\\ \\ RAY SO SAS AY WY SN » AN ‘ SAN YS x LOO SY ROO WIMANVY . NY NON a SN RAIA MMAMHY ~ NS \ WAY AN NS x WN AY SN ONY . \ \ \) a AA WMV RN SHS WOAAN RN ‘ SN RN WANN TANT AN WY RQ IAA SN AAS \ SN SWANN LAY WOON SN Rey SOs SY S SAN PSO SO \\ AN AN ah ‘S . SS YS SS eh SS ANN, WN WW SIH IRE AS AN SN WY SS SN NAY Wh .) \\ SY y . . SNN S LG SS SS TAS AGG SNS SY . Go YZ an Z GLE: Livi N SION SN NY \ WS 2a, WN ~ ~ \ SSN \Y \ . Y \ SS a Ze o »y WAY x AN \ ty Z Legs ZZ oe » \S ANN \ A WY AN \ S RAR \ AY NY AN ANN ah RAS LAY SS WS EE Ze Wie \S . wy ss zs Zo o Lge Z MAA \ . ‘ aN so SN ys LAMY SN SN ROS Sh SY \\ < WAN WY WN SN WY SON NY Wy SAN \ MINN AMY SS WS SNS Sy Ne ay 14 Qe SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 199 THE ETHNOARCHEOLOGY OF CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA By WENDELL H. OSWALT and JAMES W. VANSTONE U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1967 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.75 (cloth) The Bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology began with the publication in 1887 of “Bibliography of the Eskimo Language,” by James C. Pilling. The content of the Bulletins has been as broad as the contemporary interests of the field of anthropology, although mainly restricted in scope to the Americas. With the publication of Bulletin 200, this series will end, its place being taken by a new series, Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, which was initiated in 1965 following the merging of the Bureau of American Ethnology and the Department of Anthropology of the U.S. National Museum into the Smithsonian Office of Anthropology. The new series provides not only for publication of scholarly studies of the American Indian but is worldwide in scope, reflecting the broadening activities of the Smithsonian Institution’s anthropologists over the past few decades. Ricuarp B. WoopBury Chairman Smithsonian Office of Anthropology as ha PREFACE In Arctic and subarctic America, where the aboriginal lifeways of Indians and Eskimos frequently have endured into the present century, historical archeology rarely has been of primary interest to either the ethnographer or the archeologist. In an area such as western Green- land, where there was sustained contact between Europeans and Eskimos, an exception is to be found. Northern Canadian historical archeology has been unsystematic, while in Alaska only along Prince William Sound (de Laguna, 1956; 1964), the Gulf of Alaska (Acker- man, 1965), and the lower Copper River (VanStone, 1955) have excavations been made at historic sites. In the Arctic and subarctic of America archeologists have yet to fathom the ramifications of many cultural continuities within the Christian Era, while the path of early man into the New World is still largely unknown. With fascinating problems such as these confronting them, it is not surprising that the archeologists have avoided sites containing tin cans, bottle glass, and crockery. Yet it is precisely these and other forms of trade goods in the context of a rapidly changing sociocultural setting that directed our attention to historical archeology in Alaska. The geographical area of concern is the Kuskokwim River system of southwestern Alaska, where we had sampled sites in the 1950’s. However, our interest was drawn to historical archeology in a round- about manner. In 1953, Oswalt drifted down the Kuskokwim River in a small boat to collect tree-ring samples and to search for sites. One of the recently abandoned villages sampled was Crow Village, nearly 10 km. downstream from Aniak. While digging there, Oswalt was visited by Eskimos who recounted fragmentary ethnographic facts about the settlement and its occupants. When shown the artifacts recovered, the Eskimos were able to recall specific artifact uses and meanings. Thus, the collection served as an excellent prod to their memories. In 1954, Oswalt returned to Aniak to reconstruct riverine Eskimo ethnography, and with VanStone further excavations were made into the Crow Village midden. Although the digging period totaled only 3 weeks and frozen ground limited the depth of excavation, the artifacts recovered were numerous and diverse in form. In 1961 Oswalt analyzed a major source of ethnographic and historical data from the lower river in the unpublished writings of the Moravian Church missionary William Henry Weinland (Oswalt, 1963 b). Addi- tionally, over the span of 10 years all of the published and many I IV BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 unpublished ethnographic and historical source materials for the region have been studied. After the accumulated Kuskokwim data were assessed, a number of factors became apparent to guide future research along the river system. First, the sector from the river mouth to the upstream com- munity of Kalskag had been studied in broad outline (Oswalt, 1963 a, 1963 b) and the overall shifts of ethnic groups through historic time plotted for the river system (Oswalt, 1962). Second, the two seasons of anthropological studies of Edward Hosley (1961) on the upper river were beginning to yield positive results for this, the least known locality. A third consideration was that the middle sector of the river had been investigated only in a superficial manner and was an area suitable for developing a number of interests. ‘The emergent aim became to gather additional information about the population of the middle river from the time of historic contact until around 1900. The ideal would have been to reconstruct completely the aboriginal ethnographic scene through informants, but there was no potential for doing so because of the rapidly fading memories of the people. It therefore was decided to combine historical archeology with ethno- eraphic reconstruction and the use of historical sources. The excavation of the Crow Village site seemed a logical first step toward a more complete culture history of middle Kuskokwim River Eskimo and Indian life. The reasons for choosing to dig at Crow Village are diverse and worthy of mention. First, it was occupied in 1843 when L. A. Zagoskin visited there and was still inhabited after 1900. ‘Thus, Crow Village could be expected to represent a seement of a period of rapid change, one which was increasingly difficult for in- formants to bring to mind. Second, from the test excavations of previous years the site was known to be productive. Third, the area was small enough to be excavated in a single summer. Finally, there was the availability of informants who either were born at Crow Village or had had intimate contact with the village and its inhabitants. The Crow Village excavation was begun in early June of 1963 and completed 5 weeks later. In retrospect, there were both advantages and disadvantages in selecting this site for the purpose conceived. It proved to contain less material than the midden tests had suggested, and no clearly separate levels representative of Russian and then American influences were established. Furthermore, individuals who had been capable informants 9 years earlier were either dead or ap- proaching senility in 1963, a fact which made it difficult to obtain further information about the site and the recovered artifacts. Historical archeology makes possible a realistic conjunction between written history, oral history, and traditional ethnography for more certain sociocultural reconstructions. Hopefully, the lines which tile ect PREFACE Vv divide scientific archeology from ethnography and history are largely those of methodology and not purpose. The combined approach is well established in the sphere of Near Eastern classical studies and is an increasingly important method of studying New World ethnic developments through time. In the study of primitive people it seems sound to begin by first excavating historic archeological sites. The comparative information available for the recent past is virtually always more complete than for the more distant past. Thus, it is logical to develop an archeological program in any particular geo- eraphical area by digging the recent sites and then working back in time to older sites. However, the overwhelming majority of archeolo- gists compound their already staggering interpretive problems by being obsessed with antiquity. Thus many potentially useful se- quences hang in uncertain limbo or are linked to history by frail suppositions and inferences. We hoped to avoid this pitfall through the kind of archeology we undertook. A specific contribution of the Crow Village data is that through them we may learn about the imme- diate effects of material change when the agents of change are from Western societies. This seems significant since it is innovations from the Western world that most often have led modern primitives in new directions. We hope that the Crow Village study will provide tangible results in this direction. After having excavated Crow Village and analyzed the collection, we see additional sites that now have greater meaning. For example, some 50 km. upstream is a site, Kwigiumpainukamiut, which is con- temporary with Crow Village and was occupied both by Eskimos and Indians (map 1). One end of the village was settled by Indians and the other by Eskimos, thereby providing an opportunity to study a situation of cultural contact in an archeological and quasi-historical framework. Furthermore, some 16 km. still farther up the river is a historic site of Indian occupancy. Finally, there is the old Russian trading center of Kolmakoy Redoubt, whose excavation could provide a valuable baseline for the kinds of objects introduced into the area. The excavation of these archeological sites, together with historical and ethnographic supplements, would make possible a well-rounded study of the mutual impact of three peoples upon each other. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Excavations at the Crow Village site were supported by funds from the University of Alaska, the University of California (Los Angeles), the University of Toronto, and the Royal Ontario Museum. In the field, Mr. and Mrs. Jack Harrop of the Northern Commercial Com- pany at Aniak were particularly helpful in making local arrangements for supplies and transportation. Mrs. Earl V. Clay, U.S. Commis- VI BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 sioner in the same community, kindly made available vital statistics records that have been useful in determining the local movements of people in the middle Kuskokwim area. Mr. Anania Theodore of Aniak and Mr. Sam Phillips of Little Russian Mission provided valuable assistance in making the ethnographic reconstructions. Mr. William M. Oswalt provided general assistance while in the field, and we are pleased to acknowledge this aid. We wish also to express our appreciation to Mr. Kenneth E. Kidd, formerly of the Royal Ontario Museum and currently on the faculty of Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, for his interest in and support of the entire project. Other members of the museum staff who assisted the authors in various aspects of the artifact and bone analysis were Mr. Gerald Brett, Mr. Harold Burnham, and Dr. R. L. Peterson. The photographs were taken by the museum photographer, Mr. Lee Warren. CONTENTS PAGE PETE AC eae a per ee Somer ny ep Seas tartar tc OY OLE A WL Ill Neknowied pments. qo i ee v CrowaVvillage dnyhistOTysos ssa Se a Sa po 1 LE BRON GEEH RMON CISPR Ss DS ee ee ee ae Oe See eee IL aR eet oe P 8 BEET EG) UAS Sepa ep yas ane art 3 el na ol ey 9 TEN O USC alee ep a UO RR ORL SB! a MEE 13 FI OUS C2 reo at RIG SOE. VRAIS D8 YOO 15 INET USS eae erm epee a a hr it ne teen se ci NE AIC 15 BEAU) USS hs es a a heh eee ae hh cap th Act ie Gh ot rn on a tp A 18 FEROUSC ROR eee aera ee ce earned as ele a es Te Ek 20 @achestandycalbinke ie yee PE See ee eR see ee oe es 21 LGU FTES as SR le a Age es Le 23 Mid dense= a=. et See Se Oe ee ES ee ee eee 23 (Corey eyee eto aS 8 se Sa Ra EE i pen Sy AS RS Foy Ae ae oN RE 25 Wocallvamanutactumedtooodss = 2a2 >. Sete eee oe ee ee oe 25 Chippedistones ie. ese 2 Aa 2 OG DETR ES) SFO Y 25 Ground’ stonevss. sce sn o3e6- e552 ee O08 DOs aS DONE 27 WiOOG seta aee et eos See a es 2 Oe DODO 31 RS Tiny rs tet ate 2 oe a ata yeas tes yt ee A Ae, Bo and hunting ss ces 2223.2 See 2 pee 32 Noolse Ses eee ee ou ee se ee OR he Oe 33 Eousehold equipment 22" 2. yes 2 ee 35 aLransportationee os. tec es 2 el ee a AERO 36 Personal: adormmentsi22222 2 2222s eS OE et 38 Tobacco complexe FESO! ULE te NAT AE OEE TOE. Oe 38 Games anGhtoysus. Yo 5.20. Bln eae Is SE Pe OU od 39 Ceremonial objects: = = =. 2- a Se RR AEE PP eT Ske Ree SE 41 Miscellaneous and! unidentifieda: Sa. Baas See ree 43 Bonevand antler: 2322. 2 ee eee ee ee Ra ee 43 Olive ae Shee eh et a ee ee a. ENOL 45 Grassace je Se ns 2 A UO ED SARS SE 47 amiga GET. @ Gane aoe = pire LINE Latency B B e 47 19 US | DS es aE Rat A Pa i « Sy en my SC per ee 48 (SUSE a se ty Ba pene etn ee ne merit OR Be Pere 51 INon=Eskimotpotteryeen2esc22e2 ete eee 51 Abpea ther’ ~ = ee eee ee ee hee ee 51 imported: manufactured: goods... +4 42 eee ee ee A 51 Non-Hskimo-pottery -2. 4-2). ee eee ee ee 52 Glasses 28 eee nei ee eek ee ere he LL ee eo TE CO 55 Buttonse<2e- 42 eee ee eee wo FO, BIIODE TOe"t 55 Window: lassen ee A OF? 10 SOW OURO 55 ISO UCLe Smee ree ed as oO Berea! ty ee down, SAN eee 56 IMISceH He OUs Classe 2 ieee h tse aa EN ue 57 JB {Sts1(0 Fa} utes sahcs Ap prendre oem dys ty eens ager Oat fh dep eeuny doricinbaen fated lo irvA fiona 57 SVE Greil Stas ee ee iE pe Fe 2 Ae ER RAST Ate fe 2 SEN 61 INT Se a ses ee aye Pd ee eee Oe 61 BDNTTARG AIS ese eee ee pent Seale ale woes eee te pe keen 62 IVES GE] aN Ce OUS sso ee eaters hs oh UN yh ah eee Be eta 64 \ WYO TOY | i= epee eee gla Ny (ok SAF On Ree BI ee ay ence ay eee nd AN 66 Mhextilesvan GitOO Weel of. yom nara eee ae py a phy eeet AOsree ts SAE 67 AVRO ATO(IIS Stick oft ye ee eee mace es Fh a aa ks 67 VIII CONTENTS GContinutty and innovayionel:.2)) sl eet ke eee ee ee Re Time and change-_-_- 1796-18292 2 2 4: ISIS—1S6G 5 1867-19 0227 2-2 fifeat Crow, Village: ja reconstruction.22. 020 205°") S83 Veo. Pee Archeology and ethnography: interpretations____________________-___- Literature cited____ TaN] a) 05) 046 | ce eae a IQoPP WW e CHNAM PWNS ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES (All plates follow p. 112.) . Chipped and ground stone tools. . Chipped and gro . Wooden artifacts. und stone tools. Wooden artifacts. Wooden artifacts. Wooden artifacts. . Wooden artifacts. Wooden artifacts. . Wooden artifacts. . Bone, antler, and ivory artifacts, and locally made pottery. . Bark, wood, and plant fiber artifacts or raw material. Metal, glass, and pottery artifacts. . House 1 drawings . House 2 drawings . House 3 drawings . House 4 drawings . House 5 drawings ~ (Quarter sections Of beadsiis2 2 2 ee ee s A reconstruction of Crow Village! .. 2.2.2.2 2. 5-=¢e's 45 . Imported pottery and glass bottles. . Metal artifacts. . Wooden mask of . Human mask and human face of wood. a fox. TEXT FIGURES j_-pouthwestern Alaska ci. LL a ee re Peete See Vinasale Yq, an a “Sy hy "OOS Yo 4 NN by } 8 — 4 Kern $ Y BS | . Se 2 Te : & = py & a S cH : 2 4 a AS 8 G ‘> { DN o 8 a g ) OD Ay) : ) kilo IUNIVAK ISCAND 100 ers N Map 1.—Southwestern Alaska. THE ETHNOARCHEOLOGY OF CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA By W. H. Oswatt and J. W. VanStone CROW VILLAGE IN HISTORY Tulukaghogamiut, as the site is termed in Eskimo, habitually has been rendered as ‘‘Crow Village” in English, but it would be more correct to translate the name as “Raven Village People.” Throughout its recorded history this settlement was occupied by Eskimoan speakers of the Western Eskimo language stock. This linguistic grouping is separated into three major dialect clusters—Yuk, Cux and Suk (Hammerich, 1958); the Crow Village people spoke Yuk (Yuit, plural). This dialect was limited distributionally to an area extending north to the community of St. Michael and south to Bristol Bay and Iliamna Lake. The inland range of Yuk was to the village of Paimiut on the Yukon River and the vicinity of Crow Village on the Kuskokwim River. The Yuk-speaking Eskimos think of them- selves as Yupik or “Real People,” and some authors refer to the language by this designation. The Eskimos of the Kuskokwim River have the further local ethnic name of Kuskowagmiut, “Cough River People.” The former residents of Crow Village could be termed as Yuk, Yuit, Yupik, Kuskowagmiut, or Tulukaghogamiut, depending on the context. Crow Village is the farthest inland aboriginal settlement whose residents spoke only Yuk. It is true that the village of Kwigiumpainukamiut was occupied by Eskimos, and it is farther up the Kuskokwim River than Crow Village. Kwigiumpainu- kamiut, however, was settled jointly by Eskimos and Athapaskan Indians of the Ingalik tribe and the Georgetown Ingalik subtribe. Hence, Yuk was not the only language of these villagers. There are slight variations in the recorded Eskimo name for Crow Village, such as a transliteration from the Russian, Tulukagnag (Zagoskin, 1956, map), and early American period recordings of Toolooka-anahamute (Petroff, 1884, p. 16; map), Tuluka (Baker, 1906, p. 640), or Tulukagangamiut (Porter, 1893, p. 106). The designation “Crow Village” has been accepted in the present study because it is the locally prevailing English name for the site. It is likewise the 2 2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 site’s name on modern maps such as the Russian Mission quadrangle, 1950 edition, of the U.S. Geological Survey Topographical Recon- naissance Series. The heart of Yupik country was along the central Bering Sea coast of Alaska. Here the people were oriented toward a maritime economy, in which the seal was most important. On the adjacent tundra some emphasis was attached to hunting caribou, and fishing for salmon was significant at the mouths of certain rivers and favored bays. The Yupik living inland on the tundra between the mouths of the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers subsisted mainly on whitefish, with caribou as a supplement. The Yupik penetration into the Yukon and Kuskokwim river systems occurred at some unknown point in prehistoric time when the people moved inland from the Bering Sea coast. It was the existing salmon fishing technology and the abund- ance of salmon locally which made it possible for them to exploit these rivers effectively. They had ascended the river some 280 km. from the sea at the time they founded Crow Village. It is possible also that some Yupik entered the Kuskokwim from the Yukon River drainage. Unlike other inland Eskimos, with the possible exception of those on the lupper Kobuk River, the people of Crow Village were following a way of life adapted to a riverine setting and to the northern forests.! The first documented historical contacts on the Kuskokwim River between the Yupik and Europeans were made when a Russian party entered from the Bering Sea in 1818, but apparently they proceeded up the river only a relatively short distance (Tikhmenev, 1861, pp. 300-302). In 1830, according to Tikhmenev (1861, pp. 340-341), a group of Russian explorers, under Ivan F. Vasil’ev, ascended the Nushagak to its headwaters, and crossed a divide leading into the Kuskokwim River drainage.2 The Vasil’ev party ascended the Kuskokwim and then traveled downstream to the river mouth and finally to Alexandrov Redoubt. The Vasil’ev journals of the trip have never been published, but these travelers must have passed Crow Village, if it existed at that time. The first Russian trading establishment, built in 1832 at the Holitna and Kuskokwim Rivers junction, was within the area of Athapaskan Indian occupancy and near an aboriginal trading site that attracted Eskimos and Indians alike. The population of this immediate locality was so scattered, mobile, and sparse, that the purpose of the trading enterprise was not realized fully. This led to the abandonment of the original station and the founding of a second at the village of Kwigium- 1 Much of the general information concerning the Kuskowagmiut in this chapter has been summarized from Oswalt, 1963 b. 2In previous publications Oswalt has incorrectly assumed that this explorer was Mikhail Nikolaevich Vasil’ev (e.g., Oswalt, 1963 b, p. 8). To ees CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 3 painukamiut in 1833 (Zagoskin, 1956, p. 258). Once the Russians had an inland trading center on the Kuskokwim, they hoped to develop an overland route from St. Michael on the Bering Sea coast to Nicholaevskij Redoubt on Cook Inlet. An exploratory trip origi- nated at St. Michael and was led by Andrei Glazunov. In the winter of 1833-34 the party descended the Anvik River drainage by dogsled to the Yukon River and crossed the low divide to the Kuskokwim. It is likely that they reached the river a short distance upstream from Crow Village and then sledded on to the Stony River junction. Their attempt to ascend this river to a Pacific Ocean drainage ended in failure and near disaster, but they returned successfully to St. Michael. The Glazunov party was near the Crow Village location on two separate occasions, and it is possible that they stopped there, if the village existed at that time. The travel journal, however, has never been published in detail (see VanStone, 1959). The second Russian trading center, Kwigiumpainukamiut, was occupied only briefly before it was abandoned. The third station was built diagonally across the Kuskokwim from Kwigiumpainukamiut and was named Kolmakov Redoubt. From the time of its occupancy in 1841 until the Russian-American Company withdrew from the Kuskokwim in 1866, Kolmakov Redoubt was the major interior trading establishment. The only early Russian of note to leave a published record of his Kuskokwim travels was the naval officer Lieut. Lavrentij A. Zagoskin, who visited the river in 1843 and 1844. Zagoskin’s was a trip of exploration and an effort to increase the efficiency of the Russian-American Company trading operations. He landed at St. Michael during July of 1842 but did not ascend the Kuskokwim until November of 1848. On the 23d of November he left the Yukon River settlement of Ikogmiut or Russian Mission for Kolmakov Redoubt. On the 30th he stayed overnight at Crow Village and arrived at Kolmakov in early December. He remained at the redoubt, or in the vicinity, until early February of 1844, when he returned to the Yukon drainage. In early April Zagoskin again started toward the Kuskokwim and arrived there in the vicinity of Kalskag. He apparently did not stop at Crow Village on this trip to Kolmakov Redoubt (Zagoskin, 1956, pp. 206, 209-210, 211-212, 235-236, 255-256). In early May he made a trip by bidarka to the upper Kuskokwim River as far as the vicinity of the Takotna River junction, and at this point the narrative of his travels ends. Zagoskin’s account of the Eskimos and Indians is neither long nor extremely detailed, but it is sufficiently complete to arrive at some general understanding of aboriginal life among the Kuskokwim peoples. He makes a few specific comments about Crow Village, but what he notes about the Kuskokwim Yupik in general may be in- 4 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 terpreted as including the community of our primary interest. When he was at Crow Village in 1848 all of the people except one man and three women were attending a feast for the dead at Ohagamiut. At the time there were 90 residents living in 5 dwellings (Petroff, 1884, p. 37), and of this number 20 were Christians. Two of the Christian families had been baptized at Alexandrov Redoubt on the Nushagak River and only recently had moved to Crow Village. While Zagoskin was at the community, one of the old women gave him fish for dogfood, but the man stole his ax. In April of 1844, Zagoskin was at Kolmakov when two Crow Village natives who had been hunting caribou and beaver along the Aniak River came to trade, and after receiving tobacco plus a large metal pot, they returned home (Zagoskin, 1956, p. 267). These are Zagoskin’s only specific textual references to the community and its people apart from references to the village location, comments which make it clear that the Crow Village site is the same settlement as that visited by Zagoskin. The travel journal of Hieromonk Illarion, a Russian Orthodox Church missionary to western Alaska, dates from 1861 to 1868. In the summer of 1861 he went from St. Michael to the Yukon River, across the portage to Kalskag, and then on to Kolmakov Redoubt. The translated portions of the diary for this trip make no mention of a stop at Crow Village. He did, however, visit there on October 30, probably in the year 1863, and wrote the following diary entry (Documents Relative to the History of Alaska, vol. 2, p. 110): We stopped over at the village of Tulukanagmute [Tuluka] because of a snow- storm, and I occupied myself with the natives, talking with them in their com- munity hut. Among the subjects, we touched upon shamanism which they (although baptized) cannot yet entirely discard. When I told them how severely God punished and even exterminated the people for similar sins in ancient times, they replied, ““You Russians have priests and doctors, but we have none. If any one happens to fall ill, who can help us except the shaman?” Similar replies I hear very often during my talks with the natives. Tn the fall of 1866, when the purchase of Alaska by the United States was being negotiated, Prince Dimitrij MakSutov, the Administrator- General of Russian America, traveled to St. Michael to arrange local details for the impending transfer. He decided to abandon Kolmakov Redoubt, and it was noted by IIlarion (ibid., pp. 118, 121) that by November of 1867 the church property had been removed. Thus ends the formal record of Russian activities along the Kuskokwim River. The meanings of Russian activities in the lives of Crow Village residents may be established only in the general framework of Russian expansion into interior Alaska (Tikhmenev, 1861) and from the Zagoskin and Illarion records. It is clear from these sources that the primary purpose of Russian penetration was to extend the fur trade Oswalt and Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA = northward. Trade items of Russian origin most probably were pres- ent on the river before the Russians arrived. In prehistoric and early historic times a flourishing trade existed across Bering Strait, and it is reasonable to assume that it affected the Kuskokwim. One of the responsibilities of Zagoskin was to determine how trade goods could be diverted to and controlled by Russian traders (Zagoskin, 1956, p. 48). While the Eskimos appear to have been willing to seek and utilize Russian trade goods, they at first exhibited hostile feelings about the presence of the Russians along the river. Vasil’ev and his party in 1830 constantly guarded against unexpected attack, and in face-to- face relationships the people were hostile. Vasil’ev did, however, gain the cooperation of some prominent men (Tikhmenev, 1861, p. 341; Zagoskin, 1956, pp. 44-45, 273). With the establishment of the first trading cabin in Indian country in 1832, the central Kuskok- wim Yupik gained the opportunity to receive trade goods more directly but without having the Russians in the immediate vicinity. It is significant also that the first trader, Semen Lukin, appears to have had cordial relationships with the people (Zagoskin, 1956, p. 262). When the first trading establishment was moved down the river to Kwigiumpainukamiut, the village containing both Eskimos and Indians, the transfer must have led to more intimate and direct contacts with the Crow Village residents. Not only was the post nearer, but at Kwigiumpainukamiut there were no doubt relatives of the Crow Village people. Finally, the transfer of trading activities to Kolmakov Redoubt stabilized the trading pattern. The number of Russians occupied in trading activities was small, and consequently they posed neither a social nor political threat to the Eskimos. The traders maintained control over desirable products, and these could be obtained through trapping activities. The Russian traders seem to have asked little more of the people. It would be incorrect to regard the Kuskokwim trading venture of the Russian-American Company as a thriving business enterprise. Clearly the area was on the fringe of Russian New World colonial holdings. Access from the Bering Sea coast redoubts was difficult, which made physical ties with administrative centers tenuous. During the early American period the trading posts continued with many of the same characteristics as seen before. The Russian- American Company monopoly was replaced by its successor and lineal descendant, the Hutchinson, Kohl & Company. The old Russian trading stations, including Kolmakov, continued to function until at least 1885, even at times with Russian employees. Within a few years Hutchinson, Kohl & Company had reorganized as the Alaska Commercial Company, and its major point of redistribu- 6 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 tion moved to Bethel nearer the Kuskokwim River mouth. At about this time Kolmakoy possibly was abandoned as a store, al- though it reopened temporarily from 1910 to 1914 during a gold stampede (Maddren, 1915, p. 308). Apparently there was never a store at Crow Village, but it is recorded in the U.S. Commissioner records at Aniak that Simon Kiogiack was a trader at ‘“‘Crow Village” in 1919 and William Unalachluck in 1921. These Eskimos in all likelihood had in their homes a small stock of goods which they traded locally for the Alaska Commercial Company or an independent trader. For reasons cited later it seems likely that these trading activities did not take place at the Crow Village site but at a nearby locality. The same pattern, however, could well have existed at the site. Precisely where the major trading stations were along the central Kuskokwim River around the turn of the century cannot be stated with authority. Probably the most important store was at Ohagamiut. In any event the Crow Village Eskimos were able to obtain goods from a trader in the general area, but it is probable that supplies were neither diverse nor extremely plentiful. The first census in which Crow Village reappears after the enumera- tion by Zagoskin is the Federal census of 1880. It is recorded that 59 individuals lived there (Petroff, 1884, p. 16). In the Federal census of 1890 the population is recorded as 17; 8 males and 9 females (Porter, 1893, p. 6). The village is not listed in subsequent decennial census reports. No textual references are known to exist regarding Crow Village between the time of the Illarion comments and a remark made by the Moravian missionary William Henry Weinland. Weinland, while traveling up the Kuskokwim River in 1884 to select a site for a mission, records in his unpublished diary that on July 1st the party camped on an island near ‘‘Tvoluka-anahamut.”’ In a list of the major villages along the central sector of the river he does not record Crow Village, but he wrote a note concerning the occurrence of other settlements which were deserted or consisted of only one or two dwellings. Presumably Crow Village would be in one of the latter categories (Weinland Coll., W. H. Weinland diary entries July 1, 7, 1884). The period around the turn of the present century was recalled by informants who were familiar with the community while it still was occupied. One Eskimo, Anania Theodore, who was born along the Kuskokwim and who has lived at Aniak much of his adult life, stated that he visited Crow Village in 1901 or 1902 when there were about six resident families. Matthew Berezkin, a former Russian Orthodox priest, stopped here about 1906, and he recalled in 1956 that there were three resident families living on the site at the earlier date. Wan Stone! CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 7 Mr. Berezkin said further that it was abandoned when he traveled down the river in 1912. By the latter date, he said, the old village was deserted and its former residents had moved downstream about 1 km., just below a bluff on the same side of the river. ‘The reason the site had been abandoned, again according to Berezkin, was that a change in the river channel caused silt to be deposited in front of the village and made it difficult to land a boat there. Another means for establishing the terminal date of occupancy has been to consult the files of the U.S. Commissioner at Aniak. The birth records available, for the period 1914 through 1942, were helpful since they include the year and place of birth of an individual as well as the parents’ places of birth and ages at that time. These records also add an element of confusion since Crow Village is not distinguished from ‘‘New’’ Crow Village. Nonetheless, it is possible to make a few pertinent comments after discussing the records with informants. For example, one particular child was born at “New” Crow Village in 1914, while his father was born at ‘Old’? Crow Village in 1887. Another man was born at “Old” Crow Village in 1893, and a woman was born there in 1887. This is slight but significant evidence to support the Berezkin statement that the old site was abandoned before 1912. One Eskimo, Sam Phillips, or ‘‘Crow Village Sam”’ as he is better known, was born at the site in 1893, if his estimated age of 70 in 1963 is correct. The memories of his youth are neither systematic nor vivid, but he was able to recount certain facts concerning the settlement. He lived there until he was about 10 years of age and then moved to the new downriver settlement. According to him most of the people moved away from the site just after the kanukpuk or ‘‘big sickness,’”’ as the influenza epidemic of 1900-1901 is termed. Probably Sam’s family relocated at this time too, since his age today and his age when he left the site are both approximations. This particular epidemic, according to a medical doctor stationed at Bethel during the time, claimed the lives of about half of the adults and all babies (Anderson, 1940, p. 198; Romig, 1901, pp. 33-34; Schwalbe, 1951, pp. 84-85). Sam Phillips and Anania Theodore offered the following specific observations about the site when it was occupied. ‘The abandoned settlement is located in a semicircular depression that is backed by a ridge on all sides that do not face the river. At present there are birch trees growing on the surrounding hillside, but when the site was occupied, the trees and brush purposely were cleared away in order to give a distinct view of the ridge. The clearing was a protec- tive device enabling the residents to see anyone approaching from the land side, a route that would be followed only by unfriendly 222-189-672 8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 persons. Sam offered this description, but did not place a great deal of faith in its validity. Crow Village was so named because ravens have been attracted to the vicinity for a long time. They nest nearby and frequently are seen flying about the village. This was true when the site was occupied and was still true in 1963. Another tradition is about a spring forming a small stream that divided the village into two segments. The old people believed that if the spring were to go dry the salmon would cease to run in the river. Ale’ Hrdlitka (1948, pp. 319-320) visited the Crow Village site in 1930 and described it as follows: Reach Old Crow site, and greeted by cawing. See crows on trees back of the site—must be something favorable here for these birds. Water here shallow, boat anchored off. Get to bank over dark sticky mud from which it is hard to pull boots, and over willow brush. Site itself on a rather high irregular elevation, covered with rank grass, and full of smaller or bigger holes into which one falls again and again—as usual. After exploring find a few above-ground burials in the edge of the woods. Laborious to uncover skeletons, and these in poor condi- tion. Secure barely parts of two and an adolescent skull. Hrdli¢ka reproduced a photograph of the site, in which it appears much the same as in 1963. Informants recalled that the burials ob- tained by him were taken from part way up the ridge on the upriver end of the site. With the description by Hrdlitka end the known historical references to Crow Village. EXCAVATIONS When first seen from the Kuskokwim River, the site appears as a grassy ridge some 14 m. above the river level. Scattered along the irregular surface are young birch trees, while behind the ridge on all flanks except the one facing the river is a steep hillside covered with large birches and a few spruce. Between the riverbank and the base of the ridge is a dense thicket, of alders and willows, which is up to 15 m.in width. Landing a boat in front of the site is difficult because the river becomes shallow very gradually toward the shore. The soft alluvium next to the bank on which the alders grow is interspersed with pools of standing water, and the thicket is impossible to penetrate with ease. There is every reason to accept informants’ statements that the site was abandoned primarily because of this building bank. Toward the site beyond the alders is a low discontinuous bench with driftwood at its upper margin. The driftwood represents the height of spring floodwater. The luxuriant growth of bunchgrass on the site makes walking difficult, and scattered depressions in the grass are another obstacle. Once the site is reached, attention is attracted to one large and obvious depression. This is the outline of the cere- Oswalt and Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 9 monial structure or kashgee mentioned by Zagoskin, Ilarion, and informants (see fig. 7 for reconstruction). In the 3-meter pit is an exuberant growth of alders in 1.5 m. of standing water. Just up- stream from the kashgee are the remains of two adjoining house pits, each with construction posts protruding above the sod layer. Down- stream beyond these houses and the kashgee is a small house pit, and in a slight draw still farther downstream are the remnants of cache poles. Across the small streambed near the middle of the site the first sign of former occupation to be seen on the upriver section is four posts marking where a cache probably once had stood. A little farther is another set of cache posts near the tunnel of a dwelling, while beyond this house is still another house. . = 208 or eis gh | 56M 6120S 2a CE Se Jib) eee Seth a ne oer. 1 Fy et a | eres a eae ee Pac, |e LOTTI Sem eee ee ee ee ee ene et are | here a et a ee ae [ee one ele i bya [ee Pelviesboncs kl y tat vor leie) wees De ed Oe ea es ARG ee Ue ee ! ae eee 7.1) (ee a A, | eee me (a Loh ee ( Moose (Alces gigas) : MV imnigda legit: S8 ste te pls hs ih ete ow Hey ey Apa dee Sat BE Me? rahe 5 ee ee Tee Beales 25 the fe ee OT (evenness See |S eee Pave (|| Oey 15 Lj A 8 SAS pgp ae eh pee ay BND, ae} al 2 i yes cela [adn nae (Wilt teeter ae Sein eye ay Oy. 2. iin) |S) 8 Ee Fe Ihe ibs eee Abia, prommalbeny segs sot 6 oe i ee Sa sae! | | pe REnnUTY Plossl en Ge me ce elo te ee eee Stee beg ence lapels Jin Pemiir; distal endliew spice ss) Py Roe Eee IN ay, 14 Seed ERR Lees Ee ETL G rts RR ee TAN SS ee Oe (Fe 2 a Re ae 2 (A eet pee ea ELA TS O17 ap pe ln ade ent i ep A (oly ‘ayn hi base [beta 4 hi ii eaten | pst? Wie taibarac 1 ee See eerie eee TAS EAS 5 ees ee aye pl ire Red fox (Vulpes alascensis alascensis) : wi TE TE YG Sa AI gh a he li bly (cy FA | cpp (ER seg Cage | sy | elec one 2e05 Le eh ET yess Dey Sx fal teh NE hg A ol Bt B5 dB e ” Squirrel (Citellus osgoodit) : PANTER eee ee. Ne ee 2 eee eomees 1 gl ee See eat Hs | Mfandibieece be. SEL. see abe bby) 1 222-189—67—_6 72 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 site. This is of course precisely what informants revealed. The absence of chewed bones, however, might be overlooked and the association with dogs not drawn. We were rather surprised at the presence of moose bones and their sreater frequency than caribou bones. Informants and the sketchy historical records both lead us to believe that moose were rare along the central Kuskokwim until within the past 30 years. If these sources are correct then the moose bones must represent animals hunted at a considerable distance upstream from Crow Village. This is not unlikely since fur trapping brought about upriver penetration by central river people (Oswalt, 1963 b, p. 129). The frequencies of dog bones are both revealing and puzzling. Considering the three partial dog skeletons and other dog bones, there were more bones of this species represented than any other. It is interesting also that mandibles of dogs were found in every house, and in three houses (H-2, -4, —5) very few other bones were present. Noteworthy too is the presence of partially articulated dog skeletons in three separate dwellings (H-1, -2, -3). It is tempting to regard dog bones as having special significance, but the precise meaning of this fact, if it is a fact, is obscure. In spite of the scarcity of caribou bones, there are artifacts made from antler, a fact which suggests the hunting of this animal. Antler artifacts, however, are not plentiful although conditions for their preservation were favorable. Continuity with the past and with coastal Eskimos is much less obvious in the antlerworking technology than it is with reference to woodworking. In totality it seems that caribou were hunted but were not very important, while antler was replaced partially by wood or nonaboriginal materials. The use of bone in the manufacture of artifacts is extremely rare at Crow Village. Bone is not a particularly desirable substance out of which to make artifacts since its overall surface is small and it is quite brittle. It is especially undesirable if antler is available. The only artifacts made from locally available bone were a net sinker and awls. A ramrod and sled shoe, both of whalebone, must have been received from the coast in trade. Considering the boneworking empha- sis of the Northern Athapaskans and the nearness of the Crow Village people to these Indians, there is no evidence of any borrowing of boneworking ideas. As has been seen, the mammal bones discussed thus far give a distorted picture of the species taken. ‘This is also likely regarding the fur-bearing animals. In a record of the fur pelts traded into Kolmakov Redoubt between the years 1845 and 1860, with the exception of 1857 (Petroff, 1884, pp. 62-65), we find that beaver were numerically by far the most important, then red fox, land otter, Oswalt and Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 73 lynx, and bear. From 1856 to the end of the record, marten became extremely important. In the American period for the year 1883 we have arecord of all the furs traded to the Alaska Commercial Company at their three stores: Mumtreklagamiut Station (Bethel), Kolmakov, and Vinasale. Numerically the most important pelt was the muskrat, then mink, followed by marten, beaver, fox, land otter, and black bear (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 109-110). It was only by exchanging pelts for trade goods that an Eskimo could obtain those exotic items which he desired. The Crow Village people unquestionably were participants in the fur trade, and yet there is little evidence of the species that they took. A few beaver bones were associated with H-3, H-4, and T-2, but again we would expect beaver and other species to be represented more widely in the site, were it not known that bones were thrown into the river. According to informants, fishbones also were thrown into the river. During the excavation a few scales and vertebrae from fish were recovered, but these were only a minute fraction of the number that would be expected at a riverine site where fishing was a major, if not éhe major, means of livelihood. Zagoskin (1956, p. 221) mentions that metal traps were unsuccess- fully introduced for the trapping of beaver and that the aboriginal trapping methods for taking this animal persisted, with the additional Russian technique of destroying the beaver’s lodge. Hskimo-made traps, consisting of snares, nets, deadfalls, and so on, would not only be unlikely to leave traces in the archeological record, but would, in in any case, be set at some distance from the village and discarded when broken or worn out. It will be remembered, however, that there are some small wooden pegs in the collection that have tentatively been identified as snare parts. The significance of trapping to the Crow Village people and its effect on the annual subsistence cycle will be discussed elsewhere. Here it is sufficient to say that the ab- sence from the collection of artifacts related to trapping does not necessarily indicate a lack of emphasis on this activity. The birchbark technology at the site does not represent a develop- ment from coastal Eskimo material culture; birchbark in that area was recovered only from driftwood and through trade. Thus a case cannot be made for continuity, but working birchbark seems to rep- resent a new development induced by a new environmental setting plus the probability of borrowings from the Athapaskans. The prev- alence of birchbark in the site in the form of baskets, storage pit liners, roof log coverings, and floor coverings, plus innumerable un- worked fragments, already has been noted. In fact, it is difficult to escape the conclusion that the preparation of birchbark for its various uses must have been an important activity. The effect that 74. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 the prevalence of birchbark vessels may have had on the scarcity of traditional pottery is discussed elsewhere. It is significant, too, that grass matting usually associated with the Eskimos of southwestern Alaska is virtually absent from the site, and its replacement by birch- bark is likely. It is interesting to note that all the fragments of worked birchbark were recovered from the T-1 midden, suggesting that baskets and other objects of this material may have been made by the men in the kashgee. This explanation would not, however, be consistent with the present day situation as baskets are now made by the women. Working clay into containers within the tradition of potterymaking is seen in its last stage at the site. ‘The fragments of imported pottery outnumber those of the locally made ware. It is true, too, that a preference for birchbark containers may be responsible partially for the scarcity of clay vessels. The use of clay cooking pots was in rapid decline, but lamps continued to be useful, as indicated by 15 pottery lamp fragments, the 2 sections of imported stone lamps, and the lampstands in two houses. While imported pottery and birch- bark containers could easily replace clay pots, there seems to have been no satisfactory substitute for the traditional Eskimo lamp. This is likely to have been due to the scarcity of imported fuel, rather than a failure on the part of the Eskimos to appreciate the advantages of the kerosene or coal oil lamp. Having considered those features of Crow Village culture in which continuity with the past is certain, likely, or vague, it is now fitting to deal with the instances of change induced by the contact situation. This is the realm in which we would expect “ingenuity” to be most evident. We have come to expect Eskimos to innovate along tech- nological lines and to be original in manipulating new things; the evidence at the site supports this generalization. An inspection of the Jist of imported manufactured goods suggests that a relatively small number of trade items were available to the people throughout the period represented by the site. It is not the actual numbers or variety of the imported items that is impressive, but rather the manner in which imported material was adapted to local needs. In fact, it is important that the inhabitants of Crow Village frequently remade trade items into new things, while items from the traditional culture rarely were remade. ‘This is striking, since the secondary use of artifacts is a characteristic of Eskimo material culture from pre- historic sites. It is the stimulus toward innovation provided by the exposure to new and different forms that is most impressive. In situations where innovations occur as a result of contact we would expect things new to arise from: (1) exotic objects introduced, accepted, and added to the O It ad Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 75 cultural inventory without formal changes; (2) the availability of new materials permitting a change of existing forms; and (3) the construc- tion of new forms based on new models. With regard to the first source of innovation, a reading of the artifact descriptions and a glance at the trait list will indicate which items were accepted into the cultural inventory without change. The impression is that the process of selection was not a complex one. Relatively few items appear to have been available, and they pertained to aspects of culture in which one might expect that innovation would be the least disruptive and the most acceptable: new forms of tools, weapons, household equipment, and items of clothing and ornamentation. Of particular interest are those items which indicate the introduction of new foods. The cans recovered point to the use of the following food products: meat, fruit, lard, fish, baking powder, syrup or oil, tobacco, and salt. We can assume that tea was obtained either in bricks or in packages that would leave no trace. The food products represented here are among the most popular with Kuskokwim Eskimos today. Baking powder and lard are used in making bannock and are considered staples, while canned meats and fruit are luxuries. It then appears that a desire for these imported food products was established at an early date in the middle Kuskokwim region, but only tea can be traced through historical references to the Russian period. Of far greater interest and significancetis the second source of innovation. Here we are concerned with the introduction of new materials and their effect on the construction of traditional artifact types and the persistence of old ideas in new mediums. The most notable examples are discussed below. (1) The drilled mending hole in a sherd of imported pottery is the application of an old technique for mending traditional Eskimo pottery to the new imported pottery. Presumably this transference was reasonably successful, although imported pot- tery breaks with a straight edge that would make successful mending by this means very difficult. (2) Ulu blades from can metal were doubtless easier to make and could be con- structed more quickly in larger sizes than those made of stone. However, the flexible nature of the metal and its inability to hold an edge must have made these blades less useful than those of stone. The fact that certain other tools were made from can metal and that can metal was cut and stored in rolls suggests that the people were experimenting with its uses. (3) The salmon dart head of metal represents no radical change in design and might just as easily have been made in the traditional way from antler. Here is an excellent example of an old and familiar artifact type reproduced in a new material without reference to the specific qualities of that material. (4) Scrapers made from bottle glass are in no way different in overall form from those made of flinty materials. Given the presence of heavy bottle glass, the scrapers must have been more easily manufactured and at the same time provided a use for broken bottles. 76 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 (5) The use of a spent cartridge case to form the end of a bird dart head is only a slight modification of a traditional artifact, but undoubtedly this change increased the durability of the point. (6) The example of can metal folded into shallow dishlike containers is particularly interesting because it illustrates a conservatism with regard to the new material. The can metal appears to have been viewed as having the same properties as birchbark, and since this is true to some extent, the transition from one material to another was quite successful. While can metal was apparently never plentiful enough, or available in large enough sections, to replace birchbark, the shallow dishes seem to have formed a useful addition to the cultural inventory. (7) The use of a nail with the head filed away in place of a bird bone splinter for the tip of a dart seems to be an innovation whose value would immediately recommend it, involving as it does no change in the shape or design of the traditional form but giving added strength against breakage. (8) Twenty-two (.22-) caliber cartridge cases were perforated at the cap and a cord passed through the holes. The cases were strung with beads and became a new form of necklace. (9) The engraved metal ferrule with encircling lines and short lines at right angles to one of the circles represents making a design in metal which had no aboriginal precedent. Turning to our third category of innovation, that of new forms based on new models, the number of examples is small. This points up a basic fact about the nature of culture change at Crow Village, namely, that as a result of contact, very few needs were created that could not be fulfilled through the normal trade channels. Thus it was only occasionally necessary for the Eskimos to improvise in order to maintain and continue to use the imported implements which they had already. The most notable example of the attempt to reproduce a non-Eskimo artifact locally is the sandstone bullet mold half. Only one other item seems to fit into this general innovative category, and that is the artifact identified as a wooden flower. This is a form which has no referent in the old culture and may represent a response to the use of flowers in the services of the Russian Orthodox Church. The various specifics of innovation mentioned above are interesting because of the information they provide about the response of the Eskimos to the introduction of new items of material culture. We note that the people of Crow Village seem to have responded enthusiastically to the relatively small number of imported items which were available to them toward the close of the 19th century, and particularly they seem to have been interested in experimenting with new materials. Although neither the archeological record nor historical material permits us to elaborate on the selection factor and trade materials, it is assumed that the Eskimos of this area accepted whatever was offered. We have the definite impression that the inventory of goods traded into the middle Kuskokwim area during both the Russian and early American periods was not great. Gere ene CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 77 However, the truly impressive characteristic of the Crow Village collection is not the imported goods or their use but rather the re- markable continuity represented, with emphasis on the retention of traditional forms. The fact that traditional Eskimo material cuture should loom as large as it does in this collection from a site that apparently was occupied only during the contact period seems to suggest a single important fact: During the middle and late 19th century, in an area of Alaska exploited by American and Russian traders for three-quarters of a century, Eskimo material culture retained its traditional orientation. When this is considered in light of the change that has taken place in the area since then, it is possible to appreciate the rapidity with which the Eskimos have been drawn into the mainstream of American life since the turn of the century. TIME AND CHANGE The span of time represented at Crow Village is approximately 90 years. The presence of trade goods in the lowest midden levels and throughout the house floors demonstrates that there was at least indirect historic contact during the earliest stages of occupancy. It is highly probable that Russian trade goods were obtained before the Russians entered the river, but it is doubtful that such trade items were plentiful even during the Russian period. After 1867, Americans influenced Crow Village life, both directly and indirectly, until the site was abandoned early in the 20th century. Historical information regarding the Kuskokwim region is scarce, but it is possible to single out particular spans of time and changes which were crucial in the history of the Crow Village Yupik. 1818-1829 While Alexandrov Redoubt was being constructed at the mouth of the Nushagak River in 1818, a party on the cutter Constantine ascended the Kuskokwim River a short distance but soon returned to the redoubt since the season was late. Here we have direct Russian contact on the Kuskokwim with people who must have been Eskimos (Tikhmeney, 1861, pp. 300-302). Again in 1821 we have a reference to a person from the Kuskokwim visiting Iliamna and the notation that the Kuskokwim people could readily trade at the Nushagak station (Documents Relative History Alaska, vel. 4, pp. 243-244). In 1822 there is a reference to Kuskokwim travelers to Alexandrov (ibid., p. 821), and 11 persons from the Kuskokwim were at the same station in 1830 (Tikhmenev, 1861, p. 340). This series of citations serves to illustrate that Kuskokwim peoples were traveling to the Nushagak River trading center probably both by coastal and inland ASS BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 routes, and unquestionably they returned to their homes with Russian imports. 1830-1866 A Russian party under Vasil’ev in 1830 ascended the Nushagak River to a stream flowing into the Kuskokwim. ‘They ascended the Kuskokwim for an unknown distance and then followed the river downstream to the seacoast (Tikhmenev, 1861, pp. 340-341). This exploration was pursued in order to expand the fur trade into the in- terior of southwestern Alaska, and one of the immediate goals of the trip appears to have been the founding of a Kuskokwim trading sta- tion. In 1832 such a post was established at the Holitna and Kus- kokwim River junctions. The following year it was abandoned and a new one erected at Kwigiumpainukamiut (Zagoskin, 1956, p. 258; VanStone, 1959, p. 46). The final Russian trading establishment be- gan to function at Kolmakov Redoubt in 1841 (Zagoskin, 1956, p. 258). Subsidiary stores at Ogavik, Vinasale, and Mumtrekhlagamiut Station (modern Bethel) represent the range of known Russian trading posts along the river (for details see Oswalt, 1963 b). The imported manufactured goods found at Crow Village were analyzed earlier in an attempt to date the various trade items. There is little that can be added on this subject, and we must be content with the general observation that the trade materials, taken as a whole, ap- pear to belong to the latter part of the 19th century. This statement does not, however, answer all questions concerning the matter of dating unless we are prepared to say that all the trade goods from the site be- long to the period of American influence, that is, the period after the purchase. Since Crow Village was occupied at the time of Zagoskin’s visit to the central Kuskokwim in 1843 and 1844, and presumably for some time before these dates, it is to be expected that materials be- longing to the Russian period would occur in the collection. In fact, prior to the excavation of the site, the authors had anticipated that their work would make it possible to arrive at definite conclusions con- cerning the nature of both Russian and American trade influences. A clear dichotomy did not emerge, and therefore a major problem is to determine which trade goods are of Russian origin and which were ob- tained from American traders. In order to answer this question, or at least to make a reasonable attempt at answering it, we must turn to the historical sources, namely Zagoskin. According to him the specific trade goods which the Rus- sians introduced to the Kuskokwim included black and white beads, tobacco, Aleutian axes, copper and cast iron dishes, flannel blankets, and items of European clothing. Other items offered for trade by the Russians in southwestern Alaska, which probably were introduced along the Kuskokwim River, included small white beads, “long”’ Seven CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 79 beads, small red and black beads, steel-colored and blue beads, knives, spears of iron, steel for striking a fire, needles, combs, pipes, tin and cast iron pots, large cups, mirrors, copper rings, earrings, small bells, and navy buttons (Zagoskin, 1956, pp. 137, 153, 164, 252-253). It would be desirable if the list of Russian trade goods was more ex- plicitly descriptive, but this is the only known inventory. It is clear from this list that there are at least a few Russian trade items in the Crow Village collection. Most notable in this regard are the beads. An earlier analysis of the beads stressed the general 19th-century char- acter of the assemblage, although very little was said about the pos- sible origin of the various forms of beads. It was possible to identify with a fair degree of certainty only the faceted blue beads as Russian, but likewise it is true that any European-made bead could have been obtained by the Russians for their Alaskan trade. The difficulty here is that the sale or trading of beads to the Kuskokwim Eskimos has continued right down to the present time. It is undoubtedly true that various shapes, colors, and sizes of beads were traded at specific times, but our knowledge of the bead trade on the Kuskokwim, or anywhere else in Alaska for that matter, is not detailed enough to present a chro- nology based on bead types. All that can be said is that Zagoskin lists four colors of beads that occur in the Crow Village collection and there is the possibility that these were Russian trade items. The single copper bracelet in the collection is, with the exception of the beads, the object most likely to be considered as of Russian origin. It is possible that some of the cast iron fragments may be from the types of dishes and pots described by Zagoskin, and the same ap- plies to the iron strike-a-light and knife blade. In spite of the existence of these presumably Russian artifacts, however, it is clear that the bulk of the imported manufactured goods from Crow Village belong to the American period and were obtained from the traders who suc- ceeded those of the Russian-American Company on the Kuskokwim. This can mean only that the Russian influence at Crow Village was slight, at least in terms of material culture, in spite of the nearness of the Kolmakov trading station and the acknowledged influence of the Russian Orthodox Church in the village. This situation is difficult to understand, and perhaps the only reason- able explanation lies in the reemphasis of a point that has already been made: The actual period of Russian influence along the middle Kus- kokwim was not only relatively short but lacked intensity. The rarity of published accounts dating from the Russian occupation makes it difficult to assess the influence the Russians exerted on the lives of the Kuskokwim Eskimos. It has been stated that, initially, the Rus- sians came to the river for the purpose of expanding their inland fur trade. They were few in number, and they appear to have established 80 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 their role among the people with caution. They had no force to back up their position and thus could not afford to oppose the people as they had been able to do in the Aleutians, on Kodiak Island, and through- out southeastern Alaska. The Russians apparently did not interfere in the affairs of the various Kuskokwim villages with which they had contact, nor did they establish their major trading station in an oc- cupied village (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 106-107). Their influence along the Kuskokwim then was minor as far as Eskimo material culture was concerned. A less tangible result of Russian intervention was the introduction of Christianity to the Kuskokwim peoples. The endeavors of the Russian Orthodox priests were hampered by the inaccessibility of the area, the scattered nature of the Eskimo and Indian settlements, and the physical mobility of the people they hoped to convert. It appears that Father Veniaminov was the first to baptize Eskimos north of the Alaska Peninsula. In 1829 he performed the ritual for 13 individuals at Nushagak, and during a second visit there in 1832 he held church services for 70 persons (Tikhmenev, 1861, pp. 359-360; Barsukov, 1886-88, vol. 2, p. 37). Feodor Kolmakov, after whom Kolmakov Redoubt was named, served at the Nushagak station as a trader and missionary. He participated widely in Kuskokwim and Yukon River explorations and everywhere baptized receptive Eskimos and Indians (Zagoskin, 1956, p. 44; Barsukov, 1886-88, vol. 2, p. 38). As noted previously, when Zagoskin was at Crow Village in 1848, 20 of the 90 residents were regarded as Christians. Two of the Christian families living there recently had moved from Alexandrov Redoubt. In one record it is noted that from June 1850 to the same time of the next year, 203 persons were baptized among the Kuskokwim inhabitants. In general, the missionary working with these people about this time found that those living nearest the mission, Kolmakov Redoubt, were most influenced by his teaching, and we might infer that this would include the Crow Village Eskimos (Barsukov, 1897-1901, vol. 1, pp. 369-370). The already quoted statement of Hieromonk Illarion about the Crow Village Christians is instructive, for obviously these Eskimos poorly understood the nature of Christianity by the end of the Russian era. Information about the number of people along the central Kusko- kwim River within historic times is quite inadequate, but it is possible to learn something of the nature of the settlement pattern. Initially it should be mentioned that immediately prior to the time of the first population statistics for specific villages, there was a smallpox epidemic in southwestern Alaska. It apparently struck the area in 1838-39 (Zagoskin, 1956, pp. 61, 134), and of the 550 persons who contracted the disease at Alexandrov, St. Michael, and along the ahidae ake CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 81 Kuskokwim, 200 died (Tikhmeney, 1861, pp. 366-368). This does not provide a meaningful index to its effect on the Kuskokwim peoples except to suggest that it did not kill vast numbers of people as might have been expected. Considering the river area about 60 km. up and downstream from Crow Village as within the immediate vicinity, Zagoskin (Petroff, 1884, p. 37) recorded in 1843 or 1844 that Crow Village had 90 residents living in five houses, the downstream village of Ohagamiut had 61 persons, and 120 lived slightly farther downriver at Kalskag. No upriver community is listed until Kwigiumpainukamiut, which is beyond the 30 km. radius but none- theless had 89 Eskimo and 71 Athapaskan residents. In light of the fact that Zagoskin twice visited the central Kuskokwim during his travels, there is no reason to question the validity of his figures. In this case we would have a total of 271 persons at Crow Village and in the vicinity. We do not have comparable statistics available for the latter part of the Russian period, but we would assume that the population increased slowly after the smallpox epidemic. In any case the population of this sector of the central Kuskokwim certainly was quite small throughout its early history. 1867-1912 The purchase of Alaska by the United States did not change the basic relationship between the Eskimos and the traders. The succeed- ing trading enterprise, the Hutchinson, Kohl & Company, which was soon reorganized as the Alaska Commercial Company, continued to operate stores at Kolmakov, Vinasale, and Mumtrekhlagamiut Station, but apparently discontinued the Ogavik station. The Alaska Commercial Company had competition from the Western Fur and Trading Company for a brief period, and at least one free trader operated a store for a short period of time (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 102-132). Precisely what the traders had to offer the people in terms of material goods is not known in detail. An exhaustive search has been made of various archives to locate merchandise inventories for the Kuskokwim River stations. However, it is rather certain that these records were destroyed in the San Francisco earthquake and fire. From scattered sources it is possible to piece together an uncertain picture of the popular trade items in southwestern Alaska during the earlier phases of American occupancy. E. W. Nelson, when traveling from St. Michael to the Kuskokwim River mouth in 1878, took “leaf tobacco, ammunition, beads, brass jewelry, needles and other small wares” in order to purchase ethnographic materials (Nelson, 1882, p. 661). In the 1880’s the Moravian missionary W. H. Weinland listed tobacco, tea, drilling (fabric), needles, powder, lead, knives, axes, hardtack, twine, sugar, flour, and cooking utensils as the most 82 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 popular trade items. He mentioned also old Army muskets and sheet iron teakettles (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 110-111). In his unpublished diary Weinland records that while at Ohagamiut he saw a young girl wearing a headband and breast ornament which were decorated with red, blue, and white beads, small and large brass buttons, and empty brass cartridge cases (Weinland Collection: W. H. Weinland diary entry for July 1, 1884). Elsewhere in his 1884 account Weinland mentions that the women wear colored kerchiefs on their heads (ibid., entry for June 17, 1884). From the descriptions of Kuskokwim Eskimos by this missionary for the years 1884-87, it is apparent that the people then possessed the material apparatus of aboriginal Eskimos with the addition of relatively few trade items. One trade item which merits particular attention in a historical context is firearms. It is necessary to account for the scarcity of guns, gun parts, and other objects associated with firearms at Crow Village. It will be recalled that there are no recognized gun parts in the collec- tion and relatively few objects associated with guns. It therefore seems reasonable that guns of any kind were rare and valuable posses- sions not only during the Russian period but through the early American period as well. Guns were not used along the Kuskokwim in 1843-44, as reported by Zagoskin, but they were being used at Alexandrov and Nicholaevskij redoubts at this time. Zagoskin suggested in his report that firearms be introduced, but whether this recommendation was implemented is not known. It is known, how- ever, that powder and lead were among the most important trade items desired by the Kuskokwim Eskimos in the 1880’s, and muskets were being sold at Kolmakov at this time (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 110- 111). Before 1896 there was a United States Government regulation which prohibited the sale of breech-loading rifles to the Eskimos of Alaska. Although this law frequently was broken, at least in north- western Alaska, it is likely to have been more effective in the interior where the opportunity to purchase rifles, shotguns, and ammunition from transient individuals presumably was less than along the coast. As just mentioned, Weinland noted that brass cartridge cases were used for ornaments, which suggests that breech-loading guns to fire these shells were present. The Alaska Commercial Company was given permission in 1900 by the Federal Government to trade breech- loading rifles at certain stores, including the one at St. Michael (Oswalt, 1963 b, p. 111). No Kuskokwim station is listed as eligible, but breech-loading rifles probably were obtained by the Kuskokwim Eskimos. It appears that throughout the period of occupancy at Crow Village, guns of all types were rare and difficult to acquire. It is likely that none of the gun-related objects in the collection belong to the Russian period. Muzzle-loading firearms probably were intro- a CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 83 duced early in the American period and continued to be used during the latter part of the occupancy of the site. Breech-loading rifles in numbers presumably made their appearance about the time the site was abandoned. One possible source of trade goods for Kuskokwim Eskimos was from the prospectors and miners who searched for mineral wealth along the river, but before 1898 there were apparently few such individuals. George C. King prospected for cinnabar around Kolmakov in 1881; George G. Langtray prospected for gold along the river in 1884; three unnamed prospectors were in the vicinity of Kolmakov in 1887-88; and the Frank Densmore party prospected along the Kuskokwim in 1889 (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 41-43). The record of known individuals searching for minerals indicates that they were few in number and probably had comparatively little to offer the Eskimos in the way of trade goods. They are mentioned simply to point out the rarity of Eskimo contacts with outsiders up to the period just before the end of the last century. After the purchase of Alaska, the Kuskokwim converts to the Rus- sian Orthodox Church had little contact with their priests. In a report dated 1878, an Orthodox priest, Father Innokenty K. Shajashnikov, surveyed conditions along the Bering Sea coast and the Kuskokwim River. His findings were not encouraging; the church buildings were in disrepair and remnants of Christianity hardly existed. In 1891, however, Orthodox missionaries constructed a chapel at Little Russian Mission. They were responding to Moravian Church activity along the lower Kuskokwim River following the establishment of the Moravian mission center at Bethel in 1885. The Orthodox had good reason for concern since the Moravians opened a second mission station at Ogavik in 1891. Furthermore, the Roman Catholics founded a mis- sion at nearby Ohagamiut in 1895-96, but it was destroyed by fire in 1903 and abandoned in 1907 (Oswalt, 1963 b, pp. 38, 40, 48). None of these missionary activities played a major part in the lives of the Crow Village people. Their contacts with missionaries of any de- nomination were slight, and no chapel or church was ever built on the site. The population of Crow Village and the immediately surrounding area, embracing a 30 km. radius, was 271 in 1843-44. At the time of the first American census for southwestern Alaska in 1880, the downstream village of Ohagamiut had 130 persons; Kalskag, 106; and Crow Village, 59. Across the river from the later settlement of Little Russian Mission was Kokhlokhtokhpagamiut with 51 persons as the only upstream settlement within the radius; this makes a total of 346 (Petroff, 1884, p. 16). In the Federal census of 1890 we find Crow Village with 17; Ohagamiut, 36; Kalskag, 29; and Kokhlokbhtokh- 84 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 pagamiut, 20, for a total of 102. There is good reason to question the validity of the latter enumeration, for there were no major epidemics during this decade. We suspect that this census does not accurately reflect the population of the area. Our suspicion can partially be validated from Weinland’s 1884 diary entry for July 7th (Weinland Collection), in which he noted that Kalskag and Ohagamiut each had about 80 residents. Weinland does not record the population of any other villages within the range of our interest. Unfortunately the Federal census of 1900 is so incomplete that it does not aid in reconstructing the population for that period. However, we would be inclined to consider that the figure of nearly 350 for the 1880 census, or a slight increase in this figure, would represent the population number just prior to 1900. The most critical dates in the history of Crow Village were 1900- 1901. During this time an epidemic of influenza accompanied by measles, pneumonia, and whooping cough swept through the Kusko- kwim River settlements. A Moravian Church medical missionary, Dr. Joseph H. Romig, recorded the effects of these diseases. Romig estimated that about half of the population died, including all of the babies (Anderson, 1940, pp. 190-205; Romig, 1901, pp. 33-34). This disaster spelled the end of an old way of life, for villages were deserted and the population decimated. About 10 years later John H. Kilbuck (1913, p. 22) made a trip from Akiak to Sleetmiut and remarked, “The population now consists of the younger generation—like the second growth of timber—with here and there a middle-aged person.”’ He notes further, ‘Villages that were once populous are now either wholly abandoned or inhabited by 25 or 30 persons at most.’”’ The abandonment of Crow Village is directly attributable to the epidemic of 1900-1901, and was possibly influenced by the changing river channel which made it difficult to gain access to the village. The traditional culture died largely because there were few remaining people rather than because it was slowly eroded by Whites. In conclusion it can be noted that an attempt has been made to differentiate between imported manufactured goods from Russian and from American sources. It has been possible to show, largely on the basis of Zagoskin, that a small number of artifacts can, with some degree of certainty, be assigned to the Russian period. At the same time, it has been implicitly, if not explicitly, stated that the extent of Russian influence on the people of Crow Village certainly cannot be estimated on the basis of the artifact assemblage alone. It should be remembered that Russian influence had begun to penetrate the middle Kuskokwim before the establishment of the trading posts and probably even before the establishment of such important coastal stations as Alexandrov and St. Michael redoubts. At the same time, Oswalt and Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 85 no evidence has been offered that would refute the general thesis that the bulk of the Crow Village trade goods is American in origin and presumably dates from no earlier than 1870 to the abandonment of the site in the early 20th century. LIFE AT CROW VILLAGE: A RECONSTRUCTION As a result of the excavations, nearly 1,600 items of material culture were recovered, and from this collection a broad sample of the tech- nology was obtained. The settlement pattern was established by digging the houses and middens as well as by observing the kashgee cache, and storage pit remains. Archeology could offer comparatively little additional information about the past of the site. From histori- cal sources we have assembled references to the relationship of the people with the Russians and Americans, while Eskimos familiar with Crow Village when it was occupied provided ethnographic fragments. Although the total data about the site from all of these sources is not impressive, it is possible to integrate this information and derive a reasonably accurate view of village culture for the period from the 1840’s to about 1900. Drawing additionally on the ethnographic material collected by Oswalt for the central Kuskokwim River area from Aniak to Ohagamiut, the picture becomes more complete. In the reconstruction which follows, when reference is made to excavated artifacts from Crow Village, detailed descriptions will not be offered since this information may be obtained from the preceding text. Each material trait discussed in this section is listed by source in Appendix table 3. This list includes all the known material objects, where identification is reasonably certain, for the central Kuskokwim Yupik during the early historical period. Most of the descriptions are not drawn with precision because of the nature of the information available. Slightly more than 130 years ago when the vicinity of Crow Village, and probably the village itself, was occupied by Eskimos pushing inland from the coast, and perhaps across the portage from the Yukon River as well, the local geography was in its essence the same as it is today. There were more trees, especially around inhabited areas, and the river channel was in places building where it is now cutting, but these geographical changes are not of great significance. At the same time the faunal picture was different. Beaver were numerous and marten plentiful, but more important, caribou were abundant. Caribou frequented the surrounding mountains as the only large animal of local economic significance. The moose, even by 1900, was to be found only in the vicinity of Sleetmiut and farther up the river. Rarely, a hair or bearded seal ascended to the central Kusko- kwim from the coast. 86 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 Ficure 7.—A reconstruction of Crow Village, Alaska. ier a CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 87 A summer visitor to Crow Village in the latter part of the 19th century would step ashore on a narrow beach of alluvium. Beyond the water’s edge are horsetail, grasses, and a growth of willows reaching to the base of the ridge where pebbles are mixed into the soil. Differ- ent types of boats are drawn up on the landing and on the bank behind. There are birchbark canoes decked over for a short distance fore and aft and built around stringers and ribs of birchwood. There are a few sealskin-covered kayaks with large manholes, a mooring hole in the bow, and a projecting stern piece; this type, common farther down the river and along the adjacent sea coast, is rare here. An umiak, or bidarra as they are termed locally, is resting upside down on a series of raised logs. Near the bidarra and canoes are single bladed sprucewood paddles. Near a kayak is a double bladed paddle also made from spruce but with a ridge running down only one side of the blade. Furthermore, with each kayak and canoe is a set of short spruce poles used to propel these vessels in shallow water. Along the beach and on the grassy ridge behind the village, persons of both sexes are engaged in the routine activities of daily life. No single type of clothing is worn, but a wide variety of garment forms are to be seen. The men wear trousers of land otter or caribou skin with the fur or hair side out, and beneath these are short underpants of caribou skin. ‘The outer trousers are held up at the waist with a thong, and they reach to just below the knees, where they fit snugly. Suspenders and bibbed overalls are obtained from the traders. Addi- tionally, leggings of caribou skin may be worn by travelers. The parkas of some men are of the winter type with the fur of squirrel, marmot, or caribou hair turned out. These garments are without hoods and reach to just below the knees. They are trimmed in white hair from the sides of a bull caribou’s chest, while a wolverine tail dangles from the center of the back of the parka. Bands of white caribou hair encircle the sleeves, and from these are hung strips of otter fur, tufts of red flannel, or tufts of blue or black yarn. Above each cuff of white caribou hair one or more bands of otter or caribou skin are alternated. The opening for the neck is trimmed only in white caribou hair. Other parkas of this type are made of caribou skin but lack the arm trimmings. Some men wear hoodless parkas reaching to their ankles, and from the parkas animal claws and tails dangle. The separate hoods of caribou, marten, or squirrel skins are trimmed with wolf, white caribou hair, or hare, while the inner side of the hood is painted red. The most elaborate hoods have the tail of a wolf or otter dangling from the top. These headpieces are of a form common among the adjacent Athapaskan Indians. Some males wear parkas designed for summer use only; these are of untrimmed 929-189-677 88 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 caribou fawn skins, reach to the crotch, and may or may not have a hood attached. At least one man wears a broadbrim felt hat on his head. A hooded summer parka designed primarily for rainy weather is made from fishskins or seal intestines and is trimmed with fishskin as well as pieces of skin from land animals. The parkas of the women are of the same general cut as those of the men except that the women’s are always hooded, reach to their ankles, and usually are made of squirrel skins. They have long slits up the sides and have more tassels and panels of white caribou hair for decoration. Occasionally a woman is seen with the hood of her parka pushed back and a silk kerchief over her head. Variation is to be found in the forms of footwear. Socks are made from woven grass, fishskin, or caribou skin with the hair attached. Grass boot liners cushion the feet and are popular for around the village and for short trips. Some men have knee-length boots made from caribou leg skins, with the fur side out, and decorated along the outer and inner lengthwise seams with strips of otter skin from which hang wolverine fur tassels. The bottoms of these boots are made from dehaired bearded sealskins which were obtained by trade from the coastal settlements. Knee-length boots made from fishskins are a popular item for men since they are light and waterproof, but at the same time they wear out quickly and require frequent repairs. Men, but more frequently women, wear boots of sealskin which reach the groin, and the soles again are made from bearded sealskin. Foot- wear which was obtained from a store includes laced shoes for women, men’s shoes, and rubber overshoes. Items of clothing worn only in winter include beaverskin caps for men and mittens or gloves of caribou skin with beaded cuffs. The clothing of the children is simply a diminutive variety of that worn by the adults. Parkas do not have pockets, and therefore each man has a small bag of skin in which he keeps his snuffbox with birchbark sides and a wooden bottom. People adorn themselves in various ways, particularly around the face and head. Both men and women wear labrets. The lateral lip plugs of men are disk shaped and made from wood or a ground piece of ironstone china worn just below the lateral edges of the lower lip. Men with a medial labret do not wear the lateral variety. Labrets for women are made from ivory and have a hook-shaped outer projection in which there is a hole and from which beads may hang. The ear lobes of the women are pierced, and beads of various colors are suspended from strings which hang from the ear. A woman’s nasal septum is pierced, and from a sinew string passed through the hole hang three small blue glass beads. The women also wear necklaces of beads alternated with spent cartridges which have been Oswalt and CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 89 punctured at the closed end so that a suspension string may be passed through the opening. Likewise, copper bracelets, finger rings of iron or wire, bear-tooth pendants, and pendants of metal are worn. A favored little girl has ornaments on the front of her parka which include beads, as well as large and small brass buttons. On top of the ridge at the downstream end of the village are a number of holes in the ground. They are as much as 2 m. in depth and are lined with slabs of birchbark. These storage pits are pri- marily for fresh salmon since they are caught late in the season, are not processed but are placed in the ground to decay. In some of the pits, however, dried fish are placed for winter consumption, and a few storage pits are designed to hold berries. The pits for berries are lined with sewn slabs of birchbark, and into them are set birchbark baskets some 80 cm. in depth and 60 cm. across. Beyond the pits a cache is located in a slight draw. The cache is raised on four posts and built on a log platform. A log framework surmounts the platform. Against it at the front and rear are planks set verti- cally, while the sidewall planks are horizontal. At the front of the cache is an oval opening, and a low gabled roof covers the structure. Beneath the roof are horizontally arranged poles covered with sheets of birchbark and sprucebark. This covering is held in place by poles along the length of the roof; these are lashed through the bark to the roof poles beneath. The upper poles and covering are bound in place with strips of pliable spruceroot. Leaning against the cache platform is a notched log access ladder, while on the platform is a dogsled stored for later use. The runners of the sleds are usually of spruce although some are made from birchwood. Irrespective of the material, the runners are some 2.5 m. in length, 7 cm. high, and 3 cm. in width. The ends of the runners have an upward bend, and above the stanchions is a flat bed some 76 cm. wide. The sled may be shod with whalebone or wood. Another type of sled, for hauling a canoe or kayak over ice or snow, is also seen. It is about 1.2 m. long with short stanchions and a low bed joined with short cross- pieces. Resting on the cache platform are snowshoes made from birch or cottonwood with rawhide thong webbings. The snowshoes are about 1.2 m. long, and they have a turned-up toe. Beneath the cache two to four sled dogs may be tied. ‘Their harnesses, made from old twisted fish nets, are hung from one of the cache poles. Passing before the cache and climbing up the ridge, the visitor sees a low mound of earth protruding from the hillside. On top of the mound a frame is propped to one side, and over the frame is stretched a thin translucent fishskin covering. Out of the roof opening, which at times is covered by the window, smoke rises from the fireplace below. This, like all the other houses, is occupied by 90 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 women, girls, and young males. Access to the house entry room is through a low oval opening in a plank wall. In the entry room is a sealskin poke filled with seal oil, and at the opening in the poke is a wooden stopper. < IBIFChy AT AME SNOWSNOCL a os eae ee nee |e eee eee x 6. Stone boiling in baskets__..........-_- xX. geese eee Roasting foods. == 250 256 es kee > SE ene ee x x We (Beaver LOO LMM Teles ss =! aka area eo eeeeee Stone pick. goad) eesn bot ep es. Senge obO, dba ley oho ee DOPtiGtONG;AX= = oc casei ee ee ee a Dplitiime 7 seer eee Seem eae x NSS Se 8.eSkillful-flintworkings. 2254-22 t Ses | beeen a eee eee 9; Skinworkine;methode= 2. , Strike-a- light. +r, Copper hinge. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 199 PLATE 15 Wooden mask representing a fox. BULLETIN 199 PLATE 16 ETHNOLOGY BUREAU OF AMERICAN ‘o0¥y ueUINy] ‘4 SSuT AI®€9 U Ipoo NM “Seu UBUIN;T 7) Ls a ee APPENDIX lt da feralizae CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 115 AppENDIX TABLE 1.—Crow Village trait list with locally manufactured items in the sequence of the text descriptions LOCATION ITEM House Middens Chipped Stone: Hammerstone: Basalt, flattened at one end___--|___-|---- Diya te eh ash. = Shaped to fit the hand, used on flat sunkice!so2 22 sa stoe 5 US (eared (teen ESE] Shee S225 Little chipping except on work- bole Nis i: (te a a ee ea (epee aes eee [anes Ll So eS Carefully chipped over most Smmeesr(oi ls gobs ok Slee eee 1 Ay eee || ee oe Arrow. pom; chert (pl. 1,\f)-54[24-2)- 4b eee Strike-a-light -(pl-14, p). 12 ~12--<)2=3-|-2-sfecee | 2 TR Meee Chisel: Brass spike. (pl. 14; é) 2222-22. f2 le | eee ee Paring, knife-handle- section...4 2% ~--===|s-2<|2=5-|-ooo]eo=5 1g (a Textiles and Footwear: Widel brim: bat,:felt.t 1. 222 t2. ecko celisleesei}— Ibs|5 2 |e ee Kerehiefs silks -be te hc ee eel alll a SIE = allo a | ee pip | Baha ‘Textile 'scraps=2- 24-6 +264seshee glace ole 6 Bt l= SS] Rea ee Overshoe; Section=-~-! 242 ous Ck = ee loaf Ae 2 a Man’s:square-toe,shoe-section 422-1) -1- | |-==-|_ 24/52 | Ee ee Woman’s laced ‘bootis222-.-5111 22s) ossal- 12a | ee ee eee Miscellaneous: bump ‘of tar: s2-2252 Secs sob sh eee Sos 5 bese |S eee la ae ee ee Oswalt and CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 123 AprrnpiIx TABLE 3.—CentraliKuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900 Item Source Settlement Pattern: Cache: itunyanOv eller S22 es Informants. hadder, notchedopors {ooo alee) Do. Piston Oe Sn = eon ae Do. Kool, pabledtusaroia tt. cess c se wee Do. SupDpOris, 10Un Posts. 39 2)3 oe ee Crow Village; Informants. Walls,. horizontal'planks+— .25220.22ue2L 22 Informants. Dwelling: Summer: Pole trame O88 = oo SA toe eee Do. Cover: Birchbarkeess sec es ae eee ee ee Do. @rassa222 5252 Pee ea ae Do. Winter: Los irame (see Figure|6)-.--...--=----- Crow Village. Pishskin window. 2 ooo oO J Informants. Kashgee Benches;, two rowstes! 4... eB OS Informants; Zagoskin. iPnbrance, tunnel. 2228 a Crow Village; Informants. Wire pit, Centrale oes =- 5--2--4 == TInformants. Peg ets, Sit re ae Se Sees a es ae a eee Crow Village. é Spring pole; bird-feather-rib rope___------- Informants; Zagoskin. rap: Dead fall. Sees eee ee ee ee eee Informants. Fish trap set:for animals: = 2-22. === == Do. Netting for trapping land animals__---_---- Zagoskin. Subsistence: ish Boiled.) 222: ati bol 2. ene eee te Informants; Zagoskin Mecayed 4. oe ye ee ee eee Do DD yi (s¥o Ro pegaie UREA ISIREIEIN. PPR (NOS gee pagent ede ge Do Smoked... i depakote Be ees Do ETO CTE ee ee RIN CO Oy eat Do Meat: BBX ay (20 bijs pepe pb a aM eee ey al ne hr el ec Informants. DCG sesh ha teats ye ee ees Do. ROA STCGU LNs re et ater, tees nani, 29 |S Se See Do. TODACCO me ss Sener esas a ee ee ee Zagoskin. O lt and Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 125 APPENDIX TABLE 3.—Central Kuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900—Continued Item Source Subsistence—Continued Vegetable: Berries: Histmerosubomeges 2-255 Informants. Greens, roots, meat, fish, oil (agutuk)____| Informants; Zagoskin. Hine weedesbotledermr.2 t= = se ee as Informants. Niushroomis naw. | ot ee Do. Walderhubano pooled 32. 2252 tee ee o2 Do. Kashgee and Men’s Equipment: Antler: ANGE 7p RES ee a es a re Le ee Crow Village. Crooked knifevdandle.. .- 5} es as Informants. Net sinker 3 eese 527.3 ee ke Crow Village; Informants. Wied ce--) 2 eenremet beet te eo Do. Bearskin: entranicercover__--—=--------2 = 5 Informants. Birchbark: Ship Dom Sidesaenye fo Se Crow Village. Unworked rolls of birchbark_____--------- Do. Canvas; stage curtain for ceremonies--_------ Informants. Hur, pamtbrushjol marmot...........-. .=#e2)= Do. Grass: Sponge sor, batming ss 4 yt a pee Zagoskin. i ome for stage curtain for ceremonies__--| Informants; Zagoskin. etal: Adz bladecsmeser ed! Boe. | 2 ety oe Informants. AWila = ceemenanAe ES Bel Se ke ee Crow Village. Wermiyrera peminratet 3 ks Crow Village; Zagoskin. Bayonet 2 revmenuet 35 2225s -a6 5 8ee Crow Village. Cam metal sath la eee § eesie See ft Do. Chisel: IBTRSSs = See ont oie ssel ep glee) S Do bearers) Sao Ree ee ete eS ee Do. Popper shect. ese ss a ee eee Do. bndtbladeniorkmifes 2.2.2 Soleo tes O. Kngraving tool iblades...._-....-.-.-bede Informants. Hinge. of. copperetc! 1. -......-.-.felens? Crow Village. Sriihem sae seen SAR eo hee os Zagoskin. 1 FEO AST Sa AR 9 A Tapa RP Penne SF Crow Village. amg blade Nee ou 2 eee oy eee eS Do. NS eui ESSE Wir ca ca SERRE np Ce Do. VN Ue ES k SO Sees © Aaa | Ce Anca iin ala en nea Do. Paint: IBiacke Scoala pee Bae ee ene eee Zagoskin. Blue; white rock and decayed wood_ ------ Informants. Red pbloog anguocner 02. 2. se Informants; Zagoskin. Wihitesswhite rocket» #2222222 eae Informants. Pottery; locally made: Lamp; large and bowl shaped_-_----------- Informants; Zagoskin. Stone: Adz blade: Chipped of flinty material______-_--_--- Informants. Ground: IBlaninlopertwrte tb! ee = Crow Village. SpPUGiineeeaee wh ft ele ee eS Do. Bullet bene ewe ho Se et Do. Bnd) bladeditknife;blade..........---..=-- Do Grindme Ap aneeeee ee 2 oe Pe OS Do. Hammerstonessetet 1. Do. hing, montaeriey ate ee re ek Crow Village; Informants. 126 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 APPENDIX TABLE 3.—Central Kuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900—Continued Item Source Kashgee and Men’s Equipment—Continued Stone—Continued SaWitis ccs fen eee ce che Le Crow Village. Weta tone eee es inst nearer ene Crow Village; Informants. Wood: Adaghandle ACTON h Mooi alert ent Crow Village. Beaver tooth drawknife handle__________- Do. Crooked, knifeiandle = csi oie SS Informants. Drill shaft: Biemplacements. 2-5-2 2 soso cee Crow Village. Brie linet NAA he MAR he es Do. End ‘blade*kiife handle. 8 se ek Do. Mneravine tool handle... 2.5522 o eee oO. ABE alors h ave Mt tt CRSPh ere beeen eeeuane teen nem ae Informants. Misa. SEE sen Sts ten ot op ee Crow Village. Paring | knitejhandles tooo oh e) eee ee Do. Respiratoc of Shavings ss oo Zagoskin. BRUM box, bOCCOM. oss et ee Crow Village. Nirap, driller 6 es oe Do. Tobacco box top and bottom____________- Do. A YEEON ee SS SMR ete eat ts COM TO) Crow Village; Informants. Ceremonial Life and Equipment: Burial: Goth, planks 222 ve cde Selah ei Informants. Birchbark over entire coffin._.._...---- Zagoskin. Birchbark over coffin top.......-------- Informants. Cormerposts wos! 3 oa. se ees oow cae Informants; Zagoskin. Paintédifiguresvon’ sides. 222204005 l 566 Informants. Figures; free standing, head and trunk___-- Do. Grave goods: Tools and equipment (male or female) -_ -__ Do. HOV S(t] Gd rem) as ee ey egy ee ee Do. Headboard: Animal carvings attached__.....-.----- Crow Village; Informants. Humantearving attached....-.2.-i22.=2 0. Bead adornment (female)__--__---__- Informants. Ceremonies: Bering Omi 5: BE naa See Do. Boy Ss nuntiness oo te sake tee ee Do. Child's first dances A252 oe2- os eS Do. Doll? 2. Jee ook Skee ae ae ere ae Do Heastitor.the dead a Foe ak oe Do Kirst salmon sen Jos 25s2caeonse lee Do Potlatch = AA(e 70 Bt vt. 25. ee Se Do Wadtcelery stale too sets oes eens O. Blower, (2). .Camvitigeie. 426 22 3 ay fe ey ot Crow Village. Mask appendage: Animalicdrving Wl tons cccce evo OAS Crow Village (?). Bost model! fs ose ee eee ae Crow Village. ishiearving 2. oo. Fla sees ee ope Do. Wand B/S RAMGU J. ese ae Le Do. Face mask: ear anh WU ne at ee ta eee aah Informants. Dogs 2. eR eet oie ee cate nea Zagoskin. OR eo ds OR Ba a et Crow Village. FeLi an ee Crow Village; Informants; Zagoskin. RAVEN So eh ee ee cae Informants. SprritlHeel ! WO De aia wee eee Zagoskin. Oswalt and Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 127 AppENDIx TABLE 3.—Central Kuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900—Continued SS ee ee Ceremonial Life and Equipment—Continued Ga Personal Adornment: m Item Source Informants; Zagoskin. hinpermmask- 2222-2 - 5 ue eee Informants. Memorialicarving) of \a girl... Tambourine drum: JEG Gps os et Bre eae et Se eee ee Crow Village. Drums ticles 42 2eew Fe eee Informants. es: Pallhobtwisted grass.) 22-22 <--seecess=- Do. Broasdejump, (misles) 222s 2222S oe Wt Se Zagoskin. Chopping hole in‘ice (boys) ---------------- Do. Hand eamer@nien) Mee. 2 fee et Informants. Snowshoe wace (moalles)Saeee eens] eee ee Zagoskin. Crow Village; Zagoskin. Weinland. Bracelettcomper! 22532 --~ <5. 52055552555 Breast ornament (child, female): Brass buttons = == ee sora eee Do. Ear ornament; strung beads, various colors Gemiste) i SROs SUC fo re SOE AE Informants. Labret: Lateral: Disk:shaped, (male). -.25-2-222252=22 Hook shaped (female) ._-.------------- Ornamented with beads__..--------- Miediall(male) eee es eos tee ee Necklace, beads and cartridge cases (female) - Nose ornament, blue glass beads (female) ---_- Pendant: Crow Village; Informants. Informants. Informants; Zagoskin. Crow Village; Informantss Crow Village. Informants; Zagoskin. Beardtoothe-Sse-- oe besa ssensoeaese sss Crow Village. Mict al sepa Oe Sr hs oo nope tase sss Do. Ring: TRONS | RRS fo oe esses Zagoskin. DW Vii TG see WEED Fo a a te he wh ae Do. Tattoo; lip to chin lines (female) ---.-------- Do. Transportation: Boats and boating: Bidarraumiak). .— 2)o-2sn22essserseses= Informants. Birchbarkicanoes sheets = 2252552 Sa522e Do. ayalct > . SOS PRBIS ooo oe ee eee assess Do. Bow. or stern! pieces 2s ee ose ee eses Crow Village. Bow pidee!. HOG! feos ess sesasssseet Do. Deeckisupport= — =L.ssosass22ssse5S2¢ Do. Manhole: RinevsechiOnt: 4. s2ce2.545sessse52 Do. Rane supports: 22 s2-s22s22ss5ses=25 Do. PRPS a PDN a a es Do. Paddle: Double bladed; ribbed on one side of blader tee ah eee een Informants. Incomplete; ribbed on both sides of blade_| Crow Village. Single bladed; ribbed on both sides of bladesatee es fo dae Cat abe sce sseasae Informants. Propelling poletiat 2243 we vesa sacescese ee Do. Sled and sledding: Built up; flat bed (dog traction)-_---------- Do. Runner: ‘Birches eo eee scan EL ie Zagoskin. SL Cg Eee; see eet NSIRRE ee eR Crow Village; Informants. Canoe or kayak sled (human traction) _---| Informants. rose DICOGe! Seen ose eet e Crow Village. 128 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 AppENDIxX TABLE 3.—Central Kuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900—Continued Item Source Transportation—Continued Sled and sledding—Continued Dog sharnessjoldgfish neta. 5- 45> 5— = Informants. Shoe; sled: Whalehened saw d!t 29 po oe ee Crow Village; Informants. OG tc ria a a ia Crow Village. Stanchions sleds stip eee ya eee Do. Snowshoe: Frame: 1 Brine) SEN, Us) aN A en et ba A ROU Informants; Zagoskin. Cottonweodste ig ge ee Crow Village. Household Equipment: Amitler taming tram Glee ee eu eee as eee Do. Birchbark: Basket: Garrying large eb 6 ee ee informants. Cokin gee Ae ey i a UN O. Household}small..pasabe. asters abse Crow Village; Informants. Horsetail root border design_--------- Informants. Dip pert Pee 96tea 3G Ieee tre Do. 1 AGH Pe) 00 PS ir SEAR a ra, SN ie et aR PRN etree ae Do. TE forchevs tehvcg Meese) SREAD) Sgt San gen ae Crow Village. Wiskiskin:pgepeveerey Agee ee Zagoskin. Elannel iblanketere.341 222+ eh Do. Glass: Bottles wees Oma! BO ret ase oe byl Crow Village. Disb ot ated fo PzVCI- ee es 2s, Ge Sp GLO ee OTL Ree Dopey ts Do. Scraper: Bottletracment hae 8 224 Pee oes oe Do. Windowtragient.} 0-2 Do. Grass: Woven (oaskeiterce? 1 0 eee Informants. WON CTRHRES. SpE Pi ety Be Ua a Sui Crow Village. Metal: Bucket:iwithvbandles owe. oe ea aoe Do Cantimnetal rollstzer: Webi 5 el sole ee Do Di Per ss flee feyeree ep hs ii eS ee ee Do Dish: OAS beRrO ae te. be 2h a ee Zagoskin. Cop pene want ie 8 a es ee Do. Remade) tinv¢an metals. 2 eee es Crow Village. 1 EM Girgib a eae Ofc OMEN <9 © Nene NTS aye ar ROUEN Oo. ior ills erie ar ey a eo a on Do. Needles. Aatt =o ees ee ee a Zagoskin. Pie Gy apse Pe aa per yt Crow Village. DR Eh, a a OF ih Ne pk es, Zagoskin. PO UH OD kee he Aenean eee ee ra ee Crow Village. Serapenibladess =k Se ea ee: cee pel Do. Tablespoon tamwpte th. bo 6 2 oe ce es Do. Teakettle: Mmamele@. 222 ok el ee ee Do Plain metalaree teh se Soe Le Do SP CRIG OD sm APF ih ee pO A aa eg Do Do YGF: iw aM anes Ree penis LOAN AIS Rh SrON T tp a SE Do. Ulu blade fromjcan metal___. ~~~ 22sb224- Do. Mosse mp wick! a2 oS ha hee ee ee Informants. Oil; lamp fuel (bear, fish, or seal oil)_-_-__--- Do. O lt and Van Stone] CROW VILLAGE, ALASKA 129 AppENpDIx TABLE 3.—Central Kuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900—Continued Item Source Household Equipment—Continued Pottery: Imported: Cup: Handpainted: 2-248 Sd ad Crow Village Bisime Deere rpgetat oto oo Re Do. shranster prints 52k 2 a ee ere Do DOUEEE ahr aOR Se ae eh ee Do GRO 5 beer hie Yo A ee oe Do Locally made: Cooking pot: Line-dot surface treatment----_------- Do. Undecorated2 22225. Sse -2 See ee Do. Saucerishanpediammps_. ....-- 2. -..*- Do. Smew- thread 22 208 Ss. Ub os a heat wiyiy) Zagoskin. SETAE 04 3} Ps 1 a RS Pa Pe Informants. tone: DIS) ea PAT TE I Scape ee Ee pu ore Crow Village. ISGEN AONE Ei onate ee ees SNR ee eee oe eNO Do. Lamp, pecked and ground: Basin shaped; shallow, wide rim_- ~~ ---_- Do. Bowl, shaped, shallow.) ... -.- .. 42)24.- - Do. Scraper: Flaked: Boulder chip (tci-tho) --.------------ Crow Village. Blade: 1B) aio (eS Se ee eer Do Sits Gat ee ee Pe eee Do Ground: Rind: bladewiatteds_) =.= 5 tae. 0. Loe oy Evo SE es. 2 ae ee eee ey ee eee Crow Village; Informants. | MTC hea oe eae Le ee eee eee Crow Village. Willows inner bark formets. _ <6 ----- 42. Crow Village; Informants; Zagoskin. Wood: Barrel imported=.. 2.2 2.2.-s2-4 Bees 8 Do. Benchtsuipportses=ser ace 4 Seo oe See ee Do. Bowl semicirele of a burl. .— 224 222ce— 22 Do. ibex, plank, imported... 2-.-..-.2s2ee3e_s Do. Bucket, ovoid; decorated bottom_-__-_--_-_- Crow Village; Informants. Re oa enh ee ea age Informants. MGHNeOOATOs= 5-2 oF 2 eee Crow Village; Informants. LD TELS Nie ic eee Ege F Cnc e Ore Do. Pndgscraperhandless2 22220 ee ae Do. Hoodgtray, ovoid 2262 2..) 22. a= Same Do. [lexan cli aie See ob Seek Crow Village. WbsiOll eee ee So he Do. amipsieaneer 2 ce es eS Crow Village; Informants. okeisiemuenmye. 3255025 loses Ee phi Crow Village. Wilivwhandles 2228 ea ee Sa ah Crow Village; Informants. Fishing Equipment: Rass a reap cee ee Pag eS Informants; Zagoskin. Harpoon dart; barbed metal point____------- Crow Village. Hook and line: Hook baited with red flannel_-_---------- Informants. TSE) EN ea AUR eS ca RL Crow Village; Informants. Leister: enbial Pronee wees ok Se ee Crow Village. IESG ered PROM Ge Mase eten CNL ut eee S Do. 130 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 AppENDIX TABLE 3.—Central Kuskokwim Yuk culture, circa 1840-1900—Continued Item Source Fishing Equipment—Continued Net: AE Seas ee a Mek eae ST ene leer eee Informants; Zagoskin. Grill eae rp eee EO INPRO: SERN eRe a tliat ete pai Do. Drift st. Wei Os bos i eG eee Do. ee) Aap peers Ss, SR per eee Deere ee eee nee ae ee Informants. Material: Cotton twineth: 2 oases. bes eee Do. Rawhide thong’ s2- 2s sa sees ae bea Informants; Zagoskin. Twisted eracs #6 ha ieee a eo Informants. Wahl Oy gine ar kc ss Metts tpt areal Crow Village; Informants; Zagoskin. Netting equipment: AniGhor S1OneGhek =< oo bee poe oer Informants. Anchor lines of willow inner bark___-_--- Do. Fish killing: ib SS ep ea eee haere lk er ees Do. Clabes Ph ote Le Do. Float: Oblong with holes at each end: Cottonweod bark). 22.2 228 Sie Crow Village; Zagoskin. Spruce: s840 2 22s lhcess eee eee Crow Village. Oblong with hole at one end; spruce__-| Crow Village; Informants. Shaped like duck, for end of drift net-_| Informants. Gage] Aes WOR be ede tek Crow Village; Informants. Net container for boat. 2-222 225222" se5* Informants. DHUtHeLs asses eee eee eee eee Crow Village; Informants. Weight: Antlervanilledsholes#=soeesee ese e sees 0. Bone, notched. --2= hci oteeeceteeeee Crow Village. head, ‘clampedie ts.) wcnececectetees Informants. Stone, notched 2s hace esos Crow Village. Weir eene Pet) esto, Wes bd peed eee sete Informants; Zagoskin. INDEX Abrading, 26 Begging Abrasion, 28 Bell, 79 Adz, 92 Bench, 15, 18, 19, 20, 50, 90, 92 planing, 28, 29, 30, 66 Bench plank support, 36, 68, 90 splitting, 29 Bennett, James, 54 Adz head, 44 Berezkin, Matthew, 6 Agutuk, 91, 95 Bering Sea, 3, 5, 69, 83 Akiak, 84 Bering Strait, 5 Alaska Commercial Company, 5, 6, 73, Berries, 89, 95 81, 82 Bethel, 6, Z 73, 78, 81, 83 Alaska Peninsula, 80 Bidarra, 87, 96 Alder, 8, 9 Big Lake, 42 Aleutian Islands, 80 Birch, 7, 8, 31, 89, 93 Alexandrov Redoubt, 4, 77, 80, 82, 84 Birchbark, £0;\01, 12,24, (89, 43,:47,, 67; America, influence of, vi11, 76, 78, 79, 82, Wer 74, 76, 87, 88, ‘90, ‘92, 94, 100, 83, 85, 101, 105 101, 107 Ammunition, 81 Bird: see also: Rifle cartridge. carved, 42, 43 Aniak, vu, 6, 7, 63, 86 mask depicting, 98 Aniak River, 4, 92, 94, 96 wing of, 95 Animals, 98, 99 Bird dart, 76, 97 carved, 41, 42, 97, 98 Bird hunting, 33 see also specific names. Bird spear, 33 Antler, 26, 44, 70, 72, 91, 93, 94 Blacker, J. F., 52 Anvik River, 3 Bladder, 94 Archeology, historical, vir, v111 Blades, 26, 69, 91, 92 Arctic Woodland culture, 106, 107, 109 animal tooth, 33 Arrowhead, 32, 44, 93, 96, 101 iron, 33, 66 Arrowpoint, 28, 29, 30 Blanket, 78, 90 Ash, bone, 52 Blood, as paint, 93 wood, 12, 19 Boat, toy, 40, 97, 101 Athapaskan Indians, 1, 2, 72, 73, 81, 87, carved, 98 106, 109 Boat model, 42 Awl, 44, 50, 72, 91, 98, 94 Bone, 26, 70, 72, 103 Ax, 4, 78, 81, 92, 93 Bone ash, 52 Boots, 88 Bag, grass, 47 Borax flint, 52 fishskin, 91 Bottle, glass, 55, 57, 90 Baking powder, 63, 64, 75 Bottle glass, vu, 51, Ball, grass, 97, 101 Bow, 32, 33, 96, 101 Band, metal, 18 toy, 40, 97, 101 Bannock, 75 Bowl, ironstone, 53 Bark peeler, 438, 44 wood, 36 Barrel stave, 66 Box, wooden, 61, 62, 66 Basalt, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30 Brace, drilling, 45 Basket, birchbark, 47, 73 Bracelet, 51, 66, 79, 89 grass, 99 Bristol Bay, 1 Bathing, 98 Brooks, John, 53 Bayonet, 66, 92 Bucket, iron, 65, 90 Beads, 12, 18, 51, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 76, toy, 40, 97 78, 79, 81, 82, 88, 92 Bucket handle, 51 Bear, 73, 95, 96 Buckle, clothing, 60 carved, 41, 97 Bullet mold, 31, 49, 76, 96 mask depicting, 98 Bull roarer, 97 Bearskin, 92 Burial, 100 Bear tooth, 45 Burnham, Harold, 67 Beaver, 4, 70, 71, 72, 85, 96 Buttons, 55, 79, 82, 89 131 132 Cache, 22, 23, 24, 89, 107 ground, 24 Cache poles, 9, 89 California Fig Syrup Co., 56 Canoe, 87, 89, 94, 96, 100, 101, 107 Canvas, 67, 99 Cap, see Headgear. Cape Darby, 38 Cape Vancouver, 42 Caribou, 4, 65, 71, 72, 85, 87, 88, 91, 96, 97, 106 carved, 41, 97 Cartridge, see Rifle cartridge. Carving, animal, 41, 42, 68, 97, 98, 100, 101 Census, 6 Ceremonies, 98, 99, 100 doll, 99 Chambers: lexander and David H., 5 OG: Checkers, 39, 68, 97 Chert, blue, 26 Chimney, lamp, 57 China clay, 52 China stone, 52 Chipping, 27, 30 Chisel, 93 Christianity, 80, 83, 100 Chum, see Salmon. Cigar box, 66 Cinnabar, 83 Clay, vessels of, 74 Clothing, 67, 75, 78, 87, 88, 91 Club, 94, 96 Coal, 93 Cod, 94, 95 Coffin, 100, 101 Cold trap, 11, 18 Comb, 79 Constantine, 77 Cooking, 48, 74, see also: Food, preparation of. Cook Inlet, 3 Copper, sheet 51, 93 Copper River, vir, 54 Cork stopper, 56, 57 “‘Cornaline d’Aleppo” bead, 60 Cottonwood, 10, 11, 20, 31, 38, 48, 89, 93, 94 Cowhide, 51 Crescent Baking Powder, 64 Crockery, vir “Crooked knife,’’ 44, 92, 93, 95 “Crow Village,” 1 Crow Village, vir, vit1, 1x, 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 23, 53, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 87, 98, 100, 101, 102, 105, 106 artifacts from, 25, 28, 29, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 60, 61, 68, 77, 102, 104, 107 natives of, 4, 51, population of, 83, 84 Cup, 52, 53, 79, 91 Curtain, canvas, 99 Cutting board, 33, 66, 91 Cux dialect, 1 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 Dances, 98, 100 Dart, 39, 94, 97 Dart head, 75, 76 Deadfall, 73, 95 Densmore, Frank, 83 Designs, floral, 53 geometric, 90 Dipper, birchbark, 100 metal, 65, 90 Dish, metal, 50, 76, 78, 90 stone, 30 toy, 40, 97 wood, 3, 6 Dog, 70, 71, 72 Dogfood, 4 Dogsled, see Sled. Doll, 41, 68, 97, 99 Drawknife handle, beaver tooth, 33, 93 Drift netting, 94 Driftwood, 8 Drill, 93 Drilling, 28 Drum handle, 43 Drummer, 99 Drying rack, 91, 94 Duck, fish, 94 Dwelling, eh 10, 12, 13, 15,20; "22624 4 ? Eagle, carved, 92 Earrings, 79, 92 ‘“‘Hley Bro.,’’ 64 End blade, 26, 29 Engraving, 51 Engraving tool handle, 33, 93 Entry room, 11, 15, 18, 20, 23, 90 Epidemic, 7, 80 Ermine, carved, 41, 97 Eskimos, vil, 2, 25, 63, 67, 68, 69, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 99, 101, 105, 106, 108, 109 culture of, 5, 6, 11, 33, 36, 39, 44, 48, 49, 55, 57 language of, 1 Feast for the Dead, 99 Feces, human, 24 Ferrule, copper, 51, 76 Finger masks, 99 Firearms, 44, 64, 65, 82, 96 Fire drill, 33, 98 Firepit, 92 Fireplace, 12, 44, 89, 90, 92 Fireweed, 95 Fish, 4, 24, 75, 91, 100 carved, 42, 98 Fishbones, 73, 103 Fish eggs, 95 Fishing, 32, 33, 69, 95, 96, 103, 106, 109 Fishing rod, 32 Fish net, 89, 91, 96 see also: Net. Fishskin, 56, 88, 89, 97 Fishtrap, 95, 103, 104 Flaking, 30 Flannel, 78, 87, 94 Van Stone] INDEX 133 Flint, 26, 52, 97 Hood, 87 borax, 52 Flip dart, 39, 68 Float, net, 32, 44, 48, 94 Floor, 10 house, 11, 12, 16, 18, 77 Flour, 81 Flower, carved, 42, 76, 100 Fontana, B. L., 57, 61 Food, 75 preparation of, 95, 96, 107 Footwear, 67, 99 Fort Union, N. Mex., 57 Fox, red, 71, y2, 73, 96 mask depicting, 98 Fruit, 75 Fungus, 39, 93 Fungus box, 39 Fur, 91, 97 Fur trade, 4, 51, 73, 86 Gage, mesh, 32, 91, 104 Games, 97, 98 Giddings, James L., 105, 106, 107, 109 Glass, drinking, 55, 57, 90 see also: Bottle. Glasseutter, 55 Glaze, 52 Glazunow, Andrei, 3 Gloves, 88 Gold, 83 stampede for, 6 Gouge, 27 Gouging, 44 Grass, 20, 47, 90 braided, 48 twisted, 51, 91, 95, 97 woven, 88, 91 Grave goods, 100, 101 Grease, 97 Greenleaf, C. J., 57, 61, Grinding, 25, 26, 29, 31 Grinding stone, 28 Grooving, 29 Gulf of Alaska, vir Gun powder, 81, 82 Hair, human, 42, 43 Hallmark, pottery, 54, 55 Hammering, 28 Hammerstone, 25, 28, 69, 93, 94 Hand-decorated ware, 52, 53, 54 Handgame, 95 Handle, 50, 91, 92 Hardtack, 81 Hare, 71, 87, 95 Harness, 89 Hat, 67, 88 Headband, 82 Headgear, 88 Hearth, 18 Heating stones, 90 Heizer, R. F., 31 Herrick, R., 60 Hinge, copper, 65, 93 Holitna River, 78 Hook, iron, 96 Hook and line, 94 Hooper Bay Village, 68 Horsetail, 91 Hosley, Edward, vi1t Hough, Walter, 31 House excavation, 13 Housepits, 9 Hrdliéka, Ale’, 8, 31 Hudson’s Bay Company, 60 Human figure, carved, 41, 43, 101 Hunt, C. B., 56 Hunting, 44, 69, 95, 96, 100, 106 Hutchinson, Kohl & Company, 5, 81 Tkogmiut, 3 Iliama Lake, 1, 77 Illarion, Hieromonk, 4, 6, 9, 80 Indians, vu, 5, 80, 103, 107 Ingalik tribe, 1 Influenza, 84 Inlay, 91 Innovation, 74 Insoles, 47 Inuit, 68 Tron, cast, 49, 79 Ironstone china, 51, 52, 54, 55, 88 Ivory, 88, 91 Jewelry, brass, 81 Kachemak Bay, 31 Kalskag, vu 4, 81, 83, 84 Kanukpuk, see Influenza. Kashgee, 8, 23, 24, 39, 70, 74, 92, 93, 97, 8, 99 98, Kayak, 36, 37, 48, 87, 89, 96, 100 shoe, 45 Kerchief, 67, 82, 88 Kettle, cast iron, 49 Kilbuck, John H., 84 King, George C., 83 Kiogiack, Simon, 6 Knife, 66, 81, 93 Knife blade, 26, 44, 79, metal end bladed, 49 Knowles, Isaac W., 54 Knowles, Taylor & Knowles, 54 Kobuk River, 105, 106, 107 Kodiak Island, 31, 80, Kokhlokhtokhpagamiut, 83, 84 Kolmakov, Feodor, 80 Kolmakov Redoubt, 1x, 3, 4, 5, 6, 42, 72, 73, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 103 Koniag, 31 Kotzebue Sound, 103 Kowchowak, 97 Kuskokwim River region, vil, vil, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 30, 31, 36, 40, £2, 68, 69, 72, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 95,'96, 98, 100, 101, 103, 105, 106 Kwigiumpainukamiut, 1x, 1, 2, 3, 5, 78, ? 134 Labret, 38, 51, 88 Ladle, 90, 91 Laguna, Frederica de, 31 Lamp, clay, 57, 74, 90 hunting, 46 pottery, 31, 45, 46 stone, 30, 74, 90 Lampstand, 12, 15, 20, 36, 90, 92 Lance, 26, 68, 96 toy, 40 Land otter, 72, 73, 87, 95, 96 Langtray, George C., 83 Lantis, Margaret, 106, 107, 109 Lard, 75 Lead, 49, 81, 82, 94, 96 Leather, 51 Leggings, 87 Leister, 94 toy, 40 Lid, can, 64 kettle, 65 Little Russian Mission, 83 Log cabin, 14, 23 Loon, carved, 41, 97 Lukin, Semen, 5 Lynx, 73, 95 Makutov, Prince Dimitrij, 4 Marmot, 87, 93 Marrow, bone, 97 Marten, 73, 85, 95, 96 Mask, 42, 98, 99 appendage, 41, 42, 43, 97, 98, 99 ring(?), 42 Mason and Company, C. J., 52 Mat, grass, 74, 91, 99 Maul, 93 Measles, 84 Meat, 75, 95 Medicine, patent, 56 Memorial image, 41, 42 Mending hole, 75 Metal, 61 Midden, 9, 23, 44, 47, 57, 70, 77 Milk glass, 55 Miners, 83 Mink, 73, 95, 96 carved, 41, 97 Minton, Thomas, 53 Mirror, 79 Mittens, 88 Molasses, 64 Moose, 71, 72, 85, 96, 97 Moravian Church, vit, 83, 84 Mortar, paint, 30, 93 Mug, 53 Mumtreklagamiut Station, see Bethel. Mushrooms, 95 Musket ball, 49, 96 Muskrat, 73, 95 Necklace, 45, 51, 76, 86 Needle, steel, 28, 69, 79, 81, 91 Nelson, Edward W., 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 68, 81 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Nail, metal, 18, 38, 50, 61, 62, 66, 76, 93 Net, 91, 100, 103 dip, 32, 94 gill, 32, 94 trap, 73 Net floats, 32, 44, 48, 94, 104 Net shuttle, 32, 91, 104 Net sinker, 26, 44, 72, 93, 104 Netting, 32 grass, 47 Nicholaevskij Redoubt, 3, 82 Northern Commercial Company, 63 Nunivak Island, 37 Nushagak River, 4, 77, 78, 80 trading center, 77 Ocher, red and white, 93 Ogavik, 78, 81, 83 Ohagamiut, 4, 6, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 97, 98 Ohio patterns, 54 Oil, 64, 75, 95, 97 seal, 90 Ontario, 102 Oswalt, W. H., vu, 22, 28, 40, 68, 70, 85, 105 Otter, see Land otter. Overalls, 66, 87 Overshoes, 67, 88 Owens, M. J., 56 Pacific Ocean, 3 Paddle, 37, 87 Paimiut, 1 Paint, black, 93 blue, 93 red, 33, 48, 87, 93 Paintbrush, 93 Painting, 100 Paint mortar, 30, 93 Pan, frying, 65, 81, 90 Parka, 87, 88, 99 Pebble, beach-worn, 27, 94 Pecking, 29, 30 Peg, wooden, 43, 45 Pendant, 45, 66, 89 Percussion caps, 64 see also: Firearms. Phillips, Sam, 7, 8, 23, 70 Pie tin, 65, 90 Pike, 94 Pipe, 38, 79 Pistol, toy, 40 Pit, storage, 73, 89 Pittsburgh, Ohio, 57 Pneumonia, 84 Poke, sealskin, 90 Pole, spruce, 87 carved, 92 Polishing, 25, 29, 30 Population, 10 Pot, metal, 4, 79, 81 Pot, pottery cooking, 45, 74, 90 Pothook, metal, 50, 90 Potlatch, 98, 99, 100 Pottery, 45, 46 imported, 18, 75 non-EHskimo, 54 [Bull. 199 Oswalt and Van Stone] INDEX 135 Potterymaking, 74 Shajashnikov, Father Innokenty K., 83 Powder, see Gun powder. Shamanism, 4 Prince William Sound, vil, 31 Sharpener, 28 Prospectors, 83 Shoes, see Footwear. Ptarmigan, 96 Shuttle, 32, 91 Side bladed knife handle, 44 Quartz, 26, 27 Sidewalls, 14 Silk, Chinese, 67 Rabbit, see Hare. Sinew, 33, 91 Ramrod, 44, 72, 96 Skagway, 60 Ravens, 8 Skins, processing of, 97 Rawhide, 89, 91, 96 worked, 69, 97 Red paint, 33, 48, 93 Skin seraper blade, 50, 97 Reinforcement pieces, leather, 51 Skylight, 56 metal, 50 Slate, 25, 26, 27, 29, 91, 92 Respirator, 98 Sled, 36, 37, 87, 101 Rhubarb, 95 Sled runner, 37, 43 Rifle, 64, 65, 82, 83, 96 Sled shoe, 37, 43, 45, 72 Rifle cartridge, 32, 51, 64, 65, 76, 82, 88| Sled stanchion, 37 Ring, finger, 79, 89 Sleetmiut, 84, 85, 96 Rivet, metal, 32 Smallpox, 80 Roman Catholic Church, 83 Smudge fires, 93 Romig, Dr. Joseph H., 84 Snare, 33, 73, 95, 96 Roof, construction of, 12, 13, 15, 17, 20| Snowshoe, 36, 38, 89, 97 Roof, cribbed, 18, 20 Snuffbox, 38, 39, 88 gabled, 89 Socks, 47, 88 pitched, 18 Soft drink, 56 Roof beams, 16 Songs, 98, 99, 100 Roof timbers, 10 Spear, 52, 96, 101 Rope, plaited grass, 47 Spike, 66, 93 Royal Baking Powder, 63, 64 Spirits, masks depicting, 98 Royal Ontario Museum, 67 Spode, 52 Russia, influence of, vu, 4, 5, 75, 76,| Spoon, metal, 65, 90 78, 80, 82, 85, 101 Spring pole, 95 Russian-America Company, 3, 5, 79 Spruce, 8, 10, 11, 15, 20, 31, 32, 36, 48, Russian language, 1 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 107 Russian Mission, see Ikogmiut. Spruce root, 32, 98 Russian Orthodox Church, 4, 6, 48, 76, | Squirrel, 71, 87, 88, 95 79, 80, 83, 100 Staffordshire, 54 Steel, plate, tinned, 49, 62 St. Michael, 1, 3, 4, 39, 40, 68, 80, 81,| Steubenville Pottery Company, 54 82, 84 Stone, building, 10, 15 2 Salmon, 8, 89, 94, 95, 96, 100, 107, 109 chipped, 25 Salmonberry, 24, 95 fire cracked, 20, 48 Salmon dart head, 49, 75, 97 greenish, 30 toy, 40 grinding, 93 Salt, 64, 75 ground, 27 Sandstone, 27, 28, 30, 31 worked, 69 San Francisco, Calif., 56 Stoneware, 52 Saucer, 52, 53, 91 Stony River, 3 Saw, metal, 93 Stopper, cork, 56, 57 stone, 26, 29, 94 Story knife, 40, 97 Saw blade, 49, 69 Stove, cast iron, 49, 65, 90 Schist, sandy, 26, 27 Strike-a-light, 66, 79, 98 Scoop, metal, 50 Structure, dome-shaped, 91 Scraper, 26, 30, 97 Sugar, 81 end-hafted skin, 28 Suk dialect, 1 glass, 51, 56, 75, 97 Suspenders, 66, 87 secondary use of, 28 Syrup, 64, 75 side, 26, 97 snub-nosed, 26 Tacket, iron, 67 Seal, 85, 88 Takotna River, 3 Sea mamal, 69 Tanning, 97 Seine, 32 Tar, 67 Serpent, carved, 41, 97 Taral site, 54, 60 Sewing, 47, 48 Tea, 81 136 Teakettle, 65, 82, 90 Teapot, ironstone, 53, 91 Temper, 46 Textiles, 67, 81 Theft, 4 Theodore, Anania, 6, 7, 70 Tin cans, vat 49, ’50, 62, 63, 69, 90, 91, 97, 105 “hole-in-top,” 62, 63 lid of, 64 Tobacco, 4, 39, 75, 78, 81, Tobacco box, 39 Tobacco can, 64 Tobacco grinder, 36 Top, toy, 39, 97, 101 Toy, 43, 97 Trade, 4, 5, 6, 61, 107, 109 Trade goods, vit, 5, 9, 25, 51, 59, 70, 73, 74, 76, 77, "79, 83, 85, 101, 102, 105 Traders, 52, 60, "90, 91 American, iA 78, 102 independent, 6, 81, Russian, 5, 61, 77, 102 Trading post, 5, 52, 77, 84, 101 Russian, 1x, 78 Transfer printed ware, 52, 53, 54 Trapping, 5, 69, Traps, 73 Tray, food, 91 Trousers, 87 Trout, 94 Tunnel, 10, 11, 13, 15, 18, 23 entrance, 11, 20 floor, 11 roof, 11 sidewalls, 11, 20 Turner, Thomas, 53 Twine, 81, 91 Ulu blade, 26, 29, 50, 69, 75, 91 Ulu handle, 33, 44, 93 Umiak, 87 Unalachluck, William, 6 Underwear, 87 United States of America, 4, 81, 82 see also: America, influence of. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 199 U.S. Army, 52, 65, U.S. Commissioner, 7 Urine, 98 VanStone, J. W., vit, 22, 23 Vasil’ev, —, 5, 78 Veniaminov, Father, 80 Vinasale, 73, 78, 81 Wall posts, 20 Wand, 42, 98 Wedge, 33, 44, 66, 93, 95 I eet ean Henry, vi, 6, 81, 2, 84 ? Western Fur & Trading Company, 81 Whalebone, 44, 45, 72, 89, 96 Whetstone, 27, 28, 69, 93 Whitefish, 32, 94, 95, 109 Whitefish Lake, 94 White ware, 52 Whooping cough, 84 Wick, moss, 90 Wild celery, 99 Willow, 8, 91, 94 Willow pattern, 53, 54 Window, 89 cover for, 98 Window glass, 18, 51, 55, 56 Wolf, 87 Wolverine, 87 Wood, 10, 31-45, 97, 98 shavings of, 98 Woodworking, 33 World War I, 56 Yuk, 1, 68, 69 Yukon-Kuskokwim region, 47 Yukon Line-Dot, 45 Yukon River, 1, 2, 3, 4, 39, 80, 85 Yupik, 1, 2, 3, 5, 85 Zagoskin, Lavrentij A., vi, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 70, 73, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 103 O Pi ‘ ha oe, ee 3 9088 01421 9505