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14 Qe
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
BULLETIN 199
THE ETHNOARCHEOLOGY OF
CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA
By WENDELL H. OSWALT and JAMES W. VANSTONE
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1967
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.75 (cloth)
The Bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology began with
the publication in 1887 of “Bibliography of the Eskimo Language,”
by James C. Pilling. The content of the Bulletins has been as broad
as the contemporary interests of the field of anthropology, although
mainly restricted in scope to the Americas.
With the publication of Bulletin 200, this series will end, its place
being taken by a new series, Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology,
which was initiated in 1965 following the merging of the Bureau of
American Ethnology and the Department of Anthropology of the
U.S. National Museum into the Smithsonian Office of Anthropology.
The new series provides not only for publication of scholarly studies
of the American Indian but is worldwide in scope, reflecting the
broadening activities of the Smithsonian Institution’s anthropologists
over the past few decades.
Ricuarp B. WoopBury
Chairman
Smithsonian Office of Anthropology
as
ha
PREFACE
In Arctic and subarctic America, where the aboriginal lifeways of
Indians and Eskimos frequently have endured into the present century,
historical archeology rarely has been of primary interest to either the
ethnographer or the archeologist. In an area such as western Green-
land, where there was sustained contact between Europeans and
Eskimos, an exception is to be found. Northern Canadian historical
archeology has been unsystematic, while in Alaska only along Prince
William Sound (de Laguna, 1956; 1964), the Gulf of Alaska (Acker-
man, 1965), and the lower Copper River (VanStone, 1955) have
excavations been made at historic sites. In the Arctic and subarctic
of America archeologists have yet to fathom the ramifications of many
cultural continuities within the Christian Era, while the path of early
man into the New World is still largely unknown. With fascinating
problems such as these confronting them, it is not surprising that the
archeologists have avoided sites containing tin cans, bottle glass, and
crockery. Yet it is precisely these and other forms of trade goods in
the context of a rapidly changing sociocultural setting that directed
our attention to historical archeology in Alaska.
The geographical area of concern is the Kuskokwim River system
of southwestern Alaska, where we had sampled sites in the 1950’s.
However, our interest was drawn to historical archeology in a round-
about manner. In 1953, Oswalt drifted down the Kuskokwim River
in a small boat to collect tree-ring samples and to search for sites.
One of the recently abandoned villages sampled was Crow Village,
nearly 10 km. downstream from Aniak. While digging there, Oswalt
was visited by Eskimos who recounted fragmentary ethnographic
facts about the settlement and its occupants. When shown the
artifacts recovered, the Eskimos were able to recall specific artifact
uses and meanings. Thus, the collection served as an excellent prod
to their memories. In 1954, Oswalt returned to Aniak to reconstruct
riverine Eskimo ethnography, and with VanStone further excavations
were made into the Crow Village midden. Although the digging
period totaled only 3 weeks and frozen ground limited the depth of
excavation, the artifacts recovered were numerous and diverse in form.
In 1961 Oswalt analyzed a major source of ethnographic and historical
data from the lower river in the unpublished writings of the Moravian
Church missionary William Henry Weinland (Oswalt, 1963 b). Addi-
tionally, over the span of 10 years all of the published and many
I
IV BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
unpublished ethnographic and historical source materials for the region
have been studied.
After the accumulated Kuskokwim data were assessed, a number of
factors became apparent to guide future research along the river
system. First, the sector from the river mouth to the upstream com-
munity of Kalskag had been studied in broad outline (Oswalt, 1963 a,
1963 b) and the overall shifts of ethnic groups through historic time
plotted for the river system (Oswalt, 1962). Second, the two seasons
of anthropological studies of Edward Hosley (1961) on the upper
river were beginning to yield positive results for this, the least known
locality. A third consideration was that the middle sector of the river
had been investigated only in a superficial manner and was an area
suitable for developing a number of interests. ‘The emergent aim
became to gather additional information about the population of the
middle river from the time of historic contact until around 1900.
The ideal would have been to reconstruct completely the aboriginal
ethnographic scene through informants, but there was no potential
for doing so because of the rapidly fading memories of the people.
It therefore was decided to combine historical archeology with ethno-
eraphic reconstruction and the use of historical sources.
The excavation of the Crow Village site seemed a logical first step
toward a more complete culture history of middle Kuskokwim River
Eskimo and Indian life. The reasons for choosing to dig at Crow
Village are diverse and worthy of mention. First, it was occupied in
1843 when L. A. Zagoskin visited there and was still inhabited after
1900. ‘Thus, Crow Village could be expected to represent a seement of
a period of rapid change, one which was increasingly difficult for in-
formants to bring to mind. Second, from the test excavations of
previous years the site was known to be productive. Third, the area
was small enough to be excavated in a single summer. Finally, there
was the availability of informants who either were born at Crow
Village or had had intimate contact with the village and its inhabitants.
The Crow Village excavation was begun in early June of 1963 and
completed 5 weeks later. In retrospect, there were both advantages
and disadvantages in selecting this site for the purpose conceived. It
proved to contain less material than the midden tests had suggested,
and no clearly separate levels representative of Russian and then
American influences were established. Furthermore, individuals who
had been capable informants 9 years earlier were either dead or ap-
proaching senility in 1963, a fact which made it difficult to obtain
further information about the site and the recovered artifacts.
Historical archeology makes possible a realistic conjunction between
written history, oral history, and traditional ethnography for more
certain sociocultural reconstructions. Hopefully, the lines which
tile ect PREFACE Vv
divide scientific archeology from ethnography and history are largely
those of methodology and not purpose. The combined approach is
well established in the sphere of Near Eastern classical studies and is
an increasingly important method of studying New World ethnic
developments through time. In the study of primitive people it
seems sound to begin by first excavating historic archeological sites.
The comparative information available for the recent past is virtually
always more complete than for the more distant past. Thus, it is
logical to develop an archeological program in any particular geo-
eraphical area by digging the recent sites and then working back in
time to older sites. However, the overwhelming majority of archeolo-
gists compound their already staggering interpretive problems by
being obsessed with antiquity. Thus many potentially useful se-
quences hang in uncertain limbo or are linked to history by frail
suppositions and inferences. We hoped to avoid this pitfall through
the kind of archeology we undertook. A specific contribution of the
Crow Village data is that through them we may learn about the imme-
diate effects of material change when the agents of change are from
Western societies. This seems significant since it is innovations from
the Western world that most often have led modern primitives in new
directions. We hope that the Crow Village study will provide tangible
results in this direction.
After having excavated Crow Village and analyzed the collection,
we see additional sites that now have greater meaning. For example,
some 50 km. upstream is a site, Kwigiumpainukamiut, which is con-
temporary with Crow Village and was occupied both by Eskimos and
Indians (map 1). One end of the village was settled by Indians and
the other by Eskimos, thereby providing an opportunity to study a
situation of cultural contact in an archeological and quasi-historical
framework. Furthermore, some 16 km. still farther up the river is a
historic site of Indian occupancy. Finally, there is the old Russian
trading center of Kolmakoy Redoubt, whose excavation could provide
a valuable baseline for the kinds of objects introduced into the area.
The excavation of these archeological sites, together with historical
and ethnographic supplements, would make possible a well-rounded
study of the mutual impact of three peoples upon each other.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Excavations at the Crow Village site were supported by funds from
the University of Alaska, the University of California (Los Angeles),
the University of Toronto, and the Royal Ontario Museum. In the
field, Mr. and Mrs. Jack Harrop of the Northern Commercial Com-
pany at Aniak were particularly helpful in making local arrangements
for supplies and transportation. Mrs. Earl V. Clay, U.S. Commis-
VI BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
sioner in the same community, kindly made available vital statistics
records that have been useful in determining the local movements of
people in the middle Kuskokwim area. Mr. Anania Theodore of
Aniak and Mr. Sam Phillips of Little Russian Mission provided
valuable assistance in making the ethnographic reconstructions. Mr.
William M. Oswalt provided general assistance while in the field, and
we are pleased to acknowledge this aid.
We wish also to express our appreciation to Mr. Kenneth E. Kidd,
formerly of the Royal Ontario Museum and currently on the faculty
of Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, for his interest in and
support of the entire project. Other members of the museum staff
who assisted the authors in various aspects of the artifact and bone
analysis were Mr. Gerald Brett, Mr. Harold Burnham, and Dr. R. L.
Peterson. The photographs were taken by the museum photographer,
Mr. Lee Warren.
CONTENTS PAGE
PETE AC eae a per ee Somer ny ep Seas tartar tc OY OLE A WL Ill
Neknowied pments. qo i ee v
CrowaVvillage dnyhistOTysos ssa Se a Sa po 1
LE BRON GEEH RMON CISPR Ss DS ee ee ee ae Oe See eee IL aR eet oe P 8
BEET EG) UAS Sepa ep yas ane art 3 el na ol ey 9
TEN O USC alee ep a UO RR ORL SB! a MEE 13
FI OUS C2 reo at RIG SOE. VRAIS D8 YOO 15
INET USS eae erm epee a a hr it ne teen se ci NE AIC 15
BEAU) USS hs es a a heh eee ae hh cap th Act ie Gh ot rn on a tp A 18
FEROUSC ROR eee aera ee ce earned as ele a es Te Ek 20
@achestandycalbinke ie yee PE See ee eR see ee oe es 21
LGU FTES as SR le a Age es Le 23
Mid dense= a=. et See Se Oe ee ES ee ee eee 23
(Corey eyee eto aS 8 se Sa Ra EE i pen Sy AS RS Foy Ae ae oN RE 25
Wocallvamanutactumedtooodss = 2a2 >. Sete eee oe ee ee oe 25
Chippedistones ie. ese 2 Aa 2 OG DETR ES) SFO Y 25
Ground’ stonevss. sce sn o3e6- e552 ee O08 DOs aS DONE 27
WiOOG seta aee et eos See a es 2 Oe DODO 31
RS Tiny rs tet ate 2 oe a ata yeas tes yt ee A Ae, Bo
and hunting ss ces 2223.2 See 2 pee 32
Noolse Ses eee ee ou ee se ee OR he Oe 33
Eousehold equipment 22" 2. yes 2 ee 35
aLransportationee os. tec es 2 el ee a AERO 36
Personal: adormmentsi22222 2 2222s eS OE et 38
Tobacco complexe FESO! ULE te NAT AE OEE TOE. Oe 38
Games anGhtoysus. Yo 5.20. Bln eae Is SE Pe OU od 39
Ceremonial objects: = = =. 2- a Se RR AEE PP eT Ske Ree SE 41
Miscellaneous and! unidentifieda: Sa. Baas See ree 43
Bonevand antler: 2322. 2 ee eee ee ee Ra ee 43
Olive ae Shee eh et a ee ee a. ENOL 45
Grassace je Se ns 2 A UO ED SARS SE 47
amiga GET. @ Gane aoe = pire LINE Latency B B e 47
19 US | DS es aE Rat A Pa i « Sy en my SC per ee 48
(SUSE a se ty Ba pene etn ee ne merit OR Be Pere 51
INon=Eskimotpotteryeen2esc22e2 ete eee 51
Abpea ther’ ~ = ee eee ee ee hee ee 51
imported: manufactured: goods... +4 42 eee ee ee A 51
Non-Hskimo-pottery -2. 4-2). ee eee ee ee 52
Glasses 28 eee nei ee eek ee ere he LL ee eo TE CO 55
Buttonse<2e- 42 eee ee eee wo FO, BIIODE TOe"t 55
Window: lassen ee A OF? 10 SOW OURO 55
ISO UCLe Smee ree ed as oO Berea! ty ee down, SAN eee 56
IMISceH He OUs Classe 2 ieee h tse aa EN ue 57
JB {Sts1(0 Fa} utes sahcs Ap prendre oem dys ty eens ager Oat fh dep eeuny doricinbaen fated lo irvA fiona 57
SVE Greil Stas ee ee iE pe Fe 2 Ae ER RAST Ate fe 2 SEN 61
INT Se a ses ee aye Pd ee eee Oe 61
BDNTTARG AIS ese eee ee pent Seale ale woes eee te pe keen 62
IVES GE] aN Ce OUS sso ee eaters hs oh UN yh ah eee Be eta 64
\ WYO TOY | i= epee eee gla Ny (ok SAF On Ree BI ee ay ence ay eee nd AN 66
Mhextilesvan GitOO Weel of. yom nara eee ae py a phy eeet AOsree ts SAE 67
AVRO ATO(IIS Stick oft ye ee eee mace es Fh a aa ks 67
VIII
CONTENTS
GContinutty and innovayionel:.2)) sl eet ke eee ee ee Re
Time and change-_-_-
1796-18292 2 2 4:
ISIS—1S6G 5
1867-19 0227 2-2
fifeat Crow, Village: ja reconstruction.22. 020 205°") S83 Veo. Pee
Archeology and ethnography: interpretations____________________-___-
Literature cited____
TaN] a) 05) 046 | ce eae a
IQoPP WW e
CHNAM PWNS
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES
(All plates follow p. 112.)
. Chipped and ground stone tools.
. Chipped and gro
. Wooden artifacts.
und stone tools.
Wooden artifacts.
Wooden artifacts.
Wooden artifacts.
. Wooden artifacts.
Wooden artifacts.
. Wooden artifacts.
. Bone, antler, and ivory artifacts, and locally made pottery.
. Bark, wood, and
plant fiber artifacts or raw material.
Metal, glass, and pottery artifacts.
. House 1 drawings
. House 2 drawings
. House 3 drawings
. House 4 drawings
. House 5 drawings
~ (Quarter sections Of beadsiis2 2 2 ee ee
s A reconstruction of Crow Village! .. 2.2.2.2 2. 5-=¢e's 45
. Imported pottery and glass bottles.
. Metal artifacts.
. Wooden mask of
. Human mask and human face of wood.
a fox.
TEXT FIGURES
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Map 1.—Southwestern Alaska.
THE ETHNOARCHEOLOGY OF CROW VILLAGE,
ALASKA
By W. H. Oswatt and J. W. VanStone
CROW VILLAGE IN HISTORY
Tulukaghogamiut, as the site is termed in Eskimo, habitually has
been rendered as ‘‘Crow Village” in English, but it would be more
correct to translate the name as “Raven Village People.” Throughout
its recorded history this settlement was occupied by Eskimoan
speakers of the Western Eskimo language stock. This linguistic
grouping is separated into three major dialect clusters—Yuk, Cux
and Suk (Hammerich, 1958); the Crow Village people spoke Yuk
(Yuit, plural). This dialect was limited distributionally to an area
extending north to the community of St. Michael and south to Bristol
Bay and Iliamna Lake. The inland range of Yuk was to the village
of Paimiut on the Yukon River and the vicinity of Crow Village on
the Kuskokwim River. The Yuk-speaking Eskimos think of them-
selves as Yupik or “Real People,” and some authors refer to the
language by this designation. The Eskimos of the Kuskokwim
River have the further local ethnic name of Kuskowagmiut, “Cough
River People.” The former residents of Crow Village could be termed
as Yuk, Yuit, Yupik, Kuskowagmiut, or Tulukaghogamiut, depending
on the context. Crow Village is the farthest inland aboriginal
settlement whose residents spoke only Yuk. It is true that the
village of Kwigiumpainukamiut was occupied by Eskimos, and it is
farther up the Kuskokwim River than Crow Village. Kwigiumpainu-
kamiut, however, was settled jointly by Eskimos and Athapaskan
Indians of the Ingalik tribe and the Georgetown Ingalik subtribe.
Hence, Yuk was not the only language of these villagers.
There are slight variations in the recorded Eskimo name for Crow
Village, such as a transliteration from the Russian, Tulukagnag
(Zagoskin, 1956, map), and early American period recordings of
Toolooka-anahamute (Petroff, 1884, p. 16; map), Tuluka (Baker, 1906,
p. 640), or Tulukagangamiut (Porter, 1893, p. 106). The designation
“Crow Village” has been accepted in the present study because it is
the locally prevailing English name for the site. It is likewise the
2
2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
site’s name on modern maps such as the Russian Mission quadrangle,
1950 edition, of the U.S. Geological Survey Topographical Recon-
naissance Series.
The heart of Yupik country was along the central Bering Sea coast
of Alaska. Here the people were oriented toward a maritime economy,
in which the seal was most important. On the adjacent tundra some
emphasis was attached to hunting caribou, and fishing for salmon
was significant at the mouths of certain rivers and favored bays. The
Yupik living inland on the tundra between the mouths of the Yukon
and Kuskokwim Rivers subsisted mainly on whitefish, with caribou
as a supplement. The Yupik penetration into the Yukon and
Kuskokwim river systems occurred at some unknown point in
prehistoric time when the people moved inland from the Bering Sea
coast. It was the existing salmon fishing technology and the abund-
ance of salmon locally which made it possible for them to exploit
these rivers effectively. They had ascended the river some 280
km. from the sea at the time they founded Crow Village. It is
possible also that some Yupik entered the Kuskokwim from the Yukon
River drainage. Unlike other inland Eskimos, with the possible
exception of those on the lupper Kobuk River, the people of Crow
Village were following a way of life adapted to a riverine setting
and to the northern forests.!
The first documented historical contacts on the Kuskokwim River
between the Yupik and Europeans were made when a Russian party
entered from the Bering Sea in 1818, but apparently they proceeded
up the river only a relatively short distance (Tikhmenev, 1861, pp.
300-302). In 1830, according to Tikhmenev (1861, pp. 340-341), a
group of Russian explorers, under Ivan F. Vasil’ev, ascended the
Nushagak to its headwaters, and crossed a divide leading into the
Kuskokwim River drainage.2 The Vasil’ev party ascended the
Kuskokwim and then traveled downstream to the river mouth and
finally to Alexandrov Redoubt. The Vasil’ev journals of the trip
have never been published, but these travelers must have passed
Crow Village, if it existed at that time.
The first Russian trading establishment, built in 1832 at the Holitna
and Kuskokwim Rivers junction, was within the area of Athapaskan
Indian occupancy and near an aboriginal trading site that attracted
Eskimos and Indians alike. The population of this immediate locality
was so scattered, mobile, and sparse, that the purpose of the trading
enterprise was not realized fully. This led to the abandonment of the
original station and the founding of a second at the village of Kwigium-
1 Much of the general information concerning the Kuskowagmiut in this chapter has been summarized
from Oswalt, 1963 b.
2In previous publications Oswalt has incorrectly assumed that this explorer was Mikhail Nikolaevich
Vasil’ev (e.g., Oswalt, 1963 b, p. 8).
To ees CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 3
painukamiut in 1833 (Zagoskin, 1956, p. 258). Once the Russians
had an inland trading center on the Kuskokwim, they hoped to develop
an overland route from St. Michael on the Bering Sea coast to
Nicholaevskij Redoubt on Cook Inlet. An exploratory trip origi-
nated at St. Michael and was led by Andrei Glazunov. In the winter
of 1833-34 the party descended the Anvik River drainage by dogsled
to the Yukon River and crossed the low divide to the Kuskokwim.
It is likely that they reached the river a short distance upstream from
Crow Village and then sledded on to the Stony River junction. Their
attempt to ascend this river to a Pacific Ocean drainage ended in
failure and near disaster, but they returned successfully to St. Michael.
The Glazunov party was near the Crow Village location on two
separate occasions, and it is possible that they stopped there, if the
village existed at that time. The travel journal, however, has never
been published in detail (see VanStone, 1959).
The second Russian trading center, Kwigiumpainukamiut, was
occupied only briefly before it was abandoned. The third station was
built diagonally across the Kuskokwim from Kwigiumpainukamiut
and was named Kolmakov Redoubt. From the time of its occupancy
in 1841 until the Russian-American Company withdrew from the
Kuskokwim in 1866, Kolmakov Redoubt was the major interior
trading establishment. The only early Russian of note to leave a
published record of his Kuskokwim travels was the naval officer
Lieut. Lavrentij A. Zagoskin, who visited the river in 1843 and 1844.
Zagoskin’s was a trip of exploration and an effort to increase the
efficiency of the Russian-American Company trading operations.
He landed at St. Michael during July of 1842 but did not ascend the
Kuskokwim until November of 1848. On the 23d of November he
left the Yukon River settlement of Ikogmiut or Russian Mission for
Kolmakov Redoubt. On the 30th he stayed overnight at Crow
Village and arrived at Kolmakov in early December. He remained
at the redoubt, or in the vicinity, until early February of 1844, when
he returned to the Yukon drainage. In early April Zagoskin again
started toward the Kuskokwim and arrived there in the vicinity of
Kalskag. He apparently did not stop at Crow Village on this trip
to Kolmakov Redoubt (Zagoskin, 1956, pp. 206, 209-210, 211-212,
235-236, 255-256). In early May he made a trip by bidarka to the
upper Kuskokwim River as far as the vicinity of the Takotna River
junction, and at this point the narrative of his travels ends.
Zagoskin’s account of the Eskimos and Indians is neither long nor
extremely detailed, but it is sufficiently complete to arrive at some
general understanding of aboriginal life among the Kuskokwim
peoples. He makes a few specific comments about Crow Village, but
what he notes about the Kuskokwim Yupik in general may be in-
4 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
terpreted as including the community of our primary interest. When
he was at Crow Village in 1848 all of the people except one man and
three women were attending a feast for the dead at Ohagamiut. At
the time there were 90 residents living in 5 dwellings (Petroff, 1884,
p. 37), and of this number 20 were Christians. Two of the Christian
families had been baptized at Alexandrov Redoubt on the Nushagak
River and only recently had moved to Crow Village. While Zagoskin
was at the community, one of the old women gave him fish for dogfood,
but the man stole his ax. In April of 1844, Zagoskin was at Kolmakov
when two Crow Village natives who had been hunting caribou and
beaver along the Aniak River came to trade, and after receiving
tobacco plus a large metal pot, they returned home (Zagoskin, 1956,
p. 267). These are Zagoskin’s only specific textual references to the
community and its people apart from references to the village location,
comments which make it clear that the Crow Village site is the same
settlement as that visited by Zagoskin.
The travel journal of Hieromonk Illarion, a Russian Orthodox
Church missionary to western Alaska, dates from 1861 to 1868. In
the summer of 1861 he went from St. Michael to the Yukon River,
across the portage to Kalskag, and then on to Kolmakov Redoubt.
The translated portions of the diary for this trip make no mention of a
stop at Crow Village. He did, however, visit there on October 30,
probably in the year 1863, and wrote the following diary entry
(Documents Relative to the History of Alaska, vol. 2, p. 110):
We stopped over at the village of Tulukanagmute [Tuluka] because of a snow-
storm, and I occupied myself with the natives, talking with them in their com-
munity hut. Among the subjects, we touched upon shamanism which they
(although baptized) cannot yet entirely discard. When I told them how severely
God punished and even exterminated the people for similar sins in ancient times,
they replied, ““You Russians have priests and doctors, but we have none. If
any one happens to fall ill, who can help us except the shaman?” Similar replies
I hear very often during my talks with the natives.
Tn the fall of 1866, when the purchase of Alaska by the United States
was being negotiated, Prince Dimitrij MakSutov, the Administrator-
General of Russian America, traveled to St. Michael to arrange local
details for the impending transfer. He decided to abandon Kolmakov
Redoubt, and it was noted by IIlarion (ibid., pp. 118, 121) that by
November of 1867 the church property had been removed. Thus
ends the formal record of Russian activities along the Kuskokwim
River.
The meanings of Russian activities in the lives of Crow Village
residents may be established only in the general framework of Russian
expansion into interior Alaska (Tikhmenev, 1861) and from the
Zagoskin and Illarion records. It is clear from these sources that the
primary purpose of Russian penetration was to extend the fur trade
Oswalt and
Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA =
northward. Trade items of Russian origin most probably were pres-
ent on the river before the Russians arrived. In prehistoric and early
historic times a flourishing trade existed across Bering Strait, and it
is reasonable to assume that it affected the Kuskokwim. One of the
responsibilities of Zagoskin was to determine how trade goods could
be diverted to and controlled by Russian traders (Zagoskin, 1956, p.
48).
While the Eskimos appear to have been willing to seek and utilize
Russian trade goods, they at first exhibited hostile feelings about the
presence of the Russians along the river. Vasil’ev and his party in
1830 constantly guarded against unexpected attack, and in face-to-
face relationships the people were hostile. Vasil’ev did, however,
gain the cooperation of some prominent men (Tikhmenev, 1861, p.
341; Zagoskin, 1956, pp. 44-45, 273). With the establishment of
the first trading cabin in Indian country in 1832, the central Kuskok-
wim Yupik gained the opportunity to receive trade goods more directly
but without having the Russians in the immediate vicinity. It is
significant also that the first trader, Semen Lukin, appears to have
had cordial relationships with the people (Zagoskin, 1956, p. 262).
When the first trading establishment was moved down the river to
Kwigiumpainukamiut, the village containing both Eskimos and
Indians, the transfer must have led to more intimate and direct
contacts with the Crow Village residents. Not only was the post
nearer, but at Kwigiumpainukamiut there were no doubt relatives
of the Crow Village people. Finally, the transfer of trading activities
to Kolmakov Redoubt stabilized the trading pattern. The number
of Russians occupied in trading activities was small, and consequently
they posed neither a social nor political threat to the Eskimos. The
traders maintained control over desirable products, and these could
be obtained through trapping activities. The Russian traders seem
to have asked little more of the people. It would be incorrect to
regard the Kuskokwim trading venture of the Russian-American
Company as a thriving business enterprise. Clearly the area was on
the fringe of Russian New World colonial holdings. Access from the
Bering Sea coast redoubts was difficult, which made physical ties with
administrative centers tenuous.
During the early American period the trading posts continued with
many of the same characteristics as seen before. The Russian-
American Company monopoly was replaced by its successor and
lineal descendant, the Hutchinson, Kohl & Company. The old
Russian trading stations, including Kolmakov, continued to function
until at least 1885, even at times with Russian employees. Within
a few years Hutchinson, Kohl & Company had reorganized as
the Alaska Commercial Company, and its major point of redistribu-
6 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
tion moved to Bethel nearer the Kuskokwim River mouth. At
about this time Kolmakoy possibly was abandoned as a store, al-
though it reopened temporarily from 1910 to 1914 during a gold
stampede (Maddren, 1915, p. 308). Apparently there was never a
store at Crow Village, but it is recorded in the U.S. Commissioner
records at Aniak that Simon Kiogiack was a trader at ‘“‘Crow Village”
in 1919 and William Unalachluck in 1921. These Eskimos in all
likelihood had in their homes a small stock of goods which they traded
locally for the Alaska Commercial Company or an independent
trader. For reasons cited later it seems likely that these trading
activities did not take place at the Crow Village site but at a nearby
locality. The same pattern, however, could well have existed at the
site. Precisely where the major trading stations were along the
central Kuskokwim River around the turn of the century cannot be
stated with authority. Probably the most important store was at
Ohagamiut. In any event the Crow Village Eskimos were able to
obtain goods from a trader in the general area, but it is probable that
supplies were neither diverse nor extremely plentiful.
The first census in which Crow Village reappears after the enumera-
tion by Zagoskin is the Federal census of 1880. It is recorded that
59 individuals lived there (Petroff, 1884, p. 16). In the Federal
census of 1890 the population is recorded as 17; 8 males and 9 females
(Porter, 1893, p. 6). The village is not listed in subsequent decennial
census reports.
No textual references are known to exist regarding Crow Village
between the time of the Illarion comments and a remark made by
the Moravian missionary William Henry Weinland. Weinland,
while traveling up the Kuskokwim River in 1884 to select a site for
a mission, records in his unpublished diary that on July 1st the party
camped on an island near ‘‘Tvoluka-anahamut.”’ In a list of the
major villages along the central sector of the river he does not record
Crow Village, but he wrote a note concerning the occurrence of other
settlements which were deserted or consisted of only one or two
dwellings. Presumably Crow Village would be in one of the latter
categories (Weinland Coll., W. H. Weinland diary entries July 1, 7,
1884).
The period around the turn of the present century was recalled by
informants who were familiar with the community while it still was
occupied. One Eskimo, Anania Theodore, who was born along the
Kuskokwim and who has lived at Aniak much of his adult life, stated
that he visited Crow Village in 1901 or 1902 when there were about
six resident families. Matthew Berezkin, a former Russian Orthodox
priest, stopped here about 1906, and he recalled in 1956 that there
were three resident families living on the site at the earlier date.
Wan Stone! CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 7
Mr. Berezkin said further that it was abandoned when he traveled
down the river in 1912. By the latter date, he said, the old village
was deserted and its former residents had moved downstream about
1 km., just below a bluff on the same side of the river. ‘The reason
the site had been abandoned, again according to Berezkin, was that
a change in the river channel caused silt to be deposited in front of
the village and made it difficult to land a boat there.
Another means for establishing the terminal date of occupancy
has been to consult the files of the U.S. Commissioner at Aniak.
The birth records available, for the period 1914 through 1942, were
helpful since they include the year and place of birth of an individual
as well as the parents’ places of birth and ages at that time. These
records also add an element of confusion since Crow Village is not
distinguished from ‘‘New’’ Crow Village. Nonetheless, it is possible
to make a few pertinent comments after discussing the records with
informants. For example, one particular child was born at “New”
Crow Village in 1914, while his father was born at ‘Old’? Crow
Village in 1887. Another man was born at “Old” Crow Village in
1893, and a woman was born there in 1887. This is slight but
significant evidence to support the Berezkin statement that the
old site was abandoned before 1912.
One Eskimo, Sam Phillips, or ‘‘Crow Village Sam”’ as he is better
known, was born at the site in 1893, if his estimated age of 70 in
1963 is correct. The memories of his youth are neither systematic
nor vivid, but he was able to recount certain facts concerning the
settlement. He lived there until he was about 10 years of age and
then moved to the new downriver settlement. According to him
most of the people moved away from the site just after the kanukpuk
or ‘‘big sickness,’”’ as the influenza epidemic of 1900-1901 is termed.
Probably Sam’s family relocated at this time too, since his age today
and his age when he left the site are both approximations. This
particular epidemic, according to a medical doctor stationed at
Bethel during the time, claimed the lives of about half of the adults
and all babies (Anderson, 1940, p. 198; Romig, 1901, pp. 33-34;
Schwalbe, 1951, pp. 84-85).
Sam Phillips and Anania Theodore offered the following specific
observations about the site when it was occupied. ‘The abandoned
settlement is located in a semicircular depression that is backed by
a ridge on all sides that do not face the river. At present there are
birch trees growing on the surrounding hillside, but when the site
was occupied, the trees and brush purposely were cleared away in
order to give a distinct view of the ridge. The clearing was a protec-
tive device enabling the residents to see anyone approaching from
the land side, a route that would be followed only by unfriendly
222-189-672
8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
persons. Sam offered this description, but did not place a great
deal of faith in its validity. Crow Village was so named because
ravens have been attracted to the vicinity for a long time. They
nest nearby and frequently are seen flying about the village. This
was true when the site was occupied and was still true in 1963.
Another tradition is about a spring forming a small stream that
divided the village into two segments. The old people believed
that if the spring were to go dry the salmon would cease to run in the
river.
Ale’ Hrdlitka (1948, pp. 319-320) visited the Crow Village site in
1930 and described it as follows:
Reach Old Crow site, and greeted by cawing. See crows on trees back of the
site—must be something favorable here for these birds. Water here shallow,
boat anchored off. Get to bank over dark sticky mud from which it is hard to
pull boots, and over willow brush. Site itself on a rather high irregular elevation,
covered with rank grass, and full of smaller or bigger holes into which one falls
again and again—as usual. After exploring find a few above-ground burials in
the edge of the woods. Laborious to uncover skeletons, and these in poor condi-
tion. Secure barely parts of two and an adolescent skull.
Hrdli¢ka reproduced a photograph of the site, in which it appears
much the same as in 1963. Informants recalled that the burials ob-
tained by him were taken from part way up the ridge on the upriver
end of the site. With the description by Hrdlitka end the known
historical references to Crow Village.
EXCAVATIONS
When first seen from the Kuskokwim River, the site appears as a
grassy ridge some 14 m. above the river level. Scattered along the
irregular surface are young birch trees, while behind the ridge on all
flanks except the one facing the river is a steep hillside covered with
large birches and a few spruce. Between the riverbank and the base
of the ridge is a dense thicket, of alders and willows, which is up to
15 m.in width. Landing a boat in front of the site is difficult because
the river becomes shallow very gradually toward the shore. The soft
alluvium next to the bank on which the alders grow is interspersed
with pools of standing water, and the thicket is impossible to penetrate
with ease. There is every reason to accept informants’ statements
that the site was abandoned primarily because of this building bank.
Toward the site beyond the alders is a low discontinuous bench with
driftwood at its upper margin. The driftwood represents the height
of spring floodwater. The luxuriant growth of bunchgrass on the
site makes walking difficult, and scattered depressions in the grass are
another obstacle. Once the site is reached, attention is attracted to
one large and obvious depression. This is the outline of the cere-
Oswalt and
Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 9
monial structure or kashgee mentioned by Zagoskin, Ilarion, and
informants (see fig. 7 for reconstruction). In the 3-meter pit is an
exuberant growth of alders in 1.5 m. of standing water. Just up-
stream from the kashgee are the remains of two adjoining house pits,
each with construction posts protruding above the sod layer. Down-
stream beyond these houses and the kashgee is a small house pit, and
in a slight draw still farther downstream are the remnants of cache
poles. Across the small streambed near the middle of the site the
first sign of former occupation to be seen on the upriver section is
four posts marking where a cache probably once had stood. A little
farther is another set of cache posts near the tunnel of a dwelling,
while beyond this house is still another house. . = 208 or eis gh | 56M 6120S 2a CE Se Jib) eee
Seth a ne oer. 1 Fy et a | eres a eae ee Pac, |e
LOTTI Sem eee ee ee ee ee ene et are | here a et a ee ae [ee one ele i bya [ee
Pelviesboncs kl y tat vor leie) wees De ed Oe ea es ARG ee
Ue ee ! ae eee 7.1) (ee a A, | eee me (a Loh ee (
Moose (Alces gigas) :
MV imnigda legit: S8 ste te pls hs ih ete ow Hey ey Apa dee Sat BE Me? rahe 5 ee ee Tee
Beales 25 the fe ee OT (evenness See |S eee Pave (|| Oey
15 Lj A 8 SAS pgp ae eh pee ay BND, ae} al 2 i yes cela [adn nae
(Wilt teeter ae Sein eye ay Oy. 2. iin) |S) 8 Ee Fe Ihe ibs eee
Abia, prommalbeny segs sot 6 oe i ee Sa sae! | | pe
REnnUTY Plossl en Ge me ce elo te ee eee Stee beg ence lapels Jin
Pemiir; distal endliew spice ss) Py Roe Eee IN ay, 14 Seed ERR Lees Ee
ETL G rts RR ee TAN SS ee Oe (Fe 2 a Re ae 2 (A eet pee ea
ELA TS O17 ap pe ln ade ent i ep A (oly ‘ayn hi base [beta 4 hi ii eaten | pst?
Wie taibarac 1 ee See eerie eee TAS EAS 5 ees ee aye pl ire
Red fox (Vulpes alascensis alascensis) :
wi TE TE YG Sa AI gh a he li bly (cy FA | cpp (ER seg Cage | sy |
elec one 2e05 Le eh ET yess Dey Sx fal teh NE hg A ol Bt B5 dB e ”
Squirrel (Citellus osgoodit) :
PANTER eee ee. Ne ee 2 eee eomees 1 gl ee See eat Hs |
Mfandibieece be. SEL. see abe bby) 1
222-189—67—_6
72 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
site. This is of course precisely what informants revealed. The
absence of chewed bones, however, might be overlooked and the
association with dogs not drawn.
We were rather surprised at the presence of moose bones and their
sreater frequency than caribou bones. Informants and the sketchy
historical records both lead us to believe that moose were rare along
the central Kuskokwim until within the past 30 years. If these
sources are correct then the moose bones must represent animals
hunted at a considerable distance upstream from Crow Village. This
is not unlikely since fur trapping brought about upriver penetration
by central river people (Oswalt, 1963 b, p. 129).
The frequencies of dog bones are both revealing and puzzling.
Considering the three partial dog skeletons and other dog bones,
there were more bones of this species represented than any other.
It is interesting also that mandibles of dogs were found in every
house, and in three houses (H-2, -4, —5) very few other bones were
present. Noteworthy too is the presence of partially articulated dog
skeletons in three separate dwellings (H-1, -2, -3). It is tempting
to regard dog bones as having special significance, but the precise
meaning of this fact, if it is a fact, is obscure.
In spite of the scarcity of caribou bones, there are artifacts made
from antler, a fact which suggests the hunting of this animal. Antler
artifacts, however, are not plentiful although conditions for their
preservation were favorable. Continuity with the past and with
coastal Eskimos is much less obvious in the antlerworking technology
than it is with reference to woodworking. In totality it seems that
caribou were hunted but were not very important, while antler was
replaced partially by wood or nonaboriginal materials.
The use of bone in the manufacture of artifacts is extremely rare
at Crow Village. Bone is not a particularly desirable substance out
of which to make artifacts since its overall surface is small and it is
quite brittle. It is especially undesirable if antler is available. The
only artifacts made from locally available bone were a net sinker and
awls. A ramrod and sled shoe, both of whalebone, must have been
received from the coast in trade. Considering the boneworking empha-
sis of the Northern Athapaskans and the nearness of the Crow Village
people to these Indians, there is no evidence of any borrowing of
boneworking ideas.
As has been seen, the mammal bones discussed thus far give a
distorted picture of the species taken. ‘This is also likely regarding
the fur-bearing animals. In a record of the fur pelts traded into
Kolmakov Redoubt between the years 1845 and 1860, with the
exception of 1857 (Petroff, 1884, pp. 62-65), we find that beaver
were numerically by far the most important, then red fox, land otter,
Oswalt and
Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 73
lynx, and bear. From 1856 to the end of the record, marten became
extremely important. In the American period for the year 1883 we
have arecord of all the furs traded to the Alaska Commercial Company
at their three stores: Mumtreklagamiut Station (Bethel), Kolmakov,
and Vinasale. Numerically the most important pelt was the muskrat,
then mink, followed by marten, beaver, fox, land otter, and black
bear (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 109-110). It was only by exchanging
pelts for trade goods that an Eskimo could obtain those exotic items
which he desired. The Crow Village people unquestionably were
participants in the fur trade, and yet there is little evidence of the
species that they took. A few beaver bones were associated with
H-3, H-4, and T-2, but again we would expect beaver and other
species to be represented more widely in the site, were it not known
that bones were thrown into the river. According to informants,
fishbones also were thrown into the river. During the excavation a
few scales and vertebrae from fish were recovered, but these were
only a minute fraction of the number that would be expected at a
riverine site where fishing was a major, if not éhe major, means of
livelihood.
Zagoskin (1956, p. 221) mentions that metal traps were unsuccess-
fully introduced for the trapping of beaver and that the aboriginal
trapping methods for taking this animal persisted, with the additional
Russian technique of destroying the beaver’s lodge. Hskimo-made
traps, consisting of snares, nets, deadfalls, and so on, would not only
be unlikely to leave traces in the archeological record, but would, in
in any case, be set at some distance from the village and discarded
when broken or worn out. It will be remembered, however, that there
are some small wooden pegs in the collection that have tentatively
been identified as snare parts. The significance of trapping to the
Crow Village people and its effect on the annual subsistence cycle
will be discussed elsewhere. Here it is sufficient to say that the ab-
sence from the collection of artifacts related to trapping does not
necessarily indicate a lack of emphasis on this activity.
The birchbark technology at the site does not represent a develop-
ment from coastal Eskimo material culture; birchbark in that area
was recovered only from driftwood and through trade. Thus a case
cannot be made for continuity, but working birchbark seems to rep-
resent a new development induced by a new environmental setting
plus the probability of borrowings from the Athapaskans. The prev-
alence of birchbark in the site in the form of baskets, storage pit
liners, roof log coverings, and floor coverings, plus innumerable un-
worked fragments, already has been noted. In fact, it is difficult
to escape the conclusion that the preparation of birchbark for its
various uses must have been an important activity. The effect that
74. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
the prevalence of birchbark vessels may have had on the scarcity of
traditional pottery is discussed elsewhere. It is significant, too, that
grass matting usually associated with the Eskimos of southwestern
Alaska is virtually absent from the site, and its replacement by birch-
bark is likely. It is interesting to note that all the fragments of worked
birchbark were recovered from the T-1 midden, suggesting that
baskets and other objects of this material may have been made by
the men in the kashgee. This explanation would not, however, be
consistent with the present day situation as baskets are now made by
the women.
Working clay into containers within the tradition of potterymaking
is seen in its last stage at the site. ‘The fragments of imported pottery
outnumber those of the locally made ware. It is true, too, that a
preference for birchbark containers may be responsible partially for
the scarcity of clay vessels. The use of clay cooking pots was in
rapid decline, but lamps continued to be useful, as indicated by 15
pottery lamp fragments, the 2 sections of imported stone lamps, and
the lampstands in two houses. While imported pottery and birch-
bark containers could easily replace clay pots, there seems to have
been no satisfactory substitute for the traditional Eskimo lamp.
This is likely to have been due to the scarcity of imported fuel, rather
than a failure on the part of the Eskimos to appreciate the advantages
of the kerosene or coal oil lamp.
Having considered those features of Crow Village culture in which
continuity with the past is certain, likely, or vague, it is now fitting
to deal with the instances of change induced by the contact situation.
This is the realm in which we would expect “ingenuity” to be most
evident. We have come to expect Eskimos to innovate along tech-
nological lines and to be original in manipulating new things; the
evidence at the site supports this generalization. An inspection of
the Jist of imported manufactured goods suggests that a relatively
small number of trade items were available to the people throughout
the period represented by the site. It is not the actual numbers or
variety of the imported items that is impressive, but rather the
manner in which imported material was adapted to local needs.
In fact, it is important that the inhabitants of Crow Village frequently
remade trade items into new things, while items from the traditional
culture rarely were remade. ‘This is striking, since the secondary use
of artifacts is a characteristic of Eskimo material culture from pre-
historic sites.
It is the stimulus toward innovation provided by the exposure to
new and different forms that is most impressive. In situations where
innovations occur as a result of contact we would expect things new to
arise from: (1) exotic objects introduced, accepted, and added to the
O It ad
Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 75
cultural inventory without formal changes; (2) the availability of new
materials permitting a change of existing forms; and (3) the construc-
tion of new forms based on new models. With regard to the first
source of innovation, a reading of the artifact descriptions and a
glance at the trait list will indicate which items were accepted into
the cultural inventory without change. The impression is that the
process of selection was not a complex one. Relatively few items
appear to have been available, and they pertained to aspects of
culture in which one might expect that innovation would be the least
disruptive and the most acceptable: new forms of tools, weapons,
household equipment, and items of clothing and ornamentation. Of
particular interest are those items which indicate the introduction
of new foods. The cans recovered point to the use of the following
food products: meat, fruit, lard, fish, baking powder, syrup or oil,
tobacco, and salt. We can assume that tea was obtained either in
bricks or in packages that would leave no trace. The food products
represented here are among the most popular with Kuskokwim
Eskimos today. Baking powder and lard are used in making bannock
and are considered staples, while canned meats and fruit are luxuries.
It then appears that a desire for these imported food products was
established at an early date in the middle Kuskokwim region, but only
tea can be traced through historical references to the Russian period.
Of far greater interest and significancetis the second source of
innovation. Here we are concerned with the introduction of new
materials and their effect on the construction of traditional artifact
types and the persistence of old ideas in new mediums. The most
notable examples are discussed below.
(1) The drilled mending hole in a sherd of imported pottery is the application of an
old technique for mending traditional Eskimo pottery to the new imported pottery.
Presumably this transference was reasonably successful, although imported pot-
tery breaks with a straight edge that would make successful mending by this means
very difficult.
(2) Ulu blades from can metal were doubtless easier to make and could be con-
structed more quickly in larger sizes than those made of stone. However, the
flexible nature of the metal and its inability to hold an edge must have made these
blades less useful than those of stone. The fact that certain other tools were made
from can metal and that can metal was cut and stored in rolls suggests that the
people were experimenting with its uses.
(3) The salmon dart head of metal represents no radical change in design and might
just as easily have been made in the traditional way from antler. Here is an
excellent example of an old and familiar artifact type reproduced in a new material
without reference to the specific qualities of that material.
(4) Scrapers made from bottle glass are in no way different in overall form from
those made of flinty materials. Given the presence of heavy bottle glass, the
scrapers must have been more easily manufactured and at the same time provided
a use for broken bottles.
76 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
(5) The use of a spent cartridge case to form the end of a bird dart head is only a
slight modification of a traditional artifact, but undoubtedly this change increased
the durability of the point.
(6) The example of can metal folded into shallow dishlike containers is particularly
interesting because it illustrates a conservatism with regard to the new material.
The can metal appears to have been viewed as having the same properties as
birchbark, and since this is true to some extent, the transition from one material
to another was quite successful. While can metal was apparently never plentiful
enough, or available in large enough sections, to replace birchbark, the shallow
dishes seem to have formed a useful addition to the cultural inventory.
(7) The use of a nail with the head filed away in place of a bird bone splinter for the
tip of a dart seems to be an innovation whose value would immediately recommend
it, involving as it does no change in the shape or design of the traditional form but
giving added strength against breakage.
(8) Twenty-two (.22-) caliber cartridge cases were perforated at the cap and a cord
passed through the holes. The cases were strung with beads and became a new
form of necklace.
(9) The engraved metal ferrule with encircling lines and short lines at right angles
to one of the circles represents making a design in metal which had no aboriginal
precedent.
Turning to our third category of innovation, that of new forms based
on new models, the number of examples is small. This points up a
basic fact about the nature of culture change at Crow Village, namely,
that as a result of contact, very few needs were created that could
not be fulfilled through the normal trade channels. Thus it was only
occasionally necessary for the Eskimos to improvise in order to
maintain and continue to use the imported implements which they
had already. The most notable example of the attempt to reproduce
a non-Eskimo artifact locally is the sandstone bullet mold half.
Only one other item seems to fit into this general innovative category,
and that is the artifact identified as a wooden flower. This is a form
which has no referent in the old culture and may represent a response
to the use of flowers in the services of the Russian Orthodox Church.
The various specifics of innovation mentioned above are interesting
because of the information they provide about the response of the
Eskimos to the introduction of new items of material culture. We note
that the people of Crow Village seem to have responded enthusiastically
to the relatively small number of imported items which were available
to them toward the close of the 19th century, and particularly they
seem to have been interested in experimenting with new materials.
Although neither the archeological record nor historical material
permits us to elaborate on the selection factor and trade materials,
it is assumed that the Eskimos of this area accepted whatever was
offered. We have the definite impression that the inventory of goods
traded into the middle Kuskokwim area during both the Russian and
early American periods was not great.
Gere ene CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 77
However, the truly impressive characteristic of the Crow Village
collection is not the imported goods or their use but rather the re-
markable continuity represented, with emphasis on the retention of
traditional forms. The fact that traditional Eskimo material cuture
should loom as large as it does in this collection from a site that
apparently was occupied only during the contact period seems to
suggest a single important fact: During the middle and late 19th
century, in an area of Alaska exploited by American and Russian
traders for three-quarters of a century, Eskimo material culture
retained its traditional orientation. When this is considered in light
of the change that has taken place in the area since then, it is possible
to appreciate the rapidity with which the Eskimos have been drawn
into the mainstream of American life since the turn of the century.
TIME AND CHANGE
The span of time represented at Crow Village is approximately
90 years. The presence of trade goods in the lowest midden levels
and throughout the house floors demonstrates that there was at least
indirect historic contact during the earliest stages of occupancy. It
is highly probable that Russian trade goods were obtained before the
Russians entered the river, but it is doubtful that such trade items
were plentiful even during the Russian period. After 1867, Americans
influenced Crow Village life, both directly and indirectly, until the
site was abandoned early in the 20th century. Historical information
regarding the Kuskokwim region is scarce, but it is possible to single
out particular spans of time and changes which were crucial in the
history of the Crow Village Yupik.
1818-1829
While Alexandrov Redoubt was being constructed at the mouth of
the Nushagak River in 1818, a party on the cutter Constantine
ascended the Kuskokwim River a short distance but soon returned to
the redoubt since the season was late. Here we have direct Russian
contact on the Kuskokwim with people who must have been Eskimos
(Tikhmeney, 1861, pp. 300-302). Again in 1821 we have a reference
to a person from the Kuskokwim visiting Iliamna and the notation
that the Kuskokwim people could readily trade at the Nushagak
station (Documents Relative History Alaska, vel. 4, pp. 243-244).
In 1822 there is a reference to Kuskokwim travelers to Alexandrov
(ibid., p. 821), and 11 persons from the Kuskokwim were at the same
station in 1830 (Tikhmenev, 1861, p. 340). This series of citations
serves to illustrate that Kuskokwim peoples were traveling to the
Nushagak River trading center probably both by coastal and inland
ASS BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
routes, and unquestionably they returned to their homes with Russian
imports.
1830-1866
A Russian party under Vasil’ev in 1830 ascended the Nushagak
River to a stream flowing into the Kuskokwim. ‘They ascended the
Kuskokwim for an unknown distance and then followed the river
downstream to the seacoast (Tikhmenev, 1861, pp. 340-341). This
exploration was pursued in order to expand the fur trade into the in-
terior of southwestern Alaska, and one of the immediate goals of the
trip appears to have been the founding of a Kuskokwim trading sta-
tion. In 1832 such a post was established at the Holitna and Kus-
kokwim River junctions. The following year it was abandoned and
a new one erected at Kwigiumpainukamiut (Zagoskin, 1956, p. 258;
VanStone, 1959, p. 46). The final Russian trading establishment be-
gan to function at Kolmakov Redoubt in 1841 (Zagoskin, 1956, p.
258). Subsidiary stores at Ogavik, Vinasale, and Mumtrekhlagamiut
Station (modern Bethel) represent the range of known Russian trading
posts along the river (for details see Oswalt, 1963 b).
The imported manufactured goods found at Crow Village were
analyzed earlier in an attempt to date the various trade items. There
is little that can be added on this subject, and we must be content with
the general observation that the trade materials, taken as a whole, ap-
pear to belong to the latter part of the 19th century. This statement
does not, however, answer all questions concerning the matter of dating
unless we are prepared to say that all the trade goods from the site be-
long to the period of American influence, that is, the period after the
purchase. Since Crow Village was occupied at the time of Zagoskin’s
visit to the central Kuskokwim in 1843 and 1844, and presumably for
some time before these dates, it is to be expected that materials be-
longing to the Russian period would occur in the collection. In fact,
prior to the excavation of the site, the authors had anticipated that
their work would make it possible to arrive at definite conclusions con-
cerning the nature of both Russian and American trade influences. A
clear dichotomy did not emerge, and therefore a major problem is to
determine which trade goods are of Russian origin and which were ob-
tained from American traders.
In order to answer this question, or at least to make a reasonable
attempt at answering it, we must turn to the historical sources, namely
Zagoskin. According to him the specific trade goods which the Rus-
sians introduced to the Kuskokwim included black and white beads,
tobacco, Aleutian axes, copper and cast iron dishes, flannel blankets,
and items of European clothing. Other items offered for trade by the
Russians in southwestern Alaska, which probably were introduced
along the Kuskokwim River, included small white beads, “long”’
Seven CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 79
beads, small red and black beads, steel-colored and blue beads, knives,
spears of iron, steel for striking a fire, needles, combs, pipes, tin and
cast iron pots, large cups, mirrors, copper rings, earrings, small bells,
and navy buttons (Zagoskin, 1956, pp. 137, 153, 164, 252-253).
It would be desirable if the list of Russian trade goods was more ex-
plicitly descriptive, but this is the only known inventory. It is clear
from this list that there are at least a few Russian trade items in the
Crow Village collection. Most notable in this regard are the beads.
An earlier analysis of the beads stressed the general 19th-century char-
acter of the assemblage, although very little was said about the pos-
sible origin of the various forms of beads. It was possible to identify
with a fair degree of certainty only the faceted blue beads as Russian,
but likewise it is true that any European-made bead could have been
obtained by the Russians for their Alaskan trade. The difficulty here
is that the sale or trading of beads to the Kuskokwim Eskimos has
continued right down to the present time. It is undoubtedly true that
various shapes, colors, and sizes of beads were traded at specific times,
but our knowledge of the bead trade on the Kuskokwim, or anywhere
else in Alaska for that matter, is not detailed enough to present a chro-
nology based on bead types. All that can be said is that Zagoskin
lists four colors of beads that occur in the Crow Village collection and
there is the possibility that these were Russian trade items.
The single copper bracelet in the collection is, with the exception
of the beads, the object most likely to be considered as of Russian
origin. It is possible that some of the cast iron fragments may be from
the types of dishes and pots described by Zagoskin, and the same ap-
plies to the iron strike-a-light and knife blade. In spite of the existence
of these presumably Russian artifacts, however, it is clear that the
bulk of the imported manufactured goods from Crow Village belong
to the American period and were obtained from the traders who suc-
ceeded those of the Russian-American Company on the Kuskokwim.
This can mean only that the Russian influence at Crow Village was
slight, at least in terms of material culture, in spite of the nearness of
the Kolmakov trading station and the acknowledged influence of the
Russian Orthodox Church in the village.
This situation is difficult to understand, and perhaps the only reason-
able explanation lies in the reemphasis of a point that has already been
made: The actual period of Russian influence along the middle Kus-
kokwim was not only relatively short but lacked intensity. The
rarity of published accounts dating from the Russian occupation makes
it difficult to assess the influence the Russians exerted on the lives of
the Kuskokwim Eskimos. It has been stated that, initially, the Rus-
sians came to the river for the purpose of expanding their inland fur
trade. They were few in number, and they appear to have established
80 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
their role among the people with caution. They had no force to back
up their position and thus could not afford to oppose the people as they
had been able to do in the Aleutians, on Kodiak Island, and through-
out southeastern Alaska. The Russians apparently did not interfere
in the affairs of the various Kuskokwim villages with which they had
contact, nor did they establish their major trading station in an oc-
cupied village (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 106-107). Their influence along
the Kuskokwim then was minor as far as Eskimo material culture was
concerned.
A less tangible result of Russian intervention was the introduction of
Christianity to the Kuskokwim peoples. The endeavors of the
Russian Orthodox priests were hampered by the inaccessibility of the
area, the scattered nature of the Eskimo and Indian settlements, and
the physical mobility of the people they hoped to convert. It appears
that Father Veniaminov was the first to baptize Eskimos north of the
Alaska Peninsula. In 1829 he performed the ritual for 13 individuals
at Nushagak, and during a second visit there in 1832 he held church
services for 70 persons (Tikhmenev, 1861, pp. 359-360; Barsukov,
1886-88, vol. 2, p. 37). Feodor Kolmakov, after whom Kolmakov
Redoubt was named, served at the Nushagak station as a trader and
missionary. He participated widely in Kuskokwim and Yukon River
explorations and everywhere baptized receptive Eskimos and Indians
(Zagoskin, 1956, p. 44; Barsukov, 1886-88, vol. 2, p. 38). As noted
previously, when Zagoskin was at Crow Village in 1848, 20 of the 90
residents were regarded as Christians. Two of the Christian families
living there recently had moved from Alexandrov Redoubt. In one
record it is noted that from June 1850 to the same time of the next
year, 203 persons were baptized among the Kuskokwim inhabitants.
In general, the missionary working with these people about this time
found that those living nearest the mission, Kolmakov Redoubt,
were most influenced by his teaching, and we might infer that this
would include the Crow Village Eskimos (Barsukov, 1897-1901, vol. 1,
pp. 369-370). The already quoted statement of Hieromonk Illarion
about the Crow Village Christians is instructive, for obviously these
Eskimos poorly understood the nature of Christianity by the end of
the Russian era.
Information about the number of people along the central Kusko-
kwim River within historic times is quite inadequate, but it is
possible to learn something of the nature of the settlement pattern.
Initially it should be mentioned that immediately prior to the time of
the first population statistics for specific villages, there was a smallpox
epidemic in southwestern Alaska. It apparently struck the area in
1838-39 (Zagoskin, 1956, pp. 61, 134), and of the 550 persons who
contracted the disease at Alexandrov, St. Michael, and along the
ahidae ake CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 81
Kuskokwim, 200 died (Tikhmeney, 1861, pp. 366-368). This does not
provide a meaningful index to its effect on the Kuskokwim peoples
except to suggest that it did not kill vast numbers of people as might
have been expected. Considering the river area about 60 km. up
and downstream from Crow Village as within the immediate vicinity,
Zagoskin (Petroff, 1884, p. 37) recorded in 1843 or 1844 that Crow
Village had 90 residents living in five houses, the downstream
village of Ohagamiut had 61 persons, and 120 lived slightly farther
downriver at Kalskag. No upriver community is listed until
Kwigiumpainukamiut, which is beyond the 30 km. radius but none-
theless had 89 Eskimo and 71 Athapaskan residents. In light of the
fact that Zagoskin twice visited the central Kuskokwim during his
travels, there is no reason to question the validity of his figures. In
this case we would have a total of 271 persons at Crow Village and
in the vicinity. We do not have comparable statistics available for
the latter part of the Russian period, but we would assume that the
population increased slowly after the smallpox epidemic. In any case
the population of this sector of the central Kuskokwim certainly was
quite small throughout its early history.
1867-1912
The purchase of Alaska by the United States did not change the
basic relationship between the Eskimos and the traders. The succeed-
ing trading enterprise, the Hutchinson, Kohl & Company, which was
soon reorganized as the Alaska Commercial Company, continued to
operate stores at Kolmakov, Vinasale, and Mumtrekhlagamiut
Station, but apparently discontinued the Ogavik station. The
Alaska Commercial Company had competition from the Western
Fur and Trading Company for a brief period, and at least one free
trader operated a store for a short period of time (Oswalt, 1963 b,
pp. 102-132). Precisely what the traders had to offer the people in
terms of material goods is not known in detail. An exhaustive search
has been made of various archives to locate merchandise inventories
for the Kuskokwim River stations. However, it is rather certain that
these records were destroyed in the San Francisco earthquake and fire.
From scattered sources it is possible to piece together an uncertain
picture of the popular trade items in southwestern Alaska during the
earlier phases of American occupancy. E. W. Nelson, when traveling
from St. Michael to the Kuskokwim River mouth in 1878, took “leaf
tobacco, ammunition, beads, brass jewelry, needles and other small
wares” in order to purchase ethnographic materials (Nelson, 1882,
p. 661). In the 1880’s the Moravian missionary W. H. Weinland
listed tobacco, tea, drilling (fabric), needles, powder, lead, knives,
axes, hardtack, twine, sugar, flour, and cooking utensils as the most
82 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
popular trade items. He mentioned also old Army muskets and sheet
iron teakettles (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 110-111). In his unpublished
diary Weinland records that while at Ohagamiut he saw a young
girl wearing a headband and breast ornament which were decorated
with red, blue, and white beads, small and large brass buttons, and
empty brass cartridge cases (Weinland Collection: W. H. Weinland
diary entry for July 1, 1884). Elsewhere in his 1884 account Weinland
mentions that the women wear colored kerchiefs on their heads
(ibid., entry for June 17, 1884). From the descriptions of Kuskokwim
Eskimos by this missionary for the years 1884-87, it is apparent that
the people then possessed the material apparatus of aboriginal
Eskimos with the addition of relatively few trade items.
One trade item which merits particular attention in a historical
context is firearms. It is necessary to account for the scarcity of guns,
gun parts, and other objects associated with firearms at Crow Village.
It will be recalled that there are no recognized gun parts in the collec-
tion and relatively few objects associated with guns. It therefore
seems reasonable that guns of any kind were rare and valuable posses-
sions not only during the Russian period but through the early
American period as well. Guns were not used along the Kuskokwim
in 1843-44, as reported by Zagoskin, but they were being used at
Alexandrov and Nicholaevskij redoubts at this time. Zagoskin
suggested in his report that firearms be introduced, but whether this
recommendation was implemented is not known. It is known, how-
ever, that powder and lead were among the most important trade
items desired by the Kuskokwim Eskimos in the 1880’s, and muskets
were being sold at Kolmakov at this time (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 110-
111). Before 1896 there was a United States Government regulation
which prohibited the sale of breech-loading rifles to the Eskimos of
Alaska. Although this law frequently was broken, at least in north-
western Alaska, it is likely to have been more effective in the interior
where the opportunity to purchase rifles, shotguns, and ammunition
from transient individuals presumably was less than along the coast.
As just mentioned, Weinland noted that brass cartridge cases were
used for ornaments, which suggests that breech-loading guns to fire
these shells were present. The Alaska Commercial Company was
given permission in 1900 by the Federal Government to trade breech-
loading rifles at certain stores, including the one at St. Michael
(Oswalt, 1963 b, p. 111). No Kuskokwim station is listed as eligible,
but breech-loading rifles probably were obtained by the Kuskokwim
Eskimos. It appears that throughout the period of occupancy at
Crow Village, guns of all types were rare and difficult to acquire. It
is likely that none of the gun-related objects in the collection belong
to the Russian period. Muzzle-loading firearms probably were intro-
a CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 83
duced early in the American period and continued to be used during
the latter part of the occupancy of the site. Breech-loading rifles in
numbers presumably made their appearance about the time the site
was abandoned.
One possible source of trade goods for Kuskokwim Eskimos was from
the prospectors and miners who searched for mineral wealth along the
river, but before 1898 there were apparently few such individuals.
George C. King prospected for cinnabar around Kolmakov in 1881;
George G. Langtray prospected for gold along the river in 1884; three
unnamed prospectors were in the vicinity of Kolmakov in 1887-88;
and the Frank Densmore party prospected along the Kuskokwim in
1889 (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 41-43). The record of known individuals
searching for minerals indicates that they were few in number and
probably had comparatively little to offer the Eskimos in the way of
trade goods. They are mentioned simply to point out the rarity of
Eskimo contacts with outsiders up to the period just before the end of
the last century.
After the purchase of Alaska, the Kuskokwim converts to the Rus-
sian Orthodox Church had little contact with their priests. In a report
dated 1878, an Orthodox priest, Father Innokenty K. Shajashnikov,
surveyed conditions along the Bering Sea coast and the Kuskokwim
River. His findings were not encouraging; the church buildings were
in disrepair and remnants of Christianity hardly existed. In 1891,
however, Orthodox missionaries constructed a chapel at Little Russian
Mission. They were responding to Moravian Church activity along
the lower Kuskokwim River following the establishment of the
Moravian mission center at Bethel in 1885. The Orthodox had good
reason for concern since the Moravians opened a second mission station
at Ogavik in 1891. Furthermore, the Roman Catholics founded a mis-
sion at nearby Ohagamiut in 1895-96, but it was destroyed by fire in
1903 and abandoned in 1907 (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 38, 40, 48). None
of these missionary activities played a major part in the lives of the
Crow Village people. Their contacts with missionaries of any de-
nomination were slight, and no chapel or church was ever built on the
site.
The population of Crow Village and the immediately surrounding
area, embracing a 30 km. radius, was 271 in 1843-44. At the time of
the first American census for southwestern Alaska in 1880, the
downstream village of Ohagamiut had 130 persons; Kalskag, 106;
and Crow Village, 59. Across the river from the later settlement of
Little Russian Mission was Kokhlokhtokhpagamiut with 51 persons
as the only upstream settlement within the radius; this makes a total
of 346 (Petroff, 1884, p. 16). In the Federal census of 1890 we find
Crow Village with 17; Ohagamiut, 36; Kalskag, 29; and Kokhlokbhtokh-
84 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
pagamiut, 20, for a total of 102. There is good reason to question
the validity of the latter enumeration, for there were no major
epidemics during this decade. We suspect that this census does not
accurately reflect the population of the area. Our suspicion can
partially be validated from Weinland’s 1884 diary entry for July 7th
(Weinland Collection), in which he noted that Kalskag and Ohagamiut
each had about 80 residents. Weinland does not record the population
of any other villages within the range of our interest. Unfortunately
the Federal census of 1900 is so incomplete that it does not aid in
reconstructing the population for that period. However, we would
be inclined to consider that the figure of nearly 350 for the 1880 census,
or a slight increase in this figure, would represent the population
number just prior to 1900.
The most critical dates in the history of Crow Village were 1900-
1901. During this time an epidemic of influenza accompanied by
measles, pneumonia, and whooping cough swept through the Kusko-
kwim River settlements. A Moravian Church medical missionary,
Dr. Joseph H. Romig, recorded the effects of these diseases. Romig
estimated that about half of the population died, including all of the
babies (Anderson, 1940, pp. 190-205; Romig, 1901, pp. 33-34). This
disaster spelled the end of an old way of life, for villages were deserted
and the population decimated. About 10 years later John H. Kilbuck
(1913, p. 22) made a trip from Akiak to Sleetmiut and remarked,
“The population now consists of the younger generation—like the
second growth of timber—with here and there a middle-aged person.”’
He notes further, ‘Villages that were once populous are now either
wholly abandoned or inhabited by 25 or 30 persons at most.’”’ The
abandonment of Crow Village is directly attributable to the epidemic
of 1900-1901, and was possibly influenced by the changing river
channel which made it difficult to gain access to the village. The
traditional culture died largely because there were few remaining
people rather than because it was slowly eroded by Whites.
In conclusion it can be noted that an attempt has been made to
differentiate between imported manufactured goods from Russian and
from American sources. It has been possible to show, largely on the
basis of Zagoskin, that a small number of artifacts can, with some
degree of certainty, be assigned to the Russian period. At the same
time, it has been implicitly, if not explicitly, stated that the extent
of Russian influence on the people of Crow Village certainly cannot
be estimated on the basis of the artifact assemblage alone. It should
be remembered that Russian influence had begun to penetrate the
middle Kuskokwim before the establishment of the trading posts
and probably even before the establishment of such important coastal
stations as Alexandrov and St. Michael redoubts. At the same time,
Oswalt and
Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 85
no evidence has been offered that would refute the general thesis that
the bulk of the Crow Village trade goods is American in origin and
presumably dates from no earlier than 1870 to the abandonment of
the site in the early 20th century.
LIFE AT CROW VILLAGE: A RECONSTRUCTION
As a result of the excavations, nearly 1,600 items of material culture
were recovered, and from this collection a broad sample of the tech-
nology was obtained. The settlement pattern was established by
digging the houses and middens as well as by observing the kashgee
cache, and storage pit remains. Archeology could offer comparatively
little additional information about the past of the site. From histori-
cal sources we have assembled references to the relationship of the
people with the Russians and Americans, while Eskimos familiar with
Crow Village when it was occupied provided ethnographic fragments.
Although the total data about the site from all of these sources is not
impressive, it is possible to integrate this information and derive a
reasonably accurate view of village culture for the period from the
1840’s to about 1900. Drawing additionally on the ethnographic
material collected by Oswalt for the central Kuskokwim River area
from Aniak to Ohagamiut, the picture becomes more complete. In
the reconstruction which follows, when reference is made to excavated
artifacts from Crow Village, detailed descriptions will not be offered
since this information may be obtained from the preceding text. Each
material trait discussed in this section is listed by source in Appendix
table 3. This list includes all the known material objects, where
identification is reasonably certain, for the central Kuskokwim Yupik
during the early historical period. Most of the descriptions are not
drawn with precision because of the nature of the information
available.
Slightly more than 130 years ago when the vicinity of Crow Village,
and probably the village itself, was occupied by Eskimos pushing
inland from the coast, and perhaps across the portage from the Yukon
River as well, the local geography was in its essence the same as it
is today. There were more trees, especially around inhabited areas,
and the river channel was in places building where it is now cutting,
but these geographical changes are not of great significance. At the
same time the faunal picture was different. Beaver were numerous
and marten plentiful, but more important, caribou were abundant.
Caribou frequented the surrounding mountains as the only large
animal of local economic significance. The moose, even by 1900,
was to be found only in the vicinity of Sleetmiut and farther up the
river. Rarely, a hair or bearded seal ascended to the central Kusko-
kwim from the coast.
86
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
[Bull. 199
Ficure 7.—A reconstruction of Crow Village, Alaska.
ier a CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 87
A summer visitor to Crow Village in the latter part of the 19th
century would step ashore on a narrow beach of alluvium. Beyond
the water’s edge are horsetail, grasses, and a growth of willows reaching
to the base of the ridge where pebbles are mixed into the soil. Differ-
ent types of boats are drawn up on the landing and on the bank
behind. There are birchbark canoes decked over for a short distance
fore and aft and built around stringers and ribs of birchwood. There
are a few sealskin-covered kayaks with large manholes, a mooring
hole in the bow, and a projecting stern piece; this type, common
farther down the river and along the adjacent sea coast, is rare here.
An umiak, or bidarra as they are termed locally, is resting upside
down on a series of raised logs. Near the bidarra and canoes are
single bladed sprucewood paddles. Near a kayak is a double bladed
paddle also made from spruce but with a ridge running down only
one side of the blade. Furthermore, with each kayak and canoe
is a set of short spruce poles used to propel these vessels in shallow
water.
Along the beach and on the grassy ridge behind the village, persons
of both sexes are engaged in the routine activities of daily life. No
single type of clothing is worn, but a wide variety of garment forms
are to be seen. The men wear trousers of land otter or caribou skin
with the fur or hair side out, and beneath these are short underpants
of caribou skin. ‘The outer trousers are held up at the waist with a
thong, and they reach to just below the knees, where they fit snugly.
Suspenders and bibbed overalls are obtained from the traders. Addi-
tionally, leggings of caribou skin may be worn by travelers. The
parkas of some men are of the winter type with the fur of squirrel,
marmot, or caribou hair turned out. These garments are without
hoods and reach to just below the knees. They are trimmed in white
hair from the sides of a bull caribou’s chest, while a wolverine tail
dangles from the center of the back of the parka. Bands of white
caribou hair encircle the sleeves, and from these are hung strips of
otter fur, tufts of red flannel, or tufts of blue or black yarn. Above
each cuff of white caribou hair one or more bands of otter or caribou
skin are alternated. The opening for the neck is trimmed only in
white caribou hair. Other parkas of this type are made of caribou
skin but lack the arm trimmings. Some men wear hoodless parkas
reaching to their ankles, and from the parkas animal claws and tails
dangle. The separate hoods of caribou, marten, or squirrel skins are
trimmed with wolf, white caribou hair, or hare, while the inner side
of the hood is painted red. The most elaborate hoods have the tail
of a wolf or otter dangling from the top. These headpieces are of a
form common among the adjacent Athapaskan Indians. Some males
wear parkas designed for summer use only; these are of untrimmed
929-189-677
88 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
caribou fawn skins, reach to the crotch, and may or may not have a
hood attached. At least one man wears a broadbrim felt hat on his
head. A hooded summer parka designed primarily for rainy weather
is made from fishskins or seal intestines and is trimmed with fishskin
as well as pieces of skin from land animals. The parkas of the
women are of the same general cut as those of the men except that
the women’s are always hooded, reach to their ankles, and usually
are made of squirrel skins. They have long slits up the sides and
have more tassels and panels of white caribou hair for decoration.
Occasionally a woman is seen with the hood of her parka pushed
back and a silk kerchief over her head.
Variation is to be found in the forms of footwear. Socks are made
from woven grass, fishskin, or caribou skin with the hair attached.
Grass boot liners cushion the feet and are popular for around the
village and for short trips. Some men have knee-length boots made
from caribou leg skins, with the fur side out, and decorated along the
outer and inner lengthwise seams with strips of otter skin from which
hang wolverine fur tassels. The bottoms of these boots are made
from dehaired bearded sealskins which were obtained by trade from
the coastal settlements. Knee-length boots made from fishskins are
a popular item for men since they are light and waterproof, but at
the same time they wear out quickly and require frequent repairs.
Men, but more frequently women, wear boots of sealskin which reach
the groin, and the soles again are made from bearded sealskin. Foot-
wear which was obtained from a store includes laced shoes for women,
men’s shoes, and rubber overshoes. Items of clothing worn only in
winter include beaverskin caps for men and mittens or gloves of
caribou skin with beaded cuffs. The clothing of the children is
simply a diminutive variety of that worn by the adults. Parkas do
not have pockets, and therefore each man has a small bag of skin in
which he keeps his snuffbox with birchbark sides and a wooden
bottom.
People adorn themselves in various ways, particularly around the
face and head. Both men and women wear labrets. The lateral lip
plugs of men are disk shaped and made from wood or a ground piece
of ironstone china worn just below the lateral edges of the lower lip.
Men with a medial labret do not wear the lateral variety. Labrets
for women are made from ivory and have a hook-shaped outer
projection in which there is a hole and from which beads may hang.
The ear lobes of the women are pierced, and beads of various colors
are suspended from strings which hang from the ear. A woman’s
nasal septum is pierced, and from a sinew string passed through the
hole hang three small blue glass beads. The women also wear
necklaces of beads alternated with spent cartridges which have been
Oswalt and CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 89
punctured at the closed end so that a suspension string may be passed
through the opening. Likewise, copper bracelets, finger rings of iron
or wire, bear-tooth pendants, and pendants of metal are worn. A
favored little girl has ornaments on the front of her parka which
include beads, as well as large and small brass buttons.
On top of the ridge at the downstream end of the village are a
number of holes in the ground. They are as much as 2 m. in depth
and are lined with slabs of birchbark. These storage pits are pri-
marily for fresh salmon since they are caught late in the season,
are not processed but are placed in the ground to decay. In some
of the pits, however, dried fish are placed for winter consumption,
and a few storage pits are designed to hold berries. The pits for
berries are lined with sewn slabs of birchbark, and into them are set
birchbark baskets some 80 cm. in depth and 60 cm. across. Beyond
the pits a cache is located in a slight draw. The cache is raised on
four posts and built on a log platform. A log framework surmounts
the platform. Against it at the front and rear are planks set verti-
cally, while the sidewall planks are horizontal. At the front of the
cache is an oval opening, and a low gabled roof covers the structure.
Beneath the roof are horizontally arranged poles covered with sheets
of birchbark and sprucebark. This covering is held in place by poles
along the length of the roof; these are lashed through the bark to the
roof poles beneath. The upper poles and covering are bound in
place with strips of pliable spruceroot. Leaning against the cache
platform is a notched log access ladder, while on the platform is a
dogsled stored for later use. The runners of the sleds are usually of
spruce although some are made from birchwood. Irrespective of the
material, the runners are some 2.5 m. in length, 7 cm. high, and 3 cm.
in width. The ends of the runners have an upward bend, and above
the stanchions is a flat bed some 76 cm. wide. The sled may be
shod with whalebone or wood. Another type of sled, for hauling a
canoe or kayak over ice or snow, is also seen. It is about 1.2 m.
long with short stanchions and a low bed joined with short cross-
pieces. Resting on the cache platform are snowshoes made from
birch or cottonwood with rawhide thong webbings. The snowshoes
are about 1.2 m. long, and they have a turned-up toe. Beneath
the cache two to four sled dogs may be tied. ‘Their harnesses,
made from old twisted fish nets, are hung from one of the cache poles.
Passing before the cache and climbing up the ridge, the visitor
sees a low mound of earth protruding from the hillside. On top of
the mound a frame is propped to one side, and over the frame is
stretched a thin translucent fishskin covering. Out of the roof
opening, which at times is covered by the window, smoke rises from
the fireplace below. This, like all the other houses, is occupied by
90 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
women, girls, and young males. Access to the house entry room is
through a low oval opening in a plank wall. In the entry room is a
sealskin poke filled with seal oil, and at the opening in the poke is a
wooden stopper. <
IBIFChy AT AME SNOWSNOCL a os eae ee nee |e eee eee x
6. Stone boiling in baskets__..........-_- xX. geese eee
Roasting foods. == 250 256 es kee > SE ene ee x
x
We (Beaver LOO LMM Teles ss =! aka area eo eeeeee
Stone pick. goad) eesn bot ep es. Senge obO, dba ley oho ee
DOPtiGtONG;AX= = oc casei ee ee ee a
Dplitiime 7 seer eee Seem eae x NSS Se
8.eSkillful-flintworkings. 2254-22 t Ses | beeen a eee eee
9; Skinworkine;methode= 2. , Strike-a-
light. +r, Copper hinge.
BUREAU
OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
BULLETIN 199 PLATE 15
Wooden mask representing a fox.
BULLETIN 199 PLATE 16
ETHNOLOGY
BUREAU OF AMERICAN
‘o0¥y ueUINy] ‘4
SSuT
AI®€9 U Ipoo NM
“Seu UBUIN;T 7)
Ls a ee
APPENDIX
lt da
feralizae CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 115
AppENDIX TABLE 1.—Crow Village trait list with locally manufactured items in the
sequence of the text descriptions
LOCATION
ITEM House Middens
Chipped Stone:
Hammerstone:
Basalt, flattened at one end___--|___-|---- Diya te eh ash. =
Shaped to fit the hand, used on
flat sunkice!so2 22 sa stoe 5 US (eared (teen ESE] Shee S225
Little chipping except on work-
bole Nis i: (te a a ee ea (epee aes eee [anes Ll So eS
Carefully chipped over most
Smmeesr(oi ls gobs ok Slee eee 1 Ay eee || ee oe
Arrow. pom; chert (pl. 1,\f)-54[24-2)- 4b eee
Strike-a-light -(pl-14, p). 12 ~12--<)2=3-|-2-sfecee | 2 TR Meee
Chisel:
Brass spike. (pl. 14; é) 2222-22. f2 le | eee ee
Paring, knife-handle- section...4 2% ~--===|s-2<|2=5-|-ooo]eo=5 1g (a
Textiles and Footwear:
Widel brim: bat,:felt.t 1. 222 t2. ecko celisleesei}— Ibs|5 2 |e ee
Kerehiefs silks -be te hc ee eel alll a SIE = allo a | ee pip | Baha
‘Textile 'scraps=2- 24-6 +264seshee glace ole 6 Bt l= SS] Rea ee
Overshoe; Section=-~-! 242 ous Ck = ee loaf Ae 2 a
Man’s:square-toe,shoe-section 422-1) -1- | |-==-|_ 24/52 | Ee ee
Woman’s laced ‘bootis222-.-5111 22s) ossal- 12a | ee ee eee
Miscellaneous:
bump ‘of tar: s2-2252 Secs sob sh eee Sos 5 bese |S eee la ae ee ee
Oswalt and CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 123
AprrnpiIx TABLE 3.—CentraliKuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900
Item Source
Settlement Pattern:
Cache:
itunyanOv eller S22 es Informants.
hadder, notchedopors {ooo alee) Do.
Piston Oe Sn = eon ae Do.
Kool, pabledtusaroia tt. cess c se wee Do.
SupDpOris, 10Un Posts. 39 2)3 oe ee Crow Village; Informants.
Walls,. horizontal'planks+— .25220.22ue2L 22 Informants.
Dwelling:
Summer:
Pole trame O88 = oo SA toe eee Do.
Cover:
Birchbarkeess sec es ae eee ee ee Do.
@rassa222 5252 Pee ea ae Do.
Winter:
Los irame (see Figure|6)-.--...--=----- Crow Village.
Pishskin window. 2 ooo oO J Informants.
Kashgee
Benches;, two rowstes! 4... eB OS Informants; Zagoskin.
iPnbrance, tunnel. 2228 a Crow Village; Informants.
Wire pit, Centrale oes =- 5--2--4 == TInformants.
Peg ets, Sit re ae Se Sees a es ae a eee Crow Village.
é Spring pole; bird-feather-rib rope___------- Informants; Zagoskin.
rap:
Dead fall. Sees eee ee ee ee eee Informants.
Fish trap set:for animals: = 2-22. === == Do.
Netting for trapping land animals__---_---- Zagoskin.
Subsistence:
ish
Boiled.) 222: ati bol 2. ene eee te Informants; Zagoskin
Mecayed 4. oe ye ee ee eee Do
DD yi (s¥o Ro pegaie UREA ISIREIEIN. PPR (NOS gee pagent ede ge Do
Smoked... i depakote Be ees Do
ETO CTE ee ee RIN CO Oy eat Do
Meat:
BBX ay (20 bijs pepe pb a aM eee ey al ne hr el ec Informants.
DCG sesh ha teats ye ee ees Do.
ROA STCGU LNs re et ater, tees nani, 29 |S Se See Do.
TODACCO me ss Sener esas a ee ee ee Zagoskin.
O lt and
Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA
125
APPENDIX TABLE 3.—Central Kuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900—Continued
Item Source
Subsistence—Continued
Vegetable:
Berries:
Histmerosubomeges 2-255 Informants.
Greens, roots, meat, fish, oil (agutuk)____| Informants; Zagoskin.
Hine weedesbotledermr.2 t= = se ee as Informants.
Niushroomis naw. | ot ee Do.
Walderhubano pooled 32. 2252 tee ee o2 Do.
Kashgee and Men’s Equipment:
Antler:
ANGE 7p RES ee a es a re Le ee Crow Village.
Crooked knifevdandle.. .- 5} es as Informants.
Net sinker 3 eese 527.3 ee ke Crow Village; Informants.
Wied ce--) 2 eenremet beet te eo Do.
Bearskin: entranicercover__--—=--------2 = 5 Informants.
Birchbark:
Ship Dom Sidesaenye fo Se Crow Village.
Unworked rolls of birchbark_____--------- Do.
Canvas; stage curtain for ceremonies--_------ Informants.
Hur, pamtbrushjol marmot...........-. .=#e2)= Do.
Grass:
Sponge sor, batming ss 4 yt a pee Zagoskin.
i ome for stage curtain for ceremonies__--| Informants; Zagoskin.
etal:
Adz bladecsmeser ed! Boe. | 2 ety oe Informants.
AWila = ceemenanAe ES Bel Se ke ee Crow Village.
Wermiyrera peminratet 3 ks Crow Village; Zagoskin.
Bayonet 2 revmenuet 35 2225s -a6 5 8ee Crow Village.
Cam metal sath la eee § eesie See ft Do.
Chisel:
IBTRSSs = See ont oie ssel ep glee) S Do
bearers) Sao Ree ee ete eS ee Do.
Popper shect. ese ss a ee eee Do.
bndtbladeniorkmifes 2.2.2 Soleo tes O.
Kngraving tool iblades...._-....-.-.-bede Informants.
Hinge. of. copperetc! 1. -......-.-.felens? Crow Village.
Sriihem sae seen SAR eo hee os Zagoskin.
1 FEO AST Sa AR 9 A Tapa RP Penne SF Crow Village.
amg blade Nee ou 2 eee oy eee eS Do.
NS eui ESSE Wir ca ca SERRE np Ce Do.
VN Ue ES k SO Sees © Aaa | Ce Anca iin ala en nea Do.
Paint:
IBiacke Scoala pee Bae ee ene eee Zagoskin.
Blue; white rock and decayed wood_ ------ Informants.
Red pbloog anguocner 02. 2. se Informants; Zagoskin.
Wihitesswhite rocket» #2222222 eae Informants.
Pottery; locally made:
Lamp; large and bowl shaped_-_----------- Informants; Zagoskin.
Stone:
Adz blade:
Chipped of flinty material______-_--_--- Informants.
Ground:
IBlaninlopertwrte tb! ee = Crow Village.
SpPUGiineeeaee wh ft ele ee eS Do.
Bullet bene ewe ho Se et Do.
Bnd) bladeditknife;blade..........---..=-- Do
Grindme Ap aneeeee ee 2 oe Pe OS Do.
Hammerstonessetet 1.
Do.
hing, montaeriey ate ee re ek Crow Village; Informants.
126 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
APPENDIX TABLE 3.—Central Kuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900—Continued
Item Source
Kashgee and Men’s Equipment—Continued
Stone—Continued
SaWitis ccs fen eee ce che Le Crow Village.
Weta tone eee es inst nearer ene Crow Village; Informants.
Wood:
Adaghandle ACTON h Mooi alert ent Crow Village.
Beaver tooth drawknife handle__________- Do.
Crooked, knifeiandle = csi oie SS Informants.
Drill shaft:
Biemplacements. 2-5-2 2 soso cee Crow Village.
Brie linet NAA he MAR he es Do.
End ‘blade*kiife handle. 8 se ek Do.
Mneravine tool handle... 2.5522 o eee oO.
ABE alors h ave Mt tt CRSPh ere beeen eeeuane teen nem ae Informants.
Misa. SEE sen Sts ten ot op ee Crow Village.
Paring | knitejhandles tooo oh e) eee ee Do.
Respiratoc of Shavings ss oo Zagoskin.
BRUM box, bOCCOM. oss et ee Crow Village.
Nirap, driller 6 es oe Do.
Tobacco box top and bottom____________- Do.
A YEEON ee SS SMR ete eat ts COM TO) Crow Village; Informants.
Ceremonial Life and Equipment:
Burial:
Goth, planks 222 ve cde Selah ei Informants.
Birchbark over entire coffin._.._...---- Zagoskin.
Birchbark over coffin top.......-------- Informants.
Cormerposts wos! 3 oa. se ees oow cae Informants; Zagoskin.
Paintédifiguresvon’ sides. 222204005 l 566 Informants.
Figures; free standing, head and trunk___-- Do.
Grave goods:
Tools and equipment (male or female) -_ -__ Do.
HOV S(t] Gd rem) as ee ey egy ee ee Do.
Headboard:
Animal carvings attached__.....-.----- Crow Village; Informants.
Humantearving attached....-.2.-i22.=2 0.
Bead adornment (female)__--__---__- Informants.
Ceremonies:
Bering Omi 5: BE naa See Do.
Boy Ss nuntiness oo te sake tee ee Do.
Child's first dances A252 oe2- os eS Do.
Doll? 2. Jee ook Skee ae ae ere ae Do
Heastitor.the dead a Foe ak oe Do
Kirst salmon sen Jos 25s2caeonse lee Do
Potlatch = AA(e 70 Bt vt. 25. ee Se Do
Wadtcelery stale too sets oes eens O.
Blower, (2). .Camvitigeie. 426 22 3 ay fe ey ot Crow Village.
Mask appendage:
Animalicdrving Wl tons cccce evo OAS Crow Village (?).
Bost model! fs ose ee eee ae Crow Village.
ishiearving 2. oo. Fla sees ee ope Do.
Wand B/S RAMGU J. ese ae Le Do.
Face mask:
ear anh WU ne at ee ta eee aah Informants.
Dogs 2. eR eet oie ee cate nea Zagoskin.
OR eo ds OR Ba a et Crow Village.
FeLi an ee Crow Village; Informants;
Zagoskin.
RAVEN So eh ee ee cae Informants.
SprritlHeel ! WO De aia wee eee Zagoskin.
Oswalt and
Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 127
AppENDIx TABLE 3.—Central Kuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900—Continued
SS ee ee
Ceremonial Life and Equipment—Continued
Ga
Personal Adornment:
m
Item Source
Informants; Zagoskin.
hinpermmask- 2222-2 - 5 ue eee
Informants.
Memorialicarving) of \a girl...
Tambourine drum:
JEG Gps os et Bre eae et Se eee ee Crow Village.
Drums ticles 42 2eew Fe eee Informants.
es:
Pallhobtwisted grass.) 22-22 <--seecess=- Do.
Broasdejump, (misles) 222s 2222S oe Wt Se Zagoskin.
Chopping hole in‘ice (boys) ---------------- Do.
Hand eamer@nien) Mee. 2 fee et Informants.
Snowshoe wace (moalles)Saeee eens] eee ee Zagoskin.
Crow Village; Zagoskin.
Weinland.
Bracelettcomper! 22532 --~ <5. 52055552555
Breast ornament (child, female):
Brass buttons = == ee sora eee Do.
Ear ornament; strung beads, various colors
Gemiste) i SROs SUC fo re SOE AE Informants.
Labret:
Lateral:
Disk:shaped, (male). -.25-2-222252=22
Hook shaped (female) ._-.-------------
Ornamented with beads__..---------
Miediall(male) eee es eos tee ee
Necklace, beads and cartridge cases (female) -
Nose ornament, blue glass beads (female) ---_-
Pendant:
Crow Village; Informants.
Informants.
Informants; Zagoskin.
Crow Village; Informantss
Crow Village.
Informants; Zagoskin.
Beardtoothe-Sse-- oe besa ssensoeaese sss Crow Village.
Mict al sepa Oe Sr hs oo nope tase sss Do.
Ring:
TRONS | RRS fo oe esses Zagoskin.
DW Vii TG see WEED Fo a a te he wh ae Do.
Tattoo; lip to chin lines (female) ---.-------- Do.
Transportation:
Boats and boating:
Bidarraumiak). .— 2)o-2sn22essserseses= Informants.
Birchbarkicanoes sheets = 2252552 Sa522e Do.
ayalct > . SOS PRBIS ooo oe ee eee assess Do.
Bow. or stern! pieces 2s ee ose ee eses Crow Village.
Bow pidee!. HOG! feos ess sesasssseet Do.
Deeckisupport= — =L.ssosass22ssse5S2¢ Do.
Manhole:
RinevsechiOnt: 4. s2ce2.545sessse52 Do.
Rane supports: 22 s2-s22s22ss5ses=25 Do.
PRPS a PDN a a es Do.
Paddle:
Double bladed; ribbed on one side of
blader tee ah eee een Informants.
Incomplete; ribbed on both sides of blade_| Crow Village.
Single bladed; ribbed on both sides of
bladesatee es fo dae Cat abe sce sseasae Informants.
Propelling poletiat 2243 we vesa sacescese ee Do.
Sled and sledding:
Built up; flat bed (dog traction)-_---------- Do.
Runner:
‘Birches eo eee scan EL ie Zagoskin.
SL Cg Eee; see eet NSIRRE ee eR Crow Village; Informants.
Canoe or kayak sled (human traction) _---| Informants.
rose DICOGe! Seen ose eet e Crow Village.
128 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
AppENDIxX TABLE 3.—Central Kuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900—Continued
Item Source
Transportation—Continued
Sled and sledding—Continued
Dog sharnessjoldgfish neta. 5- 45> 5— = Informants.
Shoe; sled:
Whalehened saw d!t 29 po oe ee Crow Village; Informants.
OG tc ria a a ia Crow Village.
Stanchions sleds stip eee ya eee Do.
Snowshoe:
Frame:
1 Brine) SEN, Us) aN A en et ba A ROU Informants; Zagoskin.
Cottonweodste ig ge ee Crow Village.
Household Equipment:
Amitler taming tram Glee ee eu eee as eee Do.
Birchbark:
Basket:
Garrying large eb 6 ee ee informants.
Cokin gee Ae ey i a UN O.
Household}small..pasabe. asters abse Crow Village; Informants.
Horsetail root border design_--------- Informants.
Dip pert Pee 96tea 3G Ieee tre Do.
1 AGH Pe) 00 PS ir SEAR a ra, SN ie et aR PRN etree ae Do.
TE forchevs tehvcg Meese) SREAD) Sgt San gen ae Crow Village.
Wiskiskin:pgepeveerey Agee ee Zagoskin.
Elannel iblanketere.341 222+ eh Do.
Glass:
Bottles wees Oma! BO ret ase oe byl Crow Village.
Disb ot ated fo PzVCI- ee es 2s, Ge Sp GLO ee OTL Ree Dopey ts Do.
Scraper:
Bottletracment hae 8 224 Pee oes oe Do.
Windowtragient.} 0-2 Do.
Grass:
Woven (oaskeiterce? 1 0 eee Informants.
WON CTRHRES. SpE Pi ety Be Ua a Sui Crow Village.
Metal:
Bucket:iwithvbandles owe. oe ea aoe Do
Cantimnetal rollstzer: Webi 5 el sole ee Do
Di Per ss flee feyeree ep hs ii eS ee ee Do
Dish:
OAS beRrO ae te. be 2h a ee Zagoskin.
Cop pene want ie 8 a es ee Do.
Remade) tinv¢an metals. 2 eee es Crow Village.
1 EM Girgib a eae Ofc OMEN <9 © Nene NTS aye ar ROUEN Oo.
ior ills erie ar ey a eo a on Do.
Needles. Aatt =o ees ee ee a Zagoskin.
Pie Gy apse Pe aa per yt Crow Village.
DR Eh, a a OF ih Ne pk es, Zagoskin.
PO UH OD kee he Aenean eee ee ra ee Crow Village.
Serapenibladess =k Se ea ee: cee pel Do.
Tablespoon tamwpte th. bo 6 2 oe ce es Do.
Teakettle:
Mmamele@. 222 ok el ee ee Do
Plain metalaree teh se Soe Le Do
SP CRIG OD sm APF ih ee pO A aa eg Do
Do YGF: iw aM anes Ree penis LOAN AIS Rh SrON T tp a SE Do.
Ulu blade fromjcan metal___. ~~~ 22sb224- Do.
Mosse mp wick! a2 oS ha hee ee ee Informants.
Oil; lamp fuel (bear, fish, or seal oil)_-_-__--- Do.
O lt and
Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 129
AppENpDIx TABLE 3.—Central Kuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900—Continued
Item Source
Household Equipment—Continued
Pottery:
Imported:
Cup:
Handpainted: 2-248 Sd ad Crow Village
Bisime Deere rpgetat oto oo Re Do.
shranster prints 52k 2 a ee ere Do
DOUEEE ahr aOR Se ae eh ee Do
GRO 5 beer hie Yo A ee oe Do
Locally made:
Cooking pot:
Line-dot surface treatment----_------- Do.
Undecorated2 22225. Sse -2 See ee Do.
Saucerishanpediammps_. ....-- 2. -..*- Do.
Smew- thread 22 208 Ss. Ub os a heat wiyiy) Zagoskin.
SETAE 04 3} Ps 1 a RS Pa Pe Informants.
tone:
DIS) ea PAT TE I Scape ee Ee pu ore Crow Village.
ISGEN AONE Ei onate ee ees SNR ee eee oe eNO Do.
Lamp, pecked and ground:
Basin shaped; shallow, wide rim_- ~~ ---_- Do.
Bowl, shaped, shallow.) ... -.- .. 42)24.- - Do.
Scraper:
Flaked:
Boulder chip (tci-tho) --.------------ Crow Village.
Blade:
1B) aio (eS Se ee eer Do
Sits Gat ee ee Pe eee Do
Ground:
Rind: bladewiatteds_) =.= 5 tae. 0.
Loe oy Evo SE es. 2 ae ee eee ey ee eee Crow Village; Informants.
| MTC hea oe eae Le ee eee eee Crow Village.
Willows inner bark formets. _ <6 ----- 42. Crow Village; Informants;
Zagoskin.
Wood:
Barrel imported=.. 2.2 2.2.-s2-4 Bees 8 Do.
Benchtsuipportses=ser ace 4 Seo oe See ee Do.
Bowl semicirele of a burl. .— 224 222ce— 22 Do.
ibex, plank, imported... 2-.-..-.2s2ee3e_s Do.
Bucket, ovoid; decorated bottom_-__-_--_-_- Crow Village; Informants.
Re oa enh ee ea age Informants.
MGHNeOOATOs= 5-2 oF 2 eee Crow Village; Informants.
LD TELS Nie ic eee Ege F Cnc e Ore Do.
Pndgscraperhandless2 22220 ee ae Do.
Hoodgtray, ovoid 2262 2..) 22. a= Same Do.
[lexan cli aie See ob Seek Crow Village.
WbsiOll eee ee So he Do.
amipsieaneer 2 ce es eS Crow Village; Informants.
okeisiemuenmye. 3255025 loses Ee phi Crow Village.
Wilivwhandles 2228 ea ee Sa ah Crow Village; Informants.
Fishing Equipment:
Rass a reap cee ee Pag eS Informants; Zagoskin.
Harpoon dart; barbed metal point____------- Crow Village.
Hook and line:
Hook baited with red flannel_-_---------- Informants.
TSE) EN ea AUR eS ca RL Crow Village; Informants.
Leister:
enbial Pronee wees ok Se ee Crow Village.
IESG ered PROM Ge Mase eten CNL ut eee S Do.
130 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199
AppENDIX TABLE 3.—Central Kuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900—Continued
Item Source
Fishing Equipment—Continued
Net:
AE Seas ee a Mek eae ST ene leer eee Informants; Zagoskin.
Grill eae rp eee EO INPRO: SERN eRe a tliat ete pai Do.
Drift st. Wei Os bos i eG eee Do.
ee) Aap peers Ss, SR per eee Deere ee eee nee ae ee Informants.
Material:
Cotton twineth: 2 oases. bes eee Do.
Rawhide thong’ s2- 2s sa sees ae bea Informants; Zagoskin.
Twisted eracs #6 ha ieee a eo Informants.
Wahl Oy gine ar kc ss Metts tpt areal Crow Village; Informants;
Zagoskin.
Netting equipment:
AniGhor S1OneGhek =< oo bee poe oer Informants.
Anchor lines of willow inner bark___-_--- Do.
Fish killing:
ib SS ep ea eee haere lk er ees Do.
Clabes Ph ote Le Do.
Float:
Oblong with holes at each end:
Cottonweod bark). 22.2 228 Sie Crow Village; Zagoskin.
Spruce: s840 2 22s lhcess eee eee Crow Village.
Oblong with hole at one end; spruce__-| Crow Village; Informants.
Shaped like duck, for end of drift net-_| Informants.
Gage] Aes WOR be ede tek Crow Village; Informants.
Net container for boat. 2-222 225222" se5* Informants.
DHUtHeLs asses eee eee eee eee Crow Village; Informants.
Weight:
Antlervanilledsholes#=soeesee ese e sees 0.
Bone, notched. --2= hci oteeeceteeeee Crow Village.
head, ‘clampedie ts.) wcnececectetees Informants.
Stone, notched 2s hace esos Crow Village.
Weir eene Pet) esto, Wes bd peed eee sete Informants; Zagoskin.
INDEX
Abrading, 26 Begging
Abrasion, 28 Bell, 79
Adz, 92 Bench, 15, 18, 19, 20, 50, 90, 92
planing, 28, 29, 30, 66 Bench plank support, 36, 68, 90
splitting, 29 Bennett, James, 54
Adz head, 44 Berezkin, Matthew, 6
Agutuk, 91, 95 Bering Sea, 3, 5, 69, 83
Akiak, 84 Bering Strait, 5
Alaska Commercial Company, 5, 6, 73, Berries, 89, 95
81, 82 Bethel, 6, Z 73, 78, 81, 83
Alaska Peninsula, 80 Bidarra, 87, 96
Alder, 8, 9 Big Lake, 42
Aleutian Islands, 80 Birch, 7, 8, 31, 89, 93
Alexandrov Redoubt, 4, 77, 80, 82, 84 Birchbark, £0;\01, 12,24, (89, 43,:47,, 67;
America, influence of, vi11, 76, 78, 79, 82, Wer 74, 76, 87, 88, ‘90, ‘92, 94, 100,
83, 85, 101, 105 101, 107
Ammunition, 81 Bird:
see also: Rifle cartridge. carved, 42, 43
Aniak, vu, 6, 7, 63, 86 mask depicting, 98
Aniak River, 4, 92, 94, 96 wing of, 95
Animals, 98, 99 Bird dart, 76, 97
carved, 41, 42, 97, 98 Bird hunting, 33
see also specific names. Bird spear, 33
Antler, 26, 44, 70, 72, 91, 93, 94 Blacker, J. F., 52
Anvik River, 3 Bladder, 94
Archeology, historical, vir, v111 Blades, 26, 69, 91, 92
Arctic Woodland culture, 106, 107, 109 animal tooth, 33
Arrowhead, 32, 44, 93, 96, 101 iron, 33, 66
Arrowpoint, 28, 29, 30 Blanket, 78, 90
Ash, bone, 52 Blood, as paint, 93
wood, 12, 19 Boat, toy, 40, 97, 101
Athapaskan Indians, 1, 2, 72, 73, 81, 87, carved, 98
106, 109 Boat model, 42
Awl, 44, 50, 72, 91, 98, 94 Bone, 26, 70, 72, 103
Ax, 4, 78, 81, 92, 93 Bone ash, 52
Boots, 88
Bag, grass, 47 Borax flint, 52
fishskin, 91 Bottle, glass, 55, 57, 90
Baking powder, 63, 64, 75 Bottle glass, vu, 51,
Ball, grass, 97, 101 Bow, 32, 33, 96, 101
Band, metal, 18 toy, 40, 97, 101
Bannock, 75 Bowl, ironstone, 53
Bark peeler, 438, 44 wood, 36
Barrel stave, 66 Box, wooden, 61, 62, 66
Basalt, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30 Brace, drilling, 45
Basket, birchbark, 47, 73 Bracelet, 51, 66, 79, 89
grass, 99 Bristol Bay, 1
Bathing, 98 Brooks, John, 53
Bayonet, 66, 92 Bucket, iron, 65, 90
Beads, 12, 18, 51, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 76, toy, 40, 97
78, 79, 81, 82, 88, 92 Bucket handle, 51
Bear, 73, 95, 96 Buckle, clothing, 60
carved, 41, 97 Bullet mold, 31, 49, 76, 96
mask depicting, 98 Bull roarer, 97
Bearskin, 92 Burial, 100
Bear tooth, 45 Burnham, Harold, 67
Beaver, 4, 70, 71, 72, 85, 96 Buttons, 55, 79, 82, 89
131
132
Cache, 22, 23, 24, 89, 107
ground, 24
Cache poles, 9, 89
California Fig Syrup Co., 56
Canoe, 87, 89, 94, 96, 100, 101, 107
Canvas, 67, 99
Cap, see Headgear.
Cape Darby, 38
Cape Vancouver, 42
Caribou, 4, 65, 71, 72, 85, 87, 88, 91, 96,
97, 106
carved, 41, 97
Cartridge, see Rifle cartridge.
Carving, animal, 41, 42, 68, 97, 98, 100,
101
Census, 6
Ceremonies, 98, 99, 100
doll, 99
Chambers: lexander and David H.,
5
OG:
Checkers, 39, 68, 97
Chert, blue, 26
Chimney, lamp, 57
China clay, 52
China stone, 52
Chipping, 27, 30
Chisel, 93
Christianity, 80, 83, 100
Chum, see Salmon.
Cigar box, 66
Cinnabar, 83
Clay, vessels of, 74
Clothing, 67, 75, 78, 87, 88, 91
Club, 94, 96
Coal, 93
Cod, 94, 95
Coffin, 100, 101
Cold trap, 11, 18
Comb, 79
Constantine, 77
Cooking, 48, 74,
see also: Food, preparation of.
Cook Inlet, 3
Copper, sheet 51, 93
Copper River, vir, 54
Cork stopper, 56, 57
“‘Cornaline d’Aleppo” bead, 60
Cottonwood, 10, 11, 20, 31, 38, 48, 89,
93, 94
Cowhide, 51
Crescent Baking Powder, 64
Crockery, vir
“Crooked knife,’’ 44, 92, 93, 95
“Crow Village,” 1
Crow Village, vir, vit1, 1x, 2, 3, 6, 7, 10,
23, 53, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 78,
80, 81, 82, 83, 87, 98, 100, 101,
102, 105, 106
artifacts from, 25, 28, 29, 53, 54, 55,
56, 57, 60, 61, 68, 77, 102, 104, 107
natives of, 4, 51,
population of, 83, 84
Cup, 52, 53, 79, 91
Curtain, canvas, 99
Cutting board, 33, 66, 91
Cux dialect, 1
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
[Bull. 199
Dances, 98, 100
Dart, 39, 94, 97
Dart head, 75, 76
Deadfall, 73, 95
Densmore, Frank, 83
Designs, floral, 53
geometric, 90
Dipper, birchbark, 100
metal, 65, 90
Dish, metal, 50, 76, 78, 90
stone, 30
toy, 40, 97
wood, 3, 6
Dog, 70, 71, 72
Dogfood, 4
Dogsled, see Sled.
Doll, 41, 68, 97, 99
Drawknife handle, beaver tooth, 33, 93
Drift netting, 94
Driftwood, 8
Drill, 93
Drilling, 28
Drum handle, 43
Drummer, 99
Drying rack, 91, 94
Duck, fish, 94
Dwelling, eh 10, 12, 13, 15,20; "22624
4
?
Eagle, carved, 92
Earrings, 79, 92
‘“‘Hley Bro.,’’ 64
End blade, 26, 29
Engraving, 51
Engraving tool handle, 33, 93
Entry room, 11, 15, 18, 20, 23, 90
Epidemic, 7, 80
Ermine, carved, 41, 97
Eskimos, vil, 2, 25, 63, 67, 68, 69, 72, 73,
74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85,
99, 101, 105, 106, 108, 109
culture of, 5, 6, 11, 33, 36, 39, 44,
48, 49, 55, 57
language of, 1
Feast for the Dead, 99
Feces, human, 24
Ferrule, copper, 51, 76
Finger masks, 99
Firearms, 44, 64, 65, 82, 96
Fire drill, 33, 98
Firepit, 92
Fireplace, 12, 44, 89, 90, 92
Fireweed, 95
Fish, 4, 24, 75, 91, 100
carved, 42, 98
Fishbones, 73, 103
Fish eggs, 95
Fishing, 32, 33, 69, 95, 96, 103, 106, 109
Fishing rod, 32
Fish net, 89, 91, 96
see also: Net.
Fishskin, 56, 88, 89, 97
Fishtrap, 95, 103, 104
Flaking, 30
Flannel, 78, 87, 94
Van Stone] INDEX 133
Flint, 26, 52, 97 Hood, 87
borax, 52
Flip dart, 39, 68
Float, net, 32, 44, 48, 94
Floor, 10
house, 11, 12, 16, 18, 77
Flour, 81
Flower, carved, 42, 76, 100
Fontana, B. L., 57, 61
Food, 75
preparation of, 95, 96, 107
Footwear, 67, 99
Fort Union, N. Mex., 57
Fox, red, 71, y2, 73, 96
mask depicting, 98
Fruit, 75
Fungus, 39, 93
Fungus box, 39
Fur, 91, 97
Fur trade, 4, 51, 73, 86
Gage, mesh, 32, 91, 104
Games, 97, 98
Giddings, James L., 105, 106, 107, 109
Glass, drinking, 55, 57, 90
see also: Bottle.
Glasseutter, 55
Glaze, 52
Glazunow, Andrei, 3
Gloves, 88
Gold, 83
stampede for, 6
Gouge, 27
Gouging, 44
Grass, 20, 47, 90
braided, 48
twisted, 51, 91, 95, 97
woven, 88, 91
Grave goods, 100, 101
Grease, 97
Greenleaf, C. J., 57, 61,
Grinding, 25, 26, 29, 31
Grinding stone, 28
Grooving, 29
Gulf of Alaska, vir
Gun powder, 81, 82
Hair, human, 42, 43
Hallmark, pottery, 54, 55
Hammering, 28
Hammerstone, 25, 28, 69, 93, 94
Hand-decorated ware, 52, 53, 54
Handgame, 95
Handle, 50, 91, 92
Hardtack, 81
Hare, 71, 87, 95
Harness, 89
Hat, 67, 88
Headband, 82
Headgear, 88
Hearth, 18
Heating stones, 90
Heizer, R. F., 31
Herrick, R., 60
Hinge, copper, 65, 93
Holitna River, 78
Hook, iron, 96
Hook and line, 94
Hooper Bay Village, 68
Horsetail, 91
Hosley, Edward, vi1t
Hough, Walter, 31
House excavation, 13
Housepits, 9
Hrdliéka, Ale’, 8, 31
Hudson’s Bay Company, 60
Human figure, carved, 41, 43, 101
Hunt, C. B., 56
Hunting, 44, 69, 95, 96, 100, 106
Hutchinson, Kohl & Company, 5, 81
Tkogmiut, 3
Iliama Lake, 1, 77
Illarion, Hieromonk, 4, 6, 9, 80
Indians, vu, 5, 80, 103, 107
Ingalik tribe, 1
Influenza, 84
Inlay, 91
Innovation, 74
Insoles, 47
Inuit, 68
Tron, cast, 49, 79
Ironstone china, 51, 52, 54, 55, 88
Ivory, 88, 91
Jewelry, brass, 81
Kachemak Bay, 31
Kalskag, vu 4, 81, 83, 84
Kanukpuk, see Influenza.
Kashgee, 8, 23, 24, 39, 70, 74, 92, 93, 97,
8, 99
98,
Kayak, 36, 37, 48, 87, 89, 96, 100
shoe, 45
Kerchief, 67, 82, 88
Kettle, cast iron, 49
Kilbuck, John H., 84
King, George C., 83
Kiogiack, Simon, 6
Knife, 66, 81, 93
Knife blade, 26, 44, 79,
metal end bladed, 49
Knowles, Isaac W., 54
Knowles, Taylor & Knowles, 54
Kobuk River, 105, 106, 107
Kodiak Island, 31, 80,
Kokhlokhtokhpagamiut, 83, 84
Kolmakov, Feodor, 80
Kolmakov Redoubt, 1x, 3, 4, 5, 6, 42, 72,
73, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 103
Koniag, 31
Kotzebue Sound, 103
Kowchowak, 97
Kuskokwim River region, vil, vil, 1, 2,
3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 30, 31, 36, 40, £2,
68, 69, 72, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83,
84, 85, 95,'96, 98, 100, 101, 103,
105, 106
Kwigiumpainukamiut, 1x, 1, 2, 3, 5, 78,
?
134
Labret, 38, 51, 88
Ladle, 90, 91
Laguna, Frederica de, 31
Lamp, clay, 57, 74, 90
hunting, 46
pottery, 31, 45, 46
stone, 30, 74, 90
Lampstand, 12, 15, 20, 36, 90, 92
Lance, 26, 68, 96
toy, 40
Land otter, 72, 73, 87, 95, 96
Langtray, George C., 83
Lantis, Margaret, 106, 107, 109
Lard, 75
Lead, 49, 81, 82, 94, 96
Leather, 51
Leggings, 87
Leister, 94
toy, 40
Lid, can, 64
kettle, 65
Little Russian Mission, 83
Log cabin, 14, 23
Loon, carved, 41, 97
Lukin, Semen, 5
Lynx, 73, 95
Makutov, Prince Dimitrij, 4
Marmot, 87, 93
Marrow, bone, 97
Marten, 73, 85, 95, 96
Mask, 42, 98, 99
appendage, 41, 42, 43, 97, 98, 99
ring(?), 42
Mason and Company, C. J., 52
Mat, grass, 74, 91, 99
Maul, 93
Measles, 84
Meat, 75, 95
Medicine, patent, 56
Memorial image, 41, 42
Mending hole, 75
Metal, 61
Midden, 9, 23, 44, 47, 57, 70, 77
Milk glass, 55
Miners, 83
Mink, 73, 95, 96
carved, 41, 97
Minton, Thomas, 53
Mirror, 79
Mittens, 88
Molasses, 64
Moose, 71, 72, 85, 96, 97
Moravian Church, vit, 83, 84
Mortar, paint, 30, 93
Mug, 53
Mumtreklagamiut Station, see Bethel.
Mushrooms, 95
Musket ball, 49, 96
Muskrat, 73, 95
Necklace, 45, 51, 76, 86
Needle, steel, 28, 69, 79, 81, 91
Nelson, Edward W., 37, 38, 39, 40, 42,
68, 81
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Nail, metal, 18, 38, 50, 61, 62, 66, 76, 93
Net, 91, 100, 103
dip, 32, 94
gill, 32, 94
trap, 73
Net floats, 32, 44, 48, 94, 104
Net shuttle, 32, 91, 104
Net sinker, 26, 44, 72, 93, 104
Netting, 32
grass, 47
Nicholaevskij Redoubt, 3, 82
Northern Commercial Company, 63
Nunivak Island, 37
Nushagak River, 4, 77, 78, 80
trading center, 77
Ocher, red and white, 93
Ogavik, 78, 81, 83
Ohagamiut, 4, 6, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 97, 98
Ohio patterns, 54
Oil, 64, 75, 95, 97
seal, 90
Ontario, 102
Oswalt, W. H., vu, 22, 28, 40, 68, 70,
85, 105
Otter, see Land otter.
Overalls, 66, 87
Overshoes, 67, 88
Owens, M. J., 56
Pacific Ocean, 3
Paddle, 37, 87
Paimiut, 1
Paint, black, 93
blue, 93
red, 33, 48, 87, 93
Paintbrush, 93
Painting, 100
Paint mortar, 30, 93
Pan, frying, 65, 81, 90
Parka, 87, 88, 99
Pebble, beach-worn, 27, 94
Pecking, 29, 30
Peg, wooden, 43, 45
Pendant, 45, 66, 89
Percussion caps, 64
see also: Firearms.
Phillips, Sam, 7, 8, 23, 70
Pie tin, 65, 90
Pike, 94
Pipe, 38, 79
Pistol, toy, 40
Pit, storage, 73, 89
Pittsburgh, Ohio, 57
Pneumonia, 84
Poke, sealskin, 90
Pole, spruce, 87
carved, 92
Polishing, 25, 29, 30
Population, 10
Pot, metal, 4, 79, 81
Pot, pottery cooking, 45, 74, 90
Pothook, metal, 50, 90
Potlatch, 98, 99, 100
Pottery, 45, 46
imported, 18, 75
non-EHskimo, 54
[Bull. 199
Oswalt and
Van Stone] INDEX 135
Potterymaking, 74 Shajashnikov, Father Innokenty K., 83
Powder, see Gun powder. Shamanism, 4
Prince William Sound, vil, 31 Sharpener, 28
Prospectors, 83 Shoes, see Footwear.
Ptarmigan, 96 Shuttle, 32, 91
Side bladed knife handle, 44
Quartz, 26, 27 Sidewalls, 14
Silk, Chinese, 67
Rabbit, see Hare. Sinew, 33, 91
Ramrod, 44, 72, 96 Skagway, 60
Ravens, 8 Skins, processing of, 97
Rawhide, 89, 91, 96 worked, 69, 97
Red paint, 33, 48, 93 Skin seraper blade, 50, 97
Reinforcement pieces, leather, 51 Skylight, 56
metal, 50 Slate, 25, 26, 27, 29, 91, 92
Respirator, 98 Sled, 36, 37, 87, 101
Rhubarb, 95 Sled runner, 37, 43
Rifle, 64, 65, 82, 83, 96 Sled shoe, 37, 43, 45, 72
Rifle cartridge, 32, 51, 64, 65, 76, 82, 88| Sled stanchion, 37
Ring, finger, 79, 89 Sleetmiut, 84, 85, 96
Rivet, metal, 32 Smallpox, 80
Roman Catholic Church, 83 Smudge fires, 93
Romig, Dr. Joseph H., 84 Snare, 33, 73, 95, 96
Roof, construction of, 12, 13, 15, 17, 20| Snowshoe, 36, 38, 89, 97
Roof, cribbed, 18, 20 Snuffbox, 38, 39, 88
gabled, 89 Socks, 47, 88
pitched, 18 Soft drink, 56
Roof beams, 16 Songs, 98, 99, 100
Roof timbers, 10 Spear, 52, 96, 101
Rope, plaited grass, 47 Spike, 66, 93
Royal Baking Powder, 63, 64 Spirits, masks depicting, 98
Royal Ontario Museum, 67 Spode, 52
Russia, influence of, vu, 4, 5, 75, 76,| Spoon, metal, 65, 90
78, 80, 82, 85, 101 Spring pole, 95
Russian-America Company, 3, 5, 79 Spruce, 8, 10, 11, 15, 20, 31, 32, 36, 48,
Russian language, 1 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 107
Russian Mission, see Ikogmiut. Spruce root, 32, 98
Russian Orthodox Church, 4, 6, 48, 76, | Squirrel, 71, 87, 88, 95
79, 80, 83, 100 Staffordshire, 54
Steel, plate, tinned, 49, 62
St. Michael, 1, 3, 4, 39, 40, 68, 80, 81,| Steubenville Pottery Company, 54
82, 84 Stone, building, 10, 15
2
Salmon, 8, 89, 94, 95, 96, 100, 107, 109 chipped, 25
Salmonberry, 24, 95 fire cracked, 20, 48
Salmon dart head, 49, 75, 97 greenish, 30
toy, 40 grinding, 93
Salt, 64, 75 ground, 27
Sandstone, 27, 28, 30, 31 worked, 69
San Francisco, Calif., 56 Stoneware, 52
Saucer, 52, 53, 91 Stony River, 3
Saw, metal, 93 Stopper, cork, 56, 57
stone, 26, 29, 94 Story knife, 40, 97
Saw blade, 49, 69 Stove, cast iron, 49, 65, 90
Schist, sandy, 26, 27 Strike-a-light, 66, 79, 98
Scoop, metal, 50 Structure, dome-shaped, 91
Scraper, 26, 30, 97 Sugar, 81
end-hafted skin, 28 Suk dialect, 1
glass, 51, 56, 75, 97 Suspenders, 66, 87
secondary use of, 28 Syrup, 64, 75
side, 26, 97
snub-nosed, 26 Tacket, iron, 67
Seal, 85, 88 Takotna River, 3
Sea mamal, 69 Tanning, 97
Seine, 32 Tar, 67
Serpent, carved, 41, 97 Taral site, 54, 60
Sewing, 47, 48 Tea, 81
136
Teakettle, 65, 82, 90
Teapot, ironstone, 53, 91
Temper, 46
Textiles, 67, 81
Theft, 4
Theodore, Anania, 6, 7, 70
Tin cans, vat 49, ’50, 62, 63, 69, 90, 91,
97, 105
“hole-in-top,” 62, 63
lid of, 64
Tobacco, 4, 39, 75, 78, 81,
Tobacco box, 39
Tobacco can, 64
Tobacco grinder, 36
Top, toy, 39, 97, 101
Toy, 43, 97
Trade, 4, 5, 6, 61, 107, 109
Trade goods, vit, 5, 9, 25, 51, 59, 70, 73,
74, 76, 77, "79, 83, 85, 101, 102, 105
Traders, 52, 60, "90, 91
American, iA 78, 102
independent, 6, 81,
Russian, 5, 61, 77, 102
Trading post, 5, 52, 77, 84, 101
Russian, 1x, 78
Transfer printed ware, 52, 53, 54
Trapping, 5, 69,
Traps, 73
Tray, food, 91
Trousers, 87
Trout, 94
Tunnel, 10, 11, 13, 15, 18, 23
entrance, 11, 20
floor, 11
roof, 11
sidewalls, 11, 20
Turner, Thomas, 53
Twine, 81, 91
Ulu blade, 26, 29, 50, 69, 75, 91
Ulu handle, 33, 44, 93
Umiak, 87
Unalachluck, William, 6
Underwear, 87
United States of America, 4, 81, 82
see also: America, influence of.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
[Bull. 199
U.S. Army, 52, 65,
U.S. Commissioner, 7
Urine, 98
VanStone, J. W., vit, 22, 23
Vasil’ev, —, 5, 78
Veniaminov, Father, 80
Vinasale, 73, 78, 81
Wall posts, 20
Wand, 42, 98
Wedge, 33, 44, 66, 93, 95
I eet ean Henry, vi, 6, 81,
2, 84
?
Western Fur & Trading Company, 81
Whalebone, 44, 45, 72, 89, 96
Whetstone, 27, 28, 69, 93
Whitefish, 32, 94, 95, 109
Whitefish Lake, 94
White ware, 52
Whooping cough, 84
Wick, moss, 90
Wild celery, 99
Willow, 8, 91, 94
Willow pattern, 53, 54
Window, 89
cover for, 98
Window glass, 18, 51, 55, 56
Wolf, 87
Wolverine, 87
Wood, 10, 31-45, 97, 98
shavings of, 98
Woodworking, 33
World War I, 56
Yuk, 1, 68, 69
Yukon-Kuskokwim region, 47
Yukon Line-Dot, 45
Yukon River, 1, 2, 3, 4, 39, 80, 85
Yupik, 1, 2, 3, 5, 85
Zagoskin, Lavrentij A., vi, 3, 4, 5, 9,
10, 70, 73, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84,
103
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