9.6 DOE en oe aha i ee ee 8.8 1D G).3 8 eR 8 eee ee pee 9.6 13 oe > Da en er er ee Dabs Se widen Oe 9.6 Ibe el a2 Se ee eee ee 10.4 1D Ye Sy eee ce BS De Sree Ta 10.2 IDO, SESS a ee ee eee teas ape 9.7 9.5 TO COS Ee eee eS 10.9 9.5 Dy. dae A Rea Ss Ae eee aie Gis 8 10.3 9.7 iguana eee ete se. 10.5 8.9 8.8 9.5 8.4 9.3 9.3 8.6 9.0 9.0 9.3 9.5 9.7 9.5 9.0 9.1 9.9 8.9 9.2 9.5 9.6 9.1 9.2 8.9 8.9 iDyii Aa a ate EE ee eee eee oe i os 10.1 8.7 DO re ese to oa ee ee 9.5 A GUI 64 Oe eee ee 10.1 DONS ass so 5845 eee 10.3 ree ee OS Se hee Soe ee 9.6 Dower eee eee eee 9.3 (RR ee nee ois Seen Aes 10.2 DO ns aoe tS clo5 ae eee 9.0 IDL = se ee es 9.8 DD Op eae 0k ee ey eet eee 9.3 DD hn > Axtce SO a a Sor 9.5 Dow ree eA ee 9.0 10 D524) 2G coe eee eee eee 9.4 DOs eee citeaneeie none sees sens 9.3 pee AP SLES 2 5 5 Sd ae 10.6 DOP ec he Sat ce oe ee eee 9.6 Di oc Hee ae 10.7 DO sasee kee eee oe eee eee 9.4 IDs 232 SESE Se eee ee 9.7 Does ss Pye eae

Moisture equioatent | DO ie i Va bre) On RN er Ce 88 2.48. —_—————. || Vetch: Vicia villosa...............------ 1.24 Seiee poeeaa Shh ey eee - 88 te ee re ee enc ac 1.10 robable error of mean......-..-.. + .03 Probable error ofsingle observation + .09 Mean. ..--------+-++-++22+2-2222+- 1.17 Wheat: Bluestem, Minn. 169 89 Fo Vicia faba, 8. P. I. 15428.....-._- 1.49 Pe a. eae Oateb in bodes eben de Sesh eee LO oe SOIC OSS 9 TO ST AS Sooe 98 TO. oc. nee 1.06 MOan sss 50222 . pelvcek cee ea 94 Mean’ ..-:...:2-22. 52S 1.34 WILTING COEFFICIENTS OF DIFFERENT SOILS. 27 Taste XI.—Wilting coefficients of various soils for different plants—Continued. Soil and species or variety of plant. Soil No. 87 Gand). Moisture equivalent 2.48—Continued. Soil No. 2 (fine sand). Moisture equiva- lent 4.66. Probable error of mean.......-..-- Probable error of single observation. Sorgo: Red Amber, S. P. I. 17543.......- Mean for all determinations, soil No. 2... Probable error of mean.................- Soil No. 8 (fine sont), lent 5 Caen Boone County White, Coie 2 Moisture equiva- Coef- ficient. .. S| SYYPNNNYNNNNNWNNNW Ss 2 NSN ANPAMIAOWNI ND O11 =OD|| P| waw ow g | go goss || oo | gocogo |! oo | conoge || oo | ogo] oo | geno ce w oreo for) [o ohS) Tor) Co Wor for) oe _ NICO Soil and species or variety of plant. Soil No. 8 ine sand). Moisture eqviva- lent 6.6—Continued. Wheat: Bluestem, M. 169......... Vetch: Vicia faba, S. P. I. 15428......... Tomato: Livingston’s Golden Queen... . D Mean for all determinations, soil No. 8... Probable error of mean...--..-..-.--.--- Probable error of single observation. ...- Soil No. 9 (fine sand). Moisture equiva- lent 6.74. Coef- ficient. ollw}owrnlle|lo|anmellalan||a|] aeal||o}] Hooll eH | soN|]S}] a|] 0] Call a} aw]] ©} coc 2.6 28 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. TasLe XI.—Wilting coefficients of various soils for different plants—Continued. Soil and species or variety of plant. Soil No. 9 (fine sand). Moisture equiva- lent 6.74—Continued. Corn: . wien: aE oom cette ee cee oe ee eee Boutelous oligostachya-.e- nese == - 2-22 o> a sen aa eee eee Legumes: Alfalfa Grimm. 8 -.b. 0. 20000 Racine cao eee Canada field*pea, S:°P. I) 193802. coe se cece erence eceeeesee J 230 i=" E. ot © nD E 2 a i = =) on DBenwww _ ees es RELATIVE WILTING COEFFICIENTS FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. 37 TaBLE XII.—Observations showing the relative wilting coefficients for different varieties— Continued. Number 2. Probable error- Plant and species or variety. ~ oo obeerya: ratio. | Of mean | Of single : ratio. ratio. Legumes—Continued. MGHIGhOS alba, Seb Le 2lalGicansecacecssnct sec acess osescs's 8 1.03 0.012 0. 033 WHIM INNOSA. Ala'- a1 ccicinn toca ciaseeacsasac ee ces sicccenecteleses 17 1.04 013 - 053 Vicia faba, S. P. 1. 15428 ..... j 23 1.02 016 078 MACTBTINP CHS Sob Ne 21002 sn gee eo sa decane owas ncaseene 6 303" ||aeos steal ee cee ame Vicia atrapurpurea, S. FE EOUSIS 2) os cec se srceseceeec essa 3 P05) |2eessases spy aceeeee WAC ENVAlIAN Sour ha LOIS 7 a2 acces sasccsbeceeecesns tice cee 3 St Pll BP een ete pra Wes J he et CEE, a Te beh: 7 ae a era en 3 AE yaaa) ipa See Stores Pe MUTATOR tarts aul's 2040 foes ae oat e aa ecaneiseaeeciece se enee ees 3 698) eee Loic taste |a ee soeeees COLTS Cr eg (Ba ee et a ce 5 T:04>, |Enae ee | Re ee SHINOUA Sy Ve 2400 Us cone She coe ssn gee caes cee ede waceseees 3 15002 Sa 2 Soe ae ee eee Lupinus TRUER: sconce dubebccdo. BaSGeeEs EE SESE -DaGemanene 2 OLY ie eccdodtae| baseaesses Cucurbits: SUES. oboe lstisopepeuSBeSeUsseCCEer EpAE EOC HEE eer reeeesS 15 1.01 018 073 CHCHMID Bi eric cenea ca =o oa lninws sewed are dessasocecdeaces 1 390. |e ee aoe |e eee HUIS AMOLOM Memeo cinenee aecis esc vas sone cae eacnceeoneac 1 gL: eet ogee aye 2 all |e eye Pe Tomato: Piyamestons; Golden! Queen's. 2<-5;~~ 22-152 scwe ceeeee see 17 1.05 O11 043 A SREP eye saison Se Pun ae oc emlasciied Qekiodeah ae cesiee 3 #08) 0) See eae ees Colouaia, pbb 2 Lt OO faetatens saci a noes Sec cen hae cocina cacecess 19 1.13 015 - 056 Hydrophytes: WVAEMCIESS rie ciariwielentsm acieaioencioa ce daeiscoee se cinsieecsemee 3 T1084 fei. eee beeen eee ESDELRUS SEYCE OTe i A OR A a ea aS 2 TSS |e ae | ee SATTAETIRS LICE myais oe oie es oe ike eiiclocnata Sees om atemacesine nes 1 LOK) ectaces |e aos ee Hanunevlus'septoentrionalis: -. 2.5. s. tuwen® 9.4 PURO ton ete 9.6 9.7 Do. Black-hull kafir, S. P. I. 24975 ...... oe fe eee res ot A eee rs Sees i 10S ae othe Re a 8 fg oy RE 9.9 9.9 | Wilted simultaneously. ne durr, 5. (P50. 08665... 52-2. 10.0 es or) ee eee eae 9.5 DO SEE LT. Axeta Pe ae cee eee 10.0 9.8 Do. . Black-hull kowliang, G. I.310....... 9.6 DOes onc cccwawancenames speeeaes 10.1 Wp res sk PLE Bee ccteewenence 10.0 9.9 Do. Brown kowliang, S. P. I. 24993..... 10.0 10.0 Do. Millet: 8.7 8.6 9.1 8.6 9.0 9.3 9.0 9.8 9.5 9.1 8.6 8.9 8.7 9.1 8.7 10.1 10.3 9.8 9.6 10.1 10. 2 9.3 9.0 9.6 8.2 8.9 8.9 9.5 Do: 9.0 9.3 9.1 9.1 9.3 10.0 9.3 Do. 9.6 10.6 10.0 9.7 Do. 9.3 9.8 9.6 9.6 Do. 9.4 9.3 9.8 9.7 10.1 9.8 9.7 Do. German, 8. P. 3. 26845... ... meee -o 2 9.7 We ssecoo55e5+ Sia ppsee. - Saas 9.4 IDO Seo see eee een eee eee 9.7 9.6 Do. COMPARISON OF WILTING COEFFICIENT OF PLANTS. 4] TaBLeE XIII.—Wilting-coefficient determinations in soil No. 380 (fine sandy loam), moisture equivalent 18.5, for different plants grown simultaneously in the same pot with Kubanka wheat—Continued. Mean. Comparison with Kubanka wheat. — _ ee _ 7 Peek feed peek fk fad fet be RO RWS HOODOO SD SSS 9S SOO WO 00 [00S br FO Ob O 6O OOS SO 90 00 90 SS SO 80 {O OO $0 6 6 £0 1 OO F4+ CO 0 SO (DO LO 6 00 0 LO NI OO LO CO ONKF COFPRNOCON EF RDOOCONNONCOCORFNON EF WONNEL ROR ANWOPWRHON NOP OODNOKEUNOCrFAWDNOHAROOOMCOr — woe 9.1 | Wilted simultaneously. 1 Only Kubanka, G. I. 1440, in these pots. 42 WILTING CORFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. Taste XIII—Wilting-coefficient determinations in soil No. 80 ( yfine sandy loam), moisture equivalent 18.5, for different plants grown simultaneously in the same pot with Kubanka wheat—Continued. Coeffi- Plant species or variety. cient, | Mean. Comparison with Kubanka wheat. Wheat—Continued: Lge Sal <0 Ay ek ee oon 9.2 12) Re gee SEE 38-2 8.9 1 7 RR ge Pe RIS ASM ee 9.3 9.1 | Wilted simultaneously. FSIDONER, Gils 2e4Gew ewes seenccen 9.4 = Neha sste hia ae fe ee aoe octederees a eapetoca oe 9.3 ORE Ee © chal el teonete are o Seater Sees were 9.4 9.4 Do. Yellow Gharnovka, 8. P. I. 26008 .. 7.8 AYO oa cee cawete cp maa sa oae ames 9.5 PGR See ee i oct ane wort 9.9 9.1 Do. Yellow Gharnovka, G. I. 1444..... 9.4 CE [oN pA ea aR RS ay SA ae 9.5 DO cos noes Semcsee es peenes eee 8.9 9.3 Do. POWERING ONO oon: die a kincisin soca emer 9.2 1S eR aes Rl ipeee one ee eee re 9.3 Gee wetc scene Cee ne ase 9.2 9.2 Do. PeUASIEN Mk a Beton se ccs sauce an 8.7 Li fae ee eee eake ea 9.3 Lb Dp Oe Re me ese eepeee se 10.0 9.3 Do. o Oats: CRnAGIAT ES ose wee an ae 8.5 1 DORE agar el AS SCPE Se E 9.7 iD kee ieee eee a eee 9.0 | Do. Seventy-five Day, G. I. 337..--.--- oe Dee ten soe neaee we Saas see ed : (DT Se SSeS ee a ee eee o 9.9 9.8 Do. SiKGy-DAY, Ge e080 eae awe coe 9.6 0) a eS eee 9.8 WD Once cecere eee we ees wee eae ee 10.7 10.0 Do. Bigvl GHEE. s-Ase 3 ees eee era ce 10.0 DIGe otro se ste ene sees ener ers 9.9 Loa Rae ee eas et a AE eee O37 9.9 Do. Bub oon ase eee eee ae aes 9.0 TDS eh Be Be ae ae ae 9.2 DG Soo ee a eee ee 8.9 9.1 Do. Red ust prooles sac -s 2. ce rane 8.9 Ba ee Seer aaa eesece 8.8 1 Dh ne eee @ ee ee 9.0 8.9 Do. Barley: Marittth.G.,1 00! secessceassseeses 8.8 Ot ee a Se tS eee 8.7 1D) Ree ee aa an ee ee 10.0 9.2 Do. Hells Gs Ts ee Fee es 1 9.2 ieee cee ooses ce cosh ee eocctice P DOSS ee eee ene eee eens 8.8 8.9 | Wilted simultaneously. Old leaves of barley do not roll. White Smyrna, G.I. 195.......-.-- 9.0 O28 chs oes econ eemcomenes 9.4 OVERS = Sw ee See ee 8.9 9.1 Do. Oderbrucker, S. P. I. 26105.....---. 9.1 i Dc Pena eats ames oe aoe 8.6 8.9 | Wilted simultaneously. Rice: Carolina Gold, G. I. 1645..........- 9.2 10 aE eee as eee 9.5 10) ee EER Rea Sees = hea 9.3 9.3 Do. Hondnras, iG. 1-t6432n5-—-sseessese 10.1 D630. Sole She ao ee 10.2 11 eee ee eee. Seek 9.5 9.9 Do. Lop tabi te) oe Bape eR Amo SEGACCO> » EOL 10.2 DOs soe eee nee etre ener 11.3 10) eee eee ann SD Saaaeeeanose 9.9 10.5 | Wilted simultaneously. Emmer rolls more than wheat; could not recover in damp chamber. 230 g COMPARISON OF WILTING COEFFICIENT OF PLANTS. 43 TaBLE XIII.—Wilting-coefficient determinations in soil No. 80 (fine sandy loam), moisture equivalent 18.5, for different plants grown simultaneously vm the same pot with Kubanka wheat—Continued. Coeffi- Plant species or variety. aiatite Mean. Comparison with Kubanka wheat. Grasses: — WOOOMNHSSSOS O00 =o 9.5 | Wilted simultaneously. 9.3 Do. i Ss SSEGoeSoeS mwmwowowoo © pe 10.1 Do. = OID CO 1OG 5S 5 OO EO ERICSON Fe ie e — OD ODOS W090 NOW for for) COM OMNI RAWOWOWWUHOMONOR ONO MDWOONOON DO PATIO OION Or NON ONO SCNWOWRWOIWONNR OO] o ° = 9.4 Do. 9.6 Do. POO WOO BSooewowowoo 9.5 Do. 44 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS, Taste XIII.—Wilting-coeficient determinations in soil No. 80 (fine sandy loam), moisture equivalent 18.5, for different plants grown simultaneously in the same pot with Kubanka wheat—Continued. Coeffi- Plant species or variety. cient. Mean. Comparison with Kubanka wheat. Grasses—Continued. Bitanlomhysivis 2S oe ccc nwdanvessens 9.2 eee seis Sy een ee 9.6 DO ete ruse cease etenep eee 9.3 9.4 | Wilted simultaneously. Aristida longiseta...........-.--..-- 9.5 - ‘DT ie ape ee es eras se 9.7 9.6 Do. Bouteloua oligostachya. .... eoneeee =) SOL Alfalfa: Grimm) |S... 1.250062. penaean se 9. 2 DGS ese cece eee epee secon 9.4 Dod opetetect ona eer eee aie 9.0 tL 1 eS OS rly 5 San eed 9.0 WOE ia sccs concede ech ee aeee eee 8.9 dB SER eee geet ene a ar Re St ere 9.0 Of errant o.4 ieee eee eee 9. 2 We oe oe ook oGac eee eseeee sees 9.3 1B ORS ee eae ee ee hor emer 9.7 Dect e oes ee emieneee 8.9 DO Ue oe eee ke cee amecerb 8.8 Ene Bees Se Pea eee ee ee = - 9.7 1 jo) ee SCI ae ey IS 9.0 DD ee ee cess oan earner 9.3 PUD ete ice cei heats Date aie eee 8.9 WORE ise ek ce ae Loe RE ce waswee 10.0 IDB ease ne cure eee eE eee 9.1 WOE Sees wc ecaceicseeesenees 9.2 1 Bf: RE Ee ARIES Snares ere ee aes 8.7 1D ae een en ee arya 9.2 DOtoee ot eee epee eee nes aee eee 9.6 WO Sen Reet eeeeee ee 9.0 DDD Bee Sooo occa eee eh esis ee 9.8 GE? Ae ee SSP ee cope Cone eee 10.3 1D Rae Se ee eres eae e 10.1 WO eee es penn uc seseten acest 10. 4 DOs oe ea eeh et ean oOo eee 10.0 WO SSS. no oniee oes Doe eee eee eee 9.8 DG See oO ccce eaten eeeeeee es 10.1 10) See aS ee ee eT a 9.6 9.4 Do} Vetch: Wicia taba, S. Po1515428 2-2: 2-2: 11.0 11.0 Do.” Vicia atropurpurea, S. P. I. 18132... 10. 2 DO eee eieceese sees eee eee 10.1 TRY Rep eee ee ns. Se es ee 10. 4 DOGS Sco. on toes see cere renee ee 9.9 10.2 | Wilted simultaneously. Vicia does not look badly wilted, but could not recover in damp chamber. Wiciaervillas:.o.tses nace rec we cies 8.9 DOs oe tee once ewes erneccs pees 9.1 DOP oA ce Secek cee Posteereceee 8.7 8.9 | Wilted simultaneously. Leaves wilt, but remain upright. Melilotus'albs,S. PT 2121625" ee a 10.3 Doses P5sero. a eheeeme ee eee eee eee 10.6 DO so Siewckceckeeeweweccecheaeecetes 10. 2 DOS ee ence eee See eee RE eee 9.6 DOs. = Sa aos soe eee ee een Eee 9.9 DO Sea. sees So cacen ceeeee ee eee eae 10. 4 DO nates te ccbe sat ee ere e eee ee anoeeee 9.1 DO eS Sin Lee cesccee peeeeee eee 10.1 10.0 | Wilted simultaneously.+ Canadefield pea, S. P. I. 19389......-..- 10.2 DO ees ee eee eee ee eee reece 9.3 DOp st eese keene aee Eee ees 9.4 DO ase bee Soe eee ees et ose eaeee 9.9 9.8 | Wilted simultaneously. Lower leaves of pea wilt first. CON pee SiR: DT. 264075. 2-k cme e 8.9 CS eeesp one oo asenoaoC - 60e 9.6 D0 Sees ecice nercn eee eee eee 9.9 9.5 | Wilted simultaneously. Chick-peas.0 22-22: <= +2>5- === eee 10.1 - IDOl. ess ct scrssculenees eee eee ee 8.5 DOP acces aconee ce aeeere cee eee oic 8.2 8.9 | Wilted simultaneously. Could not recover in damp chamber. Mp oe leaves do not droop; they merely fold together. COMPARISON OF WILTING COEFFICIENT OF PLANTS. 45 TaBLe X{I1.—Wilting-coe ficient determinations in soil No. 30 (fine sandy loam), moisture equivalent 18.5, for different plants grown simultaneously in the same pot with Kubanka wheat—Continued. Coeffi- Plant species or variety. cient Mean. Comparison with Kubanka wheat. Banfoin, S- 2.1. 24931 ......-- 265. 225--- 9.0 Doze yess: Bera Saysteic ad teen 2 Seat 10.1 NNO Mee orate a cannns weielesieisineinieisci'si= 9:1 9.4 | Wilted simultaneously. (CRG ies 19 [a See eene ore cee ceseeercass 10.5 ee asec miniciecinwc cts totetalnt 10. 4 IO). peed Bee S See pee eeSpereemasccecs 10.7 10.5 Do 9.3 9.4 9.4 Do. Momting-SlOby 2s. 25. <5 o sesso o-s25-2<2 10.5 DNER ey ise nomi oe = cis iais/aisiaisielsviai= 10.8 DY) ~ s cena nbonoseonepesoouebodeleeae 10.7 10.7 Do, Cottons Columbia 22.222... << ob eee eee ae 11.0 10] os meee eae eee: 9.4 1 BY ae Sg NS OS See Ane soe 9.6 | 9.8 | Wilted simultaneously, Vernonia marginata ........-........-- 10.2 POO Socios Sect uote aicceh mises oielo elas 9.8 ibys ye ete eA tA ce eS Ree ee, Meigs 10.1} 10.0 Do Artemisia gnaphalodes.................- 9.3 1D Ae Be Ne ee 10.7 Ole fae ee se acon ete seve tates 10.0 1 DTG pS, Ca eS Se SS Se ee ee 10.9 OE ee conse He ee eels ain eS ac 10.7 ] 0 [0 ko re eee NE, See Se ae 9.9} 10.3 Do. For all determinations, soil No. 30.|.......-.-- 9.7 Probable error of Mean... ... 25 .s<]a<---.<. ans + .02 Probable error of single observa- |........-. + .04 tion. Taste XIV.—Plants grown simultaneously in the same sealed pot with Kubanka wheat, G. I. 1440, but no soil-moisture determinations recorded. Number ‘ T Plants. of pots. Notes. WSLS Gress ose sects ee eine nen ao eeee eee ee 8 | Wilted simultaneously. Ranunculus septentrionalis.........------------------ 2 Do. Ranunculus abortivus.........-.-.-.---------- seaeieok 5 Do. IN COTES CAIAIUS ee nee pee eee na eee ee eee eee eae == 2| Wheat wilting; flag dying back. IReltan Gna wil fini Chon cee ese as a eee nee eae 2 | Wilted simultaneously. IBSHDOG ss ane ee eee ss er eee eee 2 Oo. Datura stramonium........-..------- 2 Do. Adiantum pedatum..........--. sale 3 Do. Polystichum acrostichoides 4 Do. Me patie teMOD ese tess. see eee ae oo aia ae en = a= 2 Do. Rei Piety 0 ooo Gone ane So cone eno: Reso oa ee ee ao 2 Do. Heteranthera reniformiste 32-22 se ee ae ee niet === = 3 Do. JURA OE ee ese Se sb soot sccseesans aeoeesse 3 | Wheat wilting; onion dying back. The results obtained by the method of simultaneous culture are in practical agreement with the determinations already discussed, as will be seen by referring to Tables XIII and XIV. In nearly every instance the plant under observation wilted simul- taneously with the wheat growing in the same pot. The corn showed a little more discoloration than the wheat in some instances, while in the case of the sorghum the leaves did not roll quite so much as the wheat. The emmer showed a tendency to roll more than the wheat. With the remainder of the plants tested the wilting occurred simul- taneously with the wheat, as nearly as could be determined. A single wheat seedling was used in each pot. Since the root dis- tribution of this seedling was not sufficient to permeate the whole mass of soil, we would expect the wilting-coefficient determinations to show in a modified degree the differences exhibited by coarse- 230 METHOD FOR PLANTS HAVING NO DEFINITE WILTING POINT. 47 rooted and fine-rooted plants in the preceding determinations. In other words, the wheat plants in the pots occupied also by coarse- rooted plants would tend to give a higher wilting coefficient than those in the pots occupied wholly by fine-rooted plants. This is in accordance with the results obtained, the corn and some of the legumes giving a mean wilting coefficient a little above the average. The results obtained by observing the relative time of wilting of two different plants growing in the same soil mass are then in accord with the conclusions drawn from a comparison of the wilting coeffi- cients obtained with different plants as indicators, namely, that the differences exhibited by crop plants as regards their ability to reduce the moisture content of the soil before wilting occurs are so small as to be of little practical significance in the selection of crops for semiarid regions. There is no evidence that drought resistance in a plant is due to an additional water supply made available for growth by virtue of a greater ability on the part of that plant to remove moisture from the soil. METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR PLANTS HAVING NO DEFINITE WILTING POINT. The wilting coefficient of a given soil can be found for most plants by the method already described. In the case of plants having aerial water-storage tissues or thick, heavy leaves this procedure can not be followed, since they have no well-defined wilting point. The method herein described makes it possible to determine when a plant of this kind is no longer able to obtain water from the soil as rapidly as it is given off to the air by the plant. This condition is analogous to wilting in the case of plants without water-storage tissues. Let us consider a fleshy plant such as a cactus, the roots of which are well established in a mass of soil contamed in an impervious pot, with the surface of the soil sealed to prevent loss of moisture except through the transpiration of the plant. Consider this system supported on knife-edges located on opposite sides of the pot, and suppose the system balanced with suitable counterweights so that it is in stable equilibrium when the plant is in a horizontal position, but with the center of gravity high enough to form a system of some sensibility. This system if set in motion will oscillate about the point of equilibrium. As the plant begins to lose water through transpiration, water will move from the soil to replace the water lost from the plant and the soil end of the system will become lighter and rise in consequence. This process will be repeated as often as the balance of the system is readjusted to the original zero point, until finally the soil is no longer able to supply water to the plant at 230 48 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. a rate sufficient to meet the transpiration requirements. The plant itself will then begin to lose water from its storage tissues and the plant side of the system will consequently become lighter, with the result that the plant will eventually move upward or in an opposite direction to its former motion. The moisture content of the soil at this point is the wilting coefficient. Between these two extreme conditions there occurs a brief period during which the soil is able to supply some water to the plant, but not in sufficient quantity to offset the amount lost when the trans- piration is greatest. During this time the balanced system will Fig. 2.—Apparatus for determining the wilting coefficient for plants with water-storage tissues. The glass pot containing the cactus is clamped into a brass ring which is supported on knife-edges and pro- vided with suitable weights for adjusting the sensibility and restoring the balance. appear sluggish and uncertain in its movement, as if no changes in the moisture content were taking place, although weighings made upon the whole system will show that water is being lost. One form of apparatus which has been used in making these determinations is shown in figure 2. It consists essentially of a brass ring suspended by steel knife-edges which are so inserted that the edges lie in the same straight line. The glass pot is held within. this ring and is further supported on two rods extending horizontally — 1It is possible with a balanced system of this kind to distinguish between absorption and transpiration by determining the loss in weight and the weight which must be added to the soil (or plant) centroid to restore the balance of the system. 230 METHOD FOR PLANTS HAVING NO DEFINITE WILTING POINT. 49 from the lower part of the ring. Four thumbscrews working upon rubber packing serve to clamp the glass pot securely into position. A threaded brass rod extends downward from the lowest point of the ring and carries a pointer at its lower end. This rod also carries one or more cylindrical weights, which are screwed up or down on the rod until the desired sensibility is obtained. A second coun- terpoise carried on a threaded rod parallel to the plant serves to counterbalance the excess weight of the soil over the plant and pro- vides a convenient means of balancing the system. The exact position of this counterpoise can be recorded from day to day, if desired, by a simple scale measurement from the ring to the edge of the counterpoise. A sheet-metal cylinder closed at one end surrounds the glass jar and is held in position by friction on the outside ring. This cylinder is either nickel plated or covered with Fig. 3.—Simple apparatus for determining the wilting coefficient for plants with water-storage tissues. The system is suspended from a piece of knitting needle which is cemented to the walls of the pot. aluminum paint and serves to equalize the temperature of the pot. The surface of the soil is covered with wax composed of a mixture of beeswax and tallow or of paraffin and petrolatum. When small plants are to be used the apparatus can be very simply set up with the aid of a short length of rod and some suitable cement. An apparatus of this kind is shown in figure 3. The cactus is potted in an ordinary thin-walled drinking glass, the plant being placed at one side of the center and the surface of the soil covered with a layer of wax. As a substitute for knife-edges a piece of a knitting needle is cemented across the top of the glass with De Khotinsky’s hard cement,' the latter being reenforced with loops of wire cemented to the walls of the pot. A brass rod or heavy wire about 3 millimeters in diameter and 60 or 70 centimeters long is then 1 This cement softens somewhat in direct sunlight, and the pot should not be left suspended under heat conditions. 8477°—Bul. 230—12-——4 50 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. bound with fine wire to the outside of the glass and cemented as shown, to serve as a support for the counterpoise. When suspended between suitable supports the system oscillates about its position of equilibrium, which can be adjusted by means of the counter- poise. The end of the counterpoise rod in this case serves as an Fig. 4.—Simple apparatus for determining the wilting coefficient for plants which have no sharp wilting point. Knife-edges are employed which render the system much more seusitive than the one shown in figure 3. index. A vertical rod for changing the sensibility, while conven- ient, is not necessary in a small system of this kind, as this adjust- ment can be quite readily made by warming the cement and moving one end of the supporting rod slightly. In the apparatus shown a weight of 1 gram applied at the center of the pot produced a deflec- tion of 20 millimeters at the end of the pointer, so that a change in the moisture content amount- ing to 0.1 gram was readily ob- served. This sensibility can be edges as in figure 4. Another form of the apparatus is shown in figure 5. Two nar- row slots are milled halfway through a piece of 4-inch square steel, so as to engage the opposite . é walls of the glass pot, and a rod Se a for adjusting the sensibility of Pe, $Draram swig ts consti efit: the system is inserted in the eem- at points where it engages the walls of the pot in ter. In attaching the knife-edges order to reenforce the cement joint. to the pot the slots and the edges of the pot are coated with hot cement and forced together. A convenient counterweight is shown in figure 6. The coarse adjustment is made by sliding the counterweight along the sup- porting rod, after which it is clamped by the set screw. Exact 230 increased by the use of knife- « METHOD FOR PLANTS HAVING NO DEFINITE WILTING POINT. 51 adjustment is then effected by means of the threaded nut on the counterweight. When a fleshy plant with a well-developed root system is used, and the soil contains a suitable amount of water, the system acts essentially as described above. The plant will continually tend to move downward from its initial position of equilibrium, owing to the movement of water from the opposite side of the system to replace the water transpired by the plant. As the soil becomes drier this movement becomes less marked and indeterminate, until finally the direction of motion is reversed, the plant moving up- ward as its own weight begins to be reduced through the loss of water. Fic. 6.—A convenient counterpoise weight for use in + os : adjusting the balancing system. A coarse adjust- This 1S well illustrated by the ment is effected by moving the counterpoise observations given in Table Ve weight along the rod and clamping with a set piewane.clearly the three stages .“",aaa. characteristic of a balanced sys- tem of this kind. The table includes observations made with a bal- anced cactus plant (Opuntia ficus indica) and with a young lemon plant (Citrus limonum), the latter serving to show the wilting of the plant which accompanies the change in the direction of motion of the system. TaBLE XV.—Observations with two balanced systems, one containing a cactus plant and the other a lemon plant. Plant and time of observation. Weight. Notes. Cactus plant (Opuntia ficus indica): Grams. Feb. 8, 5.45 p.m 648.4 | Balanced and adjusted to zero. Feb. 9, 9.30 a.m... Eee --| 648.1 | Plant down; readjusted to zero. Feb. 11,5 p.m... oie --| 646.1 Do. Feb. 18, 5p. 644.8 Do Feb. 14, 10 a.m 644.6 Do Feb. 15, 10 a.m 644.4 Do Feb. 16, 9.30 644.3 Do. Feb. 16,5 p.m 643.9 | Balanced, no change. Feb. 17,5 p.m 643. 7 Do. Feb. 18, 5 p.m 643.55 | Plant up; readjusted to zero. Feb. 20, 5p. m 642.85 Do. Lemon plant (Citrus limonum): Dec. 5,5 p.m 579.41 | Adjusted to zero (Citrus limonum). Dec. 6, 5 p. 574.50 | Plant down; readjusted to zero. Dec. 7, 5p. 573. 55 0. Dec. 8, 5 p. 570. 85 Do Dec. 9, 5 p. 568. 20 Do Dec. 10, 5 p. 565. 83 Do Dec. 12, 5p 559. 85 Do Dec. 13, 4p 557. 75 Do Dec. 15, 4p 553. 40 Do. Dec. 17,4p 549. 54 Do. Dec. 19, 5p 545.77 | Balanced. Dec. 20, 5p 544.16 | Plant up; readjusted to zero. Dec. 21,5 p 542.56 | Plant up; wilting. Dec. 22, 5p 541.95 | Plant up; wilted. Dec. 23, 4p 539.50 | Plant up; lower leaves drying. bo iv) —} 52 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. Reference to the weighings in Table XV will show a continuous loss of water, decreasing somewhat at the time the system reverses its direction of motion. While this loss of water is taking place the soil end of the system at first rises continuously; then the system remains balanced for a short time, and finally the plant end of the system rises. It will be noted that the wilting of the lemon plant followed immediately after the change of direction of motion of the system. In Table XV is given a series of observations on three balanced systems (PI. I, fig. 1), two plants being grown in each system, as fol- lows: (1) Cactus and squash, (2) cactus and wheat, and (3) olive and wheat. The cactus is capable of losing a relatively large amount of water without giving visible evidence of loss, while the leaves of the olive will dry and become brittle without wilting or rolling. These two plants form typical examples of cases where it is necessary to resort to a balancing method in order to determine the wilting coefficient. TaBLE XVI.—Observations with three balanced systems containing three pairs of plants. Plants and time of observation.| Weight. Notes. Cactus and squash plants: Grams. Oct. 1, 9.a.m Balanced and adjusted to zero. Plant down; readjusted to zero. Plant up; squash wilted. Rewatered October 4; the squash growing and in good condition. Balanced and adjusted to zero. ras down; readjusted to zero. 0 Do. Balanced. Plants up; squash wilting; readjusted. Plants up; squash wilted. Squash cut off, resealed, and cor- rections made for change in weight. Plants up; readjusted to zero. Do. Do. System balanced. Feats down; readjusted to zero. 0. Do. Do. Do. Do. Plants balanced. re up; wheat rolled and wilted. 0. Do. plants: eb 28;"5 pts 2205. te 520.2 | Balanced and adjusted to zero. Maris: 980iasmeessa-2 222 517.62 | Plants down; readjusted to zero. iM Mar. lA SOsp atlas ase 511.15 0. Mar. 2,9:30'ao 0. o. - oc -se 507.9 Do Mars 2, bsLOi pete ee noes 501.6 Do Mare 3 Oia ki ene cee 499.5 Do Mar-3, 0.00 ).Ms.>-s..s5-6 494.6 Do. Mar: 495 )p. Wisse oct aeeeane 491.25 Do. Mar’, 12 mo. ocoseneete 490.4 | Balanced. Mars6, 1O:a.0i0 ) Ge sande: <2 58 8 eee eects nities cmncie se eotole 4. 66 18 2.6 1.79 Silzcace 600 Bee ie AES ie CSS See eee ee eric 5.5 42 3. 03 1. 82 Orie ies (00 86s ee Oo SaaS taps: SUS MeaSaos 25555 6.74 44 3.76 1.79 Di jase sate h LOR GING — 356 (de ee oe Be es hes locos Joe 15 452" +20 eee Biel eins 06 C0 RO oe OS 5 ee eS ere ee ce 9.7 14 4.8 2. 02 5 kU) AE (Ot ORE Be SS ee aaa eee San? 12.0 45 6.3 1.91 (75a ease Oe ee eee oe Se. ame aes eee eee 14.5 il 7.8 1.86 cabal iste hd pics. 2 eee ees ee eee Sasa 18.1 36 9.3 1.95 Bt al Pees (a Us Pie aS os eS Ree eee eee 18.5 418 9.7 1.91 OAs NSE TAG Ky (ef ree Sees eet arise ae al eS SS 5 = 18.6 64 8.84 2.10 OAR Wed Grats 1d SO RE eee Se Ser Re Se Deere ee 18.9 45 10.4 1.82 Sholay lense cee ee eeener een aa Sfapebt ess 2s 2 2B hal 9 13.4 1.74 130A S . Fos ce cease ore = ae cise ee 23.8 34 12.7 1.87 Dalunee GO. 2b ck sa cen nseennereu nomaece scacsceseeeeee 25.0 13 13.9 1.80 13) Clay loam: & taeeereees kaos os ace ae ee 27.4 55 14.8 1,85 j hbo bo Bs, GOD. SOLIS E se cers Sass cee ods Rete eee 29.3 33 17.1 Pie Guleases Gece eas. 5 Se eee eee eases eee 30.2 16 16.3 1.85 Mean... .<-csabsc0k: bes tech-sse- =~ sabe s|omnaene: cess] eee | 1.85 a") co] io} oy i) & i) fo) 4 3 i=) 5 ° 5 B oO iss) i=] H- The results given in Tables XVII and XVIII are combined graphically in figure 7, in which the wilting coefficients are given 230 INDIRECT DETERMINATION OF THE WILTING COEFFICIENT. 61 as ordinates and the corresponding moisture equivalents as abscissas. The graph is a straight line passing through the origin, and the slope is the reciprocal of 1.84. APPLICATION OF INDIRECT WILTING-COEFFICIENT DETERMINATIONS TO THE INTERPRETATION OF FIELD MOISTURE DETERMINATIONS. The value of the wilting coefficient as calculated from the moisture equivalents is shown in connection with the following field deter- minations of soil moisture made at Akron, Colo., in 1910.1 The data presented graphically in figure 8 represent daily moisture determinations in 1-foot sections to a depth of 6 feet in a soil in which 5 TE RSP ae eer ae aa Pee Rhea EEE REREEeees _ 3 2 SEES RRR SRR RRR Aas Slee e ee eo eee ieee ld apna nn ae ised Ree hae) ele Biz vis _ TRSERREERRE eae eee _ _J SRS RSP e aS Se Sees a eee eee SSSR 8R4 Fn 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 32 54 MOISTUPE EQUIVALENT. Fig. 7.—Chart showing the linear relationship between the wilting coefficient and the moisture equivalent for 28 types of soil ranging in texture from coarse sands to the heaviest clays. Kubanka wheat, G. I. 1440, was growing. The determinations are of special interest, owing to the fact that the total rainfall during the seven weeks represented in the chart was only 1.09 inches and was distributed in five showers, as follows: June 25, 0.31 inch; June 30, 0.05 inch; July 2, 0.30 inch; July 5, 0.38 inch; July 22, 0.05 inch. Total, 1.09 inches. None of these rains penetrated beneath the layer of air-dried surface soil. The rainfall during the whole period can, then, be eliminated so far as its influence upon the available moisture is concerned. The following field notes show the stage of development and con- dition of the crops during this period: June 9. Sampling started; average height of leaves at this time, when extended 8 inches; average dry weight per stem, 0.6 gram. June 21. Very dry; plants not wilted but color seems lighter; awns just coming through; lower leaves and small plants drying up rapidly. June 24. Heads just out of the boot. 1 See also Shantz, H.L. Natural Vegetation as an Indicator of the Capabilities of Land for Crop Pro- duction in the Great Plains Area. Bulletin 201, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1911, pp. 30-33. 230 62 A poh ar a ee ick 8 SSS VENICE 251. LAPIS! /§_20 AA TTT LAMA Pelee] i chil es caer MOET Bee abel MAL Peer Tr pa a jp T TT Tose a os eal eae aw TTR PROB waS pease ore ART eck a i = PIOSTUPE CONTENT (N PEFR CENT, Re Be eee = az mi goes on acd aca a iaanaaninl Fic. 8.—Chart showing the daily moisture determinations in 1-foot sec- tions to a depth of 6 feet in a soil on which Kubanka wheat was grow- ing. The heavy horizontal straight lines on the chart represent the wilt- ing coefficient as calculated from the moisture equivalent independently of the moisture determinations or of field observations. The wheat wilted on July 1 and was cut July 22. The graphs show that the mois- ture curves are either coincident with or below the wilting coefficient on July 1, indicating that there was no longer moisture available for growth. The continuous loss of water from the soil after wilting takes place is also shown. 230 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. June 26. Wheat well headed; just about to wilt. June 27. In good con- dition. Note.—Weather cool and cloudy during June 26, 27, and 28. July 1. Beginning to wilt. July 4. Almost dry. July 7. Almost dead. July 8. About two- thirds of the stem is dry. July 9. Leaves nearly all dead. July 10. No evidence that the plants are get- ting water. July 11. Very dry. July 19. Extremely dry. July 22. Dead ripe; harvested. The heavy hori- zontal straight line shown in connec- tion with the deter- minations for each foot-section repre- sents the calculated value of the wilting coefficient. This value was calcu- lated by means of the relationship already established from moisture- equivalent deter- minations made upon a composite of all the samples taken in that sec- tion. It is thus entirely independ- ent of any direct INDIRECT DETERMINATION OF THE WILTING COEFFICIENT. 63 observations of the wilting of the crop. A study of the moisture curve shows that the moisture in the first foot was reduced to the wilting coefficient on June 16; and in the second foot on June 23. At this time the field notes show that the plants were beginning to suffer from lack of moisture. The larger plants were apparently drawing their principal moisture supply from the third foot. The smaller plants with more restricted root systems were confined to soil masses whose water content had been reduced below the wilting coefficient. The plants continued to show evidence of lack of sufficient moisture until June 27, although wilting did not actually occur. On this date a decided improvement in their condition was noted, due to cool, cloudy weather for three successive days and to the fact that the root systems were beginning to extract moisture from the fourth foot. Hot dry weather followed, and by July 1 the crop was beginning to wilt. It is significant that at this time all of the moisture curves are either practically coincident with or below the line representing the calculated wilting coefficient. In other words, the wilting of the plants occurred simultaneously with the exhaustion of the soil moisture available for growth, as calculated in a wholly independent way from the moisture-equivalent determinations. After July 1 the crop never recovered and from this time gradually dried and ripened. However, the curves show that the loss of water from the 4 feet of soil through which the roots had penetrated con- tinued even after the plants had died. The data presented show clearly that the wilting coefficient de- termined indirectly in the laboratory is applicable to field conditions and that by the use of the ratio already established it is possible to estimate with sufficient accuracy for field purposes the moisture content at which plants growing under field conditions will become permanently wilted. A study of the moisture curves also shows that it is practically impossible to measure the wilting coefficient by means of field samples. There is no way of determining in an un- confined soil mass the zone from which the plant draws its moisture supply at the time of wilting. The upper soil mass is usually reduced below the wilting coefficient long before wilting actually takes place; while, if the samples are taken from the extreme limit of the root system, soil masses which have not been penetrated may contain moisture in excess of the wilting coefficient. Moreover, comparisons of field determinations of the wilting coefficient of two plants have no significance whatever unless the relative moisture retentiveness of the two soil samples has been independently determined. This is well illustrated in the chart, the wilting coefficient ranging from 13.5 to 7.5 per cent in the different foot-sections. In other words, 230 64 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. the third foot-section with 13.5 per cent of water is reduced to its wilting coefficient, while if the sixth foot-section had 13.5 per cent of water it would contain 6 per cent of water available for growth. OTHER INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS OF THE WILTING COEFFICIENT. The relationship established between the wilting coefficient and the moisture equivalent led to the belief that a similar relationship might be found for some of the other physical measurements of soil-moisture retentivity. Accordingly similar comparisons were made of the wilting coefficient with the hygroscopic coefficient, the moisture-holding capacity, and the soil texture, as expressed by mechanical analysis. The last-mentioned determination does not measure moisture retentivity, but it does measure certain properties of the soil which determine the moisture retentivity to a large extent. The results of those comparisons will now be considered. RELATION OF THE WILTING COEFFICIENT TO THE HYGROSCOPIC COEFFICIENT. When a dry soil is placed in a saturated atmosphere it will absorb water vapor until a condition of approximate equilibrium is attained. The moisture content of a soil under such conditions is known as the hygroscopic coefficient of that soil. The determination of the hygroscopic coefficient, unless carried out with special precautions, is not very exact. It is influenced by variation in temperature and by any departure from a condition of complete saturation of the surrounding air. The time element is also an important factor, since the soil absorbs water very slowly, particularly near the point of equilibrium. In fact, equilibrium, theoretically, would not be obtained until the interstitial spaces of the soil were practically filled with water. The method thus has certain inherent disadvantages which are not encountered in moisture- equivalent determinations. The hygroscopic-moisture determina- tions given in this paper were carried out in a double-walled ice chest kept in a subterranean room, where the temperature was approxi- mately 20° C.2. The bottom of the chest was covered with water and the zinc walls were lined with blotting paper, which was kept saturated. A comparison, of the hygroscopic coefficient and the wilting coefficient for a number of soils is given in Table XX. The soils used are the same as those employed in the preceding experiments, being arranged in the order of increasing moisture equivalents. 1 Hilgard, E. W. Soils, New York, 1906, p. 196. 2 Determinations by Mr. J. W. McLane. 230 INDIRECT DETERMINATION OF THE WILTING COEFFICIENT. 65 TaBLe XX.—Relation of the wilting coefficient to the hygroscopic coefficient of soils ranging from sand to clay. Wilting coefficient. Ratio of Hygro- | |—_____———_- hygro- . P scopic Types of soil. petatont. Number of coefficient determi- | Average. | to wilting nations. coefficient, ba as UT Sere Enea meee oon nee eee Pee SHMCUMOUIME wae sees 5 -'c tok s accnes meson emaese _ WWwWonw i ATIC) LO Tae Se aa eee ecm re aa RI VIRQAIY 3 Sa. Sh yon isn a-ye son ota se Sexe TAI C9 bs COD NYSP S2 AT'S COBO BS bet Deeece BNW NWMAONIAWOMROWWwot PPPERSASOS OS mescows WON ANORWOWA1W OHO RAWAO f=) 3 for) — Toa ro" ea cy de dl The hygroscopic determinations given in the table are the mean of duplicate measurements. The determinations range from 0.5 per cent in sand to 13.2 per cent in clay loam. The corresponding wilting coefficients have been discussed in connection with Table XVII. The ratio of the hygroscopic coefficient to the wilting coefficient is given for each soil in the last column of Table XX. The mean of this ratio is 0.68, with a probable error of +0.012. This ratio presents a second method of determining the wilting coefficient when the hygroscopic coefficient is known, as follows: i fficient Jose ie Ls = wilting coefficient. Heinrich * determined the nonavailable moisture in six types of soil, using corn and oats for indicator plants. He also measured the hygroscopic coefficient of each soil used in his experiments. Com- puted from his measurements, the mean ratio of the hygroscopic coefficient to the wilting coefficient, together with the probable error of the mean, gives the value 0.696 +0.03, as compared with the ratio 0.68+0.01 obtained from our experiments. While Heinrich’s deter- mination show more variation than our own, the ratio obtained from his results agrees within the limits of his probable error with the 1 Heinrich, R. Zweiter Bericht tiber die Verhiltnisse und Wirksamkeit der landwirtschaftlichen Versuchs-Stationen zu Rostock, 1894, pp. 28-32. 8477°—Bul. 230—12——_5 66 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. ratio obtained in our experiments. -()4) ces — PP in Ma wh, INDEX. Page. Abutilon, determinations of wilting’ coefficient......................-- 2i28; a2, a0 Accuracy, comparative, of different methods for determining wilting coeffi- CHET 5 «gree AE mene ee) aa al On ee NS TT eer 14-16, 71-72 Acorus calamus, comparison with wheat by simultaneous culture.........-..-. 46 Adiantum pedatum, comparison with wheat by simultaneous culture.......-.. 45, 46 Aeron, method when wax seal.is used.......--....-.----------bs-eeeeeeeee 12 Beogupants, eliect on wilting coefficient. -...-.-.-.. 0-2. s2-- 4 lien de eeee 19-22 Agropyron spp., determinations of wilting coefficient...............------ 21, 36, 43 Akron, Colo., determinations of soil moisture....................--2----2----- 61 Alfalfa, determinations of wilting coefficient...............-...-.-..--- 29, 31, 36, 44 Allium cepa, comparison with wheat by simultaneous culture...........------ 46 Alway, F. J., on moisture content of soils......-..-.- es ee she Se he ee 66 Amaranthus retroflexus, determinations of wilting coefficient.............--.. 37, 46 Analysis, mechanical, use in determining wilting coefficient...........-...- 68-72, 76 Apparatus, use in determining wilting coefficient...........-..-- 12-13, 47-53, 57, 64 See also separate items of apparatus, as, Balance, Pots, etc. Aristida longiseta, determinations of wilting coefficient...................- 21, 36, 44 Artemisia gnaphalodes, determinations of wilting coefficient..............-.-. 37, 46 Available moisture. See Moisture, available. Balance, use in determining wilting coefficient..............------ 8, 9, 47-53, 74, 76 Balancing method of determining wilting coefficient. See Balance. Bamboo, comparison with wheat by simultaneous culture............-------- 46 Barley, determinations of wilting coefficient........ 22, 26-29, 31, 32, 35-38, 42, 66, 75 Beeswax, use in determining wilting coefficient..............---.-------- 13-14, 49 See also Wax. Beet, sugar, determinations of wilting coefficient..............--------------- 37, 45 Bellefourche, 8. Dak., source of soil samples used in experiments........-...-- 59 Bergen, J. Y., on paneer rier tste 2c Nin (2s ata ye ee ane ie ae ere EY AL! 22 Bouteloua oligostachya, determinations of wilting coefficient............----- 36, 44 Briggs, L. J., and McLane, J. W., on moisture equivalent of soils......-.-.-- 56, 68, 72 Shantzb. Ee oniwax-sealamethod sss... 5- ens eee 18 Martin, O. F’., and Pearce, J. R., on the mechanical analyses of 2/1 SPA Re Sere e Ee 270 eae ee ch aoe ee ee ne EL 68 on the moisture-holding capacity of soils.............---------- 67 Bromus inermis, determinations of wilting coefficient................------ 21, 36, 43 Buckwheat, determinations of wilting coefficient.............--.-.---------- SB ais Cactus, determinations of wilting coefficient. . Deed ens 3 ee aa ue ae Aono ae LO Calcium carbonate, use in promoting growth of noah Oe de ote A ae TE Cameron, F. K., dnd Gallagher, F. E., on Heinrich’s hygroscopic one de- POM ai OM See ae ee er er ee eee Seta eI no eda ear 66 Canada field pea. See Pea, Canada field. Chaetochloa italica, determinations of wilting coefficient..............-..-.-.- 36, 40 Chamber, damp, use in determining wilting coefficient................-. 18, 22, 23, 75 Cheesecloth, experimental use in determining wilting coefficient.............-- 23-24 230 79 80 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS, Page. Chick-pea, determinations of wilting coefficient.................-.2.--2e00000- 37, 44 Citrus sp. See Lemon. Clay, modeling, use in determining wilting coefficient..............-........- 14 Clements, F. E., on relative wilting points for different plants................. r Clover, red, determinations of wilting coefficient..................-.-. 26, 31, 37, 45 Coefficent, hygroscopic, relation to wilting coefficient ........... 64-66, 71-73, 76-77 saturation, relation of wilting coefficient..............-...-sse-0e- 66-68 wilting, causes of variation in determinations.................------ 53-56 GUMMABIL. --cecc cane nus + oot apnianme cen BPP 8-10, 48 determinations for different plants. See Names of plants. methods of determination... ...... 1 ,.on-wilting point.of plants. .2..c.255.2.cs+-. shee See 23 Loughridge, R. H., on moisture-holding capacity of soils...........----------- 67 Lupinus pusillus, determinations of wilting coefficient..........-.....-.------ 37, 45 McLane, J. W., and Briggs, L. J., on moisture equivalent of soils.........-. 56, 68, 72 determinations of moisture equivalents..............-------- 57, 64 Martin, O. F., Pearce, J. R., and Briggs, L. J., on the mechanical analyses of Sk ce Jute CRS NR aR Se ane me eS 68 Measurements of moisture retentivity. See Retentivity. Mechanical analysis. See Analysis, mechanical. Melilotus alba, determinations of wilting coefficient. ..............--.------- 37, 44 Mesophytes, determinations of wilting coefficient............-.....-..---- 22, d0,30 Method, balancing. See Balance. wax-seal. See Wax. Methods, indirect, of determining wilting coefficient.......................- 8,56-73 of comparing wilting coefficients. See Culture, simultaneous. determining wilting coefficient................----- 8, 10-25, 47-53, 56-73 See also Balance, Formulas, and Wax. Millet, determinations of wilting coefficient.................-..-.-- 22, 35-38, 40, 75 8477°—Bul. 230—12——6 82 WILTING COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT PLANTS. Page. Milo, determinations of wilting coefficient.............-................ 26-80, 32, 36 Modeling clay. See Clay. Moisture, available, relation to wilting coefficient........................-. 8-10, 73 equivalent. Sce Equivalent, moisture. nonayailable, definition. - 4.2225. 020s6e sel 2. 6-2 32 2 8-10 soil, interpretation of field determinations..................-.-.-- 8, 61-64 relation to wilting and saturation coefficients............... 24, 66-68 retentivity. See Retentivity. Morning-glory, determinations of wilting coeflicient.................-..------ 37, 45 Muskmelon, determinations of wilting coefficient................--........--- 31, 37 Nonavailable moisture. See Moisture, nonavailable. Nopalea cochenelifera, determinations of wilting coefficient................--- 33, 37 Oak, determinations of wilting coefficient... ..........2-2-.---.s:Js0s0eeeeme 45 Oats, determinations of wilting coefficient. ......... 22, 26-29, 31, 32, 35-38, 42, 65, 75 Olive, determinations of wilting coefficient. ....................-.-.-- 52, 58, 54, 76 Opuntia ficus indica. See Cactus. Pachyphytum aduncum, determinations of wilting coefficient................. 33, 37 Paraffin, use in determining wilting coefficient...............--------- 13, 14, 49, 75 Parasites, effect on determinations of wilting coeflicient.................-..--- 55 Pea, Canada field, determinations of wilting coefficient.........- 26-29, 31, 32, 36, 44 Pearce, J. R., Briggs, L. J., and Martin, O. F., on the mechanical analyses of ROM: 8s 252 A Bion Se cin HAce hem Gee = Ce Men ee aa ee 68 Peltandra virginica, comparison with wheat by simultaneous culture .......... 46 Petrolatum, use in determining wilting coefficient................-..-- 13, 14, 49, 75 Plantago sp., determinations of wilting coeflicient............--------------- 37, 45 Plants, comparison of wilting coefficients by simultaneous culture -...... 39-47, 51-53 determination of wilting coefficient by balancing method...........-. 47-53 influence of kind on wilting coefficient..............---.--- 7-8, 19-22, 33-34 See also names of different plants. old, wilting coefficients compared with seedlings. ...-..-- MP 19-22 various wilting coefficients... .-.=.2222..20-4 |.-4--+ 2.5222 ¢=5=s eee 34-38 See also names of different plants. wilting point. See Point, wilting. Point, death, comparison with wilting point.........----- Tn. 8, 16-19 wilting, relation to soil-moisture content.....-.-------------- 14-19, 23, 33, 74 Polystichum acrostichoides, comparison with wheat by simultaneous culture .. 46 Potato, determinations of wilting coefficient..............---------------+-+--- 37,45 Pots, impervious, use in determining wilting coefficient.....-...-.-.--------- 10, 11-14, 16, 24, 39-50, 53, 56, 75, 76 Pump, centrifugal, use in determining wilting coefficient......---------------- 12-13 Ranunculus septentrionalis, determinations of wilting coefficient.-.--........-. 32,37 spp., comparison with wheat by simultaneous culture..........-- 46 Rape, determinations of wilting coefficient...-....--------- PA | 28, 31, 37 Red clover. See Clover, red. Retentivity, soil moisture, relation of physiological to physical measure- TRENIS: 232 .. oe eee so par ane 7-16, 34, 56-61, 64-70, 72, 73 See also Formulas and soil. Rice, determinations of wilting coefficient..........----- 22, 26-29, 31, 32, 35-38, 42, 75 Room, dark, use in determining wilting coefficient....-...----------------- 16, 18, 64 Roots, distribution, relation to wilting coefficient... -- 8, 14, 23, 35, 38, 39, 45, 54-56, 76 Rye, determinations of wilting coefficient........---..---- 22, 26-29, 31, 32, 35-38, 75 230 INDEX. 83 Page Sachs, J., on wilting point as affected by type of soil........-.........-.-...-- 7 Salix, sp., comparison with wheat by simultaneous culture.................... 45, 46 Sanfoin, determinations of wilting coefficient..........-......--.-.-.-.-.---- 37, 45 Saturation coefficient. See Coefficient, saturation. Seedlings, wilting coefficients compared with old plants....................- 19-22 mumec sntuence on wilting coefficient. ....:.....2.---2.------eesceeeeselee 23-24 paaniz, H- L., and Briggs, L. J., on wax-seal method.-.............2...+--..- 18 Simultaneous culture. See Culture, simultaneous. Sitanion hystrix, determinations of wilting coefficient....................- 21, 36, 44 Soil, influence on wilting coefficient. . - - - 7-10, 15, 19-20, 24-34, 51, 57-60, 66-70, 74-76 Sorghum, determinations of wilting coefficient............. 22, 26-30, 32, 35-40, 46, 75 Sorgo, determinations of wilting coefficient................2...---.---- eee 26-28 Squash, determinations of wilting coefficient.................- 26-29, 31-33, 37, 52, 53 Stipa vaseyi, determinations of wilting coefficient.............-....--...-- 21, 36, 43 Sugar beet. See Beet, sugar. SE PMMLIIRO EI: ck 8 us ts Ste de A Sosa tice Gee Lee ee 73-77 Sunlight, relation to determinations of wilting coefficient............ 14, 22, 23-24, 55 System, balancing. See Balance. Tallow, use in determining wilting coefficients..................---...--.- 13, 14, 49 Tank, temperature-control, use in determining wilting coeflicient.......... 12-13, 18 Temperature, influence on wilting coefficient......... 8-10, 12-14, 16, 18, 49, 54, 55, 74 Tobacco, determinations of wilting coefficient....................--..-2...--- 55 Tomato, determinations of wilting coefficient................-.--- 22, 26-29, 31-33, 37 Transpiration, definition and methods of study...........-...-.-.- 9, 12, 15, 47-48, 76 Varieties of plants tested. See names of different plants; as, Corn, Oats, Wheat, etc. Vernonia marginata, determinations of wilting coefficient .............-...... 37, 46 Vetch, determinations of wilting coefficient.................---.------ 26-32, 37, 44 Vicia spp. See Vetch. Water. See Moisture. Water cress. See Cress, water. Wax, use in determining wilting coefficient.............-..------ 8, 10-24, 49, 75, 76 Wheat, comparison with other plants by simultaneous culture......-.....- 35, 39-47 determimations!of wilting coefficient..........-.-..-.---.52b-s5-s5- . 15-20, 22-24, 26-33, 35-46, 52, 53, 57, 59-63, 75 Wilting coefficient. See Coefficient, wilting. PemmION OL StAPCR A: 223-2525 22 ose se es sn 2 1) Le point. See Point, wilting. Xerophytes, determinations of wilting coefficient...............---------- 22, 35, 37 230 O .~* Ay ep ure Oe «ae ew ei aes Vier ay , f ; woe y Vays ; i eh tae ‘ Ay Fat Ae ee tnd + j Ae yey / 2 ORAS «1 eet an seree ae VA Te iY q ‘e" J P) ‘ soil EE RE AERA eal pels era Coy aaa sy Ok. 7A"! ian ¥ arte tivy easel rene od pete dite r 3 wv a : 1 Edy Veena Ose? 4 St DAL” Salat hy nate Rg ARATE er. ohhy ate 18 0" > OA Ne den lo 2) ee ‘ 4 ug q ‘oS la daar Geile ateieds ¥ anivdteoe wikithe : a te hiAls sA-e B aA, + Ff wee Ma ae - a - ¢ Cer, } Same” ie Wy a4 i 7 rene Tire tarp lety Hobe ww oe ' eh a ee a, ae fiend eaten ae ; a0 a Ooms mee , >. eae se | A ai! ‘ 44 3 ia u? 7 ‘ im. r) 7) 9 ji ‘ \ 4 i] 4 J i rs : ey ae N ba! ‘\ Abie a N ri \ 5B U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry, 19 ee and Agricultural BE hs) Engineering no. Bulletin 2e1-230 PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY oo — : ee a — - = : 7 - 7 ; det - "hentetee dee —_ whet oe Ent oe ge een ee