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RICULTURAL

STATION
N. H.

Bulletin 242

May, 1929

NEW HAMPSHIRE
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

The Energy and the Protein Content

of Foods Regularly Eaten in

a College Community

By FRANCIS G. BENEDICT
and A. GERTRUDE FARR

UNIVERSITY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE
DURHAM, N. H.

The Energy and the Protein Content of Foods
Regularly Eaten in a College Community

By Francis G, Benedict, Director of the Nutrition Laboratory of the

Carnegie Institution of Washington, Boston, Massachusetts,

and A. Gertrude Farr, Research Assistant in

Nutrition, New Hampshire Agricultural

Experiment Station

INTRODUCTION

The present-day tendency in matters of diet is to stress the vita-
mines and minerals, and yet our main need for food is to secure
energy, since energy or heat is just as necessary to run the human
machine as it is to run any prime motor. The caloric value to the
body of a food depends (1) upon the potential energy in the food as
eaten, i. e., upon its heat of combustion; (2) upon the energy leaving
the body in the form of undigested matter in feces and urine; and
(3) upon the energy used by the body in digesting and assimilating
the food, i. e., the "cost of digestion." Although the second and the
third of these factors will vary somewhat according to the character
of the food eaten, the second is relatively so constant with humans
(about 8 per cent of the total potential energy) and the third is so
small (on the average about 6 per cent) that they may be neglected
in this discussion and we may concentrate our attention upon the
first factor, the heat of combustion, considering this as representative
of the food's caloric value.

To determine the heat of combustion has required, in the past, an
expensive apparatus, manipulated with difficulty, the so-called "bomb
calorimeter." The technique of this complicated machine, which gives
extraordinarily accurate results, has been mastered by relatively few
chemists and physicists. Calculation of the results also is usually
a complicated procedure. Chemical analyses of the amounts of pro-
tein, fat, and carbohydrate in a food and calculation of the total heat
of combustion from the known average heats of combustion of these
three main nutrients are another means of determining the energy in
food. But chemical analyses are even more time-consuming and
costly than are direct determinations with the calorimetric bomb.

From comparisons of the heat of combustion of various foods, as
directly determined by the bomb calorimeter, and the measured car-
hon-dioxide production during such combustion it is now known that
the caloric value of a liter of carbon dioxide, although constant for
any one group of nutrients, may vary with the different groups as
much as 30 per cent (the extremes being 5.04 calories per liter with
cane sugar and 6.64 calories with animal fat).l The relationship be-
tween the oxygen absorbed during a combustion and the heat liberated
is, however, much closer, there being a maximum difference of but 6
per cent between the caloric value of a liter of oxygen absorbed in
the combustion of cane sugar (5.04 calories) and that during the
combustion of animal fat (4.72 calories). Since our food is a mix-

(1) The caloric value of protein Is not considered in this comparison,
since the protein metabolism plays but a relatively small role in the entire

human metabolism.

6 NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

ture of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, we could assume an average
value of 4.825 calories for each liter of oxygen required in the com-
bustion of a mixed food and compute the energy value of the food
from the measured oxygen with an error of hardly plus or minus 3
per cent. Measurement of the carbon-dioxde production has been
relatively simple, but until recently measurement of the volume of
oxygen consumed has been accomplished only under the most difficult
conditions. The progress in the development of respiration apparatus
has, however, been such that today it is actually less difficult to
measure the oxygen absorbed during a combustion than to measure
the carbon dioxide produced. The simpler technique for de-
termination of the heat of combustion of foods, therefore, requires at
the present day not the use of the complicated bomb calorimeter, not
the complex calculations from chemical analyses, but the direct
measurement of, the volume of oxygen consumed per gram of food
substance burned, and the multiplication of this volume by the
known caloric value of a liter of oxygen, according to the character
of the substance burned.

PLAN OF RESEARCH

Based upon this simpler technique for the determination of the
energy values of foods, a cooperative research i was undertaken by
the Nutrition Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
in Boston, Massachusetts, and by the New Hampshire Agricultural
Experiment Station at Durham, New Hampshire. The object of this
research has been to secure data regarding the energy and the pro-
tein content (1) of several individual foods, such as breads, pastry,
soups, sandwiches, salads, desserts, ice creams, and candies; (2) of
the total meal, — breakfast, dinner and supper; and (3) of the total
food consumed per day by an individual.

The samples of food analyzed were for the most part secured
either in Boston or in Durham. Three types of eating places are rep-
resented:— (1) the commercial restaurant where it is the custom to
serve supposedly "standardized" meals for a fixed price, particularly
at noon; (2) the college cafeteria where the meals are combinations of
various portions or servings of food according to the choice of the
individual; and (3) the drugstore where sandwiches and ice-cream
mixtures may be obtained. At the college cafeteria no attempt was
made to secure necessarily the most economical food combinations,
but the basis of selection was the choice of the operator or the dupli-
cation of the choice of the individual immediately preceding the
operator in line.

(1) During the first year of this research Miss Mary E. A. Pillsbury
cooperated with us in making these food analyses. We wish to express here
our deep appreciation of her able assistance.

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY 7

A large number of calories are obtained each day by college stu-
dents and by other individuals in "extra foods," such as candies and
ice cream, taken apart from the regular meals. 1 Some of these
foods are highly standardized, particularly the candies wrapped in
packages and sold for five or ten cents. Because of the wide use of
these extra foods, our study also included as comprehensive analyses
of them as possible.

The foods analyzed are characteristic of those eaten by many
individuals other than college students; for in American urban life
the old-fashioned kitchen is being superseded by the modern kitchen-
ette, the cafeteria, and the quick lunch, and the use of delicatessen
and drug-store foods and the so-called "extra foods" is now wide-
spread. The results of our research, therefore, although secured in
essentially one locality, are believed to be representative of the
•energy values of many of the present-day, somewhat standardized
foods, regardless of locality.

APPARATUS USED IN THIS RESEARCH

The apparatus which we have used for measurement of the
oxygen consumption during food combustions is called the "oxy-
calorimeter." It has already been described elsewhere in detail, 2
but inasmuch as it was first put to practical and extensive use in this
particular research, we will give here a brief outline of its general
principle and an account of such modifications in the technique as
have seemed desirable since the publication of the detailed description.

The principle of the oxy-calorimeter is based upon the fact that
dry organic material burns freely in an atmosphere of pure or
nearly pure oxygen at oi'dinary atmospheric pressure, provided the
chief product of combustion (carbon dioxide) is removed rapidly and
the flame is fed with air relatively rich in oxygen. The oxy-calori-
meter (See Fig. 1) consists of a small combustion chamber, A, a heat-
resistant glass (pyrex) lamp chimney with its lower end in a water
seal. A current of oxygen-rich air enters this combustion chamber at
the top, leaves at the bottom, and passes through two bottles, B, B,
containing soda-lime where the carbon dioxide produced by the com-
bustion is completely absorbed. The air then enters a small rotary
(suction) blower, C, from which it is discharged into the top of the
chamber, thus making a complete circuit. A delicately counterpoised
spirometer, D, is connected to the pipe leading from the blower to

(1) See Benedict, C. G., and P. G. Benedict, Boston Med. and Surg.
Journ., 1918, 179, p. 153; ibid., 1919, 181, p. 415; ibid., 1921, 184, p. 436.

(2) Benedict, F. G., and B. L. Fox, Indus, and Eng. Chem., 1925, 17, p.
912; Benedict, F. G., and E. L. Fox, Journ. Biol. Chem., 1925, 66, p. 783;
Benedict, F. G., Abderhalden's Handb. d. biolog. Arbeitsmethoden. Abt. IV,
Teil 13, 1929, p. 51.

8 NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

the top of the lamp chimney. In the process of combustion there
is considerable absorption of oxygen, and the air inside the circulat-
ing system of chimney, bottles and blower decreases in volume. This
decrease is compensated by a discharge of oxygen from the spiro-
meter into the main air current, and the ultimate effect is a fall in
the level of the spirometer bell. This fall (read on a millimeter scale
attached to the spirometer) serves as a measure of the volume of
oxygen consumed.

Fig. 1. The oxy-calorhneter for deterviiniiig the energy values
of foods and feces.

A, combustion chamber. B, soda-lime bottles for absorption of
carbon dioxide. C, blower to circulate air current. D, spirometer
to measure the volume of oxygen used.

The use of two soda-lime bottles permits complete exhaustion of
the reagent in the first bottle. When this is exhausted, the second
bottle (i. e., nearest the blower) is substituted for the first; and an-
other bottle, containing a fresh supply of soda-lime, is placed next
to the blower. The small bottle shown in Fig. 1 directly in front
of one of the soda-lime bottles serves as a safety trap during tlie
introduction into the spirometer of oxygen from the cylinder of the
compressed gas.

The actual combustion of a food sample in the oxy-calorimeter
is carried out as follows:

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY 9

A weighed amount of the food (approximately two grams),
which has previously been brought to an air-dry condition (See
page 11), is placed loosely in a small nickel crucible, and the crucible
is placed inside the combustion chamber, supported by three small
metal prongs in the base of the chamber. A fine iron wire is at-
tached to two insulated, vertical posts either side of the crucible,
and the central part of this wire rests upon the food sample. The
glass lamp chimney is placed over the crucible, the apparatus is
filled with oxygen, the motor is started, and the position and tempera-
ture of the spirometer bell are recorded. A current of electricity is
passed through the iron wire, which is immediately raised to in-
candescence, and the food is ignited. Since the air in the combustion
chamber is highly enriched with oxygen, i the combustion takes place
rapidly and completely. At the end of the combustion, the lamp
chimney is cooled with a damp cloth, and the final readings of the
position and temperature of the spirometer bell are taken.

Standardization tests. The initial work with the oxy-calorimeter
was controlled by direct combustions with a standardized bomb calori-
meter. Pure organic substances, which burn readily, such as cane
sugar, benzoic acid, and salicylic acid, were selected for this purpose.
The volume of oxygen required in the combustion of a gram of each
of these substances was determined with the oxy-calorimeter, and
the actual amount of heat liberated per gram was found with the
bomb calorimeter. Thus the caloric value of oxygen (that is, the
calories per liter of oxygen required to burn the substance) was di-
rectly established and found to agree with theory. In addition to
these initial tests, the accuracy of the instrument was frequently con-
trolled during its use in this particular research by burning in it a
substance of known chemical composition, such as pure sugar. From
the chemical equation C-^Jl^.,0-^^-\-12 Og = 12 COj-j-ll H^O it can
be computed that each gram of cane sugar requires in its
combustion 785.5 c. c. of oxygen at standard conditions of tempera-
ture and pressure. In a series of combustions of cane sugar
made with the oxy-calorimeter at the beginning of this research it
was found that the apparatus recorded on the average a consumption
of 776.8 c. c. of oxygen per gram of cane sugar or 98.88 per cent of
theory.- The results of other combustions of cane sugar made during
the progress of the research, corrected by this amount, have shown
astonishingly close agreement with the theoretical value. An addi-
tive correction of 1.12 per cent was, therefore, made in all the values
for heats of combustion obtained with this apparatus.

(1) The oxygen which we have used in this apparatus is that commonly
furnished in cylinders for ordinary acetylene welding- or cutting of steel by
modern methods.

(2; See note 2, page 12.

10 NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

Nitrogen determinations. During the combustion of nitrogenous
substances there is a liberation of pure nitrogen. This nitrogen ac-
cumulates in the closed system and obviously affects the apparent
decrease in volume of the oxygen in the spirometer, since each cubic
centimeter of nitrogen liberated takes the place of a cubic centimeter
of oxygen which would otherwise pass from the spirometer into the
air current. Thus the apparent contraction in volume due to the
absorption of oxygen is too low and a correction is necessary. This
correction is arrived at by determining the nitrogen in the substance
to be burned. It is usually desirable to know the protein content of
a food as well as the caloric value. Hence total nitrogen determina-
tions by the Kjeldahl method have been included in our assessment of
food values. These determinations not only indicate the amount of
protein in the food but make it possible to correct the oxygen measure-
ment obtained with the oxy-calorimeter. Pure nitrogenous sub-
stances, such as urea, hippuric acid and uric acid, were burned in the
oxy-calorimeter, and the accuracy of the correction for nitrogen was
thoroughly established.

Adaptability and accuracy of the apparatus. The adaptability
of the oxy-calorimeter for studying problems in nutrition, especially
with humans, is evidenced by the fact that the combustion chamber
can be applied to almost all of the respiration apparatus used at the
present day for determining basal metabolism. Tests made at the
Nutrition Laboratory with practically all of the various types of
respiration apparatus show that the combustion chamber is as well
adapted to any of them as to the particular type used in our experi-
ments.

With the ordinary food mixtures eaten by man and animals, and
particularly with excreta, the difficulty of securing a truly character-
istic sample is so great that the accuracy of the oxy-calorimeter is
far inside of any possible limit of accuracy which could be expected
in the sampling. Indeed, the oxy-calorimeter has been recommended
for determining the energy value of industrial fuels, coals, and fuel
oil,i which for economic reasons require extremely close determina-
tions.

PREPARATION OF SAMPLE FOR COMBUSTION

Practically all of the foods eaten by man are too moist to burn
readily without previous preparation. All foods except candies, dry
cereals, crackers and the like must, therefore, be dried until they con-
tain not more than 20 per cent and usually nearer 10 per cent of
moisture. For this purpose the fresh food is accurately weighed in

(1) Benedict, F. G., and E. L. Fox, Indus, and Eng. Chem., 1925, 17, p.
912.

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY 11

a previously weighed dish or pan.i The pan and contents are then
placed either in an ordinary "air-bath" or in an electrically heated
oven. It so happened that throughout most of this research an elec-
tric oven was used having four heating units, which made it possible
to adjust the temperature at from 50° to 80° or 90° C. The many
shelves in the oven permitted changing positions of the dishes, so
that the samples were dried rapidly and in sequence. The drying
usually requires from 24 to 96 hours, depending upon the water con-
tent and, to a certain extent, upon the fat content of the sample.
Frequent stirring, especially of watery and fatty food, either with a
glass rod (weighed with the pan) or with a knife which can be
scraped clean upon the side of the pan, is necessary, since the top
of the sample sometimes dries and forms a hard crust, while the
bottom remains moist and is apt to mold, unless thoroughly dried.

When the sample has reached a seeming dryness, the pan is taken
from the oven, placed on a shelf in the laboratory, and left for a day
or two so that the dried and thoroughly stiiTed sample may adjust
itself to the humidity of the air. The pan with its contents is then
weighed again, and the difference between this weight and the initial
weight of the empty pan represents the air-dry weight of the sub-
stance. The sample is now dry enough to burn, but may need to be
put, first, through a grinder or chopping machine. Two or two and
one-half grams of the air-dry, ground substance are weighed into
each crucible, ready for combustion. This amount permits good
sampling without too great comminution.

Samples of salads which cannot be made homogeneous by mixing,
because of the large amount of oil in the mayonnaise, may be dried
with known weights of bread or cracker meal of known caloric value,
or a small amount of powdered pumice stone may be added to the
sample. Powdered pumice stone may also be mixed with or spread on
top of carbohydrates before burning, to keep them from frothing over
the edge of the crucible, but this, we find, is not necessary with
small samples of cane sugar. During the burning of some sub-
stances, such as salads, sandwiches, or doughnuts, soot will be de-
posited on the chimney or unburned carbon will be left in the cru-
cible, if the combustion is not regulated. Pumice stone mixed with
the sample after weighing will retard the combustion so that the
flame does not touch the chimney, but the oil or fat is apt to soak
through the pumice stone to the bottom of the crucible and not burn.
To avoid this, the food sample arid the pumice stone may be mixed
with a glass stirring rod and the mixture allowed to remain in a lump

(1) In the case of the meals incUiding more than one food, the servings
were added one at a time to the pan and the pan and contents weighed
after each addition, each gain in weight representing tlie fresh weight of
the particular item added to the pan.

12 NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

around the rod, standing up in the center of the crucible. This makes
it possible for the oxygen-rich air to come in contact with all of the
sample. More satisfactory and consistent results can be obtained by
regulating the rate of circulation in the closed system of the oxy-
calorimeter with an external resistance governing the speed of the
motor.

Feces were not analyzed in this research. The feces of both hu-
mans and animals were, however, studied in the original development
of the apparatus 1 and require no different preparation for combus-
tion from that described here for foods.

CALCULATION OF RESULTS

The volume of oxygen (reduced to 0° C, dry, and 760 mm. pres-
sure) consumed in the combustion of one gram of an air-dry food is
calculated by the formula:

LxKxFxM

V=

W

in which V is the reduced volume of oxygen per gram of air-dry
matter, expressed in cubic centimeters; W is the air-dry weight of
the substance in grams; L is the change in level of the spirometer
bell, expressed in millimeters; K is the apparent volume of the bell
in cubic centimeters per millimeter of its length (in our particular
apparatus 20.80 c. c.) ; F is the constant correction factors 1.0112
which was obtained by the standardization tests with cane sugar
(see page 9); and M is the factor for reduction of the apparent
volume to standard conditions of 0° C, dry, and 760 mm. pressiire.
This last factor, M, is based upon the prevailing barometric pressure
and the average temperature of the spirometer. The value of M is
found by reference to the standard tables published by Carpenter, 3
the air in the apparatus being considered completely saturated.

The analysis of a chicken sandwich may be used as a : typical
illustration of the method of calculation. When 2.55 grams of the
air-dry material were burned, it was found that L, the change in
level of the spirometer bell, was 149 mm. Since the average tempera-
ture of the spirometer was 25.8° C. and the barometric pressure
was 762 mm., the value of M is 0.886. The formula then becomes

(1) Benedict, F. G., and E. L. Fox, Indus, and Eng. Chem., 1925, 17, p.
912; ibid., Journ. Biol. Chem., 1925, 66, p. 783.

(2) In the initial work with the oxy-calorimeter, corrections were made
for the 5 c. c. of oxygen required for the ignition of the iron wire and for
the slight rise in temperature of the spirometer. These corrections are
eliminated by the use of the factor F.

(3) Carpenter, T. M., Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 303A, 1924, tables 7
and 8, pp. 39 to 70. The barometric pressure in millimeters, as recorded
across the top of these tables, represents the barometric reading corrected
for brass scale reading only and not for tension of aqueous vapor. The cor-
rection for tension of aqueous vapor is taken care of in the logarithms given
in the body of the tables.

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY 13

_ 149 X 20.80 X 1.0112 x 0.886

-= 1089 c. c. 0.

2.55

Another analysis gave a value of 1097 c. c. of oxygen, the average
reduced volume therefore being 1093 c. c.

This reduced volume of oxygen consumed per gram of air-dry
sandwich burned must be corrected for the amount of nitrogen liber-
ated per gram of air-dry sandwich during the combustion. The
Kjeldahl analyses indicated that the air-dry sandwich contained on
the average 2.52 per cent of nitrogen. Since one milligram of nitro-
gen occupies 0.8 c. c. under standard conditions of temperature and
pressure, the total volume of nitrogen liberated in the combustion of
one gram of air-dry chicken sandwich was 20 c. c. Therefore, the
average reduced volume of oxygen per gram of air-dry substance,
1093 c. c, should be increased by 20 c. c, and the total is thus 1113
c. c. or 1.113 liters. Multiplication of this value by 4.825,1 the caloric
value of a liter of oxygen when mixed foods are burned, gives 5.4
calories per gram of air-dry matter. Since the air-dry weight of
the total sandwich was 37 grams, the total energy content of the sand-
wich is 200 calories and the total protein content (assuming one
gram of nitrogen equals 6.25 grams of protein) is 5.8 grams.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Tabulation of data. The actual determinations made were the
fresh weight, the air-dry weight, the nitrogen content, and the oxy-
gen required during the combustion of the air-dry food. The results
of these determinations are summarized in the following tables, includ-
ing calculations of the total energy and the total protein in the food
per serving or per unit as sold, and the calories per gram of air-dry
matter. In addition, in order to study the economic value of the
different foods, the cost of each food unit and the calories and protein
which may be purchased for 10 cents are also given in most instances.
The prices listed are those current during 1927 and 1928. Numbers
were assigned to the food samples in the chronological order in which
they were analyzed. Thus, the time intervening between the analysis
of sample No. 1 and the last sample. No. 477, is two years; and the
time elapsing between repeated analyses of the same kind of food is,
therefore, roughly indicated by the sample numbers.

BREADS AND MUFFINS

Since innumerable analyses of the various kinds of bread have
already been made, our study of this type of food was limited to
analyses of individual slices or single rolls or muffins, with the object

(1) In the case of samples which were decidedly greasy the factor 4.7
has been used.

14

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May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY

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of determining how many calories are furnished per portion as
ordinarily served. The data are given in Table 1. The butter served
with the bread was not included in the sample analyzed, except in
the case of the buttered toast. With this exception, therefore, the
values given in the table for the total energy and the total protein
content represent the bread or muffins alone, without the butter. In
calculating the calories and the protein for ten cents, however, as-
sumptions have been made for the food value of the butter, based
upon the average servings of butter given at the various places where
food samples were purchased. (See Table 16, page 38.) Because of
the assumptions made for the butter, the calories for ten cents are
recorded only to the nearest 5 calories.

The energy content per gram of air-dry matter averages 4.1
calories with the sliced bread, the rolls, and the unbuttered toast,
a value identical with the average caloric value of pure carbohydrates.
The average factors for the muffins and the buttered toast are some-
what greater, 4.7 and 4.9 calories, respectively, indicating the pres-
ence of more fat.

Since some of the restaurants charged five and some ten cents for
an order of bread (or muffins) and butter, the calories for ten cents
vary from 140 (sample 84, sliced bread) to 1070 (sample 34, corn-
meal muffin). In most instances, however, at least 400 or 500 calories
may be secured in this form for ten cents. The protein for ten cents
likewise has a wide range, from 2.9 to 30.6 gm., amounting in general
to at least 7 or 8 gm.

DOUGHNUTS, COOKIES AND CAKES

The data for doughnuts, cookies, and cakes are given in Table 2.
The plain doughnuts average 38 grams (fresh weight) and have an
average total energy value of 172 calories each. The calories per
gram of air-dry matter are notably high, 5.6 on the average, owing
to the fat in the doughnut. The results for the chocolate doughnut
are much the same. More variation is shown with the fried cakes.
In general, doughnuts and fried cakes contain about 180 or 200 cal-
ories per piece and approximately 2 grams of protein. The caloric value
per gram of air-dry matter with the cookies and the cup cakes indi-
dicate that they contain a minimum amount of fat. The energy
value for 10 cents of these sweetened breads averages nearly 700
calories, or more than twice as much as that of buttered toast and
more than that of most of the orders of muffins. The protein for
ten cents ranges from 4.2 to 11.5 gm., a smaller range than noted with
the bread and muffins.

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY

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SANDWICHES

A general survey of sandwiches is given in Table 3. The caloric
value per gram of air-dry material is relatively high, in practically
all cases 5 or over and in one instance 6. Proximate analyses were
not made, hence the proportion of fat is not known. But the fact
that the highest heat of combustion per gram of air-dry material
was found in a peanut-butter sandwich instantly suggests that the
large proportion of oil in the sandwich must have accounted for this
value. The protein content varies considerably, the highest being
found in the peanut-butter, ham, and tuna salad sandwiches. The
average value is not far from 5 to 6 grams in the other sandwiches.
In general one obtains in the ordinary sandwich about 200 calories
and from 5 to 10 gm. of protein for 10 cents. The differences in the
duplicate sandwiches purchased at different places show that the
sandwich is only approximately standardized.

PACKAGE SANDWICHES AND COOKIES

In recent years manufacturers have sold in small packages,
usually at 5 cents per package, so-called "sandwiches," which con-
sist of two crackers with various fillings. These vary in size, weight
and composition with the different manufacturers, and the calories
per gram of air-dry matter differ according to the fat content, as
seen in Table 4. On the average one of these 5-cent packages con-
tains nearly 200 calories, or as much energy as is contained in the
average 10-cent sandwich.

SALADS

In our study of salads two procedures were followed. At the
college cafeteria (A) it is the practice to serve salads without bread
or butter, an extra charge being made for these food items. Our
samples obtained at this cafeteria were therefore analyzed without
rolls and butter, and the results of each analysis are for the salad
alone. These data are given in Table 5. Included in this table like-
wise are the analyses of three salads obtained from Restaurant B,
which were analyzed without the rolls and butter (although these
were a part of the serving), and an analysis of a salad purchased at
Restaurant Y.

Restaurants B, C and D in this college community are accustomed
to include bread or rolls and butter in their servings of salad, — bread
at noon and rolls at night. A number of salads from these restaurants
were analyzed, each analysis including the bread or rolls but not the
butter. The results are recorded in Table 6, the values for the
salad and rolls being based upon actual combustions and those for

20

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May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY 23

rolls alone and the salad alone being estimations. In every instance
in Table 6 the weight of the rolls or bread served with the salad was
determined separately from the weight of the salad. The column for
calories for ten cents is the only one in which the food value of
butter (See page 38) is taken into consideration, and here the results
are recorded to the nearest 5 calories, because it is believed that the
estimations for the butter do not justify reporting the results more
closely.

The energy value of the rolls served with the salads purchased
at Restaurant B is found from the data for fresh weight, total calories
and total protein per portion in Table 1 (page 14) to be 3.1 calories
per gram of fresh weight and the protein content 8.5 per cent (aver-
age values for Samples 29 and 75 in Table 1). The rolls served with
the salads purchased at Restaurants C and D were considered to
have an energy value of 2.9 calories per gram of fresh weight and
a protein content of 8.8 per cent (average values for all the white
rolls listed in Table 1). The bread (Sample 84) served with Salad
No. 322 contained 2.9 calories per gram of fresh weight and 10 per
cent protein. It is believed that these values may be used in general
in estimating the calories from the fresh weight of rolls and bread.

Comparison of the fresh and the air-dry weights of the salads
alone shows that there is a tremendous loss in drying, in some in-
stances nearly 82 per cent. The total energy content and the total
protein content of the salads (without rolls) vary widely, as would
be expected from the variations in sizes of serving and the great
difference in composition. In five out of ten instances the rolls (not
including the butter) furnished as much or somewhat more energy
(See Table 6) than the salad itself. The data for Salad 322, served
with sliced bread rather than rolls, suggest that one can obtain nearly
150 calories more for the same price when rolls are included with the
salad than when slices of bread are included.

Samples 380A and 38pB (Table 6) give a good illustration of the
variations which may be expected in the servings of the same salad.
These two salads wei'e identical in composition, and an order of rolls
was served with each. The fresh weights of the rolls were only
slightly different and the fresh weights of the salads were practically
the same; yet Sample 380B contains 12 per cent more energy than
Sample 380A on the basis of salad plus rolls and 15 per cent more
energy in the salad alone. The same comparison holds true with
regard to the protein content of the two samples.

The energy per gram of air-dry matter in the salads alone
(Table 5) varies from 3.7 to 4.7 calories in six instances and from
6.0 to 7.5 in five other instances. High values were expected in

24 NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

Samples 51 and 37, as they were unusually greasy. The high results
obtained with Samples 52 and 94 may be explained by the fact that
these salads consisted for the most part of materials containing
chiefly water (asparagus and lettuce), and the air-dry matter repre-
sents a larger proportion of oil (in the mayonnaise and the oil-
drenched sardine) than does that in any of the other salads. The
salads made with boiled dressing, on the other hand, have a low
energy value per gram of air-dry matter because there is no salad
oil in the dressing. This factor for the salads analyzed with rolls
varies from 4.1 to 6.1 calories.

The calories for 10 cents in the salads alone range from 75 to
226. As a source of energy, therefore, the salad is somewhat more
costly than the average sandwich and decidedly more costly than
bread, package sandwiches, and sweetened breads.

SOUPS AND MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS

There are innumerable miscellaneous foods which at times form
a part of the diet but which cannot be classified under any one specific
head. Results of analyses of a number of such foods, together with
a few analyses of canned soups, are summarized in Table 7. Here
again the calories per gram of air-dry matter vary according to the
proportions of protein, carbohydrate, and fat in the foods.

The average energy value of the condensed soups is 3.8 calories
per gram of air-dry matter, indicating that they are in large part
composed of carbohydrate with possibly a small amount of fat. The
creapi of celery soup (No. 405), on the contrary, has an energy value
of 5.7 calories per gram, or much higher than the value for carbo-
hydrates. This high value is difficult to explain, except that the
cream used may have contained considerable butter fat. The air-dry
sample of this soup appeared somewhat greasy, but there was no
visible fat. On the other hand, the cream of tomato soup (No. 402)
appeared very greasy, although the calories per gram of air-dry
matter are lower than those in No. 405. The air-dry sample of cream
of tomato soup probably retained more moisture than did the cream
of celery soup. In general, a sample of food presenting a greasy ap-
pearance or containing visible fat will be found to have a higlier
caloric value per gram of air-dry matter than one which does not
appear greasy. But the presence of considerable moisture in the
air-dry sample will tend to lower what would otherwise be a high
caloric value.

The energy and the protein content of the soups per ten cents
vary considerably, and in this respect there seems to be little ad-
vantage in purchasing the cream soups in preference to the con-
densed soups. The vegetable-beef soup contains the greatest amount

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY

25

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26

NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

of protein for 10 cents, the pea soup the next largest amount, and the
cream of celery soup the smallest amount. Evidently the flavor of
the cream soups adds to their expense. It is commonly recommended
that one can of soup be used to serve four people. The energy ob-
tained in one-fourth of one of these cans would be such that the in-
dividual would receive hardly 60 calories. Hence a serving of soup,
eaten without crackers or bread, is of almost negligible caloric value.
Examination of the data for the miscellaneous foods shows that
the chop suey is an expensive dish, having a low protein and energy
content for ten cents. Salted peanuts, on the other hand, have a high
food value for ten cents. In fact, they furnish more grams of pro-
tein for this sum than any other food analyzed in this survey except
the white roll (Sample 17, Table 1). Two of the cheese products
(Nos. 368 and 369) are also economical sources of protein.

DESSERTS

Pie. Analyses of several samples of pie purchased in different
restaurants in Durham are reported in Table 8. Owing to the large
proportion of carbohydrate and the minimum amount of fat present,
the energy value per gram of air-dry matter in these pies is for the
most part close to 4.5 calories. Each piece of pie furnished from 3
to 8 grams of protein and from 300 to 600 calories for ten cents.

Table 8. Pies*.

No.

Name

Res-
taurant

Weight of
piece of pie

Protein

Fresh

Air-
dry

Total
per
piece

Calories

Total
per
piece

Per gm.

air-dry

matter

88B

90
107
115
424

40
108

89
112

88A
111
113
110

41
114
423
109

95
425

Apple

Apple

Apple

Apple

Apple

Apricot

Cocoanut cream
Cocoanut custard

Fig

Lemon

Mince

Mince

Mock Cherry . . . .

Pineapple

Pineapple

Pineapple

Prune

Pumpkin

Raisin

Minimum

Maximum . . . .
AVERAGE

gm.

gm.

gm.

c

139

87

3.1

392

B

168

80

3.6

382

D

133

8]

3.2

364

H

179

87

3.6

384

A

168

100

4.4

494

A

119

74

4.0

346

D

147

85

6.3

410

B

147

68

7.7

357

H

189

161

4.1

620

c

159

77

4.3

309

B

156

110

7.1

501

H

180

120

4.6

480 ;

B

153

126

4.4

520

A

105

65

2.9

294

H

171

101

3.9

428

A

182

121

6.0

571

c

135

95

3.8

390

A

158

69

6.3

331

A

174

102

5.0

495

105

65

2.9

29i

189

161

7.7

620

4.5
4.8
4.5
4.4
4.9
4.7
4.8
5.2
3.9
4.0
4.6
4.0
4.1
4.5
4.2
4.7
4.1
4.8
4.9

S.9
5.2
4.5

» Average values for one piece of pie, costing 10 cents ; from 2 to 4 pieces of
pie used in each instance to obtain sample for combustion.

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY

27

Miscellaneous desserts. Oui* survey took into consideration
only seven of the innumerable miscellaneous desserts (see Table 9).
The calories per gram of air-dry matter are highest in the whipped
cream cake, owing to its fat content, but with the other desserts
average 4.3, not far from the caloric value of carbohydrate. The pro-
tein content per ten cents is low. The energy content per ten cents
varies from 131 to 592 calories.

Table 9. Desserts.

Name

Weight of
serving

Protein Calories

No.*

Fresh

Air-diy

Total

per

serving*

Total
per
serving*

Per gm.
air-dry
matter

38

434

39

118

106

62

32

Apple, baked!

Apple, bakedj

Bread pudding,

cocoanutt

Cake, orange

Cake, whipped cream§

Custard, peach£

Fruit jellyt

gm.
209
120

131

81

87

150

222

gm.
57
29

60
67
61
50
56

0.6
1.0

6.7
3.6
4.3
3.4
5.6

232
131

287
296
375
234
199

4.1
4.5

4.8
4.4
6.1
4.6
3.5

* Sample 118 cost 5 cents, all the others 10 cents each.

t Served with whipped cream.

t Flavored with cinnamon and sugar; served with 1% tbsp. thin cream.

§ Cake, whipped cream, chopped nuts.

£ Soft custard, sliced peaches, whipped cream.

ICE CREAM AND SHERBETS

Probably the most popular dessert in the United States is ice
cream. It is sold in a great variety of flavors, is easily eaten, and
has a high energy value in concentrated form. Table 10 shows the
energy and the protein content of two types of ice cream, those made
by the university dairy (indicated in Table 10 as manufacturer A)
and those made for commercial trade (sold by manufacturers B, C,
D, and E). In addition, four analyses of sherbets are reported. The
State of New Hampshire requires the fat content of plain ice creams
(without fruit or nuts) to be 14 per cent and that of fruit and nut
ice creams 12 per cent, but analyses made at the college creamery
show that the university ice creams contain 15 per cent of fat.

The half-pint servings of ice cream average about 200 grams
in weight (fresh) and the total energy content is high, averaging not
far from 500 calories. The total protein content is about 7 grams
per half pint. The calories per gram of air-dry matter are high, in
several instances 6.0 or over and in no instance under 5.0. On the
average for all the ice creams this factor is 5.6.

28

NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

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29

With the sherbets the energy content per gram of air-dry matter
is low, averaging 3.6 calories. The total caloric content per half pint
is also low, nearer 330 calories than 500 calories, as found with the
ice creams. The protein content is likewise lower than that of the
ice creams.

The average energy content of ice cream per ten cents (purchased
by the half pint) is 330 calories, that of sherbets 220 calories. Econo-
mically, therefore, ice cream has about the same food value as many
of the servings of pie and some of the package sandwiches and has
a higher food value than the salads and sandwiches but not so high
as that of bread and doughnuts.

For practical purposes, since ice cream is such a universal dessert
or extra indulgence, we have computed the caloric content per gram
of fresh weight. These results are immediately applicable to the
fresh weight of the ice cream eaten, and the total energy value of a
serving of ice cream or sherbet may thus be easily estimated with a
fair degree of accuracy.

On three different days one 5-cent and one 10-cent ice cream
cone were purchased at the college creamery (manufacturer A). The
ice cream and the cones were weighed separately, and the food values
of the ice cream alone and of the cone alone were calculated, based
upon the analyses of ice creams from manufacturer A given in Table

Table 11. Ice Cream Cones.

Ice cream

Ice cream
plus cone

For 10 cents

Kind

Fresh
weight

Total
calories

Total

calories

Total
protein

Protein

Calories

5-cent cone*

Chocolate

Vanilla

Vanilla

gm.
78
65
71

i

195 219
163 187
178 202

gm.
3.9
3.1
3.3

gm.

...

Average

10-cent cone

Chocolate

Vanilla

Vanilla ...

71

131
107
119

179

328
268
298

203 1 3.4

352 5.9
292 4.5
322 4.9

6.8

406

Average

Half-pint ice creamt

119
213

298 ! 322 5.1
523 ... 7.2

5.1
4.8

322
349

* Average weight of cone without ice cream, 6 gm. ; energy value 4.0 cal. per
gram; protein content 16.6 per cent. (Rose, M. S., Laboratory handbook for diete-
tics. New York, 3d ed.. 1929, p. 172).

7 Average values for 19 half-pint portions of ice cream, all flavors, purchased
for 15 cents of manufacturer A (see Table 10).

30

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31

10 and upon the analyses of ice cream cones previously published by
Rose.i The results are reported in Table 11. In general, only 59
per cent more energy is served in the 10-cent cone than in the 5-cent
cone. In three 5-cent cones one would obtain on the average the
same fresh weight of ice cream as in one half-pint box costing 15
cents but the average total calories in the three 5-cent cones would
be somewhat greater than the average total calories in the 15-cent
servings of ice cream, probably due to the energy value of the cones.
Comparisons of the protein and the calories for ten cents show the
highest values in the case of the 5-cent cone.

SUNDAES

In recent years ice cream covered with various sauces and fre-
quently also with chopped nuts has had a great vogue under the
special name of "Sundae." These almost invariably cost fifteen
cents. A number were analyzed, and the results are given in Table
12. The energy value of the sundaes per gram of air-dry matter is
lower than that of ice cream alone, averaging 4.8 calories. The
total protein content is also lower in most instances, even with the
sundaes containing nuts. The energy value per ten cents is about
250 calories or nearly 100 calories less than in the ice creams.

MILK SHAKES

The analyses of three special milk beverages, the so-called "milk
shakes," are listed in Table 13. These did not contain ice cream.
The banana premulger consisted of one whole, fresh banana whipped
up in milk. The two chocolate milk shakes were made of cocoa
syrup and milk, the volume of each being one pint. In the chocolate
milk shakes the total energy content is from 450 to 500 calories and
the protein content from 14 to 15 grams. Hence the chocolate milk
shake sold at ten cents per pint is an inexpensive food.

Table 13. MUk Shakes.

2Sro.

Name

M'n'fr.

Cost

Weight

Pro-
tein

Calories

Fresh

Air-
dry

Total

Total

Per
gm.
air-dry
matter

For
10c

430 Banana Premulger
■

137 Chocolate mUk .

391 Chocolate milk .

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cents
15

gm.

228

em.
61

gm.

4.3

252

4.2

A

10

506

93

14.3

448

4.8

A

10

506

100

15.4

497

5.0

168
448

497

(1) Rose, M. S., A Laboratory handbook for dietetics, New York, 3d ed.,
1929, p. 172.

32

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NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

CANDY

All youth, particularly American youth, may be said to be ad-
dicted to candy, and the consumption of candy in the convenient,
attractive packages now sold by the manufacturers, usually at a
standard price of 5 or 10 cents, is an easy, rapid method of securing
a digestible and palatable carbohydrate. Large numbers of these
packages of candy are sold, and every month there is an addition to
the innumerable brands appearing on the market. We included sixty-
six samples of candy in our survey. The results are given in Table
14, the candies being grouped according to their general composition.
In all cases they were wrapped in packages, unless otherwise stated
in the description given in the third column of the table. The air-dry
weight of the candy was determined in a few instances, but for the
most part the candies were dry enough, as purchased, to be burned.
In Table 14, accordingly, we have recorded the fresh weight of the
candy, as purchased, and the calories per gram are given on the
basis of the weight as purchased. The values for the weight, the
total calories, and the total protein are for one bar, one package, or
one roll of the candy in each case. These values are in most in-
stances averages, however, since usually 3 or 4 bars of candy were
included in each sample for analysis.

From the data in Table 14 average values according to general
composition have been prepared for the caloric content of the candies
per gram and per ounce of weight, as purchased. These factors are
given in Table 15. Per gram of weight as purchased, the values
range from 6.4 calories with the group of chocolate nut bars or
chocolate-covered nuts to 3.7 calories with the miscellaneous candies
not chocolate-coated and containing no nuts. The higher value is
undoubtedly due to the fat content of the chocolate and the nuts. With

Table 15. Average Caloric Value of Package Candies According to Composition.

Type of candy

Calories

Per gram
as purchased

Per ounce
as purchased

Chocolate nut bar or chocolate covered nuts

Milk chocolate

Chocolate coated candy :

Nut and caramel center

Cocoanut cream center

Firm center with few or no nuts I

Soft center with many nuts (

Soft center with few or no nuts

Miscellaneous, not chocolate covered :

With many nuts

Without nuts

180
165

140
140

135

120

115
105

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY 37

the factors in Table 15 one can estimate the calories in the standard-
ized packages of candy with a fair degree of accuracy by examining
the candy to determine the nature of the filling, weighing the candy
in grams, and multiplying this weight by the factor for calories per
gram as purchased, according to the nature of the candy. A more
rapid estimation, though not so accurate, may be arrived at by apply-
ing the factors per ounce against the claimed weight in ounces given
on the wrapper. The protein content is highest in the chocolate-
covered nut candies, as would be expected. Almost 10 grams of pro-
tein, for example, were found in the 5-cent peanut bar. Sample 231,
8 grams in Samples 259 and 219, and 12 grams in Sample 25. The
candies not chocolate coated and not containing nuts, on the contrary,
have a protein content in most instances of only half a gram or less.

In these candies the calories for ten cents range from 879 with
Sample 383 to 160 with Samples 318 and 7. On the average one can
obtain not far from 450 calories for ten cents in this form of food.
Candies, therefore, not only furnish a quick source of calories but
are distinctly economical.

MEALS

Perhaps the most satisfactory service which can be rendered by
a calorimetric survey of this type is to secure information concerning
the energy value of the total food consumed during the three chief
meals of the day. Samples of characteristic meals were obtained at
the college cafeteria and at a number of different restaurants, not
only in Durham and Dover, New Hampshire, but in Boston. The
data are of importance locally in giving an idea of the actual food
consumption at different meals of a large number of students and
of importance generally in indicating the relation between the air-dry
matter and the total calories in a mixed meal. The information sug-
gests a simple method of estimating the energy intake in a mixed
meal or in the total food consumed during the day, requiring only a
knowledge of the air-dry weight of the food.

In analyzing these meals any bread and soup served were in-
cluded in the sample, but the butter and the drink (tea, coffee, or
milk) and the milk or cream and the sugar for the cereal and the
drink were not included. The amounts of energy and protein ob-
tainable in these foods will vary not only with the size of the serving
but with the use customary to the individual. We did not make any
combustions of these foods, but did find the average weight of a pat
of butter at each restaurant. The sugar in the restaurants where
these meals were purchased was served in a covered container on the
table. The cream for the tea and coffee was in small individual
pitchers, when not in the beverage itself. The milk for the cereal

38

NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [BuU. 242

was in a large pitcher, so that any amount might be taken. At the
time when the food samples were purchased, milk was sold by the
glass, each glass holding approximately three-quarters of a cup.i
The energy and the protein content of the butter, sugar, cream, and
milk have been calculated from previously published analyses of
these foods, and the results are given in Table 16. These indicate
that several hundred calories and several grams of protein may easily
be added to a meal by the inclusion of these foods, depending upon
how liberally an individual serves himself.

Table 16. Butter, Sugar, Cream, and Milk*.

Food

Measure

Protein

Calories

gm.

0.1

100

0.1

60

0.1

65

0.1

75

29

0.4

28

2.1

42

6.2

127

8.3

170

16.5

339

33.0

678

Butter — average servings

Restaurant A

Restaurant B

Restaurant C

Restaurant D

Sugar (granulated) ...

Cream ( thin )

Milk (whole)

13 gm

8 gm

7 gm

10 gm

Silver teaspoonf

(7.4 gm.)

1 tablespoon . . .

Vi cup

1 glass ( % cup )

V2 pint

1 pint

1 quart

* The values in this table are based on data given by Rose, M. S., Feeding the
family, Nevsr York, 1916 and 1925 ; ibid.. Laboratory handbook for dietetics. New
York, 1923, pp. 33 and 45. Butter assumed to contain 7.69 cal. per gm. and 1 p. ct.
protein ; milk 4 p. ct. fat, 0.69 cal. per gm., and 3.3 p. ct. protein.

t Average of 3 servings (not level teaspoonf uls) by each of 17 individuals.
Benedict, C. G., and F. G. Benedict, Boston, Med. and Surgr. Jouin., 1919, 181, p. 415.

BREAKFASTS

Analyses of the breakfasts, all secured at the college cafeteria,
are given in Table 17. Those which sold regularly for 25 cents af-
forded a choice of fruit or cereal, egg or bacon, toast or muffins,
and tea, coffee or milk. The other breakfasts were purchased at so
much an item (10 cents for fruit, 10 cents for cereal, and 5 cents for
toast) and were purposely selected to contain only fruit, cereal and
toast. An additional charge of 5 cents would have been made for the
drink. The toast was unbuttered in every instance, the butter being
served in a pat separately. The samples of breakfasts, as analyzed,
did not contain butter or sugar and milk for the cereal or drink, but

(1) The law in New. Hampshire now requires that milk be sold in public
eating places in half-pint bottles, but in our calculations of the calories for
10 cents in these mixed meals, if milk was included in the cost of the meal,
the energy content of the milk has been considered to be equivalent to that
in one glassful and not in one half-pint.

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY

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40 NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

the estimations in Table 17 of the protein and the calories for 10
cents in these meals do include the food values of these accessories,
based upon the data given in Table 16.

The data in Table 17 show that in general the lower energy values
per gram of air-dry matter (4.1 calories and below) are found with
the breakfasts composed of fruit, cereal and toast, and the higher
values with the breakfasts which include egg or bacon. The break-
fasts containing scrambled eggs are exceptionally high in protein.

DINNERS

The data for seventy-two dinners which were analyzed are given
in Table 18, grouped according to the restaurant at which they were
purchased. The dinners at Restaurants A, B, C, and D cost 45 cents
in every instance except No. 289, which cost 40 cents. The dinners
at Restaurants N and R and Nos. 357 and 358 at Restaurant Z cost
50 cents each. Nos. 359 and 361 at Restaurant Z were 45 cents each,
and No. 360 was 60 cents.

Butter and a choice of tea, coffee or milk, and in the case of
Restaurant D a carbonated beverage, such as ginger ale,l were in-
cluded in the charge made for each meal, but these were not in the
samples as made up for analysis. In estimating the calories and the
protein for ten cents in these dinners, we have for Restaurants A, B,
C, and D included the food value of butter and of one glass of milk
(based on Table 16), assuming that milk was the drink selected in
each instance. Since thick cream was not used at these restaurants,
we estimate that a cup of coffee or tea would not contain more calories
than a glass of milk and certainly could not furnish more protein.
Thus our calculations on the 10-cent basis are maximum rather than
minimum values. The calories and the protein for ten cents in the
dinners at Restaurants N, R, and Z have not been calculated, for the
choice of drinks did not include milk in every instance, we have no
idea how much cream was included in the meal, and at Restaurant
Z a so-called "savita sandwich" was served, the heat of combustion
of which we did not determine.

The dinners at Restaurant Z were purchased at one of the Childs
restaurants.- The values in parentheses against the various food
items in these meals represent the approximate protein calories (first
value) and the approximate total calories (second value) claimed by

(1) It is estimated that an 8-ounce bottle of ginger ale (the size served
at restaurant D) would contain about 70 calories. See Benedict, C. G., and
F. G. Benedict, Boston Med. and Surg. Journ., 1918, 179, p. 153.

(2) See the earlier survey of meals served at Childs restaurants, made
by Gephart and Lusk. Analysis and cost of ready-to-serve foods. Chicago,
1915.

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY 41

the restaurant to be in that particular portion of the meal. The small
letter v is the symbol used by Childs restaurants to indicate that this
serving contains vitamines, and the capital letter V that the serving
is rich in vitamines. The total calories in these dinners, as found by
our analyses, are higher in three and lower in tw^o instances than
claimed by the restaurant. We wish to emphasize here, however, that
Childs restaurants do not guarantee to sell a definite number of
calories in these meals. They are selling a certain food combination
and any difference between the caloric content as claimed by them
(stated expressly to be "approximate") and as found by our analyses
must not be looked upon as a misrepresentation by this chain of
restaurants. We have every reason to believe that a serious effort
has been made on their part to secure standardization in their meals
from the standpoint of caloric content, and the difficulty of serving
the same sized portions each time explains the differences in the
claimed and found energy content.

Comparison of the fresh and the air-dry weights of the dinners
in those instances when both weights were recorded emphasized the
large proportion of moisture existing in a seemingly large meal. The
air-dry matter in Nos. 327 and 455, for example, amounted to less
than one-third of the total fresh weight. Indeed, in only five in-
stances did the air-dry matter in any of the dinners exceed 250
grams or 9 ounces.

An arrangement of the data for the dinners according to the
main course, whether meat, fish, or salad, showed no pronounced
differences in the food values for the various groups. It is evident
that the soup, vegetable, and dessert combined play as great a role
in the energy and the protein value of a meal as the serving of meat
or fish. Indeed, it is believed that the variety of desserts offered at
Eestaurant A is partly responsible for the wide range in total energy
content of the dinners purchased at this restaurant.

The calories per gram of air-dry matter are in most instances
fairly uniform at between 4.5 and 5.1 or 5.2 calories. One low value
of 3.7 calories was found with No. 167, undoubtedly explained by the
fact that this dinner was composed chiefly of carbohydrates with
practically no fat. One high value of 5.7 calories is also noted with
No. 301, attributable possibly to the fat in the roast pork. The
average value for all the dinners is 4.7 calories.

SUPPERS

Analyses of fifty-nine suppers from six different restaurants are
given in Table 19. As with the dinners, the butter and any drink
served were not included in the analyses, but their food values have

42

NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

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May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY

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140 gm.), fried egg (43 gm.), rolls (84 gm.),

pie (148 gm.)

potato salad with mayonnaise (1 cup), rolls

ndwich (slice roast beef, 2 slices bread, gravy).

to • to

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ter and glass of milk, when drink was se
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to be milk. No drink served with supper
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52 NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

been included in the estimations of the protein and the calories for
ten cents. In those instances when a drink was included in the
supper, we have assumed in our calculations that it was a glass of
milk.

The total energy content varies more widely in these suppers
than in the dinners. The range in protein content is also wide. The
energy per gram of air-dry matter is again in most instances within
4.5 and 5.2 calories, with one low value of 3.8 calories and two high
values of 5.7. On the average the value is 4.8 calories.

TOTAL FOOD EATEN IN ONE DAY BY ONE PERSON

On two different occasions a composite sample representative of
the entire food consumption for one day was collected. The first
sample. No. 254, included both the butter and the milk served with
the meals. The second sample, No. 284, did not include them, but
the calculation of the total energy and the total protein intake for
the day takes these items into account. A description of the meals
follows.

NO. 254

Breakfast (25 cents): Stewed prunes (4), scrambled eggs, corn
meal muffins (2 served, 1 eaten), butter (% of serving eaten), glass
of milk. Restaurant A.

Dinner (45 cents): Fish chowder, boiled mackerel and mashed
potato, stewed tomatoes, bread {IVz slices), butter, grapenut pudding,
glass of milk. Restaurant B.

Supper (35 cents): Pineapple and cream cheese salad (2 leaves
lettuce, 2 slices pineapple, cream cheese, and whipped cream), 2 rolls,
butter. Restaurant B.

NO. 284

Breakfast (20 cents): One orange, oatmeal and milk (1 cup),
1 tsp. sugar (eaten on oatmeal but not in sample). Restaurant D.

Dinner (45 cents): Vegetable soup, fricasseed lamb, mashed po-
tato, string beans, bread (3 slices served, 2 eaten), 2 saltines, butter
(ca. 10 gm. eaten but not included in sample), small scoop vanilla ice
cream. Restaurant D.

Supper (45 cents): Banana salad (1 cup sliced banana, ca. Vz
tbsp. mayonnaise, lettuce), rolls (2 served, only one eaten), butter
(ca. 8 gm. eaten but not included in sample), fudge cake (103 gm.).
Restaurant D.

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY

53

Butter (18 gm.), milk (V2 pint), and 1 tsp. sugar eaten but not
included in sample.

The results of the analyses of these two daily food samples are
given in Table 20. The factor for calories per gram of air-dry matter
is essentially the same in both instances, averaging 5.0. In sample
284 had the fat of the butter been included, the factor would doubtless
have been somewhat higher, possibly 5.1 or 5.2.

Table 20. Total Protein and Energy Intake of an Individwd During One Day.

No.

Cost

Total
air-
dry
weight

Protein

Calories

Total
for
day

For
10
cents

Total
for
day

Per gram

air-dry

matter

For

10

cents

gm.

gm.

gm.

254

$1.05

415

73.4

7.0

2050

284

$1.10

360="

49.6t

4.5T

1

2140t

4.9

5.0*

195

195t

* Not including butter milk, and sugar for cereal.
t Including butter, milk, and sugar for cereal.

The Department of Home Economics at the University of New
Hampshire conducts a so-called "Practice House" where meals are
prepared by and served to women students. Analyses were made of
the meals served here on seven different days, and the details are
given in Table 21. In this particular study the samples included the
butter, and the milk or cream and sugar for the drink served with the
meals, since varying amounts of these items were served on different
days. The tea or coffee itself was not included in the sample. The
charge to the student for these meals was based only upon the cost
of the food supplies, the operating expenses being paid by the De-
partment of Home Economics. Hence no economic consideration of
these data can be given.

The total calories in the day's food consumption varied astonish-
ingly from 1680 on November 1 to 3090 on November 3. The average
energy intake was 2446 calories and the average protein intake 61
grams per day. The calories per gram of air-dry matter averaged
5.0, in good agreement with the average values found with the free
selection of meals listed in Tables 18 to 20. Although the values for
the separate samples listed in Table 21 range from 4.5 to 5.5, in no
case does the average value for the day (including breakfast, lunch,
and dinner) differ greatly from 5.0. This suggests that a close re-
lationship exists between the total energy content and the air-dry

54

NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

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May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY

55

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56 NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

matter in these mixed meals and that if one knows the air-dry weight
of the mixed foods for one day, one week, or for any desired period
of time, one can multiply this by the factor 5 and have a close esti-
mate of the total energy intake.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

Innumerable analyses of the energy value of various foods have
already been made. The tables of Atwater and Bryant, i first pub-
lished in 1896, have been of incalculable service in computing the
total energy intake in the food eaten daily, and are today the basis of
most of the tables of energy values of foods printed in the best modern
textbooks on dietetics and nutrition. 2 Many of these early analyses
have dealt with cooked foods, but in the course of years the methods
of cooking have changed and many combinations of previously pre-
pared foods are now on the market. It is, therefore, difficult oftentimes
to calculate the caloric intake in the modem diet from the Atwater-
Bryant tables. The elaborate study of ready-to-serve foods carried
out by Gephart and LuskS in the Childs restaurants has helped con-
siderably, so far as the servings from this particular chain of restau-
rants are concerned. And yet our own data show that even in these
restaurants the methods of cooking and the preparation of the serv-
ings are not sufficiently standardized to enable one to compute with
accuracy the energy intake from the calories claimed to be in the
different portions served. The Battle Creek Sanitarium, emphasizing
the signifiance of vegetables, likewise prints on its menu cards the
calories in the food served. But the food at Childs restaurants and
at the Battle Creek Sanitarium is not necessarily representative of
the food served in other restaurants or in one's home. Hence we must
use the old Atwater-Bryant tables, which are in many ways inade-
quate for computing the energy content of the modern diet.

One of the three factors determining the true energy value of a
food is the amount of energy in the food leaving the body undigested
in the excreta. With humans this loss of energy is small, and the
actual heat of combustion of human food can be accepted as indicative
of its true energy value. But with cattle a large proportion of the
food eaten leaves the alimentary tract undigested. Hence the heat of
combustion of cattle food cannot be considered indicative of its real
energy value, but the heat of combustion of the feces must also be
determined. The development of the oxy-calorimeter at the Nutri-

(1) Atwater, W. O., and C. D. Woods, U. S. Dept. Agric, Office Expt.
Sta., Bulletin No. 28, 1896; revised editions published in 1902 and 1906 by
Atwater, W. O., and A. P. Bryant.

(2) See, for example, Rose, M. S., Feeding the family, New York, 1925;
Laboratory handbook for dietetics, New York, 1929; The foundations of nu-
trition, New York, 1927.

(3) Gephart, F. C, and G. Lusk, Analysis and cost of ready-to-serve
foods, Chicago, 1915.

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY 57

tion Laboratory and its extensive practical use in our research at
the New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station demonstrate
that it is now possible to determine the energy value both of the
modern diet and of feces accurately and in much less time than is
x'equired in the use of the complicated bomb calorimeter.

The technique of the oxy-calorimeter requires two simple pro-
cedures, the drying of the sample of food or feces to an air-dry con-
dition and the burning of the air-dry sample in the apparatus. The
latter procedure requires only 15 minutes at most, and experience
in the burning of samples can be readily acquired. An individual
whose energy intake is to be studied can easily cooperate with the
clinician or dietitian in securing the air-dry sample of his food by
placing in a previously weighed pan a duplicate of each serving of
food eaten during the day. At the end of the day the pan will con-
tain a duplicate of the total food intake. If extreme accuracy is
required, the weight of the food eaten should be known and an
equivalent weight placed in the pan. But if a serving of food seem-
ingly similar to the serving eaten is placed in the dish, the error in-
volved is for most purposes insignificant. In a large dietary study of
twelve men voluntarily undergoing a period of undernutrition,! du-
plicate samples of the food served to the twelve men were placed
in two extra dishes on the table, termed the "thirteenth and the
fourteenth men." The agreement between these two samples was
all that could be expected, and this method of sampling the day's food
intake was considered satisfactory.

Examination of the data secured in our research with the oxy-
calorimeter suggests that in the case of mixed meals, at least, the
energy value may be estimated by an even simpler means than the
use of the oxy-calorimeter. With the individual food items such as
doughnuts, candy, ice cream, and the like, the ratio between the
energy content and the weight of air-dry matter was often found to
vary rather widely. But with the mixed meals the ratio was re-
markably constant, 5 calories per gram of air-dry matter on the
average. In view of the high digestibility of the foods consumed by
man, it is clear that by determining the air-dry weight in grams of a
mixture of foods and by multiplying this weight by the factor 5, one
can estimate the total calories in a mixed meal with a relatively high
degree of accuracy. This procedure does away with the necessity
for using either the bomb or the oxy-calorimeter, and although it
cannot have the scientific accuracy of either of these rigidly tested
means of energy measurement, nevertheless we believe that as a pro-
cedure in the hospital and in the dietetic laboratory it is of great
practical value.

In the tabular presentation of our data emphasis has been laid
upon the calories and the protein which may be purchased for ten

(1) Benedict, P. G., W. R. Miles, P. Roth, and H. M. Smith, Carnegie
Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 280, 1919, p. 68.

58 NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

cents. Although economics is not one of the first considerations of
the average individual, there are nevertheless in every college com-
munity many students who must work their way and obtain their
education with a minimum expenditure of money. Any information
which will enable them to make a more intelligent selection of food,
be it only from the economic standpoint, is worthy of emphasis. The
variability in the daily energy intake of an individual is determined
in large part by his free choice of food. But when it is possible for
a student earning his way through college to select a 40-cent meal at
a cafeteria and secure therefrom only 334 calories (see Table 19,
Sample 156), he should be aware of that fact.

If digestibility and practicability were left out of consideration,
one could obtain the total number of calories required for the day
in ten or twelve cents' worth of cane sugar. Obviously a diet ex-
clusively of cane sugar is impracticable, because the vitamines, salts,
and protein are absent and because the digestive tract of man cannot
take care of this amount of sugar per day. The second objection
could be removed by substituting potatoes or rice or some other in-
expensive vegetable which will furnish the requisite number of
calories at a low price. But these would not supply an adequate
amount of protein. The wise selection of food is, therefore, not
simply a question of calories. Some consideration must be given to
the protein intake, to the digestibility of the food, and to a certain ex-
tent to the palatability of the food. The cafeterias and restaurants
now offer such a wide variety of foods that it should be possible to
make selections which are at the same time digestible, reasonably
palatable, and economical. It is still a question whether the rela-
tively inexpensive milk furnished in a college community is used
widely enough. A quart of milk at 12 cents affords 33 grams of
protein and 687 calories. One cannot of course exist exclusively upon
milk, but milk should enter more generally into the diet than it ap-
parently does, judging from the restaurant menus and our impres-
sions of students' eating habits obtained during the progress of this
research.

In emphasizing the important part which energy intake plays in
nutrition, we would not have the student overlook the value of the
vitamines, salts, and proteins; yet we believe that for a short period
these could be safely disregarded. It is not necessary, for example,
that the food intake each day should contain exactly the correct pro-
portions of protein, vitamines, and salts. The adaptability of the
human body is such that there may easily be large variations in the
intake of vitamines and salts from day to day without the slightest
harm to the body. The source of vitamines is frequently an expen-
sive one. Those obtained in milk are ideal, and this is another quality
of milk which makes it such a valuable food. On the other hand,
when one relies for vitamines and salts upon leafy, green vegetables
and fruits eaten out of season, the expense is considerable.

May, 1929] FOODS IN A COLLEGE COMMUNITY 59

One striking observation made during our research was that the
coarse breads and cereals are so seldom eaten. The experience of
one of us during the World War when studying a group of men liv-
ing on reduced rations, i showed that the liberal use of bran, and by
this we do not refer to the expensive packages of bran but to ordinary
bran, is a most fruitful source of salts, vitamines and roughage. It
is not inconceivable that with suitable education, college communities
may come to the "open bran bowl" at the table as well as the "open
sugar bowl." On the other hand, a warning should be issued that
some individuals react unfavorably to bran and that one should first
test slowly the amount to be eaten rather than take excessive amounts
without previous experience.

The eating of meals, even in a college community, is not a matter,
however, simply of scientific stoking or gathering in of calories. Din-
ing is supposedly a feature. But one can hardly be said to have
dined, even in the best organized college cafeteria. Such cafeterias
are run at minimum cost and are supposed to give the students the
best meals possible for a minimum amount of money, with only
moderate attention paid to luxury of service or "atmosphere." For
this reason the college student perhaps cannot be too critical of flavor
and environment. He should emphasize the food value obtained for
the money paid and let flavor and atmosphere be a secondary con-
sideration. Certainly the data given in this report show that it is
possible for one to select meals varying greatly in energy and protein
content, and it would seem justifiable in a college community, where
courses in nutrition are offered as part of the educational program, to
give the student at least an approximate idea of the value of the
food he is purchasing by stating directly on the menu the average
number of calories and the average grams of protein probably con-
tained in the food served.

SUMMARY

A survey of the energy and the protein content of a large number
of individual foods and of mixed meals has been made in the college
community at Durham, New Hampshire, in a cooperative research
undertaken by the New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station
and the Nutrition Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington. The energy values were obtained with an oxy-calorimeter
developed at the Nutrition Laboratory. The nitrogen analyses were
carried out by the Kjeldahl method.

Studies were made of the meals served at the local restaurants
and at the home economics practice house; a few samples were
obtained in Dover, New Hampshire, and in Boston. The separate
food items which were analyzed included breads, doughnuts, sand-
wiches, salads, pies, ice cream, and candies.

(1) Benedict, F. G., W. R. Miles, P. Roth, and H. M. Smith, Carnegie
Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 280, 1919, p. 260.

60 NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION [Bull. 242

Five-cent packages of sandwiches sold in waxed paper and con-
sisting of crackers with various fillings were found to contain nearly
200 calories each, or as much energy as that in the average 10-cent
fresh sandwich.

Fifteen-cent servings of ice cream averaged about 200 grams in
weight, 500 calories of total energy and 7 grams of protein. The
energy value per ten cents of sundaes from the drug stores was about
250 calories or nearly 100 calories less than in the ice cream. One pint
of chocolate milk shake furnished from 450 to 500 calories and from 14
to 15 grams of protein.

Sixty-six candies were analyzed and the results averaged in nine
groups a'^icording to their composition. Per gram of weight as pur-
chased, the average caloric values ranged from 6.4 with the group of
chocolate nut bars to 3.7 with the miscellaneous candies not chocolate
coated and containing no nuts. On the average, one can obtain not
far from 450 calories per ten cents in this form of food.

Thirty-four dinners from the college cafeteria furnished from
517 to 1610 calories and from 10 to 60 grams of protein each, not
including the butter and beverage. Twenty-nine dinners from three
commercial restaurants in Durham contained from 456 to 805 calories
and from 19 to 43 grams of protein. Assuming that butter and a
glass of milk were taken with these meals, the calories per ten cents
ranged from 165 to 410 at the cafeteria and from 145 to 245 at the
restaurants, and the protein content per ten cents varied from 4 to
15 grams and from 6 to 11 grams, respectively.

Twenty-two suppers selected at the cafeteria varied in energy
and protein content per ten cents in much the same manner as the
dinners. Food combinations served at the other restaurants at night
yielded from 70 to 385 calories and from 2 to 13 grams of protein per
ten cents (figures include glass of milk, if beverage was served, and
butter).

The meals served each student at the home economics practice
house for a week averaged 2450 calories and 61 grams of protein per
day.

The data on mixed meals indicate that the energy value of the
total food consumed per day, per week, or for any period of time may
be estimated with a relatively high degree of accuracy by obtaining
the air-dry weight of a food mixture and multiplying it by the factor
5. This procedure does away with the necessity for using either the
bomb or the oxy-calorimeter and gives the physician and the dietitian
a simple means of calculating the energy intake with a degree of
accuracy sufficient for most purposes.

- TtA CJ

J. I x&

630i72
no. 203 250

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