551 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— BULLETIN NO. 125. A. C. TRUH, Director. A DIGEST OF nn CEDING, BY C. F- LANG-^A^OXiTIIY, Ph. D., Office of Exterimrj^it RtatK)Ns. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTINr4 OFFICE. 1 9 (I 3 . 551 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— BULLETIN NO. 125. . C. TRUE, Director. A DIGEST OF lECENT EXPERIMENTS ON HORSE FEEDING. BY BOTANICAL GARDEN C. F. LANGJ-WORTIIY, I^h. D., Office of Experiment Stations. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1903. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. A. C. True, Ph. D.— Director. E. W. Allen, Ph. D. — Assistant Director and Editor of Experiment Station Record. W. H. Beal — Chief of Editorial Division. C. E. Johnston — Chief Clerk. EDITORIAL DEPARTMENTS. E. W. Allen, Ph. D., and H. W. Lawson — Chemistry, Dairy Farming, and Dairying. W. H. Beal — Agricultural Pliysics and Engineering. Walter H. Evans, Ph. D. — Botany and Diseases of Plants. C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D. — Foods and Animal Production. J. I. Schulte — Field Crops. E. V. Wilcox, Ph. D. — Entomology and Veterinary Science. C. B. Smith — Horticulture. D. J. Crosby — Agricultural Imtitutions. 2 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Washington, D. C , January 29, 1903. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a bulletin prepared by C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D., of the Office of Experiment Stations, which summarizes and discusses the results of experiments on the feeding and care of horses, and especially the investigations of recent years. The attempt has been made to include all the work which has been carried on at the experiment stations in the United States as well as some of the more important foreign investigations. Statistics were also gathered regarding the rations fed horses used by express companies, cab companies, fire departments, packing houses, breweries, etc., in diiferent regions of the United States, with a view to learning the nutri- ents supplied to horses performing different amounts of work. The data have been compared with similar values for horses fed at a num- ber of the experiment stations under more or less definitely known conditions. The rations fed army horses in this and other countries, the horses of French and other cab companies, etc., have also been included for purposes of comparison. Thanks are due to Director W. A. Heniy of the Wisconsin Station, Director H. J. Patterson of the Maiyland Station, and Mr. G. M. Rom- mel of the Bureau of Animal Industry of this Department, for valu- able suggestions, and to Mr. H. A. Pratt of the Department of the Interior, for assistance in making the calculations involved in preparing the material. Believing that the bulletin will prove a useful summary of the infor- mation at present available regarding the feeding of horses, I recom- mend that it be published as Bulletin No. 125 of this Office. Respectfully, A. C. True, Dir'ector. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. CONTENTS. Page. Introduction ' Principles of nutrition ^ Composition of feeding stuffs 12 Comparative value of feeding stuffs 15 Cereal grains 1'^ Leguminous seeds 20 Oil cakes and other commercial by-products 20 Forage crops, fresh and cured 22 Roots and tubers 27 Molasses and other by-products of sugar making 28 Fruits, fresh and dried 31 Injurious feeding stuffs , ^2 Method of feeding ^^ Cooked and raw feed ^4 Dry and soaked feed ^"^ Ground and unground feed 34 Cut and uncut coarse fodder - 35 Cost of a ration 36 Fattening horses for market 36 Watering horses 37 Digestibility of feeding stuffs 40 Comparative digestibility by horses and ruminants 44 Eations actually fed and feeding standards 46 Method of calculating rations 58 Muscular work and its effect on food requirements - 59 Measuring muscular work 59 Muscular work in its relation to the ration 62 Effect of muscular work on digestibility I 65 Metabolism experiments and the deductions drawn from them 66 Measuring the respiratory quotient and the deductions drawn from it 67 Proportion of energy of food expended for internal and external muscular work 68 Energy required to chew and digest food 69 "True nutritive value" of feeding stuffs 69 Fixing rations on the basis of internal and external muscular work 71 Summary 73 5 RECENT EXPERIMENTS IN HORSE FEEDING. INTRODUCTION. The scientific study of different problems connected with the feeding of farm animals has been followed for something over half a century. Some of the very early work was with horses, Ijut more generally it was carried on with other domestic animals. Within the last few years this phase of the problem has received much more attention, and feed- ing tests, digestion experiments, and more complicated investigations have accumulated in considerable numbers. The bulk of this work has been carried on in France and Germany; a creditable amount, however, has been done in this country, notably by the agricultural experiment stations, and the results of these experiments and obser- vations have been published from time to time, and are very useful. Mention must be made also of the work of practical feeders, which is of great value. In the present bulletin the attempt is made to bring together some of the more important results and deductions which may be gathered from the American and foreign experimental work, especiall}^ that of recent years. It is not the purpose to provide practical feeders with directions for feeding according to a particular formula; indeed this is not necessary, if it were possible, for practical feeders understand the needs of their horses and how to meet them. The object is rather to summarize matter which seems interesting and valuable, and which in many cases may give the reason for something of which the wisdom has long been recognized in practice. In addition to the bulletins, reports, and other works cited in the following pages, a large number of scientific and popular journals, treatises on horse feeding, and similar publications have been consulted, as well as reports issued by American and foreign experiment stations. That a scientific study of the feeding of horses may not be without direct practical value is shown by the work of Grandeau, Leclerc, Lava- lard, and others for the Paris Cab and 'Bus companies. By means of experimental studies of the food value and digestibility of different feeding stuffs, carried on under definite conditions, it was possible to so modify the ration fed to the thousands of horses belonging to one of these companies that an annual saving of 1,000,000 francs or over was effected, while at the same time the health and strength of the 7 8 horses were maintained at the usual standard. This was accomplished in the instance cited by demonstrating the value of Indian corn, against which there was a prejudice in France, and substituting it in part for oats. The returns from scientific studies are not alwaj's so immediate, but the results are usually of use when the experiments have been well planned and carried out. The problem of horse feeding is one which each feeder solves more or less for himself, the opinion regarding what is and what is not sat- isfactory feed varying more or less with the time and place. Opinions may differ as to the value of this food or that, but it is evident that the actual food requirements of a horse performing a given amount of work can not vary as a result of a change of opinion on the feeder's part. With horses, as with all animals, including man, the real prob- lem is to supply sufficient nutritive material for building and repairing the body and furnishing it with the energy necessary for performing work, whether it be that which goes on inside the body (the beating of the heart, respiratory movements, etc.), or the work which is per- formed outside the body (hauling a load, etc.). The body temperature must also be maintained at the expense of the fuel ingredients, but whether material is burned in the l)ody primarily for this purpose, or whether the necessary heat is a resultant of the internal muscular work, is not known with certainty. The problem of successfully feeding horses differs somewhat from that encountered in feeding most domestic animals. Cattle, sheep, and pigs are fed to induce gains in weight, i. e. , to fatten them, or in the case of milch cows to produce gains in the form of a body secre- tion (milk) rather than as fat in the body. In a similar way sheep are fed for the production of wool, and poultry for the production of eggs. Sometimes cattle are also fed as beasts of burden. Horses are fed almost universally as beasts of burden, whether the work consists in carrying a rider or drawing a load. Mares with foal require food for the development of their young, and after birth > the colt needs it for the growth and development of the body as well as for maintenance. Such demands for nutritive material are common to all classes of animals. Sometimes horses are fed to increase their weight; that is, to improve their condition. For instance, animals are often fattened by horse dealers before they are sold. However, generally speaking, the problem in horse feeding is to supply sufficient nutritive material for the production of the work required and at the same time to maintain the body weight. The almost universal experience of practical horse feeders, and the results of many carefully planned experiments, agree that there is no surer test of the fitness of any given ration than that it enables the horse fed to maintain a constant weight. If the animal loses weight it 9 is evident that the ration is insufficient, while if gains in weight are made and the animal becomes fat it is evident that more feed is given than is necessary. Provided the horse is in good condition, it is seldom desirable to induce any considerable gain in weight. Reference is not made to the small daily fluctuations in weight, but to gains or losses which extend over a considerable period. The most satisfactory ration must necessarily be made up of materials which are wholesome and are relished by the horse. It should also be reasonable in cost. It must be abundant enough to meet all body requirements, but not so abundant that the horse lays on an undesirable amount of flesh. PRINCIPLES OF NUTRITION. The foundation principles of nutrition are the same in the case of all animals, including mam A brief discussion of the properties of food and the o-eneral laws of nutrition follows. The study of foods and feeding stufl's has shown that although they differ so much in texture and appearance they are in reality made up of a small number of chemical constituents, namely, protein, fat, car- bohydrates, and ash, together with a larger or smaller amount of water. The latter can be often seen, as in the juice of fresh plants. In dry hay no water or juice is visible. A small amount is, however, contained in minute particles in the plant tissues. Protein is a name given to the total group of nitrogenous materials present. The group is made up mainly of the true proteids and albumens, such as the gluten of wheat, and of nitrogenous materials such as amids, which are believed to have a lower feeding value than the albumens. The group "fat" includes the true vegetable fats and oils, like the oil in cotton seed or corn, as well as vegetable wax, some chlorophyl (the green coloring matter in leaves, etc.), and other coloring matters; in brief, all the materials which are extracted by ether in the usual labo- ratory method of estimating fat. The name "ether extract" is often and very properly applied to this group. Chemically considered, the true fats are glycerids of the fatty acids, chiefly oleic, stearic, and palmitic. The group "carbohydrates" includes starches, sugars, crude fiber, cellulose, pentosans, and other bodies of a similar chemical struc- ture. This group is usually subdivided, according to the analytical methods followed in estimating it, into "nitrogen-free extract" and "crude fiber;" the former subdivision including principally sugar, starches, and most of the pentosans, and the latter cellulose, lignin, and other woody substances which very largely make up the rigid struc- ture of plants. The proteids contain nitrogen in addition to carbon, oxygen, hj^dro- gen, and a little phosphorus and sulphur. The fats consist of carbon, 10 oxygen, and hydrogen, as do also carboh3'drates. In the carbohy- drates, however, the oxygen and hydrogen are always present in the proportions in which they occur in water, namely, two atoms of hydrogen to one of oxygen. The group "mineral matter" includes the inorganic bodies present in the form of salts in the juices and tissue of the different feeding stuffs, the principal chemical elements found being sodium, potassium, calcium, chlorin, fluorin, phosphorus, and sulphur. The term ""ash" is often and very properl}" used for this group, since the mineral matter represents the incombustible portion which remains when any g-iven feeding stuff is burned. As noted above, the functions of food are (1) to suppl}' material to build and repair the bod}^, and (2) to yield energy. The chemical composition of a feeding stuff serves as a basis for judging of its value for building and repairing body tissue. Its value as a source of energy must, however, be learned in another waj". The most usual wa}^ of measuring energy is in terms of heat, the calorie being taken as a unit. This is the amount of heat which would raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1° C, or 1 pound of water 4" F. Instead of this the unit of mechanical energy, the foot-ton (the force which would lift 1 ton 1 foot) may be used, but it is not as convenient. One calorie cor- responds very nearly to 1.54 foot- tons. The heat of combustion of foods and feeding stuff's is ordinarily determined with the bomb calo- rimeter or other suitable devices. The fuel value of any food is equal to its heat of combustion less the energy of the excretory products derived from it and may be learned by taking into account the chem- ical composition of the food or feeding stuff', the proportions of the nutrients actually digested and oxidized in the body, and the propor- tion of the whole latent energ-v of each which becomes active and use- ful to the body for warmth and work. However, the fuel value may be and often is calculated from the composition of the food material supplied, since it has been found that 1 gram of protein furnishes 1.1 calories, 1 gram fat 9.3 calories, and 1 gram carbohydrates 1.1 calo- ries, or 1 pound protein 1,8(30 calories, 1 pound fat 1,220 calories, and 1 pound carbohydrates 1,860 calories." The relation between the quantities of nitrogenous and nitrogen-free nutrients in the ration is called the nutritive or nutrient ratio. In cal- culating this ratio 1 pound of fat is taken as equivalent to 2. 25 pounds of carbohj'drates — this being approximately the ratio of their fuel « These values, which have been often used in the past, are known to be unsatis- factory, but are retained because better and more generally accepted data, obtained • in experiments with animals, are not available. In discussions relating to human food later and more accurate values have been proposed, namely, 1,820 calories per pound for protein and carbohydrates and 4,040 calories per pound for fats. 11 values — so that the nutritive ratio is actually that of the protein to the carbohydrates plus 2.25 times the fat. The body is necessarily made up of the same chemical elements as occur in food. Nitrogen is the characteristic element of body tissue and fluids. Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen are also present, as well as the elements making up the various mineral matters of the body. Protein is the only nutrient which contains nitrogen, therefore this nutrient is essential for building and repairing body tissues. The carbon, oxy- gen, and hydrogen may be supplied theoretically by protein, fat, or carbohydrates; but a well-balanced diet or ration contains all in proper proportion. Protein, fat, and carbohydrates may be burned with the formation of carbon dioxid and water, and therefore all may serve as sources of energy. The mineral matter in food is required for a number of different purposes, a considerable amount being needed for the formation of the skeleton. Some is also present in the organs and tissues. It can not, however, be regarded as a source of energy, according to com- monly accepted theories, since it can not be burned with the formation of carbon dioxid and water. The water present in food is not a nutrient in the sense that it serves for building tissue or yielding energy, but it is essential, serving to carry the food in the digestive processes, to dilute the blood, and for many other physiological pur- poses. The oxygen of the air is required by all living animals for the combustion, or oxidation, of the fuel constituents of food. When foods are burned in the body, i. e., oxidized, they give up the latent energy present in them. In determining the fuel value of pro- tein, due allowance is made for the fact that combustion is not as com- plete in the body as in a furnace. In the latter, practically all organic materials are burned to carbon dioxid, water, and nitrogen; in the bod}^, to carbon dioxid, water, and some cleavage product containing nitrogen, such as urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, and similar bodies which require further combustion before the free nitrogen is liberated. Combustion in a furnace and combustion in the body do not appear to be at all similar, but, generally speaking, they are the same from a chemical standpoint. The former takes place rapidly with the evolu- tion of heat, and usually of light; the latter, more slowly and incon- spicuously. If food is likened to fuel and the body to a furnace, the respiratory products given off from the lungs correspond to the com- bustion products which pass out through the flue. Ashes, in so far as they consist of material which will not burn (sand, bits of rock, etc.), and bits of coal which do not burn because they fall through the grate, or for some similar reason escape combustion, represent the feces (the indigestible and accidentally undigested material derived from the food). The bits of coal found in the ashes which are partially burned, but still contain some material valuable as fuel, correspond to the urea 12 and other incompletely oxidized nitrogenous bodies excreted in the urine. There is this difference, however, the furnace would have completed the combustion of the partly burned bits of coal if they had not been shaken out with the ashes, while the body can not burn the urea more completely. The body differs from a machine in a number of important wa3^s; for instance, it is itself built up of the same mate- rials which it utilizes as fuel, and further, if an excess of fuel, i. e., food, is supplied, it may be stored as a reserve material for future use, generally in the form of fat or gh'cogen. The amount of work performed by a horse, for convenience in meas- urement, may be resolved into several factors, as follows: (1) The energy expended in chewing, swallowing, and digesting food, keeping up the beating of the heart, circulation of the blood, respirator}^ move- ments, and other vital processes;" (2) the energy which is expended in moving the body, walking, trotting, etc., which is usually spoken of as energy required for forward progression; and (3) the energy which is expended in carrying a rider, as in the case of a saddle horse, or drawing a load, as in the case of a draft animal or carriage horse. The character of the road, whether level or up or dovn hill, is an important factor in determining the amount of work. It is evident that more energy is required to lift the body at each step and move it forward when climbing an incline than when walking on a level. In the same wa^^, when a load is drawn uphill it must be raised as well as drawn forward. Work may be measured as foot-pounds or foot-tons, or bj^ an}- other convenient unit. A foot-pound is the amount of energv expended in raising 1 pound 1 foot; a foot-ton, that expended in raising 1 ton 1 foot; a commonly used unit of force is the "ton power," equivalent to 650 foot-pounds per second. Work may also be measured in terms of heat, i. e., calories. This is especially convenient in discussing problems of nutrition, since the heat of combustion is one of the factors usually determined or calculated when foods are analyzed; and further- more, the feeding standards which have been proposed for horses and other farm animals show the requirements per day in terms of nutri- ents and energy. One calorie corresponds, as stated above, very nearly to 1.54 foot-tons. COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. The feeding stuffs of most importance for horses are cereal grains, such as oats and corn, either ground or unground; leguminous seeds, as beans and peas; cakes, and other commercial by-products, as oil- « The heat of the body is closely connected with this kind of work, and may be derived either from the combustion of material directly for that purpose, or may be the result of the energy liberated when internal muscular work is performed, or may be due to both causes acting together. 13 cake, gluten feed, and so on; fodder crops, green or cured; and diifer- ent roots, tubers, and green vegetables. In quite recent times cane molasses, beet molasses, and other beet-sugar by-products, have assumed more or less importance in this connection. The composition of a number of these different feeding stuffs may be seen b}^ reference to the table below, which shows the average composition as determined by anah^sis, and when possible the digestible nutrients furnished for horses by each 100 pounds of the feeding stuffs, the latter data having been calculated, as explained elsewhere (p. 40), by the aid of figures obtained in digestion experiments with horses. In a number of cases such calculations have not been made, for the reason that experiments showing the digestibility of feeding stuffs had not been found, nor were results of experiments made with similar feeding stuffs available. The comparatively large number of feeding stuff's of which the digesti- bilit^Mias not been determined indicates one of the lines of work which might be profitably followed. Table 1. — Average composition of a number of feeding stuffs. Percentage composition. Digestible materials in 100 pounds. En- ergy in loo lbs. di- gesti- ble nutri- ents. Kind of food material. Water. Pro- tein. Fat. Nitro- gen- free ex- tract. Crude fiber. Ash. Pro- tein. Fat. Nitro- gen- free ex- tract. Crude fiber. GREEN FODDER. Per ct. 79.3 66.2 76.1 73.0 76.6 62.2 77.3 65.3 69.5 73.0 69.9 73.2 61.6 65.1 71.1 70.8 74.8 80.9 71.8 83.6 75.1 74.4 76.1 72.0 74.2 79.3 Per ct. 1.8 2.1 .5 2.3 2.6 3.4 2.3 2.8 2.4 2.6 2.4 3.1 3.1 4.1 3.1 4.4 3.9 3.1 4.8 2.4 4.0 2.2 .8 4.2 4.1 2.7 Perct. 0.5 1.1 .5 .7 .6 1.4 .7 .9 .9 .9 .8 1.3 1.2 1.3 .7 1.1 .9 . 7 1.0 .4 1.0 1.1 .3 1.2 2.2 1.6 Per ct. 12.2 19.0 14.9 15.1 6.8 19.3 12.0 17.7 15.8 13.3 14.3 13.1 20.2 17.6 14.2 13. 5 11.0 8.4 12.3 7.1 10.6 15.0 15.3 11.6 7.0 7.6 Per ct. 5.0 8.7 7.3 6.9 11.6 11.2 5.9 11.0 9.4 8.2 10.8 6.8 11.8 9.1 9.2 8.1 7.4 5.2 7.4 4.8 6.7 5.8 6.4 8.4 9.7 6.0 Perct. 1.2 2.9 .7 2.0 1.8 2.5 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Calo- ries. norii loavesand husks Cornstalks stripped .. Kafir oorn Oat fodder Wheat fodder 1 8 Redtop in bloom Tall oat grass in hloom 2.3 2.0 2.0 1.8 2.5 2.1 2 8 Orchard grass in Meadow fescue in hloom Italian rye grass com- ing into bloom Timothy at different .stages Kentucky blue grass at different stages . . Hungarian grass Red clover at differ- ent staffes 1.7 2.1 2.0 1.7 2.7 1.7 2.6 1 5 3.44 3.05 2.42 3.75 10.94 8.91 6.80 9.96 3.79 3.46 2.43 3.46 33,796 Alsike clover in bloom a 28, 681 Crimson clover« Alfalfa at different .stages 21,669 31, 936 Cownefl fiov bean SILAGE, r^om silflce Sorghum silage Red-clover silage Soy-bean .silage Cowpea-vlne silage. . . 1.1 2.6 2.8 2.9 I 1 1 Digestibility calculated from values obtained with green alfalfa. 14 Table 1. — Average composition of a number of feeding staffs — Continued. Kind of food material. Percentage composition. Digestible materials in 100 pounds. Water. HAY AND DBY COARSE FODDER. Com fodder, field cured Corn leaves, field cured Corn husks, field cured Cornstalks, field cured Cornstover,fieldcured Kafir-corn stover, field cured Barley hay Oat hay Wheat hay Redtopcut at different stagesa Red top cut in blooma. Orchard grassa Timothy Kentucky blue grassa. Hungarian grassa Meadow fescuea Italian rye grassa Mixed grassesa Rowen (mixed)a Mixed grasses and cloversa Swamp hay a Salt-marsh hay Red clover Red clover in bloomft. Alsike clover & White clover b Crimson clover b Alfalfa Cowpea Soy bean Flat pea Soy-bean straw Wheat straw Rye straw c Oat straw c Buckwheat straw ROOTS AND TUBERS. Potatoes . Carrots . . GRAINS AND OTHER SEEDS. Corn, dent Corn, flint Corn, all varieties Kafir com Chicken corn Barlev , Oats Rye Wheat, all varieties . Cotton seed, whole, with hulls Cowpea MILL PRODUCTS. Com meal Oats, ground Corn and cob meal . . . Barley meal Per ct. 42.2 30.0 50.9 68.4 40.5 19.2 10.6 16.0 8.8 8.9 8.7 9.9 13.2 21.2 7.7 20.0 8.6 15.3 16.6 12.9 11.6 10.4 15.3 20.8 9.7 9.7 9.6 8.4 10.7 11.3 8.4 10.1 9.6 7.1 9.2 9.9 78.9 88.6 10.6 11.3 10.9 12.5 14.8 10.9 11.0 11.6 10.5 9.1 11.9 15.0 11.7 15.1 11.9 Pro- tein. Fat. Per ct. 4.6 6.0 2.5 1.9 3.8 4.8 9.3 7.4 6.0 7.9 8.0 8.1 5.9 7.8 7.5 7.0 7.5 7.4 11.6 10.1 7.2 5.6 12.3 12.4 12.8 15.7 15.2 14.3 16.6 15.4 22.9 4.6 3.4 3.0 4.0 5.2 2.1 1.1 10.3 10.5 10.5 10.9 10.6 12.4 11.8 10.6 11.9 19.6 23.5 9.2 11.0 8.5 10.5 Per ct. 1.6 1.4 .7 .5 1.1 1.6 2.5 2.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.6 2.5 3.9 2.1 2.7 1.7 2.5 3.1 2.6 2.0 2.4 3.3 4.5 Nitro- gen- free ex- tract. 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.2 2.9 5.2 3.2 1.7 1.3 1.2 2.3 1.3 5.0 5.0 5.4 2.9 2.6 1.8 5.0 1.7 2.1 20.1 1.7 3.8 3.9 3.5 2.2 Per ct. 34.7 35.7 28.3 17.0 31.5 39.6 48.7 40.6 55.3 47.5 46.4 41.0 45.0 37.8 49.0 38.4 44.9 42.1 39.4 41.3 45.9 44.0 38.1 33.8 40.7 39.3 36.6 42.7 42.2 38.6 31.4 37.4 43.4 46.6 42.4 35.1 17.3 7.6 70.4 70.1 69.6 70.6 58.8 69.8 59.7 72.6 71.9 28.3 55.7 68.9 52.3 64.8 66.3 Crude fiber. Perct. 14.3 21.4 15.8 11.0 19.7 26.8 23.6 27.2 22.5 28.6 29.9 32.4 29.0 23.0 27.7 25.0 30.5 27.2 22.5 27.6 26.6 30.0 24.8 21.9 25.6 24.1 27.2 25.0 20.1 22.3 26.2 40.4 38.1 38.9 37.0 43.0 .6 1.3 Ash. Per ct. 2.7 5.5 1.8 1.2 3.4 '8.0 6.3 6.1 5.6 6.2 4.9 6.0 4.4 6.3 6.0 6.9 6.9 5.5 6.8 6.6 6.7 7.7 6.2 6.6 8.3 8.3 8.6 7.4 7.5 7.2 7.9 5.8 4.2 3.2 5.1 5.5 1.0 1.0 2.2 1.7 2.1 1.9 8.7 2.7 9.5 1.7 1.8 18.9 3.8 1.9 18.0 6.6 6.6 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.3 4.6 2.4 3.0 1.9 1.8 4.0 3.4 1.4 3.1 1.5 2.6 Pro- tein. n>s. 4.61 4.57 4.62 1.25 4.45 4.28 4.00 4.28 4.23 6.62 5.77 4.11 6.85 6.91 7.13 8.74 8.47 10.67 .94 .83 1.11 1.85 1.09 5.95 6.07 6.07 9.39 8.51 6.99 9.06 Fat. Lbs. 0.39 .43 .54 1.18 .81 .43 .56 .35 .62 .64 .54 .41 Nitro- gen- free ex- tract. Crude fiber. Lbs. Lbs. En- ergy in 100 lbs. di- gesti- ble nutri- ents. Calo ries. .95 1.29 .83 .83 .80 .42 .85 .79 1.51 2.39 2.39 2.58 26.93 26.31 23.25 21. 29 21.43 27.78 21.77 25.61 23.87 22.34 23. 42 26. 02 11. &5 11.87 12.86 12.35 9.13 11.00 10.28 12.11 10.80 8.93 10.96 10.56 24.19 21.46 25. 84 24.96 23.24 29.98 9.27 8.19 9.67 9.01 10.17 9.75 12.20 13.10 11.91 3.60 .72 17.20 7.13 62.09 61.83 61.39 81,234 81,330 78,036 69, 873 68, 536 81,906 69,415 79, 410 74,554 73,175 76, 957 77,413 78,984 73, 450 82, 630 82,942 81,272 96,520 6.74 6.89 6.55 40,644 42,020 42, 770 .05 45. 25 63.29 35, 525 16,290 136, 636 136, 376 136, 363 2.82 122,062 1.70 139,747 2.65 3.12 64.70 45. 03 .38 144, 454 .59 118,727 aDigestibilitv calculated from values obtained with meadow hay. b Digestibility calculated from values obtained with red clover hay. c Digestibility calculated from values obtained with wheat straw. 15 Table 1.— Average composition of a number of feeding stuffs —Continued. Kind of food material. MILL PRODUCTS — COn. Rye flour Pea meal Ground corn and oats (equal parts) Percentage composition. Water, WASTE PKODUCTS. Corncob I Hominy chop ! Corn bran Gluten meal ; Gluten feed Oat feed Barley screenings — Brewers' grains, wet.. Brewers' grains, dried . Rye bran Wheat bran Wheat middlings W'heat shorts Wheat screenings Cotton-seed meal Cotton-seed hulls Linseed meal, old process Linseed meal, new process Beet-suga r molasses . . Cane-sugar molasses. . Per ct. 13.1 10.5 11.9 10.7 11.1 8.7 8.6 7.8 7.7 12.2 75.7 8.0 11.8 n.9 12.1 11.8 11.6 8.2 11.1 9.2 9.9 25.7 25.1 Pro- tein. Per ct. 6.7 20.2 9.6 2.4 9.8 9.8 30.0 23.4 16.0 12.3 5.4 24.1 14.7 15.4 15.6 14.9 12.6 42.3 4.2 32.9 36.9 a 7. 3 a2.4 Fat. Per ct. 0.8 1.2 4.4 .5 8.3 6.2 8.8 8.3 7.1 2.8 1.6 6.7 2.8 4.0 4.0 4.5 3.0 13.1 2.2 7.9 3.0 Nitro- gen- free ex- tract. Per ct. 78.3 51.1 Crude fiber. Per ct. 0.4 14.4 Digestible materials in 100 pounds. Ash. 71.9 54.9 64.5 62.6 49.2 63.2 .59.4 61.8 12.5 44.8 63.9 53.9 60.4 66.8 66.1 23.6 33.4 35.4 36.8 6 58.2 6 69.3 30.1 3.8 11.2 2.6 6.2 6.1 7.3 3.8 13.0 3.3 9.0 4.6 7.4 4.9 5.6 46.3 8.9 8.8 Per ct. 0.7 2.6 2.2 1.4 2.6 5 8 1 7 6 0 1 3 3 1 3.4 3.5 5.8 3.3 4.6 2.9 7.2 2.8 5.7 5.6 8.8 3.2 Pro- tein. Lbs. Fat. Lbs. Nitro- gen- free ex- tract. Lbs. Crude fiber. En- ergy in 100 lbs. di- gesti- ble nutri- ents. Lbs. 7.3 .. 3.2 .. .58.2 69.3 Calo- ries. 259, 182 298, 398 a Largely nonalbuminoid nitrogenous materials. 6 Very largely sugars. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS. CEREAL GRAINS. It will be seen that the cereal grains re.semble each other quite closely in composition, being characterized by fairly low water con- tent and a considerable amount of protein and nitrogen-free extract. Some crude fiber, derived from the outer or bran layer of the corn, is also present. The superiority of one grain over another must there- fore depend, in large measure, if it exists at all, on some factor other than composition. It has been urged by many that oats possess a peculiar stimulating body called "avenin," and are on this account superior to other grains for horses. Oats undoubtedly possess a flavor or some such characteristic which makes them a favorite food with horses, but the most careful chemical study has failed to reveal any substance of the nature of the theoretical avenin. Recent experi- ments" have shown that the fat of oats and oat straw is more thoroughly digested than that of other cereals. This is suggested as a possible explanation of the superior feeding value of oats. aLandw. Jahrb., 29 (1900), p. 483. 16 It is believed by many that horses show more spirit when oats form part of the ration. Discussing this subject, Director W. A. Henry, <* of the Wisconsin Experiment Station, says: Horses nurtured on oats show mettle which can not be reached by the use of any other feeding stuff. Tlien, too, there is no grain so safe for horse feeeding, the ani- mal rarely being seriously injured if by accident or otherwise the groom deals out an oversupply. This safety is due in no small measure to the presence of the oat hull, which causes a given weight of grain to possess considerable volume, because of which there is less liability of mistake in measuring out the ration; further, the digestive tract can not hold a quantity of oat grains sufficient to produce serious dis- orders. Unless the horse is hard pressed for time or has poor teeth oats should be fed in the whole condition. Musty oats should be avoided. Horsemen generally agree that new oats should not be used, though Boussingault, conducting extensive experiments with army horses, arrived at the conclusion that new oats do not possess the injurious qualities attributed to them. In the opinion of Lavalard:* Not only may single grains and other single foods be substituted for oats, but more or less complex mixtures may T)e used as well. We believe tliat both from a hygi- enic and an economic standpoint our experiments have settled this matter, which has provoked so much discussion. An examination of the statistics we have gath- ered in the last thirty-five years show that, although a great saving has been effected, it has not been at the expense of the productive power of the horses. Boussingault, perhaps, first suggested on the basis of experiments that other materials may be substituted for oats in the ration of horses. He prepared a table of nutritive equivalents, using hay as a unit of comparison. This was not very satisfactory, since the com- position of hay varies within wide limits. The grain most commonly substituted for oals in this country is Indian corn or maize. It is so commonly used, especially in the South and West, that it is difKcult to realize the prejudice which has existed against it in other countries. It has been asserted that there are cUmatic and other conditions which render corn a suitable horse feed in America which do not exist elsewhere. This hardly seems reason- able, and has not been borne out by the numerous experiments under- taken in France, Germany, and other countries. Such experiments have demonstrated the value of corn and shown the truth of the opinions generally held in this country, namely, that it is a safe and satisfactory feeding stuff for horses. Barley, rye, and wheat are sometimes fed to horses. Their resem- blance to oats will be seen by reference to the table. All these grains should be substituted on the basis of chemical composition, and not pound for pound. As would be expected, the ground grains differ little from the same varieties before grinding. Bran, shorts, middlings, and other by-products vary in composition, but all have a low water content, while the crude fiber content is gen- a Feeds and Feeding, Madison, Wis., 1898. 6 Experiment Station Record, 12 (1900-1901), p. -L 17 erally rather high. Their nutritive ingredients are principally protein and carboliydrates. The high crude filler content is due to the fact that these products represent the outer layers of the grain, which are more hard and firm in construction than the interior portion, which consists largely of starch. The total number of tests to compare different feeding stuflfs for horses which have been undertaken by the agricultural experiment stations in the United States is not large compared with the tests made with other farm animals. The results obtained are, however, interesting. Some of those which have to do with grain, whole and ground, follow: At the Maine Station Jordan " made a comparison with oats and a mixture of one-third pea meal and two-thirds middlings for Percheron colts. No advantage was observed for the oats over the mixture. A comparison of oats with mixed grains (middlings, gluten meal, and linseed meal), also made with colts, showed that considerabl}^ larger gains were made on the mixed grain ration, which was also the more nitrogenous. At the Utah Station J. W. Sanborn^ tested the effect of feeding grains (rye, oats, and bran) and cut hay, mixed and separatel3\ So far as the test showed, the two methods of feeding were equally satis- factory. No regular variation in the weight of the two lots of horses was observed when the comparative value of the whole and cut hay (alfalfa and clover mixed) was tested. The comparative value of corn and oats supplementing bran and hay was also tested at the Utah Station.'' The grains were ground and mixed before feeding. In these and other tests referred to above it appears that during the summer corn and timothy were not as good as oats, wheat, and clover for maintaining horses. During the winter corn and timothy were as satisfactory as oats, clover, and timothy in maintaining weight. During the spring and summer wheat or bran and mixed hay produced greater gains in weight than oats, wheat, or bran and mixed hay. In another triaH corn meal and timothy hay did not sustain work horses as well as oats, wheat, and clover hay. The value of oats versus bran and shorts, the feeding value of wheat, wheat versus bran and ground wheat, were tested with horses and mules by J. H. Shepperd' at the North Dakota Station. Bran and shorts were found to have practically the same feeding value as oats. Unground wheat was poorly digested, and it was therefore believed undesirable to feed it as a sole grain ration. When wheat was added to a ration of bran and shorts 1:1 no advantage was gained. On the basis of tests reported, bran and ground wheat 1:2 was considered « Maine Station Rpt. 1890, p. 68. c^Utah Station Rpt. 1892, p. 30. b Utah Station Bui. 13. « North Dakota Station Bui. 20. c Utah Station Bui. 36. 17399— No. 125—03 2 18 a more satisfactory grain ration for horses at light work than whole oats. The New Hampshire Station " studied the value of different grain mixtures for horses with the view to determining whether the cost of a ration could not be diminished by lessening the amount of oats fed. The rations consisted of different mixtures of oats, bran, corn, gluten feed, linseed-oil meal, and cotton-seed meal. Fairly good results were obtained with all the grain mixtures, the mixture containing cotton- seed meal being least satisfactory, as it was not relished at first by the horses. It is stated by C. W. Burkett, who carried on the tests, that the oats proved no more satisfactory than the other concentrated feed- ing stuffs, either in respect to the general condition of the animal or the efficiency for work, and the conclusion was drawn that a combi- nation of feeding stuffs, furnishing the desired nutriment at a reason- able cost, should l)e considered in preparing rations for horses. A mixture of bran and corn, half and half, is regarded as a good substi- tute for corn and oats for work horses. In a stud}^ of alfalfa hay and timothy hay for horses at the Utah Station* the comparative merits of oats and a mixture of 1)ran and shorts were also tested. The conclusion was drawn that the mixed grain could be satisfactorily substituted for oats. The barle}^ grown on the Pacific coast is extensively used in the feeding of horses, and its use for this purpose is old in other countries. Elsewhere barley is not extensively used as a feed in the United States, doubtless owing to the fact that it is in such demand for brewing pur- poses that it is usually high in price. Wherever it is grown, how- ever, it is frequently possible to secure at a low cost grain which is off color owing to rain or fog during harvest, and which, for this or some other reason, is unfit for brewing, but valuable as feed. Barley may be fed whole to horses having good teeth and not required to do severe work. Since ground barlej^ like wheat, forms a past}^ mass when mixed with saliva it is regarded as more satisfactory to crush than to grind it, if for any reason it is considered undesirable to feed the grain whole. At the North Dakota Station J. H. Shepperd'^ has recently studied the value of barley as a feed for work horses and mules. For some months this grain was fed with timothy ha}^ to three horses and two mules. The mules did not eat the barley with marked relish at any time, but for two months, during which time they were performing light work, the}^ ate enough to keep them in condition. The work was then increased, but they would not eat a correspondingly greater quan- tity of barley, and soon began to refuse it altogether for a day or so « New Hampshire Station Bui. 82. c North Dakota Station Bui. 45. «> Utah Station Bui. 77. 19 at a time. The mules were then given oats on alternate months. This grain was eaten with relish, and gains in weight were made. Although the trial lasted nine months, the mules persistently refused barley. Of the horses mentioned above, two were work horses. Thej^ were fed alternately barley and oats with timothy hay for nine periods of twenty-eight days each. They ate the barley without regard to the amount of work required of them. On the oat ration there was an average dail}" gain of 0.38 pound per horse. On the barley ration there was an average daily gain per horse of 0.15 pound. In both cases the horses averaged 5.50 hours' work per da3^ This trial indicates that horses, when taxed to the limit b}- hard work, can not be supported upon barley quite so well as upon oats, and that it is worth slightl}^ less per pound than oats with stock which is given a medium amount of work. It indicates further that mules take less kindly to barley than do horses, and that horses which are inclined to be "dainty" will not eat barley so readily as oats. Malted barley was compared with oats in a trial made with four work horses. The two grains were alternated in different periods. Oat hav was supplied as coarse fodder. The malted barle}^ was prepared as follows: After soaking in water for twentj'-four hours the grain was spread on the floor in a layer 6 inches or less in depth and allowed to remain until the sprouts were 0.5 to 0.75 inch long; it was then fed. On the oat ration there was a dail}^ gain of 0.49 pound, and on the malted barle}^ there was an average daily loss of 0.76 pound per horse. When fed malted barle}' the horses ate 0.1 pound more grain than when fed oats. In this test the horses worked between five and six hours per day on an average. A mixture of malted barley and bran was also compared with oats, the two rations being alternated as above. The grains were mixed in the proportion of two parts of barle}^ (before malting) to one part of bran. As in the above test, oat ha}^ was fed with the grain. The horses worked some seven hours per day. When fed a barley and bran ration they ate an amount equivalent to about 17.1 pounds of drv grain per day. There was an average dail}^ loss of 0.8 pound per horse. When fed the oat ration an average of 16.2 pounds was consumed per da}^ and there was an average daily gain per horse of 0.22 pound. In other words, the horses did not maintain their weight on the bran and malted barley, although they ate a larger quantity than when the oat ration was fed. These trials indicate that malted barley is not an economical feed for work horses, and that the addition of 1 part bran to 2 parts of malt, as measured by the dry barley, from which it was produced, is neither a cheap nor satisfactory^ feed for hard-worked horses. Few experiments have been reported on the feeding value of Kafir corn for horses. At the Oklahoma Station, according to Morrow and 20 Bone,'' 41 bushels of ground Kafir corn were fed during- a year to a pair of work horses in addition to otlier grain and coarse fodder. From this test and others made with different farm animals the con- clusion was drawn that Kafir corn is a healthful, palatable, and nutri- tious feed with a feeding value somewhat less than that of corn. This grain is very flinty, and to secure the best results should be ground. According to information recently received from the station, Kafir corn is highly esteemed locally as a feed for horses, many being kept throughout the year on this grain and prairie hay. The unthrashed heads are commonly fed, a head of Kafir corn being regarded as equivalent to an ear of corn. At the Mississippi Station* chicken corn, a variet}^ of Kafir corn, was compared with corn meal as a feed for mules doing heavy work, mixed hay being fed in addition to the gi'ain ration. The mules fed the chicken corn lost in weight a little more than those fed corn meal. According to those making the test "the feeding value of the chicken corn is about as high as that of the corn." LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. Beans and other leguminous seed resemble the cereal grains in hav- ing a low water content. In Europe horse beans are common feeding stuff for horses. Lavalard says: ^ The experiments made many years' ago for the Paris cab companies warrant the statement that when beans replace oats, only half the quantity should be used. Tests made with army horses have confirmed this conclusion. The chemical compo- sition of beans shows why they are regarded as more nutritious than oats alone. Beans may be advantageously fed to horses required to perform long continued, sud- den, or severe labor. The opinion is jirevalent in P^ngland that in hunting it is always possible to recognize horses fed with beans by their great endurance. In accord with the practice of the leading racing stables, we used a large proportion of beans in the ration of young horses which were being trained. The results obtained were most satisfactory. OIL CAKES AND OTHER COMMERCIAL BY-PRODUCTS. The various cakes, gluten materials, and similar feeding stuffs are, generall}^ speaking, commercial by-products. Thus, cotton-seed cake is the material left after the oil has been expressed from the cotton seed. In the same way, linseed cake is the residue obtained in the manufacture of linseed oil. If this cake is ground it becomes linseed meal. In the manufacture of beer the malted grain is known as brew- ers' grain and is best fed after drying. When starch is manufactured from corn, the nitrogenous portion of the grain is I'ojected and consti- tutes gluten feed and gluten meal. The cereal breakfast food com- panies have placed man}' feeding stuffs upon the market made up of « Oklahoma Station Rpt. 1899, p. 31. ^Loc. cit. ^Mississippi Station Bui. 8. 21 various ]\y-products obtained in the manufacture of their breakfast foods and similar products. These feeding stuffs vary in value, but maj^ g-enerall}^ be said to represent the branny portion of the grains from which they are derived. A comparison Avas made by E. B. and L. A. Voorhees" of dried brewers' grains when substituted for oats, pound for pound, at the New Jersey stations, eight horses heavily worked during the summer being used. As shown by weight and general condition of the animals, the brewers' grains were fully equal to the oats, pound for pound, while their cost was considerably less. In a second trial, dried brewers' grains were compared with a mixture of wheat bran and linseed meal 5:1.5 when fed in addition to timothy hay and corn. The uniformity in the amount of feed consumed and the weight of the animals, taken in connection with the work performed, indicates that there was no material difference in the value of the two rations. According to calculations made (timothy hay at the time being worth $18, wheat bran $17.50, corn meal $22, dried brewers' grain $17, and linseed meal $29 per ton), a farm horse weighing 1,000 pounds can be fed for $30.81 during the six months of the year when the most work is performed if dried brewers' grain furnishes the bulk of the necessary protein, and for $33.49 if wheat bran and linseed meal are the chief sources of this nutrient. If the fertilizing value of the feeding stuff's is taken into account the difference in favor of the brewers' grains is less marked. In tests made by Emery ^ at the North Carolina Station horses were satisfactoril}^ fed 2 pounds of cotton-seed meal per head daily as part of the mixed ration. When the amount was increased to 3.5 pounds the results were not as favorable. It is stated that neither of the horses used in the test showed any symptoms which indicated that cotton-seed meal disagreed with them. It is also stated that at the Biltmore estate 2 pounds of cotton-seed meal per head daily were fed to the horses and mules with 13 to 15 pounds of cut hay and finely cut corn feed, 4 pounds of wheat bran, and 6 pounds of corn meal. On Sunda3\s the ration was made up of whole corn and oats and uncut hay. According to later information the feeding of cotton-seed meal has not been found satisfactory at Biltmore. In the tests with mixed rations, carried on at the New Hampshire Station (p. 18), the cotton-seed mix- ture was least satisfactory. In the opinion of Director Stubbs, ^ of the Louisiana stations, cotton- seed meal ma}" be fed with satisfactory results to horses and mules. At the Louisiana stations 1 or 2 pounds per mule per day have been fed with success. Six pounds is regarded as the maximum quantity «New Jersey Stations Bui. 92, Rpt. 1893, p. 179. 6 North Carolina Station Bui. 109. c Louisiana Planter, 28 (1902), p. 178. 22 which it is desirable to feed, and, in Director Stubbs's opinion, this amount should be led up to graduall3^ He notes that only bright yel- low cotton-seed meal of a nutty, pleasant odor and taste should be used, and that no reddish or musty meal should be fed. It is stated that excessive quantities of cotton-seed meal should be avoided, since it is a very concentrated feed. It should be gradually added to a ration, carefull}^ mixed with other feeds, until mules learn to relish it, and no uneaten residues should be allowed to ferment in the feed boxes. The cereal grains, ground and unground, commercial by-products, leguminous seeds, oil cakes, and similar products are very frequently called concentrated feeds, the name being suggested by the fact that, generally speaking, the food value, especially the protein content, is high in comparison with the bulk. So far as the general experience and the results of American and foreign feeding experiments go, most of the common feeding stuffs in the group are wholesome and valuable for horses. If any one of these feeding stuff's is substituted for oats, which ma}" be taken for a standard, the substitution should be propor- tional to the composition of the two feeds and not pound for pound. FORAGE CROPS, FR^SH AND CURED. The various forage crops — grass, clover, Katir corn, corn, etc. — all have a high water content; that is, they are more or less succulent and juicy. They contain, however, considerable nutritive material, usually protein and carbohydrates, and are valuable feeding stuffs. The leguminous forage crops — alfalfa, clover, cowpeas, soy beans, vetch, etc. — are richer in protein than the grasses. When the forage crops are dried and cured the resulting ha}^ is richer in proportion to its bulk than the green material; in other words, it has been concen- trated by the evaporation of the greater part of the water present. However, this is not the onl}^ change which has taken place. When hay is properly cured it undergoes a peculiar sort of fermentation or oxidation which materially affects its composition. As shown by Holdelieis's " recent investigations, fermentation improves the hay by diminishing the quantity of crude fiber and by increasing the relative amount of other nutrients, especially nitrogen- free extract. The greater the fermentation the more the crude fiber is diminished, and this is especiall}^ marked when hay is dried on racks. Hay which has undergone proper fermentation has a better flavor and agrees better with animals and is apparently more digesti- ble than hay which has dried quickly in the sun without fermentation. Fermentation apparently diminishes the amount of pentosans in hay, especially in the case of hay from grasses. It also seems that the relative amount of true protein is increased. «Mitt. Landw. Inst. Univ. Breslan, 1899, p. 59. 23 The feeding value of different forage crops, fresh and cured, depends in considerable degree upon the stage of growth, as has been shown by a number of chemical studies of the composition of different crops and cuttings of alfalfa, young and more matured corn forage, etc. Generally speaking, the nutritive value of the crop increases until o-rowth is complete and diminishes somewhat as the plants mature or become overripe. Straw, the fully ripened stalk of cereal grains, contains some nutritive material, l)ut is less nutritious than the same portion of the plant cut before ripening. In the perfectly ripe con- dition the nutritive material, elaborated in different portions of the ordinary forage plants, has been conveyed to the seed and used for its development or stored as reserve material. Green forage crops are frequently preserved by ensiling. In this process the material undergoes a peculiar oxidation which correspond- ingly changes it in composition and food value. Some of the carbo- hydrates are changed into alcohol, acetic and other acids, and crude fiber is undoubtedly softened somewhat, and possibly the silage is thus rendered more digestible. Bodies having peculiar flavor and odor are also formed. The green crops, hay, straw, other cured crops, and silage are fre- quently called " coarse fodder" or " roughage." This term is due to the fact that they contain a comparatively small amount of nutritive material and a high proportion of crude fiber as compared with their total bulk. Although inferior to concentrated feeds in composition, they are an essential part of the ration of horses and other farm ani- mals, serving to give the required bulk to the food and being useful in other waj^s. It is believed that unless the food, when taken into the stomach, is comparatively bulky and the mass is more or less loose in sti'ucture, it is not readily acted on by the digestive juices. The intestinal tract of the horse is long in proportion to the size of the animal, and food remains in it for several days. Experiments indicate that crude fiber, which is only slightly digestible by man, is quite thoroughly digested by horses, and even more thoroughly digested by ruminants, owing its digestibility to the fact that it is fermented for a comparatively long period by micro-organisms in the intestines. Regarding the need of straw in a ration to supply the necessary bulk, Lavalard's" opinion follows: The statement is often made that horses can not do without straw [to supply coarse fodder]. This is an error, for we have fed horses hay and oats during very long periods, and have never noticed that they suffered any inconvenience or detrnnent. This is a matter of importance, since it is often inconvenient to obtain straw [even for bedding], and in such cases peat, sawdust, sand, etc., may be profitably used as bedding in place of straw. "Loc. cit. 24 This does not mean that crude fiber, one of the important constitu- ents of coarse fodder, is not required, but rather that a sufficient amount of crude fiber was supplied by the hay and oats in the cases cited by the author. As part of a series comprising some fifteen experiments carried on at the Maryland Station," an attempt was made to feed the horses on oats alone. At the beginning- of the trial one horse consumed 6,000 grams (13.2 pounds) and the other 6,750 grams (14.9 pounds) of oats per day, but after a few days refused to eat. The experiment could not be continued long enough to permit the determi- nation of the coefficients of digestibility. Under the experimental conditions it was regarded as impossible to maintain horses on a grain ration alone; it seemed certain that they required some coarse fodder in addition. From such experiments the general deduction is obvious that the common practice of feeding horses on a ration of grain and coarse fodder is reasonable and based on the actual physiological requirements of the animal. A number of feeding experiments have been made on the compara- tive value for horses of different forage crops, fresh and cured. The American experiment stations have studied the more important coarse fodders in use in this country. A summary of their work follows. D. O. Nourse* of the Virginia Station reported a number of trials of the value of corn silage for horses and mules. Gradually increas- ing amounts were fed until they were given all the silage they could eat, with hay and grain in addition. Provided animals are gradually accustomed to it, as shown by these tests, silage is a satisfactory feed for horses and mules. In tests carried on by J. H. Shepperd'' at the North Dakota Station oat straw and prairie hay were compared. Oat straw was found to be a cheaper horse fodder than hay, but when it was used mo re' careful feeding was necessary to keep the horses in good condition. In a subsequent test '^ l>rome grass hay gave as good results when fed to work horses as timothy hay. In a study of different grain mixtures for work horses, carried on at the New Hampshire Station,^ the relative merits of timothy hay and corn stover were also studied. The rations consisted of 12 pounds of hay and corn stover alone or mixed, fed with 14 pounds of mixed grain. During the test, which covered nearly three months, the two sorts of coarse fodder were found equally satisfactory. Although the corn stover cost only one-third as nmch as the timothy hay, the con- clusion was drawn that it has a feeding value equal to timothy hay fed with suitable mixtures of either corn and oats or corn and bran, and that when corn stover or timothy hay supplied the coarse fodder in a "Maryland Station Bui. 51. '?North Dakota Station Bui. 45. 6 Virginia Station Bui. 80. ^New Hampshire Station Bui. 82. c North Dakota Station Bui. 20. 25 ration, oats and corn, half and half, and bran and corn, half and half, have generally equivalent feeding values. Bermuda gi-ass hay and timothy hay, fed in addition to corn, were compared with working mules at the Mississippi Station." No marked differences in the cost of the rations nor in the gains made by the mules were observed. The Oklahoma Station ^ reports a test in which Kafir corn stover was fed to horses and mules, the amount eaten by the horses averaging some 32 pounds per day and by the mules some 41 pounds. From this and tests of other farm animals the conclusion was drawn that Kafir corn stover is about equal in feeding value to corn stover, and that running stalks through a thrashing machine is a satisfactory method of preparing this feeding stuff. At the Utah Station ^ a ration of timothy hay and grain was com- pared with one consisting of clover, oats, and wheat, two lots of work horses being used. The nutritive ratio of the first ration was 1:14.8; of the second, 1:5.5. For more than half the test the grains were fed unground. Somewhat better results were obtained with a ration hav- ing the narrower nutritive ratio. However, in a second test,*^ the ration having a wide nutritive ratio (1:15.2) gave results as satisfactory as the one having a narrower ratio (1:7.8). Later, at the Utah Station, the comparative merits of alfalfa hay and timothy hay were investigated by L. A. Merrill *" in tests with work horses and driving horses, which extended over four years. In some of the tests as much as 25 pounds of alfalfa or timothy hay with 10 pounds of bran and shorts was fed per head dail3\ In other tests the amount of hay was considerably smaller and the amount of grain larger. In some cases oats were fed instead of bran and shorts. Generally speak- ing, the timoth}" ration was the more expensive and the horses did not maintain their weight on it as well as on the alfalfa ration. Tests were also made in which the feeding value of an alfalfa ration without grain was studied. It was found that 20 pounds of this mate- rial was suflficient to maintain the weight of a horse weighing nearly 1,400 pounds, provided no work was performed. When at hard work some 33 pounds of alfalfa hay was barely sufficient to maintain the weight. When the work was very severe 40 pounds of alfalfa hay was not an adequate ration, although ifwas about the limit which could be eaten. Regarding the experiments, the statement was made m effect that it is doubtful if there is any economy in feeding a horse 40 pounds of alfalfa per Aixj. It is certain that better results can be secured by limiting the amount of hay to 20 pounds and substituting for the extra 20 pounds enough grain to make up the cost. This would secure at « Mississippi Station Bui. 15. (i Utah Station Bui. 30. ^Oklahoma Station Rpt. 1899, p. 18. «Utah Station Bui. 77. cUtah Station Rpt. 1892, p. 30. 26 current prices [1902] 8 pounds of bran and shorts or 3.6 pounds of oats per day, and this amount with 20 pounds of alfalfa will make a better maintenance ration than ttO pounds of alfalfa. Aside from the finan- cial consideration it should be emphasized that if digestive disorders are to be entirely avoided concentrated foods must make up part of the diet of the horse. Considered as a whole the experiments are very favorable to the use of alfalfa hay as a coarse fodder for horses. The fact is recog- nized that, like other leguminous crops, it contains a larger amount of protein in proportion to its bulk than timothy. Feeding alfalfa did not exercise any bad effects on the health of the horses. It is stated that attacks of colic and other digestive disorders can be pre- vented b}^ a judicious system of feeding. The amount of hay fed on most Utah farms, it is believed, could be reduced at least one-half. It may be economical to reduce the amount of ha}^ and increase the amount of grain fed to horses. In this connection the author saj^s: It is folly to claim that a horse will not eat more than is necessary if allowed the liberty of the stack and the grain bin. The argument is sometimes made that a horse under natural conditions, on pasture, never eats more than is necessary, and that under these conditions he is never subject to digestive disorders. While this is undoubtedly true, it must be kept in mind that as soon as we stable the horse and require work of him, we have taken him away from his natural condition and placed him under unnatural environments. It was observed that larger amounts of water were consumed on the alfalfa ration and that the amount of urine excreted was also larger and had a higher specific gravity. The excess, however, was never found great enough to cause any inconvenience. These experiments at the Utah Station are especially interesting since they confirm the results of twelve years' practical tests of the feeding value of alfalfa. During this period the station horses have always received this material as a coarse fodder, except when they were fed other rations for experimental purposes. From a study of the comparative digestibility of alfalfa hay and meadow hay by horses, Miintz and Girard" concluded that the former is superior as regards nitrogenous constituents and the latter as regards carbohydrates. In studies at the Wyoming Station, undertaken by F. E. Emery* to determine what constituted maintenance rations for horses performing little work, alfalfa hay constituted the principal feed, no grain being supplied. It was found that farm horses required to perform very little work maintained their weight on an average daily ration, per 1,000 pounds live weight, of 13.75 pounds alfalfa ha}^ and 2.25 pounds oat straw. A driving horse maintained his weight on a daily ration of 17.71 pounds alfalfa hay and 2. 83 pounds oat straw per 1,000 pounds live weight. «Ann. Agron., 24 (1898), p. 5. ^Wyoming Station Press Buls. n. ser. 5, 10. 27 In discussing the subject of alfalfa for horses, the California Station^ says in effect that in regions where it is a staple crop the quantit}^ of protein which can be supplied in green and cured alfalfa is so great that much less grain is required than when the coarse fodder consists of cereal haj's only. For the Pacific coast, where cereal hays replace so largely those from meadow grasses, the station recommends a ration of alfalfa hay with wheat hay or barley hay and grain. In a recent discussion of the problem of horse feeding under local conditions. Director Stubbs,^ of the Louisiana stations, emphasizes the value of cowpea vine ha}'. The outcome of the different experiments is in accord with the observation of careful feeders, viz, that the various common coarse fodders may be fed to horses as circumstances demand. Although timothy hay is in man}^ regions regarded as the preferable coarse feed, yet experience has shown that corn fodder, hay from wheat, barley, and other cereal grains, and from clover, and alfalfa may be substituted for it. That this is what might be expected is shown by a study of the com- position of these feeding stuffs. As will be seen by reference to the table above (p. 13), they resemble each other very closely in the char- acter and amount of nutrients which they contain — alfalfa, clover, and other leguminous hays being richer in protein than the cured grasses and cereal forage. Straw is not much fed to horses in the United States, but is a common feeding stuff in Europe. As shown by its composition and digestibility (pp. 14, 41), it compares quite favor- ably with other coarse fodders. The substitution of one coarse fodder for another in a ration should always be made on the basis of compo- sition and digestibility, rather than pound for pound. Very few tests have been made on the comparative value of differ- ent uncured feeds or different sorts of pasturage in horse feeding, though all the common forage crops are regarded as wholesome if properly fed. In discussing green crops for horses, ^Lavalard says: Such feed is very dependent upon the fertilizer used for the crop, the method of harvesting, and the condition of the animal fed. Green fodder does not contain sufficient nutritive material to make it in any real sense a feeding stuff for horses performing much work. The same may be said of certain plants which have been much advertised from time to time, such as furze, couch grass [sacchaline] , etc. ROOTS AND TUBERS. Carrots, Swedish turnips or ruta-bagas, and other roots and tubers, green vegetables, and fruits contain a high percentage of water and small amounts of the different classes of nutrients. Generally speak- ing, the percentage of crude fiber is smaller than in the green forage crops; but since the proportion of nutritive material is small in com- parison with the total bulk, they are ordinarily referred to as coarse "California Station Bui. 132. ^Loc. cit. c Experiment Station Record, 12 (1900-1901), p. 4. 28 fodder. The use of these materials as food for horses has been attempted at different times with varying success, but it is not fol- lowed to any great extent in this country. In the opinion of a recent German writer, about 12 pounds of raw potatoes per 1,000 pounds live weight may be fed to horses with advantage and, if supplemented with proper feed, there need be no fear of physiological disturbances. When fed in this amount the potatoes should be mixed with hay or cut straw to insure their being properly chewed. If small, they ma}- be fed whole; if large, they should be sliced. In an}^ case only health}^, ripe, unsprouted tubers should be used. It is said that horses should not be watered immediatel}^ after a ration containing potatoes. ' MOLASSES AND OTHER BY-PRODUCTS OF SUGAR MAKING. The beet chips, diffusion residue, and other by-products obtained in the manufacture of beet sugar, consist of the sugar beet from which a considerable portion of the carbohydrates has been removed. The total amount of nutritive material present, however, is fairly large. These products, properly speaking, are also coarse fodders. Molasses, which consists almost entirely of carbohydrates (sugars), was used as early as 1830 as a feed for horses, and has recently attracted consider- able attention in this connection. When used for this purpose it is usually sprinkled on dry feed, being first diluted with water, or it is mixed with some material which absorbs it and renders it easy to handle, such as peat dust, or with some material rich in nitrogen, as dried blood. In the latter case the mixture more nearly represents a concentrated feed than the molasses alone, or molasses mixed with an absorbent material only. Cane-sugar molasses is also used as a feed- ing stuff. It differs from beet molasses in that it contains glucose in addition to cane sugar, and has a much smaller percentage of salts. In this connection the experiments reporting the successful feed- ing of cane molasses to over 400 work horses at a sugar plantation in the Fiji Islands" are of interest. As high as 30 pounds of molasses was fed per head daily at different times, but the ration finally adopted consisted of 1.5 pounds of molasses, 3 pounds of bran, and 4 pounds of maize. In addition, green sugar cane tops were fed. The health of the horses remained excellent. Molasses did not cause diarrhea, but rather constipation, which was counteracted by feeding bran. Feeding molasses effected a saving of over $45 per head per annum. However, it was believed that such a saving was possible only by reason of large quantities of waste molasses and valueless cane tops available on the spot. In discussing these experiments the following statements were made: For working horses the sugar in cane molasses is a satisfactory substitute for starchy- food, being readily digested * * * and 15 pounds can be given to a 1,270-pound working horse with advantage to the health of the animal and to the efficiency of its «Agr. Gaz. New South Wales, 9 (1898), p. 169. 29 work. It produces no undue fattening, softness, nor injury to the wind. Tlie high proportion of salts in it has no injurious effect. An all)uminoid ratio as low as 1:11.8 has proved highly suitable for heavy continuous work when a sufficient quantity of digestible matter is given. According to W. C. Stubbs/" of the Louisiana stations, cane-sugar molasses has been used extensively with success for a number of years for feeding horses and mules in Louisiana, many feeders keeping ' mules exclusively on a ration of rice bran and molasses in addition to cowpea hay. The general custom is to feed the molasses from a large trough, allowing the mules to eat it ad lil?itum. It is said they will con- sume with apparent relish from 8 to 12 pounds per head daily. The mules at the Louisiana stations have been fed molasses daily ad libitum for eight or ten years, and, according to Director Stubbs, show its good effects "in their splendid condition, lively action, and endurance of work." In this connection it is interesting to note the results obtained by G. E. Griffin ^ in the experimental feeding of cane-sugar molasses to arm}" horses in Porto Kico. In accordance with the local custom, this material was fed with chopped grass, the ration being gradually sub- stituted for the usual ration of oats and hay. The molasses was diluted with 25 per cent of water, and as much as possible was mixed with the chopped grass. The remainder was added to the drinking water. The test reported continued some five months and led to the deduction that 35 pounds of grass and 13 to 15 pounds of molasses daily per 1,000 pounds live weight is sufficient to maintain a horse in good condition in a climate like that of Porto Rico. This method of feeding, it was believed, had some disadvantages, which were as follows: Molasses attracts insects, notably flies and ants; it sticks to the animal's coat, smears his face and breast, halter and halter strap, soils the clothing and equipment of the men, and causes some trouble and delay in mixing it with the grass, which must be cut fine. G. H. Berns^ reports the successful feeding of molasses to 100 draft horses working ten hours a day hauling very heavy loads usually at a walk. The horses averaged 1,700 pounds in weight and were fed per head, night and morning, 1 quart of molasses diluted with 3 quarts of water and thoroughly mixed with 6 pounds of cut hay of good qual- ity, 1.5 quarts of corn meal, and 2.5 quarts of coarse bran. In addi- tion they were fed 5 quarts of dry oats in the middle of the day and 11 pounds of long hay at night. It is stated that the horses gradually improved in condition and gained in weight during the fourteen months covered by the test, their coats becoming sleek and glossy, while the amount of work performed was the same as before the molasses ration was adopted. In the meantime their general health is said to have «Loc. cit. '^Amer. Vet. Key., 26 (1902-3), p. 615. &Amer. Vet. Rev., 25 (1901-2), p. 894. 30 been excellent, and cases of acute indigestion or spasmodic colic very rare, although formerly quite frequent. The molasses ration was decided upon after its value had been demonstrated in a test with two horses. A ration similar to the above was also fed with success to a number of driving horses. In general, no disturbance was observed in changing from an ordi- nary to a molasses ration. As part of a mixed ration, the author calculates that 1 quart of molasses will replace 3 to -i quarts of oats of good qualit}'. He believes that " molasses of a good quality is a most nutritious food for horses, easily digested and assimilated, and will in many cases correct faulty digestive processes," and that " molasses- fed horses will do fully as much work and at the same time remain, as a rule, in much better general condition than animals fed on dry food, while the cost of feeding is reduced from 25 to 33 per cent." As an outgrowth of this work Dr. Berns states that molasses has been successfully fed, under his direction, to 2,500 or 3,000 horses. The value of beet-sugar molasses as a part of a ration for horses and other farm animals was tested several years ago by Dickson and Mal- peaux '^ in France. The test with horses was made with four animals fed a total ration of 15.4 pounds of oats, 11 pounds of alfalfa hay, and 11 pounds of wheat straw. Molasses was graduall}" substituted for part of the oats, until 13.2 pounds of the latter and 2 of the former were fed. The molasses was mixed with the drinking water. The feeding was continued for about six weeks, and all the horses gained slightly in weight. The authors regard the substitution of molasses for part of the oats as entirely satisfactor}^ since it was readily eaten and the vigor and weight of the horses were maintained. Grandeau * has very recently described a number of practical tests in which molasses mixtures were added to the rations of horses. The cost of the ration was diminished and the health and condition of the animals maintained. Similar results have been reported b}" other investigators in France and by Wibbens^ in Holland. From all these investigations it seems fair to conclude that molasses can be safely fed to horses when its cost in comparison with other feeding stuffs warrants its use. Apart from the nutritive material it supplies, it has a value as an appetizer and frequently renders poor hay or other feed more palatable. The feeding value of blood molasses (a mixed feed containing dried blood and beet-sugar molasses) was studied in Denmark'' with 23 horses belonging to a Copenhagen milk company. The horses were divided into two lots. One lot was fed a ration of barley and oats 1 :2 «Ann. Agron., 24 (1898), p. 353. 6 Jour. Agr. Prat., n. ser., 4 (1902), pp. 569, 599, 697. cCultura, 14 (1902), p. 520. fi^Landmandsblade, 32 (1899), p. 349. 31 during- part of the test, and later of oats and hay. Lot 2 was fed the same ration except that blood molasses was substituted for part of the grain in the ratio of 1 pound to 2 pounds; 2.5 pounds to 3 pounds, and, later, of 3 pounds to 4 pounds. This latter ratio represents about what was considered the comparative value of the molasses feed. In earlier Scandinavian experiments « the successful feeding of 2.2 pounds of beet-sugar molasses per head daily to work horses was observed; other similar tests might be cited. mUITS, FRESH AND DRIED. Although horses are often given apples as they are given lumps of sugar, fruit is not generally thought of as a feeding stuff, yet its use for this purpose is by no means novel. The Arabs, according to E. Daumas,* commonly feed their horses fresh dates. In such dates the pits are soft and are eaten with the pulp. Sometimes 3 or 4 ]3ounds of fresh dates are mixed with water to a sort of mush before feeding. It is believed that dates are fattening, but that they do not produce muscle. In California and possibly in other regions fruit, especially prunes and other dried fruit, is sometimes fed when the market is overstocked or when for some other reason it can not be profitably sold. Accord- ing to a recent statement,'^ small prunes of low market value have been successfully fed to horses for a long period. It is stated that the horses eat them with relish. The pits should be crushed before feeding. The California Station'^ has reported analyses of a number of fresh and dried fruits and discussed their value as stock feed. A recent report of the Arizona Station '^ gives the composition of almond hulls or pericarps, the portion of the almond removed before the nut i.s marketed, and states that this material has been found to be a fatten- ing feed for horses. All common fruits when fresh are very succulent, containing on an average 80 to 90 per cent water, the nutritive material consisting almost entirely of carbohydrates. When dried — i. e., concentrated by evaporation — they are much more nutritious. Raisins, prunes, dried peaches, etc., contain about 2.5 per cent water and about 70 per cent carbohydrates, of which a considerable part is sugar. The value of sugar as a nutrient is recognized, and it is not surprising, therefore, that fruits, especially after drying, should have a considerable feed- ing value. «K. Landt. Akad. Ilandl. Tidskr., 34 (1895), p. 246. 6Les Chevaux du Sahara. Paris: Calmanu h6\y, 1887, p. 134. c Pacific Kural Press, 60 (1900), p. 402. ti California Station Bui. 132. ^Arizona Station Rpt. 1902, p. 269. 32 INJURIOUS FEEDING STUFFS. In feeding horses precautions siiould always be taken to avoid mate- rials harmful in themselves, or those which have become harmful. Dirt, small stones, etc., should be removed from grain b}' proper screening, and all feeding stuffs should be clean. On this subject Lavalard*^ says: Some of our recent experiments have had to do with the methods of feeding. They cover a number of points. The first and perhaps the most important is the advantage of cleaning the grain. Grandeau showed in his experiments that oats could be sat- isfactorily freed of foreign grains and impurities by some of the well-known screen- ing devices. He studied the composition of the impurities, and found that some of them were injurious to the health of the horses. The importance of proper cleaning is illustrated by a point in our own experience. A few years ago, after a very severe drought, we were compelled to feed oats containing tares and leguminous seeds, some of which were those of the species of Lathyrus. Symptoms of Lathyrus poisoning were noted in a number of horses. The attacks were frequently severe and sometimes fatal. When oats were properly cleaned this trouble was entirely obviated. Cleaning also increases the density of the oats by removing mineral matter and dust, which may sometimes induce attacks of intestinal obstruction, colic, etc. There are a number of plants which are poisonous to horses when eaten in any considerable amount. The loco plants, mostly species of Astragalus, are ordinaril}' regarded as of this class. These plants have been studied b}^ the Colorado, Kansas, South Dakota, Montana, and Oklahoma stations among others, and by this Department, but the results obtained are not entirely conclusive. The poisonous properties of rattlebox ( Crotalaria sagiUalis) were demonstrated by the South Dakota Station, and those of some lupines by the Montana Station. According to recent experiments at the Vermont Station ^' the common horsetail {E<2uisetum arvense) may cause poisoning when present in hay. It was found that when horses were fed cured horsetail equal in amount to not more than one-fourth of their coarse fodder ration, symptoms of poisoning were noticed, and if the feeding was continued the horses died. The symptoms of poisoning were less noticeable with young than with old horses, and also when a liberal grain ration was supplied. It was also observed that the green plant was less harmful than the dry, possibly owing to the fact that green fodder is somewhat laxative. Feeds which are ordinarily wholesome may under certain conditions be harmful. Thus there is a widespread and apparently justiliable prejudice against moldy or decomposing feeding stuffs. Experi- ments carried on at the Kansas and Indiana stations showed that the continued feeding of moldy corn induced intestinal and nervous dis- orders of a serious nature. It is a matter of common observation that food which has been wet will ferment or sour readily and cause intes- tinal disorders. This has to be guarded against especially in warm «Loc. cit. & Vermont Station Bui. 95. 33 climates. Plants which are ordinarily wholesome may become harmful if infested with ergot. The effect of ergot on horses has been studied by the Iowa, Kansas, and Montana stations and others. It is gener- ally conceded that the presence of ergot is a cause of rheumatism. Some feeds which are regarded as wholesome when properly fed may sometimes prove injurious if fed for a long time, or in improper quantities. Thus, millet hay, in many sections of the Western United States, is believed to cause the so-called millet disease of horses. This question was studied by the North Dakota Station." It was found that long-continued feeding of millet hay caused lameness and other sj^mptoms of poisoning. From the experiments and observations the conclusion was drawn that feeding millet alone as a coarse fodder is injurious to horses, since it produces an increased action of the kid- ne3's and causes lameness and swelling of the joints and an infusion of blood into the joints. It may also injure the texture of the bones, rendering them soft and less tenacious. The bad effects due to long- continued feeding of millet were observed whether the crop was cut just when the heads were fully ripe or earlier, although there is a popular belief that the trouble is due to harvesting the crop before the heads are fully ripe. The investigation seemed to show conclusively that feeding millet produced millet disease, but the specific cause to which the dangerous properties of millet are due was not learned, though later work at the station indicates that it is a glucosid. An explanation of the poisoning of stock by young sorghum and some other forage plants is offered by the discovery by Dunstan and Henry* of a cyanogenetic glucosid in a number of varieties of sorghum {Sorghuni vulgare), which under the influence of a special ferment present in the plant liberates prussic acid. It is thought probable that this acid may be likewise liberated in the digestive tract of animals feeding on the young plants. The}' did not find the glucosid in the mature sorghum. For a number of years Peters, Avery, and Slade,*^ at the Nebraska Experiment Station, have studied sorghum poisoning, and have recentl}^ demonstrated the presence of cj^anic acid in the green leaves of young and old sorghum plants and Kafir corn. METHOD OF FEEDING. The method of feeding is a subject which is often discussed, the questions of especial interest being the comparative merits of cooked and raw feed, dry and soaked grain, ground and unground grain, and cut or chaffed and uncut coarse fodder. The number of experiments which have to do with these topics is not numerous. "North Dakota Station Buls. 7, 26, and 35. &Proe. Roy. Soc. [London], 70 (1902), p. 153. c Nebraska Station Rpt. 1902, pp. 50, 55; Jour. Comp. Med. and Vet. Arch., 23 (1902), p. 704; Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 25 (1903), No. 1, p. 55. 17399— No. 125—03 3 34 COOKED AND RAW FEED. Boussingault compared oats and an equal volume of rye boiled until the grain burst. The results were not favorable to cooking the feed. According to another of his tests 30.8 pounds of mashed steam pota- toes could not replace 11 pounds of hay. The potatoes were mixed with cut straw and fed cold. It is often claimed that cooking feed increases its palatal)ility and digestibilit3^ The general conclusion drawn from tests with farm animals is that this belief is not warranted and that the cost of cooking is not made up for by the increased value of the ration. Prof. W. A. Henry '^ states that boiled feed is useful for colts, brood mares, and stallions if fed two or three times per week, and that draft horses which are being prepared for sale or for exhibition may l)e given cooked feed once a day. In his opinion an excellent feed for horses is made by boiling barley and oats in a kettle with considerable water and pouring the mass over chaffed hay, allowing the whole to stand until the hay is Avell softened. Bran, roots, and a small quantity of oil meal may be added also. DRY AND SOAKED FEED. It is often said that soaking feed, especially hard grain, renders it more easily masticated and improves its digestibility. It is doubtful if the matter is as important with horses as some other classes of farm animals. According to Wolff' ^ healthy horses with good teeth digested dry beans and corn as well as the same materials which had been soaked in water for 24 hours. Soaking or wetting feed may sometimes be of importance as regards the health of horses. According to the experience of an English feeder '^ chaffed straw, which was fed on account of a shortage in the hay crop, gave better results when soaked than when dry. The dry material caused colic and constipation. It was also observed that the horses relished soaked grain (corn and oats 1:1). It is believed that the dust in hay causes heaves, and to avoid such trouble both long and cut hay, especially clover, is very often damp- ened before feeding to lay the dust. GROUND AND UNGROUND FEED. Opinions differ as regards the advantages of grinding grain. In Professor Henry's'^ opinion, for horses which are out of the stable during the da}' and worked hard, all grains, with the possible excep- tion of oats, should be ground, and for those at extremely hard work, all grain should be ground and mixed with chaffed hay. For idle «Loc. cit. cLive Stock Jour., 39 (1894), p. 30. ^ See footnote, p. 60. 35 horses, oats or grain should not be ground, nor should hay or straw be chali'ed. In other words, provided tlie animals have time to masti- cate their ration thoroughl}^ grinding is not necessary. When this is not the case, grinding takes the place of thorough mastication to some extent and increases the assimilation of the ration. When whole oats were compared with ground wheat and bran by Shepperd" at the North Dakota Station the horses fed the former ration ate somewhat more, and showed a slight loss in weight, while doing a little less work than those fed the ground grain. In a test of the comparative merits of timoth}^ hay and corn and clover, oats, and wheat made with two lots of work horses at the Utah Station'^ the grains were fed unground for somewhat more than one- half of the experimental period and ground during the remainder of the period. The ground and unground grains were regarded as equally satisfactory. At the Iowa Station Wilson and Curtiss'^^ compared whole and ground grains (oats, corn, and barley) for colts, and found that somewhat larger gains were made on the ground feed. In the study of the digestibility of the different feeding stuff's car- ried on at the Maryland Experiment Station Patterson'^ compared a number of whole and ground feeds. His results show that ground oats and corn were more thoroughly digested than the unground grain. In this connection it should be noted that similar results have been obtained in tests with other farm animals, but it is coimnonly believed that the difference in digestibility is often not sufficient to pay for the additional cost of grinding. From the American tests and those which have been made in Europe it appears fair to say that there is no very marked advantage in grinding grain for healthy horses with good teeth. Lavalard says: Contrary to the opinion of some experts, the writer believes it is not necessary to grind grain for liorses. This is especially true in the case of oats. In some of our earlier experiments, where ground grain was fed, it was noticed after a few months that the horses preferred to crush it themselves. Of course this does not refer to old horses [i. e., horses having poor teeth]. They can be fed ground grain to advantage. CUT AND UNCUT COARSE FODDER. It is perhaps the general opinion that when horses have ample time for chewing and digesting their feed there is no necessity for chaffing or cutting hay and straw. When the time for feeding is limited chaffing and cutting coarse fodder is regarded as advantageous. This is an item of special importance with hard- worked horses kept in the stable only at night. Furthermore, chaffed feed occupies less space for storage than uncut hay or straw and can be readil}^ handled. «North Dakota Station Bui. 20. f Iowa Station Bui. 18, p. 470. 6 Utah Station Bui. 30. ^Maryland Station Bui. 51. 36 Shredding- corn fodder is regarded as an economical practice, but apparent]}' few experiments on the comparative merits of shredded and whole corn fodder for horses have yet been reported. No marked variation was observed in the weights of two lots of horses fed whole and cut timoth}^ or whole and cut alfalfa and clover h&j mixed in a test carried on at the Utah Station." At the Marjdand Station Patterson,* who studied the digestibility of a number of whole and ground feeds, found that grinding corn shives — i. e., cornstalks from which the blades, husks, and pith are removed — until the material resembled coarse bran did not destroy its value as a coarse fodder and that the finely ground material supplied the necessary bulk to the ration as well as the same material unground. It was further claimed that the finely ground coarse fodder possessed an advantage over the unground material in that it could be mixed with grain to form a well-balanced ration and fed to horses on ship- board, or vmder similar conditions, more readily than unground fodder and grain. COST OF A RATION. The cost of a ration made up of the ordinary grains and coarse fodders has been investigated by at least three of the American experi- ment stations. The Massachusetts Hatch Station ^' recorded the kinds and amounts of foods consumed b}^ tliree farm horses for five years, with a view to learning the average cost of the daily feed. In the different 3'ears the cost of the ration, which consisted of hay, corn, oats, and other common feeding stuffs, varied from 18.5 to 24.8 cents per head dail3^ At the Oklahoma Station '^ statistics of the cost of feed of work horses were also recorded in tests of the comparative value of Kafir corn and maize. Red Kafir corn and maize at 20 cents per bushel, oats at 25 cents per bushel, and Ijran at 25 cents per hundredweight were used. The average cost per horse of a day's labor was estimated to be 17 cents. Using mixed-grain rations, according to the New Hampshire Sta- tion,'' the average cost of feed per horse "per year was 174.32. The average cost for feed per hour's work performed during the two 3'^ears covered by the test was 3.4 cents. The data recorded above are too limited for general deduction. FATTENING HORSES FOR MARKET. Fattening horses so that the}" will reach market in good condition for sale is quite an important industry in some regions. For instance, in Iowa there are a number of feeders who thus prepare large num- «Utah Station Bui. 13. <« Oklahoma Station Rpt. 1899, p. 31. 6 Maryland Station Bui. 51. ^ New Hampshire Station Bui. 82. c Massachusetts Hatch Station Rpt. 1893, p. 179. 37 bers of horses for the Chicago market. Though few, if any, experi- ments have been carried on at the stations to show the feed required per pound of gain, the relative cost of gain, etc., J. A. Craig and H. W. Brettell,'' of the Iowa Station, have described this industry on ' the basis of data gathered from local feeders extensively engaged in it. The horses are usually purchased in the fall, after the farm work is over, and are stabled and fed an abundant ration, care being taken to accustom them gradually to full feed in order to avoid colic. When on full feed the horses studied were given, per head, 10 to 14 ears of corn in the morning, at noon, and again at night, with 3 quarts of oats and bran 1:2 and hay ad libitum in the middle of the forenoon and also in the middle of the afternoon. Recognizing the importance of a long period of rest, no feed was given from 6 or 7 at night until 5 o'clock in the morning. The horses were watered twice a day and were given all they would drink. On account of the large number fed, the horses could not be exercised, but as a rule were kept idle in the stable until a few days before they were marketed. To insure good condition it was found advantageous to give 0.5-0.75 pint Glauber salts per head twice a week. Oil meal, it is stated, may also be given to good advan- tage, as it aids greatly in putting on flesh and also makes the skin soft. The importance of keeping mangers and feed boxes clean is insisted upon, and attention is especially directed to the need of examining the horses' teeth and removing with a float any sharp points which would make the gums sore and thus prevent the horses from masticating their feed properly. With such feeding and care satisfactory gains were generally real- ized. In one instance, it is stated, a horse fed in this manner made a gain of 5.5 pounds per day for a period of fifty days, or 550 pounds in one hundred days. In several instances, with as many as a dozen horses, a gain of 3.75 pounds per head per day was obtained through- out a period of ninety days. WATERING HORSES. A discussion of the subject of watering horses should take into account the reasons why water is needed, the amounts required, the proper time for watering, and related topics. Horses, like other animals, require water to moisten their food so that the digestive juices may permeate it readily, to dilute the blood and other fluids of the body, and for other physiological uses. It may be assumed that under any given normal condition the body con- tains a definite amount of water. When any considerable amount of water is lost from the body, a sensation of thirst is experienced, showing that more water is needed to take its place. Practically all aBreeders' Gaz., 35 (1899), p. 781. 38 the water excreted leaves the bod}' in the feces, urine, perspiration, and breath. The amount eliminated in each, according- to ^Yolfi■,* increases with the amount of water consumed, the largest amount being excreted in the feces. In experiments which he carried on, the total amount of water consumed ranged from 17.363 kilograms to 34.272 kilograms (38.3 to 75.6 pounds). The feces contained from 40.3 to 47.3 per cent of the total amount excreted; the urine from 21.2 to 34.9 per cent. In addition to the water drunk by horses, a considerable amount is obtained in the more or less succulent food eaten. The amount of water required is influenced by a number of factors, including the season of the year, temperature of the surrounding air, character of the feed, the individual peculiarities of the horse, the amount and character of the work performed, and probably others. The amount of water needed increases with the temperature and with the amount of work performed, since it is very evident that both of these factors increase the amount which is given ofi" from the body in the form of perspiration. Muscular work also increases the amount of water vapor excreted in the breath. According to Grandeau and Leclerc,* a horse used in one of their experiments, when at rest, evaporated 6.4 pounds of water per day; when walking, 8.6 pounds; when walking and drawing a load, 12.7 pounds; when trotting, 13.4 pounds, and when trotting and drawing a load, 20.6 pounds. It is evident from these figures that the amount of water excreted, and hence the amount required, varies with the work performed. It has been found that less water is required when the ration con- sists largel}' of concentrated feed than when large amounts of coarse fodder are consumed, and it is a matter of common observation that less water is consumed when green, succulent feeds form a consider- able part of the ration than when it consists of dry feed. That the amount of water taken, even in dry feed, may be considerable is shown by the fact that a ration of 12.1 pounds oats and 15.4 pounds hay, according to Wolff's « calculation, furnishes some 4.1 pounds water. A succulent ration would furnish much more. In Grandeau and Leclerc's experiments with the Paris Cab Company's horses it was found that with a mixed ration the average proportion of water drunk to dry matter supplied was 2.1:1 when the horses were at rest, and 3.6:1 when they were used for cab work. In some of Wolff's experi- ments the proportions varied from 2.35:1 to 3.5:1. The effect of the amount of Avork performed and of individual peculiarities on the amount of water required is illustrated by the following figures obtained by Grandeau and Leclerc: Two horses consumed respectively 24.9 and 30.7 pounds of water per day when their work consisted only aLandw. Jahrb., 1887, Sup. 3. &Ami. Sci. Agron., 1888, II, p. 276. 39 of walking; when the horses walked and in addition drew a load, the amounts of water consumed were 28.9 and 35. i pounds; when trotting without a load, 31.3 and 27:6 pounds, and when trotting and drawing a load, 52 and 50. T pounds, respectively. In a number of feeding experiments carried on with horses at the experiment stations in the United States the amount of water con- sumed has been recorded. In tests at the New Hampshire Station,^ in which the ration consisted of different grain mixtures, with timothy hay and corn fodder, it was found that the quantity of water con- sumed varied from 70.94 pounds to 90.4 pounds per horse per day. It was observed that both the ration consumed and the amount of work performed influenced the quantity of water drunk, although the indi- viduality of the horse had the most marked effect. The amount of Avater consumed by horses on rations of timothy hay and alfalfa hay (with oats) was studied at the Utah Station.* It was found that on an average larger amounts were consumed with the lat- ter than with the former, the average amounts per day being some 78.51 and 88.85 pounds, respectively. The greater consumption of water on the alfalfa ration induced a greater elimination by the kid- neys, but so far as could be observed this was not attended by any bad results nor was it found inconvenient. At the Oklahoma Station '^ a pair of mules, during hot summer weather, drank 113 pounds of water per head daily, and on one day the pair drank 350 pounds. On an average a pair of mules and horses, each weighing 2,130 pounds, drank 107 pounds of water per head per day while at moderate work. In these tests the grain ration consisted of Kafir corn, maize, oats, and bran. The proper time to water horses is a matter concerning which opinions differ. Many feeders believe that they should be watered before feeding, while others are equally certain that feeding should precede watering. Experiments made on this subject at the Utah Station did not lead to definite conclusions. The subject was recently investigated by Tangl '^ at Budapest. The rations fed consisted of different mixtures of corn, oats, hay, and straw, and a number of experiments were made in which the only condition which varied was the time of watering. In some of the tests the horses drank before and in some after eating, and in others after the grain portion of the ration was eaten but before tiie hay. Regarding these experiments Professor Tangl makes in effect the following statement: So far as was observed the time of drinking had a New Hampshire Station Bui. 82. & Utah Station Bui. 77. c Oklahoma Station Rpt. 1899, p. 31. ^^Landw. Vers. Stat., .57 (1902), p. .329; Twentieth Century Farmer, 1892, No. 82, p. 1. 40 no effect on the digestibilit}- of ii ration of grain and ha}'. When hay only was fed there seemed to be a slight advantage in watering before feeding. In general, horses may be watered before, during, or after meals without interfering with the digestion and absorption of food. All these methods of watering are equally good for the horse, and each of them may be employed, according to circumstances. It is obvious that certain circumstances may make it necessary to adopt one or other method. For instance, after severe loss of water, such as occurs in consequence of long-continued, severe exertion, the animal should always be allowed to drink before he is fed, as otherwise he will not feed well. Although all methods of watering are equally good for the horse, it is not desirable to change unnecessarily from one method to another. Animals, or at least some of them, appear to be not altogether indifferent to ; uch a change. In the experiments referred to above it was found that whenever a change was made from the plan of water- ing after feeding to that of watering before, the appetite fell off for some days; not that the horses did not consume the whole of the food given to them, but for some days together they did not eat with the same avidity as before, and took a longer time to consume their rations completely. A similar effect was not observed when the change was from watering l^efore to watering after feeding, or from watering after to watering during meals, or when the change was in the oppo- site direction to the last. It is possible that the method of watering before feeding, until the animal has become accustomed to it, produces a certain feeling of satiety. The time of drinking exercised a marked effect on the amount of water consumed and upon the amount of water excreted. The horses drank the greatest amount of water when it was given after feeding and the least when it was supplied before feeding. This was especially noticeable in the morning when water was sometimes refused if offered before feeding. The excretion of urine was directly proportional to the amount of water consumed. When it is desired to increase the excretion, the author recommends watering after feeding. The method of watering had no effect upon the amount or qualitative composition of the feces. Body weight varied with the amount of water consumed. DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS. In the preceding pages reference has been made to the composition of different feeding stuffs and to the tests of the comparative value of different concentrated feeds and coarse fodders. The real value of any feeding stuff is determined, not alone by its composition, but also by its digestibility; that is, by the amount of material which it gives up to the body in its passage through the digestive tract. It is evident that if two feeding stuffs have practically the same composition, but 41 one gives up more materia^ to the body than the other, that is, is more thoroughly digested, it must actually be more valuable than the other material. The bulk of the substance of almost all feeding stuffs is insoluble when eaten. Only material in solution can pass through the walls of the stomach and intestines into the circulation and be utilized by the body, therefore digestibility consists chiefly in rendering insol- uble materials soluble. This is effected by the aid of digestive fer- ments and also b}'^ bacteria. Digestion experiments are frequently made to learn how thoroughly a given feeding stuff or i-ation is assimilated. The usual method is to feed the material under consideration for a longer or shorter time, the amount and composition being determined. From the total nutrients consumed, the amount excreted and undigested in the feces is deducted, showinpf the amount of each retained in the body. It is the usual cus- tom to express the amounts digested in percentages, the results thus obtained being termed coefficients of digestibility. The digestibilit}^ of a number of different feeding stuffs has been tested with horses in this country and in Europe, although the number of such experiments is much smaller than in the case of cattle and sheep. The most extended series of American experiments with horses was carried on by Patterson" at the Maryland Experiment Station. In the table below the American and foreign digestion experiments with horses are summarized. In a few cases values obtained with ruminants are also included in the table, since no coef- ficients of digestibilit}', obtained with horses, were available, and the data were needed in computing the value of rations discussed later (p. 48). Table 2. — Summary of coefficients of digestibility obtained in experiments with Jiorses. Kinds of fodder. Alfalfa, uncured Alfalfa hay Alfalfa (hay ^ stalks Alfalfa (hay) leaves Red clover hay Meadow hay, best quality Meadow hay, medium quality. Meadow hay, poor quality Meadow hay, average Timothy hay Corn stover b Ground corn shives Wheat straw Spelt straw , Corn silage c Carrots Potatoes Shelled corn Coefficients of digestibility. Nitrogen- Crude fiber. Protein. Fat. free extract. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 78.2 74.6 81.0 70.2 46.8 19.1 39.0 72.6 75.5 55.7 63.9 76.6 63.5 40.3 52.1 28.7 37.4 63.5 22.0 65.5 48.2 57.5 18.0 58.1 39.0 54.6 23.6 52.2 37.6 57.1 20.7 56.7 39.7 21.2 47.3 47.3 42.6 64.1 73.6 68.2 73.8 67.5 59.8 47.0 54.6 27.7 65.7 28.1 17.7 22.9 20.2 17.9 30.0 49.3 80.0 68.6 66.7 99.3 88.0 57.8 93.8 99.4 88.2 9.1 47.7 a Maryland Station Bui. 51. 6 Coefficients of digestibility of corn fodder as fed to ruminants. c Coefficients of digestibility as fed to ruminants. 42 Table 2. — Summary of coefHeienU^ of digefitibility obtained in experiments iriOt horses — Continued. Kinds of fodder. Corn meal Oats Ground oats Wheat a Rye Cotton-seed meal <• Field beans Lupine seeds Peas Wheat bran <• Wheat shorts'' Dried brewers' grains <' Gluten meal <■ Linseed meal « Molasses Coefficients of digestibility. Protein. Per cent. 76.0 79.6 82.4 79.6 80.3 88.4 85.9 94.2 83.0 77.8 77.8 79.3 88.2 85.2 100.0 Fat. Per cent. 67.1 72.1 79.9 72.1 42.4 93.3 13.2 27.3 6.9 68.0 68.0 91.1 94.4 %.6 extrl^ct. «ber. Per cent. 93.9 75.8 86.1 75.8 87.3 60.6 93.6 50.8 S9.0 69.4 69.4 57.8 89.8 86.1 100.0 Per cent. 20.2 29.7 14.4 29.7 100. 0 55.5 65.4 50.8 8.0 28.6 28.6 52.6 80.4 aAs oats, no coefficients of digestibility of wheat having been found. &This value is without doubt much too high. c Coefficients of digestibility as fed to ruminants. d As bran, no coefficients of digestibility of shorts having V)een found. In addition to the experiments reported above, a iium])er have been found on record which show the digestibility of a mixed ration, but, generally speaking, the total number of digestion experiments with horses is small and, as will be seen, the tests are limited to a compara- tively small number of feeding stuffs. Some 36 experiments were found on the digestibility of oats and 30 on the digestibilit}^ of meadow hay. The total number reported with alfalfa hay was 12, and in all other cases the number was very small. It is evident that more diges- tion experiments are needed with some of the common feeding stuffs, and that the digestibility of many additional materials should be studied. As will be seen in the majority of feeding stuffs, the percentage of protein digested is fairly high, greater in grains and seeds than in hay and grasses, and least in the case of timothy hay and spelt straw. The high values reported in the table for protein of carrots and molasses need some explanation. The percentage of protein in the former is comparatively small, and it is doubtful if the figures reported show the actual digestibility, as it is difficult to determine in the case of a nutrient present in small quantities. In the case of molasses, the greater part of the nitrogenous material consists of amids or other nonalbuminoid bodies. It should be remembered that neither carrots nor molasses is fed for protein, but rather for the carboh3^drates which they contain. Generally speaking, the values obtained for the digestibility of fat are rather low, the fat of oats being most digestible and that of peas least digestible. In general it has been found that the determination of the coefficients of the digestibility of fat presents more difficulty than that of other nutrients. 43 It will be seen that nitrogen-free extract is quite thoroughly assim- ilated, the values ranging from 100 per cent in the case of molasses to 17.0 per cent in the case of spelt straw. The high value obtained for the dio-estibilitv of this nutrient in molasses is doubtless due to the fact that carbohydrates exist in it in soluble forms and hence in a con- dition very favorable for assimilation. Possibly the comparatively small amount of crude fiber present in carrots and potatoes accounts for the high digestibility of the starch which makes up the greater part of the nitrogen -free extract of the e feeds. The principal sources of nitrogen-free extract in the ration are the cereal grains and their by-products, and it is interesting to note that the coefficients of digest- ibilit}' of nitrogen-free extract of these materials is high. In the majority of feeding stuffs the crude fiber is not very thoroughl}' digested, the coefficients of digestibilit}' being on an average less than 50 per cent. The high value given in the above table for the crude fiber of r3'e is unusual, and should be confirmed b}^ further experiments before it can be accepted. The digestibility of the different materials which make up the car- bohydrate group has been recently studied by Weiser and Zalischek" with horses and other farm animals. The following table shows the results obtained with a horse fed different combinations of meadow hay, broom-corn seed, and oats. Table .S. — Digestibility of different rdrhohydrates hij a horse. Rations. Cellulose or crude fiber. 8.1 pounds meadow liay and 10.8 pounds broom- Per cent. corn .seed ' 45. 6 7 pounds meadow hay, 6.6 pounds broom-corn seed, and 6.6 pound.s oats 8.3 pounds meadow hay and 7.7 pounds oats 30.5 48.7 Starch. Per cent. 84.9 97.7 96.7 Pento- sans. Per cent. 53.2 33.8 49.7 Undeter- mined constitu- ents. Per cent. 35.8 34.0 57.0 Total ni- trogen- free extract. Per cent. 70.3 70.9 72.0 As will be observed, the starch is much more thoroughly digested than the other carboh^'drates. In all the experiments the values obtained for digestibility of the group, "nitrogen -free extract," were comparatively low. The authors attribute this to the presence of the material called '"undetermined constituents," and advance the opinion that this material does not consist of carbohydrates though included in this group by the ordinary analytical methods. The thoroughness with which the different members of the carbohydrate group were digested by the horse and other farm animals is discussed in the fol- lowing section. "Arcli. Pliysiol. [Pfliiger], 93 (1902), p. 98. 44 COMPARATIVE DIGESTIBILITY BY HORSES AND RUMINANTS. In computing- the digestible nutrients furnished by different feeding stuffs, it has been a common custom to use available data obtained from digestion experiments with farm animals without distinguishing between ruminants and nonruminants, although differences had been pointed out by a number of observers. The extended investigations of Wolff''* and his associates on the comparative digestive power of horses and sheep furnished much information on the sul)ject. Dietrich and Konig* summarized the available data regarding the question and discussed it. The matter was also considered in the summary pre- pared by Jordan and Hall.'" The following table compares the coefficients of digestibility obtained with ruminants (chiefly sheep) and horses, the values given being the average of a large number of European and American experiments. Table 4. — Comparison of digestibilUy of a number of different feeding stuffs by ruminants and horses. Feeding stufTs. Num- ber of experi- ments. Protein. Fat. Nitro- gen- free ex- tract. Crude fiber. Meadow hay: 178 30 Per ct. 58.6 67.1 Per ct. 53.6 20.7 Per ct. 63.5 56.7 Per ct. 60.9 39.7 1.5 32.9 6.8 21.2 Timothy hay: TtumiTiRiits 6 2 48.1 21.2 52. 7 47.3 64.0 47.3 46.6 42.6 26.9 5.4 16.7 4.0 Red-clover hay: R.nTninfl!it9 56 5 58.6 55.7 57.2 28.7 65.7 63.5 50.0 Horses 37.4 2.9 28.5 2.2 12.6 Alfalfa hay: 32 12 72.7 74.6 48.8 19.1 66.6 70.2 43.7 39.0 DifFerPTipe -1.9 29.7 -3.6 4.7 Wheat straw: Ruminants I 23.4 27.7 35.6 65.7 38.7 28.1 55.5 17.7 -4.3 -30.1 10.6 37.8 Ground corn shives: Ruminants 9 2 46.7 67.5 78.2 59.8 GO. 4 47.0 57.0 Horses .54.6 -20.8 18.4 13.4 2.4 Oats: Ruminants 19 36 79.0 79.6 84.9 72.1 76.3 75.8 30.2 Horses 29.7 Difference -0.6 12.8 0.5 0.5 «Loc. cit., p. 60. i* Zusammensctznng und Vcrdaulichkeit der Futtermittel, 2. ed., vol. 2, pp. 1070,1128. c U S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experimental Stations Bui. 77. 45 Tai;i,k -i.—Conwarison of digestibility of a 7iiunlicr of d if emit feeding stvffs by ruminants and horses — Continue( i . Feeding stuffs. Num- ber of experi- ments. Protein. Fat. Nitro- gen- free ex- tract. Crude fiber. Corn meal : 13 4 Per ct. 71.1 76.0 Per ct. 92.4 67.1 Per ct. 94.3 93.9 Per ct. 53. S 20.2 -4.9 25.3 0.4 33.6 Field beans: Kiiminants 18 5 88.1 85.9 86.7 13.2 91.6 93.6 71.9 65.4 Difference 2.2 73.5 -2.0 6.5 Potatoes: 11 1 56.1 88.0 2.4 90.3 99.4 9.i DifTprPTif p -31.9 2.4 -9.1 -9.1 As it will be seen in nearly every case the ruminants digested a larger percentage of fat, carbohydrates, and crude fiber than horses, the differ- ences being most marked in the case of the crude fiber. These results, are, it seems fair to say, in accord with what might be expected from differences in the digestive organs of the different classes of animals. The ruminants have an opportunity to chew their food more thoroughlj' than horses and retain it longer in the digestive tract. It is said that on an average horses retain their food 4 days or less; cattle, 3 or 4 to 7 or 8 days; sheep or goats from 3 or 4 days with ordinary rations to 7 or 8 days when straw is eaten. That the food is actually more finely divided by ruminants in chewing and digesting is indicated by the mechanical condition of the feces; those from horses containing an abundance of fairly large fragments of hay and other coarse fodders, etc., while the feces of cattle commonly contain undigested residue in a finer state of division. In the case of sheep the feces contain the undigested residue in still smaller fragments. It is well known that fineness of division is an important factor in considering the thorough- ness of digestion. The length of time any given food material remains in the digestive tract is also important. It is perhaps generally believed that crude fiber is chiefly digested by the action of bacteria in the intestine and it is obvious that the longer materials remain in the intes- tine the greater the opportunity for the action of such micro-organisms. Weiser and Zalischek," in their investigation of the digestibility of the different constituents of the carbohydrate group, report results obtained with a horse and other farm animals. In nearly every case the rations were made up of different combinations of meadow hay, broom-corn seed, and oats. It is interesting to compare the average digestibility by different farm animals of the constituents into which «Loc. cit. 46 the carbohydrate group was divided. In the case of pentosans a steer digested on an average 63.4, sheep 53.6, horse 45.5, and swine 47.9 per cent. In the case of crude fiber the values were, steer 56, sheep 55.1, horse 40.6, and swine 22.8 per cent. The vakies for starch were, for a steer 96.6, sheep 89.4, horse 93.1, and swine 98.3. The vahies for the undetermined constituents were, for a steer 44.8, sheep 32.9, horse 42.3, and swine 28 per cent, and for total nitrogen-free extract, steer 74.7, sheep 68.5, horse 71.1, and swine 85.6 per cent. As will be observed the horse, generally speaking, digested different carbo- hydrates less thoroughly than the ruminants but more thoroughly than the swine. The fact that, other things being equal, horses digest their feed less thoroughly than cattle, i. e., retain less nutritive material from any given ration when it passes through the digestive tract, has been long recognized. For this reason horse manure is richer than manure from cattle. In other words, the horse manure contains a larger proportion of the ration than cow manure, and hence, more of the nitrogen and mineral matter, especially phosphoric acid and potash, originally pres- ent in the ration. Investigations carried on by I. P. Roberts, G. C. Watson, and others at the New York Cornell Station" have to do with this subject. The value of the manure produced by horses was studied by Armsby * at the Pennsylvania Station. Observations made with a number of horses indicate that a horse produces annually about 12,7<»() pounds of fresh manure, not including the amount dropped while at work. This quantity, which would be worth about 113.50 as fertilizer, would require the use of about 2,500 pounds of straw for bedding. According to the author's calculations a ton of wheat straw economically used for bedding horses may result in 6 tons of fresh manure, although in gen- eral practice the amount is not likely to exceed 5 tons and may be much less if few animals are .kept or the manure is infrequently removed. RATIONS ACTUALLY FED AND FEEDING STANDARDS. The amount of the different feeding stuff's required and hence the quantity of nutrients supplied to horses may be learned by observa- tion or experiment or a combination of the two methods. Doubtless all practical horse feeders supply rations which they believe are suited to their horses' needs, and in stables where horses are fed in any con- siderable number economy demands that the amount fed shall be fixed and not vary according to the wishes of the feeder. When the feed- ing stuffs used are weighed and the condition of the horses is noted, a « See especially New York Cornell Station Bui. 56, p. 169. & Pennsylvania Station Rpt. 1892, p. 79. 47 feedinj^- experiment results. Using averag-e values obtained from many more or less complicated feeding- experiments and other investi- gations, so-called feeding standards have lieen devised which are designed to show the amount of the different nutrients required per day for various conditions of work and rest. For the sake of uni- foruiity, the standards are usually calculated on the uniform basis of 1,000 pounds live weight. The feeding standards show the amount of protein, fat, and carbohydrates required daily, and often the nutritive ratio also; that is, the ratio of protein to the sum of the carbohydrates and 2. 25 times the fat. It is also possible to express the feeding standards in terms of protein and energy, since the functions of food, as pre- viously stated, are to build and repair tissue and supply energy, protein alone serving for the former purpose, while all the nutrients yield energy. The best known feeding standards for horses and other farm animals are those computed by Wolff and revised by Lehmann. Very frequently so-called standards for horses have been proposed which have shown the quantities of feeding stuffs required; for instance, the pounds of oats and hay needed per day per 1,000 pounds live weight. Such standards, or more properly standard rations, have been adopted in many countries for army horses, and in other cases where large numbers of horses are fed under uniform conditions. The digestible nutrients furnished by such standard rations can be calcu- lated by the aid of figures showing the average composition and diges- tibility of the feeding stuffs. Such calculations have been often made, especially by earlier investigators, on the basis of data secured by digestion experiments with ruminants. However, this method can not give the most satisfactory results. If possible, coefficients of digesti- bility obtained in experiments with horses should be used. Standard rations and feeding standards have been proposed by Grandeau and Leclerc, LaA'alard, and others. These French investi- gators based their recommendations chiefly on investigations with the horses of the Paris cab companies and the French army. The work extended over a number of years and thousands of horses were included. In connection with the work the digestibility of the ration was determined. In compiling this bulletin letters were addressed to express com- panies, cab companies, fire companies, and other organizations in dif- ferent cities of the United States using large numbers of horses, requesting information regarding the rations fed. Information was also secured regarding the average weight of the horses. Similar values regarding horses fed by a number of cab companies, etc., in foreign countries were compiled from available published data. The rations fed army horses in the United States and other countries were also learned by correspondence and by compilation from various 48 sources and included for purposes of comparison as were also data regarding the rations fed in a large number of experiments carried on at the experiment stations in this country, only those tests being selected in which the horses maintained their weight. No attempt has been made to gather statistics regarding race horses, hunters, fancy coach and driving horses, and similar animals, as the main purpose of the table was to learn the value of the rations fed farm and other work horses in this country. The table below shows the nutrients furnished per 1,000 pounds live weight by these rations and also the calculated digestible nutrients and the total energy supplied by them. In most cases the values for digestible nutrients were calcu- lated b}^ the aid of coefficients of digestibilit}^ obtained in experiments with horses and referred to on a preceding page (41). From the data thus collected the average quantities of nutrients furnished b}- the rations of horses performing like amounts of work were calculated. For purposes of comparison the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards are also included in the table as well as standards or averages proposed by Lavalard and a number of other investigators. Table 5. — Rations actually fed to horses and digestible nutrients and enerfjy in rations calculated to basis of 1,000 pounds live weight. o AKMY HORSES. United States: Cavalry , Artillery , Mules Great Britain: In quarters In camp Cabs With extra issue. . Mules (heavy work). Mules in camp . . . Small mules Small mules in camp. Registered horses. Lbs. 1,050 1,125 1,025 1,125 1,125 1,125 1,125 |l,025 1,025 Rations actually fed. Nutrients in ration per 1,000 pounds live weight. o Pounds. Lbs. [Oats, 12. [Hav, 14. [Cats, 12. iHay, 14. fOats, 9.. [Hay, 14. 2.14 00 84 h 16 2.11 lOats, 10 may. 12 [straw, 8.... Oats, 12 Hay, 12 Oats, 10 1 1 oo Hay, 12.. ^ ^-^"^ Oat^s, 12. . Hay, 12 jj- 2.35 Straw, 8 . Oats, 10. . Hav, 12.. Straw, 8 . Oats, 12. . Hay, 12. . Oats, 5... 850|.|Hay, 10.. Straw, 13 {? / ^^\Hay, 12. 1,125 Oats, 18. Hay, 10. h 37 2.31 2.22 03 Lbs. Lbs. 0.90i 12.82 .84 11.96 .VS] 11.39 I .84| 12.42 .80 10.76 . 7l' 9. 72 .92' 13.46 .92 .88 .86 13.63 11.81 14. 24 .71 10.12 1.02' 13.12 4) o o Digestible nutrients in ration per 1,000 pounds live weight. c o Lbs. 4.95 4.62 4.80, 6.23 3.80 3.61 6.42 6.84 4.17 I 9.21 4.28 3.92 Lbs. 1.38 1.53 1.51 1.61 Lbs. 1.26 .44 1.34 .32 o X 1.26 0.57 1.16| .53 1.00 .48 Lbs. 8.00 .a o ■a 3 u Lbs. 1.97 7. 48, 1. 84 be . so a calo- ries. 23,300 21,750 6.88 1.94 20,250 .44 1. 47 . 43, 1. 32 . 36 .51 .49 .47 7.32' 1.79 7. 35^ 1. 38 6.57 1.32 8.11 1.84 21,400 20,760 18, 660 23, .500 1. 83 .61 8. 04 1. 96,23, 450 1. 51J22, 750 2. 33|21, 800 1. 60 19, 050 1.37125,800 8.27 7.14 6.60 9.28 49 Tablk 5. — Rations actually fed to horses and digestible nutrients and energy in rations calculated to basis of 1,000 pounds live weight — Continued. Nutrients in ration per Digestible nutrients in o 1,000 pounds live ra tion per 1,000 ^ Rations weight. pounds live we ght. ■^ actually fed. 1 ■♦-» taO-B t4 t; av C c d .1^ >^C "S V -^ C X s 'V £? S' o -^ s cS -.-1 c •^ Ph f^ 2 O Ph f^ ^Z o w AKMY HORSES— cont'd. France: ■ Peace footing. maintenance ra- Lbs. Pounds. ift.v. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1,6s. Lbs. Calo- tion- ries. Reserve 1,050 /Oats, 13.01 tHay,8.82 } 2.09 0.83 10.81 3.41 1.50 0.49 7.56 L21 21, 160 Line 1,060 fOats, 11.46 .... 1 1.84 .73 9.50 2.99 l.:n .43 6.65 1.06 18,550 Ligiit cavalry . 850 i Hay, 7.72 jOats, 10.36 .... may, 6.61 J '■ 2.01 .80 10.42 3.24 1.45 .47 7.32 1.14 20,400 Artillery and train. 1,075 /Oats, 12.35 .... \Hay, 8.49 1 1.94 .77 10.07 3.19 1.39 .45 7.03 1.13 19, 650 Mules 950 /Oats, 10.8 /Hay, 7.5 1 1.94 . 77 9.99 3.18 1.3S .44 6.98 1.13 19,500 War footing, main- tenance ration- Reserve 1,050 fOats, 14.7 \Hav, 8.82 1 2.27 .90 11. 75 3.58 1.63 .54 8.28 1.26 23, 050 Line 1,050 JOats, 13.54.... \Hay, 7.72 /Oats, 11.76.... tHay, 6.61 \ 2.05 ^ 2.19 .83 10.65 3.20 1.48 .50 7.62 1.12 20,900 22,400 Light cavalry . 850 .88 11.39 3.41 1.59 .54 8.05 1.19 Artillery and train. |l, 075 /Oats, 14.2 tHay, 8.49 \ 2.13 .86 11.07 3.38 1.53 .51 7.80 1.18 21,700 Germanv: • Heavy ration— fOats, 11.16 .... 0"rrison 1,050 may, 5.58 1 Straw, 7.81.... fOats, 12.27 .... ■ L88 .80 11.29 5.19 1. 25 .50 6.81 1.33 19,660 March 1,050 may, 3.34 • 1.66 .72 9.59 3.41 1.19 .48 6 36 .93 17,800 [Straw, 3.9 fOats, 12.61.... Field 1,050 ■^ Hay, 3.34 I 1.70 .74 9.77 3.45 1.22 .49 6 50 .94 18,150 [straw, 3.9 Light cavalry in garrison." ■1,050 fOats, 10.6 •^ Hay, 5.58 [straw, 7.81.... 1.83 .77 10.97 6.13 1.21 .48 6.67 1.31 18,960 Light cavalry on march. k,050 (Oats, 11.5 may, 3.34 [straw, 3.9 1.58 .70 9.15 3.33 1.13 .46 6.04 .90 16, 950 Light cavalrv in field. |l, 0.50 (Oats, 12.61.... may, 3.34 [straw, 3.39 • 1.69 .73 9.68 3.27 1.21 .49 6.46 .90 17, 950 Light ration- (Oats, 9.48 Garrison 1,050 may, 5.58 [straw, 7.81.... (Oats, 10.6 1.70 .71 10.35 5.03 1.10 .44 6.11 1.29 17, 650 March 1,060 < Hav 3 34 1 60 65 8 66 3 ''4 1 07 42 Fi fifi 88 15,900 [straw, 3.9 (Oats, 11.16.... Field 1,050 / fed to horses and digestible nutrients and energy in rations calculated to basis of 1,000 jmunds live weight — Continued. OMNIBUS HORSES— continued. France — Continued. Paris, 1884 . Paris, 1885 . Paris, 1886 . Paris, 1887 . ATeriise STREET-CAK HORSES. Great Britain: London Liverpool Glasgow Dublin Various E vi r o p e a n cities: Bremen Brussels . Bordeaux, winter . Bordeaux, summer Hamburg o 'S Nutrients in ration per 1,000 pounds live weight. Rations actually fed. Lbf. 1,240 1,210 1,240 1,240 1,150 1,150 1,150 1,150 1,150 1,150 1,150 1,1.50 1,150 Pounds. Beans, 1.4 . Bran, 0.9... Corn, 8.5... Oats, 8.7... Hay, 8.5 ... Straw, 8.7.. Beans, 0.9 . Bran, 0.8 .. Corn. 11.3.. Oats, 6.2... Hay, 8.5 .. . Straw, 8.4.. Bean.s, 0.1 . Bran, 0.5 .. Corn, 13 . . . Oats, 5.5 . . . Hay, 8.6 .. . Straw, 7.3.. Corn, 10.8.. Oats, 8.1... Hav. 8.7 ... Straw, 8.2.. [Corn, 7 .. Oats, 3... Peas, 3 . . Hay, 12.. Straw, 1 . Beans, 4 . Corn, 12 . Bran, 1 .. Hay, 14.. Corn, 11 . Oats, 6... Bran, 0.5. Hay, 8.5 . Straw, 1 . Corn, 14 . Oats, 3 . . . Bran, 0.5. iHay, 12.. fCorn, 14.3... Oats, 2.2 ... . Peas, 1.1.... Hay, 8.8 .... Straw, 2.2... Corn, 7.7 Oats, 11 Hay, 4.4 ... . Straw, 3.3... Corn, 15.4... Hav, 13.2 . . . Straw, 1.1... Corn, 11 .... Oats, 4.4 Hav, 13.2 . . . Straw, 1.1... Corn, 17.6... Oats, 1.7 ... . Hav, 7.7 ... . Straw, 4.4... .9 '53 2 Lbs. 2.65 2.49 • 2. 32 2.33 03 1.8' 2.55 1.73 1.91 1.81 1.61 y 1.82 1.86 ^ 1..S0 Lbs. 0.78 .69 o " Lbs. O Lbs. 16. 18 4. 64 16.26 .68 16.06 .73; 16.16 4.38 4.04 4.41 Digestible nutrients in ration per 1,000 pounds live weight. 93 Lbs. Lbs. 1.75 1.58 1.43 1.44 1.60 .42 .45 .50 .49 .43 .57 .42 .51 .44 9.52 1.94 1L52 2.74 10.66 2.24 11.60 2.46 11.46 2.27 10.44 2.26 11.61 2.64 11.23 2.90 12. 84 2.48 1.23 1.72 1.11 1.16 1.11 1.10 1.04 1.13 1.03 0.43 .36 .34 .40 o M Lbs. 10.82 11.09 11. 22 10.98 .40 10.88 1.26 o X! 3 (D 3 .s'B 3 >,« be u 0) a Lbs. Calo- ries. 1 28, 27,550 1.20 1.11 1. 22 .15 .13 .25 .19 .17 .35 .13 .22 .19 .01 8.95 8.13 9.01 8.80 7.64 8.87 8.33 9.70 .90 1.04 .73 .87 .71 .64 .91 1.01 27,350 27,000 27,050 27,220 17, 650 22, 380 19,590 21,360 20, 480 18,930 20,700 20,430 .69 22,030 51 Table 5. — Rationi^ nrttmJhf fed to /io?'.st'-s- (iiul digestible nntrienfs and energi/ in rations calculated to basis of 1,000 pounds live weight — Continued. STREET CAR HORSES — continued. Various European cities— Continued. Munich Vienna . ATcrage HORSES WITH LIGHT WORK. Driving horse, Wyo- ming station. Carriage horse Ayerage Fire company horses: Boston, Ma.ss Chicago, 111 . Portland, Me Albany, N. Y St. Lous, Mo New York, N. Y.. Average. General average for light work. HORSES WITH MOD- ERATE WORK. Express horses: Richmond, summer. Richmond, winter. Jersey City . Boston Average .. Va., Va., o .60 '3 Lbs. 1,150 1^150 fCorn, 6.6.. J Oats, 11... may, 5.5 .. IStraw, 4.4. fOats, 15.4 . ■^Hay, 11... IStraw, 2.2. >1,200 1,050 1,400 1,350 1,350 1,350 1,350 1,350 Rations actually fed. Pounds. /Alfalfa, 21.25 1st Straw, 3.2. Oats, 10 . Hay, 12. •1,400 }'■ 400 1,325 1,325 {Groundgrain, 9.38. Hav, 18 fOats, 4 IHay, 15 Oats, 6 Hay, 10 fOats, 12 may, 12 [straw, 10 fOats, 10 mran, 2.5 [Hay, 7 Oats, 12- Hay, 9 [Corn, 4.67... Oats, 5.33 . . . Bran, 0.83 .. Corn meal, 4.16 Hav, 15 Corn, 4.38... Oats, 7.5.... Bran, 0.83 .. Corn meal,. 164 Hay, 16 Corn, 2 ^Oats, 19 iBran, 1.5 ... [Hay, 9.6.... fCorn, 12 ... . Lbs 1.20 1.19 1.28 .95 o 0) In . HH ** 13 S O 0} l-> 4.* si P^ ^ Lbs. Lbs. ID 0. 63 7. 06 .50 .63 .42 .70 .36 1.0« .4il I 8.05 10.42 5.91 5.21 Lbs 1.37 1.64 2.60 1.35 1.64 a c'B '" 2 >, u a Calo- ries. 20,100 22, 350 29,250 17,050 15,550 7.33 1.7-2 20,860 .84 .66 .67 .75 6.27 10.49 11.92 11.21 9.46 9.11 12.43 10.80 10.44 11.76 9.87 10.57 10.97 2.90 3.26 3.00 2.80 2.65 3.41 2.89 2.88 3.50 2.45 2.67 1.37 1.59 .03 .64 1.21 .50 1.18 1.52 .98 1.27 .41 .36 .39 .44 1.14 .40 1.05 1.01 1.04 1.30 3.33 1.11 .40 .46 .40 .39 .40 4.03. 7.47 8.18 7.66 6.64 6.18 8.53 7.36 7.59 8.14 7.72 8.07 7.38 1.03 1.24 i.14 1.24 1.05 8,240 21,465 21,880 20, 275 19,000 16,915 1.29 22,485 1.10 19,545 ! 1.40 20,360 I I 1.37| 21,510 1.49; 21,005 1.63 22,105 1.30 19,900 a Corn meal and bran, 3.07: 1.33. 53 Table 5. — Rations acluaUy fed to horses and digestible 7iutrients and energy in rations calculated to basis of 1,000 pounds live weight — Continued. HORSES WITH MODER- ATE WORK — cont'd. Farm horses — cont'd. New Hampshire Station. Do. Xe w .Terse V Station Do. o S3 '3 Do. Do. Massachusetts Sta- tion. Do. Do. Rations actually fed. Nutrients in ration per 1,000 pounds live weight. a o u Oh Do. Utah Station Do Lbs. }l,27; 1,340 1,000 1,000 1,150 1,180 1,100 1,100 1,080 1,090 1,125 1,200 Pounds. Do 1,125 Do I 1,200 Do. 1,400 fHay,12 ICorn,7 10ats,4 [Bran, 3 fHav,12 .^ Corn, 7 [Oats, 7 Hay,6 Bran,2f Corn,4f Dried brewers' grain, 8|. Hay, 6 Bran, 2} Corn,4f Oats, 8f Hay, 8 Corn meal, 6.25 Dried brewers' grain, 6.15. Hay,8 Corn meal, 6. 55 Linseed meal, 5.40. Hay, 18 Wheat bran, 2. Provender, 6= crushed corn, 2.73; oats, 3.27. Hay, 20 Wheat bran, 2. Provender, 6= crushed corn, 2.73; oats, 3.27. Hay, 15 Wheat bran, 2. Provender, 4= crushed' corn, 1.73; oats, 2.27. Hay, 15 Wheat bran, 3 Provender, 6= crushed corn, 2.73; oats, 3.27. Timothy hay, 25.8. Corn, 23.7 Clover hay, 26.1. Oats, 11.8 Wheat, 11.8... Clover hav, 22.4. Oats, 9.7 Wheat, 9.7.... Timothy hay, 22.4. Corn, 19.4.... Alfalfa hay, 24.5. Bran and shorts (1:1), 10. as Lbs. ■ 1.87 1.70 3.21 2.23 2.24 2.61 1.86 1.96 1.53 1.85 • 3.12 4.96 4.44 2.44 ■ 3. 59 Lbs. 0.78 a ss oh Lbs. 11.20 .89 .89 .65 .49 .76 .81 .60 73 1.30 1.10 o Digestible nutrients in ration per 1,000 pounds live weight. O Lbs. 3.36 10.78 10.81 12.11 9. 55 8.81 11.85 12.66 9.62 11.21 26.06 21.67 .98 19.33 1.01' 20.50 .69 11.43 3.21 3.09 2.68 2.82 2.46 6.25 5.77 4.43 4. .58 7.05 7.03 6.39 5.70 4.96 Lbs. Lbs. 1.03 0.42 1 . 93 . 42 2,22 .65 1.49 1.88 .85 .87 .70 .94 1.43 3.35 3.00 1.10 2.71 O K U 0) 1,6s. 7.66 7.47 6.99 1. 45 . 56, 8. 65 .48 .35 .41 .44 .32 .41 .61 .60 .53 .48 E-i o 6.53 6.60 7.04 7.43 5.58 6.85 18.60 15. 36 13.67 14. 51 Ci3 >. be a . 28; 7. 99 Lbs. 1.31 1.25 1.38 1.00 1.24 1.17 2.14 2.37 1.81 1.85 2.68 2,53 2.30 2.18 1.88 Calo- ries. 20, 370 19, 620 •22,440 23, 010 19, 250 19,425 20,385 21,705 16,200 19, 660 14, 815 12, 040 36, 520 35,115 24,580 54 Table 5. — Rations actually fed to horses and digestible nutrients and energy in rations calculated to basis of 1 ,000 pounds live weigltt — Continued. HORSES WITH MODER- ATE WORK— cont'd. Farm horses— ooiit'd. Utah Station Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Virginia Station. . Do Averaj?e (Jeneral avtrjifre for moderate work. Farm mules, Virginia Station. Do. Do. o 43 '3 Rations actually fed. Lbs. : i 1,370 1,325 1,420 1,400 1,400 1, 120 1,230 1,235 1,385 1,385 1,420 1,460 1,155 }l,310 1,190 1.020 Pounds. Alfalfa hay, 25. Bran and shorts (1:1), 10. Timothy hay, 22.8. Bran and shorts (1:1), 10. Timothy hav, 23.5. Bran and shorts (1:1), 12.2. Alfalfa hav, 24.5. Bran and shorts (1:1), 12.2. Alfalfa hav, 25. • Bran an d shorts (1:1), 14.6. Alfalfa hav, 16. Bran and shorts (1:1), 12.6. Timothy hav, 13.7. Oats, 12 Alfalfa hay, 14.7. Oats, 11.5 Alfalfa hay, 19.7. Alfalfa hav, 19.9. Alfalfa hay, 32.6. Hay, 19.3 Corn, 11.3 Corn silage, 23.1. Hay, 16 Corn, 14.1 Hay, 15.2 Corn, 10.5 Corn silage, 10.5. Hay, 14.6 Corn, 9,2 (Hay, 9.8 JCorn, 6.1 ICorn silage, I 12.2. Nutrients in ration per 1,000 pounds live weight. Lbs. I Lbs. 3. 72 0. 71 2.17 2.28 3.82 !■ 4.14 3.75 1.81 2.80 2.04 2.06 3.28 1.95 10 }^- 2.46 2.38 1.70 1.54 1.46 .75 .78 .76 .83 .79 .76 .72 .31 .32 .51 .92 1.00 .75 .82 .72 .69 a; g o « Lbs. U.H3 11.93 12.20 12.29 13.39 12. 32 10.84 10. 65 6.07 6.14 9.80 13.70 14.73 11.92 11. »9 12. 00 10.86 10.29 IM. 5.16 5.61 5.51 Digestible nutrients in ration per 1,000 pounds live weight. a '3 o u Lbs. 2.81 1.11 1.23 5.09 2.89 5. 32 3. 14 3. 96 2. 86 4. 1.5 1. 06 4.66 3. .56 3.59 5.74 4.92 4.28 4.05 4.08 4.00 3.70 3.61 2. 15 1.52 1.54 2.45 .81 .92 1.67 1,49 .72 .62 .61 Lbs. 0.29 50-3 O X n 0) Lbs. 8.27 . 42 G. 56 .44 .31 6.82 8.58 38 9. 36 .38 8.60 . 48 6. 79 .38 .06 .06 .10 7.79 4.26 4.31 6.88 .49 9. IS .48 .40 .42 .42 .34 .36 10.44 8.0!) 8.09 S. 22 7.34 6.96 a; tn ■V 3 B'B a Lbs. Calo- ries. 1.96 2.31 2.25 1.91 1.99 1.45 1. 65 1.42 1.39 1.40 2.24 2.25 1.71 1.62 \.6S 1.75 1.50 1.65 25, 480 20, 345 21,015 26, 616 28, 665 25, 616 li>, 700 22, 716 16,435 13, 740 21, 940 24,816 26,335 22,760 22,710 21, 656 19,030 18, 670 55 Table ri.— Rations actually fed to horses and digestible nutrients and energy in rations calculated to basis of 1,000 pounds live iveight— Continued. HORSES WITH MODER- ATE WORK — cont'd. o be Lbx. Nutrients in ration per 1,000 pounds live weight. Digestible nutrients in ration per 1,000 pounds live weight. Rations actually fed. 3 ho. Pounds. Farm mules, Virginia |, „o,,/Hay, 13.4 Station. /l'0«"icorn,11.8 fHay, 15.6 1,275 Do. Do. Average HORSES WITH SEVERE WORK. Truck and draft horses: Chicago, 111., daily ration. Chicago, 111., holi- day ration. SouthOmaha,Nebr. New York, N.Y Washington, D.C., summer. Washington, D. C, winter. Average (omit- ting holiday ration). Draft horses, heavy, hard work. Sid- ney's estimate. FARM HORSES, SETTE- GAST'S ESTIMATE. Light work Moderate work . Heavy work 1,225 I Corn, 10.5 I Corn silage, [ 14.6. /Hay, 11.7 \Corn, f^'*'""lHay,20. fOats, 15 \Hay, 1'. 1,500 1,600 Oats, 2 Bran, 2.5 Oil meal, 0.2. Hay, 20 12 /Oats, 23 ,\Hay, 12 ■1,600 2, 000 1,250 1,250 1,250 I Beans, 6 Oats, : ' Corn, Clover, 15 FEEDING STANDARDS AND AVERAGE RA- TIONS. Light work, Wolff- Lehmann. Medium work, Wolff- Lehmann. Heavy work, Wolff- Lehmann. (Oats, 8 may, 7.5 [Straw, 3 fOats, 10 may, 10 IStraw, 3 I Oats, 13 may, 12 [straw, 3 (Oats, 12.5 Corn, 6.75 Ground grain, y Lavalard, loc. cit. 60 beast of burden. The amount of such muscular work has been calcu- lated or measured in various ways. The methods of calculation are often complex and need not be discussed in detail. The amount of muscular work performed has usually been measured with some form of dynamometer. An extended series of experiments in which such an instrument was employed was conducted by Wolff. " The dynamometer which he used consisted of a revolving arm, turning on a base, which could be weighted so as to increase the friction and hence the amount of work required to turn it. There were special devices for recording the number of revolutions made. According to the classic experiments of James Watts, a horse can exert a power equal to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, i. e. , in 1 minute can exert a force sufficient to raise 33,000 pounds 1 foot. This value has been termed 1 -horse power and has been accepted as a common unit for the measurement of force. In countries where the metric system is employed the more common unit is the kilogrammeter. This unit is equal to 7.3 foot-pounds. According to Watts's values, a horse working eight hours per day would perform work represented by 33,000 X 60 X 8 = 15,8-10,000 foot-pounds. Later estimates give lower values. It has been calculated that an average horse will pro- duce only about 22,000 foot-pounds per minute, which would be equivalent to 10,560,000 foot-pounds in a working day of eight hours. According to Wolff's experiments/' the day's work of a horse haul- ing a load eight hours on a level road amounted to T,l>99,800 foot- pounds. Working the same length of time with a dynamometer the work amounted to 12,996,000 foot-pounds. As will be seen by the figures given below^ (p. 61), Lavalard obtained larger values in his calculations representing the amount of work performed daily by army horses. Mention should be made in this connection of some comparatively recent investigations carried on at the American experiment stations and other institutions. At the Utah, New York (Cornell), Michigan, and Missouri stations and at the University of Tennessee, Sanborn, Roberts, Fulton, Waters, and Carson have studied the draft of differ- ent kinds of wagons under different road conditions and related topics, thus securing data for estimating the work done by horses under the conditions studied although the experiments were not made from this standpoint. A number of the experiment stations have also devoted considerable attention to testing the draft of plows and other agricul- tural implements. « For full accounts of the extended experiments of Wolff and his associates con- cerning the digestibility of different feeds, the i^roduction of muscular work, etc., see Landw. Vers. Stat., 20 (1876-77), p. 125; 21 (1877-78), p. 19. Landw. Jahrb., 8 (1879), Sup. 1; 13 (1884), p. 257; 16 (1887), Sup. Ill; 24 (1895), p. 125; also Grundlagen fiir die rationelle Fiitterung des Pferdes, Berlin, 1885. 61 When a horse does road work it is evident that a large animal must expend more energy than a small one for the motion of forward pro- gression. Lavalard "' made weighings in experiments with some 30,000 horses belonging to the Paris cab companies and to the French arm^^ He gives the average weight of horses of different kinds and of mules as follows: Table 6. — Average weight of horses. Heavy draft horses Light draft horses - - ;••,---,•.■■•■ Fancy horses, reserve cavalry horses, and horses of the line . Carriage horses and liglit cavalry horses Artillery and train horses Mules Weight. Kilograms. Pounds, 700-800 500-600 450-.510 ?80-400 480-495 430 1,540-1,760 1,100-1,320 990-1,120 83.5-880 1,055-1,090 945 Taking into account the average amount of muscular work expressed in foot-pounds, the speed at which work is performed, the duration of the work, and the amount of work done at a walk and trotting, the total work done per day by army horses carrying a rider weighing SO kilograms (175 pounds) without a pack, and 120 kilograms (265 pounds) with a pack, and 90 kilograms (200 pounds) with accouterment for maneuvers, was calculated to be as follows: Table 7. — Work performed by army horses per day. Work per day. OBDINARY WORK (RIDER WITHOUT PACK). Walking. Trotting . Total KOAD WORK (RIDER WITH PACK). Walking. Trotting . Weight carried. Pounds. 176 176 265 265 Total MILITARY MANEUVERS (RIDER WITH LIGHT PACK). Walking Trotting 198 198 Velocity Work per second. «««o°*i- Feet. I Foot-lbs. 5. 446 958. 5 9.022 1 1,587.9 5.446 9.022 1,443.2 2,390.8 Total 5.446 9.022 1,078.3 1,786.4 Duration of dally work. Hrs. Min. 2 30 1 30 30 30 2 00 3 00 Amount of work at different gaits. Foot-lhs. 8, 626, .500 8, 574, 660 17,201,160 7, 793, 280 12, 910, 320 20, 703, 600 7, 762, 760 19, 293, 120 27, 055, 880 According to the calculation of an English army officer, Maj. F. Smith,^ the mean ratio of carrying power to body weight is 1 : 5.757; that is to say, it takes, roughly speaking, 5.75 pounds of body weight to carry 1 pound on the back during severe exertion (racing excepted). The rule he gives for ascertaining the carrying power of a horse is to a Loc. cit. ?* Queensland Agr. Jour., 4 (1899), p. 493. 62 divide his body weight by 5.757, and if intended for only moderate work to add to the product 28 pounds. It has to be noted that the observations were made upon military horses. It is doubtful if it would work out so accurately if applied to all horses used for the saddle. According to Lavalard'* the general opinion of cavalry oflicers who have studied the question is that measuring the distance covered and the rate of speed is practically the only method for determining the work done by a saddle horse. He states that Marcy computes that the work accomplished in a given time is proportional to the square of the velocity, his coefficients being eS.42 for walking or pacing, 16 for trotting, 28.62 for cantering, and 68.39 for a full gallop. In other words, 4.5 times as much work is performed when trotting as when walking, 1.75 times as much when galloping as trotting, and 2.5 times as much at a full gallop as on an ordinary trot or canter. These val- ues are calculations rather than results obtained by experiments. According to Poncelet* a horse carrying a weight of 120 kilograms (265 pounds) and traveling at a speed of 1.1 meters (3.6 feet) per second for 10 hours per day performs 4,752,000 kilogrammeters (34,214,400 foot-pounds) of work. If the weight carried equals 80 kilograms (363 pounds) and the speed is 2.2 meters (7.3 feet) per second, 4,435,000 kilogrammeters (31,932,000 foot-pounds) of work will be performed in 7 hours. The Prussian cavalry horses, according to Ellen bcrger's^ estimation, perform 1,500,000 kilogrammeters (10,800,000 foot-pounds) of useful work daily during the winter months. In the spring and summer months extra military duties increase this amount by 200,000 kilo- grammeters (1,440,000 foot-pounds) daily. Different values have been proposed I)}' other investigators for saddle horses of various kinds. The speed at which the horse travels, the way in Avhich the load is distributed, the external temperature, and other conditions evidently have an effect upon the work performed. According to Colin's* figures a horse walking 1 kilometer (0.63 mile) in 10 minutes travels at a speed of 1.66 meters (5.4 feet) per second. Trotting the same distance in 4.25 minutes the distance cov- ered is 3.92 meters (12.9 feet) per second. The average speed of a trotting horse was calculated to be 2.72 meters (8.9 feet) per second. These values refer especially to arm}^ horses. MUSCTJIiAR WORK IN ITS RELATION TO THE RATION. Many experiments have been made, chiefly in Europe, to determine the exact relation between the amount of muscular work performed and the amount of the different nutrients required per day. It is the opinion of Wolff and Muntz, and others who have been especially « Experiment Station Record, 12 (1900-1901), p. 4. ^ Quoted by Lavalard," loc. cit. 63 active in the study of these problems, that provided a sufficient amount of protein is supplied for physiological maintenance, i. e., to replace the wear and tear of body tissue, it is immaterial which of the three classes of nutrients (protein, fat, and carbohydrates) furnishes the energy necessary for external muscular work performed by horses. The opinion of these investigators, which is quite generally accepted, has been summarized as follows by Warington: "■ The doctrine laid down by Wolff and his fellow workers at Hohenheim is a very- simple one. He distinguishes between the food necessary to maintain the horse at rest without loss of weight and the extra food which must be given when work is performed, if the horse is again to be maintained, without its weight suffering loss. Between the weight of digestible matter in this extra food and the quantity of work accomplished there is a tolerably uniform relation. Wolff reckons that digested nutritive matter equivalent to 100 grams of starch is capable of producing 85,400 kilo- grammeters of work, or, expressed in English terms, 1 pound of starch digested by a horse will accomplish 1,232 foot-tons of work. This is 48 per cent of the full work which the starch could accomplish if burned outside the body. The result is the average of many experiments with different diets. The horse requires for its maintenance in weight while at rest a certain daily sup- ply of albuminoid substance [protein], which must never fall below a certain quan- tity; but the extra food given when work is to be performed may consist indifferently of any digestible combustible substance, wdiether albuminoids or not. The horse keeper is thus at liberty to select from a wide range of foods, and is not obliged to give a preference to those which are specially nitrogenous. It should, however, be borne iu mind that w^hat has just been said applies strictly only to horses which are already in good working condition. Horses which are low in condition, and must gain in weight of muscle before they are fit for hard work, must, of course, receive a more nitrogenous diet. A view very commonly held to-day is much the same and in accord with the above, viz, that provided an adequate quantity of protein and energ}' are available for maintenance, it is theoretically immaterial* which class of nutrients furnish the energy for mus(;ular work, although carbohydrates and f it are practically better suited for this purpose than protein, since any great excess of the latter is costly and may prove injurious to the health. In this case the term maintenance is not used in its strict physiological sense, but refers to a condition in which no appreciable amount of external muscular work is per- formed, and in which the internal muscular work is fairly uniform from day to day and the body weight practically constant. Most of the experiments reported on the effect of muscular work on the amount of nutrients required have had to do with external muscular work. A number of these investigations are referred to below. The effect of internal muscular work on food requirements has also been studied, especially in recent years. The experiments of this sort are referred to on page 68. « Jour. Bath and West of England Soc, 4. ser., 4 (1893-4), p. 188. 64 The experiments which have had to do with the rations best suited for horses emplo3^ed at different kinds of work are obviously attempts to suit the food to the amount of work performed. Lavalard'^' calculated the amount of food required by army horses and mules to maintain weight on a peace and war footing- as follows, the amount of work in the latter case being more than in the former. Table 8. — Calculated ration of French army horses and mules. Cavalry horses, reserve Cavalry horses, line Light cavalry horses Horses of artillery and train Mules Peace footing. Oats. Pounds. 13 11.5 10.4 12.3 10.8 Hay. Pounds. 8.8 7. 7 6.6 8.5 7.5 War footing. Oats. Pormds. U.I 13.5 11.8 14.2 Hay. Pounds. 8.8 7.7 6.6 8.6 Similar calculations, which have been made by others, have been summarized in Tal)le 5, page 49. Grandeau's experiments* have shown the marked effect of pace on the amount of labor performed and food required. He showed that a horse walking 7.8 kilometers (5.8 miles) per day neither gained nor lost in weight on a daih^ ration of 8,800 grams (40 pounds) of hay, while a ration of lu,886 grams (49.5 pounds) was not sufficient, pro- vided the horse trotted the same distance. When the horse walked tlie above distance and drew a load, the additional work being equiva- lent to 60,449 kilogrammeters (437,080 foot-pounds), a ration of 11,975 grams (!^6.4 pounds) of hay was sufficient for maintenance. A ration of 14,787 grams (32.6 pounds), all a horse would consume, was not sufficient for maintenance when the same work was done trotting. According to Grandeau* a horse of 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds) weight by the motion of forward progression through a horizontal distance of 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) at a speed of 1.5 meters (4,9 feet) per second loses 2.4 kilograms (5.3 pounds) in weight. A horse of the same weight covering a distance of 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) at a speed of 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) per second and producing 190,000 kilograms of work loses about 3.8 kilograms {SA pounds) in weight. Some of the reasons given for the fact that rapid Avork is less economical than slow work are the increased action of the heart when the horse is trot- ting or galloping; the lifting of his own weight at each step only to allow it to fall again, thus developing heat; and the increase of bodj^ temperature with exertion and the loss of heat bj^ the evaporation of water through the skin and lungs. Grandeau determined the average amount of water thus evaporated under different conditions of work and rest with four different rations, the distance covered in every case being the "Loc. cit. ^ See note, p. 66. 65 same, and found that it varied from 6.4 pounds with a horse at restto" 20. 6^ pounds with a horse trotting and drawing a load. (See also p. 38.) The heat required for the evaporation of this amount of water is quite large and necessitates the combustion of a considerable amount of nutritive material in the body, thus diminishing the quantity of material available for the production of work. EFFECT OF MUSCULAR WORK ON DIGESTIBILITY. Grandeau's and Leclerc's experiments also indicate that the kind of work performed has some effect on digestibility. If the total amount, of organic matter digested while at rest be represented by the number 1,000, the proportion digested during different kinds of work is showny they consider, by the following table: Relative proportion of total organic matter digested by horses at different conditions of rest a)id irork. At rest 1,000 Walking 1 , 032 At work walking 1 . 007 Trotting 976 At work trotting 973 Drawing a cab 959 "We see here that the moderate exercise is accompanied by a small but distinct improvement in the digestive functions, but that as soon as trotting commences digestion becomes less efficient than when at rest, while hard work while trotting still further diminishes the proportion of food digested. When we look into the details we find that the starch and sugar in the food are perfectly digested under all conditions of labor. The digestibility of the fat increases with exercise and does not diminish by labor below the point reached in repose. The digestibility of the albuminoids increases rather considerably with exercise and diminishes sharply when trotting commences. The principal matters usually grouped as soluble car- bohydrates, but which in this case are merely the more digestible constituents of the fiber, undergo the greatest amount of variation, their digestibility rising consid- erably with exercise and falling still more considerably with hard labor. In the case of the more soluble portion of the fiber there is no rise in digestibility by exer- cise; the maximum rate of digestion is here obtained in repose, and diminishes con^ siderably with increased bodily exertion. On the whole it appears that the constitur ents of the food which are most affected by rapid exertion are those whoi-e digestion takes place to a large extent in the lower part of the intestines; the motion of the horse probably determines their more rapid progress through the system. From the results of earlier experiments with German farm horses, Wolff, Kellner, and associates'^* concluded that nuiscular work dimin- ished digestibility little, if at all. The coefficients of digestibility of the ration when work was performed were slightly lower, y)ut the dif- ferences were so small that they are regarded as of no importance. Grandeau's and Leclerc's values are within 3 per cent of those found by Wolff, and it seems fair to say that from a practical standpoint the diminished digestibility due to muscular work is not very important. «Landw. Jahrb., 8 (1879), sup. I., p. 73. 17399— No. 125—03 5 66 METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS AND THE DEDUCTIONS DRAWN FROM THEM. There are man}- other complicated questions in horse feeding which have received much attention from investigators. As in experiments with man, the factors which serve as indices of changes going on in the body have been studied in this connection, the principal ones being (1) the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen, or nitrogen and carbon (as in metabolism experiments and respiration experiments), which is quickly modilied by variations in food, work, and other con- ditions; (2) the amount of carbon dioxid produced per second as compared with the amount of oxygen consumed from the air, i. e., the respiratory quotient, which changes very quickly when any change takes place in the vital processes or in other forms of internal muscular work or when the amount of external muscular work varies. In deter- mining the income and outgo of nitrogen the food, urine, and feces must be measured, and the amount of nitrogen in each determined. No very complicated apparatus is required, and such experiments are comparatively numerous. Where the income and outgo of carbon is determined, as well as that of nitrogen, the experiments necessitate the use of a respiration apparatus. In such experiments it is possible to calculate the balance of income and outgo of matter. If at the same time devices are used which permit the measurement of heat, the bal- ance of income and outgo of energy may be studied also. The experi- ments of Boussingault, Wolff, Kellner, Hofmeister, Henneberg, and others, in which the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen were determined, have led to a number of interesting conclusions, some of which have already been referred to. Others follow. Boussingault, who was one of the first to study these problems, showed that no nitrogen was assimilated from the air, but that all which was used in the body came -from nitrogen compounds con- sumed in the food— a very important deduction, since it showed that no nitrogen could be taken from the air, and, that nitrogenous food was essential. The investigations of Grandeau, Leclerc, and their associates form one of the most extended studies ever undertaken with farm animals. The work was carried on with a very large num- ber of horses belonging to one of the Paris cab companies, and extended over many years. There were seven series of experiments.'' In the first, a mixed ration consisting of " maize cake," horse beans, maize, oats, hay, and straw was fed. The maize cake was made from starch factory and distillery waste, and contained a considerable portion of potato and barley as well as corn refuse. In the second series the a Ann. Sci. Agron., 1884, II, p. 325; 1885, I, p. 326; 1886, II, p. 351; 1888, II, p. 211; 1892, I, p. 1; 1893, I, p. 1; 1896, II, p. 113. 67 ration consisted of hay; in the third series, of oats and straw; in the fourth series, of hay and straw; in thetifth series, of maize and straw; in the sixth series, of horse beans and oat straw, and in the seventh series, of maize cake and oat straw. Analyses were made of the food^ urine, and feces. The effect of the rations and their digestibility was studied while the horses were at rest, walking, trotting, at work while walking, and at work while trotting. The work consisted in turning the arm of a dynamometer a definite number of times. Experiments were also made in which the horses drew a vehicle. The effects of the rations under different conditions of rest and work on temperature and weight of the animals were studied. Many of Grandeau's and Leclerc's deductions have already been referred to, one of the most interesting being a demonstration of the high value of maize as a food for horses. MEASURING THE RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT AND THE DEDUCTIONS DRAWN FROM IT. Experiments in which the respirator}^ quotient was determined are' perhaps less numerous than those mentioned above. A determination of the respiratory quotient necessitates the measurement and analysis of the air taken into the lungs and excreted from them. The experi- ments which have been made in Germany are ordinarily carried on with the aid of a mask which covers the head, or by the insertion of a silver tube in the trachea. In both cases the air is breathed in and out through tubes provided with suitable valves, so that the air enters through one tube and leaves through the other. The air is measured and the samples analyzed. The ratio of oxygen consumed to carbon dioxid expired in a unit of time is called the respiratory quotient. Zuntz" and Hagemann and their associates have carried on a very extended series of investigations with horses. In most of these cases the respiratory quotient was determined. In many other cases other determinations, including the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen and carbon, were also made. Work was performed with a sort of treadmill and the amount could be measured. The deductions drawn from these experiments are of great interest, and some of the principal ones follow. A horse weighing from -iOO to 500 kilograms (880 to 1,100 pounds) excretes 26 to 40 liters (27 to 42 quarts) per minute from the lungs when no work is performed. If a horse takes exercise by walking the amount is increased to 80 to 90 liters (84 to 95 quarts) per minute. If 75 kilograms (542 foot-pounds) of work is done per second the respired air increases to 300 liters (317 quarts) per minute. If the aLandw. Jahrb., 27 (1898), Sup. Ill; see also Deut. Landw. Presse, 23 (1896), pp. 561, 571, 579. 68 » work is still further increased the respired air amounts to 450 to 500 liters (475 to 528 quarts) per minute — in other words, 14 to 15 times what it was when no work was performed. However, in these different cases the ratio of carbon dioxid to oxygen has been found to var}- very little. PROPORTION OF ENERGY OF FOOD EXPENDED FOR INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL MUSCULAR WORK. A horse converts 38.3 per cent of the energy of food into mechanical work. On account of the energy' required for respiration, the beating of the heart, etc. , only about 34 per cent of the energ}' of the food is actually available for external muscular work. The best record for a steam engine is said to be an efficieney per indicated horsepower of 22. T per cent on the basis of total heat supph'. Per delivered horse- power the amount is probably 10 per cent less. The animal is there- fore seen to be a much more efficient machine than the engine. Tests were made with a horse walking on a level, walking up an incline, and hauling a load on a level, and it was fovmd that in the last case the energy of the food was not quite so economically used as in the first case. On the basis of his experiments, Zuntz computes that a horse weighing 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds) and performing no work requires 3,201 grams (7.1 pounds) of total nutrients containing 1,382 grams (3 pounds) of crude fiber. By total nutrients is meant the sum of the protein, carbohydrates, and fat multiplied by 2.4.^' Of this quan- tity of total luitrients not less than 2,100 grams (4.6 pounds) is required for the internal muscular work expended in digesting- and assimilating the food, and 1,1(»0 grams (2.4 pounds) for other purposes (largely some form of internal nniscular work). Zuntz found that the amount of food required was affected by anything that disturbed the horse. In one experiment a horse confined in a stable was much disturbed by flies and consequently restless. The increased work in fighting the files caused an increase of 10 per cent of the carbon dioxid excreted. This means that more food material was burned in the body than was the case when the horse was quiet, for the combustion of food in the body, it will be remembered, furnishes the carbon dioxid excreted in the breath. In addition to other matters, Zuntz noted that the effect of body conformation had a marked effect on the economical production of work. He found that defects in external conformation and move- ments necessitate an increased amount of muscular exertion. This has an miportant bearing upon the market value of the horses. Too «Ziintz uses this factor instead of 2.25, the factor commonly used by American investigators. 69 low a stall temperature also increases the amount of material required for maintenance. In many cases observed, this increase was hardly covered by 2 pounds of oats daily. ENERGY REQUIRED TO CHEW AND DIGEST FOOD. One of the most interesting of the lines of investigations followed b}' Zuntz was the determination of the energy required to chew and digest different foods. The experiments were complicated and too extended to describe here except in very general terms. As has been said, the respiratory quotient is a verv delicate index of the changes which take place in the body, and it was found that the internal muscular work expended in chewing, swallowing, and digesting food could be determined by the variations in the respirator}" quotient and the amount of carbon dioxid excreted when this kind of work was per- formed, as compared with the amount when the animal rested. Different feeding stuffs modified the respiratory quotient in different ways, and it was evident that some required more labor for digestion and assimi- lation than others. This is a matter of considerable importance, and it is evident that if two feeding stuffs of practically the same composition are digested with equal thoroughness but one requires for digestion and assimilation the expenditure of more internal muscular work than the other, it is really less valuable; in other words, the two may con- tain the same amount of digestible nutrients, but one causes the body more labor to assimilate than the other. On the basis of his average figures of composition and digestibility, 2.2 pounds of hay (1 kilogram) furnishes 0.862 pound of total nutrients, and 2.2 pounds (1 kilogram) of oats 1.353 pounds of nutrients. As regards nutri- tive value, hay and oats are therefore commonly said to be to each other as 400 : 600. As shown by Zuntz's experiments, 0.265 pound (115 grams), or 20 per cent of the total nutritive material present in 2.2 pounds (1 kilogram), of oats is expended in the labor of chewing and digesting them. In the case of 2.2 pounds (1 kilogram) of hay, 0.448 pound (205 grams), or 49 per cent of the total nutritive material, is required for the same purpose. Therefore hay and oats stand really in the proportion of 203 :480. In other words, oats surpass hay in feed- ing value two and one-half times instead of one-half times, as they are ordinarily assumed to do. "TRUE NUTRITIVE VALUE" OF FEEDING STUFFS. Taking into account the internal muscular work required to chew and digest foods and deducting this from the digestible nutrients pres- ent in the foods, Zuntz calculated what we may call the "true nutri- tive value "of a number of feeding stuffs with special reference to horses. The results are shown in the foUowingf table: 70 Table 9. — Calculated "true nutritive value'' of 1 pound of different feeding stuffs. Feeding stufis. Meadow hay (average qual- ity) Alfalfa hay cut at begin- ning of bloom , Red clover hay Winter wheat straw Oats (medium quality) Maize Field beans Peas Air-dry disembittered lu- pines Linseed cake Potatoes Carrots Drv mat- ter. Per cent. 85 84 84 86 87 87 86 86 86 88 25 15 Crude fiber. Pound. 0.260 .266 .302 .420 .103 .017 .069 .059 .157 .094 .010 .016 Total di- gestible nutri- ents.a Pound. 0.391 .453 .407 .181 .615 .785 .720 .687 .645 .690 .226 .113 Labor expended in chewing and di- gestion. True nutritive value. In terms of energy. Calories. 376 394 429 535 224 148 200 183 294 225 49 37 In terms In of nutri- terms of ents.a energy. Pound. Calories. 0.209 328 .219 422 .239 303 .297 -209 .124 883 .082 1,265 .111 1,096 ' .102 1,054 .163 867 .125 1,018 .027 358 .021 166 In terms of nutri- ents.'.* Pound. 0.182 .234 .168 -.116 .491 .703 .609 .586 .482 .565 .199 .092 « Protein, plus carbohydrates, plus crude fiber, plus fat multiplied by 2.4. As will be seen, the nutritive value of straw is negative in the above table. The authors call attention to the investigations which showed that so long as heat alone is considered, the digestible nutrients in straw should be given their full value as shown by the heat of combus- tion. Provided the labor of digesting a mixed ration does not exceed 2,100 grams (4.63 pounds, or 8,316 calories), the digestible nutrients in straw have a positive value. Provided the labor of digestion is greater than this an excess of straw would onh' increase the internal muscular work, so that approximateh' 116 grams (0.256 pound) of nutrients per kilogram is of no value for the body. From the table the amount of any food or combination of foods required for maintenance ma}" be calculated, according to the authors, as follows: When a horse weighing 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds) is fed hay alone, 8.2 kilograms (18.01 pounds) would be necessary, since, as previously stated, 3,200 grams (7.05 pound.s) of nutrients are required for maintenance. As shown b}" the table, a kilogram of hay contains 391 grams (0.86 pound) total nutrients. If the ration consists of 3 kilograms {6.Q pounds) of hay and 1 kilo- gram (2.2 pounds) of straw and it is desired to make up the balance with potatoes, the amount necessary may be calculated as follows: Grams. Pounds. 1,173 181 2.586 One kilogram (2.2 pounds) of straw furnishes total nutrients amounting to .399 Total 1,354 2.984 Since the horse requires for maintenance 3,200 grams (7.053 pounds) nutrients, there remain 1,846 grams (1.07 pounds) total nutrients to be supplied by potatoes. This, divided b}^ 226, the total nutrients in a kilogram (2.2 pounds) of potatoes, gives 8.2 kilograms (18.04 pounds) as the amount which must be added to the ration. 71 FIXING RATIONS ON THE BASIS OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL MUSCULAR WORK. Zuntz believed that a ration suited to the performance of any kind of work can be calculated on the basis of the nutritive material and energy required for maintenance plus that needed for the work per- formed. The calculations are simplitied by using- the figures for "true nutritive value " given in the table above. On the basis of his experi- ments and observations he has calculated that a horse weighing 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds) requires for maintenance 3,201 grams (7.056 pounds) of true available nutrients. The amounts of true available nutrients and the energy required for the performance of work of dif- ferent kinds and under different conditions by a horse weighing 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds), with a harness weighing 20 kilograms (11 pounds) are shown in Table 10. The value of total nutrients repre- sents the protein + the carbohydrates + the fat X 2.4. Fat is multi- plied by 2.4, .since, as stated on another page (68), it ^delds, according to Zuntz, that much more heat per gram than protein or carbohydrates when burned in the })ody. Table 10. — Available nutrients and energy needed for different kinds of work. Total nutrients required. Energy required. Forward progression per kilometer (3,281 feet) on level at speed of 8tl 7 meters (218 8 feet^ Der minute Grams. 37.6 47.7 71.5 90.0 ■ 91.7 37.8 .508.9 6.59. 3 Pounds. 0.083 .105 .158 .198 .202 .083 1.122 1.454 Calories. 149 Forward progression per kilometer (3,281 feet) on level at speed of 90 meters (295.4 feet) per minute 189 Forward progression per kilometer (3,281 feet) on level at speed of 176-205 meter.s (577.4 feet-672.6 feet) per minute 283 Climbing a gentle incline, raising body 100 meters (3,281 feet) 356 Climbing a steep incline raising body 100 meters (3,281 feet) 363 Descending an incline, lowering body 100 meters ^3,281 feet) on road with 5 per cent dip saves n 150 Drawing a load on level 268 (work equivalent lo plowing one hour, i.e., drawing a plow weighing 67 kilograms (147.4 pounds) a distance of 4 kilometers (13,124 feet) : Not including forward progression. 2,015 Including forward progression 2,611 Raising a load weighing 75 kilograms (165 pounds) 0.2 kilometer (656.2 feet) up incline of 10 per cent: A For the 0 2 kilometer (656 2 feet) of forward motion 7.52 18.33 39. 15 .017 .040 .086 29.8 B. For raising the body and harness 20 meters (656.2 feet) 72.6 C- For 1,500 kilogrammeters (10,800 foot-pounds) mechanical work. 15.5.0 Total 65.0 .113 257.4 Trotting on level 1 kilometer (3,281 feet) with load of 75 kilograms (165 pounds): A. For forward motion 1 kilometer (3 281 feet) 71.5 142. 4 .158 .314 283.0 B. For 75,000 kilogrammeters (540,000 foot-pounds) calculated me- chanical work 563.9 Total 213. 9 .472 846.9 Progression on level 1 kilometer (3,281 feet) with 100 kilograms (220 pounds) load: A. At speed of 5.4 kilometers (17,717.4 feet) per hour B. At speed of 10.5-12.6 kilometers (34,451 feet-41,341 feet) trotting. 59.2 91.0 .131 .201 234.5 360.4 Climbing 1 kilometer (3,281 feet) on an incline of 10 per cent with 100 kilograms (220 pounds) load at speed of 5.4 kilometers (17,717 feet) per hour: A F(^r forward nroeression . .59.2 103.8 .130 .229 234. 5 B. For 60,000 kilogrammeters (432,000 foot-pounds) mechanical work (climbing) 411.0 Total 163.0 .359 645. 5 ^ a As compared with forward progression. 72 As will be seen, the amount of total nutrients required increases with the increased speed; furthermore, a greater amount is required in climbing an incline than for forward progression on a level. In descending a gentle incline a much smaller amount of nutrients is required than in climbing the same incline, and as compared with the motion of forward progression there is also a saving in the amount of nutrients needed. In general, it was found that the energy expended was less than in traveling on a level, provided the incline was less than 5° 45'. At this point it was equal to the amount expended in travel- ing on a level. If the incline was greater, energy was required to keep the body from descending too rapidly and the expenditure was greater than on a level. The different values given in the above table for the nutrients required for the performance of different kinds of work are obtained by taking the sum of the requirements for the dif- ferent components into which the work can be resolved; thus, in trot- ting 1 kilometer (3,281 feet) with a load of 75 kilograms (165 pounds) the total work consists in that expended for forward progression and for moving the load over the distance covered. An example of the way in which the value of a ration was calculated by Zuntz follows: If a farm horse weighing 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds) walks eight hours drawing a load at a speed of 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) per hour, the work performed and the total available nutrients required would be as follows: Table 11. — Total nutrients required for work. 32 kilometers (20 miles') forward progression 2,144,000 kilogrammeters (15,436,800 foot-pounds) mechanical work Maintenance (exclusive of labor of digestion ) Total Total nutrients. Pounds. 2.654 8.975 2. 425 14. 064 • The ration selected consisted of 3 kilograms (6.6 pounds) hay, 1.5 kilograms (3.3 pounds) straw, 2 kilograms (4.4 pounds) Held beans, and a sufficient amount of oats to l)ring the total nutrients of the ration up to the required amount. The nutrients furnished by the hay, straw, and held beans would be as follows: Table 12. — Total nutrients furnished by tentative ration. Total nutrients, 3 kilograms (6.6 pounds) of hay, requiring per kilogram (2.2 pounds) for diges- tion 627 grams (1.38 pounds) ;•■•/■•%•- 1.5 kilograms (3.3 pounds of straw, requiring per kilogram (2.2 pounds) for diges- tion 445 grams (0.98 pound) V • %"• 2 kilograms (4.4 pounds) of beans, requiring per kilogram (2.2 pounds) for diges- tion 222 grams (4.9 pounds) ; Total, 1,294 grams (2.85 pound.s) +3.505 73 Subtracting 1,590 grams (3.505 pounds) from 6,374 grams (14.054 pounds) gives 4,784 grams (10.549 pounds), the total available nutri- ents which must be supplied by the oats. Dividing this sum by 491, the total available nutrients in a kilogram (2.2 pounds) of oats, gives 9.74 kilograms (21.43 pounds) as the amount required. This quantity of oats would require the expenditure of 1,208 grams (2.660 pounds) nutrients for the labor of digestion (9.74 kilograms X 0.124 = 1.208 kilograms) (2.660 pounds). The total expenditure of nutrients which the ration necessitates for the labor of digestion would therefore be 2,502 grams (5.514 pounds) (1,294 grams+1,208 grams = 2,502 grams) (2.854 pounds+2.660 pounds = 5.514 pounds). This exceeds by some 400 grams (0.882 pound), the value which is thought most desirable for the normal maintenance ration, i. e., 2,100 grams (4.630 pounds). The expenditure of this amount of nutrients for the work of digestion is thought desirable, because it would liberate the amount of heat which. Zuntz calculates is required for maintaining the body temperature. The ration may be adjusted on a more reasonable basis by diminish- ing the straw to 0.3 kilogram (0.66 pound) and the oats to 9.46 kilo- grams (20.812 pounds). The total quantity would be the same as before, and the amount required for the labor of digestion would be practically equal to that which is considered most desirable. The ration as adjusted would be as follows: Table 13. — Calculated ration for farm horse at vork. Kation. Requires for the labor of dige.stion. Yields total nutri- ent. Grams. Pounds. Grams. Pounds. 3 kiloeranis (G 6 Dounds^ hav . . 627 1 1.382 546 1,218 -35 4,645 1.204 2 kilograms (4.4 pounds) beans 222 89 1,173 .489 .196 2.586 2.685 0.3 kilogram (0.66 pound) straw 9.46 kilograms (20.812 pounds) oats .077 10.241 Total 2,111 4.653 6,374 14.207 This ration is, according to Zuntz, more satisfactory on economic grounds, since it does not contain an excess of material which must be wastefully assimilated. The fact is also pointed out that it might not prove satisfactory otherwise, since it contains a small amount of coarse fodder. The other examples given by Zuntz are more com- plicated. SUMMARY. Some of the principal deductions noted in this bulletin follow: Horses, like other animals, require a definite amount of nutrients and energ}^ per 1,000 pounds live weight for maintenance, and an extra amount, chiefly energj^-yielding nutrients, for muscular work, the amount being proportional to the character and amount of work performed. 17QQQ M^ 10; _nQ 74 The amount of nutrients required increases with the amount of work done and with increased speed. More energy is required for climb- ing an incline than for traveling on a level. In descending an incline of less than 5-* 45' less energ}" is required than in traveling on a level. If the incline is greater than 5^ 45', more energ}^ is expended (to pre- vent too rapid descent) than in walking on a level. The ration should consist of concentrated and coarse feeds. The ratio by weight of coarse fodder or bulk}- feed to concentrated feed in the ordinary ration has been found to be about 1:1. Crude liber may perhaps be fairly considered as the characteristic constituent of coarse fodder. The ratio of crude fiber to protein in the average of a large number of American rations has been found to be about 2:1. Theoreticalh' at least any sufficient and rational mixture of whole- some grains, bj'-products, roots, and forage crops, green and cured, may be used to make up a ration, though there is a verv general prej- udice in favor of oats and hay, corn and hay or corn fodder, and bar- ley and hay (frequently that made from cereal grains), the first-named ration being perhaps that most commonly regarded as satisfactory for horses. A corn ration is very commonly fed in the middle West and Southern United States — that is, in the corn-producing belt. The barle}' ration is quite characteristic of the Pacific coast region. In the semiarid regions of the United States Kafir corn and alfalfa have proved to be of great value, owing to their drought-resisting qualities. Both crops have been found useful for horse feeding. Of the two alfalfa has been used much more commonly, and has given very satis- factor^" results. Investigations have shown that it is often best to modify a ration, for instance, bv substituting corn wholh' or in part for oats, so that the horses remain in good condition, while at the same time the cost of the ration is diminished. Where large numbers of horses are fed this is often a matter of considerable importance. Horses require a considerable amount of water daily, the quantity varj^ing with different seasons of the year, the amount of work per- formed, etc. The time of watering, whether before or after feeding, is a matter of little importance, and, generally speaking, mav be regu- lated to suit the convenience of the feeder. Horses become used to either method of watering, and irregularity' should be avoided, as sudden changes are apt to prove disturbing. Judging bj' the average results, representing the practice of a large number of successful American feeders, and also the results of many tests at the experiment stations in different parts of the United States, horses with light work consume on an average a ration furnishing per da}' 0.99 pound of digestible protein and 14.890 calories of energy per 1.000 pounds live weight. Similar values for horses at moderate work are 1.49 pounds digestible protein and 22,710 calories, and for 75 horses at severe work 1.12 pounds digestible protein and 19.560 calo- ries. It is believed that these last values do not come as near repre^ senting a general average as the others, since the}' are based on a comparatively limited amount of data, and possibly the pace at which the work was performed may he responsible in a measure for the comparativeh' small amounts of nutrients and energ}'. Generally speaking, all these average values are less than those called for by the commonly accepted German feeding standards for horses perform- ing the same amounts of work, yet from what is known regarding the American horses it seems fair to say that they were well fed. Additioiial experiments are much needed which will result in a series of standards suited to American conditions. Generally speaking, horses digest their feed, and especially the nitrogen -free extract and crude liber in it, less thoroughly than ruminants. The general deductions which have been drawn for horses apply with equal force to other animals of the same group, such as asses and mules. O 654 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS-BULLETIN NO. 126. A. C. TRUE, Director. STUDIES ON THE DIGESTIBILITY AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF BREAD AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA IN 1900-1902. BY HARRY SNYDER, B. S., Professor of dhemistry, OoUege of Agriculture, University of Minnesota, and Chemist, Agricultural Experiment Station. WASHINGTON: G O V E K N M E NT ' PB I NTING OFFICE, 1903. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS ON THE FOOD AND NUTRITION OF MAN. Note.— For those publications to which a price is affixed application should be made to the Super- intendent of Eocuments, Union Bulding, Washington, D. C, the officer designated by law to sell Government publications. Publications marked with an asterisk (* ) are not available for distribution. ♦Charts. Food and Diet. By W. O. Atwater. (Four (-harts, 26 by 40 inches.) Price per set, nnmounted, 75 cents. *Bul. 21. Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry and Economy of Food. By W.O. Atwater. Pp. 222. Price, 1^ cents. Bui. 28. (Revised ejiition.) The Chemical Composition of American Food Materials. By W. O. Atwater and A. P. Bryant. Pp. 87. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 29. Dietary Studies at the Univer.sity of Tennessee in 189.5. By C. E. Wait, with comments by W. O. Atwater and C. D. Woods. Pp.45. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 31. Dietary Studies at the University of Missouri in 189.5, and Data Relating to Bread and Meat Consumption in Missouri. By H. B. Gibson, S. Calvert, and D. W. May, with comments by W. O. Atwater and C. D. Woods. Pp.24. Price, 5 cents. *Bul. 32. Dietary Studies at Purdue University. Lafayette, Ind., in 1895. By W. E. Stone, with com- ments by W . O. Atwater and C. D. Woods. Pp. 28. Price, 6 cents. Bui. 35. Food and Nutrition Investigations in New Jersey in 1895 and 1896. By E. B. Voorhees. Pp. 40. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 37. Dietary Studies at the Maine State College in 1895. By W. H. Jordan. Pp. 57. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 38. Dietary Studies with Reference to the Food of the Negro in Alabama in 1895 and 1896. Con- ducted with the cooperation of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute and the Agri- cultural and Mtchanical College of Alabama. Reporte'd by W. O. Atwater and C. D. Woods. Pp. 69. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 40. Dietary Studies in New Mexico in 1S95. By A. Gosss. Pp. 23. Price. 5 cents. Bui. 43. Losses in Boiling Vegetables, and the Composition and Digestibility of Potatoes and Eggs. By H. Snyder, A.J. Fri.sby, and A. P. Bryant. Pp. 31. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 44. Report of Preliminary Investigations on the Metabolism of Nitrogen and Carbon in the Human Organism with a Respiration Calorimeter of Special Constructionr By W. O. Atwater, C. D. Woods, and F. G. Ben^^ict. Pp. 64. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 45. A Digest of Metabolism Experiments in which the Balance of Income and Outgo was Determined. By W. O. Atwater and ('. F. Lungworthy. Pp. 434. Price, 25 cents. Bui. 46. 'Dietary Studies in New York City in 1895 and 1896. By W. O. Atwater and C. D. Woods. Pp. 117. Price, 10 cents. Bui. 52. Nutrition Investigations in Pittsburg, Pa., 1894-1896. By Isabel Bevier. Pp. 48. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 53. Nutrition Investigations at the University of Tennessee in 1896 and 1897. By ('. E. Wait. Pp. 46. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 54. Nutrition Investigations in New Mexico in 1897. By A. Goss. Pp 20. Price, 5 cents. Bui. .55. Dietary Studies in Chicago in 1895 and 1896 Conducted with the cooperation of Jane Addams and Caroline L. Hunt, of Hull House. Reported by W. O. Atwater and A. P. Bryant. Pp.76. Price, 5 cents. * Bui. 56. Hi.«tory and Present Status of Instruction in Cooking in the Public Schools of New York Ciiy. Reported by Mrs. Louise E. Hogan, with an introduction by A. C. True, Ph.D. Pp. 70. Price, 5 cents. Bui 63. Description of a New Respiration Calorimeter and Experiments on the Conservation of Energy in the Human Body. By W. O. Atwater and E. B. Rosa. Pp. 94. Price, 10 cents. Bui. 66. The Physiological Effect of Creatin and Creatinin and their Value as Nutrients. By J. W. Mallet. Pp.24. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 67. Studies on Bread and Bread Making. By Harry Snyder and L. A. Voorhees. Pp. 51. Price, 10 cents. Bui 68. A Description of Some Chinese Vegetable Food Materials and Their Nutritive and Economic Value. By W. C. Blasdale. Pp. 48. Price, 10 cents, Bui 69. Experiments on the Metabolism of Matter and Energy in the Human Body. By W. O. Atwater and F. G. Benedict, with the cooperation of A. W. Smith and A. P. Bryant. Pp. 112. Price, 10 cents. Bui. 71. Dietary Studies of Negroes in Eastern Virginia in 1897 and 1898. By H. B. Frissell and Isabel Bevier. Pp. 45. Price, 5 cents. [Continued on third page of cover.] 554 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OBFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS -BULLETIN NO. 126. A. C. TRUE, Director. STUDIES ON THE DIGESTIBILITY AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF BREAD AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA IN 1900-1902 BOTAN GA BY HARRY SNYDER, B. S., Professor of Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Universitij of Minnesota, and Chemist, Agricultural Experiment Station. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. A. C. True, Ph. J)., Director. E. W. Allen, Ph. D., Assistant Director and Editor of Experiment Station Record. C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D., Editor and Expert on Foods and Animal Production. NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS. W. O. Atwater, Ph. D., Chief of Nutrition Investigations, Middletown, Conn. C. T>. Woods, B. S., Special Agent at Orono, Me. F. G. Bfnedict, Ph. D., Phiisiologiral Chemist, Middlcfoini', Conn. . R. D. Milner, Ph. B., Editorial Assistant, Middletown, Conn. 2 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Washington^ D. (?., February 15^ 1903. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for publication as a bulletin of this Office, a report of investigations on the digestibility and nutritive value of bread carried on at the Uni- versity of Minnesota in 1900-1902 by Harry Snyder, professor of chemistry in the State university and chemist of the agricultural experiment station. The studies were conducted under the imme- diate supervision of Prof, W. O. Atwater, chief of nutrition investi- gations, and Prof. Charles D. Woods, and form a part of the investi- gations on food of man conducted under the auspices of this Office. Thanks are due the Northwestern Consolidated Milling Company, of Minneapolis, Minn., for specially grinding samples of hard wheat, and to the Goshen Milling Company, of Goshen, Ind., and the Christian Breisch Milling Company, of North Lansing, Mich., for similar favors with respect to soft wheat. The results of these investigations are in accord with those obtained hi former studies, and indicate that tine patent flours from both hard and soft wheat are more digestible than corresponding coarse flours, though they contain somewhat less protein and mineral matter pound for pound. The investigations also show that all flours are quite thoroughly digested, and furnish experimental proof of the generally recognized fact that wheat flours of all grades are among the most important articles of diet. Kespectfull}^, A. C. True, Director. Hon. .Iames Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. 3 CONTENTS. Page. Introduction ' Methods of sampling and analysis ^ Description of samples of food materials - 10 Composition of samples of food materials 12 Composition of feces and urine obtained in digestion experiments 17 Experimental methods 1" Details of the digestion experiments with bread from different grades of hard spring wheat flour ^^ Digestion experiment No. 242 21 Digestion experiment No. 243 22 Digestion experiment No. 244 23 Digestion experiment No. 245 23 Digestion experiment No. 246 24 Digestion experiment No. 247 25 Digestion experiment No. 248 - 26 Digestion experiment No. 249 26 Digestion experiment No. 250 — 27 Summary of results obtained with hard spring wheat products 28 Details of the digestion experiments with bread from different grades of soft winter wheat flour 32 Digestion experiment No. 309 32 Digestion experiment No. 310 33 Digestion experiment No. 311 34 Digestion experiment No. 312 35 Digestion experiment No. 313 35 Digestion experiment No. 314 36 Digestion experiment No. 315 37 Digestion experiment No. 316 38 Digestion experiment No. 317 38 Digestion experiment No. 318 39 Digestion experiment No. 319 40 Digestion experiment No. 320 41 Digestion experiment No. 321 41 Digestion experiment No. 322 42 Digestion experiment No. 323 - 43 Summary of results obtained with soft winter wheat products 44 General summary of results and conclusions 50 5 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Plate I. Fig. 1. — Flour particles from straight patent flour No. 240. Fig. 2. — Flour particles fmiii entire-wheat flour No. 241 4S II. Fig. 1.— Flour i)articles from graham flour No. 24:i. Fig. 2.— Feces from bread from straight patent flour 48 III. Fig. 1. — Feces from bread made from graham flour. Fig. 2. — Feces from bread made from entire-wheat flour 48 6 STUDIES ON THE DIGESTIBILITY AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OP BREAD. INTRODUCTION. The investigations reported in this bulletin, which were carried on at the University of Minnesota in 1900-1902, are a continuation of the experiments on the digestibility and comparative nutritive value of bread made from different grades of fiour reported in previous bulle- tins of this Office," and include two series of digestion and nitrogen metabolism experiments with healthy men on a diet of milk and bread made from different grades of wheat ffour, namely, straight patent, entire wheat, and graham. In the first series, which included 9 experiments carried on in 1900-1901 (pp. 20-31), the different grades of flour used were all ground from the same lot of hard Scotch Fife spring wheat. In the second series, which included 15 experiments, carried on in 1901-2 (pp. 32-50), the flours were ground from soft winter wheat. The standard graders of flour produced by the modern process of milliup- are discussed in detail in a former bulletin^' and also in later pages of this bulletin. Briefly stated, by graham flour is meant the product o})tained by grinding the entire wheat kernel. Entire-wheat flour is the product obtained by removing about one-half of the coarse bran before o-rindino-. This flour is flner than graham, but not as fine as the patent grades of flour. In milling the patent flour all of the bran is removed. Several grades of patent flour are produced, but the one most commonly found on the market, known as "standard patent," "straight patent," or "straight grade" consists of the first and second patent and first clear grades combined. By ordinary proc- esses of milling a little over 72 per cent of the total wheat is recovered as straight or standard patent flour and about 2.5 per cent as low grade and "red dog" flours, the remaining 25 percent being returned in the form of bran, shorts, and other offal. During late years the relative food value and merits of these differ- ent kinds of flour have been the subject of extensive discussion; but an examination of the literature on bread and flour shows that but few digestion experiments v/hich are really directly comparable have been «U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of P^xperiment Stations Buls. 67 and 101. t>\J. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 101, pp. 7,8. 8 made 'with the different kinds of flour. Wheat ranges in protein con- tent from about 11 to 17 per cent; therefore, in order that the results of experiments may be comparable, the three kinds of flour should be milled from the same lot of wheat. In the former report it was shown that when the three different kinds of flour were ground from the same lot of hard spring wheat the graham and entire-wheat flours contained a little more protein and gave a slightly higher fuel value than the straight patent flour; but the coarser graham and entire-wheat flours had a lower coefiicient of digestibility than the flner straight patent flour. Hence the straight patent flour furnished the bod}' more nutritive material per gram or per pound than either the graham or entire-wheat flour. Because of the importance of the subject and the extensive use of wheat as a human food it was deemed desirable to repeat the work, and in so doing to extend the periods of the digestion experiments over a longer time than in the case of the experiments previously reported, in which they were only two da3's each. The experiments of 1900-1901 were therefore practically a repetition of those of 1899-1900, except that the digestion period in each case was twice as long, i. e., four days. In 1901-2 experiments were made similar to those of 1900-1901, but with soft winter wheat, which is somewhat difierent in character from the hard spring wheat, in order to determine whether the results would be the same with flours ground from different sorts of wheat. In connection with both series of experiments a num})er of analyses were made of the varieties of wheat studied and of their milling products as well as of the milk which formed a part of the diet in the digestion experiments. The necessary' anal3^ses were also made of the feces and urine to secure data for use in computing the digestibility of the food and the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen. METHODS OF SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS. The analytical methods employed in these investigations were prac- tically those recommended by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists," a few modifications suggested b}^ experience being intro- duced. A sample of each loaf of bread used during the separate digestion experiments was analyzed. One hundred grams of bread was reserved for the dry matter determination, and proportional parts of the dry matter of the bread from various loaves were united to form a com- posite sample, which contained a part of each loaf of bread propor- tioned to the size and moisture content of the loaf. A composite sample was made of the milk in the experiments of 1900-1901 by saving, in a bottle containing 100 milligrams of potas- « U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Chemistry Bui. 46, revised. 9 slum bicbromate, 25 cubic centimeters of the milk used at each meal. In the experiments of 19(»l-3 the amount of milk reserved at each meal was 60 cubic centimeters. The temperature of the drying oven was kept at about 6(P C. in all cases of the determination of moisture in the feces. The bread was also dried at this temperature. Nitrogen was determined by the ordinary Kjeldahl process. In the case of wheat and its milling products and bread, protein was obtained by multiplying nitrogen by the factor 5.7. In the case of protein in the milk and the feces the factor used was 6.25. No attempt was made to separate and determine the amount of metabolic nitrogen of the feces. Carefully purified ether was used for determining ether extract in the bread and feces. The results obtained for the fat in the feces were not satisfactory in many cases, although the determinations were made in duplicate by the method generally followed and considered reliable. The fat in the milk was determined by the Adams gravi- metric method. The ash was determined by combustion at a low tem- perature. The carbohydrates were estimated by subtracting the sum of the protein, ether extract, water, and ash from 100. The determination of the ether extract in the feces necessarily involves an error, owing to the metabolic products present. Another source of error is in the protein determination. While the determi- nation of the total nitrogen is satisfactory, the factor for converting this nitrogen into protein is not perfectly reliable, and in many cases is very unsatisfactory. It is well known that not all of the nitrogen of a food is in the form of proteid compounds. In the case of the food materials used in these experiments, namely, bread and milk, over 97 per cent of the total nitrogen is in the form of proteids, and the error from nonproteid nitrogen in the food is therefore small. In the case of the feces, however, the kinds, proportions, and composi- tion of the nitrogenous ingredients are not well understood, and the estimate of " protein" is at best very crude. The errors involved in the determination of carbohydrates, by difference, are too well known to require discussion. Notwithstanding these imperfections of analyt- ical methods, which are not peculiar to these investigations l)ut are common to all similar experiments, the results obtained in determining moisture, ash, total nitrogen, and heat of combustion are believed to be reasonably accurate, and the deductions drawn from them are regarded as reliable. The calorific value or heat of combustion of the various samples of food, feces, and urine was determined in the usual way by means of the bomb calorimeter. In the case of the milk and urine, weighed blocks of cellulose were employed to absorb the liquid. The absorp- tion block was saturated, carefully dried, weighed, and again satu- rated with a weighed quantity of material. After drying at a tem- perature of 65° C. the block was burned in the calorimeter in the 10 usual wa>% a correction being- made in the results for the heat of com- bustion of the block emploj^ed. DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES OF FOOD MATERIALS. In the nulling of the hard spring wheat great care was taken to secure representative samples. As in the former work, the milling was carried on under the supervision of Mr. C. E. Foster, of Minne- apolis, in one of the large flouring mills of that city. Two hundred pounds each of the three different kinds of flour were obtained from the mill. As soon as the samples were received at the laboratory smaller samples were drawn for analysis. For the experiments with soft winter wheat difficulty was experi- enced in securing samples of soft-wheat flours that were compara))le with the grades of flour used in former work with hard spring wheat. The samples of hard wheat used in 1899-1901 were exhaustively milled and ver}!- little flour was left in the ))rau and middlings. The samples of soft wheat used in 1901-2 were, as is the custom with such wheats, less exhaustively milled and more flour was left in the offals. For this work sets of samples were o])tained from two differ- ent milling companies, and in each case the different grades of flour were from a single lot of wheat. A description of the different sorts of wheat used in the experiments, and of the different grades of flour and milling products made from them, is here given. These are the samples the analyses of which are reported in Table 1. In addition to the various milling products mentioned, which are standard grades, other grades may l>e obtained by subdividing a grade or by mixing or blending two or more grades. Many of the flours which are placed upon the market are mixtures of two or more stand- ard grades of flour. No. 153. Hard Scotch Fife spring wheat, weighing 60 pounds per bushel; screened but not scoured. This wheat is representative of the lianl spring wheat grown in the Northwestern wheat regions of the United States. No. 154. Entire-wheat flour from hard spring wheat No. 153. This is the product obtained by removing a i)ortion of the bran and grinding the remainder of the grain. It includes the germ and other parts of the offal products which are excluded from the patent grades of flour. This flour is coarser in texture and darker in color than the patent and clear grades. The presence of fine bran particles prevents perfect granulation. Such "entire-wheat" flour is sometimes called "pulverized graham" or ' ' natural flour. ' ' No. 155. Graham flour from hard spring wheat No. 153. This consists of the entire wheat kernel including bran, germ, and offal, ground into meal. ( Jraham flour is practically wheat meal; no sieves or bolting cloths are employed in its manufacture, and coarse particles of bran, etc., may be observed in the flour. No. 156. Straight patent flour from hard spring wheat No. 153. This includes the first and second patent grades and the first clear or bakers' grade of flour described below. Ordinarily about 72 per cent of the screened wheat is recovered as straight patent flour. 11 No. 157. First patent flour from hard spring wheat No. 153. This is the highest grade of patent flour manufactured. Ordinarily al)OUt 56 per cent of the screened wheat is recovered as first patent flour, pnjvided no straight flour is made. All of the patent grades of flour include the middlings which, by the former processes of milling, were not reduced to flour but were included in the offal products. The presence of the granular middlings gives a relatively high protein content to the patent grades of flour. No. 158. Second patent flour from hard spring wheat No. 153. This is similar to first patent, but the bread made from it is a little darker in color and the gluten does not possess quite so high a power of expansion. The division of the flour into first, second, and straight patent grades is based entirely upon mechanical processes. In the higher grades of patent flour the gluten is distinctly different from that in the lower grades. The higher the grade of flour, the greater the power of expansion. It is this quality which enables the flour to absorb a large amount of water and as a result produce a large-sized loaf, and one of good physical properties. No. 159. First clear flour from hard spring wheat No. 153. After the first and second grades of patent flour are removed in milling about 12 per cent of first clear grade is oV)tained. This grade has a high protein content, but the gluten is different in character from that of the first and second patent grades of flour. As already explained, when the first and second patent grades and the first clear grade are blended as one product, the l)lend is called straight or standard jiatent fiour. No. 160. Second clear or low-grade flour from hard spring wheat No. 153. After the removal of the first and second patent flours and the first clear flour a])out 5 per cent of the original wheat can be obtained as second clear or low-grade flour. This flour is much darker in color than the patent and first clear flours. It contains gluten, with a low power of expansion, and therefore is not so valuable for bread making as the higher grades of flour. Second clear flour is characterized by a high protein content, but for bread making this protein possesses poor physical properties. No. 161. Red-dog flour from hard spring wheat. This is the hm'est grade of flour manufacture.5.70; in milk it is Nx6.25. The hard Scotch Fife spring wheat selected for the experiments (sample No. 153) was characterized by a very high protein content, namely, 15.5 per cent. In an earlier publication of this Department showing the average composition of a large number of American feed- ing stutfs« the protein content of wheat is given as 11.9 per cent. The highest percentage of protein there recorded is 17.2 per cent and the lowest 8.1 per cent. It will be observed that the wheat from which these flour samples were obtained contained nearly this maximum amount of proteid material. In the investigations with hard wheat previously reported,'' the wheat employed contained 12.65 per cent protein. The average amount of protein in the same variety of wheat aJJ. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. No. 11, p. 17. b\J. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. No. 101. 14 is found to vary materially from year to 5^ear, depending among other thino-.s upon the amount of rainfall and the climatic conditions under which the wheat has matured. The wheat crop produced in the north- western United States in 1900 was unusuall}* rich in protein. The rainfall and climatic conditions seemed to be particularly favorable for producing wheat and other grains with a high nitrogen content. While the wheat employed in this investigation contained somewhat more protein than is found in average wheat, in the author's opinion the percentage is no greater than in average wheat grown in the north- western United States in 1900. All of the flour samples from this wheat were relativeh' richer in protein than those in similar investi- gations with hard wheat in 1898-99, owing to the high nitrogen con- tent of the wheat. The difi'erences in the protein content of the several grades of flour ground from the wheat were comparatively small. There was a higher percentage of fat in the middlings than in the bran, owing to the presence of the germ in the former. Red-dog flour is the richest, as regards both fat and protein, of the products ground from the wheat. In the case of the patent and clear grades of flour, the heat .of combustion as determined was found to agree closely with the heat of combustion obtained by calculation, using the usual factors, namelv, 9.3 calories per gram" for fat, 5.9 for protein, and 1.2 for carbohydrates. As pointed out in a previous report,* the percentage of ash in the various products of wheat was lowest in the first patent flour and highest in the red-dog flour. Each grade of flour, beginning with the first patent, was found to contain proportionall}' more ash than the preceding grade. In fact, as noted previously, the grade of flour can be determined from the amount of ash present. In the analyses reported above the ash content is greater than in the samples employed in the earlier work with hard wheat in this labora- tory. There appears to ])e a close relationship l^etween the amounts of ash and protein present in flour and other milled products of wheat, an}' material increase in protein being accompanied b}^ a correspond- ing increase in mineral matter. This has often been attributed to the phosphorus associated with the proteids. Late work of Osborne*' indicates that the total amount of phosphorus in wheat proteids is too small to account for the increase in mineral matter just alluded to. The distribution of the nitrogen and ash constituents of the wheat berrv has been frequently studied, and it is interesting to note some comparatively recent American work on the subject, particularly as the investigations were made with wheats grown in the United States, which are therefore directly comparable with the wheats used in the investigation reported in this bulletin. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards and Miss Lottie A. Bragg '^ studied the distri- «U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 101, p. 12. ^ lb., p. 9. c Connecticut State Station Rpt. 1900, p. 464. c^Tech. Quart., 3 (1890) , p. 246. 15 bution of nitrogen and phosphorus in winter and spring- wheat and their milling products, in both cases the milling products having been ground from the same lots of wheat. The results obtained are shown in the following table, which includes also values for protein obtained b}^ multipl3dng the figures for nitrogen by 6.25: Table 2. — Nitrogen and phosphorus in wheat and its milling products. Milling products. Water. Phos- phorus. Nitrogen. Protein (NX 6.25). St. Louis winter wheat: Wholewheat Rnval ofitent flour Per cent. 12. 85 13.37 12. 51 11.94 11.21 12. 15 11.09 12. 29 12.14 11.27 11.23 Per cent. 0. 262 .0.51 .100 .100 .225 .828 .230 .050 .091 .560 .830 Per cent. 1.87 1.39 1.78 2.08 2.73 2.62 2. 24 2.10 2.40 2.78 2.55 Per cent. 11.7 8.7 Kxtrn fancv flour 11.1 13.0 17.1 Bran 16.4 Minnesota spring wheat: 14.0 Patent flour 13.1 Rakers' flour 15.0 Shorts 17.4 15.9 The figures in the table indicate that, while a larger part of the protein is recovered in the flour than is the case with the phosphorus, there is, nevertheless, a parallelism in the proportion of protein and phosphorus in the different milling products. At the Arkansas Experiment Station, Teller" made a very thorough and detailed study of the ash constituents of a sample of locally grown medium hard winter wheat and its milling products. In milling 3,000 pounds of uncleaned wheat, 1.83 per cent was recovered as screenings and 0.33 per cent as tailings, the percentage of milling products being as follows: Patent flour 25.80, straight flour 42, low-grade flour 3.87, dust room contents 1.17, ship stuff' 1.13, and bran 23.80. The loss of material in grinding — that is, the material unaccounted for — was therefore onl}' 0.07 per cent. The principal ash constituents and the sulphur and nitrogen in the whole wheat and the different milling products were as follows: Table 8. — Ash constituents and nitrogen of lointer luheat and its milling j^foducts. Milling products. Wheat Patent flour Straight flour Low-grade flour Dust room material Shipstuflf Bran Total ash.') Per ct. 1.62 .31 .40 .70 2.50 3.08 5.25 Silica. Per ct. 1.04 2.33 1.28 .50 1.34 .49 .97 In total a-sh. Ferric oxid. Per ct. 0.27 .47 .26 .25 .30 .37 .27 Potash. Per ct. 29. 70 38.50 36.31 32.27 30. 85 28.03 28.19 Lime. Per ct. 3.10 5. .59 5. 65 4.. 51 3. .53 2.80 2.50 Mag- nesia. Per ct. 13. 23 4.39 6.44 9.33 12.90 13.27 14.76 Phos- phoric acid. Per ct. .52. 14 48. 05 49.32 53.10 49.94 54.62 52.81 Sul- phur. Per ct. 0.13 .09 .10 .16 .15 .17 .21 Nitro- gen. Per ct. 1.96 1..54 1.75 2.13 2.17 2.78 2.73 a Arkansas Station Bui. 42, pts. 1, 2. bThissum includes values which are given for alumina, chlorin, zinc, and sulphur trifixid, which are not quoted in the table. The author regards the values for sulphur present in the different materials as more reliable than those for sulphui trio.xid in the ash, owing to a probable volatilization of sulphur in burning to obtain the ash. The other constituents omitted are not of much importance, the alumina and zinc being accidentally present. 16 Teller points out that about 87.5 per cent of the entire phosphoric acid, 78.5 per cent of the potash, and 37.5 per cent of the nitrogen present in the wheat berry are recovered in the milling products ordinarih' used as cattle feeds. As will be seen from the above table, the percentage of phosphoric acid increases as the grade of flour decreases, being least in the patent flour and greatest in low-grade flour, the proportion present in the latter being greater than in any of the milling products except ship stufl"; in other words, as shown by these figures, the phosphoric acid content, generall}^ speaking, increases in passing from the center of the wheat berry to the outer layer, the inner portion yielding the fine flour and the outer portion the bran. The table also shows that in the various milling products the propor- tion of nitrogen (and hence that of protein, since the latter is computed b}^ multiplving nitrogen by a constant factor) varies in practically the same way as the phosphorus. The parallelism between protein and phosphorus, which was spoken of above, is borne out by the analytical data quoted, though it does not necessarily follow that the phosphorus present occurs in the true proteids. As a whole, it has been the aim in the experiments conducted at the University of Minnesota to include standard t3'pos and varieties of hard and soft wheat flours, milled under different conditions. The difl'erences in the percentages of flour recovered from the wheat used necessarily make slight diflferences in the composition and character- istics of the grades of flour obtained. The soft wheat products were of different character from the samples of similar products from hard wheat. The hard wheats had been exhaustively milled, as is the usual custom, in one of the large mills of Minneapolis, while the soft winter wheats were ground by mills of smaller capacity using some- what different milling svstems, and, as is the general commercial prac- tice, were less exhaustively milled. In general, the flours Trom soft wheat were somewhat similar to, though not in every respect like those from, hard wheat, because of the differences in the kinds of wheat used and percentages of flour recovered. The graham flour contained the largest percentage of pro- tein, fat, and ash, while the patent grades of flour contained the small- est amounts of these ingredients. A noticeable difference in the mechanical composition of the three grades of soft wheat flour was observed. With the process of milling followed, some granular mid- dlings were left in the offals which would have been recovered in the straight and other grades of flour with more exhaustive milling. This results in a straight-grade flour containing slightly less protein than the product of exhaustive milling, as the granular middlings are rich in this nutrient. The particles or granules of the graham flour were 17 much larger than those of either the entire-wheat or the straight-grade flour. The comparative sizes of granules from graham, entire-wheat, and straight-grade flours ground from soft wheat are shown in the micro-photographs reproduced in Plate I, figs. 1 and 2, and Plate II, fig. 1, p. 48. COMPOSITION OF FECES AND URINE OBTAINED IN DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS. The composition of the dry matter of the feces from the digestion experiments is given in Table 4, while Table 5 records the amount, specific gravity, and percentage of nitrogen of the urine. A description of the samples of feces and urine follows: Nos. 178, 199, 180, 195, 196, 197, 213, 214, and 215 represent the feces which were obtained in the digestion experiments with hard spring wheat products. Nos. 225, 226, 227, 233, 234, 235, 245, 246, 247, 252, 253, 254, 261, 262, and 263, the feces which were obtained in the digestion experiments of 1901-2 with soft winter wheat. Nos. 166-177, 183-194, and 200-212, the urine from the digestion experiments with hard spring wheat products. Nos. 228, 229, 230, 236, 237, 238, 248, 249, 250, 255, 256, 257, 264, 265, and 266, the urine obtained in the experiments with soft winter wheat. Table -i.— Composition of dry matter of feces from digestion experiments vnth hard and soft wheat breads. Sample No. 178 179 180 195 196 197 213 214 215 225 226 227 233 234 235 245 246 247 252 253 254 261 262 263 Whence obtained. Experiments with hard wheat: Experiment No. 242 Experiment No. 243 Experiment No. 244 Experiment No. 245 Experiment No. 246 Experiment No. 247 Experiment No. 248 Experiment No. 249 Experiment No. 250 Experiments with soft wheat: Experiment No. 309 Experiment No. 310 Experiment No. 311 Experiment No. 312 Experiment No. 313 Experiment No. 314 Experiment No. 315 Experiment No. 316 Experiment No. 317 Experiment No. 318 Experiment No. 319 Experiment No. 320 Experiment No. 321 Experiment No. 322 Experiment No. 323 Protein (NX6.25) Per cent. .SO. 25 28.37 25. 00 23. 25 23. 31 21.67 29.94 28. 56 23. 94 14.10 21. 83 26. 75 14. 31 16.76 20.06 22. 61 23.13 25. 34 17.94 21.00 18. 67 19.50 17.86 19.13 Fat. Carbo- Ihydrates. Per cent. 12.26 7.45 7.44 8.70 5.61 6.41 17. 46 11.44 9.30 17.04 15. 84 9.10 5.36 10.32 4.32 8. .58 13.13 15. 26 5.31 11.65 6.00 6.44 13.98 8.25 Per cent. 34. 42 35.37 41.35 50.16 47.59 50.48 25. 02 26.42 36.47 45. 15 38.92 39.40 60.48 55.98 56. 51 43.99 38.92 32. .59 56.28 46.38 51.76 57.06 51.14 52.68 A.sh. Per cent. 23.07 28. 81 26. 21 17. 89 23. 49 21.44 27. 58 33. .58 30. 29 23.71 23.41 24. 75 19. 85 16. 94 19.11 24.82 24. 82 26. 81 20. 47 20.97 23.57 17.00 17.02 19.94 Heat of combus- tion per gram deter- mined. Calories. 4.ti3H 4.070 4. 351 4. 415 3.960 4.170 4.720 4.265 4.654 5.030 5.300 4.400 4.340 4. 420 4.160 5.050 5.160 5.360 4.290 4.410 3.990 4. 220 4.470 4.170 19047— No. 126—03- -2 18 Table 5. — Amount, specific gravity, and nitrogen of urine from digestion experiments itrith hard and soft wheat breads. Sample Subject No. No. 166 1 169 1 172 1 175 1 167 2 170 2 173 2 176 2 168 3 171 3 174 3 177 3 183 1 186 1 189 1 192 1 184 2 187 2 190 2 193 2 185 3 188 ~ 3 191 3 194 3 200 1 204 1 207 1 210 1 201 2 206 2 208 2 211 2 203 3 206 3 209 3 212 3 228 1 229 2 230 D 236 1 237 2 238 3 248 1 249 2 250 3 255 1 256 •> 257 3 264 1 265 2 266 3 Whence obtained. Experiments with hard wheat: Experiment No. 242 — First day Second dav Third day" Fourth day , Experiment No. 243 — First day Second day Third day' Fourth day Experiment No. 244— First day Second dav Third day" Fourtli day Experiment No. 245 — First day Second dav Third day Fourth day Experiment No. 246 — First day , Second day Third day F'ourth day Experiment No. 247^ F^irst day Second dav Third day" Fourtli day Experiment No. 24.S— First day Second dav Third day Fourth day Experiment No. 249 — First day Second day Third day Fourth day Experiment No. 250— First day Second dav Third day". Fourth day Experiments with soft wheat: Experiment No. 309 Experiment No. 310 Experiment No. 311 Experiment No. 312 Experiment No. 313 Experiment No. 314 Experiment No. 315 Experiment No. 316 Experiment No. 317 Experiment No. 318 Experiment No. 319 Experiment No. 320 Experiment No. 321 Experiment No. 322 Experiment No. 323 Total amount voided. Specific gravity. Grainf. 1, 368. 0 1,350.0 1,463.5 1,326.0 1,805.0 2, 112. 0 2, 298. 0 2, 248. 0 1,991.0 1, 720. 0 1,679.0 1, 947. 0 1,270.0 1, 210. 0 1,212.0 1, 102. 0 1,943.0 1,732.0 2, 188. 0 2, 368. 0 1,851.0 1,581.0 1,614.5 1,338.0 1,124.0 1,077.0 I 1,068.0 1,110.0 1,943.0 1,698.0 I 2,182.0 ' 2,023.0 1,123.0 1,242.0 1,601.0 2, 463. 0 6,023.1 4,296.2 4, 486. 2 5, 652. 9 5,201.7 4,115.6 7,317.4 (i, .5.16. 6 1,747.6 7, ssy. 1 6,910.1 5, 476. 6 ."^,210. 1 4,."i.S2.0 4, 608. 8 Nitrogen. 1.026 1. 023 1.027 1. 029 1.016 1.015 1.015 1.017 1.020 1.021 1.025 1.028 1.030 I 1.030 I 1.030 1.028 ! 1.015 1.015 1.015 1.014 1.024 1.025 1.027 1.027 1.027 1.031 1.030 1.029 1.014 1. 015 1.016 1.014 1.028 1.026 1.022 1.016 1.016 1.020 1.019 1.019 1.020 1.022 1.016 1.019 1.020 1.016 1.020 1.021 1.020 1.020 1. 022 Per cent. 1.58 1.45 1.66 1.74 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. The methods followed in all of the experiments here reported are practically identical with those described in detail in the previous publication" already referred to, and need only be briefly outlined. The bread from the different sorts of flour was eaten with milk; the amount of either was not limited, but the quantities eaten at each meal were recorded. The separations of the feces were made by means of «U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 101. 19 charcoal taken with a meal of bread and milk, which gives feces of a characteristic color and consistency. The digestibility of the nutrients of the diet as a whole was taken as the difference between the amounts in the food and those in the feces, no attempt being made to determine the metabolic products of the feces/' In order to compute the digestibility of the nutrients of the bread alone, it was assumed that 97 per cent of the protein, 95 per cent of the fat, and 98 per cent of the carbohydrates of milk were digested. The undigested nutrients of the milk as calculated by the use of these factors subtracted from the nutrients of the total feces give the esti- mated undigested nutrients from bread, which, subtracted from the total nutrients of the bread, give the digestible nutrients in bread. The latter, divided by the total nutrients in the bread, give the coeffi- cients of digestibility of bread alone. The values used for the digestibility of the nutrients of milk have been deduced from the results of a large number of digestion experi- ments with milk. Even if, in the experiments here reported, the diges- tibility of the milk nutrients varied from these assumed coefficients, the figures for the digestibility of the nutrients of the different kinds of bread are still strictly comparable because the same factors for milk were used in all cases. As has been already explained,'' the energy of the estimated feces from In-ead alone was computed by proportion from the energy of the total feces. The ratio of the heat of combustion of the bread feces as computed by factors to the actual energy was assumed to be the same as the ratio of the computed energy of total feces to the heat of combustion as determined. Although the energy of the urine was determined, in the calculation of the availability of the energy of the total food and of the bread alone, it was assumed, for the sake of uniformity with experiments previously reported, that 1.25 calorics of energy would appear in the urine for ever}^ gram of digestible protein in the total food or in the bread alone. For the sake of making an approximate estimate of the available energy in those experiments where the digestibility of the bread fat could not be computed, it was assumed that 90 per cent of «It should be observed that the results thus obtained do not represent actual digestibility. The true digestibility could be found by subtracting from the ingredi- ents of the food the corresponding ingredients of the feces that come only from undi- gested portions of the food. But no satisfactory method has been found for separating these from the metabolic products in the feces, which consist largely of the residues of the digestive juices that have not been reabsorbed. These latter represent the cost of digestion as expressed in terms of food ingredients. What the results of these experiments do represent, therefore, is the proportions of the food, or of the several ingredients, that are available to the body for purposes other than digestion itself. In accordance with common usage, however, the term digestibility, which indicates the apparent digestibility, has been employed here; the term availability is some- times used to express the same idea. &U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 101, p. 22. 20 the fat of the bread was digestible. The results thus found would probably be below rather than above what was actually the case. As in the preceding experiments, the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen was learned b}^ determining the daily amounts ingested in the food and excreted in the urine and feces. In the experi- ments with soft winter wheat in 1901-2 determinations were also made of the phosphoric acid in the samples of food, feces, and urine. Such data, however, are reserved for further study. The particular difference between the digestion experiments given here and those formerly reported is in the length of the experimental period, this being four days long here and only two in the earlier experiments. The longer experimental period is believed to be pref- erable, because it is generally considered that there is less danger of error due to uncontrollable factors that may vitiate the results in a short digestion period. As is well known, the results obtained from a digestion experiment are not absolute, bvit only relative. But inasnuich as in the diges- tion (Experiments reported in this bulletin the object is to deter- mine the relative rather than the absolute digestibility^ of three different kinds of bread, it is believed that the results obtained are satisfactory for this purpose, because whatever error may be intro- duced in one experiment is introduced alike in all of any given series, since the conditions were kept uniform throughout the series. While the results of a single digestion experiment are open to criticism, the results obtained from a series of experiments are much less so and are of value in determining whether one food is more digestible than another under similar experimental conditions. Hence in discussing the results ol)tained from these digestion experiments they are c>»n- sidered in relation to one another rather than alone. DETAILS OF THE DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH BREAD FROM DIFFERENT GRADES OF HARD SPRING WHEAT FLOUR. The details of the digestion experiments with hard wheat products are given in the following pages. ISine digestion experiments, each of four days' (or twelve meals') duration were made with three different subjects. In every case the diet consisted of bread and milk, and all of the experiments were conducted in the same manner, except that bread made from a different kind of flour was used in each series. In making the bread no shortening or milk was used, but simply yeast, flour, salt, and water. The subjects were universit}?^ students who spent from three to four hours each day at light muscular work out of doors. All had served as subjects in former digestion experiments and were thoroughly familiar with the requirements of such work. The experiments were practically made in triplicate — that is, the same kind of an experiment was made with each of three subjects at 21 the same time. The order in which the}" were conducted was as follows: The first series of experiments (with entire-wheat bread) extended from April 17 to April 20, inclusive; the second series (with graham bread) from April 23 to April 26, inclusive; and the third series (with bread from standard patent flour) from May 1 to Ma_y 4, inclusive. The experiments were taken up in this order because of the difficulty experienced in previous experiments with a g-raham bread and milk diet. It was believed that the investigation could be conducted to better advantage b}" having the graham bread experiment lietween the others, rather than at the beginning or close of the series. The four days' diet of graham bread and milk caused a slight irritation of the digestive tract and a slight attack of gastritis with two of the subjects. The following tables, Nos. 6 to li, and the accompanying data show the kind of food consumed, the subject experimented upon, the body weight at the beginning and at the close of the experiment, and the date and duration. Then follow statistics of the total nutrients in the food and the feces, and the heat of combustion of each, and after each of the tables statistics are given of the income and outgo of nitrogen during the experiment. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 242. Ki7id of food. — Milk, and bread made from entire-wheat flour. Suhjed. — University student No. 1, 22 years old. employed about four hours per day at manual labor. Weight. — At the beginning of the experiment, 168 pounds; at the close, 168 pounds. Duration. — Four days, with twelve meals, beginning with breakfast April 17, 1901^ Table 6. — Results of digestion experiment No. 242. Sample No. Weight material. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Ash. Heat of combus- tion. 164 Food consumed: Bread Grams. 3, 5.50. 0 9, 9.50. 0 Grams. 330.9 323.4 Grams. 6.7 378.1 Grams. 1,730.7 431.8 Gi-ams. 27.3 79.6 Calories. 8,998 165 Milk 6.965 Total 654.3 384.8 2, 162. 5 106.9 15,963 Feces (water free) 17H 214.0 , 64.7 9.7 26.2 73.7 8.6 49.4 992 Estimatedfecesfrom food other Estimated feces from bread . .55. 0 65.1 Total amount dige.sted 589.6 275 9 3.58 6 2, 088. 8 1,665.6 57.5 14,971 Estimated digestible nutrients in bread Coefficients of digestibility of total food Per cent Per cent. 90.1 83.4 Per cent. 93.2 Per cent. 96.6 96.2 Per cent. 53.8 Per cent. 93.8 Estimated coefficients of diges- tibiluv of bread . "93.0 Proportion of energy actually available to body: In total food 88.2 In bread alone a 89.1 a Estimated ou the assumption that 90 per cent of the fat in the bread is digestible. 22 During this experiment the subject eliminated 5,608 grams urine, containing 88.42 grams nitrogen. The average nitrogen balance per da}^ was therefore as follows: Income in food, 27.47 grams; outgo in urine, 22.10 grams and in feces, 2.59 grams, implying a gain of 2.78 grams nitrogen, corresponding to 17.4 grams protein. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 243. Kind of food. — Milk, and bread made from entire-wheat flour. Subject. — University student No. 2, 22 years old, employed about four hours per day at manual labor. Weight. — At the beginning of the experiment, 156 pounds; at the close, 155 pounds. Duration. —Four days, with twelve meals, beginning with breakfast April 17, 1901. Table 7. — Results of digestion experiment No. 243. Sample No. Weight of material. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Ash. Heat of combus- tion. 164 Food consumed: Bread Grams. 3,101.0 12, 310. 0 Grams. 289.0 400.1 Grams. 5.9 467.8 Grams. 1,511.8 534.3 Grams. 23.9 98.5 Calories. 7,860 165 Milk 8,617 Total 689.1 473.7 2, 046. 1 122.4 16, 477 Feces (water free) 179 180.0 51.1 12.0 13.4 63.7 10.7 51.9 733 Estimated feces from food other Estimated feces from bread 39.1 53.0 Total amount digested 638.0 249.9 460.3 1,982.4 1,4.58.8 70.5 15,744 Estimated digestible nutrients Coefficients of digestibility of total food . Per cent. Per cent. 92.6 86.5 Per cent. 97.2 Per cent. 96.9 96.5 Per cent. 57.6 Per cent. 95.6 Estimated coefficients of digest- ihilitv of h»reii(i a90.4 Proportion of energy actually available to body: In totrt 1 food 90.7 « 90. 0 a Estimated on the assumption that 90 per cent of the fat in the bread is digestible. During this experiment the subject eliminated 8,463 grams urine, containing 80.95 grams nitrogen. The average nitrogen balance per day was therefore as follows: Income in food, 28.68 grams; outgo in urine, 20.24 grams, and in feces, 2.09 grams, implying a gain of 6.35 grams nitrogen, corresponding to 89.7 grams protein. 23 DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 244. Kind of food. — Milk, and bread made from entire-wheat flour. Suhject. — University student No. 3, 24 years old, employed about four hours per day at manual labor. Weight. — At the beginning of the experiment, 161 pounds; at the close, 160 pounds. Duration. — Four days, with twelve meals, beginning- with breakfast April 17, 1901. Table 8. — Results of digestion experiment No. 244- Sample No. Weight of material. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Ash. Heat of combus- tion. 164 Food consumed: Bread Grams. 3, 760. 0 14,843.0 Grams. 350.4 482.4 Grams. 7.1 564.0 Grams. 1,833.1 644.2 Grams. 28.9 118.8 Calories. 9,530 165 Milk 10, 390 Total 832.8 571.1 2,477.3 147.7 19,920 Feces (^ water free ^ 180 215. 1 53.8 14.5 16.0 88.9 12.9 56.4 936 Estimated feces from food other than bread Estimated feces from bread 39.3 76.0 Total amount digested ■ 779.0 311.1 555.1 2, 388. 4 1, 757. 1 91.3 18, 984 Estimated digestible nutrients in bread . . Coefficients of digestibility of total food Per cent. Per cent. 93.5 88.8 Per cent. 97.2 Per cent. 96.4 95.9 Per cent. 61.8 Per cent. 95.3 Estimated coefficients of digest- ibility of bread a 94. 3 Proportion of energy actually available to body: In total iood . 90.4 a 90. 2 a Estimated on the as.sumption that 90 per cent of the fat in the bread is digestible. During this experiment the subject eliminated 7,337 grams urine, containing 108.24 grams nitrogen. The average nitrogen balance per day was therefore as follows: Income in food, 34.66 grams; outgo in urine, 27.06 grams, and in feces, 2.15 grams, implj'ing a gain of 5.45 grams nitrogen, corresponding to 34.1 grams protein. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 245. Kind of food. — Milk, and bread made from graham flour. Subject. — University student No. 1. Weight. — At the beginning of the experiment, 168 pounds; at the close, 167 pounds. Duration. — Four days, with twelve meals, Ijeginning with breakfast April 23, 1901. u Table 9. — Result.'^ of digestion experiment No. 246. Sample No. Weight of material. Protein. 1 Fat. Carbo- ' hydrates. Ash. Heat of combus- tion. 182 181 Food consumed : Grams. 3, 342. 0 10,207.0 Grams. 318.8 319.5 Grams. 9.7 408.3 Grams. 1, 540. 7 480.8 Grams. 46.5 90.8 Calories 8,337 Milk 7,614 ToUl ! 638.3 418.0 2,021.5 137.3 15, 951 195 300.1 69.8 9.6 26.1 20.4 150.5 9.6 53.7 1,325 Estimated feces from food other than bread 302 Estimated feces from bread 60.2 5.7 140.9 1,023 T^if'il 'imnmit ditrestod 568.5 258.6 391.9 4.0 1,871.0 1,399.8 83.6 14, 626 Estimated digestible nutrients in bread 7,314 CoeflQcients of digestibility of tntfl 1 food Per cent. Per cent. 89.1 81.1 Per cent. 93.8 41 2 Per cent. 92.6 90.9 Per cent. 60.9 Per cent. 91,7 Estimated coefficients of digest- 87.7 Proportion of energy actually available to body: 87.2 83.9 During- this experiment the su))ject eUminated 4,794 grams urine, containing 87.70 grams nitrogen. The average nitrog-en balance per day was therefore as follows: Income in food, 20.74 grams; outgo in urine, 21.95 grams, and in feces 3.79 grams, implying a gain of 1 gram nitrogen, corresponding to 6.3 grams protein. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 246. Kind of food.— Milk, and bread made from graham flour. Subject. — University student No. 2. Weight.— At the beginning of the experiment, 1.54 pounds; at the close, 152.7 pounds. Daration.—¥o\xv days, with twelve meals, beginning with breakfast April 23, 1901. Table 10. — Remits of digestion experiment No. 246. Sample No. Weight of material. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Ash. Heat of combus- tion. 18'> Food consumed: Bread Grams. 2, 855. 0 10, 568. 0 Grams. 272.4 330.8 Grams. 8.3 422.7 Grams. 1,316.2 497.8 Grams. 39.7 94.1 Calories. 7, 123 181 Milk 7,883 Total 603. 2 431.0 1,814.0 133.8 15,006 196 Feces ( water free) 259.0 60.4 9.9 14.5 123. 3 10.0 60.8 1,026 Estimated feces from food Estimated leces bread from 50.5 113.3 Total amount digested . Estimated digestible nut in bread T. . . . 542. 8 221.9 416.6 1,690.7 1,202.9 73.0 13, 980 rients 25 Table 10.— Remits of digestion experiment No. 246 — Continued. Sample No. Coefficients of digestibility of total food Estimated coefficients of diges- tibility of bread Proportion of energy actually available to body: In total food In bread alone Weight of material. Per cent. Protein. Fat. Per cent. 90.0 81.5 Per cent. 96.6 Carbo- hydrates, Per cent. 93.2 91.4 Ash. Per cent. 54.6 Heat of combus- tion. Per cent. 93.2 n88.9 88.6 a 85.1 a. Estimated on the assumption that 90 per cent of the fat in the bread is digestible. During this experiment the subject eliminated 8,231 grams urine, containing 81.73 grams nitrogen. The average nitrogen balance per day was, therefore, as follows: Income in food, 25.16 grams; outgo in urine, 20.43 grams, and in feces, 2.91 grams, implying a gain of 1.79 grams nitrogen, corresponding to 11.2 grams protein. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 247. Kind of food.— M.\\k, and bread made from graham flour. Subject. — University student No. 3. Weight.— At the beginning of the experiment, 161 pounds; at the close, 157 pounds. Duration. — Four days, with twelve meals, beginning with breakfast April 23, 1901. Table 11. — Results of digestion experiment No. 247. Sample No. Weight of material. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Ash. Heat of com- bustion. 182 Food consumed: Bread Grams. 3, 440. 0 12,475.0 Grams. 328. 2 390.5 Grams. 10.0 499.0 Grams. 1,585.9 587.6 Grains. 47.8 111.0 Calories. 8,583 181 Milk 9,306 Total 718.7 509.0 2,173.5 158. 8 17, 889 Feces (water free) 197 267. 7 58.0 11.7 17.2 136.1 11.7 57.4 1,116 Estimated feces from food other thnn bread Estimated feces from bread 46.3 123.4 Total amount dip^ested 660.7 281.9 491.8 2, 038. 4 1,462.5 101.4 16, 773 Estimated digestible nutrients in brt^ad Coefficients of digestibility of total food Per cent. Per cent. 91.9 85.9 Per cent. 96.6 Per cent. 93.8 92.2 Per cent. 63.9 Per cent. 93.8 Estimated coefficients of diges- tibility of bread « 90. 3 Proportion of energy actually available to body: 89.2 a 86. 2 a Estimated on the assumption that 90 per cent of the fat in the bread is digestible. 26 During this experiment the subject eliminated 6,385 grams urine, containing 1«)7,13 grams nitrogen. The average nitrogen ))alance per day was therefore as follows: Income in food, 30.01 grams; outgo in urine, 26.78 grams, and in feces, 2.32 grams, implying a gain of 0.91 grams nitrogen, corresponding to 5.7 grams protein. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 248. Kind of food. — Milk, and bread made from straight patent flour. Subject. — University student Mo. 1. Weight. — At the beginning of experiment, 164 pounds; at the close, 164 pounds. Duration. — Four days, with twelve meals, beginning wdth breakfast May 1, 1901. Table 12. — Results of digestion experiment No. 248. Sample No. Weight of material. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Ash. Heat of combus- tion. 199 Food consumed: Bread Orams. 2,575.0 10,583.0 Grams. 248. 0 321.7 Grams. 1.0 404.3 Grams. 1,314.9 509.0 Grams. 12.9 78.3 Calories. 6,680 7,715 198 Milk Total 569.7 405. 3 1,823.9 91.2 14 395 Feces (water free) 213 152. 0 45.5 9.6 26.5 20.2 38.0 10.2 41.9 717 Estimated feces from food other than bread 309 Estimated feces from bread 35.9 27.8 Total amount digested 524. 2 212.1 378.8 1,785.9 1,287.1 49.3 13,678 Estimated digestible nutrients in bread Coefficients of digestibility of total food Per cent. Per cent. 92.0 85.5 Per cent. 93.5 Per cent. 97.9 97.9 Per cent. .54 1 Per cent. 95.0 Estimated coefficients of digest- ibility of bread "94.8 Proportirend 93.9 Proportion of energy actually available to body: 90.4 90.4 t During this experiment the subject eliminated 6,023 grams urine, containing 60.25 grams nitrogen. The nitrogen balance per day was therefore as follows: Income in food, 31.20 grams; outgo in urine, 22.08 grams, and in feces, 1.25 grams, implying a gain of 7.87 grams nitrogen, corresponding to 1:9.2 gramy protein. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 310. Kh)d of food. — Milk, and bread made from straight-grade flour. Suhject. — Man No. 2; age, 25 years; university student; employed at average farm labor four hours per day. " ^Ve/.— Results of digestion experiment Xo. J7^— Continued. Sample No. Weight I of , material. Protein. ^ , ' Carbo- i , , ^"'- hvdrate.s. -^^"• Gram!<. \ Graith-f. i Grumg. ! Grams. Total amount digested \ I -138. 1 ! 388. 9 , 1, 540. 4 Estimated digestible nutrients i I ' _, _ inbread '. 1^0.5 l,l/3.o Grams. 48.0 Coefficients of digestibility of i Per cent. total food . Estimated coefficients of diges- | tibility of bread Proportion of energy actually j available to body: I In total food In bread alone Per cent. \ Per oitt. Per cent. ' Per cent. 88.8 79.3 97.0 90.8 8S.S 47.7 Heat of combus- tion. Calories. 12, 409 Per cent. 91.6 a 86.1 87. .S " 82. 9 a Calculated according to the assumption that 90 per cent of the fat in the bread is digestible. During this experiment the subject eliminated 4,115.6 grams urine, containing 60.91 grams nitrogen. The total nitrogen balance per day- was therefore as follows: Income in food, 27.48 grams; outgo in urine, 20.30 grams, and in feces, 2.94 grains, implj'ing a gain of 4.24 grams nitrogen, corresponding to 26.5 grams protein. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 315. Alnd of food— Milk, and bread made from straight liour. Subjecf.-—M'An No. 1, as in experiment No. 309, Weight,— At the Ijeginning and close of the experiment, 166 pounds. Duration.— Yowv daj^s, with twelve meals, beginning with breakfast April 28, 1902. T.-vBLE 24. — Re.'thlts of digestion e.cperiment Xo. -31.5. Sample No. . 1 Weight of . material. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Ash. Heat of combu.s- tion. 244 243 Food consumed: Bread Milk Grams. 3,615.0 U,750.u Grams. 274.4 351. 3 Grams. 13.7 480.6 Grams. 1,976.3 565. 2 Grams. Calories. 17. 7 9, 435 90. 5 8, 719 Total 1 625. 7 494.3 2,541.5 108,2 IS, 1,54 Feces (water free ) Estimated feces fromfoodother than brpfld 245 132.0 29.8 10.5 11.3 58.1 11.3 32.8 667 Eslimatedfecesfrombrcfui Total amount disresterl 19.3 16.8 ^ 595. 9 255.1 483.0 2, 483. 4 1 Cl'M 5 75.4 17,487 Estimated digestible nutrients Coefficients of digestibility of total food I Per cent. Per cent. 95.2 93.0 Per cent. 97.7 Pei' cent. 97.7 97.6 Per cent. 69.7 Per cent. 96.3 Estimated coefficient of diges- "97.3 Proportion of energy actually available to body: 92.2 j "93.4 ! 1 a Calculated according to the assumption that 90 per cent of the fat in the bread is digestible. 38 During this experiment the subject eliminated 7,317.4 grams mine, containing 87. OS grams nitrogen. The total nitrogen balance per day was therefore as follows: Income in food, 26.09 grams; outgo in urine, 21.77 grams, and in feces, 1.1J» grams, implying a gain of 3.13 grams nitrogen, corresponding to 19.6 grams protein. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 316. Kind of food. — Milk, and bread made from straight flour. Suhjed. — Man No. 2, as in experiment No. 310. Weight. — At the beginning and close of the experiment, 166 pounds. Duration. — Four days, with twelve meals, beginning with breakfast April 28, 1902. Table 25. — Results of digestion experiment No. 316. Sample No. Weight of material. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Ash. Heat of combus- tion. 244 243 Food consumed : Bread Milk Total Feces ( water free ) Grams. 3, 4,su. 0 12. 730. 0 Grams. 264.1 380. 6 Grams. 13. 2 520. 6 Grams. 1,902.3 612. 3 Gravis. 17.0 98.0 Calories. 9,082 9,445 644.7 533. 8 2, 514. 6 115.0 18, 527 113. 0 26.1 11.4 14.8 44.0 . 12. 3 28.0 583 246 E.stima ted feces from food other than bread ; Estimated feces from bread Total amount digested 14.7 81.7 618. 6 249. 4 .519. 0 2. 470. 6 1 870.6 87.0 17,944 Estimated digestible nutrients in bread Coefficients of digestibility of total food Per cent. P>r cent. 0"). 9 94.4 Per cent. 97. ■-' Per ceyii. 98.2 98.3 Per cent. 75.6 Per cent. 96.9 Estimated coefficients of di- gestibility of bread Proportion of energy actually available to body :" In total food «98.5 92.7 lu bread alone i "95.1 1 1 oCalculated according to the assumption that 90 per cent of the fat in the bread is digestible. During this experiment the subject eliminated 6,556.6 grams urine, containing 92.45 gram.s nitrogen. The total nitrogen balance per day was therefore as follows: Income in food, 26.81 grams; outgo in urine, 23.11 grams, and in feces, 1.05 grams, implying a gain of 2.65 grams, nitrogen, corresponding to 16.6 grams protein. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 317. Kh^d of food. — Milk, and bread made from straight ilour. jSiihject. — Man No. 3, as in experiment No. 311. Weight. — At the beginning of the experiment, 151 pounds; at the close, 150.25 pounds. Duration. — Four days, with twelve meals, beginning with breakfast April 28, 1902. 39 Table 26. — Results of digestion experiment No. ,317. Sample No. Weight of material. 1 Protein. 1 I Kat. Carbo- ' hydrates. ; Ash. Heat of combus- tion. 'HI Food con.sumed: Gi-ams. ! 3,330.0 Grams. 252.7 303.5 Grams. 12.6 415.1 Grams. 1,820.3 488.2 Grams. 16.3 - 78.2 Calories. 8,691 243 Milk 10,150.0 7,531 Total 556.2 427. 7 2, 308. 5 94.5 16,222 247 127.0 1 32.2 9.1 19.4 41.4 9.8 34.1 681 Estimated feces from food other • Estimated feces from bread 23.1 31.6 Total amount dierested 524.0 229.6 408.3 2, 267. 1 1,788.7 60.4 15,541 Estimated digestible nutrients in bread Coefficients of digestibility of total food Per cent. Per cent. 94.2 90.9 Per cent, 95.5 Per cent. 98.2 98.2 Per cent. 63.9 Per cent. 95.8 Estimated coefflcientsof digest- , «97.4 Proportion of energy actually available to body: 91.8 "94.1 1 o Calculated according to the assumption that 90 per cent of the fat in the bread is digestible. During this experiment the subject eliminated 4,747.6 grams urine, containing 65.99 grams nitrogen. The total nitrogen balance per day- was therefore as follows: Income in food, 23.22 grams; outgo in urine, 16.50 grams, and in feces, 1.29 grams, implying a gain of 5.43 grams nitrogen, corresponding to 33.9 grams protein. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 318. lund of food. — Milk, and bread made from entire-wheat flour. Suljeet.—lsl^iW No. 1, as in experiment No. 309. Weigld.—Kt the beginning of the experiment, 167.25 pounds; at the close, 168 pounds. Duration. — Four days, with twelve meals, beginning with breakfast May 5, 1902. Table 27. — Results of digestion experiment No. 318. Sample No. Weight material. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Grams. 1,913.0 570.0 Ash. Heat of combus- tion. 251 Food consumed: Bread Grams. 3, 700. 0 12,000.0 Grams. mn. 2 360. 0 Grams. 40.0 462.0 Grams. 47.0 87.6 Calories. 9, 952 258 Milk Total 8, 820 668. 2 502.0 2,483.0 134.6 18,772 Feces ( water free) 252 287.0 51.5 10.8 15. 2 161. 5 11.4 58.8 1,231 Estimated feces fromfoodother Estimated feces from 40.7 1.50 1 Total amount digested 616.7 267. 5 486.8 2, 321. 5 1,762.9 75.8 17,541 Estimated digestible nutrients in bread 1 40 Table 27. — Results of digestion experiment No. .'US — Continued. Sample No. Weight of material. Coefficients of digestibility of Per cent. total food Estimated coefficients of digest- ibility of bread Proportion of energy actually available to body: In total food In bread alone Protein. Per cent. 92.8 8fi. S IFat. Per cent. 97.0 Carbo- hvdrates. Per ce)tt. 93.5 92.2 Ash. Per cent. 56.3 Heat of combus- tion. Per cent. 93.4 "91.3 89.3 o 87. 9 aCalculated according to the assumption that 90 per cent of the fat in the bread is digestible. During- this experiment the subject eliminated 7,889.1 grams urine, containing- 84:.-il grams nitrogen. The total nitrogen balance for four da3^s was therefore as follows: Income in food, 27.92 grams; outgo in urine, 21.10 grams, and in feces, 2.06 grams, implying a gain of 4.76 grams nitrogen, corresponding to 29.8 grams protein. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 319. JTind of food. — Milk, and bread made from entire- wheat flour. Siibject. — Man No. 2. as in experiment No. 310. Weight. — At the beginning- and close of the experimwit, 167.5 pounds. Duration. — Four days, with twelve meals, beginning with breakfast May 5, 1902. Table 28. — Results of digestion experiment No. 319. Sample No. Weight of material. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Ash. Heat of combus- tion. 251 2.58 Food consumed: Bread Milk Total ■ppppe f water free"! Grams. 3, 6.55. 0 12, 380. 0 Grams. 304.5 371.4 Grams. m. 5 476.6 Grams. 1,889.5 .588.0 Grams. 46.4 90.4 Calories. 9.831 9,100 67.5.9 516.1 2, 477. 5 1:36.8 18, 931 253 302.0 63.4 11.1 35.2 23. 8 140.1 11.8 63.3 1,332 Estimated feces from food other than bread 351 Estimated feces from 52.3 11.4 128. 3 981 Total amount dierested 612. 5 252.2 480.9 28. 1 2,337.4 1,761.2 73.5 17, 599 Estimated digestible nutrients in bread 8,850 Coefficients of digestibility of total food Per cent. Per cent. 90.6 82.8 1 Per cent. j 93.2 71.1 Per cent. 94.3 93.2 Per cent. 53.7 1 Per cent. 92.9 Estimated coefficients of di- 90. 0 Proportion of energy actually available to body: In tot ill fund 88.9 1 86.8 1 During this experiment the subject eliminated 6,910.1 grams urine, containing 101.58 grams nitrogen. The total nitrogen balance per day was therefore as follows: Income in food, 28.21 grams; outgo in urine, 41 25.39 grams, and in feces, 2.57 grams, implying a gain of 0.25 gram nitrogen, corresponding to 1.6 grams protein. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 320. Kind of food. — Milk, and bread made from entire-wheat flour. Subject. — Man No. 3, as in experiment No. 311. Weight. — At the beginning of the experiment, 15 84.2 Experiments with Michigan wheat: White bread (standard patent) 315 93.0 94.4 90.9 97.6 98. 3 98.2 93.4 316 317 do ....do Average of 3 Entire-wheat bread 95.1 94.1 92.8 98.0 94.2 318 86.8 82. S 87.4 92.2 93. 2 93.4 87.9 319 320 ....do do Average of 3 86.8 89.4 85.7 92.9 88.0 Graham bread 321 79.2 80.1 79.0 88.9 89.5 89.6 8" 7 322 323 ....do ....do 81.7 83 5 Average of 3 79.4 89.3 82 6 These results are calculated, as explained on page IH. hy assuming that 97 per cent of the protein and 98 per cent of the carbohydrates of the milk were digested.^' The average result of the experiments with flour milled from Indi- ana soft winter wheat shows that 88.9 per cent of the protein and 96 per cent of the carbohvdrates of the white bread from mixed-orade flour were digested, and that 90.4 per cent of the energy wasavailable. As regards the bread from entire-wheat flour, ground from the same lot of wheat, 84.6 per cent of the protein and 89.6 per cent of the car- «It was also assumed that 95 per cent of the fat of the milk would be digested, ])ut with this factor the digestibility of the fat of bread could be computed satisfactorily in only a few cases; therefore figures for this constituent are left out of Table 34. In all cases where the digestibility of bread fat could not be computed it was assumed, in order to estimate the available energy of the bread, that 90 per cent would be digested. 46 bohydrates were found to be digestible, and 84.:^ per cent of the energy to be available. It will be observed, further, that with each of the sub- jects the nutrients of the white bread were more digestible and the energv more availal)le than was the case with the entire-wheat bread. The white bread made from stiuiight-grade Hour milled from Michi- gan soft winter wheat had the highest digestil)ility of any of the sam- ples ground from this variety, namel}^ 92.8 per cent of the protein and 98 per cent of the carbohydrates, while 94.2 per cent of the energy was available to the body. Of the protein of bread from the entire- wheat flour milled from the same lot of wheat, 85.7 per cent, and of the carboh3'drates 92.9 per cent were digestible, 88 per cent of the energy being available to the body. The lowest coefficients of digesti- bility were found in the graham bread, the values being 79.4 per cent for the protein, 89.3 per cent for the carbohydi*ates, and 82.6 per cent for the energy available to the body. As will be seen, there was a dif- ference of 13.4 per cent in the average digestibility of the protein of the o-raham bread and white bread made of flour from the same lot of wheat, while 8.7 per cent less of the carbohydrates of the graham bread was digestible, and 11.6 per cent less of the energv was avail- able. As in the case of the entire ration, ditt'erences attributable to individuality are noticeable, which are, however, not great enough to invalidate the general deduction that white bread is the most digesti- ble, graham bread the least, and entire-wheat bread intermediate between them. Table 35 gives a summary of the experiments on the basis of the pro- portion of total and digestible nutrients and available energy in the different grades of flour as milled from soft winter wheat: Table 35. — Proportion of total and digestible nutrients and available energy in different grades of soft winter-wheat flour as milled. Num- ber of sample. Grade of flour. Protein. Carbohydrates. Heat of combus- tion per gram. Total. Digest- ible. Total. Digest- ible. Total. Avail- able. 221 Mixod-STRflG flour Per cent. 12. 30 12. 80 10. 92 12.01 12. 24 Per cent. 10.93 10.82 10.13 10. 29 Per cent. 75.94 74.40 77. 15 74.17 Per cent. 72.90 66.66 75.61 68.80 65. 43 Calories. 4.010 4.020 3.799 3. 860 3. 906 Calories. 8.645 219 Entire-wheat flour 3.384 240 Straight white flour 3. 579 241 Entire- wheat flour 3.399 242 Graham flour 9.72 1 73.27 3.226 The digestible nutrients were obtained by multiplying the percent- age of the total nutrients by the average digestion coefficients given in Table 34. The mixed-grade flour, for example, contained 12.3 per cent total protein, which was found to be 88.9 per cent digestible, being therefore equivalent to 10.93 per cent of digestible protein. The mixed-grade flour prepared from the Indiana wheat contained 10.93 per cent digestible protein, 72.90 per cent digestible carbo- 47 hydrates, and 1 ^ram of the tiour yielded 3. •545 caloi-ies of available energj'. The entire-wheat flour prepared from the same wheat yielded 10.82 per cent digestible 'protein, 66.87 per cent digestible carbo- hydrates, and 3.375 available calories per gram. The difference in digestible protein is small, being 0.11 per cent in favor of the mixed- grade flour. The difference in. the digestible carbohydrates is quite large, being 6.24 per cent in favor of the mixed-grade flour. The difference in the available energy is also large, amounting to 0.261 calorie per gram in favor of the white flour. While there is no material difference as to the amount of digestible protein in the two kinds of flour, the differences in digestible carbo- hydrates and available energy are decidedly in favor of the mixed-grade flour. The entire-wheat flour contained a larger amount of protein, but, as shown in Table 34, this protein is less digestible than that of the mixed-grade flour, wdiich was more finely granulated. The straight-grade flour prepared from the Michigan wheat con- tained 10.13 per cent digestible protein, 75.61 per cent digestible carbohj-drates, and 3.574 calories of available energy per gram. Com- pared with graham flour, this shows 0.4 per cent of digestible protein, 10.18 per cent of digestible carbohvdrates, and 0.353 calorie of avail- able energy per gram in favor of the white flour. Compared with the entire-wheat flour, the results show a difference of 6. si per cent digestible carbohvdrates and 0.180 available energy per gram in favor of the straight-grade flour; the difl'erence in digestible protein, though too small to be of significance, is 0.16 per cent in favor of the entire- wheat flour. In the description of the samples it was stated that the straight-grade flour did not contain all of the granular middlings which are usuall}" included in the preparation of ordinary straight flours. Had the flour contained the granular middlings, the percent- age of protein, it seems fair to conclude, would have been higher than 10.92. While the difference in total protein is 1.1 per cent in favor of the entire-wheat flour, the higher degree of digestibility of this con- stituent in the straight-grade flour makes the figures for the total digestible protein in the two kinds of flour practically the same. Hence, what is gained from the somewhat larger amount of protein in the entire-wheat and graham flours is lost in digestibility. While the difl'erence between the digestible protein in the straight-grade and entire-wheat flours prepared from the same lot of soft wheat is small, the difference in digestible carbohydrates is large, being 6.8 per cent in favor of the white flour. Since a larger amount of digestible carbo- hydrates and available energy is secured from the mixed and straight- grade flours than from the entire-wheat flour and no appreciable differences were observed as to digestible protein, it would appear that a larger total amount of nutrients and energy is available to the 48 bodj" from the straig-ht than from the entire-wheat or graham flours, a conclusion in accord with the results of all our former work. That the lower degree of digestibility of the entire-wheat and graham flours was probabl}- due at least in part to a coarser granulation of the particles, which consequently exposed a relatively" smaller amount of surface to the action of the digesti\-e fluids, was shown by a microscopical examination of the feces. The feces from both the entire-wheat and the graham flours under the microscope showed a larger proportion of starch particles that had not been acted upon in the digestive tract than the feces from standard patent flour. The micro-photographs reproduced (Pis. I-III) show the flneness of division of the three sorts of flour and the starch granules in the feces obtained from the standard patent, the entire-wheat, and the graham flours, prepared by grinding in a mortar. These deductions are in accord with the results of numerous micro- scopical studies of the feces from different sorts of wheat joroducts, and in this connection it is interesting to refer to some of these and closely related investigations. Among others mav be mentioned the work of Rubner, " Pappenheim,'' Constantinidi,'' and Raudnitz. -' In o-eneral it mav l^e said that these investigators found that starch was very thoroughly digested, but that the cells making up the outer portion of the wheat berrv were little attacked by the digestive juices, and hence the contents of such cells were not assimilated. Rubner pointed out that the amount of undigested nitrogen increased w^ith an increase in the amount of the outer portion of the grain retained in flour in milling. Rathay*^ reports experimental studies, of which he himself was the subject, in which the diet for a week consisted of oraham bread and tea. The bread was made without leaven or veast. The feces from the flfth and seventh day were examined microscop- ically. He found that the grain portions which had been little masti- cated were softened, but almost entirely undigested. From only a few of the outer cells of the endosperm had the starch grains and the proteid materials disappeared, while the greater part of these nutri- ents was excreted unchanged. The general conclusion from his inves- tigations was that the greater portion of the feces consisted of undi- gested residues of wheat bran in the form of large flakes composed of the seed coats and aleurone layer. The latter leaves the intestines unchanged, probably because the thick walls of the aleurone cells pre- vent the action of digestive juices upon the cell contents. So far as can be learned, this investigation was the first which at all satisfac- »- ■ — - f'Ztschr. Biol., 15 (1879), p. 115. i'Lehrbuch der Miillerei (1890), 3d ed., cited l)y iMoeller. cZtschr. Biol., 23 (1887), p. 447. f'Prag. med. Wchnschr., 7 (1892), pp. 1, 13. <" Jahresber. K. K. Realschule Sechshaus, AVien, 1874, cited by Moeller. U. S. Dept. of Agr , Bui, 126, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate I. FiG. 1.— Flour Particles from Straight Patent Flour No. 240 (Magnified 15 DIAMETERS). Fig. 2.-FL0UR Particles from Entire-wheat Flour No. 241 (Magnified 15 Diameters). U. S. Dept. of Agf., Bui. 1 26, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate II. Fig. 1.— Flour Particles from Graham Flour No. 243 i Magnified 15 Diameters). Fig. 2.— Feces from Bread Made from Straight Patent Flour (Magnified 15 diameters). Plate III. ■P^^ ;<■, |i-* r:^"* '-*.-< ^5 « .4^ .. ■St . FiQ. 1.— Feces from Bread Made from Graham Flour (Magnified 15 Diameters; Fig. 2.— Feces from Bread Made from Entire-wheat Flour (Magnified 15 Diameters). • '•fl 49 torih^ opposed Liebig's idea of the high value of the gluten layer of wheat. Perhaps the most extended study of vegetable residues occurring in feces was made by Moeller". In some of the experiments the diet consisted of coarse bread with butter and cheese; white bread, rice, and butter; bread, and porridge made of wheat grits and milk; bread, and porridge made from milk and flour; oat preparations, namel}^ oat grits, oat flake, soup, and oat cocoa; rye bread and various mixed diets, or diets in which potatoes or legumes predominated. Portions of feces were repeatedh' washed with water and then exam- ined under the microscope. The conclusion was reached that healthy individuals digested the starch of cereals and potatoes almost completely, even when the starchy foods were not in favorable mechanical condition, as is the case in bran from cereals, in rice, or in sliced potatoes; and fur- ther, that the soft cell walls of the starch cells are also digested. The aleurone layer of cereals in which the cell membranes consist of pure cellulose was not digested, nor were the protein and fat which form the contents of the cells digested unless the cell walls had been mechan- ically ruptured. The cells making up the germ were not digested or ruptured by the action of the digestive juices. The author believes that these experiments warrant the conclusion that line flour is prefer- able to coarse flour. Comparative experiments with coarse flour and the same flour after passing through the intestinal tract, lead the author to the conclusion that the cell walls almost absolutely shield the cell contents of the aleurone layer from the action of the digestive juices, and he concludes that cereal brans should be regarded as indi- gestible. The outer layer of the cereal grains, including endosperm cells with their starch content, was also found to be undigested. Laborator}' experiments indicated that cellulose which had not ligni- tied was little attacked by digestive juices, the amount being inversely proportional to the thickness of the cell membrane. On the other hand, the middle lamella were readily disintegrated by digestive juices. Tests with laboratorv reagents also showed that the inner side of the gluten cells was most resistant but after a time softened, and this indi- cates that possibly gluten cells may become softened in the intestine and then digested. That this occurs very seldom is indicated by the large number of unchanged cells found in the feces. As noted above, in connection with the experiments reported in this bulletin, a microscopical examination of the feces showed that in those from the gi'aham and entire-wheat breads made from flour ground from the same lot of soft wheat, a much larger number of unaltered starch granules were present, and the particles had not been as completely acted upon by the digestive fluids as in the case of the straight-grade-flour bread. «Ztschr. Biol., 35 (1897), p. 291. 19047— No. 126—03 4 50 Summarizing briefly the results of the fifteen experiments with soft- wheat flours, it appears that while the graham and entire-wheat flours contain a larger amount of protein and energy, the lower degree of digestibility of these flours, due to the coarser granulation, renders available to the body a smaller proportion of total nutrients as well as energ}' than in the case of straight-grade flours, ground from the same wheat, which are more finely granulated and more completely digested. This is entirely in accord with the results obtained in the investiga- tions with hard-wheat flours more exhaustively milled. As was the case in the tests with bread from dift'erent grades of hard- wheat flour, no variations were observed in the metabolism of nitrogen which could be atti'ibuted to the use of the difl'erent sorts of flour constituting the principal part of the diet. GENERAL SUMMARY OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS. The experiments with hard wheat milling products reported in the present bulletin are the latest of a fairly extended series which has given uniform results. The experiments with soft wheat are the first of a proposed series and are less numerous than those made with hard wheat. The results already obtained, however, are in accord with what has been learned regarding the milling products of hard wheat. Some general deductions from the experiments as a whole seem warranted. As shown by analj^sis the patent flour, ground from the hard and soft wheats studied, had a somewhat lower protein content than the graham flour and entire-wheat flour ground from the same wheats, but according to the results of digestion experiments with the difl'erent grades of flour from these wheats, the proportion of digestible pro- tein and the available energy in the patent flour was larger than in the coarser grades. The lower digestibility of the protein in the latter is, it appears, due to the fact that in these grades a considerable por- tion of this constituent is contained in the coarser particles (bran) and thus escapes digestion as it is not acted upon b}- the digestive juices. Thus, while there may be actually more protein in a given amount of graham or entire-wheat flour than in an equal amount of patent flour ground from the same wheat, the Ijody secures less of the protein and energy from the coarse flour than it does from the tine, since although the retention of the bran and germ increases the percentage of pro- tein it decreases the dio-estibilitv. Bv digestiljilitv is meant the dif- ference between the amounts of the several nutrients consumed and the amounts excreted in the feces. No attempt was made to stud}' the ease or rapidity of digestion of the difl'erent sorts of flour. When the digestibility of difl'erent grades of patent flour was studied it was found that there was no marked difl'erence between standard patent 51 flour and the other grades in this respect. The digestibility of all these flours was found to be high, apparently owing largely to their mechanical condition, that is, owing to the fact that they were tinely ground. Microscopical studies of the feces from bread made from the different grades of flour indicate that the superior digestibility of patent-flour bread is due to the flneness of division of the flour particles and also to the fact that the cell walls of the material making up the interior of the wheat berry are less resistant to digestive juices than the walls of the cells making up the outer layers of the grain. In other words, the patent flour is superior as regards digestibility, on account of both its mechanical condition and its physical properties. In discussions of the comparative value of fine wheat flour and the coarser grades, it is often claimed that the larger proportion of mineral matter, and especialh' phosphorous compounds, in whole-wheat and graham flours is a reason for preferring them to patent flour. In this case also it is undoubtedly true that the proportion of mineral con- stituents which is digestible, or, in other words, which the body can retain, from the diflerent sorts of flour, must be considered, as well as the amounts which chemical anabasis shows to be present in the food. In view of the fact that there is apparently no satisfac- tory method for determining the proportion of ash in the feces, derived from metabolic products, and that it is, therefore, impossible by present methods to determine the true digestibility of the mineral constituents, no values for the digestibility of ash have been included in the present bulletin. It ma}" be noted in this connection that it is a well- recognized fact that when the coarser milling products are fed to cattle no great amount of phosphorus (one of the most important manurial elements) is retained in the animal body. This may possibly be an indication that the phosphorus, even if present in con- siderable amounts in the feed, is not in a form which can be assimilated by animals. This is, however, little more than conjecture, and more experiments with man and the lower animals are needed before satis- factory conclusions can be drawn. Briefly stated, the most important deductions from the results of these investigations with hard and soft wheat are in accord with the conclusions drawn from the earlier investigations of this series. The nutritive value of flour, in so far as the quantities of digestible protein, fats, and carbohydrates, and available energy are concerned, is not increased by milling the wheat in such a way as to retain a large pro- portion of bran and germ. The differences in the amounts of total nutrients furnished the body by the various grades of flour are, how- ever, relatively small, all grades being quite thoroughly digested. The coarser flours have a tendency to increase peristaltic action, and are on this account especially valuable for some persons. Judged by 52 composition and digestibilit}^, all the flours are ver}^ nutritious foods, which experience has shown are wholesome as w^ell. When also the fact is taken into account that they furnish nutritive material in an economical form, their importance is evident. The fact must not be lost sight of that using ditlerent grades of flour for bread making and other household purposes offers a convenient method of adding to the variety of the daily diet, a matter which is of undoubted importance. O LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS ON THE FOOD AND NUTRITION OF MAN-Continued. Bill. 75. Dietary Studies of University Boat Crews. By W. O. Atwater and A. P. Bryant. Pp. 72. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 84. Nutrition Investigations at the California Agricultural Experiment Station, 1896-1898. By M. E. Jaffa. Pp. 39. Price, 5 cents. • Bui. 85. A Report of Investigations on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread. By C. D. Woods and L. H. Merrill. Pp. 51. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 89. Experiments on the Effect of Muscular Work upon the Digestibility of Food and the Metab- olism of Nitrogen. Conducted at the University of Tennessee, 1897-1899. By C. E. Wait. Pp. 77. Price, 5 cents. » Bui. 91. Nutrition Investigations at the University of Illinois, North Dakota Agricultural College, and Lake Erie College, Ohio, 1896-1900. By H. S. iirindley and J. L. Sammis, E. P. Ladd, and Isabel Bevier and Elizabeth C. Sprague. Pp. 42. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 98. The Effect of Severe and Prolonged Muscular Work on Food Consumption, Digestion, and Metabolism, by W. O. Atwater and H. C. Sherman, and the Mechanical Work and Efficiency of Bicyclers, by R. C. Carpenter. Pp. 67. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 101. Studies on Bread and Bread Making at the University of Minnesota in 1899 and 1900. By Harry Snyder. Pp. 65. Pric'e, 5 cents. Bui. 102. Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meat, 1898-1900. By H. S. Grindlcy, with the coopera- tion of H. McCormack and H. C. Porter. Pp. 64. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 107. Nutrition Investigations Among Fruitarians and Chinese at the California Agricultural Experiment Station, 1899-WOl. By M. E. Jaffa. Pp. 43. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 109. Experiments on the Metabolism of Matter and Energy in the Human Body, 1898-1900. By W. O. Atwater and F. G. Benedict, with the cooperation of A. P. Bryant, A. W. Smith, and J. F. Snell. Pp. 147. Price, 10 cents. Bui. 116. Dietary Studies in New York City in 1896 and 1897. By W. O. Atwater and A. P. Bryant. Pp. 83. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 117. Experiments on the Effect of Muscular Work upon the Digestibility of Food and the Metab- olism of Nitrogen. Conducted at the University of Tennessee, 1899-1900. By C. E. Wait. Pp. 43. Price, 5 cents. B il. 121. Experiments on the Metabolism of Nitrogen, Sulphur, and Phosphorus in the Human Organism. By H. C. Sherman. Pp. 47. FARMERS' BULLETINS. *Bul. 23. Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost. By W. O. Atwater. Pp. 32. Bui. 34. Meats: Composition and Cooking. By C. D. Woods. Pp. 29. Bui. 74. Milk as Food. Pp. 39. Bui. 85. Fish as Food. By C. F. Langworthy. Pp. 30. Bui. 93. Sugar as Food. By Mary H. Abel. Pp.27. Bui. 112. Bread and the Principles of Bread Making. By Helen W. Atwater. Pp. 39. Bui. 121. Beans, Peas, and other Legumes as Food. By Mary H. Abel. Pp 32. Bui. 128. Eggs and their Uses as Fo6d. By C. F. Langworthy. Pp. 32. Bui. 142. Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. By W. O. Atwater. Pp. 48. CIRCULAR. Cir. 46. The Functions and Uses of Food. By C. F. Langworthy. Pp.10. , SEPARATES. *Food and Diet. By W. O. Atwater. Reprinted from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1894. Pp. 44. Some Results of Dietary Studies in the United States. By A. P. Bryant. Reprinted from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1898. Pp. 14. Development of the Nutrition Investigations of the Department of Agriculture. By A. C. True and R. D. Milner. Reprinted from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1899. Pp. 16. The Value of Potatoes as Food. By C. F. Langworthy. Reprinted from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1900. Pp. 16. Dietaries in Public Institutions. By W. O. Atwater. Reprinted from Yearbook oi Department of Agriculture for 1891. Pp. 18. Scope and Results of the Nutrition Iikvestigations of the Office of Experiment Stations. Reprinted from Annual Report of the Office of Experiment Stations for the year ended June 30, 1901. Pp. 50. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— BULLETIN NO. 127. A. C. TRUE, Director. INSTRUCTION IN AGRONOMY AT SOME AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. BY A. C. TR.T;K and T>. J. CROSBY. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1 9 0 3 . oob U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— BULLETIN NO. 127. A. C. TRUE, Director. INSTlUXiTION IN AlJRONOMY AT I AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. BY LIBRARY NEW YORK 60TANJCAL 0Ar?r>:3N A. C^ TRITE :iiid 1 ). J. CROSI3Y WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1 9 ( ) 3 . OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. A. C. Tiu-K, rii. J).— Dim-tor. E. W. Ai.LEN, rii. 1). — A.'. Agrotechny, dustry. or agricul- tural technology. Agriculture ^ Um-al engineering, farm mechanics, or farm equipment. Rural economy i>r farm management. tion. Agricultural industries, e. g., ove ground, (climate) Light ... Heat Moisture Air '2. Under ground. (soil) Heat ^Moisture . Air Earth (soil Fertilizers Study the relation of each of these factors to plant growth, and also briefly their ef- fects in different com- Innations, i. e., differ- ent climates. Point out that the rela- tion of these factors to plant growth may be most clearly per- ceived by first consid- ering them in their relation to each other 14 Soil ' (Chapters IV-XXXI.) Definition — Nature. Functions. Oritrin, Properties Temperature. •Air. Moisture Tillage Fertilizers L>rief geological outline. Weathering of rocks. Accumulation of organic matter. Transformation of organic matter (nitrili- cation and denitritication, etc.). Additions from atmosphere. Chemical. Physical . Weight Color Texture Capillarity . . . Permeability. Absorptive power. Classification of soils, on the basis of their prop- erties. Sources.. Amounts AVater tal)le. Hygroscopic moisture. Pvainfall. Irrigation — ^Methods. T^ . f Purpose and effects. Dramage \ ^^ \ , " I Methods. Conservati(jn Purjxjse effects. Methods. / Definition. and j Purpose. ■| Methods. Chemical. Physical. Biological. ^Methods and action. effects of Chemical. Physical. Biological. Clas- sifica- tion. 1. According to constituents — a. Nitrogenous. Ii. Phosphoric. <: Potassic. (/. Other amendments. 2. According to form — a. Green ma- nures. Farm ina- li. Animal ma- nures. nures. c. Commercial — classify principal forms. (Study first the general theory of ferti- lizers according to above scheme and then consider in as much detail as may be deemed desirable different kinds of fertilizers, using Schedule A.) 15 Soil — Continued . . . (Chapters IV-XXXI.) Farm ckops (Chapt e rs XXXIII.) Fertilizers Kinds of fertiliz- ers. Schedule A. Name. Description. f C li e ni i c a 1 — PropertieK . c(jni posit ion. [ Physical. Place in classifications. Sources. Uses. Preparation, care, and han- dling. Application. Effects . . Econoni v Chemical. Physical. Biological. pjxtent of pro- duction. 1' e c u n i a r y value. Waste and ren- ovation. f Washing. Transportation by wind and water. Leaching. Oxidation. Cropping— Rotatioit of crops, systems of farming. XXXII- Having considered in a general way the theory and prac- tice of plant pnjduction as relateil to the structure, physiology, and environment of the plants grown as farm crops, we come next to consider the i)roduction of different kinds of crops more in detail. Cereals — Wheat, oats. (Trasses— Tim(jtliy, brome grass. Legumes — Red clover, alfalfa. Tubers — Potatoes. Roots — Mangels. Sugar plants— Sugar cane, sugar beets. Fibers— Cotton, flax, hemp. Stinudants — Tobacco, tea, coffee. ^Medicinal and aromatic plants — Ginseng, mint. Miscellaneous— Canaigre, peanuts. Classification (The elassification and the kinds of plants to be named under each elass will vary according to circumstances.) ^lethods of improve- ment. ( Breeding, i Selection. 10 N'ark'ties InDI V I Dl'A L FARM CKors. (Chapters XXXI V-LX 1. 1 (The crops to be stmlicil will vary aocordiiiK'- to localitv and other cir- cunistanccs.) Next j^tudy individual farm iiops accurdiiig to the follow- ing scheme: '' Name. Place in classilication. >Structure. ('omponition. Pliysioloofy. Botanical ft'lations. Chit^sili cation. Improvement. Geographical distribution. ' Choice anil jireparation of soil. . Manuring. Seeds (or other parts of ])lanti used for planting) — (Selection — amount — treatment. Planting. Cultivating. Place in rotation. Ihirvesting. Presi'rvatioii. I'ses. Preparation for use. ^\'eereparation of abstracts of station experiments on climatic and soil conditions and upon quality and yield. 33. Study of varieties of grasses and forage crops by sample antl i)reparation of abstracts of station experiments on climatic and soil conditions and upon quality and yield. DETAILED DESCEIPTION OF COURSES IN AGRONOMY. ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. In the Alabama Polytechnic Institute five four-.year courses lead to the degree of bachelor of science. These courses are cheniistry and agriculture, civil engineering, electrical and mechanical engineering, g^eneral course, and pharmacy. Elementary agriculture (breeds of live stock) is taught in the third term of the freshman year in all courses. Agriculture is an elective throughout the sophomore year of the 1*) course in civil cnoincerino', and is required throughout the .sophomore and junior years of the course in chemistry and ag-riculture. This last course, then, may be considered the agricultural course of the Polytechnic Institute. The student in this course devotes about one- fifth of his time to English, history, and economics; about two-fifths to pure science and two-fifths to applied sciences and technical training. Admission to the four-year courses is by examination or by certifi- cate from schools having approved courses of study. Applicants for admission must be at least 15 years of age, and, if admitted by examination, must ])e qualified to pass satisfactory examinations in (1) geography and history of the United States; (2) English, including grannnar, composition, reading, and English classics; and (3) mathe- matics, including arithmetic and algebra through quadratic equations. "Those applicants Avho desire to continue the study of Latin should be qualified to pass a satisfactory examination in Latin granunar and the first two books of Caesar in addition to the above subjects." The course in agronomy is given during the second and third terms of the sophomore years. It is preceded by a two-hour course in ani- mal husl)andry during the third term of the freshman year, a two-hour course in dairying during the first term of the sophomore year, and a three-h(Mir course of lectures and one laboratory exercise per week in general chemistry during the first term of the sophomore year, and is followed l)y courses in systematic and structural botany (lectures and laboratory), plant physiology, and agricultural chemistry. The course in agricultural chemistry is given in the senior year and "consists of lectures on chemistry in its api)lication to agriculture (two per week, during second and third terms), and includes a thorough discussion of the origin, composition, and classification of soils, the composition and growth of plants, the sources of plant food and how obtained, the improvement of soils, the manufacture and use of fer- tilizers, the chemical principles involved in the rotation of crops, the feeding of live stock, and the various operations carried on l)y the intelligent and successful agriculturist." During the same periods the students do laborator}^ work in quantitative analysis six hours per week. The principal reference books used in agricultural chemistry are Johnson's How Crops Grow and How Crops Feed, Lupton's Ele- mentary Principles of Scientific Agriculture, Johnson and Cameron's Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, Storer's Agriculture, scientific journals, reports of the United States Department of Agriculture, and the bulletins and reports of the various domestic and foreign agricul- tural departments and stations. "The lal)oratories, which are open from 9 a. m. to 5 p. m. during six days in the week, are amply supplied with everything necessary for instruction in chemical manipulation." Instruction in agronomy is given by the professor of agriculture. "In the second term of the sophomore year the following subjects are 20 studied: Soils — cheuiical and physical properties, defects, and means of improvement; the control of water, including- means of conserving moisture in times of drought; terracing, underdrainage, and open and hillside ditches; objects and methods of cultivation; agricultural implements; rotation of crops; and improvement of plants by cross- ing, selection, and culture. The third tei-m of the sophomore year is devoted to the staple crops produced in Alabama, to forage plants adapted to the South, and to plants valual^le for the renovation of soils. The more important crops are treated with reference to varieties, soil and fertilizer requirements, methods of planting and cultivating, and uses." In all classes there are mid-term examinations and term -end examinations. Two hours per week are devoted to lectures, in which the number of students ranges from 10 to 2.5, and two afternoons per week are given up to farm practice, during which time the classes are divided into sections of from (> to !> students. A part of the held work is con- ducted l)y the professor of agriculture and a part is in charge of an assistant in agricidture. In every class the student is encouraged to independent thought on agricultural problems rather than to depend on '' rules of thuml),'' so that he may be prepared to adapt his practice in after years to changed conditions of soil, climate, capital, market, etc. An effort is made to keep before the student the difference between the widely applical)le principles on which every rational S3^stem of farming rests and the details that vary with changing conditions. The conditions of soil, climate, etc., prevailing in different parts of Alal)ama are kept con- stantly in view. As far as limited time allows, attention is directed to agricultural literature now accumulating so rapidly in this and in foreign countries, to the end that in future years the student may know where and how to seek the information that he may need. Among the reference books and other literature used by students in agrononi}' are Soils and Crops of the Farm, Morrow and Hunt; For- age Plants, Shaw; The Fertility of the Soil, Roberts; Corn Culture, Plumb; The Ph3^sics of Agriculture, King; other recent American works on agriculture; bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the experiment stations in the different States, and a number of farm journals. Lectures in agronomy are given in the main building in a class room provided with chairs and arm rests for 60 students, two sides of the room being occupied by cases for specimens. Three small barns and a gin room serve partly as laboratories for students when engaged in indoor work. Plats on the experiment-station farm showing the effect of fertilizers, methods of culture, etc., and collections of varieties are used as object lessons for students. 21 The following- exhibits will give an idea of the nature and scope of the examination.s required in agronomy and of the notes taken b}^ students in the field : Exhibit No. 1. EXAMINATIONS IN AGRONOMY. Examination in heffinnirtg agwnonuj, m-ond term, mphomorc year. I. {a) In what kind of weather and at what time of year can wetter soils he safely plowed than under other conditions? Explain. (6) Does a clay or a sandy soil contain more moisture when plants begin to wilt? Explain. II. {a) Discuss the importance or nonimportance of the hygroscopic power of soils, {h) Discuss the practicability or otherwise of determining what fertilizers to apply by an analysis of the soil. III. Discuss capillarity in the soil (direction of movement, favorable conditions, effect of slight rain after long drought, etc.). IV. Explain fully the effect of cultivation on the moisture in the different layers of soil. V. Discuss fully the size and use of the roller and its effects on the soil, and state conditions when it should be used. YI. Discuss the general direction for ditches, methods of making junctions, and draw cross section illustrating {a) carrying canal, [h) shallow hillside ditches, (c) open drainage ditch. VII. ('0 Discuss grades for open tile drains, {h) Make drawing of homemade level and show how used (r) in making a terrace and ((/) in giving a uniform grade to bottom of a ditch. VIII. Irrigation, (o) Give three commonest sources of water in order of cheap- ness. {}>) What advantages in furrow system over flooding system? (c) What levels would head ditclies follow and how would nature of soil influence the grade of the rows? IX. Discuss fall versus spring plowing in the Gulf States. X. (rt) Give a three-year rotation for cotton ft\rm, showing why the crops should follow in the order stated, {h) Outline a rotation that will put half the land in cotton each year, (c) Construct a five-year rotation for a mixed cotton and stock farm in the central prairie region of Alabama, stating when each crop is planted. ■ Examination in. agronomii {forage plant. ^), tliirdferm, sophomore year. I. (a) What advantages has fall sowing of grasses and clovers over spring sowing? (b) Mention three legumes that can not be sown in fall and give best month for sowing each of the three. II. (o) Compare early versus late cutting of hay. [b) When cut red clover? III. Give means of distinguishing small grains of oats, wheat, barley, and rye. IV. Discuss Texas blue grass. V. Discuss redtoi^. \l. Discuss white clover. VII. Discuss culture and uses of rape plant. VIII. Give time of sowing, amount of seed, soil requirements, and uses of melilotus. IX. Velvet beans — uses and culture. X. Hairy vetch — discuss best mixtures of this with other seed for given conditions. 22 Exhibit No. 2. STUDENTS' FIELD NOTES. JS^otcs oil, riiricticK af corn. Variety. Number of ears and nubbins per 100 stalks. Hieliory King Shaw ArnolcLs Experiment Station Yel- low. Cocke Mosby Red fob . T e n n c s .s o e Wliite. Ears. 48 90 62 100 114 124 74 92 Nubbins. 42 22 32 36 36 30 80 Distance from ground to lower ear. Aver- I age dis- tance from ear to ground. Per- Tipeov- eentagelered by )f ears below hori- zontal line. shucli, .■i; tip ex- posed, 0. Remarks. fStalks very small \ and very early. (Medium light and late; ears above m e d i u m i n length. f L a t e ; medium \ ears. Above medium height; medium early. (Small stalk, long, i slender ears; [ early. Medium or late; prolific and well filled. •Tall stalks, large ears; late to me- dium. /Small eared; pro- \ lific. Noti'x OH vdriet'iea of roHoii. r. ,, (Field No. (Row) 0. Cotton. } . ^:. ■, ^„ , [Variety: Dickson Cluster. I. BollH, position. {Cluster, semicluster, noncluster: Cluster. iTerminal or nonterminal, fNumber: 2 to 5, generally 2 to S Base limbs .JLength: Medium. llnternodes: Medium. II. Stalk Upper limbs — Length: Short. Compactness: Erect. Height: Medium. dO. Weight ]10. 110. III. Bolls Size (field estimate), Point : Both acute and blunt. Adherence, 23 IV. 8eed V. Earliness. Percentage of lint, ' f50. Weight ko. 1-50. Shape and size, Color, F'ield estimate: A'ery early. a Number open 54 Number grown --[ o Number younger.) 8 best plants. b 29 c Average. 81 38 6 21 10 VI. Total 57 35 52 48 Percentage of bolls oj^en, 79. p ,.„ jSelected plants (field estimate); percentage, 100. " [3 best jilants (office), VII. Lint (field estimate), THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. The colleo-e of agriculture is one of the six colleges of the University of Illinois. Candidates for admission to the college of agriculture are required to have the same number of high school credits as candidates for admission to other colleges of the university. This number is 40 credits at the present time, but it will be increased to 42 credits in 1905. By the term credit is meant the work in a sub- ject continuous]}^ pursued with daily recitations through one of the three terms of the high school year; or, in other words, the work of 60 recitation periods of forty minutes each, or, the eqitivalent in labora- tory or other practice. Of the total number of credits required for admission, 9 must be in English, 7 in mathematics, and G in science and history. For graduation from the college of agriculture, students are required to have obtained 130 university credits. By the univer- sity credit is meant a class period a week for one semester, each class period presupposing two hours' preparation by the student, or the equivalent in laboratory, shop, or tiekl practice. The work for 79 credits is prescribed as follows: 15 credits in agronomy. 5 credits in thremmatology. 2i credits in animal husbandry. 2^ credits in dairy husbandry. 8 credits in horticulture. 15 credits in chemistry. 5 credits in botany. 5 credits in zoology. 2 credits in economics. 6 credits in rhetoric. 5 credits in military science. 3 credits in physical training. 5 credits in geology. Of the remaining 56 credits required for graduation at least l^must be chosen in animal husbandry or dairy husbandry, 5 in natural his- tory, 3 in English, and 25 in technical agriculture. The remaining credits may be o})tained from any subjects oti'ered in the university 24 which tho student is prepared to take, provided only that two 3^earsof foreign language nui.st l)e taken in the university if not offered for admission. A thesis is also required for graduation for which from 5 to 10 credits will be allowed according- to the nature of the subject. The students in the college of agriculture are given courses in Eng- lish or other languages in the college of literature and arts; courses in chemistry, physics, geology, botany, zoology, mathematics, etc., in the college of science; blacksmithing, carpentry, etc., in the college of engineering, the work of the college of agriculture being devoted to the subject of agronomy, animal husl)andry, dairy husbandry, horti- culture, and veterinary science, or, in other words, to the subjects in technical agriculture. In the department of agronomy 15 courses are offered (not including the courses in farm mechanics), which are described briefly in the fol- lowing excerpts from the college catalogue : The .semester, the days, and the ehiss period or periods (hirino; which each course is given, and the nuni))er of credits jier SLnnester for which the course counts are shown after each course, as follows: Tlie semester is indicated hy the Roman numer- als I, II; the days, by the initial letters of the days of the week; the class period or periods (of which thee are ninc> eacli day, numbered consecutively from 1 to 9), by Arabic figures; and the amount of credit, by Ara))ic figures in parentheses. For example, the abbreviations I; M., W., F.; 1; (3) are to be re'ad first semester, Mon- day, Wednesday, and Friday, first period, three credits. 1. BrdiiKtge and irrigation.— Locatmn of drains and irrigation conduits, leveling, digging, laying tile and pipes, filling, and subsequent care; cost of construction and efficiency; sewers for the disposal of waste water from farm buildings and the sew- age from kitchen and toilet; farm water pipes, pipe and thread cutting. Class work, laboratory and field practice. I; first half; daily; 6, 7; (2i). 5. Farm crops — Quality and imprurenient. — Judging of corn (see Exhibit 3, p. 30) and oats, wheat grading, methods of improving (juality, shrinkage of grain, care of stored crops to prevent injury and loss. Class and laboratory work. I; first half; daily; 6,7 (or 3, 4); (2^). 6. Farm crops — Germination and growtJi. — Vitality and germination of seeds, pres- ervation of seeds, methods of seeding; conditions of plant growth; pecuharities of the different agricultural plants in respect to structure, habits, and requirements for successful growth; enemies to plant growth; weeds and weed seeds, their identifica- tion and methods of destrucrtion ; fungus diseases, such as smut of oats and wheat, and blight, scab, and rot of potatoes, methods of prevention; insects injurious to farm crops and how to combat them. Class room, laboratory, and field work. II; first half ; daily; 6, 7; (^J). 7. Special crops. — A special study of farm crops taken up under an agricultural outline — grain crops, root crops, forage crops, sugar and fiber crops — their history and distribution over the earth, methods of culture, cost of production, consumption of products, and residues or by-products. Class work, supplemented by practical field work and a study of the results of previous experiments, such as detasseling corn, injury to roots of corn by cultivation, selection and breeding of corn and other crops, with special reference to practices which apply directly to Illinois conditions. Students will have an excellent opportunity to study the work of the Agricultural experiment station. II; daily; 1, 2; (5). Required: Agronomy 2, 5, 6. 8. Field experiments. — Special work by the students conducted in the field. This work consists in testing A-arieties of corn, oats, wheat, potatoes, and other farm crops; 25 methods of planting corn, seeding grains, grasses, and otlier forage crops; culture of corn, potatoes, and sugar Ijeets; practice in treating oats and wheat for snuit and potatoes for scab and studying the effects upon the crops; com1)ating chinch bugs and other injurious insects. Other practical experiments may be arranged with the instructor. Special opportunities will be given to advanced students of high class standing to take up experiments, under assignment and direction of the instructor in farm crops, on certain large farms in the State, arrangements having been made with the farm owners or managers for such experiments. II, second half, and sum- mer vacation; daily; arrange time; (2^ to 5). Required : Agronomy 7, 12. 9. Soil pJnj.vcs and luauagement.— This course is designed to prepare the student better to understand the effects of the .. 10 '.. 20 .. 2 Shane of eiir .. 3 Puritv of color 4 Market condition 6. Fillinj^ out ]>utts 7 Kernel nniforniitv . .. 9 T^ene^th 11. Space between rows 12. Proportion of corn to cob Total 100 '.. 1 •- -- •• -- -■ •- -• •• •• -- -- ..!.. ■• -- Exhibit No. 4. STUDENT'S LABORATORY BLANKS IN SOIL PHYSICS. Experbnent Xu. 1. MOISTURE — CWPII.LARY. Use sand, clay, loam, and gravel as provided. 1. Weigh carefully four drying pans. 2. Place in one of each al)out 100 grams of each of the above soils. 3. Weigh the pan and soil carefully. 4. Spread out the soil to a thin layer by shaking, and dry for twenty-tour liours at room temperature. 5. Weigh and repeat the drying and weighing at intervals of four to five hours until a nearly constant weight is obtained. "^ The loss of weight rejiresents the amount of capillary water. Amount of capillary water found was: Sand, ; clay, -; loam, ; gravel, . Define capillary water: . 3a Exj->eriment No. 2. DETERMINATION OF HYGROSCOPIC MOISTCRE. Use the air-dried soils from experiment No. 1. 1. Place al)out 10 grams of the air-dried soil in a tared porcelain crucible {a) . 2. Weigh the soil and crucible [h] and heat in the air bath at 100 to 110° C. for 1 hour. 3. Cool in a desiccator and weigh rapidly to prevent absorption of moisture from the air. 4. Heat for a shorter time, cool, and weigh, repeating until the weight (c) becomes constant. Calculation: The loss of weight, or h — r, equals the amount of hygroscopic water in the sample taken. c—a equals the weight of water-free soil. />— (• Therefore ^— ^ = per cent of hygroscopic water expressed on the basis of water-free soil. The per cent of hygroscopic water found was: Sand, -; gravel, -; clay, loam, Define hygroscopic water: From the results obtained in experiments 1 and 2 compute the percentage of cap- illary and total water in the soil, expressed on the basis of water-free soil. Total water content is (percentage) . Sand, ; clay, ; loam, ; gravel, . In addition to the capillary and hygroscopic water, the soil may contain, under some conditions, as immediately after a rain, a certain amount of free or gravita- tional water. This portion of the soil water is acted upon by the force of gravity, which causes it to percolate downward to the level of the ground water. Experiment No. 3. hilgard's flocculation experiment. Two students will work conjointly in this experiment. 1. Into each of four beakers place about 1 gram of clay and add 200 cubic centi- meters of water. 2. To beaker- No. 1 add 0.2 gram calcium hydrate=0.1 per cent solution. No. 2 add 1 gram calcium hydrate=0.5 per cent solution. No. 3 add 2 grams calcium hydrate=l per cent solution. No. 4 add 0 gram calcium hydrate = Control. 3. With a stirring rod mix the contents of each ])eaker thoroughly and then place a sam])le of eacli in a Nessler's cylinder and whirl in the centrifuge at the lowest speed and note the time required to completely precipitate each solution. 4. Pour the contents of each cylinder back into the respective beaker, stir thor- oughly and set aside, observing occasionally to determine the time required for com- plete sedimentation in each case. Compare in each case the cylinders and beakers containing the different strengths of solution and the control and tabulate the results in the space below. Time to cen- trifugate. 0.1 per cent .solution 0.5 per cent solution 1 per cent solution . . Control Time to sediment. Explain how the lime acts and clarifies the water: 26777— No. 127—03 3 34 Expenment No. 4- EFFECTS OF LIME ON rLAiSTIf W)1LS. Two students will work together as in experiment No. 3. 1. Weigh out live 50-gram samples of the clay soil. 2. To sample — No. 1 add 0. 5 per cent calcium hydrate. No. 2 add 1 per cent calcium hydrate. ' No. 3 add 5 per cent calcium hydrate. No. 4 add 10 per cent calcium hydrate. No. 5 add no calcium hydrate. 3. Mix each sample thoroughly in a soil pan, and add just enough water to make plastic. 4. Fill into molds in the form of sticks, using care to compress all samples to the same degree, and transfer to the oven and l)ake at 110° C for 4 to 5 hours. 5. Test the strength of each stick of baked clay by supporting u})on blocks and suspending weights until the clay is fractured. Note weight required in each case and fill in results below: Grams. 0. 5 per cent broke with 1 per cent broke with 5 per cent broke with 10 per cent broke with Control broke with Explain the loss of plasticity due to the lime: . Experiment No. 5. DETERMINATION OK THE APPARENT SPECIFK' (IRAVITY OF SOILS. Use each of the four soils as in former experiments. 1. Weigh carefully in empty and thoroughly cleaned soil tube ((t). 2. Fill it with one of the soils to be tested, which must first be well pulverized if lumpy. In filling use the soil-compacting machine, allowing the weight to fall three times from the 0-inch mark upon each cupful of soil. Fill the tube to the crease near the top. 3. Weigh the filled tul)e carefully {b). A. The area of the bottom of the tube is 20 square centimeters. From this com- pute the number of cubic centimeters of soil which it contains (c). 5. Determine the amount of hygroscopic moisture in a special sam})le of the soil, according to direction given under Experiment No. 2 [d). Calridatioiis — b — (n-frf) = weight of the given volume of soil. Therefore, v^ + ■'= weight of 1 cc. of soil= volume weight of soil. c Volume weight of soil , .-5 •- ^pj—-, r^. ? =apparent specific gravitv. V olume weight ot water I find the aj>parent specific gravitj' to be as follows: Sand, ; gravel, ; loam, ; clay, . The volume weight or apparent specific gravity of soils varies with the amount of packing, a freshly plowed field being much lighter per cubic foot than one com- l)acted by rains or tramping. Explain the object of using the .soil-compacting machine in this experi- ment. , 35 Experiuii'tif Xo. 9. DETERMINATION OK THE POWEK OF LOOSE i^OII.S To RETAIN MOISTURE. 1. Place 100 grains of the air-dried soil in a beaker and add 100 riiliic centimeters of distilled water. 2. Mix the soil and water thoroughly and rinse the soil upon a previously sat- urated filter with a known amount of distilled water. Cover the top of the funnel with a glass plate to prevent evaporation. 3. Catch the water which drains away, in a graduate, and deduct the amount of water caught from the total amount used. The remainder represents the amount retained by the soil. 4. With'a special sample of the soil used determine the per cent of hygroscopic water. Calculation.— Aitev finding the per cent of hygroscopic water, determine the amount of water-free soil in the lOO-gram sample taken. Add the total amount of hygroscopic water to the capillary water retained and divide the sum l)y tlie weight of water-free soil, and the quotient will represent the per cent of water held, calcu- lated on the basis of water-free soil. Per cent of water retained was: Sand, ; clay, ; loam, ; gravel, Why do you use air-dried soil in this experiment? Why do you moisten the filter? . Experiment Nu. 1£. DETERMINATION OF THE RATE OF I'ERCOLATION OF AlU THKOlOlI SOIL.S. 1. Fill the series of tubes provided for this experiment with the finely pulverized and sifted soils without compacting. 2. Attach the tubes successively to the aspirator and note the length of time required to force or draw 10 liters of air thnjugh each sample of soil. The aspirator weight must be started from the same height in each case. This experiment illustrates the relative aeration of soils, a question whicii is of importance in connection with the subject of the growth and development of the nitrifying and other Itacteria of the soil concerned in the production of plant food. Time required for sand, ; gravel, ; loam, ; clay, . Experiment No. 13. CAPILLARY ATTRACTION OF SOILS. 1. Close the lower en l»e noted Sand. , Gravel. Loam. Clay. Day. No.l. No. 2. ' No. 3. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No.l. No. 2. No. 3. No.l. No. 2. No. 3. [Rise 1 'ITrjtnl hpitrht 1 '■ (Rise ' iTnfjil hi'iVht i fKi^e ; 3 ITnt'il lit'ip-ht 1 (Rim* 1 1 4 iTofiil hcie^ht ' (f^i>st' 1 i 5 /Rise ' 6 [Rise ( "iTntnl hpip-ht ; 1 , To obtain accurate and reliable results it is necessary to use great care in filling the tubes, observing in i^articular that there are no places where the column of soil is unevenly packed or broken by coarse material which will prevent the action of capillarity. Expenmeni No. 14- EFFECT OF CULTIVATION OR DUST MULCHES ON EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM SOILS. Fill all the tubes with the fine prairie soils, using the compacting machine. All the tubes should be filled to the same level. The conical bases of thetuliesare then filled i>artly full of water, so that the water shall stand at the same level in each. Determine the level with the S-shaped glass tube, and measure the depth of water very accurately with the millimeter rule. The tubes are to be filled to the same level each day, and the amount of water added is carefully noted. This amount represents the water lost by evapt^ration. The tubes are treated as follows: Tube 1, control; tube 2, cultivated 1 inch; tube 3, cultivated 2 inches; tube 4, cultivated 3 inches; tube 5, cultivated 4 inches; tube 6, cultivated 5 inches. The cultivation is performed each day l)y removing a layer of soil to the depth of cultivation used in the tube, and thoroughly mixing it, when it is replaced. Each tube has an area of 80 square centimeters = 12.4 square inches ^jo^V's acre, and the results are to be computed in tons of water evaporated per acre. The obser- vations are to be taken for seven days and the results filled in below. Depth of culture Total number grams . Tons per acre 0 in. lln. 2 in. 3 in. 4 in. 5 in. Experiment No. 15. EFFECT OF ARTIFICIAL MULCHES UPON EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM SOILS. This experiment is conducted in a similar manner to the last, excepting that the tubes are all filled to the same level and used as follows: No. 1, control; No. 2, 2 inches sand; No. 3, 2 inches clay; No. 4, 2 inches muck; No. 5, 2 inches sawdust; No. 6, 2 inches cut straw. RESULTS. Total number grams. Tons per acre Control. Sand. Clay. Muck. Sawdust. Cut straw. 37 MICHIGAN AGRICULTURAL, COLLEGE. The ag-rioultural course in this college requires four or five jeara for completion, depending- on the preparation of the candidates for admission, and leads to the degree of bachelor of science. The entrance examinations for the iive-year course cover the following- subjects: Arithmetic, geography, grammar, reading, spelling, pen- manship, and history of the United States. The holder of a teacher's certiticate, or eighth-grade diploma signed l)y a county commissiner and issued by a school following the course of study outlined by the State superintendent of public instruction, will be admitted to the five-year course without examination. For admission to the four- year course, students must hold diplomas from high schools on an accredited list, or nuist, in addition to the requirements named above, pass examinations in algeltra through quadratic ecpiations, in plane geometry, in elementary physics, and in English. Candidates for admission nuist bring testimonials of good character, and must be not less than fifteen years of age. The entrance requirementsalsopresuppose that the applicant has the ability to harness and drive horses, to plow, harrow, mark corn ground, drill, operate the mower, reaper, and farm implements generally, and to perform in a neat and workmanlike manner the details of regular farm work. A failure to pass this examination will not exclude from the college; another opportunity will be provided at the close of the second year to pass on these studies. If the student then fails he will be required to remain at the college during the summer vacation between his second and third years, or to work for the same period on some farm approved by the professoi- of agriculture. He will receive his final examination on the subject at the beginning of the junior year. - Since both the four-year and the five-year courses cover practically the same ground in agricultural su])jects, onl}^ the four-year course will l)e described. The course is centered around instruction and practice in agriculture and horticulture and the sciences directly hearing upon successful farming. It includes the following credits: Agriculture, 00; agri culture or horticulture (elective), 59; anatomy, 10; bacteriology, 14; bacteriology (elective), 24:; botany, 56; botany (elective), 12; chem- istry, 42; chemistry (elective), 12; civil engineering, 6; civil engineer- ing (elective), 24; drawing, 10; economics (elective), 12; English, 59; English (elective), 12; entomology, 12; geology (elective), 10; Ger- man (elective), 60; history (elective), 12; horticulture, 51; hygiene, 4; mathematics, 29; meteorology (elective), 12; military science and tac- tics, 22; physics, 20; physics (elective), 12; political science, 10; psy- chology (elective), 12; sanitary science, 6; veterinary science, 5; vet- erinary science (elective), J^6; zoology, 20; zoology (elective), 12. 38 Until the end of the lirst term, junior year, all four-year agricultural students pursue exactly the same studies, but for the remaining- live terms they specialize in their technical work, electing either agricul- ture, including- dairying", stock-feeding, soil work, and farm crops, or horticulture, including vegetable culture, pomology, and floriculture. Instruction in agronomy is given b}' the professor of agronomy and one assistant in the second and third terms of the freshman year, the first and second terms of the sophomore j^ear, the second and third terms of the junior year, and the tirst, second, and third terms of the senior year, and is supplemented by instruction in botan}-, bacteriology^ and chemistry. The courses in l)otany (aside from those liearing on forestry) for ao-ricultural students include in the freshman vear sixtv-one hours of structural botany (gross anatomy and morphology of fruits and seeds) and thirty-three hours of systematic botany: in the sophomore year ninety-six hours of plant histology (use of compound microscope, preparation of slides, use of reagents, study of plant anatomy, (^tc.) and thirty-three hours of ecology; one hundred and twenty-six hours of fungi of economic importance during the first term of the junior year; and fortN^-eight hours devoted to a study of grasses and weeds during the second term of the junior year. A senior elective in plant physiology has been announced. Instruction in 1)ot;uiy is given in the botanical laboratory, a ])uilding 55 by 45 feet, two stories with attic and basement. The basement includes a fire-proof room containing the herl)arium of al)out T5,(H)0 specimens, a lavatory, and large work- room for the preparation and storing of specimens and ])oxes; the lirst floorcontains a dark room, two well-lighted rooms very fairly ecjuipped for histological and physiological studies, and an office and laboratory for the professor in charge; the second floor contains a large room for beginners in botan\' and for lectures, and a studv and la])oratoiv for the assistants; the garret has recently been fitted for use as ncHM'ssity may require. Bacteriology is taught by the laboratory method, supplemented by such lectures as are necessary to direct the work. .Vfter one prelimi- nary lecture course and two laborator}^ courses (flrst, morphological and cultural bacteriology, and second, phj'siological bacteriology), the student may elect during the winter term of the senior year ;i la])o- ratory course in bacteriology (ten hours per week) devoted to the biological consideration of the soil. This work is given in a new and well-equipped bacteriological laboratory, which has just l)een completed at a cost (exclusive of equipnu^nt) of $25^000. Instruction in chemistry includes general eleuKMitary chemistry (ninet3'-eight hours during the fii'st term of the freshman 3'ear), quali- tative analvsis (one hundred and twentv hours during the second term of the freshman year), organic chemistry (ninety-eight hours during 39 the tirst term of the sophomore year), and agricultural chemistr3'(sixt3^ hours (hiring- the second term of the sophomore year and sixty hours, elective, daring the second term of the senior year). The course in agricultural chemistry includes the history of agricultural chemistry; the composition of plants, sources of the organic constituents of plants, how to increase their quantity and availability; the soil and the influ- ence of ph3^sical agencies on its chemical condition; the nature and. action of the ash elements in plant growth; manures and manuring; intensi\e and extensive agriculture, and conservation of fertility; the chemistry of fodders and stock feeding, of ripening of fruits and grains. The aim in these lectures is to state and solve the chemical prol)lems of the farm. The chemical laboratory building contains a lecture room for 150 students, analytical rooms fitted with evaporating hoods and tables for 68 students, the professor's private laboratory and study, and a suite of rooms for students in metallurgy and quantitative chemical analysis, and is well equipped with chemical apparatus and stores. The courses in agrononi}' are introduced by a course of twenty lectures on the formation, character, and distribution of soils; the agencies still at work in soil formation and soil destruction; and the care required to be exercised to preserve the soils of agricultural districts. These lectures are given during the last four weeks of the second term of the freshman 3'ear and are illustrated b}- samples of soil, rock, etc., and by the stereopticon, and are supplemented by lal)oratory work and oral quizzes. During the third term of the freshman year, ten hours per week are spent in studying soils as regards their characteristics, functions, needs, and treatment in agri- culture; drainage, its theory and practice; reasons for the different operations of the farm and the tools used; the planning of farm work, etc. Throuo-hout this work the lantern is used to illustrate the talks and the student is taken to the tool room and to the field for observa- tion. It is the aim to have quizzes at least as often as once per week. Two hours daily of the first term of the sophomore year are devoted to lectures and laboratory work in agricultural physics, including (besides rural engineering and farm mechanics) laboratory work in the mechanical analysis of soils, the determination of moisture in soils, green and dry fodders, roots and grains, and experiments in moisture and air movements in soils. The subject of farm crops is given in lectures five hours per week during the second term of the sophomore 3'ear. In this course, "good seed and conditions affecting its vitality, general requirements for successful plant growth, conditions governing the time and depth of planting, rate of seeding, etc., and the principles of plant improve- ment, are discussed. The history, distribution, general characteristics, 40 adaptability, uses of the several farm crops, and the best method of producing' them are studied." In the second term of the junior year the student amy elect '' agri- cultural experimentation." In this course one hour per day is given to lectures and individual work on the part of the student on the experiment station work and literature of this and other countries, the organization and work of the United States Department of Agri- culture, methods of experimentation, and the principles underlying the same. Each student is required in closing up the term's work to outline an experiment along some practical line of live stock, dairy- ino-, soils, or crops, and to submit the outline to the class for criticism and discussion. The experimentation is continued during the third term two hours per day . For example, the student electing an experi- Flti. 2.— Tubes of galviini/.ud iron used to study L-tlwtiveiK'ss ol inulclu-s upon moisture losses. ment in agronomy, such as tests of forage crop mixtures, variety tests of field crops, fertilizer experiments, etc.. is allotted the necessary land, furnished team, implements, seed, etc.. and is required to carry through his experiment and report upon it. ''The object of this work is twofold. To the young man going- back to the farm it gives a training which enables him at once to pass upon the merits of any line of work described in station literature and to appropriate that portion of it which may be of value to himself; to the young man going into technical fields it gives a training which should give strength and reliability to his work." In the senior year an elective in soil physics is offered. In this course ten hours per week during the first term are devoted to lectures and laboratory work, embracing a study of the physical properties and U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate V. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127 Office of Expt. Stations. Plate VI. Fig. 1 . — Michigan Agricultural College— Students Making Mechanical Analyses OF Soils. Fig. 2.— Mich'Gan Agricultural College— Soils Laboratory and Class Room. 41 chavacteristics of soils, such as detennining the specitic gravity, apparent specitic gravity, water movements, capillarity, etc. During the winter term ten hours per week are devoted by the student to original inves- tigation work along sonu^ line agreed upon between the student and pro- fessor in charge. During the spring term ten hours per week, seven weeks, are devoted to advanced work in soils, including lectures, lal)ora- tory work, studj'ing soluble salts in soils by the electrical method, the pore space in natural soils, etc. The building in which the instruc- tional and la))oratory work in agron- om}" is chiefly conducted is built of brick, is 53 feet long, 54 feet wide, and two stories high, with attic and basement, and is known as Agricul- tural Hall {Pi V). The basement of this building contains a large la))- oratory for agricultural physics, a small laborator}^ for mechanical analysis of soils (PI. VI, lig, 1), store- rooms, etc. , and connects with a small plant house. The first floor contains ofiices, a dark room, and a large gen- eral lecture room provided with IMI square feet of blackboard, two cases of wall maps, a stereopticon. and a 12 b}' 12 foot lantern screen. The windows of this and otlier rooms in the building are provided with cloth curtains and wood blinds. The lan- tern slides at present include illus- trations of different phases of soil formation and soil destruction and of different kinds of farm machinery. New slides are being added. The soils lal)orator3^, which also serves as a lecture room, is on the second floor of Agricultural Hall (PI. VI, fig. 2) and is supplied with apparatus as follows: Four sets of galvan- ized iron tul)es (fig. 2) for the stud}' of moisture movements in soils and three sets of brass tubes for the study of water and air movements (figs. 3 and 4) in soils; a "King's aspirator" (fig. 3) for determining the effective size of soil grain>^: a "Whitney's bridge" for determining Fig. S.- King's aspirator to determine the ef- l"o('ti\'e size of soil grains. 45i the soluble salt.s in soils; apparatus for the mechanical analysis of soils: a steam dn'ing oven and a hot-air drying oven (tig. H); trays and case, sampling auger, and sampling tul)o for tield work in soils; a torsion balance and a numl)er of other l)alances; four compound micro- scopes and one micrometer slide; a iuim])er of samples of tj^pical soils from other States, as well as samples of Michigan soils, to which samples additions arc being made as rapidly as opportunity permits; a grade level and rod; specific gravity buUis, drying tubes, and sundry glass and rul)ber tubing and glassware. The room has about 120 square feet of ]:>lackl)oard. The college farm comprises over 400 acres, not including the campus, orchards, gardens, stock yards, and the experiment station plats. It is divided into twent}' pasture, tield, and wood lots. At present the several acreages are al)out as follows: Woods, 140; wild pasture, 30; tame pasture, 37; hay, (>9; and roots, cereals, and forage crops, 141 acres. The soil is a drift soil and ranges from a sand}^ soil to a line clay soil, all of which is interspersed with coarse gravel and hard heads and bowlders. The farm machinery is up to date in eveVy particular and includes a large collection of modern types of implements and machines, as well as some of the older types, which are used by the students in making comparisons of draft, work, effect on soils, etc. The library contains over 21,000 bound volumes and about 5,000 pamphlets, and is rich in scientific works. The tables of the reading room are supplied with all the leading agricultural papers and journals. In matters concerning crops and soils reference is made, first of all, proba))ly, to station litei-ature, then to Storers Agriculture, King's works, and others of Bailey's Rural Science Series, and the Kotham- sted reports. Exhibit No. 5. A FEW OF THE PRACTICUMS IN AGRONOMY. The Jiioreiiit'iil of iii ;-nil tuhes, Hft tlir aspirator weight, allow- ma ])ell to fall to bottom of aspirator tank. 2. Attach rubber tube to soil tube No. 1. 3. Now carefully lower weight until it is just sustained by jiressure of air upon the bell. 4. With watch note time required for the hand to pass over three divisions of the dial, recording time as indicated iii a table like the one below. 5. In like manner attach rubber tube to Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, an.l s and note and record the time required to pass over three divisions of tlic dial. Ym. 4.— Aiii>iiiatiis ust'd to study the movumeiit of air through soils. (i. In like manner attach rubber tube to Nos. 9, 10, 1 1, and 12 and note tlu> time required for the hand to pass over one division on the dial. Multiply this time by three and introdiu^e in table. 7. Make computations and till in as indicated in the table. Soil. Number of cylin- der. t 1 t 2 f 3 \ 4 i ^ 1 c f ~ 1 *< ( 9 1 10 f 11 I 12 Time. Relative j rate of air move- ment. Initial, i Final. Net. Average. 1 1 } 1 J 1 ] Sand > por cent lime ?i;ni(l witli Peat ', ]>er cent linic I Clay loHin. . / I J } Clav. with ; Clay 1 1 1 44 Percolation of vaier through different soils. Description of apparatus. — This apparatus (fig. 5), consists of soil tubes similar to those used for the study of the rate of air movement through soils differing only in having tubes at the top by which the series may be connected by pieces of rubTaer tubing and supplied automatically with water so that the head or pressure in all the tubes can be kept constant. The tubes are filled in the same manner with soil as for studying air movements, and the rate of percolation depends upon the same physical properties of the soils as in the case of the movement of air. Details of (he practicum. — 1. Bee that the water supply is properly arranged. 2. Tare the glass or cylinder of each soil tube and record its weight in the jiroper place in a table like the one shown below, but do not return them immediately imder the drain tubes. 3. Remove corks from drain tulies and insert wii-e drips. 4. When water drops from all the wires, place the glasses and cylinders quickly under the drain tubes, noting the time. Fifj. 5. — Apparatus used to stnriy poroolatioii of water through soils. 5. At the end of 45 minutes quickly remove glasses and cylinders. 6. Remove wire drips and insert corks in drain tubes. 7. Weigh glasses and (cylinders with contents and record weights in the proper place in the table. 8. Make proper computations and introduce results in table. Soil. Number Weight l^ei^^^t of cyhnder.' cylinder : '"J^ms Clay I Clav loam Sandy \ Peat I I Weight of water percolat- ing in 4.5 minutes. Average percola- tion in 45 minutes. Relative rates of perco- lation. Tons per acre per hour perco- lating. Inches per hour l>erco- latfng. 45 Determhuif'ton nf sail inoidare. IN SOILS FKEE FKOM STONE. To take samples: i. Provide yourself with soil tulje, mallet, and three soil trays. 2. Having determined place for taking soil sample, pack the surface of the sell lightly with the foot. Press or drive the tube into the ground until the 1-foot mark on the tube is even with the surface of the ground. Give the tube- a turn. Place one hand firmly over the top of the soil tube to keep out air and with the other hand grasp and slowly withdraw the tube. 3. Remove cover from one of the trays, invert the soil tube, and allow the core to pass from the tube into the tray. Put cover on tray at once. 4. Return soil tube to the hole and press or drive down until the 2-foot mark on the tul)e is even with the surface of the ground. Remove as before and place the core in a second tray. 5. In like manner secure core from third foot and introduce into a third tray. 6. Pass to another point and as before secure cores of the first, second, and third foot, respectively, and introduce the cores into the trays containing the first, second, and third foot, respectively, already obtained. 7. Repeat until composite samples of four are obtained. To dry samples: 8. Weigh each tray with contents, recording weights of each. Remove covers and place trays in drying oven. 9. After forty-eight hours replace covers and weigh trays with contents, carefully recording weights. Be sure samples are dry. 10. Remove the dry soil from trays, wipe the trays carefully and weigh, recording weight. 11. Determine («) loss of moisture from the soil, {!>) weight of dry soil, and (c) the per cent of moisture in each soil estimated on dry weight .of soil. IN KOCKY SOIL. To take samples: 1. Provide yourself with two soil trays and a spade. 2. Having determined place to take samples dig a hole 1 foot deep and a little wider and longer than the width of ycjur spade. See that one side is perpendicular. Remove all loose soil from bottom of hole. 3. With spade cut off a slice 1 inch thick from the perpendicular side of the hole to a depth of 6 inches, allowing soil to fall to the bottom of the hole where it should be quickly crumbled and mixed and freed from stones larger than a small marble. 4. Place about one-half pint of this soil in one of the trays and cover. Remove the rest of the soil from the bottom of the hole. 5. With spade finish cutting the slice to the depth of 1 foot and proceed as above to mix and free from stone. 6. Place one-half pint of this soil in the second tray and cover. 7. Selecting another point proceed as al)Ove to take samples of the first and second 6 inches, respectively, and place the samples so taken in the trays with the samples of the first and second 6 inches already taken, respectively. To dry the samples: 8. Weigh each tray with contents, recording weights of each. Remove covers and place tray in drying oven. 9. After forty-eight hours replace covers and weigh trays with contents, carefully recording weights. Be sure samples are dry. 10. Remove the dry soil from trays, wipe the trays carefully and weigh, recording weight. 11. Determine (a) loss of moisture from soil, {b) weight of dry soil, and (c) the per cent of moisture in each soil estimated on dry weight of soil. 46 Jh'IcniiiiKilluii un- dles or cut into short lengths and jnit into a tray. {h) Fodder (including hay and straw). Cut a (juantity of the material in a feed cutter or with a* knife, mix well, and lill tray with sample. (c) Roots. Select one or more typical roots, clean with a good brush or wash and wipe carefully. With a sharj) knife slice in tray ijuickly and cover. (d) Grain. Place about one pint of cleaned grain in a tray. If it is desired to determine the moisture of corn in the ear select a typical ear having all of its kernels and place in tray. II. LAHELIXG. For the material i)laced in the trays it is sufticient tf plant and animal pro- duction and the upbuilding of rural homes an.G f)[\' 51 The universit}^ farm contains 250 acres of land, of which about 150 uores are devoted to experiment station and colleg-e of agriculture work. The soil is a mixture of clay and sand, and is well adapted to (' \arious uses to which it is put. On the portion of the farm used 1>\ the colleo-eand station there are many experiments in farm mana.ge- ment, rotation of crops, treatment of pastures, improvement of crops b^^ breedinu- (PL VII, hg. '2), etc. In tlie plant 1)reedino- experiments ' ire are annually planted nearly 800,000 individual plants, including grains, clovers, root crops, etc., and for nuich of this w^ork spi^cial machinery has been devised (tig. 7 and Fl. VIII, tigs. 1 and 2). Fiii. 7.— Cwitrifiigal seed-grading iiiaehiue. Students who make a specialty of agronomy assist in these exj)eri- ments. Farms in the vicinity serve as a l)asis for designing farm plans and working out problems in farm management. THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA. The industrial college of the University of Nebraska offers several four-year agricultural groups (courses) leading to the degree of bach- elor of science— a technical group, a general group, and two special groups. The technical group is intended for graduates of the three- year course in the school of agriculture. ''The studies in the general groups are arranged to meet the needs and requirements of those students whose primary object is a broad and general education." Those in the special groups are for students "fitting themselves to be instructors in agricultural subjects or to be experiment-station work- ers," and "have been planned and coordinated to enable students to direct their work so as to meet their individual needs and preferences." Candidates for admission to the general and special groups must pre- sent certificates from accredited schools, academies, or colleges, or must pass examinations (1) on the following required subjects: English, four years of language (ancient or modern or Ijoth), algebra through 52 logarithni.s, plune and solid geometry, and elementary ])otany, ehemiis- try, and physics; and (2) on a sufficient number of the following sub- jects for a total of 11 credits: Language, history, manual training, physical science, natural science, plane trigonometry, mechanical drawing, physiology and liygiene, physiography, civics, and political economy. "All the courses in the first year of residence are i)rescril)ed, and form the common bases of both the general and the special groups ofliered."' The courses included in this year and the munber of hours per week for each course are mathematics 5, modern language 4, i)hys- ics 8, English '2. chemistry 2, military drill 1. The work in chemistry iiu-lud(>s ''a careful study of the occurrence, methods of preparation, and properties of the conunon elements and their chief (compounds." After the first year the courses are mostly electix (\ At least 40 per cent of the work of the last three ycnirs is taken in agriculture and chemistry or agriculture and botany, but "no student shall take or receive credit for more than forty hours' work in any department during his undergraduate course." Agronomy at the Universitj^ of Nebraska '"includes on the instruc- tional side the subjects of soils, field crops, farm management, and the care and use of farm machinery." The course in soils includes the following: The origin, deposition, and natural transportation of soils; physical and chemical constitution of soils and subsoils; infiuence of the size of soil grains on the rate of solution of plant food, drainage, aeration, water storage, capillarity, etc.; forms in which water exists in soils; movement of Avater in the soil; soil temi)eratures: evapora- tion of water from the soil; methods of soil treatment for conserva- tion of soil moisture; the significance of a chemical anal3\sis of soil; fixation of fertilizing materials; nitrification; availability of plant food; tillage, reasons for tillage, effect of drifting, effect of plow- ing wet or drv soil; subsoil plowing, water-holding power of loose and compact soils; disking, listing, etc.; the application of barnyard and green manures and commercial fertilizers. Given b}^ the profes- sor of agriculture. This is followed by "field crops, their general composition and their relation to the air and soil; useful and essential ingredients of the ash of plants; functions of the ash constituents of plants and the forma- tion of plant substance; functions of the roots, stems, and leaves of plants; the breeding of cereals; a treatment of each of the principal field crops, somewhat according to the following scheme: Characteris- tics, varieties, vitality, climate, soil, manures, tillage, seeding, culti- vation, harvesting, preservation, position in rotation, uses. Given by the i)rofessor of agriculture." Following these two courses is a laboratory course in the "Proper- ties of soils," continuing throughout the year and given bv the pro- fessor of agriculture and the instructor in agriculture. U. S. Dept. of Agr,, Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate IX. U. S^ Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. PLATE X. Fig. 1 .—University of Nebraska— Field Crops Laboratory, Students Judging Seed Corn. Fig. 2.— University of Nebraska— Soils Laboratory. U S. Dept of Aa-r,, Bui. 127, Office of Expt Stations. Plate XI. Fig. 1.— University of Nebraska— Apparatus for Making Determinations of Soil Moisture. Fig 2.— University of Nebraska— Experiment Plats. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate XII Fig. 1 .—University of Nebraska— Seed Laboratory. FiG. 2.— University of Nebraska— Corner in the Seed Storeroom. 53 Elective courses are ottered as follows: ''Methods of investigation with soils. A stud}^ in detail of reported experiments, the object ])einu- to familiarize the student with the methods of scientific investigation in the subject under discussion. "Methods of investigation with ti(>ld crops. Conducted similarly to the above. ■'Plant food in the soil; a series of pot experiments. '' Production and movement of crops as affecting- prices. '•Sugar-l)eet culture. History of the culture of the sugai- beet. Etl'ect upon general agriculture of sugar-beet culture. Varieties of the sugar beet. Types. Composition and struc- tui-(^ of the ])eet plant. Soils and climatic conditions adapted to raising sugar l)eets. Preparation of the soil. Planting the seed. Cultivation. Harvesting. Siloing. Seed pro- duction; breeding, establishing- of strain. Position of the beet cu-op in the S3^stem of crop rotation. . ' ' The laboratory work [in soils] consists of the follow- ing- demonstrations: Determination of specific gravity of soils; determination of the volume weight of soils; power of loose soils to retain moisture; the power of compact soils to retain moisture; rate of per- colatioB of watei' through soils ; rate of perco- lation of air through soils; etl'ect of mulches on evaporation of water from soils; l)ehavior of the soil toward gases; capillary attraction of the soil ; the power of soils to fix auuuonia. ", Instruction for students in these courses is b}'^ means of lectures and laboratory practice, using books of reference throughout almost the entire course. In the study of field crops the experiment station pul)lications are used very freely. Students fitting tliemselves to be instructors in agricultural sulijects or to be experiment station workers are g-iven every opportunit}^ to study the methods of agricultural investigations at the agricultural experiment station farm. Class rooms and laboratories used for in- struction in agronomy arc in the general agri- cultural })uilding(Pl. IX). Onc^ class room, 33 by 20 feet (Pi. X, tig. 1), contains specimens of plants, seeds, etc. , used for purposes of in- struction in field crops. One laboratory, 33 by 20 feet (PL X, fig. 2), is used for demon- strations of various properties of soils. B A C Fig. S. — Moviiblo soil thonnoiiu'ter: A, hollow steel tube, i inch inter- nal diameter, 15 inches long; R, solidsteel plunger, 19 inehes long, which closely tits the tube A; (', long stem (lis inches) thermome- ter which closely tits the tube A. 54 This laboratory is provided with desks, water, gas, etc., and may be considered a well-equipped laborii,tory. The desks are Hi feet high and 4 feet wide, with drawers and cupboards on both sides and water and gas cocks in the center. The apparatus is designed to record soil temperatures (tig. 8), to take samples of soils (tig. 9), to deter- mine soil moisture (PI. XI, tig. 1), and to test a number of prop- erties of different soils, for in- stance, the water-holding power of loose and compact soils, the rate of percolation of air through soils, and certain other physical properties, some of the apparatus for which was designed l)y Pro- fessor (jibbs, formerly of the Ohio State University. About 60 acres of land are used for purposes of instruction, al- though other land used forexperi- i^iG. 9 —Soil-sampling apparatus; A, lioUow steel sampling tube, i inch internal diameter, 45 inches long, marked every 3 inches; B, solid steel rod, 46^ inches long, which closely fits A; 0, ejector; D, driving head for sampling tube; E, aluminum cans for soil samples; F, case for sample cans. mentation may also be considered as a part of the instructional equipment (PL XI, iig. 2). Forty acres are divided into su])tields of exactly 5 acres each. These fields are not fenced, but are divided l\y roadways, the land occupied by which is not a part of the 5-acre tracts, 55 The roadways are 1 rod wide. Four of the .sul^tiekls are severally in rotations, intended to demonstrate the effect of manuring and of period- ically seedinu- to grass. For instance, subtields C and 11 are each year planted to the same crops and the same character of manure applied in equal ([uantities, the only difference being that at certain intervals t professor of agriculture and the instructor in agronomy and include two elementarv courses during the second and third terms of the junior year and two advanced elective courses during the first and second terms of the senior year. The courses in the order in which they must be taken are as follows: Elementary course hr so/Is. — Lectures and recitations three times a week upon the origin, formation, kinds, and physical properties of soils and their improvement by cultivation, fertilization, drainage, and irrigation. Practicum once a week in laboratory, testing physical properties of several soils; determining the relation of soils to heat, moisture, air, and fertilizers, and making mechanical analyses. For a detailed description of the lal)oratory exercises in this course, see Exhibit No. 7. page 59. Klemeritarii eoiw^i- 'n\ farm vropx. — Lectures and recitations three tim(\s a week ui)()n the history, production, marketing, cultivation, and harvesting of farm crops. For a list of examination questions indicating the scope of this work, see Exhibit No. 9, page T<». Prac- ticum once a w<^ek with growing and dried specimens of farm crops, including grasses, clovers, and other forage crops. A list of Inbora- tory or field practicums in this course is given in Exhibit No. 10, page 7L Adranced cmirse in xoHs. — Lectures and recitations once a week on the physical properties of soils; the relation of soils to heat, air, and moisture; the efl'ect of fertilizers on soil structure and fertility; con- sideration of practical methods of tillage as afi'ecting crop producing power of the soil. Laboratory and field experiments during two two- hour periods each week. A detailed schedule of laboratory work in this course is given in Exhibit No. 8, page 69. Advanced course in farm croj^s. — Lectures and recitations once a week on {<() the efi'ect of climate, soil, and markets on the distrilnition and adaptation of farm crops in the United States; {h) the best method of crop production, including a careful study of the details of field U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate XIII. 59 experimentation as set fortii in experiment station bulletins and reports and the publications of the United States Department of Agriculture; (c) the consumption of farm crops. Practicums twice a week. Instruction in these courses is given largely by means of lectures, but frequent use is made of such text-books as The Soil and the Physics of Agriculture, by King; and Soils and Crops of the Farm, l)y Morrow and Hunt; and of bulletins, monographs, and r(^ports issued by the experiment stations and Departments of the United States (lovernment. Instruction in agronomy, as in other branches of agriculture, is given in the university l)uilding known as Townshend Hall, which was completed in 1898 at a cost of $100,000. Townshend ilall (PL XIII) is 260 feet long, and varies in widtli from CA to 7S feet. It contains two stories and a ])asement whicli is 14 feet high, making the l)uilding practically three stories high. The walls above the basement line are of gray pressed brick. The basement walls and the front entrance are of Bedford, Ind., Oolotic limestone, and the trimmings are of terra cotta of the same color as the brick. The roof is of dark-red tile. The building is of slow-Inirning construction throughout, with painted interior I'rick walls, exposed beams, maple floors, and hard pine finish. The lecture rooms and laboratory for the course in agronomy are on the first floor of tliis building. The soil physics laboratory is supplied with apparatus for studying the specific gravity of soils; volume weight of soils; power of loose soil to retain uKjisture; power of compact soil to retain moisture; rate of flow of air through soils; rate of percola- tion of water through soils; effect of mulches on evaporation of water from soils; effect of cultivation on evaporation of water from soils; power of dry soil to absorb moistui-e from the air; and the capillary rise of water through soils. Mechanical analyses are also made of typical soils. In the study of soils, the large glass house with its equipment of railroad tracks, trucks, and pots affords opportunity for the student to test the adaptability of crops ti) various soils; the fertilizer requirements of soils and to experiment on various other prol)lenjs of crop growth. In the study of crops, large use is made of the collection of dried specimens of grasses, grains, and seeds. The grass garden contains about 25 varieties of grasses and clovers growing side by side where comparisons may be made as to the value of each for pasture, meadow, and grass. The farm is visited frequently by students who make observations and studies of the practical methods there employed in the growing of crops. Exhibit No. 7. LABORATORY WORK IN THE ELEMENTARY COURSE IN SOILS. Experiments are arranged with reference to the number of labora- torj^ periods in the term, and since there are ten to twelve periods, 12 expcriment,s have been planned which are described on the following pages. The experiments are designed with special reference to the practical demonstration of some of the important principles imderly- ing soil physics, and to supplement class-room teaching with actual work with the soil itself. The following soils used in the experiments are typical agricultural 60 soils selected on the Ohio Stiite University farm with rcferoucc to their dift'erences in textiii'(> and crop producing powci" No. 1. Muck soil. Selected from a very fertile cornfield. No. 2. First bottom alluvial loam. Very fertile. No. P). Second bottom sandy loam with considerable clay. No. 4. Fine sand (0.25 millimeter to 0.1 millimeter in diameter). No. ."). Coarse sand (0..5 millimetei- to o.'2r> millimeter in diameter). The soils are l>rouirht fi'om the lields and air-dried in the laboratorv. Nund)crs 1 to 8 are sifted through a ^^-millimeter sieve having- circular holes, and numbers 4 and o through liner sieves. The soils are then placed in ninnltered 1)ins in the laboratory. The following is a list of the laboratorv expei-iments with descrip- tions and illusti'ations of each: Kxpf nine lit \ii. I. DETEUMINATION OF SPECil'MC (lUAVlTV OF f>OU>S. This expt'riinent. shows weiglits of the various soils as compared with the weights of equal vohunes of water. The speuitic gravity of most soilq^is about 2.5 — that is, soil calculated free of air space weighs 2.5 times as much as an cijual volume of Fiii. lu.— Appanitus for determining specific gravity of soils. water. The more organic matter a soil contains the less its specific gravity. In general, the specific; gravity of a soil decreases inversely as its content of organic matter. Specific gravity must not he confused with apparent specific gravity, which will be explained in experiment No. 2. With a fiask of 50 c-ubic centimeters capacity and jirovided with a ground-glass stopper, drawn out to an open capillary tube (fig. 10), acking. A freshly plowed soil is much lighter per cubic foot than the same soil packed by rains or by tramping. In other \\ ords, soil has an api>arent and a real specific; gravity. Average field soils in good tilth have an apparent specific gravity of alxHit 1.2, and when entirely free from' air, a real specific gravity of about 2.5. The compacting machine referred to al)Ove was designed to pack all the soils into the tubes uniforndy and thus elimi- nate, in a large degree, the error due to unecpial packing in different tubes when making comparisons of apparent S2:)ecific gravity of different soils. The machine does not do the work willi absolute exact- ness, but seems to be a decided improve- ment over the uncertain method of tilling by hand, which at best gives very unsatis- factory results. J'lrjicriiiinif Ni>. 3. TJIE I'OWKIJ OK LOOSIO SOILS TO UKTAIN MOIST L'KK. l^se soils Nos. 2, o, 4, and 5 in this ex- periment. I'lace disks of damp cheese cloth in the bottom of tlie tubes (iig. 13) and then weigh the tubes carefully on the torsion balance. Fill the tubes up to the mark, 1 inch from the toji, by pouring the soil in gently, leaving the soil in tlie tubes in a verv loose condition, with much air space throughout the mass. Weigh the tilled tubes. l*lace the filled tubes in the emjity galvanized iron box. Pour water in the box until the water level almost reaches the tops of the tubes, thus allow- ing the Avater to percolate up through the soils. When the vi^ater level in the tubes comes up to the level of the water in the box remove the tuVjes and place them in the frame, where the water is allowed to percolate out of them. Glass plates should be placed over the tops of the tubes to prevent evaporation. The tubes should be weighed from day to day until the minimum weight is reached — until perc()- lation ceases. The difference in weight between tlie tubes tilled with dry soil and the wet soil will be the amount of water retained by the loose soil. In order to get the total water content of the wet soil, it is necessary to add to this the weight of hygroscopic water which the dry soil contained. The hygroscopic water of the dry soil should be determined with a special sample taken at the time the tubes are filled. Fig. 12.— Sdil-eompacting machine. 63 CalculiiU' llie tiital miniheT oi pcjuiid.s of watei' rctaiiicil jx'f culiic fciol of , 4, and 5 in this exi)eriment. Place disks of moist cheese cloth in the bottom (jf the tubes (fig. 13). Weigh and then till within 1 inch of the top in the following mannner: Pour in 1 measure of soil. Place cylinder in comi)acting machine and drop weight six times from the 12-inch mark. Pour in another meas- ure and repeat. Continue tliis until cylinder is filled within 1 inch of the top. Fig. 13. — Determining the power ol soils to retain moisture. Place the lillcd tubes in the empty galvanized iron liox. Pour water in the liox until the water level almost reaches the tops of the tu))es, thus allowing the water to percf>late up through the soils. When the water level in the tubes comes u]> to the level of the water in the ]>ox remove the tubes and place them in the frame where the water is allowed to jjercolate out of them. (ila--s plates should lie ])lac(']irtmtiis for testing the adhesiveness of soils. adhering particles and not enough to break the grains. After five minutes' rubbing more water may be added, and after letting it stand for two or three minutes the turbid liquid 'is decanted into a Ijeaker, "A." Repeat this pestUng and decanting until an examination through the microscope shows the grains to be jjerfectly clean. When clean the grains show sharp outlines and are transparent, while any adhering finer particles make them round and deeply colored. This pestling may require 15 minutes to an hour or more. When the material is thoroughly disintegrated, it is transferred from the mortar to a No. 2 or No. 3 beaker, which is then filled with water, stirred and allowed to stand a few minutes, after which it is carefully decanted, leaving the last 20 or 30 cubic centimeters, the liquor being added to the beaker "A." This is repeated until the santl is free from clay, fine silt, and much of the silt. The sand should Ije tested with the microscope. All particles smaller than 0.05 millimeter are silt or fine silt U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate XIV. Fig. 1 —Ohio State University— Mechanical Analysis of Soil. Fig. 2.— Ohio State University— Torsion Balance Used in Soil Physics Laboratory. 69 and .should be removed by further decantatiou. The sediment in tlie l)ottoin of beaker "A" should also be tested. If it contains particles larger than 0.05 milli- meter, the washing or deeantation was too rapid. In this case a recovery must be made. The sand is transferred from the beaker to a porcelain dish and ilried. It is then ignited to destroy organic matter, after which it is sifted through a nest of sieves of 1, 0.5, 0.25 and O.I millimeter, respectively, that going through the finer sieve being known as very fine sand. These live sejiarations are weighed together I>efore the sifting and .sepa- rately after sifting. The amount of silt, fine silt, and clay which was washed away from the sand may be obtained approx- imately by subtracting the total weight of sand, moisture, and organic matter from the eartli taken (20 grams). Considerable time an(_l skill is required to make the separation of silt,, fine silt, and clay. It will not be attempted in tliis experiment. Fig. 20. — Card's apparatus for testing the adhesiveness of soils. The following are the sizes into wliich the soil ]iarticles are separated: No. 1. Gravel, 2-1 millimeters. No. 2. Coarse sand, 1-0.5 millimeter. No. 3. Medium sand, 0..5-0.25 millimeter. No. 4. Fine sand, 0.2.5-0.1 millimeter. No. 5. Very fine sand, 0.1-0.05 millimeter. No. 6. Silt, 0.05-0.01 millimeter. No. 7. Fine silt, 0.01-0.005 millimeter. No. 8. Clay, 0.00.5-0.0001 millimeter. Students are required to keep a careful record of each experiment, and at the end of the term to present plates showing their results, and also illustrations of apparatus used, together with description of the method employed. Exhibit No. 8. DETAILED SCHEDULE OF LABORATORY WORK. Adranced courier, in soih. September IS and 19. — Collected samples of soil from fallow, alfalfa, and corn ground to determine moisture content of first and second foot, using sampling tubes and other apparatus, as illustrated in fig. 21. 70 September 25 and '26. — Collected .samples of surface foot of muck, tir.st bottom and second botom !?oil, for determination of weight per cubic foot of soil under field con- ditions, using large tube, as illustrated in tig. 21. October 2 (md 3. — Discussion of results as obtained in the above experiments with special reference to the methods of expressing amounts of water in the soil; that is, per cent fresh weight, per cent dry weight, amount of water per cubic foot, and sur- face inches water. October 9, 10, 16, 17, 23, 24, 30, and 31. — ^Mechanical analysis of two samples of soil — a sand and a clay — by the Osborne beaker method, as modified and used by the Bureau of Soils and described in Bulletin No. 4 of the Bureau, pages 8-13. XoreridH'-r 6, 7, 13, and i^.— Separation of "silt," "fine silt," and "clay" by the centrifugal method as used in the Bureau of Soils. Fig. 21.— Apparatus lV)r taking soil samples. November 20, 21, 27, 2S, and December .',, 5, 11, and i,-*.— Determination of moisture, soluble salts, and temperature of soils by the electrical method, as descril)ed and used by the Bureau of Soils. Exnimr Xo. 9. EXAMINATION IN ELEMENTARY COURSE IN FARM CROPS. The following list of examination questions will servo to indicate the scope of the work covered in the course: 1. Name and explain the reasons for crop rotation. 2. Explain three methods of crop improvement. 3. Give the following statistics on corn and oats for the United States during the last decade: [a) Average annual acreage; {b) average annual yield; {r) average annual yield per acre; {d) average value per acre. 4. Name the eight leading States in the production of each of the following crops: Corn, oats, and barley. 5. Describe structure and give chemical composition of a grain of wheat. 6. Name the types of Indian corn and give the distinguishing characteristics of each. 7. Give the chemical composition of corn. 8. Give general directions as to depth of planting, time of iilanting, and thickness of planting corn. 9. State the reasons for shallow cultivation of corn. 10. Discuss the following: Time of sowing, depth of sowing, and amount of wheat to sow per acre. 11. What points should be considered in distinguishing between varieties of wheat? 12. Discuss briefly the cost and methods of shipping grain from the farms of the Northwest to the Atlantic seaboard. 13. State the conditions of climate, soil, and seed bed best adapted for oats. 71 14. Discuss depth of sowing, time of sowing, and amount of oats to sow per acre. 15. Name the regions of greatest production of rye and barley in the United States. 16. Give briefly the history of the cuhivation of grasses and clovers. 17. Give common and scientific name of six grasses that are grown in Ohio. 18 and 19. Under the following heads discuss common red clover, crimson clover, alsike clover, alfalfa: (a) Scientific name; (/>) value for pasturage and hay; {<■) cli- mate and soil conditions favorable. 20 and 21. Under the following heads discuss Indian corn as a silage crop: ((f) Total yield of digestible nutrients as compared with other crops; (b) varieties best adapted; (c) thickness of planting; (d) proper stage of maturity for harvesting. 22. Give directions for growing sugar beets. KxniKiT Nil. 10. LIST OF LABORATORY OR FIELD PRACTICUMS IN ELEMENTARY COURSE IN FARM CROPS. Practicum No. 1. , Eight varieties of corn are grown on the university farm annually for instructional purposes. Students are given this work in the fall term of necessity. Each student is provided with the accompanying score card and asked to judge only the stalks in this exercise. Practicum No. 2. The ears, husked from tlie variety plats, are brouglit to the laltoratory, where a few of the best are selected and the students are asked t(j score them carefully, according to the card standards as indicated in the following form: Studeiit!<' scon' card. DENT CORN. >-( 3 3 3 3 3 15 6 10 10 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Scale of points. s ■d a 1 a ■6 +-> o rr. C 0) " '6 0) o O o a a) ■Jl •6 8 c 5 -a u o o y: C a) "S '6 1 32 5 S IS 1 1 o5 CO 1 o (-• o Q -2 CO ■d a> *^ o o u STALK. Height — 11 feet for southern. 10 feet for central, and 9 feet for northern Ohio.. C'irciiiiiicniice between first and second joints, o^-ii inches, giving sufficient ' support to plant without undue coarse- ness of st-iilk -- icares abundant, indicatinggrowth and adding to the feeding value of the plant t 1 ■ 1 \ Husks abundant and moderately ad- hering for protection of ear against weather and insects -- -- Barren stalks — should be none . EARS. Firmness of grains and cob, and of grains on the cob, indicating ripeness and market condition -■ r t I .. .. Perfection (in ^ '^"^^^ Pounds shelled corn Pounds ears in 1 bushel shelled corn. ears (68 pounds). Remarks: Practicuin Xo. 4. \ STUDY OF THIRTY-NINE V.\RIETIES OF WINTER WITE.\T CLASSIFIC.\TION. A. Bearded: (o) Glumes white. (a') Berry red. 1. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 2. Length of straw more than 8 feet 6 inches. (b^) Berry white. 3. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 4. Length of straw more than 3 feet 6 inches. 73 A. Bearded — Continued. (/>) Glumes bronze. (a^) Berry red. r>. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 6. Length of straw more than H feet (> inches, (b^) Berry white. 7. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 8. Length of straw more than 3 feet 6 inches. B. Beardless: (a) Glumes white. (a^) Berry red. 9. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 10. Length of straw more than 3 feet «> inches. (b^) Berry white. n. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 12. Length of straw more than 3 feet 6 inches. (h) Glumes bronze. (a') Berry red. 13. Length of straw less tlian 3 feet 6 inches. 14. Length of straw more than 3 feet 6 inches. (b^) Berry white. 15. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 16. Length of straw more tlian 3 feet 6 inches Each student is required to hand in a written report of this work. Practicum No. 5. About May 1 each year the class spends one period making notes on the condition of 15 to 20 varieties of grasses and clovers in the grass garden for use later in the term when they come to study the varieties more fully. Practicum No. 6. The "Howe Grain Tester" is used in testing the i.urity and weight per bushel of wheat, oats, etc. Practicums Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10. Al)out four periods at the close of the term are given to the study of 15 to 20 varie- ties of grasses, clovers, and forage plants. Students use the dried specimens in the laboratory as well as the growing plants in the "grass garden." The following out- line is given each student, who is required to present an essay on the subject at the eml of the term: DESCRIPTION OF CiRASSES AND FORAOE PLANTS. Describe the following plants from the bundles given and state use, value, and climatic range and adaptation to soil, and give briefly the results obtained with these plants at experiment stations and elsewhere. The following books may be used for reference, while Itelow will be given refer- ences under each variety to results at experiment stations: Vasey's Agricultural Grasses of the United States; Beal's Grasses of North America; Hackel's True Grasses; Handbook of Experiment Station Work; Grasses of Ten- nessee, Part II; Grasses and Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants, by Professor Shaw; Reports of Kansas State Board of Agriculture, 1895 and 1900; Per- manent and Temporary Pastures, Sutton; Forage Crops other than Grasses, Shaw; Bulletins of the Division of Agrostology: 1. Poapralemh, L., Kentucky Blue Grass, Bulletins 5 and 15, Illinois Station; Bul- letin 20, Mississippi Station. 74 2. .[(jroxils vulgaris, L., Redtop, Bulletin 15, Illinois Station; Bulletin 20, Missis- sippi Station. 3. riileum pratenise. 4. Alopecurus pralenm, L., Meadow Foxtail. 5. Dudi/lis glomeratn, L., Orchard Grass, Bulletins 5 and 15, Illinois Station; Bul- letin 20, Mississippi Station. 6. Festuca elatior. 7. Festuca pratensis, Huds., Meadow Fe.scue, Bulletins 5 and 15, Illinois Station. 8. Lolhim pcrenne, L., Perennial Rye Grass, Bulletin 12, Colorado Station; Bulletin 15, Illinois Station; Bulletin 20, :Missipsippi Station. {}. Arena I'hitior, L., Tall Meadow Oat Grass, Bulletin 15, Illinois Station; Annual Report 18S9, Mississippi Station. 10. Anthoxanthum odoratum. 11. Medimgo sativa, L., Alfalfa, Bulletin 2, Colorado Station; Bulletin 15, Illinois Station; Bulletin 20, Mississippi Station; U. S. Department of Agriculture Bul- letin 81; Kansas Report, 1895. 12. TiifoUuin pratcnse. 13. Tr\folmni incamatuni, Crimson ..r Scarlet Clover, Bulletin Ki, Delaware Station; Report 89, :Maryland Station; Annual Report 1889, 3Iississippi Station; Bulle- tin -44, Virginia Station. 14. Trl/oliiuii hybrldum. Alsike Clover, Report 89, Maryland Station; Annual Report • 1889, Mississippi Station; Bulletin 15, Illinois Station. 15. TrifoUum rtpens. THE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GOTTINGEN. By F. W. WoLL, AtiHistant Frofensur <>/ Agr'n-nltnnil Chriiii^frii, riiirrrxilii nf Wisconsin. This institution is one of the oldest and foremost of its kind in Ger- many. It is perhaps l)etter known among American experiment sta- tion and college men than an}' other foreign agricidtural institution, on account of the high character of investigational work which has been conducted there during the last half centtiry, and because of the many Americans who have studied in Gottingen during this time. HISTORY. Lectures on agriculture have been delivered at Gottingen University since 1770, when J. Beckmann was appointed regular professor of agriculture in the university. He lectured on the subject of agricul- ture every summer until his death in 1811, and also founded an agricultural-botanical garden to supply instructional material for his lectures, in which all German plants of interest agriculturally were to be grown. It is characteristic that the object of the lectures delivered was not to educate intending farmers, but "to give an insight in farm operations to students who, later on in public service, would be called upon to represent economic interests." With some interruptions, the lectures were continued until 1852. In that year a special agricultural course of instruction was arranged 75 for at the university, through the efforts of the political economist, Professor Hanssen, of Gottingen University. Tlie course was planned to last four semesters and was placed under the immediate charge of an agricultural faculty composed of four professors, among whom were Wohler, the famous chemist, and Gripenkerl, who until his death in 1900 tilled the chair of agriculture in the university. The plan of study of the new^ course was comprehensive. Besides the various fundamental natural sciences, it included agricultural chem- istry, veterinary science, meteorology, agronomy, farm management, forestry, political science, and rural law. The theoretical studies were to be supplemented by agricultural excursions to estates in the vicinity of Gottingen; special arrangements were made by which the large Government estate, Weende (an old monastery farm, situated a))out a mile north of Gottingen), could 1)e v.isited at any time for instructional purposes, and agricultural experiments could also be made on the land belonging to the estate. The new course started under favorable auspices and received an impetus through the establishment of the Weende Experiment Station in 1857 by the Royal Agricultural Society of Hanover. One o])ject in establishing the experiment station was to supplement the agricul- tural instruction at the university by demonstrations, "just as if it were an organic part of the same.'' In 1857 the official name of the course Avas changed to the Royal Agricultural Academy of Gottingen- Weende, so as to give definite expression to the close connection between the theoretical instruction offered at the university and the practical work at the model Government farm, Weende. The attend- ance at the acadeni}' gradually increased from only four students in 1851 to over forty in the beginning of the sixties. About this time the number of students that came to receive agricultural instruction began to grow smaller, and there was a stead}^ decrease during the fol- lowing years, until in 1871-72 scarcely more than a dozen attended the academy. The cause of the decreasing attendance during the last years of this period was not difficult to understand in view of the fact that the Agricultural Institute of Halle University, which was estab- lished in 1863, showed a steadily increasing attendance during the same time. The Nestor among agricultural universitv teachers, Julius Kubn, through whose efforts the Halle Agricultural Institute was established, and to whom more than any other man is due the credit foi the splendid growth of agricultural university instruction, l)oth in German}^ and in other countries, was the first one to call attention to the fact that an agricultural educational institution that is nothing but a professional school does not supply the facilities for instruction which the times demand. Agricultural science is not merely an aggre- gation of applied sciences, it has its own special sphere, and in order to live and develop it must have opportunities for verification of prac- 76 tical experiences and for investigation of its special problems — similar facilities to those long ago accorded, e. g.. to medicine. Teachers who lack this opportunity to verif}^ and enlarge the knowledge of the principles of agriculture can not do the best work for their students or for their profession. A reorganization of the Gottingen Agricultural Academy took place durino- iSTl-lSTo. to a large extent in accordance with the ideas which J. Kiihn advanced and advocated with signal success. The new agri- cultural institute of the University of Gottingen (PI. XV) dates from this period. New buildings were erected, laboratories built, the Weende Experiment Station was removed to the agricultural institute (in ISTi), and experimental grounds, with garden and greenhouse, were provided for. Later changes made have been comparatively few, and only one of greater importance, viz, the recent establish- ment of an agricultural-bacteriological institute, the first one of its kind in the world, so far as is known. Tlie attendance at the institute during late years, according to the published university catalogue, has l)een about 30. A number of spe- cial students, however, take single lectures or special laboratorj' work in the institute Avithout being registered as agricultural students, so that the actual number of students attending lectures of professors or working in the laboratories of the institute is somewhat greater than the ligure given, l)ut is at any rate small compared witii the attendance in agricultural educational institutions of similar standing in this country. PRESENT ORGANIZATION. The Gottingen Agricultural Institute, as organized at present, is composed of six ditferent departments, viz: (1) General agriculture and animal husbandry, in charge of the director of the institute. Prof. W. Fleischmann. (2) Agricultural chemical lal)oratory of the university, Prof. B. Tollens, (3) Agricultural experimental grounds. Prof. C. von Seelhorst. (4) Animal physiological experiment station. Prof. Franz Lehmann. (5) The veterinary institute of the university. Prof. H. J. Esser. (6) The agricultural bacteriological institute of the university. Prof. Alfred Koch. Axi^/^f(f/>f'^ in the agricultnraJ institute. — In one respect there is a marked difference between the Gottingen Agricultural Institute and Station and our American colleges and stations, viz, the abundant help, skilled or otherwise, available for the routine work to be done. The janitors of the European stations do a large amount of semichemical work and render valuable service in many ways that those in America are never called upon to do; the assistants or division heads have in U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bi.1. 127, Office of Expt Stations. Plate XV. 77 general complete charge of all routine work in their respective depart- ments, such as hiboratory instruction and the preparation of demon- stration material for lectures, thus enal)ling the director or professor to devote nearly his undivided time and energies to work of a higher grade and to his own studies. The following statement gives the number of assistants and janitors or unskilled lal)orers. in the Gottingen Aoricultural Institute during the season of I'JOl: Departments!. Dairy laboratory '. Agricultural chemical laboratory Plant culture station Animal physiological station Veterinary department Agricultural bacteriological institute Total. a Three in winter. Assistants. fiNine in winter. Janitors or laborers. 10 1 1 "9 2 1 1 ''15 REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION. To be admitted as a student in the agricultural institute, as in all other departments of the university, one must go through the formal- ity of matriculation. Germans are matriculated when they are gradu- ates of a gymnasium (high school) or have a similar preliminary education, w hile for foreigners a diploma from a recognized college or university is required. Some latitude as to preliminary education required is allowed in admitting agricultural students, and oldin- farm- ers, as well as others who wish to attend lectures, may be admitted as Hospitanten or Horer (special students) almost without regard to previous training. Several years of practical farm work are con- sidered hiidilv desiral)le, and students are urged to come to the uni- versity so equipped, but previous training in this line is not required. A very large proportion of the agricultural students are the sons of more or less well-to-do farmers, who have taken part in the farm work when their school studies allowed it. and who expect to return to the home farm on the successful completion of their universitv work; others expect to seek positions as foremen on large estates, or as teachers in the lower agricultural schools. COURSE OF STUDY. There is no rigid course of study oiiered in the agricultural institute, nor is the duration of the course at all fixed; it is expected that the required studies can be tinished in live or six semesters, but it depends on the student himself whether or not he will present himself for examinations after this time. The following studies are required in the agricultural course as arranged at the present: History of agri- culture; plant production, horticulture, plant diseases; animal hus- 78 baudiy — breeding-, rearing, and feeding of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry; veterinary science: agrricultural physics^drain- age, irrigation, surveying, agricultural machiner}' and apparatus, farm buildings; farm management and farm bookkeeping. In addition to these professional studies the following fundamental sciences are recpiired: Chemistry (general, industrial, agricultural), physics, bot- any (general, systematic, physiological), ])acteria and yeasts, zoology, geology and mineralogy, meteorology, political economy, and rural law. The instruction is imparted by means of lectures, laboratory work, demonstrations, excursions, and seminars. Owing to the fact that many of the agricultural students have a lim- ited previous training, the lectures offered in the agricultural institute at Gottingen, as in other German institutions of this class, are, as a gen- eral rule, quite elementai-y. It is well for American students intending to study in Europe to bear this in mind, as it will save them from dis- appointment later on. The information conveyed in a course of lec- tures which may not cover more than two or three hours a week for a brief German universitv semester— sixteen to seventeen weeks in win- ter and twelve to thirteen weeks in summer — must necessaril}^ be gen- eral and can present only the main facts of the subject treated. And after all, the knowledge thus conveyed is but a small part of the bene- fit derived from attending such a course of lectures; of far higher value to the young student must be counted the opportunity of becom- ing acquainted with a thinker, to note his methods of treatment and presentation, and to catch something of the enthusiasm of a scholar. METHODS OF INSTRUCTIOX. The lectures delivered are, whenever possible, illustrated l\v charts, maps, nmseum specimens, or simple experiments. In the lectures on "plant nutrition, for example, the whole lecture table is generally covered with specimens of minerals, soils, soil constituents, or fertili- zers, according to the sul)ject to be treated in the lecture. A synopsis of each lecture, or manifold copies of tables of figures and the like, to which reference will be made in the lecture, are also furnished b}^ some professors. The literature on the subject treated is also gener- ally shown, either at the beginning of the course or as a special topic is reached, and usually sent around the class for inspection, in the same way as the specimens referred to in the lectures. Electric or other kinds of stereopticons are used at times for exhibiting pictures, charts, etc., on a screen, but not to such an extent as in our better- equij^ped institutions, nor as successfully, so far as my experience goes. 79 INSTRUCTION IN AGRONOMY The method of instruction in agronomy adopted at the Gottingen Agricultural Institute is of interest to the student of agriculture because of the rich material for illustration and demonstration at hand and the excellent opportunity which the excursions made to the manv laro-e estates in the surrounding country otter for studying dif- ferent systems of farming under German conditions. The American student will find the work done in this line full of suggestions and directly applicable at least to Eastern conditions. The instruction is carried on by means of lectures, laboratory work, demonstration on the experimental grounds and in the garden, agricultural excursions, and the agricultural seminar. This work is in charge of the director of the agricultural experimental grounds, Prof. C. von Seelhorst, who is also professor of agronomy in the university. Lectures and laboratory worl:— The courses of lectures offered in agronomy are, in the winter semester, general plant production (plant life) and breeding of agricultural crops; in the summer semester, culture of special crops, and weeds and plant diseases. The charac- teristics of the various kinds of grains, roots, tubers, and other agri- cultural crops are discussed in the special course, specimens of grain in the sheaf, potatoes, seeds, etc., being supplied in each case, and botanical charts and other illustrative material shown. The la})ora- tory instruction is given throughout the year one afternoon in the week. It consists of microscopical and agricultural examinations of concentrated feeding stuffs as to more important adulterations, qual- ity, etc.; further seed tests, and. in the winter semester, studies of plant diseases. Chemical analyses of crops, soils, fertilizers, etc.. are made only as required in special investigations, the general methods adopted in the laboratory work being such as the students will be likely to use and can use later on in their work on the farm. Demonstrations.— The demonstrations on the experimental grounds, in the garden and the greenhouse are of special interest and value to the students. They are given once a week (Monday morning from 7 to 8) during the whole year so long as there is anything of interest agriculturally to be" seen outside. The writer attended all demonstra- tions given during the summer semester of 19U1, and was pleased to observe the interest which the students evidently took in the demon- strations, as well as agreeably surprised to note the regularity with which the students met at this rather unusual hour, a regularity which was the more surprising as the attendance at lectures, in the summer semester at least, at most German universities is far from regular. The popularity of the professor in charge doubtless contributed to bring about this result, but not more than did the practical nature of the subject and the a))undant material for demonstration at hand. In these demonstrations the professor would conduct the class to th© 80 particular part of the g-rounds which he wished to speak a])ovit, and would then explain the experiments in progress and call attention to special points of importance. The next and following weeks a stop would be made at the same plats to note the development of the crop under the different conditions, differentiation of varieties or of crops under different systems of fertilization, etc. The continuity of the demonstrations gave these talks increased value, the eyes of the students became trained to detect minute differences in the color or luxuriance of plants, and they could follow the gradual differentiations in plants from week to week due to different conditions of fertilization or other influences. The effects of a scarcity or an excess of moisture; effects of hail on different crops, and how they gradually recover, or fail to recover, from these effects; estimation of the damage done by hail, weeds, attacks of insect, or fungus diseases; identification of these, their methods of attack and distribution, and how to com1)at them; estimations of yields of different crops, etc., are some of the almost iiununerable subjects wdiich furnish a well-informed teacher material for lectures in the held. The lectures were informal talks, often interrupted t)y questioning of the students as to their opinions of matters observed or to be obsei-\i'd. The students would jot down in their note books, although not as frequently as desirable, facts or suoo-estions brouoht out. Aside from the fact that the demonstra- tions served as a convenient method of gathering a large amount ot direct practical information on farm topics, they were of great value to the students in teaching them to use their eyes and to apply knowl- edo-e obtained in other disciplines, and last, but not least, served to ^ » » 1*1 create or maintain an interest and enthusiasm tor farm matters which perhaps no other method of instruction would l)e likely to equal. It mio-ht be thought that there could hardlv be anything new or interesting to note on grounds but little over 15 acres m area when the demonstrations came as often as once every week, but with the rich material available, which included dozens of different plat experi- ments with all kinds of farm crops, rotation experiments, fertilizer tests, pot experiments, etc.. this was not the case; on the contrary, the hour proved invariably too short to go over only the portion of the grounds planned each time. The arrangement of the German university year is most favorable for observing the larger share of the round of farm operations. The summer semester covers the time from the end of April to the beginning of August, and the winter semester the time from the end of October to the beginning of March, In these two periods nearly the whole growing periods of most farm crops fall, and most of the important farm work, like preparation of the land in the spring; seeding of spring grains; planting of peas, beans, root crops, and potatoes, and cultivation of the same; cutting and curing of hay; cutting, stacking, and harvesting of small grains, 81 peas, and other crops; securing the second crop of hay; harvesting- and storing of root crops and potatoes; preparing and seeding land to winter grains, etc. Thus a full 3'ear's attendance at the demonstra- tions will bring all the main farm operations vip for discussion; it will acquaint the students with the best practices in all cases, and will give them a fund of combined practical and theoretical knowledge which can be drawn upon for assistance throughout their lifetime. Excnmi&iis. — A fourth method of instruction in agrononi}' at Got- tingen Agricultural Institute is supplied by the agricultural excursions which are made to estates in the vicinity of Gottingen once every week, generally Saturday afternoons, but at times covering one or more days. The professor and students are shown around the premises by the owner, or in his absence, by his foreman, who explains the system of farming followed, the character of soil and manuring in the different fieHs, and the history of these for a couple of years back as to crops grown and systems of fertilization. Stal^les, barns, tool sheds, and other farm buildings are also visited, and the owner's experience is ascertained in each case, questions put by the professor or any in the party })eing as a rule answered in an open, businesslike way. The excursion gener- ally ends with a short social time, when light refreshments arc often served, and points not previously touched upon, or more general topics connected with the farm management, arc brought up and discussed. The party is apparently heartily welcome at all the places visited, the farmers seeming to consider it an honor to receive their visitors, in spite of the fact that the visit in some cases is a yearly or even a half- yearly a^'air. The hospitable spirit shown toward the professor and the young men who are about to enter into practical farm work them- selves, is strong evidence of the high esteem in which German farmers hold their higher agricultural educational institutions and the men who are intrusted with the instruction of their sons or neighbors' sons in their future profession. As the excursions are under the charge of the professor of agronomy they are necessarily of greater benetit to students in furnishing infor- mation in this line than along the line of animal husbandry, or special dairy husbandry. In the latter subjects there is, in general, less to be learned iu a German university, or in Germany on the whole, by an American student, than in almost any other branch of study, so far as the writer's experience goes. The relations of the Government estate, Weende, to the agricultural institute are somewhat different from those of the other estates visited, in so far as the renter is under contract to give agricultural students occasional talks on the work in progress on the estate, and to allow inspection of the estate by the students at any time. . The fact that the - present renter of the estate, Oekonomierat Beseler, is one of the promi- nent grain growers of Germany, who, besides being the originator of 26Y77— No. 127—08 6 82 a numl)ei' of improved strains of small grains, especiall}- wheat and oats, is a progressive farmer and an excellent instructor, makes the excur- sions to Weende of the highest value to the agricultural students. The Weende estate has a total area of 6T2 acres, of which about 480 acres of fields and meadows lie in the alluvial or diluvial soil of the Leine Valley, and the rest is keuper (poecilitic) soil. To the Weende estate belongs also the Deppoldshausen branch farm, situated on the Gottingen forest plateau, about 1,000 feet high, and 3 miles distant from Weende. This farm lies in the shell-lime formation, and has a thin clay soil calling for methods of farming entirely different from those of the vallc}' farms; it includes an area of 360 acres of cultivated land and 77 acres of pastures. The system of farming followed on estates in the vicinity of Gottingen is mostly grain raising and sugar- beet culture, but there are also a number of large dairj^ farms that are visited at intervals. Semmar. — The fifth branch of the instruction in plant production in Gottingen is the agricultural seminar. This is held in conjunction with the agricultural excursions, and meets once a week from 8 to 9.30 in the evening (0 to 7.30 in the winter), the professor of agronomy conducting the seminar. One of the students, acting as reporter on the agricultural excursion, prepares a paper on the estate visited, which is read at the seminar. In this a full account is given of what has been seen or learned about the place visited, and criticisms are offered as to farming methods, etc. The discussion following the paper brings out important points that were not considered in the paper, and enlarges upon such not sufficiently elucidated. The business side of the farm operations, the economy of systems of fertilization, the statics of fertilizing ingredients in the soil, sj'stem of crop rota- tion adopted, and special conditions of soil or markets under which the farmer works are among the sul)jects likely to come up for discus- sion each time. The regular attendance of the students at the seminar, and the lively discussions which general!}' arise as to methods of farm practice or principles underh'ing these, testify to the interest which the students take in this work and the benefit which they derive from taking part in the seminar. FACILITIES FOR INSTRUCTION. The facilities for work in the various departments are in general up to the requirements of modern educational institutions, even according to the standards common in this countr}', where, as a rule, buildings and equipment have been provided for the special purpose in view, and are not, as is often the case abroad, the adapted inheritance of earlier times. An American student will most likeh' be surprised, however, to note the small scale on which the equipment is arranged at Gottingen, as at nearly all other German agricultural colleges. 83 The dairy and bacteriological laboratory of Professor Fleischmaun, whose name is identitied with the development of dair}' science in all its phases from its beginning until the present time, consists of two rooms, one about 24 by 40 feet and the other 24 by 14 feet, with accommodations for less than half a dozen students. The agricultural chemical laboratory (Professor Tollens) consists of two rooms, one for qualitative and quantitative analysis, with accommodations for 36 stu- dents, and one for advanced or thesis work, for 10 students. The gen- eral auditorium or lecture room of the agricultural institute has a seat- ing capacity of about 36, and is never crowded — less than ever later in the semester, owing to the German system of non- compulsory attendance. For purposes of instruc- tion and demonstration in agronomv use is made of the experimental grounds, greenhouse, and other equipment of the plant- culture experiment sta- tion. The experimental grounds have a total arei^ of about 15 acres, and ad- join the agricultural insti- tute on the north (PI. XVI, figs. 1 and 2). Experi- mental work on this land was begun b}^ Professor Drechsler in the beginning- of the seventies, and has included trials of systems of rotations, variety tests of farm crops, fertilizer experiments, and improvement of cereals and other crops through continued selection. The diagram herewith given shows the divisions of the experimental grounds (tig. 22). The crops grown on these in l!>Ol were as follows: Field A. — Gottinger rye. Field B I. — Square-head wheat. Field B II. — Potatoes, 22 varieties. Potash fertilizer experiments.- Field C. — Red clover. Field D. — Peas, 2 varieties, and beans. Potash fertilizer experi- ments. Field F. — Rye, flax, winter wheat, mang-el-wurzels, barley, beans, potatoes, spring wheat, oats, sugar beets, and potatoes. Fertilizer experiments. Flii. 2'J.- -Plan of experimental grounds at GiUtingen Agri- cultural Institute. 84 Field F. — Plant l)reeding experiments with rye, winter wheat, spring wheat, oats, sugar beets, and potatoes. Fertilizer experiments with oats and sugar beets. Field F {%o\x\)ix of plant-breeding plats). — Clover, tests of 30 varie- ties of different origin; spring wheat, 8 varieties; potatoes, breeding experiments with 4 varieties. Field F (east of plant-breeding plats). — Sugar :uid fodder beets (experiments with different distance^s of planting); potatoes, 5 varie- ties; peas, 2 varieties. Field G. — Oats, Gottinger and Beselers improved, with clover. Field IT. — Root crops: Sugar beets, mangel- wurzels. Potash fer- tilizer experiments. Field I. — Square-head wheat. In the trial garden small plats are grown of all plants of agricultural importance to northern (xerman}', the different kinds of grasses and fodder plants, cereals, root crops, small fruits, weeds, etc. Mixtures of graisses and leguminous plants are also grown under different sys- tems of fertilization, to study the effect or to obtain demonstration material for showing the effect of certain fertilizers in favoring the growth of some plants and checking that of others. Similar experi- ments were also conducted during the season of 1901 in pots in the greenhouse, under liberal or scant supplies of water, in the study of the effect of water supply on the action of different fertilizers or com- binations of such. Pot experiments are conducted in the greenhouse shown in PI. XVII. The dimensions of the greenhouse are 23 by 19 feet, with a workroom added, 13 by 36 feet. It has accommodations for about 600 pots, which are placed on trucks and in good weather alw^ays kept outside. The experiments are conducted according to the plan worked out at the Darmstadt station. The general problem studied during late years is the influence of the water suppl}^ on the utilization of different kinds of fertilizers by cereals, grasses, and other farm crops. The laboratory- investigations are chiefly supplementar}^ to experiments conducted in the field, garden, or greenhouse, the main work of the assistants being the chemical anal3^sis of materials harvested, soils, fertilizers, etc. A great deal of independent research work has, how- ever, also been conducted in the laboratory, and has from time to time been published in the periodical literature, especially in the Journal f iir Landwirtschaf t. L'thmry and museum. — A description of a German agricultural institute would be incomplete without a mention of its librar}^ and museum, both of which form all-important parts of the facilities for instruction and research. The library of the Gottingen Agricultural Institute is small, less than 3,000 volumes, but is very complete in German works on agriculture and allied subjects. To an American U. S^ Dept. of Agr., Bu'. 127, Office of Expt Stations. Plate XVI. Fig. 1.— Gottingen Agricultural Institute— Looking Southeast. 'iG. 2. -Gottingen Agricultural Institute-Looking Northeast prom Institu-^e Buildings Across the Experiment Plats. U. S, Dept. of Agr., Bui 127 Office of Expt. Stations. Plate XVII GoTTiNGEN Agricultural Institute— Greenhouse. 85 student the absence of the best foreign (English or American) agri- cultural literature, in this library as in all other German libraries with which the writer is acquainted, will seem strange. In the laboratorie* of the institute are found special small, but good, reference libraries, which are accessible at all times and are of great service to students. There is also a reading room, where current numbers of the leading German (and other continental -European) agricultural papers and scientific magazines arc kept. The museum of the Gottingen Agricultural Institute was founded in 1851 by Professor Gripenkerl, and therefore represents half a cen- tury's growth. The agricultural faculty have here from year to year deposited collections in their respective lines of instruction and inves- tigation, with the view of making it valuable for instructional pur- poses rather than of establishing an agricultural museum. The collection of feeding stuffs contains samples of feeds used by Henne- berg in his fundamental studies on the nutrition of farm animals, and numerous other specimens in the museum bear testimony of investi- gations conducted at Gottingen during the latter half of the nineteenth century. The rich collections thus accumulated form invaluable material for demonstration and are constantly utilized by the pro- fessors in their lectures. o ftn7 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— BULLETIN NO. 128. A. C. TRUE, Director. STATISTICS OF THE Land-Grant Colleges and If rieultnral Experiment Stations IN THE UNITED STATES FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1902. WASHmGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. 557 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF A(;RICULTURE. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— BULLETIN NO. 128. A. C. TRUE, Director. STATISTICS OF THE Laud-Graut I'olleireii auJ Igiiciiltiii'al Ex|)ei'iiiieiit Stations IN THE UNITED STATES BOT GA; FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 11)02. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. L!M>3. OFFICE or EXPERIMENT STATIONS. A. C. True, Ph. 1).— Director. E. W. Allen, Ph. I). — Assistitiuaioii,^. 2 LETTliR OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Washington, D. C. , March 5, 1903. Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith some statistics of the land- grant colleges and agricultural experiment stations for the year 1902, compiled under my direction by Miss Marie T. Spethmann, of this Office, and to recommend their publication as Bulletin No. 128. Respectfully, A. (J. True, Director. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. CONTENTS Page. Kej^ to abbreviations 6 Suinniai'v of statistics of land-grant colleges 7 Summary of statistics of the stations 8 Statistics of the land-grant colleges and universities 10 Table 1. — Land-grant institutions and their courses of study 10 Table 2. — General statistics 16 Table 3. — Students, by classes and courses 18 Table 4. — Value of permanent funds and equipment 20 Table 5. — Revenue for year ended June 80, 1902 22 '' Table (>. — Additions to equipment in 1902 24 Table 7. — Disbursements from the United States Treasury to the States and Territories of the appropriations under the act of Con- gress approved August 30, 1890 25 Statistics of the agricultural experiment stations - 27 Table 8.— General statistics, 1902 27 Table 9. ^Revenue and additions to equipment in 1902 34 Table 10. — Expenditures from the United States appropriation for the year ended June 30, 1902 - 36 Table 11. — Disbursements from the United States Treasury to the States and Territories of the appropriations under the act of Con- gress of March 2, 1887 37 5 KEY TO ARRRl^MATIONS. Agr., Agriculture, Agricultural. ArchL, Architecture. Biol., Biology, Biological. Bot., Botany, Botanical. Chem., Chemistry, Chemical. Cluii., Classical. Elect., Electrical, Electricity. Eng'm., Engineer, Engineering. Engl., English. Ent., Entomology. For., Forestry. Geo!., Geology, Geological. Hist., History. Hort., Horticulture. Hush., Husbandry. Indus., Industrial, Industries, Industry. Irrlg., Irrigation. Lang., Language, Languages. Lat., Latin. Libr., Library, Librarian. Lit., Literatuie. Math., Mathematics, Mathematical. Merh., Mechanics, Mechanical. Med., Medical, Medicine. Mei(d., Metallurgy. Pedag., Pedagogics, Pedagogy. Phar., Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical. Philos., Philosophy. Plujs., Physics, Physical. Prep., Preparatory. Sri., Science, Sciences, Scien title. Sien., Stenography. Tech., Technical. Veg., Vegetable. Vet., Veterinary, Veterinarian. ZooL, Zoology, Zoologist. STATISTICS OF LAND-GRANT COLLFXES AND AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS, 1902. The following statistical statements relate to the institutions estab- lished under the acts of Congress of July 2, lSt!2, and August 30, 1S90, most of which maintain courses of instruction in agriculture, and to the agricultural experiment stations, which, with a few exceptions, are organized under the act of Congress of March 2, 1887, and are con- ducted as departments of the institutions receiving the benelits of the land-grant act of July 2, 1862. These statistics have been compiled in part from replies to a circular of inquiry sent out from the Office of Experiment Stations and in part from the annual reports of the pres- idents of these institutions made on the schedules prescribed by the Commissioner of Education. Tables showing the annual disburse- ments on account of the acts of Congress of March 2, 1887, and August 30, 1890, prepared in the departments of the Treasury and the Inte- rior, are also included. Owing to the complex organization of many of the institutions, it is impracticable to give exactly comparable statistics in all cases, and in some instances the data furnished are incomplete. SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF LAND-GRANT COLLEGES. Educational institutions receiving the benefits of the acts of Con- gress of July 2, 1862, and August 30, 1890, are now in operation in all the States and Territories except Alaska. The total number of these institutions is 66, of which 63 maintain courses of instruction in agriculture. The aggregate value of the permanent funds and equip- ment of the land-grant colleges and universities in 1902 is estimated to be as follows: Land-grant fund of 1862, $11,369,031.50; other land- grant funds, $1,079,148.99; other permanent funds, $16,351,870.55; laiid grant of 1862 still unsold, $1,315,516.06; farm and grounds owned by the institutions,. $5,198,577.86; buildings, $20,082,610.60; apparatus, $1,670,306.12; machinery, $1,515,508.28; libraries, $1,979,- 313.69; miscellaneous equipment, $3,919,914.60; total, $67,511:,888.25. The income of these institutions in 1902, exclusive of the funds 8 received from the United States for agricultural experiment stations ($719,400.72), was as follows: Interest on land grant of 1862, $682,- 960.65; interest on other land grants, $72,098.63; United States appro- priation under act of 1890, |1, 200,000; interest on endowment or regular appropriation, |552,363.08; State appropriation for current expenses, $1,691,919.51; State appropriation for buildings or other special purposes, $2,066,311.70; endowment, other than Federal or State grants, $582,163.08; tuition fees, $6()1,151.97; incidental fees, $500,061.90; miscellaneous, $1,151,176.30; total, $9,166,272.82. The value of the additions to the permanent endowment and equipment of these institutions in 1902 is estimated as follows: Permanent endow- ment, $1,115,905.46; ])iiildings, $1,785,125.39; library, $131,102.70; apparatus, $103,433.83; machinery, $150,925.54; miscellaneous, $123,- 710.04; total, $3,413,202.96. The number of persons in the faculties of the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts was as follows: For preparatory classes, 346; for collegiate and special classes, 1,797; total, 2,229. In the other departments the faculties aggregated 1,050, mak- ing a grand total of 3,279 persons in the faculties of the land-grant institutions. The students in 1902 were as follows: (1) By classes- preparatory, 8,272; collegiate classes, 17,212; short course or special, 5,114; post graduate, 483; other departments, 16,331; total, 46,699. (2) By courses— agriculture, 6,299; mechanical engineering, 4,702; civil "engineering, 2,146; electrical engineering, 1,814; mining engi- neering, 935; chemical engineering, 199; architecture, 336; household economy, 2,706; veterinary science, 977; dairying, 1,372; military tac- tics, 12,9!)6. The graduates in 1902 were 1,443, and since the organ- ization of these institutions, 50,026. The average age of graduates in 1902 was 21 years and 11 months. The total number of volumes in the libraries was 1,795,607. The total number of acres of land granted to the States under the act of 1862 was 10,110,852, of which 1,010,845 are still unsold. SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF THE STATIONS. Agricultural experiment stations are now in operation under the act of Congress of March 2, 1887, in all the States and Territories and in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico. In Connecticut, New Jersey, New York, Hawaii, Missouri, Ala])ama, and Louisiana separate stations are maintained wholly or in part by State funds. A number of substa- tions are also maintained in ditierent States. Excluding the substations, the total number of stations in the United States is 60. Of these, 55 receive appropriations provided for by act of Congress. The total income of the stations during 1902 was $1,328,847.37, of which $720,000 was received from the National Govenmient, the remainder, $608,847.37, coming from the following sources: State governments, $369,771.12; individuals and communities, $2,301.38; 9 ±ef8 for analyses of fertilizers, $80,942.36; sales of farm products, 1105,644.00; miscellaneous, $50,187.91. In addition to this, the Office of Experiment Stations had an appropriation of $139,000 for the past fiscal year, including $12,000 for the Alaska experiment stations, $12,000 for the Hawaiian investigations, $12,000 for the Porto Rican investigations, $20,000 for nutrition investigations, and $50,000 for irrigation investigations. The value of additions to the equipment of the stations in 1902 is estimated as follows: Buildings, $176,113.78; libraries, $11,941.98; apparatus, $19,727.94; farm implements, $14,982.56; live stock, $20,654.27; miscellaneous, $19,509.09; total, $262,829.62. The stations employ 710 persons in the work of administration and inquiry. The number of officers engaged in the different lines of work is as follows: Directors, 53; assistant and vice-directors, 18; special agents in charge, 3; chemists, 151^ agriculturists, 54; agrono- mists, 7; animal husbandmen, 25; horticulturist!^, 73; farm foremen, 25; dairymen, 34; botanists, 50; entomologists, 50; zoologists, 6; veterinarians, 27; meteorologists, 12; biologists, 8; physicists, 5; geol- ogists, 4; m3'cologists and bacteriologists, 20; irrigation engineers, 9; in charge of substations, 14; secretaries and treasurers, 25; libra- rians, 10; and clerks and stenographers, 41. There are also 103 persons classified under the head of *■' miscellaneous," including superintendents of gardens, grounds, and buildings; apiarists, vegetable, plant, and animal pathologists; herdsmen, poultry men, etc. Three hundred and sixty-four station officers do more or less teach- ing in the college with which the stations are connected. The activity and success of the stations in bringing the results of their work before the public continue unabated. During the year they published 373 annual reports and bulletins, which are many more than are required by the Hatch Act. These were supplied to over half a million addresses on the regular mailing lists. A larger number of stations than formerly supplemented their regular publications with more or less frequent issues of press bulletins, and most of the stations report a large and constantly increasing correspondence with farmers on a wide variety of topics. 10 CO C be re a; c o D 1^ ' a; c a . 09 •f. 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H p '-^ i; u o B d ce ^ II rkansas . Iilil'oriiia olorado . onnectic akota (T c5 ^ a o: C oi ill! c; S 5 ci l|.llf i < < -H H- c ww2 s s ^ S ss;s cj CO 03 a, rH rH T-H T-H T-H i-H ' t-H i-H i-H • t-H t-H t-H i-H t-H rH t-H t-H t-H r-i r-H r-^ T-i O - -. -. -. -. , ^ ^ u T-HrHT-HT-HrHr-Hi-HT-H 'i-Hi— it— iT-Hi-HT-HT-HrHrHrHT-HrnrH f-) a. 01 38 o S -2 8 Si, 5. 'K %' '■+^ r^ c '<>i U ^ ^ '« 1^ s: B i^j eo ^ ■^ s~ 'jQ ^ I'S so to I IS 50 O e5~ S s S~ Lft»^l^lClO'-';i^l^i^tCi-^>^l^i"l-tTl^l^i^l^L^*^Tl^l^ i^ ic in »^ ic ijt »c : L't ic i-t in in »n ic lc »c 1^ in ic ; 3 00 ; 00 '. 00 ; mininininininini S """""""" "" ' o o o o o 5 o o m'tn 0000=0000300 000000000000 000000000000 in — X in t 00000000 lOinininitiOininT^-i in in in tn in in in >oooooooo JoooooSooooooSo 00 00 00 in' in 00000000— 000000000 00000 ooot^ 000000000000 000000000000 000000000000 00 o o o o ininininininin'n"?*ininin ' in in in in in in in in o — O X O 31 oooooopoo 0000000000 t^c ^o o . 00 iO o in"!j*iCinininininTininininininininininininxininin r—t ii H S J < ^ H 1000000000 ■^ in in in I o o in* in «& o-rooooo; O'^'OO o 00c oS o o o o o ; > — OOT;10000000000 ;t^oo in 0000000000 0-. o o o o o o 010 o o o o o T?" in in in ini in in o o d o' 00 in o 0—00000 o m o o o o o 005 o o o 00 000— ■ X o l-i I^ t-i t^ . t^ t-^ otTx'x'x" • x^x" 0000 ■ 00 in in in in • in in c^ C'l c^) n • c^ c-i a>i5 .^o ininininccininininin rj o o o rsoo o — 000 o t~oo ^'l t^ o c^ — x"in x" o o o o c5?i 00000 o o o o x-x" — ^-. t- - 2 ^i o c^i x'x" o o ; o o ; o o J o o o o o o x"x" i=:i^ia ^ o 598 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS- BULLETIN NO. 129. A. C. TRUE, Director. DIETARY STUDIES IN BOSTON AND SPRINGFIELD, MASS., PHILADELPHIA, PA., AND CHICAGO, ILL. I'.Y LYDIA SOUTHAED, ELLEN H. KICHARDS, SUSANNAH USHER, BERTHA M. TEERILL, AND AMELIA SHAPLEIGH. EniTKD BY I?,. ID. nyniLnsTEi?,. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTIXO OFFICE 10 0 3. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS ON THE FOOD AND NUTRITION OF MAN. Note. — For those publications to which a price is affixed application should bo made to the Super- intendent of Documents, Union Bulding, Washington, D. C, the officer designated by law to sell Government publications. Publications marked with an asterisk (*)are not available for distribution. ♦Charts. Food and Diet. By W. O. Atwatcr. (Four charts, 26 by 40 inches.) Pl-ice per set, unmounted, 75 cents. *Bul. 21. Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry and Economy of Food. By W. O. Atwater. Pp. 222. Price, 15 cents. Bui. 28. (Revised edition.) The Chemical Composition of American Food Materials. By W. O. Atwater and A. P. Bryant. Pp.87. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 29. Dietary Studies at the University of Tennessee in 1895. By C. E. Wait, with comments by W.O. Atwater and CD. Woods. Pp. 45. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 31. Dietary Studies at the University of Mi.ssouri in 1895, and Data Relating to Bread and Meat Consumption in Mi.ssouri. By H. B. Gib.son, S. Calvert, and D. W. May, with comments by W.O. Atwater and C.D.Woods. Pp.2). Price, 5 cents. *Bul. 32. Dietary Studies at Purdue University, Lafayette, lud., in 1895. By W. E. Stone, with com- ments by W. O. Atwater and C. D. Woods. Pp. 28. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 35. Food and Nutrition Investigations in New Jersey in 1895 and 189(5. By E. B. Voorhces. Pp. 40. Price, 6 cents. Bui. 37. Dietary Studies at the Maine State College in 1896. By W. H. .lordaur Pp. 57. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 38. Dietary Studies with Reference to the Food of the Negro in Alabama in 1895 and 1896. Con- ducted with the codperatiiin of the Tnski'gee Normal and Industrial Institute and the Agri- cultural and Mechanical College of Alabama. Reported by W. O. Atwater and C. D. Woods. Pp.69. Price, 5 cents. Bill. 40. Dietary Studies in New Mexico in 1895. By A. Goss. Pp.23. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 43. Losses in Boiling Vegetables, and the Composition and Digestibility of Potatoes and Eggs. By H. Snyder, A. .1. Frisby, and A. P. Bryant. Pp. 31. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 44. Report of Preliminary Investigations on the Metabolism of Nitrogen and Carbon in the • Human Organism with a Respiration Calorimeter of Special Construction. By W. O. Atwater, C. D. Woods, and F. G. Benedict. Pp. 64. Price, Scents. Bnl. 45. A Digest of Metabolism Experiments in which the Balance of Income and Outgo was Determined. By W. O. Atwater and C. F. Langworthy. Pp. 434. Price, 25 cents. Bnl. 46. Dietary Studies in New York City m 1895 and 1890. By W. O. Atwater and C. D. Woods. Pp. 117. Price, 10 cents. Bui. 52. Nutrition Investigations in Pittsburg, Pa., 1894-1896. By Isabel Bevier. Pf.. 48. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 53. Nutrition Investigations at the University of Tennessee in 1896 and 1897. By ('. E. Wait. Pp. 4ti. Price, 5 cents. Bui. .54. Nutrition Investigations in New Mexico in 1S97. By A. (ioss. Pji. 20. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 65. Dietary Studies in Chicago in 1895 and 1.S96. Conducted with the cooperation of ,Tane Addams and Caroline L. Hunt, of Hull House. Reported by W. O. Atwater and A. P. Bryant. Pp.76. Price, 6 cents. *Bul. 56. History and Present Status of Instruction in Cooking in the Public Schools of New York City. Rei)orted by Mrs. Louise E. Hogan, with an introduction by A. C. True, Ph.D. Pp. 70. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 63. Description of a New Respiration Calorimeter and Exiierimeiits on the Conservation of Energy in the Human Body. By W. O. Atwater and E. B. Rosa. Pp. 94. Price, 10 cents. Bnl. 66. The Physiological Effect of Creatin apd Creatinin and their Value as Nutrients. By J. W. Mallet. Pp.24. Price, 5 cent.s. Bui. 67. Studies on Bread and Bread Making. By Harry Snyder and L. A. Voorhees. Pp. 51. Price, 10 cents. Bui. 68. A Description of Some Chinese Vegetable Food Materials and Their Nutritive and Economic Value. By W. C. Blasdale. Pp. 48. Price, 10 cents. Bui. 69. Experiments on the Metaboli.sm of Matter and Energy in the Human Body. By W. O. Atwater and F. G. Benedict, with the cooperation of A. W. Smith and A. P. Bryant. Pp. 112. Price, 10 cents. Bui. 71. Dietary Studies of Negroes in Easterii Virginia in 1897 and 1898. By H. B. Frissell and Isabel Bevier. Pp. 45. Price, 5 cents. Bui. 75. Dietary Studies of University Boat Crews. By W. O. Atwater and A. P. Bryant. Pp. 72. Price, 5 cents. [Continued on third page of cover.] 598 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. O.^FICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS-BULLETIN NO. 129. A. C. TRUE, Director. DIETARY STUDIES IN BOSTON AND SPRINGFIELD, MASS., PHILADELPHIA, PA., AND CHICAGO, ILL. BY LYDIA SOUTHARD, ELLEN H. RICHARDS, SUSANNAH USHER, BERTHA M. TERRILL, AND AMELIA SHAPLEIGH. EDITEJ) BY :ei. id. is/LXJL,isr:E'^i. LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PlilNTING OFFICE. 1903. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. A. C. True, Ph. D., Director. E. W. Allen, Ph. D., Assistant Director and Editor of Experiment Station Record. C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D., Editor and Expert on Foods and Animal Production. NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS. W. 0. At WATER, Ph. D., Chief of Nutrition Investigations, Middletomi, Conn. C. D. Woods, B. S., Special Agent at Orono, Me. F. G. Benedict, Ph. D., Physiological Chemist, Middletoim, Conn. R. D. MiLNER, Ph. B., Editorial Assistant, Middktown, Conn. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Waski?igt07i, D. C, April 28, 1903. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report of a number of dietary studies which were offered to this Office for publication. These include investigations at the Boston School of Housekeeping by Miss Lydia Southard; a study at th(> same institution Ijy Miss Susannah Usher and Miss Bertha M. Terrill; at the Bible Normal College, at that time located at Springfield, Mass., but now at Hartford, Conn., and designated School of Religious Pedagogy, by Miss Bertha M. Terrill; and of families of different nationalities living in the thickly congested districts of Philadelphia and Chicago, by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards and Miss Amelia Shapleigh. Much credit is due Miss Hen- rietta I. Goodrich, director of the Boston School of Housekeeping, for planning the series of studies carried on in that institution in 1901-2, and to Miss Annette Philbrick, fellow at the Boston School of House- keeping, 1901-2, who rendered valuable assistance in carrying out the details of these studies. The preparation and editing of the material has been very largely the work of Mr. R. D. Milner, of the Office of Experiment Stations. The studies at the Boston School of Housekeeping and the Bible Normal College are of special importance, since in all but one the cost of the food was decided upon beforehand, and an attempt was made to supply with the sum allowed a satisfactory and nutritious diet corre- sponding to the commonly accepted dietary standards. The studies, which were in the main successful as regards the object sought, are interesting and valual)le attempts to apply in a practical way the accunudated results of nutrition investigations. All the data included are of value in themselves and useful for purposes of comparison and in other ways. The report is submitted with the recommendation that it be pub- lished as Bulletin No. 129 of this Office. Respectfully, A. C. True, Director. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Aia Southard, B. A. INTRODUCTION. The demand for accurate information upon the subject of nutrition has ))een partly met in the past by making- dietary studies in widely separated places, and with persons in widely different circumstances. There is so much difficulty, however, in comparing dietaries observed under such varying conditions as those due to the personality of both the individuals in charge and those fed, their previous food habits, their local market limitations, etc., that the drawing of valuable conclusions is often prevented. It was therefore deemed worth while at the Boston School of Housekeeping, which is now incorporated with Siunnons College, to make some comparisons of the effects of different dietaries upon the same family. The details and results of four studies in which the group of persons remained the same, but the cost of the diet was varied, and the quantity and quality of food materials varied accordingly, are here reported. The work was planned by the director of the school. Miss Henrietta I. Goodrich, in such a way that the diet could be modified in kind and cost. The usual methods were followed in this investigation and many of the details were attended to by Miss Annette Philbrick, fellow of the School of Housekeeping 1901-2. Of the four dietary studies reported the first was made under the usual living conditions to find out the cost of the regular diet, and to learn how nearly it conformed to the conmionly accepted dietary standard. In the second study it was designed to have the diet medium in cost— that is, between 20 and 30 cents per person per day, the diet finally selected costing on an average 25 cents. In the third study the attempt was made to furnish a reasonaldy attractive diet at a low cost, namely, less than 20 cents per person per day. The diet decided upon actually cost 17 cents. In the fourth study it was proposed to supply a diet of high cost, namely, one ranging from 50 to 60 cents per person per day. The diet actually supplied cost on an average 53 cents. 8 In all cases these values represent only the actual cost of the food, no account being taken of the cost of preparation and service. The observations were confined to the teachers and pupils in resi- dence at the School of Housekeepino-, comprising- fifteen women. The employees (house workers) in the school had a separate table, and for that reason were not included in these experiments. One of the difficulties experienced was the impossibility of conducting the work without the knowledge of those upon whom the experiments were made. At least two other conditions were unfavorable to the best results, namely, the shortness of time during which it was possible to continue each experiment, and the indifference of some of the family as to the success or failure of the undertaking. Those eating at the school table were of two distinct classes as regards their mental atti- tude toward the investigation; the teachers and professional students were thoroughly interested in the scientific side of the dietary work, but the remaining and larger portion of the group felt onl}" the inter- est of average boarders. On the other hand, the facilities for gaining exact information were unusually good; and it is thought that a com- parison and discussion of the varying results ()])tained in the same household ma}" add something of value to what has already been done in the study of nutrition. EQUIPMENT AND METHOD. The primary necessity in the way of equipment for dietary studies is scales which are accurate, those employed in these studies being plat- form scales, with a weighing capacity of from one-quarter of an ounce to 300 pounds. For convenience in carrying out the details of the studies several utensils of various sizes were used for holding the sup- plies of different food materials that were to be used during the experi- ments, so that they could be easily weighed and kept separate from the general supplies for the rest of the household. Wooden buckets, with handles and close-fitting covers, were obtained at a kitchen-furnishing establishment. Not more than ten of these were required. They varied in capacit}" from 25 to 50 pounds, and in cost from 25 to 50 cents each. The buckets were used for sugar, flour, etc. Baskets and boxes given awa}" by grocers in delivering their goods were collected for holding such commodities as fresh fruit, vegetables, and eggs. Glass and porcelain jars, with covers, were set aside for condiments, starches, and the like. Not more than five of each were usuall}^ needed in the same experiment. The glass jars held 1 quart each, and were of the sort ordinaril}" used for preserving fruit. The porcelain jars were smaller, and were of the sort in which marmalades and certain cheeses are sold. Standard tin measuring cups, holding exactl}" one- fourth of a liquid quart, were obtained for 10 cents each. Not more 9 than SIX were really needed, two for the experimenters and four for use in the cooking-. One wooden half-peck measure, costing 25 cents, was purchased at an ag-ricultural-supply,store. Three tin funnels of different sizes, and a number of plain and durable plates and bowls, all of which might be found in the average kitchen, completed the more substantial part of the outfit. Prepared labels of two contrasting colors were found to be most useful as a means of distinguishing between receptacles for carefully weighed materials to be consumed in the experiments, and those containing unweighed articles to be used at other times. Firmly bound note books, for the preservation of all data, were also a great convenience. Before the special dietary studies were undertaken a regular study was carried on with the famil}' in their ordinary school life during two consecutive weeks taken at random. The menus followed in this study were those planned by the head of the house. Althoug-h the .selection of food materials had been made according to a general knowledge of their nutritive values, no attempt was made in this case to regulate the cost nor to provide a diet that would furnish definite quantities of nutrients and energy. Save for the fact that in the regular dietary study the cost and nutritive value of the diet were not predetermined, and that no atten- tion was paid to table and kitchen wastes, the methods of procedure were the same as were followed in the special studies. The making of tliis study therefore served a double purpose; it gave practice, and afforded information which assisted greatlv in deciding how to meet the requirements of the special studies that were to follow. In making the studies in which the cost and nutritive value were regulated, it was necessary to select a favorable time, to stud}^ the markets in advance, and to pay attention to other points, as explained in the following paragraphs: Date. — The first thing to be determined in each case was the most favorable time for Ijeginning the study and the length of time it was to continue. Obviously, in a locality where the cost of o-^g^., fresh fruit, etc., changes so often, it is necessary, if the expenditure is limited, to consider the seasons carefully before making out in advance a menu for a diet of definite cost. Price listx of local food supply. — The dates having been fixed, those in charge of the work consulted their dealers, to learn in advance as nearly as possible the cost of foods at the times decided upon. The result of these inquiries was a full price list upon which the ))ill of fare could safely be based. Planning the menu. — The planning of the menu was the next step. Guided by the cost of food as already ascertained, the workers arranged a programme for meals which conformed as well as possible, 10 under the circumstances, to the following- requirements: (1) proper proportions of initrients and energ}-; (2) adequate quantities of food materials; (3) wholesome combinations; (4) acceptable dishes; and (5) econom}'. That is, the persons in charge endeavored not only to approach the scientific standard of a properly balanced dietary, but also to recognize all normal healthy tastes of the school family, so far as possible, while at the same time keeping within the financial bounds of the experiment. With the proposed menu as a foundation, the cook and the cook books were consulted to learn what amounts of the different raw materials would be required. This done, a set of tables was made out, giving the cost and nutritive value of such a bill of fare. These tables, together with the menus for the experiment, were called, for convenience, the "tentative dietary." The reason for working out this "tentative'' statement in such detail was to discover, ])efore it was too late, whether or not the menu decided upon could be given to the family at the price allowed for the experiment; and whether, if the estimated (piantities w^ere fully or nearly consumed, the person eating the food would receive an adequate and properly balanced diet. The "tentative dietary'' Avas criticised and altered before each experiment, as the financial or nutritive needs of the case demanded. The revised and improved "tentative"' was then called the "estimated dietary." Care was always taken to have the latter furnish approximately tM) grams of protein and 2,4:50 calories of energj^ per woman per day in accordance with the commonly accepted American dietary standard for a woman at light muscular w^oi'k. Marl:eting. — Data for the marketing lists were then gathered from the column of "amounts" in the "estimated" tables, and the market- ing for the experiment was done. In most cases, those having charge of the dietaries confined themselves to shops regularly patronized ])y the school. In the experiment with the IT-cent diet, however, some shops carrying cheaper goods were visited in order to secure the needed foods at lower prices. Weighing. — It w^as found desirable in weighing uncooked food to learn the weight of each receptacle when empty and to label it accordingly. Those having covers were always weighed without them to avoid inaccuracies in case the covers should ever be exchanged. The day before beginning the experiment it was the custom to weigh all the staples on hand which were required for the entire period. The more perishable food staffs, which were obtained only as needed, were weighed from day to day as soon as they were received from the shops. Account of these weights was kept in a notebook prepared before- hand, which contained a classified list of edibles to be used in the work. Saflicient space was left under each heading for the entries in all experiments. 11 . After each meal the "left overs'" of any sort were weighed and the weights recorded. The quantities were usually too small to appear again upon the school family table. When this was the case the food was later used by the emplo\"ees. This made for the experimenters a complication peculiar to establishments where two distinct tables are supplied. It was necessary to calculate from the recipes of all " made dishes ■" the exact amount of each ingredient in the material not consumed, and deduct it from the quantities originalh' set aside for the dietary. Wa,'^te. — During some of the experiments, the amount of waste and refuse was weighed and recorded. In these cases the amounts of kitchen waste, consisting of such articles as potato parings, coffee grounds and the like, were recorded after each meal. At the same time account was kept of the kinds and amounts of uneaten fragments left upon the plates at table. When the study w^as over an inventory was taken of raw materials which had not been used. The amounts on hand, like the ingredients of the "left overs," were deducted from the weights recorded at the beginning or purchased during the study. From this result the amount of waste might be subtracted, in which case the figures obtained would represent food actually eaten. Coinputdtlon of rtmdts. — On the basis of the real, as distinguished from the " estimated ^ weights, new tables were made out, showing the cost and nutritive value of what had been consumed. These tables constitute what we called the "actual" or "final" dietary, and in a condensed form thej^ are given beyond. None of the food materials from these studies was analyzed. The composition of all materials used was assumed to be the same as that of the average values for similar materials recorded in a previous publication of the Office of Experiment Stations," except in a few cases in which analyses were taken from an unpublished compilation. The values used in computing the results of the studies are given in Table 21) of the Appendix. The reference numbers in the first column of this table correspond with those in parentheses following the weight and cost of the food materials in the table for each study, and thus indicate the composition assumed for each material. The fuel value of the materials was computed by use of the folio wmg factors : For pro- tein and carbohydrates 4 calories per gram, and for fat 8.9 calories. DIETARY UNDER USUAL, CONDITIONS (No. la). The study began November 7, 1901, and lasted fourteen days. The members of the family wbo were eating the regular food, and could therefore be considered in all experiments, were three teachers and «U. 8. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 28, revised. 12 twelve students, a group of fifteen women. All of these were in good health. The average weight of these persons was approximate!}- 125 pounds each. There were a few absences during the period of two weeks, and an occasional guest came to the table; but an accurate account was kept of the whole number of meals served, which was 632, equivalent to 1 woman for 211 days. The bill of fare for the fourteen days follows: Daily menu. THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 7. Breakfnfit..— Fresh fruit, wheat l>reakfast food,« bacon, creamed potatoes, morning- side rolls. Luncheu)t.— Baked beans and tomato soup, creamed dried beef, rice croquettes, dates and peanuts. lyinrK'r.—^nmp steak, spaghetti and cheese, escalloped tomato, lettuce and radish salad, cheese wafers, Kebecca pudding with boiled custard. FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 8. Brcal-fast.— Fresh fruit, wheat breakfast food, creamed eggs, fried potatoes, gra- ham nmffins. Xttnc/ieon.— Escalloped oysters, cabbage salad, samp, baked apples, cookies, Rus- sian tea. X);»,u'r.— Clear beef-stock soui), baked halibut with tomato sauce, mashed potatoes, baked Hubbard squash, chocolate ice cream. SATURDAY, NOVEMBER 9. BreakfoM.— Fresh fruit, wheat breakfast food, codfish hash, wheat rolls. Luncheon.— Meat pie (rump), spaghetti with cheese, lettuce salad, gingerbread, cream cheese, Russian tea. X>;h»(t.— Clear stock souj), braised beef, mashed potatoes, fried parsnips, cranberry jelly, Norwegian prune pudding, cream sauce. SUNDAY, NOVEMBER 10. Breakfast.— Fresh fruit, shredded-wheat biscuit, Boston brown bread, leaked beans. X)j,m<;r.— Braised fowl, sweet potatoes, turnips, cranberry jelly, lettuce and radish salad, cheese wafers, brown bread, ice cream. Sapper.— Yegetah\e salad, bread and butter, cocoa, preserved peaches, Newport cakes. MONDAY, NOVEMBER 11. Breakfast.— Fresh fruit, wheat breakfast food, corn bread, corned-beef hash. Luncheon.— Clear chicken soup, beef stew, baked potatoes, celery, ri<« pudding with cream. Dinner.— BoWed leg of mutton with egg sauce, mashed potatoes, beans, lettuce salad, cheese wafers, hickory nuts, raisins, coffee. TUESDAY, NOVEMBER 12. Breakfast.— Fresh fruit, rolled-oat breakfast food, dropped eggs on toast, graham muffins. Lnncheon.— Cold roast beef, crab-apple jelly, samp, lettuce salad, baked indian pudding with cream, Russian tea. Dinner.— Clear stock soup, baked ham, mashed potatoes, spinadi, lemon sherbet. a Different kinds were used during the study to give variety. 13 WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER 13. Breakfast. — Fresh fruit, wheat breakfast food, bacon, leaked potatoes, hot rolls. Luncheon. — Escalloped mutton, Saratoga potatoes, celery, chocolate, bread pudding with hard sauce. Dinner. — Roast rump, browned potatoes, succotash, grape jelly, lettuce salad, cheese wafers, coffee jelly with cream, sugar cookies. THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 14. Breakfad.—Yresh fruit, shredded-wheat biscuit, sausage, brewis, graham rolls. Luncheon. — Baked beans and tomato soup, cold sliced ham, Spanish pickle, spaghetti with cheese, baked apples, Russian tea. Dmner.— Cream of Lima bean soup, toasted Boston crackers, rump steak, mashed potatoes, peas, barberry jelly, tapioca cream. FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 15. Breakfast. — Fresh fruit, wheat breakfast food, codfish balls, hot rolls. Luncheon. — Finnan haddie, baked potatoes, celery, apple pie, cheese, Russian tea. Dinner. — Cream of clam chowder, escalloped fish, baked sweet potatoes, parsnip cakes, celery, steamed apple pudding with foam sauce. SATURDAY, NOVEMBER 16. Breakfast. — Fresh fruit, wheat breakfast food, creamed dried beef, fried potatoes, corn bread. Luncheon. — Cold sliced rump beef, samp, lettuce salad, hot ginge iread, cream cheese, Russian tea. Dinner. — Clear stock soup, corned beef, boiled jiotatoes, boiled cabbage, creamed carrots, lemon jelly. SUNDAY, NOVEMBER 17. Breakfast. — Shredded-wheat biscuit, Boston baked beans, brown bread, doughnuts. Dinner. — Split-pea soup, braised fowl, mashed potatoes, baked squash, cranberry jelly, frozen fig pudding, coffee. Supper. — Creamed oysters, bread and Initter, cocoa, Newport cakes. MONDAY, NOVEMBER 18. i?r-mA;/Vf.s/.^Fresh fruit, wheat breakfast food, corned-))eef hash, popovers. Luncheon. — Escalloped fowl, Saratoga potatoes, cabbage and celery salad, cupcakes, Russian tea. Dinner. — Braised beef, browned potatoes, salsify, Spanish pickle, vegetable salad, cheese wafers, Irish moss l)lanc mange with cream, orange marmalade. TUESDAY, NOVEMBER 19. Breakfast. — Fresh fruit, wheat breakfast food, scrambled eggs with choi>ped ham, Boston brown l)read. Luncheon. — Meat pie (rump beef), samp, pickled beets, junket pudding, sugar cookies, Russian tea. Dinner. — Clear stock soup, boiled leg of mutton with caper sauce, escalloped onions, browned sweet potatoes, tapioca pudding with cream. WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER 20. Breakfast. — Fresh fruit, rolled-oat breakfast food, bacon, baked potatoes, wheat muffins. 14 Luncheon. — Casseroles of mutton and rice, tomato sauce, Saratoga potatoes, celery, pumpkin pie, cheese. Z)/H?(Y'r.— Rump steak with horseradish sauce, mashed potatoes, escalloped tomatoes, watercress salad, cheese wafers, coffee jelly with Avhipped cream. The choice of coffee, cocoa, or milk was o-iyen each morning at breakfast. Heavy cream was always furnished with coffee in the morning, and thin cream was supplied for the cereal. When not other- wise specified in the menus, thin cream was served with dessert. French dressing was served in all cases with the salads mentioned above. The fresh fruit served at breakfast was always either apples, pears, grapes, or bananas. Cold bread, either wheat or graham, while not mentioned in the menus, was furnished three times a day to those who desired it. Butter was served at l»reakfast and luncheon, but not at dinner. Accordino- to the usual custom of the house, an 11 o'clock luncheon of crackers and milk was offered 5 days in the week. These luncheons do not appear in the menu, l)ut the amounts of food eaten have been taken account of in the tallies with the other materials. The cost of the diet in this study was based upon wholesale rates, at which most of the food stuffs used at the school were bought. In addition to the food materials purchased, the beverages and condiments, as coffee, pepper, salt, etc., used during the whole study cost $3.55, or 1.7 cents per woman per day. The details of the study follow. Table 1. — Weights and ro.s/ of food and nutrient.^ in dietary Mndy No. la. \ Food consumed during the entire study (14 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per woman per day. Kinds and amounts. Cost. Cost. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Rump roast, 33.53 pounds, $4.52 (13); shin, 7.75 pounds, 39 cents (I'V, steak, rump, 14.09 pounds, SI .90 (31); corned beef, 6..s8 pounds, 83 cents (2); dried beef, 3.92 pounds, 90 cents (4); soup slock, 2.08 pounds (22); suet, 0.38 pound, 2 cents (35). Mutton, leg, 1.72 pounds, '*3 cents (48) Dollars. 8.79 2.18 3.13 2.97 1.54 4.32 5.99 8.24 .69 Cents. 4.2 1.0 1.5 1.4 . 7 2.0 2.8 3.9 .3 Grams. 21 5 7 6 5 1 16 1 1 Grains. 27 17 6 1 3 9 19 ■ 58 2 Grams. Calories. :«4 Pork: Fresh, 2.17 pounds, 28 cents (59); salt pork, 2.46 pounds, 15 cents (64); bacon, 0.97 pound, 14 cents (56); ham, 9.33 pounds, S1.21 (60); sausage, 3.13 pounds, 38 cents (66); lard, ft 1>i T^omirl O fpnts iiV^\ 171 81 Fish: Cod, salt, 1.88 pounds, 24 cents (80); had- dock, 2.25 pounds, 14 cents (84); halibut, 1.67 pounds, 36 cents (85); clams, 3.73 pounds, 3(5 cents(78); oysters, 8.38 pounds, ei.42 (93); Fin- nnn Viiidiii*"^ 5 5(i 'noiinrls 45 ccllts f 83) - 1 37 TTrro-a Ifi A1 T\c\^^t^f\ii All ^ MO^^ 47 Cream: Thin, 13.46 pounds, SI. .56 (113); heavy, Q 5Q nniinds S;''7fi(n3^ 2 24 92 Milk 2''1 63 Dounds S5 99 (114) 329 "nnftor ^1 10 T-iminrlc 'ffi'^ ''>J. Mflfi^ 520 Cheese; Pale, 1.56 pounds, 23 cents (108); full 22 Total animal food 37. 85 17.8 63 1 142 27 1,623 15 Table 1. — Weights and cod of food and nntrlenii in dieiari/ study No. la — Continued. Food consumed fiuring the entire study (14 days). Kinds and iimounts. Cost. Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per woman per day. vegetabIjE food. Cereals: Corn meal, yellow, 2.97 pounds, 8 cents (119) ; oat breakfast food, 1.52 pounds, 9 cents (129) ; samp, 1.84 pounds, 6 cents (134); wheat breakfast food, 3.65 pounds, 29 cents (137); shredded wheat, 0.45 pound, 6 cents (143); wheat breakfast food, 0.97 pound, 5 cents (136); wheat breakfast food, 0.60 pound, 7 cents (142); flour, bread, 45.41 pounds, SI (122); flour, pastry, 2.66 pounds, 7 cents (125); flour, entire wheat, 3.39 pounds, 14 cents (123); bread, graham, 0.91 pound. 3 cents (145) : bread, wheat, 8.55 pounds, 25 cents (147) ; bread, Boston brown, 0.72 pound, 1 cent (144); rolls, 0.28 pound, 1 cent (160); crackers, Bos- ton, 2.70 pounds, 22 cents (154); wafers, salt- ed, 2.48 pounds, .53 cents (161); cookies, sugar, 0.31 pound, 3 cents (152); spaghetti, 1.34 pounds, 13 cents (135) Sugars, starches, and oils: Sugar, brown, 0.20 pound, 1 cent (162); .sugar, cut loaf, 9.36 pounds, 62 cents (163); sugar, granulated, 24.86 pounds, SI. 36 (163); sugar, powdered, 1.02 pounds, 6 cents (163); mola.sses, dark, 9.73 pounds, 20 cents (165); oil, cotton-seed, 0.50 pound, 5 cents (170); oil, olive, 1.73 pounds, 36 cents (171); cornstarch, 0.s6 pound, 7 cents (172); tapioca, 0.54 pound, 2 cents (173); Irish moss, 0.31 pound (169); chocolate, 0.67 pound 19 cents (167); cocoa, 0.73 pound, 33 cents (168) Vegetables: Beans, Lima, 0.22 pound, 2 cents (176); beans, pea, 1.65 pounds, 16 cents (177); beans, string (canned), 4.83 pounds, 77 cents (179); cabbage, 3.08 pounds, 10 cents (181); carrots, 3.81 pounds, 16 cents (182); celery, 17.66 pounds, S1.13 (183); lettuce, 6.88 pounds, 70 cents (187); onions, 2. .59 pounds, 9 cents (189); oyster plant, 2.31 pounds, 20 cents (191); parsnips, 4. .59 pounds, 22 cents (191); peas, canned, 6..5t pounds, 63 cents (192); peas, ■split, 1.09 pounds, 6 cents (195); potatoes, 83.34 pounds, S1.21 (196); potato chips, 1.31 pounds, 38 cents (197); pumpkins, 8 pounds, 20 cents (199); radishes, 1..54 pounds, 20 cents (200); .spinach, 1.25 pounds, 15 cents (206) ; succotash, canned, 2.28 pounds, 18 cents (208); squa.sh, 9.50 pounds, 27 cents (207); potatoes, sweet, 17.48 pounds, 28 cents (198) ; tomatoes, canned, 10.72 pounds, S1.33 (209); watercress, 0.73 pound, 10 cents (213) Fruits, etc.: Apples, 23.25 pounds, 81 cents (214); apricots, dried, 1.69 pounds, 32 cents (217); bananas, 11. .S3 pounds, 75 cents (218); dates. 3.04 pounds, 20 cents (230); figs, 0.85 pound, 14 cents (231); grapes, Catawba, 13.27 pounds, S1.40 (232) ; lemons, 6.38 pounds, 40 cents (236); peaches, canned, 2.41 pounds, 19 cents (239); pears, 3.33 poiuids, 27 cents (241) ; prunes, 5.17 pounds, 47 cents (247); raisins, for cooking, 0.35 pound, 3 cents (248); raisins, for table, 0.89 pound, 30 cents (248): jelly, barberry, 1.14 pounds, 9 cents (219); jelly, crabapple, 1.14 pounds, 9 cents (226): jelly, cranberry, 7.31 pounds, 47 cents (228) ; jelly, grape, 1.48 pounds, 12 cents (233); marmalade, orange. 0.91 pound, 12 cents (2:37) ; nuts, hickory, 2.38 pounds, 24 cents (2-53); English walnuts, 0.44 pound, 18 cents (256); peanuts, 0.97 pound, 6 cents (2.54) Dollars. Total vegetable food. Total food. Beverages, condiments, etc. 3.11 Cost. Cents. 1.5 Protein, Grams. 19 Fat. Grams. Carbo- hydrates. Grams. Fuel value. Calories. 3.27 1.5 8. 54 6.65 128 615 95 4.0 3.3 21.57 59.42 3.55 10.3 28.1 1.7 30 93 437 49 246 .50 14 156 322 349 235 1, .533 3,156 16 The kitchen and table waste were not weighed during the period of this study, but the nutritive values of the foods were calculated from the average composition of the foods as purchased, which makes allow- ance for portions which are really not edible. Presumably, then, th6 figures given above stand for material which might have been con- sumed entirely if the family had so desired. It will be noticed that both loaves of bread and bread Hour are men- tioned. The bread was almost entirely homemade and was on hand ready for use before the observations liegan. Therefore the bread is estimated as such, rather than reduced to terms of raw materials. As the loaves were not sufficient in number to last through the whole period, flour and other ingredients were weighed in bulk for the remainder of the time and were taken account of accordingly. DIETARY OF MEDIUM COST (No. 2a). The experiment with a diet of medium cost, namely, about 2.5 cents, covered one week only, lasting from Jamiary 1) to 1.5, inclusive. The circumstances were the same as in the preceding case, save that the family numbered only 11 women. The total number of meals eaten was 298, equivalent to 1 woman for 99 days. The menus for the entire study follow: Daily menu. THURSDAY, JANUARY 9. Breakfast.— Wheat breakfast food," bacon, creamed potatoes, wheat bread. Ltmcheon.—F\nn-dn liaddie, boiled samp, lettuce salad, gingerbread, full-cream cheese, Russian tea. Dinner. — Clear turkey-stock soup, roast nmtton, escalloped onions, roasted pota- toes, apricot ice. FRIDAY, JANUARY 10. Breakfa.^t.— Oranges, shredded-wheat biscuit, creamed codfish, baked p()tat(jes, entire-wheat muffins. LuncJu'oii.—Beei loaf, creamed spaghetti, stewed i)runes, toasted Boston crackers, Russian tea. JMnner.— Baked haddock, egg sauce, mashed potatoes, creamed carrots and canned peas, lettuce salad, salted wafers, apple pie, pale American cheese. SATURDAY, JANUARY 11. Breakfast.— Orauiieti, rolled-oat breakfast food, Finland bloaters, creamed toast, graham nuiffins. Luncheon.— ^ice and mutton croquettes, escalloped macaroni and tomato, pop-c(.)rn brittle, Russian tea. Di»/if/-.— Split-pea soup, foast veal, Saratoga potatoes, creamed salsify, farina pud- ding with thin cream. "Different kinds were used during the study to give variety. 17 SUNDAY, JANUARY 12. Breakfast. — Oranges, wheat breakfast food, Boston baked beans, Boston ])ro\vn bread. Dinner. — Clear beef-stock soup, roast fowl, dressing, gravy, boiled rice, lettuce salad, frozen-fig pudding, coffee. Supper. — Creamed veal on toast, bread and butter sandwiches, Norwegian apple pudding with thin cream, cocoa. MONDAY, .lANUARV 13. Breakfast. — Oranges, wheat breakfast food, codfish balls, corn bread. Luncheon. — Clam chowder, baked beans and lettuce salad, hot wheat rolls, coffee jelly with thin cream, Russian tea. Dinner. — Clear chicken soup, roast beef rump, creamed lima beans, roasted pota- toes, sliced oranges and bananas, sugar cookies. TUESDAY, JANUARY 14. Breakfast. — Bananas, corn-meal mush, creamed dried beef, wheat muffins. Luncheon. — Escalloped fowl and spaghetti, baked mashed potatoes, hot wheat rolls, German fried toast with foam sauce. Dinner. — Baked beans and tomato soup, meat pie (made from rump roast), roasted sweet potatoes, lemon sherbet, sugar cookies. WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 15. Breakfast. — Oranges, rolled-oat breakfast food, creamed hard-ljoiled eggs on toast, entire-wheat raised biscuit. Luncheon. — Cream of lima-bean souj), pork sausages, steamed brown bread, dates and peanuts. Dinner. — Clear beef-stock soup, beefsteak (rump), boiled samp, escalloped tomato, Spanish pickle, lettuce salad, tapioca cream. The 11 o'clock luncheon of crackers and milk, served to any who desired it, has been included in the estimate of cost and food values- given beyond, though not mentioned in the menu. At breakfast milk, cocoa, and coffee were served, and one of the three was taken by each member of the famil3\ Heavy cream was used with coffee every morning, but at Sunday dinner sugar only was furnished and the coffee was served in small cups. Thin cream was always supplied with the breakfast cereal. When no substitute is mentioned it is under- stood that cold graham or wheat bread was served at each meal. At breakfast and luncheon butter was served with the bread, but never at dinner. When oranges were served at breakfast, half an orange was given to each person. When bananas were on the morning bill of fare, one was served each member of the family. French dressing always accompanied lettuce. It was estimated that the diet provided according to the above menus would furnish on an average per woman per day 98 grams of protein, 123 grams of fat, and 318 grams of carbohydrates, and would have a fuel value of 2,8T8 calories. The estimated cost of the diet (including food accessories), based upon wholesale prices, was 24.8 cents per woman per day. The details of the study follow. 25580— No. 129—03 2 18 Table 2. — Weights and cost of food and nutrients in didarij dudij No. 2a. Food consumed during the entire study (7 days). Kinds and amounts. Cost. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Rump roast, 7.38 pounds, 99 cents (15); rump steak, 3.78 pounds, 51 cents (30); soup bones, 12.04 pounds (21); soup stock, 5.81 pounds (22). liamburg steak, 3.06 pounds, 30 cents (25); dried beef, 0.72 pound. 20 cents (1); gelatin, 0.13 pound, 19 cents (6). Veal, loin, 12.76 pounds, 81.66 (41). Mutton, leg, 9.57 pounds, $1.29 (48) Pork: Bacon, 0.87 pound, 12 cents (55); saltpork, 0.25 pound (65); sausage, 2.66 pounds, 32 cents, (66); lard, 1.33 pounds, 15 cents (62) Poultrv: Fowl, 9.69 pounds, S1.45 (76) Fish : Finland bloaters, 4.76 pounds, 15 cents (82 ) ; haddock, 4.13 pounds, 33 cents (84); salt cod, 1.13 pounds, 15 cents (80); clams (edible por- tion), 2 pounds, 40 cents (78) 1. 03 Eggs, 5.95 pounds, S1.28 (105) 1.28 Butter, 10.31 pounds, $2.61 (IOC)) 2. 61 Milk, 65.53 pounds, SI. 78 (114) 1.78 Cream: Thin, 11 pounds, 88 cents (113); heavy, 3.56 pounds, $1.05 (113) 1.93 Chee-se: Full cream, 0.26 pound, 19 cents (HI); pale American, 0.25 pound, 4 cents (108) 23 Dollars. 5.14 .61 1.45 Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per woman per day. Cost. Cents. Total animal food 16. 06 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Shredded wheat, 0.60 pound, 8 cents (143); rolled oats, 0.63 pound, 4 cents (131); wheat breakfast food, 0.39 pound, 2 cents ( 136) ; wheat breakfast food, 0.43 pound, 4 cents (137); wheat breakfast food, 0.35 pound, 2 cents (138) ; rice, 0.97 pound, 2cents (i;^3) ; flour, bread, 19.39 pounds, 42 cents (122) ; flour, pastry , 1.63 pounds, 5 cents (125) ; flour, graham, 0.85 pound, 2 cents (124); flour, entire wheat, 0.50 pound, 2 cents (123); bread, 5.33 pounds, 21 cents (147); rolls, 0.28 pound, 1 cent (159); cookies, sugar, 0.26 pound, 2 cents (152); crackers, Boston, 1.14 pounds, 9 cents (154); wafers, salted, 0.26 pound, 6 cents (161); macaroni, 0.16 pound, 2 cents (127); samp, 0.76 pound, 2 cents (134); spaghetti, 1.10 pounds, 11 cents (135); popcorn, 0.99 pound, 20 cents (132) Sugars, starches, and oils: Sugar, cut loaf, 4.57 pounds, 30 cents (163) ; sugar, granulated, 13.37 pounds, 73 cents (163); sugar, powdered, 0.33 pound, 2 cents (163); molasses, dark, 2.31 pounds, 4 cents (165) ; cocoa, 0.24 pound, 9 cents (168); oil, cotton-seed, 0.11 pound, 1 cent (170); oil, olive, 1.16 pounds, 30 cents (170); tapioca, 0.24 pound, 1 cent (173) Vegetables: Beans, pea, 0.61 pound, 6 cents (177); beans, lima, 1.24 pounds, 10 cents (176); car- rots, 1.98 pounds, 4 cents (182); lettuce, 2.08 pounds, 30 cents (187); onions, 1.44 pounds, 5 cents (189); peas, canned, 1.10 pounds, 11 cents (192) ; Saratoga potatoes, 0.49 pound, 14 cents (197); potatoes, sweet, 4.55 pounds, 22 cents (198); potatoes, 33.81 pounds, 54 cents (196); salsify, 2.08 pounds, 20 cents (203); tomatoes, 6.31 pounds, 39 cents (211) Fruits, nuts, etc.: Apples, 9.49 pounds, 27 cents (214); apricots, 0.72 pound, 14 cents, (216); bananas, 3.75 pounds, 20 cents (218); dates, 1.68 pounds, 11 cents, (2:30); rigs. 0.25 pound, 4 cents (231); lemons, 2.25 pounds, 22 cents (236); oranges, 11.70 pounds, 43 cents (238); prunes, 1.24 pounds, 11 cents (247); peanuts, 0.78 pound, 5 cents (254); English walnuts, 0.25 pound, 10 cents (256) 1.47 1.50 2.15 1.67 Total vegetable food . Total food 6.79 22. 85 Beverages, condiments, etc. 0.44 5.2 1.0 1.3 2.7 l.S 1.9 Protein. Fat. Grams. 16.2 1.5 1.5 1.7 6.9 23.1 0.4 36 3 0. 10 0.5 Grams. 25 15 6 2 3 41 13 12 Carbo- hydrates. Grams. Fuel value. Calories. 15 67 18 27 118 18 367 142 77 50 39 367 216 123 11 119 1,392 575 93 13 94 131 38 21 271 289 429 194 110 1,308 2,700 19 In this study the amount of material rejected in the kitchen and at the table was determined and found to be 15 per cent of the total food purchased. But inasmuch as no distinction was made between refuse, that is, inedible material, and waste, that is, material that could have been eaten but was rejected, no correction for this material has been made in the figures as given in the tables. According- to the final results in the table above, the foods used con- tained 1 grams less protein, 8 grams more fat, and 59 grams less carbo- hydrates, and furnished 179 calories less per woman per da}^ than was estimated before the experiment began. DIETARY OF LOW COST (No. 3a). The low-cost diet, which was estimated to furnish food at about 17 cents per woman per day, covered only three days, namely, March 12 to 14, inclusive. The average number of persons at the table was 15, and the total number of meals served 137, equivalent to 1 woman for 46 days. The menus for the three days were as follows: Daily menu. WEDNESDAY, MARCH 12. Breakfast. — Shredded-wlieat Inscuit, sausages, hominy cakes with lemon sirup, corn bread. Luncheon. — Codfish loaf with parsley sauce, baked i^otatoes, stewed prunes, gra- ham rolls. jD»»4£/'.— Split-pea soup, shoulder of mutton (roasted and stuffed), gravy, boiled samp, escalloped tomatoes, graham bread, lemon sherbet. THURSDAY, MARCH 13. Breakfast. — Wheat breakfast food, smelts, creamed toast, graham muffins. Luncheon. — Clear mutton stock soup, beef loaf with brown sauce, steamed brown bread, dates and peanuts. Dinner.— Beef stew and dumplings, creamed lima beans, boiled rice, sliced bananas dressed with lemon juice and powdered sugar. FRIDAY, MARCH 14. I Breakfast. — Rolled-oat breakfast food, creamed codfish, fried commeal mush, but- tered toast. Luncheon. — Baked beans and tomato soup, macaroni with cheese, German potato salad, wheat rolls, hot gingerbread, Russian tea. Dinner. — Clear beef stock soup, escalloped haddock, lettuce salad, sweet potato browned in sugar sirup, steamed suet pudding (with dates) and lemon sauce. The 11 o'clock luncheon of crackers and milk was offered, as usual, to those who cared to take it, and forms part of the amounts that are included in the tables. The choice of cocoa, coffee, or milk was given each morning at breakfast. The cocoa was made with whole milk, and thin rather 20 than heavy cream was furnished with the coffee, the top of the milk being frequently used, as milk was bought in large quantities. This accounts for the small amount of thin cream recorded in the tables. Whole milk instead of cream was used with the cereals at breakfast, and sugar was always supplied with cereals and hot beverages. When no substitute is mentioned cold wheat or graham bread was served at each meal as usual. Butter was always served at breakfast and luncheon, but not at dinner. Chicken fat was sometimes used instead of ])utter in cooking. Lettuce was dressed, as usual, with seasoned olive oil and vinegar. It was estimated that the diet according to the menus proposed would furnish 80 grams of protein, 126 grams of fat, and 348 grams of cari)ohydrates per woman per day, and have a fuel value of 2,833 calories of energy. The details of the study are given below. Table 3. — Weights and cost of food and nutrients in, dietary study No. Sa. Food consumed duriiiK the untire study (3 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel woman per value of food per day. Kinds and amounts. Cost. Cost. Protein. „ . Carbo- **'^- hydrates. Fuel value. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Round, lower, 3.25 pounds. 33 cents (29); hamburg steak, 3 pounds, 33 cents (25); .soup stock, 16 pounds (22); suet, 0.22 pound, 1 cent (35). Mutton, shoulder, 8.75 pounds, 70 cents (52) .. . Dollars. Centa. 3.0 Grains. 35 2 Grti7ns. 21 7 4 (iraiii.'i. Cnhjrics. 354 Pork: Sausage, 1.25 pounds, 18 cents (66) ; lard, 0 18 pound, 1 cent (62) .19 1 .4 70 I'nnltrv Ohir*kpn fjit (1 44 riound {1'^\ 36 Fi.sh: Cod, salt, 1.S4 poinids, 24 cents (80); had- dock, 3.06 pounds, 27 cents (84); smelts, 2 . 95 2. 1 .15 .3 1.07 2.4 .87 2.0 05 1 S 1 32 1?crcrG 1 Ofi nr»nn(i« IfSpfiit"^ HOiS^ 1 34 13 1 13 Butter, 3.93 pounds, $1.07 (106) Milk 31 72 nounds 87 cents (114) 303 11 16 224 9 Cheese, pale American, 0.16 pound, 2 cents (108) . .02 Total animal food 4. 64 10. 3 57 84 16 1,041 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Rice, 0.86 pound, 7 cents (133); corn meal, 1.70 pounds, 5 cents (119); rolled oats, 0.47 pound, 3 cents (131); hominy, 0.42 pound, 1 cent (126); wheat breakfast food, 0.39 pound, 2 cents (138); shredded wheat, 0.58 pound, 7 cents (143); flour, bread, 1.74 pounds, 3 cents (122); flour, graham, 1.48 pounds, 6 cents (124); flour, entire wheat, 0.83 pound, 3 cents (123); bread, wheat, 6.85 pounds, 20 cents (147); samp. 0.60 pound. 2 cents (134); spaghetti, 0.50 nound ,5cents(1351 .64 .54 1.03 1.4 1.2 2.3 11 1 8 2 3 2 72 106 38 350 Sugars, starches, and oils: Sugar, cut loaf, 0.72 pound, 6 cents (163); sugar, granulated, 7.32 pounds, 33 cents (163) ; sugar, powdered, 0.28 pound,l cent (163); molasses,dark, 2.20 pounds, and molasses, light, 0.89 pound, 5 cent.s (165); cocoa, 0.08 pound, 2 cents (168); oil, olive, 0.28 455 Vegetables: Beans, pea, 1.03 pounds, 7 cents (177); beans, lima, 1.20 pounds, 8 cents (176); carrots, 0.26 pound, 1 cent (182); celery, 0.72 pound, 9 cents (183); lettuce, 0.89 pound, 7 cents (187); onions, 0.14 pound, 1 cent (189); parslev, 1 cent: peas, split, 0.44 pound, 1 cent (195); "potatoes, sweet, 1.26 pounds, 10 cents (19.S); potatoes, white, 10.18 pounds, 16 cents (196); tomatoes, canned, 6.75 pounds, 38 cents (209) ; turnips, 0.88 pound, 4 cents (212) 202 21 Table 3. — Weights and cost of food and nntrictits in diefart/ stndi/ No. 3a — Continued. Food consumed during the entire study (3 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per woman per day. Kinds and amounts. Cost. Cost. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. VEGETABLE FOOD — Continued. Fruits, nuts, etc.: Bananas, 4 pounds, 19 cents (218); dates, 2 pounds, 10 cents (230); lem- ons, 1.69 pounds, 9 cents (236); prunes, 1.50 pounds, 7 cunts (247); peanuts, 0.66 pound, 4 cents (254) Dollars. 0.-19 Cents. 1.1 Gram.''. 2 Grains. 3 Grams. 25 Calories. 135 Total vegetal)le food 2.70 6.0 22 10 241 1,142 Total food 7.34 16.3 79 94 257 2, 1.S3 Beverages, condiments, etc .27 .6 In this experiment the amount of materials rejected in the l^itchen and at the tal)le was 11 per cent of the total food ])urchased; but as it includes botli refuse and waste, no deduction can be made for amounts of nutrients wasted. The food actually supplied during this period furnished practically just the amount of protein, but less than the amounts of the other food elements and energ^j estimated for the proposed menu. DIETARY OF HIGH COST (No. 4a). The most expensive of the four diets, costing 53 cents per person per day, was supplied in a study which covered three days, namely, April 30 to Ma}^ 2, inclusive. It was especially desired in this case to observe the kind of food for which the unhampered purchaser natu- rally spends the most money, to discover which of the three nutritive elements, if any, would be used in excess under the circumstances, and to compare the percentage of waste with that observed in the other dietaries of lower cost. The menus for the three davs were as follows: Daily menu. WEDNESDAY, APRIL 30. Breakfast. — Strawberries, shredded-wheat liiscuit, broiled bhiefish, i^otati) balls with parsley dressing, popovers. Luncheon. — Fricasseed oysters in eroustades, stuffed potatoes, peas, Roman lettuce salad with full cream cheese, coffee. Dinner. — Clear barley soup, braised fowl with nuishroom sauce, boiled rice, aspar- agus, lettuce salad, cheese wafers, orange bomb glace, angel cake. THURSDAY, MAV 1. Breahfad. — Oranges, rolled-oat l)reakfast food, eggs poached in cream (served on toast), white corn bread. 22 Luncheon. — Cream of corn soup with popcorn, salmon creams with sauce hollan- flaise, i)otato roses, hot graham rolls, strawberry' queen of puddings with thin cream. Dinner. — Victoria (chicken soup), broiled shad roe with maitre d'hotel sauce, horseradish sandwiches, roast beef (rump), Yorkshire pudding, roasted potatoes, creamed turnips, June fruit salad, Camembert cheese canapes, coffee. FRIDAY, MAY 2. Breakfast. — Grape fruit, wheat breakfast food, rump steak (garnished with \\ater cress), baked potatoes, buttered toast, oi'ange marmalade. Lunchi'un. — Cream of asparagus soup, ragout of duck, lettuce and orange salad, brown bread sandwiches filled with cream cheese and water cress, wheat-bread sand- wiches filled with cucumbers dressed with maitre d'hotel butter, caramel charlotte russe. Dinner. — Clear tomato soup, broiled mackerel garnished with lemon and parsley, cucumbers with French dressing, potatoes with maitre d'hotel dressing, spinach on toast, chicory salad, cheese croquettes, tutti-frutti ice cream, coffee. Heavy cream was served with coffee in the inorning. Thin cream was furnished with cereals and with strawberries at bi'eakfast, and was used for poaching the eg-gs. At 11 o'clock a luncheon of milk and crackers not mentioned in the menus was served, and the amounts eaten have been included in the tables. Butter was served at table in the morning and at noon, and was freely used in cooking. When no substitute is mentioned white or graham bread was served at each meal. Plain salads were dressed with seasoned olive oil and vinegar. The nutritive value of the proposed menu was calculated as usual, but these figures are omitted, as the memi actually served differed very material!}' from the one on which the calculations were based. The details of the study follow. Table 4. — Weights and rod of food and mitrienti^ hi dietary sttndy Xo. 4n- Food consumed during- whole study (3 days). Kinds and amounts. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Roast, rump, 4.69 pounds, 71 cents (15); steak, rump, 2.7 pounds, 42 cents (30) Pork, etc.: Lard, 0.06 pound (62) Poultry: Duck, 3. 6.") pounds, 73 cents (74); fowl, 6.41 pounds, 96 cents (75) Fish: Bluefish, 2 S8 pounds, 35cents (77); mack- erel, 3.5 pounds, 64 cents (92); oysters, 3.1 pounds, 53 cents (93); .salmon, 1.63 pounds, 29 cents (95); shad roe, 1.19 pounds, .50 cents (100). Eggs, 8.13 pounds, $1.10 (105) Butter, 7.88 pounds, $2.57 (106) Cream; Heavy, 6 pounds, $1.. 50 (113); thin,3.19 pounds, 36 cents (113) Milk, 36.28 pounds, $1.16 (114) Cheese: Plain, 0.35 pound, 5 cents (108); cream, 0.58 pound, 33 cents (111); Camembert, 0.15 pound, 5 cents (109) Total animal food Cost. DuUars. 1.13 1.69 2.31 1.10 2. .57 1.86 1.16 .43 12.25 Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per woman per day. Cost. Cents. Protein. 4.0 5.5 2.6 6.1 4.4 2.8 1.0 Gravis. 12 Fat. 29.1 15 15 10 1 3 13 Grains. 15 1 17 5 8 7 18 16 91 Carbo- hydrates. Grams. 6 20 26 Fuel value. Calories. 182 9 211 109 111 6(i 192 274 48 1,202 23 Tabi-e 4. — Weights awl caM of food rown betty, cream. i>u/n6T.— Split-pea soup, veal roast, Irish pototoes, creamed onions, lettuce salad, saltines, cottage pudding, chocolate sauce. WEDNESDAY. Breakfast.— Wheat breakfast food, cream toast, bacon, baked apples, coffee, cocoa, or milk. Luncheon. — Irish stew with dumplings, fruit salad, cookies, cocoa. Z>("»»er.— Chicken soup, roast leg of mutton, potatoes, beets, Norwegian dessert. THURSDAY. Breakfast. — One-half orange, wheat breakfast food, hash, dry toast, coffee, cocoa, or milk. Luncheon. — Creamed potatoes, sausage, raised rolls, nut cake, prunelles, tea. Dinner.— Sonp, chicken and veal pie, peas, orange salad, saltines, cracker pudding, cream. FRIDAY. Breakfast.— One-halt orange, oatmeal, creamed dried beef, corn cake, coffee, cocoa, or milk. Luncheon. — Fish chowder, rice and mutton croquettes with tomato sauce, salted peanuts, dates. Dinner. — Tomato soup, baked haddock, hoUandaise sauce, mashed potatoes, lima beans, lettuce salad, saltines, suet pudding, lemon sauce. SATURDAY. Breakfa. per week for table board at the time, or very nearl}' 48 cents per person per da}^ which of course included the cost of fuel, preparation, and service, estimated to be 10.6 cents per person per da3\ Learning that it has been found possible to provide a balanced and nourishing diet for 10 cents per man per day for the raw food, they entered eagerly into an experiment with a diet to cost that amount for food materials only, the cost of preparation, etc. , to remain the same as before, making the total cost of the daily food as served 20.6 cents per person, or 22.4 cents less than their ordinary diet. There were 30 students interested in this project, and it was planned to con- tinue the investigation three days, as this would suffice to save the $20 desired. It was believed that the results of a dietary study of the family during this period would be of some value, as showing some of the possibilities of a practical application of the results of nutrition inves- tigations. The meals provided were enjoyed, and at the end of three days, although the desired sum had been saved and there was no longer this incentive, all the persons concerned were sufficiently interested in the trial to ask to have it continued three daJ^s longer when they learned that the results for sui-h a period would be of considerable more value from a scientific standpoint than those of a study carried on for three days only. The details of the investigation are given herewith. METHODS. The method of conducting the investigation was essentially the same as that usually followed. After a study of the available food supply and the cost of food in the local market, menus were prepared which it was believed would be fairly satisfactory and which would fulfill 31 32 the requirements as regards cost and nutritive value. The amounts of the various materials which it was calculated would be required during the period were then set aside to be used as needed, the plan being- to provide generously of the chief and less expensive dishes, with enough of the more expensive foods to give the needed variety. Whatever material was left at the close of the study was subtracted from the amount provided and the difference was assumed to represent the amount used. Generally speaking, the estimated amounts proved amply sufficient, but it was found necessary during the study to pur- chase some articles in addition to those planned for, and all such foods were also included in estimating the total amounts eaten. None of the foods was analyzed. The composition of all but two of the different articles was assumed from average values for similar food materials." The composition of the chocolate candy (fudge) was calculated from that of the materials used in making it, and the compo- sition of apple jelly was taken from a compilation not yet published. The assumed values for the composition of the materials eaten in this study arc included in Table 29 of the Appendix. DAILY MENUS. The menus for the different da3's covered by the study were as follows: SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 8. Breakfast. — Oatmeal and top of milk, fish cakes, toast (with a little butter) , prunes, milk and cereal coffee. Dinner. — Beef soup, croutons, beans (baked with pork), })rown bread, apricot shortcake. Supper. — Sandwiches (cheese and jelly), white and graham bread (no butter), sliced bananas, milk. SUNDAY, FEBRUARY 9. Breakfdnl. — Corn-meal nmsh and toi> of milk, baked beans, buns, milk and cereal coffee. Dinner. — Split-pea soup and crackers (crisped), potted beef, brown sauce, leaked potatoes, bread, rice with milk and sugar. Supper. — Brown-bread sandwic'hes (with a little butter), white-bread sandwiches with date and peanut filling without butter, cocoa, popcorn salted. MONDAY, FEBRUARY 10. Breakfast. — Oatmeal with top of milk, cream toast, cereal coffee. Dinner. — Baked-bean soup, crisp crackers, Hamburg steak balls, brown sauce, hominy, turnip, peanuts and dates. Supper. — Potato and beet salad, gingerbread, cheese, bread, milk. TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 11. Breakfast.— ^XhesA breakfast food and dates, creamed codfish, muffins (with little butter), milk and cereal coffee. Dinner. — Beef stew with biscuits, bread pudding, bread. Supjm: — Scalloped meat and potato, bread (with butter), prunes, chocolate candy "fudge." «U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 28, revised. O 'J WEDNESDAY, FEHRUARY 12. Breakfast. — Oatmeal with top of milk, hash, corn cake, milk and cereal coffee. Dinner. — ^Vgetable soup, croutons, baked stuffed beef's heart, brown sauce, rice, cornstarch blanc mange, caramel sauce. Supper. — Potato and celery salad, white and graham bread, fried corn-meal mush, siruj). THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 13. Breakfast. — Corn-meal nuish with top of milk, hashed meat on toast, milk and cereal coffee. Dinner. — Salt salmon, drawn butter sauce, baked potatoes, parsnips, bread, evapo- rated ajjple shortcake. Suppler. — Cold sliced beef's heart, creamed j^otatoes, cocoa, bread (white and graham), ginger snaps. DETAILS OF THE DIETARY STUDY (No. 6a). The faiuil}^ in this experiment consisted of 30 students — 26 women and 4 men — ranging in age from 25 to 45 3^ears. Considering the 4 men as equivalent to 5 women as regards food consumption, the family for six days was equivalent to ISO women for one da}'. The amounts, cost, and nutrients of the food eaten are given in the table following. The numbers in parentheses following each food material in the table refers to the composition given at the same num- ber in Table 29 in the Appendix. Table 7. — Weights and cost of food mid nutrients in dietary study Xo. 6a. Food consumed during the entire study (6 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value per woman per day. Kinds and amounts. AXIMAL FOOD. Beef: Hearts, 11 pounds, 38 cents (7): round, 10..5 pounds, $1.0o (28); rump, 10 pounds, 80 cents (13); shank, fore, 3 pounds (20); brisket (stew), 7.2.'i jiounds, .50 cents (la) Pork: Bacon, 2 pounds, :30cents (57); salt pork, 2 pounds, 18 cents (0-4); lard, 1 pound, 12 cents ( (32 ) Fish: Cod, salt, 4 pounds, 42 cents (81); salmon, salt, 5 pounds, 40 cents (97) Eggs, 1 pound, 33 cents (105) Butter, 9 pounds, S2.25 (106) Cheese, 2 pounds, 30 cents (108) Milk, 210 pounds, $2.70 (114) Total animal food VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Corn meal, 10 pounds, 29 cents (119); pop corn, 1 ])ound, 5 cents (132); hominy, 1.44 iiounds, o cents ( Vi.fi): oatmeal, 4.5 pounds, 15 cents (130); rice, 4 pounds, 28 cents (133); graham flour, 10 pounds, 25 cents (124); white flour, (iC) po\mds, 11.55 (122); crackers, Bos- ton, 0.75 i)oniiil, 4 cents (154) Sugars, starches, etc.: Sugar, granulated, 20 pounds, $1 (163); molasses, 2.33 pounds, 36 cents (165); cornstarch, 0.33 pound, 2 cents (172); cocoa, I pound, 17 cents (168); choco- late, 0.12 pound, 5 cents (167) 25580— No. 129—03 3 Cost. Cost. Protein, i Fat. 'Carbohy- drates. Dollars. 2.73 .60 .82 .33 2. 25 .30 2.70 Cents, (iraiiis. ' (ji-ains. 9.73 2. 66 1.60 1..5 .3 .4 .2 l!2 _ 2 l'.4 5.2 1.4 15 1 5 19 1 17 39 19 2 20 70 27 Grams 26 Fuel value. Calories. 26 178 54 229 75 38 169 22 350 883 856 229 34 Table 7. — Weiahtif 'mch'i(.set(s InstUvte of Technology, AND Amelia Shapleigh. Button Fellov College Settlement Association. INTRODUCTION. During- the year 1892-93 observations were made, at the instance of the Colleg-e Settlement Association, of the food consumption and dietary customs of families with small incomes living- in those sections of Philadelphia and Chicago in which the work of the Settlements was carried on. The primary purpose of these investigations was to obtain reliable information regarding the diet of the people of those regions, which could be used in the efforts to help them to improve their material condition. While the dietary statistics gathered then are somewhat less complete and perhaps less accurate than those of similar investigations carried on at the present time, they nevertheless give important facts concerning the dietary customs of families of small incomes, and form a valuable contribution to our knowledge concerning the food consumption of people under different circum- stances in life. In a report f' made by one of us (A. S.) upon the completion of the investigations the nutritive values of the dietaries thus collected were given as estimated according to such data as were then available regarding the composition and fuel value of food materials, the rela- tive food consumption of persons of different age, sex, and occupa- tion, etc.; only four studies, however, were given in detail. Four of the studies were brietly reported in a discussion of dietaries for wage- earners and their families, contributed by one of us (E. H. R.) to a publication of the New Jersey State Board of Health.* The remamder have never hitherto been published. In the present repoi't are given the details of all the dietary studies completed at that time except a « Partial report of Button Fellow College Settlement Association, 1892-93. &New Jersey State Board of Health Rpt., 17 (1893), p. 425. See also The Cost of Food, New York, 1901, p. 119. 37 38 few in which the statistics were in some respects inadequate. In every case the nutrients and energy of the dietaries have been estimated according- to the large amount of analytical and other data accumulated since the studies were made. It is believed that the tinal results, as here given, are more satisfactory than the earlier estimates, from which the}" differ somewhat. Since these investigations were carried out lumierous others of a similar nature have been made and reported. Previous bulletins of this Office have given accounts of dietary studies made with families living in the thickly congested districts of New York," Pittsburg,* and Chicago;'' studies of the diet of negroes living in straitened circum- stances in Virginia and Alabama/' and of Spanish-American families of very limited means living in New Mexico." Studies of the diet of poor families were also made in Hartford, under the auspices of the School of Sociology.-^" A number of foreign investigations have been conducted with families of small incomes or living under conditions common to such families. The recent important woi'k of this charac- ter by Paton and his associates f/ in Edinburgh, and that by B. S. Rowntree''' in York, England, are all the more interesting in this con- nection because the studies were made by the methods folloAved at the present time in the United States. AH these investigations, like that reported in this bulletin, were actuated by a desire to ascertain the conditions under which such families live, in order to find ways to help them to make a wiser use of their resources in securing ade((uate nourishment. As a whole, the results obtained have, at least in part, justified the hopes of the investigators, and the experience gained has proved of very great value to many housekeepers. METHOD OF INQUIRY. In both Philadelphia and Chicago the families among whom the studies were made were selected at random from the neighborhood of the college settlements, but they were believed to be typical of the region in which the settlement work was being carried on. The attempt was made to include in both places as many different nation- alities as possible, in order that the results of the studies might have a wider practical application and be more useful. The data sought in these studies included the nationality, age, sex, aU. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Buls. 46 and 116. ^U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 52. cU, S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. .5.5. 'IV. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 71. «U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bnls. 40 and 54. .^Storrs's Experiment Station Keport, 1896. f/The Diet of Laboring Classes in Edinburgh. /'Poverty: A Study of Town Life, p. 222. 39 and weight of the ditferent meniber.s of the family; the number of meals taken by each; the kinds, amounts, and cost of food consumed during- a given period, and, so far as possible, the financial and hygienic conditions at the time of the study. Methods had to be devised for the collection of such data. In some cases it was possible for the investigator to enter the homes and gather the statistics personally, while in others dependence had to be placed on the statistics furnished by the families themselves. To facilitate the work during the prosecu- tion of the studies in Philadelphia, questions of a general nature were formulated w^hich it was hoped would elicit the desired information. These were printed in the form of a small account book, the first part of the book being devoted to the questions concerning the family itself, while the remainder was arranged so that the quantity and cost of each food material purchased each day could be entered on the line on which the name of the material was printed. These books proved useful and were also employed in the Chicago studies, and served to lessen the work when the investigator made the entries and to simplify the matter so that there would be as little chance for error as possible when the statistics were recorded by the housekeeper. The information gathered in both series of studies was, on the whole, fairly satisfactory, though in several cases where records were kept entirely by the family, some of the statistics recorded were manifestly incorrect. To discover errors the accounts wei"e carefully examined as soon as a study was finished, and questions were asked concerning doubtful entries. In this wa}^ explanations and corrections were obtained while the matter was still fresh in mind, and greater accuracy was secured. The calculations of the results of the studies as given in the present bulletin were made b}^ the same methods as have been noted in pre- vious bulletins reporting studies carried on under the auspices of the Office of Experiment Stations." None of the foods used was analyzed. The composition of nearly all of them was assumed to be that given for similar materials in a former publication of this Office.'' The com- position of a few cooked foods was computed from the composition of the materials used in preparing them and the proportions of each material taken according to a recipe believed to be representative. The percentages of nutrients assumed for any food material used in these studies may be found in Table 29 of the Appendix. The refer- ence numbers in the first column of that ta))le correspond to those given in parentheses following the weight and cost of the food materials in the detail tables of the studies. The studies as given below have been grouped according to the nationalities of the families, as it was believed this would present the « See list on cover. ^ U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 28, revised. 40 fairest comparison of the results, and, furthermore, it would affo*rd some opportunity for noting in how far the dietary habits of the families of foreign birth or parentage had been moditied by residence in the United States. DETAILS OF THE STUDIES IN PHILADELPHIA. The first half of the yeaj* devoted to these investigations was spent in Philadelphia. The work there was done under the auspices of the Philadelphia College Settlement, which, although at that time but recently started, was already in touch with many of the families in the region in which it was located. The helpful attitude of all members of the settlement household and the special kindness of Miss Hancock, a college settlement worker in the neighborhood, secured for the investigator a readv entrance to the homes of the families selected for the studies and insured favorable conditions for the investigation. The attempt was made to establish friendly relations with all the families, and to convince them that the work was undertaken for a useful purpose and not to gratify idle curiosity. That this end was accomplished was shown by the almost uniform readiness with which questions were answered, and l)y the fact that the people were almost without exception very courteous in every way. All the investigations in Philadelphia were carried on in the winter season. In the data here reported the families studied included Americans, German. Colored. Irish. Italian-Irish, and German, Rus- sian, and Roumanian Jews. The ways of living of the families made it possible to secure what are regarded as fairly reliable data, a con- sideral)le amount of which was recorded by the investigator. In all 25 studies were completed, of which 22 have been considered of sutfi- cient accuracy and completeness to include here. The details of these studies follow. DIETARY STUDIES OF COLORED FAMILIES (Nos. 7a-lla). The six dietary studies of which the details are given here were made with colored families. DIETARY STUDY NO. Ta. This study was made with a family of two persons, a man and a woman, living in one room, for Avhich they paid SO cents per week. Their income was about $2.50 per week during the winter season, at which time this study was made. The woman was weak and afflicted with neuraloia. In addition to the food materials included in the table they spent 0 cents for collee, S cents for tea, and 1 cent for pot herbs. 41 The study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent h< 17 Total number of meals equivalent to 38 Equivalent to one man thirteen days. DIETARY STUDY NO. Sa. This family consisted of one man, one woman, and a child 5 years old, all healthy. The}' rented two rooms for which they paid $1.40 per week. The study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 "Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Child, 5 years old (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 Total number of meals equivalent to 46 Equivalent to one man fifteen days. DIETARY STUDY XO, Oa. This family consisted of one man, four women, and four children, aged, respectively, 10, 8, 3 years, and 4 months; the latter was not included in the study, The}- paid $20 per month rent for six rooms. In addition to the food materials included in the table, they spent $2.29 for sundries during the time of the studv. The study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meal.s Man 21 Four women (84 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 67 Child, 10 years (21 meals X 0.6 meal of man), equivalent to 1.3 Child, 8 years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man) , equivalent to 11 Child, 3 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 Total number of meals equivalent to 120 . Equivalent to one man forty days. DIETARY STUDY NO. IOa. This family consisted of one man, one woman, and five children, aged, respectively, 11, 9, T, 5, and 3 years. They were all in fairly good health. They paid $12 a month for thi-ee rooms. In addition to the food materials purchased they spent 18 cents for tea during the stud3\ 42 The .study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Child, 11 years (21 meals X 0.6 meal of man) , equivalent to 18 Two children, 9 and 7 years (42 meals XO.5 meal of man), equiva- lent to 21 Two children, 5 and 3 years (42 meals XO.5 meal of man), equiva- lent to 17 Total number of meals equivalent to 89 Equivalent to one man twenty-nine days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 11a. This family consisted of two women, both strong and well. They rented two rooms for ^1.65 a week. One woman did washing. In addition to the foods purchased they spent during the stud}- 16 cents for tea and 5 cents for coffee. The study continued two days. The number of meals taken was 13, equivalent to 10 meals of a man, or equivalent to one man three days. Table 8. — ]Veighf-'i unds, 20 cents (126) ; oatmeal, 3 pounds, 10 cents (130); flour, 12 pounds, 40 cents (r.;2); bread, 3 pounds, 15 cents (147); pie, 2 pounds 20 cents ( 158) Sugar. 10 pounds, 50 cents (163) Vegetables: Potatoes, 28 pounds, 40 cents (196); sweet potatoes, 7 pounds. 10 cents (198 1; canned tomatoes, 3.75 pounds, 20 cents (209), turnips, 6.25 pounds, 10 cents (212); cabbage. 1.75iJOunds, 8 cents (181): beans, 1 pound, 10 cents ( 177 ) Total vegetable food . Total food , Waste: Steak, 1 i ound (27). shoulder, 3.9 pounds (19): potati es, 2.5 pounds (196); sweet potatoes, 6.3 pounds ( 198) Cost. Co.st, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Dollars. 0.32 .IS .87 .33 Total food eaten . Dietary study So. lOu. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Shoulder. 1.5 pounds, IBcents (19); steak, 1.75 pounds, 26 cents (32); roast, 1 pound, 18 cents ( 12 ) Pork: Chops, 1 pound, 14 cents (58); scrapple, 2 pounds, 12 cents (67) Turkey, 8.3 pounds, SI. 50 (76) Fish: Whitefish 3 pounds, 15 cents (103); smelts, 1.5 pounds, 15 cents (101) Butter, 0.88 pound, 35 cents iI06) Mitk, 7.3 pounds, 28 cents (114) 1.70 3.97 1.98 2.01 ..58 .76 .60 .70 .64 7.27 1.74 .50 .98 3.22 10.49 Total animal food .60 .26 1.50 .30 .35 .28 3.29 Cost. Protein. Fat. Cents. 2.1 1.2 Grams. 15 Grams. 2 5.8 2.2 13 1 9 1 Carbo- | Fuel hydrates, value. Grams. Calories. 11.3 26.4 5.0 5.0 1.4 1.9 1.5 1.8 1.6 18.2 4.4 1.3 2.4 8.1 26.3 2.1 .9 5.2 1.0 1.2 : 1,0 11.4 29 80 121 28 24 5 7 4 74 35 7 14 9 49 123 13 164 110 12 3 21 7 ■i' 47 1.56 10 24 2 I 11 . 5 ' 61 96 91 105 29 321 3:32 15 101 : 1 I 6 4 20 8 10 155 1 11 269 113 S9 471 482 2U 462 462 364 490 129 1,445 2, 726 250 995 29 81 52 178 135 1,720 1,278 4.52 430 ,160 3,880 203 3,677 128 113 298 46 98 85 768 44 TABr.E 8. — ]Vei(j}di< and cost of food and raUrients in dietanj studies of colored families in PJiiladelph ia — Continued. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Kinds and amounts. Bietari) stinli/ So. JOa— Continued. VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread, 12 pounds, 60 cents (147): pud- ding. 1 pound, 6 cents (258); rice, 1.5 pounds, 12 cents {133); rolled a vena, 3.75 pounds, 21 cents (131); hominy, 1 pound, 5 cents (126) Sugar, 3.25 pounds, 20 cents ( 163) Vegetables: Potatoes, 3.5 pounds, 8 cents (196): sweet potatoes, 1.9 pounds, 5 cents (198): canned tomatoes, 1.75 pounds, 10 cents (209) . . Fruits: Apples, 3.5 pounds, 20 cents (214) Total vegetable food. Total food J>iclanj i Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Child, 3 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), ec][uivalent to S Total number of meals equivalent to 46 Equivalent to one man fifteen days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 13a. This study w^as made with a family of two women — the mother, aged 00, and her daughter. They owned their own house, consisting 45 of three rooms and a cellar, which would rent for about ^i) a month. In addition to the food.s purchased they spent during the study 35 cents for (jotfee and -i cents for herbs. The study continued seven days. The num))er of meals taken was 42, equivalent to 34 meals of a man, or equivalent to one man eleven da3"s. Table 9. — W'liijJifs and cod i if food and nntrienls in dietanj studies of Italian families in Philadelphia. „ ^ 1 1 • ,1 11 +„,],,- .1,, < \ Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per Food consumed during the whole study (/ nays). ; ' mnn npr dav man per day. Kinds and amounts. Cost. Cost. 1 Protein. Fat. Carbohy- drates' Fuel value. Dietary stinli/ Xo. IM. i ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Shoulder, 3.5 pounds, 25 cents (19); bo- logna, 0.5 pound, 6 cents (1). Mutton: Shoulder 2 5 pounds, 10 cents (51 ) Dollars. 0.41 ..52 Cents. 2.7 :^.5 1 Granhs. •>■> Grams. 1 Gram.^. Cdlorie.i. 382 Pork: Chops, 2 pounds, 28 cents (58); lard, 2 8 76 2 1 70.S 17 26 105 61 Fi-^h" Siirdinps I) 8 nound 5 cents (991 .05 .3 .10 .7 .20 , 1.3 15 1 0 2 2 5 6 4 5 Milk 5 23 pounds, 20 cents (114) y Cheese, 0.5 pound, 15 cents (108) Total animal food 1.43 9.5 43 123 8 1,299 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread, 12 pounds, 50 cents (147); flour, 2 pounds, 5 cents (122); macaroni, 1.5 pounds, 15 cent^' ( 127 ) .70 .22 .60 .06 .40 4.6 1 5 46 6 272 121 .52 1, 325 ftne^ar 4 'nonnus '^'2 fpnt'< MfiS^ 484 Vegetables: Cabbage, 2.75 pounds, 9 cents (181); onions, 2.75 pounds, 5 cents (189); potatoes, 3.5 pounds, (i cents (196); tomatoes, canned, 3.34 pounds, 30 cent.s (209); beans, 0.95 pound, 10 cents illl) 4.0 .4 2.7 12 1 265 Fruit" Annies 9, 9n nonnds fi cents (214^ 10 40 Beer 4 pounds, 40 cents (259) 1 14 60 Total vegetable food 1.98 1:3. 2 .59 7 469 1 2,174 Total food 3.41 22.7 102 130 i 477 3, 473 Uittivnj diidy Sd. 13a. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef; Shoulder, 2.5 pounds, 25 cents (19); tripe, 5 pounds 30 cents ( 72 ) .55 .16 .50 .56 .37 .25 .14 5.0 1.4 4.5 5.1 3.4 2.3 1.3 41 11 262 Pork' Sausage, 1 pound, 16 cents (66) 5 18 180 Fish: Whiteflsh, 3 pounds, 25 cents (103); oys- ters, 1 pound, 25 cents 1^93) 16 16 4 12 35 10 1 104 171 312 12.5 Butter 1 pound, 37 cents (106) Cheese, 0.7 pound, 25 cents (111) 8 5 1 Milk 3 66 pounds 14 cents (114) 6 S 105 Total animal food 2. .53 23.0 91 96 10 1.2.59 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals; Bread, 5 pounds, 25 cents (147); cake and pastry, 0.47 pound, 15 cents (150); maca- roni 2 pounds 1-5 cents (127) .55 .26 .35 .25 4.5 2.4 3.2 2.3 31 4 1 5 1 1 184 27 26 905 Vegetables: Onions, 0.8 pound, 2 cents (189); potatoes, 3.5 pounds, 12 cents (196); canned tomatoes 1 75 pounds 12 cents (209) 133 Fruits: Apples, 5.75 pounds, 30 cents (214); or- anges, 5 cents ( 238 ) 117 12 48 Total vegetable food . . . 1.41 ! 12.4 :i6 : 7 1 249 1 1.203 Total food 3.94 35.4 127 1 103 . 259 2, 462 46 DIETARY STUDIES OF JEWISH FAMILIES (Nos. 14a-18a). The details of five studies with Jewish families follow. Studies Nos. 14a, 17a, and 18a were with German Jews, No. 15a with Russian Jews, and No. 10a with Roumanian Jews. DIETARY STU-DY NO. 14 A. The members of this family consisted of three men, three women, and one girl 13 years old. They were all in good health. They lived in four rooms, for which they paid 11.75 per week. The income of the family during the time of the study was given as $(;.50. which was Si. 69 less than the amount spent for food. The study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Three men ^^ Three women (63 meals X 0.8 meal of man ), equivalent to 50 Girl, 13 years (21 meals X 0.7 meal of man) , equivalent to 15 Total number of meals equivalent to - 128 Equivalent to one man forty-three days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 15a. This family consisted of three men, one woman, and four children, aged, respectively, 10, 6, 3, and U years. They paid $25 a month rent. In addition to the foods purchased they spent 60 cents for cof- fee, 14 cents for tea, 5 cents for vinegar, and 4 cents for cinnamon during the course of the study. The study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Three men , '^■^ "Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man) , equivalent to 17 Child, 10 years (21 meals X 0.6 meal of man), equivalent to 13 Child, 6 years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equivalent to 11 Child, 3 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 Child, 2* years (21 meals X 0.3 meal of man), equivalent to 6 Total number of meals equivalent to 118 Equivalent to one man thirty-nine days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 16a. The family in this study comprised one man, one woman, and five children, aged, respectively, 10, 8, 6, 4, and 2 years. They paid $11 a month rent for four rooms. In addition to the foods purchased they spent 32 cents for tea and coffee, and 11 cents for pepper and salt during the time of the study. 47 The stud}' continued seven days. The numl^er of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to .' 17 Child, 10 years (21 meals X 0.6 meal of man) , equivalent to 13 Two children, 9 and 6 years (42 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equiva- lent to 21 Two children, 4 and 2 years (42 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equiva- lent to 17 Total number of meals equivalent to 89 Equivalent to one man thirty days. DIETARY STUDY NO. ITa. The members of this famil}- consisted of a man, a woman, and a baby five months old, which was not included in the study. They paid ^4 a month for the rent of two rooms. During the course of the study they spent 69 cents for coffee, tea, chicory, and soda water. The study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. :Man 21 AVoman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Total number of meals equivalent to 38 Equivalent to one man thirteen days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 18a. The members of this family consisted of a man, a woman, and four children, aged, respectively, 11, 8, 5, and 3^ years. They paid $8 a month rent for four rooms, one of which was used as a tailor shop. The members of the family were healthv. During the study they spent 10 cents for coffee, 6 cents for chicory, 10 cents for soda water, and 1 cent for salt, in addition to the food materials purchased. The study continued seven davs. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Child, 11 years (21 meals X 0.6 meal of man), equivalent to 13 Child, S years (21 meals X 0.5 meal ol man), equivalent to 11 Two children, 5 and 3 years (42 meals X 0.4 meal ot man), equiva- lent to 17 Total numljer of meals equivalent to 79 Equivalent to one man twenty-six days. 48 Table 10. — Weights and cost of food (i)id mttrieiits in dietary studies of Ji'irish fitmiliex in PhitadeJphiu. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Kinds and amounts?. Didnrij stiulti So. Ha. AXI.MAL FOOD. Beef: Shoulder, 20 pounds, S1.98 (19); s)iet, 1 pound, S cents (35) , Chicken, 3.9 pounds, 70 cents (75) Fish, white tish. 3 pounds. '2.5 cents (103) Eggs, 0.5 pound, 10 cents (105) , Butter, 1 pound, 38 cents (100) , Milk, 13.9 pounds, 50 cents (114) Cheese, 1.6 pounds, 12 cents (108) , Total animal food. VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Rice, 5.5 pounds, 42 cents (133); flour. 7 pounds, 22 cents (122) ; bread, 39.4 pounds, 1.75 cents (147) Sugar. 8 pounds, 41 cents (103) Vegetables: Potatoes, 5.26 pounds, 13 cents (196) ; onions, 4.1 pounds, 15 cents (189) ; beans, 1.9 pounds. 10 cents (177): cabbage, !.(> pounds, 5 cents (181); beets, 1.6 pound.s, 5 cents (ISO) .. Fruits: Bananas, 10 pounds, 20 cents (218); or- anges, 0.4 pound, 10 cents (238); apples, 4.5 pounds, 10 cents (214); prunes, 4 pounds, 40 cents ( 247 ) Total vegetable food. Total food . Dietary study Xo. 17a. AXI.MAL FOOD. Beef: Shoulder, 7 pounds, 70 cents (19): liver, 0.5 pound, 3 cents (,8); bologna, 0.6 pound, 6 cents (1)" Fish: White fish, 1.5 pounds, 10 cents (103); her- ring, 5 pounds, 9 cents ( 88 ); sardines, 0.3 pound , 5 cents (99) Eggs, 1.13 pounds, 23 cents (105) Butter, 0.75 pound, 34 ceiUs (106) Milk, 7.6 pounds, 29 cents (114) Cheese, 2 pounds, 14 cents (111) Total animal food . VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Hominy. 1.6 pounds, 8 cents (126): flour, 1 poimd, 3 cents (122); buns, 2.16 pounds. 15 cents (149); cakes. 0.25 povuid, 2 cents (167); bread, 11.75 pounds, 48 cents (147); crackers, 1 pound, 6 cents ( 153) Sugar, 4 pounds, 22 cents (163) Vegetables, dried peas, 0.9 pound, 4 cents (193) . . Fruit: Apples, 1.25 pounds, 4 cents (214) Total vegetable food. Total food Dietary study Xd. isa. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Shoulder, 9.5 pounds, 95 cents (19); suet, 2 pounds, 16 cents (35); bologna, 0.5 pound, 6 cents ( 1 ) Fish: Sardine.s, 0.6 pound, 12 cents (99) Butter, 0.5 pound, 20 cents (106) Milk, 10.5 pounds, 40 cents (114) Cheese: Neufchatel, l pound, 16 cents ( 112 ) Total animal food. Cost. Cost. Protein. Dollars 2.06 .70 .25 .10 .38 ..50 .12 Cnits. Grams. 4.11 2.39 .41 .48 .24 .23 .■i-i .29 .14 2.03 .82 22 .04 .04 1.12 3. 15 1.17 .12 .20 .40 .16 2.05 4.8 1.6 .6 2 .9 1.2 .3 9.6 1.1 6.1 1.8 1.8 2.6 2. 2 I'.i 15.6 6.3 1.7 .3 .3 8.6 24.2 4.5 .5 .8 1.5 .6 7.9 Fat. 23 61 Grams. 10 5 1 1 9 6 5 Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. Grams, ('altiries. 37 47 n 5 9 ' 18 4 4 22 11 90 89 54 62 1.52 31 42 15 "3' 18 107 44 1 8 7 5 65 322 84 28 13 15 343 139 20 .507 .522 105 69 21 13 80 101 61 4.50 ],.545 336 149 .80 1.9 2 ' . . 47 196 4.08 9.5 60 7 ; 4sl 2, 226 8.19 19.1 83 44 1 488 i 2, 676 411 80 56 196 186 285 1,214 1,722 .556 139 20 2, 4:37 3, 651 516 17 71 122 57 783 49 Table 10. — WeigJit.'i (iml co.s/ of food and nutrients in didonj xtndie.'f of Jcirlsh families in Philadelphia — Continued. Food consumed during the whole .study (7 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Kinds and amounts. Cost. Cost. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. Dietary ntudij No. iSa— Continued. VEGETABI.E FOOD. Cereals: Bread, 26.5 poundsjl. 17(147); crackers, 1 pound, 8 cents (153); cake, 0.5 pound, 5 cents (150); ginger cakes, 0.5 pound, 4 cents (157); hominy, 3 pounds, 9 cents (126); rice, 0.25 pound," 2 cents (133) ; flour, 4 pounds, 12 cents (122) I)ijUar.<. 1.59 .51 .23 .51 Cents. 6.1 2.0 .9 2.0 Grams. 58 Grams. 10 Grams. 367 157 39 43 Calories. 1,789 628 Vegetables: Potatoes, 1.75 pounds, 3 cents (196); onions, 1.9 pounds, 5 cents (189); beans, 2.5 pounds, 12 cents (177); dried peas, 0.5 pound, 3 cents (193) 13 2 1 2 217 Fruits, etc.: Apples, 7.9 pounds, 20 cents (214); bananas, 3 pounds, 6 cents (218); oranges, 4.6 pounds, 12 cents (238); raisins, 0.4 pound, 3 cents (248); prunes, dried, 0.3 pound, 5 cents (247); peanuts, 0.25 pound, 3 cents (2.54); jelly, 0.5 pound, 3 cents (235) 198 Total vegetable food 2.84 11.0 73 13 606 ! 2,S;« Total food 4.89 18.9 115 78 615 3, 615 llidfinj Miitlii .Yo. Iriii. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef; Shoulder, 17 pounds, SI. 75 (19); chopped meat, 4 pounds, 44 cents (25). Veal, 2 pounds, 16 cents'! 37) 2.35 .30 1.08 .56 .15 6.0 .8 2.8 1.4 .4 48 1 23 1 30 7 2 1 101 Eggs, 0 9 pound. 30 cents (105) 13 Butter 3 j)ounds S1.0S(106). 267 Milk 14.6 pounds, .56 cents (114) 6 9 9 122 Cheese: Neufchatel, 0.75 pound, 15 cents (112)... 26 T( ital animal food 4.44 11.4 ] 57 63 10 1 829 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread, 17.25 pounds, 92 cents (147); bar- lev 1 pound, 5 cents ( 116) .97 .U 1.09 .88 1 1 2. 5 20 3 115 70 48 15 .567 Sui?flr 6 nouTids '?,A cents (16;*) .9 2.8 2.3 280 Vegetables: Potatoes, 14 pounds, 32 cents (196); pounds, 10 cents (182); cabbage, 2.6 pounds, 12 cents (ISl): beans, 0.9 pound, 5 cents (177); turnips, 3.1 pounds, 8 cents (212); canned peas, 1.9 pounds 30 cents (192) 8 1 233 Fruits: .Telly. 0.5 iiound, 6 cents (222) ; apples, 4.5 pounds, 10 cents (214); cranberries, 5 pounds, 72 cents (■2271 60 Total vegetable food 3. 28 8.5 28 ,4 248 ! 1,140 Total food 7.72 19.9 85 67 258 1 1,969 Dietary .■ititdi/ Xa. hia. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef- Shoulder ''1 pounds S'^lOdO) 2.10 .24 .20 .10 .28 .04 7.0 .8 . 7 .3 .9 .1 52 6 27 2 448 Fish: Whitetish.Spounds. '21c'ents(103); smoked hprrin*'' 0 IK nound S conts fSS'\ 42 2 ; 1 17 Butter 0 "5 iiound 10 cents ( 106") 3 5 1 27 Milk, 7.8 pounds, 20 cents (114) 4 1 6 85 Cheese: Neufchatel, 0.25 pound, 4 cents (112) 13 Total animal food 2.96 9.8 1 65 39 6 632 25580— No. 129- 50 Table 10. — ]Vi'iijhts ami cost of food and nutrients in dietari/ studies of JcirisJt fainlHes in Philadelph ia — Continued. Food consumed during the whole study (7 day.s). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Kind.s and amounts. Cost. Cost. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. Dietary study iS'o. i6fl!— Continued. VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Corn meal, 1 pound, 5 cents (119); flour, 7 pounds, 21 cents (122); rice, 2 pounds, 14 cents (133); barley, 0.25 pound, 2 cents (117); bread, 39.4 pounds, SI. 75 (147) Dollars. 2.17 .22 .53 .45 Cents. 7.2 . 7 1.8 1.5 Orains. 71 Grams. 9 Grams. 434 00 84 15 Calurirs. '^ 100 Sugar, 4 pounds, 22 cents (163) 240 Vegetables: Bean.s, 7.85 pounds, 33 cents (177); onions, 2.75 pounds, 12 cents (189); potatoes, 3.5 pounds, 8 cents (1961 28 1 2 466 Fruits: Apples,2.25pounds,6cents(214) ; oranges, 1.1 pounds, 27 cents (238); prunes, 1 pound, 12 cents (247) 64 Total vegetable food 3.37 11.2 100 11 593 2 870 Total food 0.33 21.0 165 50 599 3, 502 DIETARY STUDIES OF GERMAN FAMILIES (Nos. 19a-24a). The details of six studies with German families follow. In one study (No. 2ia) the man was native German but the woman was American born. UIETAKY STUDY NO. Wa. The family in this study lived in the outskirts of the city. There were five persons in the group in the study — two men, one woman, and two children — who were taken to board. The ages of the children were not given; it has been here assumed that they averaged 0 to 7 years. They rented five rooms, for which they paid $0 a month. During the course of the stud}^ they spent 5 cents for tea and 00 cents for coffee in addition to the purchase of food materials. The study continued seven da^'s. Th& number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Two men 42 AVoman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Two children (42 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equivalent to 21 Total number of meals equivalent to 80 Equivalent to one man twenty-seven days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 20a. The members of this family comprised one man, one woman, and four children aged, respectively, 8. 6, and 4 years, and 17 months. The father was a fish peddler. They were all in poor health, dispirited, and seemed to be iusufJicienth' nourished. The woman appeared to be s 51 liiftless and incapal^le of improvement. They rented two rooms, for which they paid §4 per month. Their income was variable, being S.3 during- the week of the study. In addition to the food materials pur- chased the}^ spent 10 cents for tea, 22 cents for coffee, and 1 cent for pepper. The stud}" continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Two children, 8 and 6 years (4-2 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equiva- lent to 21 Child, 4 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 Child, 17 months (21 meals X 0.2 meal of man), equivalent to 4 Total number of meals equivalent t(j 71 Equivalent to one man twenty-four days. DIETARY STUDY XO. 21A. This famih' consisted of two men, one woman, and four children aged, respectively, 11, 8, 6, and 2 years. They were all healthy. They rented a house of four rooms, for which they paid $9 a month. In addition to the food materials purchased they spent 30 cents for coffee during the study. The study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Two men 42 "Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Child, 11 years (21 meals X 0.6 meal of man) , equivalent to Id Two children, 9 and 6 years (42 meals X 0.5 meal cf man), equiva- lent to 21 Child, 2 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 Total number of meals equivalent to 101 Equivalent to one man thirty-four days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 22a. This family was dirty but healthy. It consisted of a man, a woman, a boy of 16, and two children 11 and 10 years of age. The man and woman had lived in this country twenty-six years. They paid ^IS a month rent for nine rooms, including a little tobacco shop at the front of the house. The woman took care of the shop during the day, as the man worked away from home. During the course of the study they spent 90 cents for tea and coffee and -1 cents for yeast cakes in addition to the food materials purchased. 52 The stuch' continued t^even da3's. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man ) , equivalent to 17 Boy, 16 yeare old 21 Child, 14 year.s (21 meals X 0.7 meal of man), equivalent to 15 Child, 10 years (21 ineals X O.fi meal of man), equivalent to l:! Total number of meals equivalent to 8" Equivalent to one man twenty-nine days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 23a. This family consisted of two men and two women. They owned their own house of five rooms. During- the course of the study they spent 8 cents for tea and S cents for cofi'ee in addition to the food materials purchased. The study continued one day. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Two men 6 Two wcmien (6 meals X 0.8 meal of man ), equivalent to 5 Total number of meals equivalent to 11 Equivalent to one man four days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 24a. In this famil^'the man was a German, l)ut the woman was American born. There were also three children, aged 10, 6, and 4 years, respec- tively. The children were well, with bright color and good com- plexions. l)ut very dirtv and untidy. The income of the family was varial)le, from ^5 to ^10 per week. They paid $.5 a month rent for four rooms. During the course of the study they spent 24 cents for tea and 16 cents for cotfee in addition to that for the food materials purchased. The study continued seven days. The numl)er of meals taken was as follows: Meal.«. Man 21 Woman ( 21 meals X 0.8 meal of man) , equivalent to 17 Child, 10 years (21 meals X 0.6 meal of man), equivalent to lo Child, 6 years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equivalent to U Child, 4 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 Total number of meals equivalent to 70 Equivalent to one man twenty-three days. 53 Table 11. — ]Vi'i rif>iind« rt'^ rents (115^ 8 12 I 89 3.43 10.7 59 112 13 1,285 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Com meai, 12 poun.ds. 4'2 cents (119); flour, 1.5 pounds, 11 cents (12'2); bread, 25 pounds. 7() cents (U7); cakes, 3.75 pounds. 40 (■puts (151^ - 1.69 .06 .35 5.3 ;2 1.1 55 16 371 14 37 1,846 Clno-nr 1 Tin»ind (\ ppTlt*; Mfi^^ 56 Vegetables, potatoes, 14 pounds, 35 cents (196) .. 4 164 2.10 6.6 59 16 422 2. 066 Total food 5.53 17.3 118 128 435 3,351 Dietary study Xo. 22a. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef; Shoulder, 7 pounds, 66 cents (19); round, 1.64 1.04 ..56 .51 .90 6.1 3.8 2.1 1.9 3.3 36 12 14 4 18 66 4 3 32 ;i04 Pork: Sausage, 3.25 pounds. 45 cents (66); pork 1 639 Fish: Whiteti-^h. 8 pounds. .56 cents (103) 92 43 285 Total animal food 4.65 17.2 66 123 1 1,363 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread. 18 pounds, /9 cents (14/); buck- wheat, 2 pounds, 10 cents (118); flour, 20 pounds, 81 cents (122); ginger cakes, 1.5 Hounds 1'^ cents ( 1,57^ 1.82 ..50 .72 6.7 1.9 2.7 70 10 458 135 84 2,201 Sugars, etc.: Sugar, 7 pounds, 42 cents (163): .540 Vegetables: Potatoes, 24..=) pounds. 49 cents (196K onions, l.ti pounds. 2 cents (189): calv bage, 1.4 pounds, 4 cents (181); canned toma- toes, 1.8 pounds, 10 cents (209): turnips, o.75 Timmds 7 conts (212^ 11 1 389 Total vpo^etable food 3.04 11.3 81 11 i 677 3.130 7.69 28.5 147 134 678 4,493 Dietary study Xo. 23a (duration, 1 day). ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Shoulder, 1.5 pounds, 15 cents (19); bo- .28 .10 .05 .10 .16 7.0 2.5 1.3 2.5 4.0 49 21 4 1 37 9 3 24 19 525 Fish: Smoked herring. 0.9 pound, 10 cents (88) .. 164 43 214 : 16 24 329 Total animal food .69 17.3 90 92 24 1,275 55 Table 11. — We'ujliU and cost of food and nutrient.^ In dietanj studies of German fami- lies— Continued. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Kinds and amounts. Dietary study Xo. 23a (duration 1 day)— Cont'd.- VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Flour, 0.9 pound, 3 cents (122): white bread, 2.25 pounds, 10 cents (147): rye bread, 2.2-5 pounds, 10 cents (146); buns, 0.7 pound, 5 cents ( 149 ) Sugar, 1 pound, 5 cents (163) Vegetables: Potatoes, 3.5 pounds, 9 cents (196); dried beans, 1 pound, 4 cents (177; Total vegetable food Total food Cost. ' Cost. Protein. Dollars. 0.28 .05 .13 Cents. I Grams. Fat. 7.0 1.3 65 I 34 Grams. 11 3 Carbo- hydrates. Grams. 392 114 139 Fuel value. Calories. 1,926 4.56 719 .46 11.5 99 14 645 1.15 , 28.! 189 106 669 3,101 4,376 DIETARY STUDY OF AN AMERICAN FAMILY (No. 25a). This family comprised two healthy women of frugal habits. They occupied three rooms, for which they paid ^i) a month. During the period of the study they spent 15 cents for tea in addition to the pur- chase of food. The study continued sev'en days. The number of meals taken was 42, equivalent to 3-i meals of a man, or equivalent to 1 man 11 days. Table 12. — Weights and cost of food and nutrients ia a dietary study of an American family. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Cost. Kinds and amounts. Dietary stmly ,V'j. ;.'.5'(. ANIM.^L FOOD. Beef: Shoulder, 1.5 pounds. 24 cents (19). Veal, 1 pound, 20 cents (37); liver, 1 pound, 6 cents (S' i^) Pork, t-crapple, 1 pound, 6 cents (67) Fish, mackerel, 1.75 nounds, 22 cents (91) Butter, 1 pound, 40 cents (lOG) Cheese, cottiige, 0.5 pound, 5 cents (110) Milk, 1.06 pounds, 4 cents (114) Total animal food. Dollars. 0..50 .06 .22 .40 .05 .04 Cost, nutrients, and fuel va^ue of food per man per day. ,, , Ti * ■ ! c <- I Carbo- Fuel Cost. Protein.; Fat. hvdrates.i value. Cents. Grams. Grams. 4.5 .5 2.0 3.6 .5 .4 25 1 7 ] 4 9 8 3 35 Grams. Calories. 175 95 55 316 20 34 1.27 11.5 40 56 695 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread. 7 pounds, 35 cents (147); dough- nuts, 1 pound, 10 cents (1-56); corn meal, 2 pounds, 5 cents (119) Sugar, 3 pounds, 14 cents (163); molas,ses, 1.5 pounds, 8 cents ( 165) Vegetables: Cabbage, 2.76 pounds, 10 cents f 181); cabbage, pickled, 1.5 pounds, 10 cents (181) ... Fruits: Primes, 1 pound, 15cents (247): bananas, 2.5 pounds, 10 cents (218) ; oranges, 0,75 pound, 10 cents (238); strawberry preserve, 1 pound, 12 cents (2.51) ..50 .22 .20 Total vegetable food : 1.49 4.5 2.0 1.8 13.5 Total food. 2.76 25.0 37 2 2 14 43 15 237 167 8 53 1,221 676 40 229 46.0 2,166 S3 474 2, 861 56 DIETARY STUDIES OF IRISH FAMILIES (Nos. 26a-28a). The details of three dietary .studies with Irish families follow: DIETARY STUDY NO. 26a. This family consisted of a man, a woman, and four children: aged 9, 7, and -2^ years, and 9 months, respectively. The woman was not strong; the children were well but pale. The income of the family was 11.5 per week. They paid $10 a month rent for four rooms and a bathroom. During the course of the study they spent $1.12 for tea and cotfee, 8 cents for salt and pepper, and 5 cents for pickles. The study continued 7 days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), eqnivalent to 17 TwoehiMren,9an<17year.s(42niealpX0.5mealofnian),e(iaivalentto. 21 Child, 2^ years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 9 Child, 9 months (21 meals X O.'S meal of man), equivalent to 6 Total number of meals equivalent to "4 Equivalent to one man twenty-five days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 27a. This was a storekeepers family, comprising a man and a woman. They paid $13 a month rent for three rooms, not including the store, which was on another street. They spent 20 cents for tea in addition to the food materials purchased during the course of the study. The study continued seven clays. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Total number of meals equivalent to 38 Equivalent to one man thirteen days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 28a. This family included a man, a woman, and live children, aged respectively 15, 12, 9, and 5 years, and 21 months. They were rather sickly. The man was a painter, out of work at the time of the study. When employed he. earned $15 per week. One of the children, a boy, earned $3 per week. They paid $12 a month rent for a house of live rooms, the rent being applied to the purchase of the house. During the course of the study they spent 15 cents for tea, 3(» cents for coffee, and 5 cents for veast in addition to the food materials purchased. 57 The .stud}" continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Child, 15 years (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), e(|uivalent to 17 Child, 12 years (21 meals X 0.7 meal of man), e(iuivalent to 15 Child, 9 years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equivalent to 11 Child, 5 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 -Child, 21 months (21 meals X 0.3 meal of man), equivalent to 6 Total number of meals equivalent to 95 Equivalent to one man thirty-two days. T.\.BLE 13. — Weifjlits (I ml cost of food and nutrienta in dietary studies of Irixli fi mil )rs. Food consumed during the whole study (7 day.s). Co.st, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Kinds and amounts. " Cost. Cost. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. Dietary study No. 260 calo- ries of energy. One family in this study was considerably underfed, spending oidy 10.2 cents per man per dav for their food. This was practically just half of the amount spent by the average; but for this expenditui'e the}' secured very nearly half of the protein and energy found in the average diet for the group. Of all the families studied in Philadelphia, the woman in dietary study No. 21a of this group was believed by the investigator to show the most intelligence on the subject of marketing. She had tried all the markets in the vicinity of her home until she had found the most reasonable one, which she then patronized regularly. For 20.2 cents per man per day she secured 150 grams of protein and 5,(»63 calories of energy, while the family in study No. 22a, to obtain almost as much protein, but somewhat less energy, expended 28.5 cents. In the average of the results with the five Jewish families the cost of the diet was the same as that for the German families, but the average diet of the Jewish families provided on the average only 120 grams of protein and 3,086 calories of energy. Two of the families, those in the studies Nos. 11a and 15a. were decidedly less economical than the rest of the group, and although they spent a sufficient amount of money they were hardly sufiiciently fed when compared with other families and with the average of all of them. The cost of the diet in the average for the three Irish families was very nearly the same as that for the Italian families, but the quanti- ties of nutrients and energy procured were notieealily larger for the former. The onl}' native American famil}" included in these studies was that in study No. 25a. The}" spent 25 cents per man per day, foi- which they secured 83 grams of protein and 2,861 calories of energy — a diet exactly tlie same in protein and ])ut very little higher in energy than that in stud}^ No. 14a (a German- Jewish familv). which cost 6 cents per dav less. Most of the above comparisons of di tie rent diets as regards economy have been made between families of the same nationality. Similar facts are observed in comparing the results with families of different nation- alities. Thus in dietary study No. 24a with the German-American family the cost of the diet was 20.2 cents per man per day, for which 150 grams of protein and 5,063 calories of energy were secured, while in dietar}" study No. 2Sa, with an Irish family, the cost per man per day was exactly the same, but only 90 grams of protein and 3,190 calories of energy were secured. The family of Roumanian Jews in dietary study No. 10a spent 21 cents per man per day, a trifle more than the two families just mentioned, and secured 165 grams of protein and 3,5(»2 calories of energy; that is, little more pi'otein but nuu h less energy than in the family in study No. 21a. Again, the colored family in dietary study No. l<>a spent 17.2 cents per man per day and secured but SO grams of protein and 1,967 calories of energy, while the Ger- man family in study No. 21a spent 17.3 cents per man per day and secured 118 grams of protein and 3,351 calories of energy. The two most expensive dietaries in the whole number were that of the Italian family in the stud}^ No. 13a and that of the Irish family in study No. 26a. The former spent 35.4 cents per man per day and secured 127 grams of protein and 2,462 calories of energ}^ while the latter spent 35.8 cents per man per day and secured 160 grams of protein and 4,084 calories of energy. It is interesting to observe that the family in study No. 13a consisted of two women; so also did those in Nos. 25a and 11a. In all three the cost calculated to the basis per man per day was high, but the economy of the diets purchased varied widel3^ So few data regarding the occupations of the different families are available that but little can be said concerning the fitness of the diets. Most of the families were without regular incomes, so it may be inferred that they were not engaged in steady work. The average of the 22 studies summarized above agrees practically with the common standard for a man at light to moderate muscular work; the number of studies in which the diet was fairly near the average, however, was small, the larger part of them being either considerabl}" higher or lower than this. The family in study No. 27a was that of a store- keeper. The diet in this study, furnishing 153 grams of protein and 62 4,235 calories of energy, would certainly seem to be ample. The famil}^ in study No. 22a also kept a store, but it Avas looked after by the woman during the day, while the man was away at work. In this case also the diet with 147 grams of protein and 4,493 calories of energy would seem to be more than sufficient, unless the man was eno-aoed in hard work. In the notes concerning the family in study No. 18a it was stated that one room of the house was used as a tailor shop. If tailoring was the occupation in this case, the diet, which fur- nished 115 grams of protein and 3,615 calories of energy, was certainly sufficient. One of the two women who comprised the family in study No. 11a was a washerwoman. If steadily employed she would doubt- less require considerably more food than the average woman; but it would hardly be expected that the diet for the two women would need to average 1ST grams of protein and 4,716 calories of energy per man per day as found in this study. Two faults, then, are quite generally evident in these studies. There was a tendency to buv too much where there was sufficient money, and the prices paid for nourishment were considerably higher than Avas necessary. One reason for the expensiveness of the diet was found in the way the families lived. Since they had no regular incomes they could not purchase their food materials in quantities, but bought their provisions only on the day they w^ere used and only as much as was needed at the time. Such method of purchasing materials in small quantities is always more expensive than buying in larger amounts. Furthermore, almost every one of the families in the Philadelphia studies bought groceries and provisions at the small corner stores so common in that city, rather than at the larger markets where the goods could be obtained much cheaper. For instance, the small corner g-rocery in the vicinity of the settlement charged 5 cents a pound for flour, while the best flour could be had at a larger store a little farther away for 3^ cents, even in small quantities. The only butter for sale at the small store cost 40 cents a pound, while good butter could l)e purchased at a market two blocks away for 28 or 30 cents. At the same market cuts of meat like neck and shm could be obtained for 3i and 4 cents a pound which at the smaller store cost 6 cents. ^Nlilk in small quantities cost not less than 8 cents a quart. Not only were the food materials sold at the small store generally higher in price than could be obtained elsewhere, but the majority of them in the poorer quarters of the city were of inferior quality. One article which had considerable efi'ect upon the cost of the diet- aries, because it was used so generally and in such large quantities, was bread. Bakers' bread was used by about half of the families. The so-called pound loaf sold by the bakers weighed usually more than that— on an average about 1^ pounds. The loaves were about a third 63 larger than the ordinaiy pound loaf of homemade bread, but the}' were excessively raised and dried quickh^, and altogether were far from the ideal nutty, firm, nutritious loaf. In regard to green vegetables the conditions were more favorable. The poorer streets of the city were usually well provided with these in their season and at prices about as reasonal)le as in the large markets. Many hucksters and farmers Ijrought their vegetables directly to the streets in which these families lived and sold them without the middleman's profit. To some extent the people in these regions were not responsible for the costliness of their diet. In no case were there any conveniences for the use of ice for keeping food, and in few if anj'^ cases was there suffi- cient monej^ to enable them to buy in very larg-e quantities. But while the costliness of the diet may be accounted for to some extent by lack of space to keep quantities of provisions and lack of monev to bu}' them, a consideral)le part of it was unnecessar}-, as was shown by a comparison of the different diets as regards economy, and for people in the circumstances of those of the families studied it was unwarrant- able. A little more intelligence in the matter of marketing would have enabled many of the families to provide practically the ver}' same diet at a much smaller cost, or a better diet for the sum expended. This fact has been well illustrated by a comparison of the diet obtained by the woman in study No. 24a with that secured by other families for the same money or more. This woman had found that in the small store near her home food materials cost her very much more than in the market a few blocks farther away. She could get good sugar at 4 cents at the market, or larger store, which would cost her 6 cents at the small store. Meat for which she would have to pay 10 cents at the small stoi'e she could get for 6 cents at the market. Accordingh' she traded at the market as much as possible. A little knowledge of the comparative nutritive values of food materials would have enabled a number of the families in these studies to have saved a considerable part of the money spent for food by using different kinds of food materials from those purchased. Some of the famdies used the higher priced cuts of meat while others obtained more nourishment for the same or less money spent for cheaper cuts. Two of the families used cornmeal and two used rye bread during the weeks when the studies were made. None of the rest used any other meal or flour than the higher priced white flour, although the cheaper grades of flour are b}'^ many regarded as equally nutritious and pala- table. Dried beans occurred in nine of the dietaries and dried peas in five, but only in small quantities and not as a staple article of food, not- withstanding that these are among the cheapest and most nutritious of foods commonly available. In the more general use of dried peas, beans, cornmeal and the cheaper cuts of meat, these dietaries could (U have been not only cheapened as to cost, but where there was little to spend, greatly increased in nutritive value. DETAILS OF THE STUDIES IN CHICAGO. The dietary studies in Chicago were made in the spring in the vicinity of Hull House among families in the region in which the work of the settlement was carried on. No difficulty was experienced in securing from the families selected permission to make the studies, as the work of the Hull House was well known to them and appreciated. As was the case in Philadelphia, the families were believed to be typical of those living in the thickly congested regions of our large cities. The families studied in Chicago were superior as regards intelligence, etc., to those studied in Phila- delphia. As regards nationality, they comprised native Americans, Americans of German and Irish descent. Scotch, English. Irish and German, American-Irish, English-American, English-Irish, German- American, French-Canadian. Hungarian, and Bohemian. Most of these families were in much better circumstances than those studied in Philadelphia, a large portion of them having good incomes. In nearly all of them the women were members of the Hull House woman's club. The kind help and interest of this association in the investigations rendered success in the undertaking easier. The attempt was made to secure as accurate data as possible regard- ing the kinds and cost of food consumed, Init in these studies more reliance had to be placed on the housekeepers than was the case in the studies in Philadelphia, since with the number undertaken it was im- possible to devote the time to the work which would have been required for personal supervision of every detail. The data of the studies, however, are believed to be quite trustworthy. Altogether 38 studies were made in Chicago, of which the results of 32 are given in the present l)ulletin. The results of 3 of the studies included, however, namely, Nos. 33a, ola, and 59a are somewhat doubtful. All the others are believed to be more satisfactory. The details of the studies follow. DIETARY STUDIES OF AMERICAN FAMILIES (Nos. 29a-35a). Three studies were made with American families. Of these, 7 (Nos. 29a-35a) were with native Americans, 5 (Nos. 36a-40a) were with Americans of German descent, and 1 (No. -Ila) with Americans of Irish descent. DIETARY STUDY NO. 29a. The family in this study consisted of two men and two women. The income of the family was $150 a month. They paid ^16 a month rent 65 for six rooms. The health of the fuuiil y was not the best. The woman had neuralgia; the daughter had had typhoid fever. The son was not hungry in the morning but was at about 11 o'clock, although he had not time to get anything lo eat then. During the course of the study the faiuily spent 5 cents for watercress, 38 cents for cotfee.and 35 cents for tea, in addition to the food materials purchased. The study continued seven days. One man took his lunch daily awav from home. The number of meals taken at home was therefore as follows: Meals. Two men 28 Two women (42 meal* X 0.8 meal of man) erjnivalent to 34 Total number of meals et|uivalent to 62 Equivalent to one man twenty-one dayp. DIETARY STUDY NO. HOA. This family consisted of two men. two women, and two children, aged 14 and. 3 j'ears, respectively. The head of the family was a car- penter. They were all in good health. The children drank coiiee for breakfast and tea for supi:)er. The woman was vei-y neat and intelligent and patronized the large markets. They paid ^14 a month rent for seven rooms. During the study she spent 5 cents for ginger, 10 cents for catsup, 25 cents for tea, and 35 cents for coffee in addi- tion to the food materials purchased. The fuel used during the time of the study cost about 55 cents. The study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meal.'0. 33a. The family consisted of a man. a woman, and three children, aged respectively 8, 5, and 3 3'ears. The income of the famih^ was §16 a week. They received $5 a month for board for one member of the family. They paid §1.5 a month rent for four rooms. The children had line complexions and appeared to be very well. They were fed largely on bread, milk, and potatoes, but were also allowed to drink tea and coffee. The meat u.sed was bought largely for the benefit of the man. The ligures for the study are somcssdiat doubtful, but the}' were taken just as given by the woman, who was not very intelligent. The study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Child, 8 years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man) , equivalent to 11 Two children, 5 and .3 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 Total number of meals equivalent t(j 57 P^quivalent to one man nineteen days. DIETARY STUDY XO. 3-l:A. The family in this study consisted of four men, two women, and two children, one 9 years old and the other 10 months old; the latter not beino- included in the studv. The income of the familv was §30 67 a week. Boarders paid $7 a week. The family paid 82< » a month rent for six rooms and $7 for a barn. The children drank tea and coffee, except on Sunday when they drank milk and beer. They had appar- ently very good health. In addition to the food materials purchased 60 cents was spent for coffee and 40 cents for tea. The study continued seven days. The numl)ei- of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Four men 77 Two women (42 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to ;!4 Child, 9 years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equivalent to 11 Total number of meals equivalent to 1 22 Equivalent to one man forty-one days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 3oA. This family consisted of three men, weighing respectiveh^ 154. 137, and 13,5 pounds; two women, weighing 143 and 109 pounds, respect- ivel}', and two chiklren, one 13 3-ears old weighing 75 pounds and one 7 years old weighing 38 pounds. One of the men was sick with typhoid fever and consumed only eggnogg. so he was not included in the study. The rest of the family appeared to be in fair health. The children drank coffee once a dav and tea twice. The income of the family was $15 a week. They paid $1() a month rent for four rooms. In addition to food materials purchased they spent 20 cents for tea and 60 cents for coffee. Fuel cost them 50 cents per week. The study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Two men 42 Two women (42 meals X O.S meal of man), equivalent to 34 Child, 13 years (21 meals X 0.7 meal of man), equivalent to 15 Child, 7 years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man) , equivalent to 11 Total numl)er of meals equivalent to 102 Equivalent to one man thirty-four days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 36 A. This family consisted of two men, two women, and one child 10 years of age. They were clean and intelligent and in good health. The child drank milk mostly. The income of the family was $25 a week. The\' paid Sll a month rent for four rooms. Fort^'-five cents was spent during the week for coffee and tea and 35 cents for fuel. The study continued seven days. There were adult visitors present at seven meals, therefore the number of meals taken was as follows: M._'als. Two men 42 Two women (42 meals X O.S meal of man ), e cents for })ickles. and 5 cents for mu?;tard. Tlie study continued seven days. The man got his lunch away from home; hence the number of meals taken >vas as follows: Meals. Man 14 AVoman ( 21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Two children, 15 and 12 years (42 meals X 0.7 meal of man), equivalent to 29 Child, 10 years (21 meals X 0.6 meal of man), equivalent to 13 Child, 2^ years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 Total number of meals equivalent to 81 Equivalent to one man twenty-seven days. DIETARY STUDY NO. JtIa. This was an American familv of Irish descent, consisting of a man, a woman, and four children, aged, respectively, 13, 10, and -1 years, and 16 months. The health of the family was not good. The woman suffered from rheumatism. Among the children there had been cases of pneumonia, inflannuation of the bowels, and measles during the winter preceding the study. The children drank milk, and one of them beer for her health. The income of the family was $35 a month. They paid $12 a month rent for five rooms. They spent 50 cents for tea during the course of the study. 70 The stud}^ continued seven da} s. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man ^9 Woman (19 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 15 Child, 13 years (19 meals X 0.7 meal of man), equivalent to 13 Child, 10 years (19 meals X 0.6 meal of man), equivalent to 11 Child, 4 years (19 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 7 Child, 16 months (19 meals X 0.3 meal of man), eijuivalent to 5 Total number of meals equivalent to. 70 Equivalent to one man twenty-three days. Table 15. — ^V*f//;^^■ (tiid cud of food oiid nutrinitx in diifuri/ stxdii'x of Amrrican fninilii's. Food oonsunied iluriiitr tlu' whok' study (7 dsiys). Kinds and nniounts. DMarji .stndii yo. ■iUn. ANIMAL FOOD. Cost. Beof: Sirloin steak, 5.71 pounds, 71 cents (3'3). Mutton chops, 3 pounds, 4,5 cents (46) Pork: Syiare rib, 4.5 pounds, 30 cents (5S) Fish: Whitefish, 1.5 pounds, 15 cents (103) Eggs, 3 pounds, 32 cents (105) Clieese, 0.56 pound, 8 cents ( 111) Milk, 2.09 pounds, 5 cents (114) Total animal food VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Flour, 16.33 pounds, .55 cents (122) Sugar, 5 pounds, 30 cents ( 163) Vegetables: Asparagus, 1.13 pounds, 13 cents (174); cabbage, 1.25 pounds. 7 cents (181); let- tuce, 0.63 pound, 12 cents (187): onions (green), 0.56 pound. 25 cents (190); potatoes, 14 pounds, 25 cents ( 196); spinach, 3.19 pounds. 26 cents f 206); tomatoes (canned) , 5.34 pounds. 45 cents (209) Fruits: Oranges, O.sO pound, 5 cents (238); strawberries, 1.31 pounds, 26 cents (250) Total vegetable food. Total food Dirtarii sfi((l>/ J\V). ,>()((. .^NI.MAL FOOD. Beef: Bologna, 0.5 pound, 5 cents (1); shin, 2 pounds, 10 cents (17) ; neck, 2 pounds, 10 cents (9) ; porterhouse steak, 2 pounds, 24 cents (27) ; round steak. 1.5 pounds, 15 cents (2S); roast rib, 5 pounds, 50 cents (14). Veal cutlet, 1.5 pounds, 20 cents (44) . Mutton chops, 1 pound, 13 cents (46) I'ork: Ham, 1.5 pounds, 30 cents (60); lard, 1 pound, 13 cents (62) Butter, 4 pounds, 51.28 (106) ]i;ggs, 4.5 pounds, 48 cents ( 105) Milk, 14.65 pounds, 42 cents (114) Cream, 1.35 pounds, 12 cents (113) Cheese, 1 pound, 16 cents (111) Total animal food 1.16 .:>o .15 .32 .08 .05 2.06 . 55 .30 1. .53 .31 2.69 4.75 1.47 .43 1.28 .48 .42 .12 .16 Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of f(X)d per man per day. Cost. iDo/larx.i Ceiits. 4. 36 ,5.5 1.4 .7 1.5 .4 .3 Protein. Fat. Orams. Grams. 29 40 13 24 3 1 8 6 3 4 2 2 Carbo- hydrates. Grams. 9.8 2.6 1.4 7.3 1.5 12.8 22. 6 4.6 1.3 4.0 1.5 1.3 .4 .5 13.6 58 77 41 50 108 81 36 3 1 8 7 ■"4' 31 21 48 6 8 3 5 59 265 108 54 4 431 Fuel value. ( 'niories. 472 266 21 85 48 34 433 11 i 926 1,2.51 4;?2 261 16 1,960 2,886 420 199 431 85 10 139 1 31 61 1,366 71 Tabi.e 15. — Weiijlifs (Old CD&t of food mtd nutrimtx in dietary studies of American fnuiilieii — Continued. FdOfl consmneil diirinjj tliL' whole study ("days). Kinds and amounts. Pietary f^turtii Xo. Ma — Continued. VEGET.iBI.E KOOri. Cereals: Apple pie, 1 pound, 10 cents (15.S); bread, 14 pounds, 70 cents (147): buns, 1.25 pounds, 12 cents (148); cakes (ginger), 0.5 pound, 5 cents (157): flour, 8.17 pounds, 20 cents (122) Sugars: Chocolate, 0.25 pound, 7 cents (167); sirup, 1.5 pounds, 10 cents (1.66); sugar, 10 pounds, .58 cents ( 16:3 ) Vegetables: Asparagus. 1.69 pounds, 15 cents (174); cabbage, 2.5 pounds, 14 cents (181); corn (canned), 1.31 pounds, 12 cents (184); cucumbers, 2 pounds, 10 cents (186); onions (dry). 1.25 pounds, 6 cents (189); onions (green), 0.19 pound, 10 cents (190); peas (green), 2.72 pounds, 15 cents (194); potatoes, 28 pound.s, 55 cents (196); rhubarb, 2 jjonnds, 5 cents (201); tomatoes (canned), 1.78 pounds, 10 cents (209) .' Fruits: Apples, 4.5 pounds, 15 cents (214); ba- nanas, 3 pounds, 15 cents (21S); raisins, 2 pounds, 10 cents (248); strawberries, 1.31 pounds, 23 cents (250) Total vegetable food Total fofid ■. , Diftary t^tadi/ So. Sla. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Shoulder, 1.25 pounds, 12 cents (19); sir- loin, 1.25 p)Ounds, 15 cents (32); soup bone, 2 pounds, 5 cents (17). Veal: Loin, 1.5 pounds, 18 cents (41); rib, 3 pounds, 30 cents (43) Pork: Salt pork, 3 pounds, 36 cents (64) ; .sausage, 1 pound, 10 cents (66); tenderloin, 1 pound, 15 cents (71) , Fi.sh: Cod (salt), 1 pound, 10 cents (SO) Butter, 1 pound, 33 cent.s ( 106) , Butterine, 1 pound, 16 cents (107) , Eggs, 4.5 pounds, 48 cents ( 105) Milk, 15.71 pounds, 45 cents (114 ) , Cheese, 0.75 pound, 12 cents (111) , Total animal food , VEGETABLE FOOI>. Cereals: Cake, 1 pound, 10 cents (150); flour, 4 pounds, 16 cents (122); rolls, 1 pound, 6 cents (159) Sugar, 2 pounds, 12 cents (163) , Vegetables: Beans (dry), 1,96 pounds, 8 cents (177); onions (green), 0.75 pound, 20 cents (190); peas (green), 1.36 pounds, 10 cents (194); potatoes, 10.5 pounds, 27 cents (196) Fruits: Jellv (currant), 2 pounds, 10 cents (228); lemons, 0.88 pound, 5 cents (236) , Total vegetable food Total food Jh'etari/ t^tudi/ No. 3'2n. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Sausage, 1 pound, 12 cents (16); shoulder, 2.5 pounds, 20 cents (19): sirloin, 1 pound, 14 cents (32). Mutton chops, 1.5 pounds, 12 cents (46) , Fish: Salmon (canned), 1 pound, 18 cents (96) ., Butter, 1 pound, 35 cents (106) Cost. I)ol/i); onions, 2 pounds, 16 cents (189); pars- nips, 1.25 pounds, 5 cents (191); potatoes, 7 pounds, 13 cents (196); peas (green), 1.36 pounds, 16 cents (194 ) .58 Fruits: Apples, 4.5 pounds, 18 cents (214); oranges, 1.58 pounds, 10 cents (238); straw- berries, 2.6 pounds, 42 cents (250) 70 Total vegetable food . .'. ' "i, 18 Total food I 4. 10 Diiturn sitidi/ Xo. SM. ANIMAL FOOD. ) Beef: Rump steak, 0.83 pound, 10 cents (30); sirloin steak, 1.5 pounds, 25 cents (32). Veal chops, 2.75 poun 3 35 3.67 19.3 59 212 35 2, 264 .87 4.6 .55 14 386 1,889 .70 3.7 3 12 222 1,007 .81 4.3 11 1 .S8 405 1 .30 1.6 2 25 108 2.68 14.1 '1 27 721 3,409 6.35 33.4 13J 239 756 5,673 2.21 .5.4 45 42 5,54 73 Table lo. — Weir/Jtt^ and cost of food and xutrienlx in families — Continued. dietartj dudles of American Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Cost, nutrients per , and fuel value of food man per day. Kind.? and amounts. Cost. Cost. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. DifMrij study No. 5/,o— Continued. ANiM.iL FOOD— continued. Pork; Ham, 1.5 pounds, 30 cents (60 1; ham 1 boiled ) , 0.6 pound. 1.1 rents (61 ) : lard, 1 pound, 13 cents (612); pork, l-'i.-J-i pounds, §1.81 (58); .sausage, 1.5 pounds, 15 cents (66) Fish: Trout (lake), 4 pounds, 38 cents (89); whitetish (smoked). 2 pounds, 25 cents (10-'.)... Rntt«-'riiip ^ imnnrl'ii Ml) Cfiit'^ ( 107^ Dollars. 2. .54 .63 .90 .41 Cents. 6.2 1.5 2.2 1.0 Grams. 28 8 1 5 Grams. 69 5 46 Grains. Calories. 726 77 413 Fe^o's R 75 'noniids 41 cents ( 105 i 4 .56 Milk '^4 3'' nounds SI cents ( 114l .84 2.1 11 13 . 16 1 224 1 Total animal food 7.53 18. 4 98 179 1 16 2, 0.50 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Apple pie, 1 pound, 10 cents (158); bread (rve), 11 pounds, 45 cents (146); cake, 1.5 pounds, 30 cents (150); flour, 12 pounds, 4'' cents n 2'^^ 1.27 .36 2.26 .61 .40 3.1 .8 5.5 1.5 27 11 180 66 72 12 926 264 Vegetables: Cucumbers, 12 pounds, 30 cents (186); lettuce, 1.32 pounds, 15 cents (187); onions, 2.5 pounds, 10 cents (189); peas, 5.44 pounds. 25 cents (194); potatoes, 35 pounds, 84 cents (196); radishes, 2.63 pounds, 40 cents (200); spinach, 3.19 poinids, 10 cents (206); tomatoes (canned), 1.78 pounds, 12 cents (209).. Fruits: Apples, 9 pounds, 36 cents (214); straw- 12 1 345 48 "Rppr s nounds 40 cents (259^ 1.0 1 10 1 44 Total'vegetable food 4.90 11.9 40 12 1 340 1, 627 Total food 12.43 30.3 138 191 356 3,677 Dietary study So. 35a. ANIM.\L FOOD. Beef: Shoulder, 3 pounds, 15 cents (19); neck, 2 pounds, 20 cents (9); rump, 5.29 pounds, 43 cents (15); calves' heart, 1.5 pounds, 5 cents (38). Mutton, neck, 3.5 pounds, 15 cents (50) . Pork: Bacon, 0.63 pound, 10 cents (.50); fresh loin, 3 pounds, 40 cents (.58): ham (boiled), -1 pound, 20 cents (61); salt pork, 1.75 pounds, 24 cents ((J4); sausage, 1 pound, 12 cents (6(i) .. Fish: Herring (fresh), 4. 17 pounds, 25 cents (.s7;: sardines,- 0.28 poinid. 6 cents (99); .smoked Vi'ilitint 0 ,58 ooiTnd 7 cents (lO'^l .98 1.06 .38 .30 .36 .75 .45 2.9 3.1 1.1 .9 1.1 2. 2 l!3 30 11 9 30 44 4 12 22 8 8 387 436 72 "Rnttcr 1 nound ;-lO cents ( 10()^ 107 Rnttfirinp '* iionTids ?i(W'eTits (107l 196 TTp'pro K 75 TMiiiTid'^ 75 feiits M051 12 7 119 Milk 15 71 pounds, 45 cents (114) 10 139 Total animal food 4.28 12. 6 69 128 10 1,456 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread, 7 pounds, 35 cents (147); flour, •'4 T)ounds .5.5 cents ( 122 ) .90 .36 .93 2.6 1,1 2.7 45 4 290 80 61 1,376 320 Vegetables: Beans (string), 0.66 pound, 10 cents (178); onions (dry), 3.75 pounds, 13 cents (189); onions (green), 0.19 pound, 5 cents (190); po- tatoes, 28 pounds, 55 cents (196); spinach, 3.19 pounds, 1() cents (206) 1 1 9 1 289 Total vegetable food 2.19 6.4 1 54 5 431 1,985 Total food 6.47 19.0 1 123 133 441 3,441 Table 15. — Weights and cost of food and nutrients in < families — Continued. lietary studies of American Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Kinds and umoiints Dietari/ stiub/ JS'o. .ifia. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Round steak, G pounds, so cents (28); sir- loin steak, 4.7.i pounds, 73 cent.s (32). Veal chuck, 4 X)Ounds, 40 cents (37). Mutton loin, 3 pounds, 30 cents (4ij) Pork: Lard, 2 ]>ounds,.28cents (62); tenderloin, 2 pounds, 30 cents (71) Fish: Perch, 3 pounds, 25 cents (94j Butter, 3.5 pounds, 95 cents (lOG) Eggs, 6 pounds, 64 cents (105) Milk, 28.27 pounds, 81 cents (114) Cream, 2.25 pounds, 20 cents ( 113 1 Cheese, 1.5 pounds, 24 cents (111 i Co.st. Total animal food. VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Cake, 1 pound. 30 cents (150); flour, 11 pounds, 43 cents (122) .•-lugar, 4 pounds, 22 cents ( 163) Vegetables: Asjiaragus, 1.13 pounds, 10 cents, ( 174) : butter beans, 1.31 pounds, 15 cents (175) ; cabbage, 1.23 pounds, 10 cents (181); cucum- bers, 3 i)Ounds, 15 cents (186); lettuce, 0.88 pound, 11 cents (187); onions (dry), 2.5 pounds, 6 cents (189); peas (green), 2.75 pounds, 10 cents (194); potatoes, 21 pounds, 43 cents (190); radishes, 0.65 pound, 5 cents, (200): rhubarb, 0.75 pound, 5 cents (201); spinach. 3.19 pounds, 20 cents (206); turnips, 4 pounds, 6 cents (212) Fruits: Apples, 4.5 pounds, 15 cents (214 1: ba- nanas, 3 pounds, 10 cents (218); cherries (canned), 2.25 pounds, 20 cents (221); oranges, 4.75 pounds, 20 cents (238); peaches (canned), 2.25 pounds, 23 cents (239); pineapples, 1.96 pounds, 10 cents (243): prunes, 1 poinid, 15 cents (247 ) Dollars. 2.23 .58 .25 .95 .64 .81 .20 .24 Total vegetable food . Total food. IHetanj stiidi/ Xo. .i^a. ANHIAL FOOD. Beef: Corned beef. 7 pounds, 50 cents (2) ; shank (fore). 4 pounds, 25 cents (17) ; round steak, 8 pounds, S1.03 ( 28) Pork; Sausage, 3.5 pounds, 35 cents (66) Fish: Perch, 4 potnids, 25 cents (94) Butter, 3 pounds, 80 cents (106) Eggs, 6.25 pounds, 76 cents ( 105 ) Milk, 19.89 pounds, 06 cents (114 ) Total animal food VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Apple pies, 3 pounds, 36 cents (158); bread, 9 pounds, 45 cents (147); cake (sweet), 0.5 pound, 5 cents (1.50); doughnuts, l.lSpounds, 10 cents (1.56 1; flour, 24.5 pounds, 63 cents (122). Sugar, 8 pounds. 46 cents (163) Vegetables: Cabbage, 4.94 pounds, 13 cents (181); onions (green), 0.94 pound, 15 cents (190); po- tatoes, 14 pounds, 23 cents (196); tomatoes, (canned), 1.78 pounds, 10 cents (209) Total food. Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Cost. 5. 90 ]..)6 1.13 3.64 9.54 4.60 1.59 .46 .61 Cent a. 1.8 .8 3.0 2.0 2.5 .6 .8 Total vegetable food 2. 60 7.26 Protein. Gi-ams. 42 18.5 2.3 4.9 3.5 11.4 29.9 .78 4.6 .35 .9 .25 .6 .80 2.1 .76 1.9 .66 1.7 11.8 4.1 1.2 1.5 6.8 18.6 Fat. Grams. 35 Carbo- hydrates. Grams. 5 32 3 1 1 42 1 8 3 16 1 6 0 / 24 11 37 119 147 152 36 5 3 10 62 44 48 110 30 18 1 30 95 11 11 106 Fuel value. Calories. 480 305 21 378 116 274 61 90 158 61 42 318 340 12 12 295 93 28 416 428 1,724 755 228 297 185 1,465 3,189 411 180 21 267 102 160 1,141 1,454 372 128 1,954 3,095 75 Table 1 o. — Weightii (iitd ciixf <}f food (liiij nntrienta in dietary dudies of American famines — Continued. Food consumed during- the whole study (7 days). Kinds and jimonnts. IHetary »tadij No. SHa. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Porterhouse steak, 2.93 pounds, 41 cents (27); sirloin steak, 4.81) pounds, (38 cents (32); shoulder, ti pounds, 60 cents (19) Pork: Ham, 1.25 pounds, 20 cents (60) Fish: Whitefish, 2 pounds, 15 cents (103); lob- ster. 1 pound, 22 cents (90) Butter, 4 pounds, SI. 25 ( 106) Cheese, 1 pound, 16 cents (111) Milk, 6.75 pounds, 60 cents (114) Eggs, 1.5 pounds, 15 cents (105) Total animal frxid VEGET.\BLE FOOD. Cereals: Bun.s, 0.75 pound, 5 cents (148); crack- ers, 3 pounds, 38 cents (153) ; flour, 24.5 pounds, 60 cents (122) Sugar, 4 pounds, 24 cents (163) , Vegetables: Beans, 1.96 pounds, 8 cents (177); cabbage. 1.23 pounds, 8 cents (LSI) ; cucumbers, 1 pound, 10 cents (1S6): lettuce, 0.43 pounds, 5 cents (187); onions (dry), 1.25 pounds, 5 cents (189): onions (green), 0.5pound, 5 cents (190); potatoes, 35 pounds, 68 cents ( 196 ) Fruits: Bananas, 6 pounds, SOcents (218); oranges, 4.75 pounds, 20 cents (238); strawberries, 1.3 pounds, 26 cents (250) Total vegetable food Total food I>ietari/ stiifli/ Na. Sya. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Round steak, 3.6 f>ounds, 31 cents (28); shoulder steak, 4 pounds, 32 cents (19i; porter- house steak, 0.75 pound, 8 cents (27); shank (fore), 1 pound, 11 cents (17); suet, 0.5 pound, 5 cents (35). Veal, 3 pounds, 24 cents (37) Pork: Bacon, 1 pound, 20 cents (.55); chops, 1 pound, 14 cents (58) ; sau.sage, 1 pound, 10 cents (66) Butter, 1 pound, 25 cents (106) Eggs, 12 pounds, SI. 18 (105) Butterine, 3 pounds, 51 cents (107) Milk, :37.69 pounds, 81.24 (114) Total animal food VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread, 2 pounds, 5 cents (147); buns, 0.75 pound, 5 cents (148): corn meal, 2 pounds, 5 cents (119): flour, 42.5 pounds, $1.05 (122); ginger snaps, 1 pound, 6 cents (157); graham meal, 5 pounds, 25 cents (124); oatmeal, 4 pounds, 15 cents (131); pop corn, 0.25 pound, 3 cents (132); wheat (cracked), 2 pounds, 15 cents (140) Sugar, 4 pounds, 48 cents (163) Vegetables: Asparagus, 2.81 pounds, 21 cents (174) ; beans (string), 0.66 pound, 5 cents (178) ; lettuce, 0.22 pound, 5 cents (187); potatoes, 14 poinids, 26 cents (196); radishes, 0.22 pound, 2 cents (200); rhubarb, 4 pounds, 10 cents (201).. Fruits: Apples,8.33pounds,38cents (214): lemons, 0.66 pound, 5 cents (236); oranges, 0.8 pound, 5 cents (238); plums, 2 pounds, 7 cents (245), rasp- berry jam, 1 pound, 10 cents (249) Total vegetable food . Total food Cost. Dollars. 1.69 .20 .37 1.25 .16 .60 .15 Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Cost. 4.42 1.03 .24 1.09 3.12 .54 1.11 .44 .25 1.18 .51 1.24 4.73 1.84 .48 .69 .65 3.66 8.39 Cents. 5.0 .5 1.1 3.7 .5 1.8 .4 13.0 Protein Grains. 31 2 4 1 3 3 3 3.0 . 7 3.2 2.3 9.2 22.2 .9 .5 2.3 1.0 2.4 9.3 3.6 .9 1.4 1.3 7.2 16.5 47 Fat. Grains 24 5 1 45 4 4 2 85 15 1 .58 Carbo- hydrates. GraiiiK. 105 19 3 13 ii' 46 94 13 12 7 10 22 13 SI 65 111 10 10 87 Fuel value. Calorici 338 53 25 405 48 68 30 967 280 53 87 IS 1 , 350 212 417 85 438 443 2,064 3,031 192 119 62 141 196 228 17 938 388 36 20 26 1,885 144 92 108 470 2, 229 487 3,167 76 Table 15. — Weights and cost of food and nutrients in dietary studies of American families — Continued. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value o per man per day. f food Kinds and amounts. Cost. Cost. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. Dietary study No. /,0a. .\XI.>I.\L FOOD. Beef: Corned beef. 7 pounds, 48 cents (2); flank, 2 pounds, 10 cents (24): shoulder steak, 4.5 pounds, 42 cents (19): rumpstcak, 1..'^ pounds, 15 cents (30). Mutton: Shoulder, 0.5 pound, 5 cents (51). Veal: Chuck, 2 pounds, 15 cents (37) Dollars. 1.35 .60 .30 .45 .35 .25 Cents. 5.0 2.2 1.1 1.7 1.3 .9 Grains. 45 10 6 1 t'l 5 Grams. 49 ■ • 48 2 42 4 6 Gravis. Calories. 616 Pork: Bacon. 2 pounds, 20 cents (.55); chops, 1 jxnuid, 14 cents (.581: lard. 0.5 pound, 6 cents 467 Fish: White, 2.5 pounds. 25 cents 003): white 42 Riittcriiic :-iiMHiiids 4.> rents (107) 378 ^^ir(^^ '* (i:^, Donnfls ;^o cents (1051 60 Milk 9 42 pounds 25 cents (114) 8 105 Total animal food 3.30 12.2 73 1.51 8 1,668 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread, 13 pounds, 64 cents (147j: cake, 1.5 jiounds, 10 cents (150); pie, 0.5 pound, 5 cents ( 1.5.S) .79 .30 . 60 3.0 1.1 2. 2 22 6 136 84 39 685 336 VeRetables: Beans (.string), 0..53 pound, 15 cents (178); lettuce, 0.66 pound, 5 cents (187); onions (dry), 1.25 pounds, 5 cents (189); i)otatoes, 14 pounds, 30 cents (196); turnips, 2 i)er of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Three men 63 Two women (42 meals X 0.8 meal of man) equivalent to 34 Child, 13 years (21 meals X 0.7 meal of man), equivalent to ...... 15 Child, eight years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equivalent to 11 Total numljer of meals equivalent to 123 Equivalent to one man forty-one days. DIETARY STUDY NO. ItSa. This family consisted of two men, a woman, and two children, aged 2 years and 0 months, respectively. The children were very clean and were in good health, but the 3'oungest child was rather pale. They were both allowed to drink tea and coffee. The income of the family was $12.50 a week. They paid $8.50 a month rent for three rooms. During the course of the study thev spent 20 cents for tea and coffee and 1<» cents for catsup. The study continued seven days. The numV)er of meals taken was as follows: MeaLs. Two men 42 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Child, 2 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 Total number of meals equivalent to 67 Equivalent to one man twenty-two days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 4-l:A. The family in this study consisted of one man, one woman, and three children, aged 13, 10, and 8 years, and weighing 90, 65, and 60 pounds, respectively. The woman and children looked well. The two older children drank a cup of coffee and a cup of tea each day. The young- est child drank milk. The income of the family was not given. They paid $45 a month rent for six rooms. Fuel cost them about $1 per week. In addition to the food materials purchased they spent 20 cents for tea, 35 cents for coffee, 30 cents for vinegar and catsup, and 5 cents for pickles. 78 The study continued seven diiys. The number of nieuls taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Child, 13 years (21 meals X 0.7 meal of man ), equivalent to 15 Child, 10 years (21 meals X 0.6 meal of man), equivalent to 12 Child, 8 years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man), eijuivalent to 10 Total number of meals equivalent to 75 E(]uivalent to one man twenty-five days. Table Itl — Wfii/hts (ind cust nf food (nid initrit'iits in diitorii MndifK of (irniKiii pniillieft. Food pon.'iumerl during the whole study (7 days). Kinds and amounts Itictarij i-titdi/ yictnnj sttirlji Xo.liSa. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Round, 1.5 pounds, 15 cents (28); shoulder, 2pounds, 20 cents ( 19). Veal, breast, 4 pounds, 30 cents ( 36) ; leg, 2 pounds, 24 cents (39) Pork: Lard, 2 pounds, 26 cents i62i: loin, 2 pounds, 24 cents (,58); salt pork, 4'pounds, 24 cents (64 i; sausage, 0.66 pound, 10 cents (66).. Eggs. 1.5 pounds, 20 cents ( 105) Butter, 0.5 pound, 13 cents (106) Milk, 14.66 pounds, 42 cents (114) Cheese, 0.9 pound, 18 cents (111) •. Total animal food. VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread. 9 pounds, 45 cents (147); cake, 0,75 pound, 15 cents (1.50): crackers, 1 pound, 8 cents (1.53 ) : floiir, 12.25 pounds, 33 cents (122) ; noodles, 1 pound, 12 cents (128) Sugar, 6 pounds, 33 cents ( 163 ) Vegetables; Cabbage, 3.7 pounds, 21 cents (181); onions (green ), 1.25 pounds 5 cents ( 190) 10 1.85 .12 1.50 .79 .60 C'eiit^. 3.8 .2 4.5 .3 3.7 1.9 1.5 (irniiiH. lOcams. . dram/'. Calorie. 14 1 ') :^0 31 2 1 1 47 11 8 2 15 6.51 15.9 121 1 .94 .Si 2.3 20 .89 .84 .20 .13 .42 .18 4.1 3.8 .9 .6 1.9 .S 33 15 2. 66 12.1 1.13 5.1 .33 1.5 .26 1.2 51 1 121 61 329 123 245 49 396 17 422 115 1.58 1,402 582 244 .80 1.9 12 1 43 229 2.07 .5.0 32 3 225 1 1,0.55 8. .58 2J. 9 109 124 1 229 2,457 266 9 4 129 3 9 12 6 2 1,192 43 80 10 15 207 73 61 1-4 17 1,861 1,600 492 24 79 Table 16. — WeigJitii and cost of food and nutrients in dietary studies of German families — Continued. Food consumed durinfr the whole study (7 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel man per c value of food per ay. Kind.s and amounts. Cost. Cost. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. Dietanj stiidi/ Xo. /,5n-^ContinTied. VEGETABi.E FOOD — continued. Fruit, bananas, 3 pounds, 10 cents (218) Dollars. 0.10 .05 Cents. 0.5 .2 Grams. 1 Grams. Grams. 9 *2 Calories. 40 8 1.87 8.5 53 9 468 2, 164 ToIhI food 4. .53 20.6 114 183 485 4, 025 Dietarij stinln Xo. I,!,a. ANIM.AL FOOD. Beef: Sirloin steak, 1.5 pounds, 20 cents (32); round steak, 1 potnid, 12 cents (28); rib, 4 pounds, ,50 cents (14) ; soup bone, 2 pounds, 10 cents(17). Mutton; Hind quarter,.5.75 pounds, 75 cents (47). Veal chuck, 2 pounds, 25 cents (37) 1.92 .47 .60 .60 .48 .91 7. 7 1.9 2.4 2.4 1.9 3.6 43 6 13 48 30 8 31 8 21 599 Pork: Chops, 2.5 pounds, 33 cents (58); lard, 1 291 Fish: Trliut (lake), 2 pounds, 25 cents (>9): hal- ibut (smoked ). 2 pounds, 15 cents (S6) ; salmon 123 "Rnttpr '^ ri(HiTir!<5 PiO CPnts MOfi^ 276 11 18 115 Milt 1Q '^'^ iioiinds Ql cents (111"! .... 27 367 T(jtal animal fo(>. -tt'iA. This family consisted of three men, three women, and a child 12 j^ears old; all in good health. The income of the family was $100 a month. They paid ^13 a month rent for six rooms. During the period of the study they spent 05 cents for tea and 12 cents for yeast and pepper. The study continued seven days. Two men took their lunches and one man his dinner awa^^ from home. Hence the num])er of lueals taken was as follows: Meals. Three men -42 Three women (63 meals X 0.8 meal of man) , equivalent to 50 Child 12 years (21 meals X 0.7 meal of man), equivalent to 15 Total number of meals equivalent to 107 Equivalent to one man thirty-«ix days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 47a. This family consisted of a man. weighing about iso pounds, and a woman, weighing about lln pounds, and two children whose ages and weio'hts were not o-iven. The voungest child had been sick before the study began, but was well at the time. The older ]»oy drank cofi'ee and milk three times a day. The income of the family was $9 to $10 a week. They paid $5 a month rent for 2 rooms. Fuel cost them about 50 cents a week. In addition to the food materials purchased they spent 25 cents for coffee and 20 cents for tea. The studv continued seven davs. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man) , equivalent to 17 Child (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man) , equivalent to 11 Child (21 meals X 0.3 meal of man) , equivalent to 6 Total number of meals equivalent to 55 Equivalent to one man eighteen days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 18 A. This family consisted of four men, one woman, and two children, aged 9 and 1 years, respectively. The children were in fair health. 81 The}' drank coffee in the morning- and tea at night. The woman was d3^speptic and had bronchitis. The husband earned $9 a week, and $13 a week was received from boarders. They paid $11 a month rent for four rooms. In addition to the food materials purchased they spent $1.15 for tea and coffee and 3 cents for salt. The stud}' continued seven davs. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Four men 84 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man ), equivalent to 17 Child, 9 years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equivalent to 11 Child, -4 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 Total number of meals equivalent to 120 Equivalent to one man forty days. DIETARY STUDY NO. -IOa. The family in this stud}- consisted of one man, 150 pounds, and three women weighing respectfully 1'25, 165, and 200 pounds. They were all in fair health. The income of the family was $8 to $9 a week. They paid $6 a month rent for three rooms. Fuel cost them about 50 cents a week. During the period of the study they spent 30 cents for tea and coffee. The study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals.. Man 21 Three women (63 meals X O.S meal or man) , equivalent to 50 Total number of meals equivalent to 71 Equivalent to one man twenty-four days. DIETARY STUDY NO. 50a. This family consisted of four men, one woman, and two children, aged 14 and 6 years, respectively; all in good health. The husband earned $9 a week, and three boarders paid, respectively, $4.50, $4.25, and $4 per week. The family paid $12 a month rent for four rooms. During the period of the study they spent 30 cents for coffee, 10 cents for horseradish, and 5 cents for mustard. The study continued 7 days. The number of meals taken was as follows : Meals. Four men . .'. 84 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Child, 14 years (21 meals XO.7 meal of man), equivalent to 15 Child, 6 years (21 meals XO.5 meal of man), equivalent to 11 Total number of meals equivalent to 127 Equivalent to one man forty-two days. 25580— No. 129—03 6 82 Table 17. — WeighU and cost of food and nntrlcnts in dietary studies of Irish families. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Kinds and amounts. Dietary study i\'o. !,oa. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Sirloin steak. 2 pounds, 2.5 cents (32); veal rib, 6.2-5 pounds. 55 cents (43); liver, 0.50 pound, 5 cents (40); mutton rib, 1.5 pounds, 20 cents (46) Pork: Bacon, 1 pound, 16 cents (55) Fish: White, 1.5 pounds, 15 cents (103) Butter, 1 pound, 31 cents (106) Eggs, 3.25 pc)unds, 23 cents (105) Cream, 2.25 pounds, 20 cents (113) Milk. 4.19 pounds, 12 cents (114) Total animal food , VECiET.^BI.E Ff)Or>. Cereals: Bread, 9 pounds, 45 cents (147); cakes, 0.5 pound, 5 cents ( 1.50 ) , Sugar, 5 pounds, 25 cents ( 163) Vegetables: Tomatoes, fresh, 1 pound, 8 cents (211); lettuce, 0.22 pound, 5 cents (187); i)Ota- toes, 10 pounds, 20 cents (196); rhubarb, 3 pounds, 10 cents (201) Fruits: Bananas, 3pounds,10cents (218); straw- berries, 0.65 pound, 10 cents (2.50); pineapple, 0.9 pound, 15 cents (243) Cost. Dollars. 1.05 .16 .15 .31 .23 .20 .12 Total vegetable food. Total food Dietary study Xo. /,6a. ANI.MAL FOOD. Beef: Liver, 2 pounds. 8 cents (8); sausage (smoked). 1 pound, 10 cents (16) ; flank steak, 1.5 pounds, 15 cents (24); rump (corned), 7 pounds, 66 cents (3); chuck, 11 pounds, SI. 10 (23). Veal chops, 2.5 pounds, 28 cents (41). Mutton chops. 2.5 pounds, 33 cents (46) Pork: Bacon,.1.25 pounds, 20 cents (55); ham, 1.33 pounds, 24 cents (60); lard, 2 pounds, 24 cents ( 62 ) Fish: White, 3 pounds, 33 cents (103); white (smoked), 2.5 pounds, 25 cents (104) Butter, 3 pounds, 90 cents ( 106) Eggs, 7.5 pounds, 85 cents ( 105) Cheese, 1 pound, 25 cents ( 111 ) Milk, 21.98 pounds, 189 cents (114) Total animal food. VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Applepie.lpound.l2cents(15S): Bread. 2.2 pounds, 11 cents (147) ; cake, 2.25 pounds, 30 cents (150); crackers, 3 pounds, 29 cents (153); flour, 24.5 pounds, 72 cents (122) Sugar, 8 pounds, 43 cents (163) Vegetables: Cabbage. 2.47 pounds, 16 cents ( 181) ; corn (canned), 1.31 pounds, 14 cents (184); onions (drv), 2.5 pounds, 14 cents (189): pota- toes, 28 pounds, 60 cents (196); radishes, 0.65 pound, 10 cents (200); rhubarb, 1.5 pounds, 10 cents (201): tomatoes (canned), 1.78 pounds, 12 cents (209") Fruit: Bananas, 6 pounds, 30 cents (218) Total vegetable food Total food 2.22 Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Cost. Cents. 6.6 1.0 .9 1.9 1.4 1.3 .50 .25 .43 2. 60 .68 ..58 .90 .85 .25 1.89 7.75 1..54 .43 1.36 .30 3.63 11.38 Protein. Grams. 44 3 5 13.9 3.1 1.6 1.9 1.6 2.5 2.4 .7 5.3 21.6 4.3 1.2 3.8 10.1 31.7 Fat. Carbo- hvdrates. 12 2 4 Grams 36 17 1 24 8 12 5 Gi-ams. 70 103 24 54 4 10 12 3 9 54 39 6 32 9 5 11 1.56 44 53 145 11 1 12 168 Fuel value. Calories. 496 163 29 214 119 127 85 144 142 45 14 14 325 101 61 11 498 512 1,233 717 568 204 .35 2 2 1 1 16 ( / 1. .53 9.6 31 «l 347 1,566 3.75 23.6 101 109 356 2. 799 697 363 93 285 128 57 190 1,813 1,574 404 2a5 48 2,311 4,124 83 Table 17. — Weir/IifK and cost of food and nntrientK in dietary studies of Irixh fainllles- Continued. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Kinds and amounts. Cost. Cast. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. Iikturi/ stud;/ So. 1,7a. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Corned, 4 pounds, 30 cents (2); round steak, 2.5 pounds, 32 cents (28); sirloin, 2. .5 pounds, 32 cents (32) Dollars. 0.94 1.29 .18 Cents. 5.2 7.2 1.0 Grams. 37 38 8 io' 10 Grams. 40 142 3 21 7 13 Grams. Calories. .504 Pork: Bacon, 2 pounds, 26 cents (5.5); chops, 5 pounds, 25 cents (.58); lard, 2 pounds, 24 cents (62 , ; roast, 4. -56 pounds, 54 cents (.58) 1,416 Fish: Herring (fresh), 3 pounds, 18 cents (87) ... .59 Butter, 1 pound, 24 cents ( 106 ) .24 ; 1.3 . 32 1. 8 . 36 2. 0 187 Eggs, 3 pounds, 32 cents (105) 102 Milk. 12.56 pounds, 36 cents (114) 16 220 Total animal food 3.33 18.5 103 226 16 2 488 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Apple pie, 1 pound, 10 cents (158); bread, 4 pounds, 20 cents (117); crackers, 0.5 pound, 4 cents (153) : flour, 12.25 pounds, 29 cents (122); oatmeal, 2.5 pounds, 7 cents (131). Sugar, 4.SS pounds, 25 cents ( 163) .70 .25 .53 .18 3.9 1.4 3.0 10 57 13 347 123 56 10 1,7:^2 492 Vegetables; Cabbage, 2.47 pound.s, 12 cents ( 181 ) ; carrots, 0.25 pound, 3 cents (182) ; onions (green), 0.13 pound, 5cents (190); potatoes, 14 pounds, 28 cents (196) ; turnips, 0.44 pound, 5 cents (212) . 7 2.52 Beer, 3.5 pounds, 18 cents (2-59 ) 1 40 Total vegetable food 9.3 64 j 13 536 2 .516 Total food . . . 4.99 1 27.8 167 1 239 1 552 5,004 liictanj study JS'o. U8a. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Corned, 12 pounds, 84 cents (2); rump steak, 1.5.5 pounds, S1.51 (30); shoulder, 15' pounds, SI. 50 ( 19 1 3.85 .92 1.20 .70 .80 1.44 .36 9.6 2.3 3.0 1.7 2.0 3.6 .9 74 11 12 8 79 24 11 4 29 999 Pork; Chop. 2.5 pounds, 34 cents (58); .sau.sage. 1 jiotnid, 10 cents (06); sparerib, 4 pounds, 48 cents (.58 ) 258 Fowl, 8 pounds, .SI. 20 (75) 146 Fish; Salmon, 2 pounds, 30 cents (98); trout (lake 1, 4 pounds, 40 cents (89i 68 Butter, 3 pounds, 80 cents (106) 258 Eggs, 13.5 pounds, $1.44 (105) 26' 14 205 Milk, 12. .56 pounds, 30 cents (114) . . 5 6 7 101 Total animal food 9.27 23.1 130 167 7 2,035 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: .Apple pie, 5 pounds, 60 cents (1.58); bread, 24 pounds, SI. 20 (147); buns, 5.75 pounds, 40 cents (148); cake, 1 pound, 10 cents (150) ... Sugar, 9 pounds, 53 cents (163) 2.30 ..53 .72 35 5.8 1.3 1.8 32 14 214 102 48 9 1, 109 408 Vegetables: Cabbage, 2.47 pounds, 12 cents (181) ; potatoes, 28 pounds, 60 cents (196) 6 1 225 Beer, 7 pounds, 35 cents (259) 36 Total 3.90 9.8 38 15 373 1 778 Total food 13.17 32.9 168 182 380 3 813 Dietary study No Ui)a. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Dried, 2 pounds, 25 cents (4); round, 2.5 pounds, 25 cents (28); rump, 4 pounds, 30 cents (15). Mutton (rib), 3 pounds, 15 cents (46). Veal chuck, 4.5 pounds, 25 cents (37) 1.20 .62 .18 .30 5.0 2.6 .8 1.2 52 4:\ .591 Pork: Lard. 1 pound, 12 cents (62); loin,4pounds, 50 cents (58) 10 39 6 2 3.S7 Fish: Herring (fresh), 3 pounds, ]8 cents (87)... 42 Butter, 1 pound, 30 cents (106) 16 142 84 T.VBLE 17. — ]Vrightfi and cost of food and rtutrientu in dietary .studies of Irish families- Continued. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Kinds and amounts. Dietary study No. /<.9a— Continued. ANi.MAL FOOD — continued. Cost. Eggs, 3 pounds, 32 cents (105) Millc, 12..'i6 pounds, 36 cents (114) . Cheese, 0.33 pound, 5 cents (111) . . Dollars. 0. 32 .30 .05 Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Cost. Cents. 1.3 1.5 .2 Protein, drams. Total animal food. 3.03 12.6 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereal : Bread. 2 pounds, 10 cents (147); flour, 4. OS pounds. 10 cents (122) : oatmeal, 2 pounds, 10 cents (131): apple pie, 1 pound, 10 cents (1.58). Sugar, 19.5 pounds, SI (163) Vegetables: Cabbage, 2.47 pounds. 13 cents (181 ) ; onions (green), 0.13 pound, 10 cents (190): potatoes, 21 pounds, 42 cents (196): turnips, 1.31 pounds, 11 cents (212) 85 Fat. Carbo- ! Fuel hvdrates. value. Grams. 5 10 (H-ams. I Calories. 73 169 26 117 .40 1.00 1.7 4.1 Total vegetable food . Total food 19 Dietary stii'ly Xo. ,'>0a. ANIMAL p-OOD. Beef: Corned, 7 pounds, 43 cents (2): round steak, 3 pounds, 36 cents (28): shoulder, 5 pounds, 40 cents (19) Pork: Chops, 8 pounds, SI. 05 (5S); ham (boiled), 2 pounds, 40 cents (61): lard, 0.5 pound, 5 cents (62) ; sausage, 3 pounds, 38 cents (66) FLsh: White, 3 pounds, is cents (103) Butterine, 1 pound, is cents ( 107) Eggs, 3 pounds, .32 cents (105) Milk, 12. .56 pounds, 36 cents (114) Cream, 0.56 pound, 5 cents (113) Cheese, 0.5 pound, 8 cents (ill) 1.19 1.88 .18 .18 .32 .36 .05 .08 2.8 26 4.5 20 .4 3 .4 .8 4 .9 0 .1 .1 •> Total animal food. 4.24 10.0 60 94 12 12 26 47 1 9 3 5 1 o 1,430 111 . .573 369 j 1,476 .76, 3.2 8 ,. 62 280 2.16 \ 9.0 27 6 542 1 2, 329 .'i. 19 21.6 112 123 554 3, 7.59 335 498 21 80 43 93 9 26 1,105 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread, 15 pounds, 75 cents (147): cake. 4.5 pound.s, 50 cents (1.501: pie, 1 pound, 12 cents (158); rolls, 5 pounds, 25 cents (159) Suerar 6 Dounds :^6 cents (16:^^ 1.62 .36 1.30 .10 3.9 .9 3.1 '2 24 10 154 65 62 2 801 260 Vegetables: Cabbage. 1.23 pounds, 10 cents (181) : onions, 4.25 pounds, 25 cents (189): potatoes, 35 poinids, 75 cents (196); turnips, 1.75 pounds, 10 cents (212) ; tomatoes (canned), 1.78 pounds, 10 cents ( 209) Fruit: Oranges, 2.38 pounds, 10 cents (2oS) 10 :::::::: 288 8 Total vegetable food 3.38 8.1 34 10 283 1,357 Total food 7,62 18.1 94 104 290 2, 462 MISCELLANEOUS DIETARY STUDIES (Nos. 51a-60a). The ten studies following- were made with families of different nationalities. DIETARY STUDY NO. 51a. This study was made with an English family consisting of a man, weighing 14:f) pounds, and a woman, weighing 185 pounds, both in good health. The income of the family was |100 a month. They 85 paid $21 a month rent for .six room.s and a bathroom. Fuel cost them $2.50 a week. During the period of the study they spent 45 cents for cotfee and 1 cent for yeast in addition to the food materials purchased. The stud}' continued seven days. The woman was away from one meal and the man from two; hence the number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. ^lan 19 Woman (20 meals X 0.8 meal of man ) , equivalent to 16 Total number of meals e(juivalent U Equivalent to one man twelve days. 35 Table 18. — Weights and cod of food and nutrients in dietary study No. 51a. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Kinds and amounts. Cost. Cost. Protein. P^ 1 Carbo- Fuel -^'^'" hydrates, value. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef- Porterhouse steak, 8.65 potmds, SI. 08 (27). DuUars. 1.08 .10 .63 ..58 .53 Cents. 9.0 .8 5.3 4.8 4.4 Grams. 62 4 22 "l 26 ie' Grams. 58 4 20 64 18 Grams. Calories. 7(4 Pork: Ham (boiled), 0.5 pound, 10 cents (61) £2 Fowl 4 2 pounds, 63 cents (75) 2e6 574 9f4 Butter 2 pi )unds, 58 cents (106) Eggs, 5.25 pounds, 53 cents (105) Cream, 0.68 pound, 6 cents (113) Milk 12. .56 pounds, 36 cents (114) .06 ! .5 . 36 3 0 5 1 : 49 19 24 S9Q Total animal food 3.34 27.8 131 i 188 1 25 2 298 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread, 1 pound, 5 cents (147): ( rackers, 1.5 pounds, 20 cents (153); flour, 9.8 pounds, 24 cents ( 122) .49 .16 .92 .11 4.1 1.3 7. 7 .9 52 q 339 76 13 1 1 644 Sugar, 2 piounds, 16 cents (163) 304 Vegetables: Asparagus, 5.63 pounds, 73 cents (i74,i: cucumbers, 1 pound, 7 cents (186); peas igreen), l.:36 pounds, 12 cents (194) 6 : 1 85 Fruit: Strawberries, 0.65 pound, 11 cents (250)... 4 Total vegetable food 1.68 14.0 58 10 429 2 037 Total food 5.02 41.8 189 198 454 4,335 DIETARY STUDY NO. 52a. This family consisted of an Englishman, weighing 156 pounds, and a woman of Bohemian parentage, weighing 110 pounds. They were in tolerably good health. The woman was not veiy intelligent. Their income was $75 a month. They paid $11 a month rent for four rooms. The fuel cost them about 50 cents a week. During the period of the study the}" spent 25 cents for tea. The study continued seven days, but the man had only one meal a day at home, so the number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 7 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man) , equivalent to 17 Total number of meals equivalent to 24 F.quivalent to one man eight days. 86 Table 19.— Weights and co.^t of food and nutrients in dietary study No. 52a. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Kinds .and amounts. Cost. Cost. Crnff. 3.7 1.9 1.1 1.0 2.3 Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Porterhouse steak. 1.5 pounds, 15 cents (27)- soup bone, 2 pounds. 5 cents (17 1. Veal chuck, 0.5pound, Scents (37). Mutton: Shoul- Dollartt. . 0.30 .15 .09 .08 .18 Grainn. 40 13 (jrams. 27 4 12 4 14 Grams. Calories. 400 Fish: White, 1.5 pounds, 10 cents (103): sardine.s, 88 107 6 12 60 18 245 ' Total animal food .80 10.0 71 61 18 t 900 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread, 3 pounds, 15 cents (147 1: flour. 1 pound, 3 cents (122) .18 .06 .47 .10 1.35 2.3 .8 .5.9 1.3 16.9 22 3 133 57 72 3 647 228 Vegetables: Asparagus, 0..56 pound, 5 cents (174); cabbage, 1.23 i)Ounds, 10 cents (181); carrots, 1.38 pounds, 2 cents (182 1, lettuce, 0.44 pound, 6 cents (187); onions (green). 0.19 pound, 5 cents (190): potatoes, 7 pounds. 14 cents (196) ; rhul)arb, 2 pounds. 5 cents (201) . . . Fruit: Strawberries, 0.05 pound, 6 cents (250) Beer, 27 pounds, §1.35 (2.59) 10 1 337 12 8 176 ; 736 Total vegetable food 2. 10 27.2 1 40 4 441 1,960 2.96 37.2 1 111 65 459 2,860 1 DIETARY STUDY NO. 53a. In this family the husband was Encjli.sh and the wife was American. The family consisted of two men. one woman, and two children aged, respectively. 6 years and 1 year. They were rather unintellio-ent and dirty. i)iit in good health. The income of the family was $15 a week, not including the board of the second man. They paid |35 a month rent for four rooms and a store. For fuel they used soft coal, which cost them about 50 cents a week. During the course of the study they spent 80 cents for tea and coffee. The study continued .'^even days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Two men "*- AYonian (21 inealis X 0.8 meal of man ), equivalent to 17 Child, (i years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equivalent to 11 Child, 1 year (21 meals X 0.3 meal of man) , equivalent to 6 Total number of meals eijuivalent to ''o Equivalent to one man twenty-live days. 87 T.\BLE 20. — Weig}iti< and cod of food nml riutrie)its in didani shoji/ No. 53a. Food fonsumeil during the whole study i 7 dii\> i Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Kinds and amounts. Cost. Ccst. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef : Soup bone, 2 pounds, 5 oents (17): sirloin steak. 2 pounds, 28 cents (32): beef (corned), 4 pounds, 28 cents (2): rib, tj pounds, 75 cents (14). Veal chuck, 4 ])0unds, :32 cents (37). Ddllars. 1.93 .62 .20 .85 .30 .20 Cents. 7.7 2.5 .8 3.4 :5.8 1.2 .8 Grams. 53 11 3 Ornms. 62 39 2 39 15 9 12 GrnvLv. Calories. 704 Pork: Bacon, 2 pounds, 25 cents (55): chops, 2 pounds, 25 cents (.58); .sau.sage, 1 pound, 12 cents ( tJG) 391 Fish: Trout (lake), 2 pounds, 20 cents (.S9) Butter •' 5 nonnds ,S5 cents (106) 30 347 21 8 9 218 Milk 12 50 Dounds 30 cents (114) 11 1 1.56 Cheese, 2 pounds, 20 cents (111) 147 Total animal food 5.05 20.2 105 178 12 2,053 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread, 8 pounds, 40 cents (147): oat- meal, 1 pound, 5 cents (131); rice, 2 pounds, 14 cents ( 1:33 ) ..59 .24 1.16 .92 2.4 1.0 4.6 3.7 19 3 118 73 81 33 575 292 Vegetables: Asparagus, 1.13 pounds, 20 cents (174): cabbage, 3.7 pounds. 16 cents (181): let- tuce, 0.44 pound, 10 cents (187): onions (dry), 1 pound, 5 cents (isy); onions (green), 0.13 pound, 5 cents (190): jiotatoes, 28 pounds, 50 cents (19i;): rhubarb, 2 X'ounds, 5 cents (201); tuniiris 1 T)ound -5 cents c^r*) 11 2 1 1 377 Fruits: Apples, 3.38 pounds, 10 cents (214); ba- nanas, 9 pounds. 32 cents (218); strawberries, 2.6 pounds, 50 cents (2-50 ) 149 2.91 11.7 32 5 305 1,393 Total fi)od 7.96 31.9 l;37 183 317 3,446 DIETARY STUDY NO. 54a. In this family the husband was of German descent, the wife was English. The whole family consisted of two men, a woman, and a child 10 years old. One of the men was not very well. The woman was attractive and intelligent. The boy was very well looking; he drank considerable milk. The income of the familv was $25 a w^eek. They lived in their own house, which would rent for about $20 a month. The}^ spent 18 cents for coffee and 15 cents for tea during the course of the study. The study continued seven days. One man was away from home for dinner. Hence the number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Two men 35 Woman ( 21 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 17 Chilli, 10 years f 21 meals X 0.6 meal of man) , eijuivalent to 13 Total number of meals equivalent to 65 Equivalent to one man twenty-two days. 88 Table 21. — Weights aiifJ cost < if food and nutrients in dietary study Xo. 54a. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Kinds and amounts. .\NIMAL FOOD. Beef: Round steak, 2 pounds, 20 cents (28): porterhouse steak, 3 pounds, 48 cents (27) Pork: Bacon, 0.56 pound, 10 cents (5.5): ham (boiled), 1 pound, 30 cents (61i: salt pork, O.b pound, 6 cents (64) Eggs, 1..T pounds, 16 cents (10-5) Butter, 2 pounds, 00 cents (106) Milk, 14.66 pounds, 42 cents (114) Cream, 2.25 pounds, 21 cents (J 13) Cost, i Cost. Dollars. Cents. 0.68 ' 3.1 .46 .16 .60 .42 .21 2.1 .7 2.7 1.9 1.0 Total animal food 11.5 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Flour, 9.8 pounds, 28 cents (122); oat- meal, 1 poimd, 5 cents (131) Sugar, 4 pounds, 24 cents (163) Vegetables: Beans (dry), 0.98 pound, 5 cents (177); corn (canned)", 1.31 pounds, 15 cents (184): onions (dry), 1.5 pounds, 10 cents (189); potatoes, 14 pounds, 28 cents (196) Fruit: Bananas, 3 pounds, 15 cents (218) Protein. Grams. 20 Fat. Grams. 15 Carbo- | Fuel hydrates, value. Grams. , Calories. 214 5 20 4 3 1 1 35 ' lO 12 1 1 9 15 198 43 316 207 92 41 .33 .24 1.5 1.1 94 17 1,070 . 58 2. 6 .15 .7 11 Total vegetable food 1. 30 . 5. 9 Totalfood 3.83 : 17.4 38 166 82 62 9 808 328 301 36 319 1.473 it9 336 .543 DIETARY STUDY NO. 55a. Thi.-^ .study was made with a Freiu-h-Canadian family consisting of a man, two women, and five children aged 14, 12, 10, 8, and 5 years, respectively. They were all in fair health. The woman was a dress- maker. The house was not neat. The income of the family was $30 a week. They paid §^15 a month rent for six rooms. The fuel cost them $1.50 a week. During the course of the study they spent 62 cents for tea and cotfee, 10 cents for salt and pepper, 2 cents for lem- ons, 1 cent for pickles, and 2 cents for soup green.><. The woman fre((uently made meat ragout. The study continued seven days. The man took his dinners away from home; hence the number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 1 ^ Two women (42 meals X 0.8 meal of man), equivalent to 34 Child, 14 years (21 meals X 0.7 meal of man), equivalent to 15 Two children, 12 and 10 years (42 meals X 0.6 meal of man) , equiv- alent to. - 25 Child, 8 years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equivalent t > 11 Child, 5 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 Total number of meals equivalent to 107 Equivalent to one man thirty-six days. 89 Table 22. — Weights and cost of food and nutrients in dietary study No. 55a. Foorl consnmed during the whole study (7 days). Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Kind.s and amounts. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Sirloin steak, 16 pounds, 1.70 (32); soup Veal chuck, 1 bone. 3 pounds, 18 cents (17). pound, lo cents (37) Pork: San.'sage, 2 pounds, 2.5 cents (66): l(jin, S.2.5 7)0unds, SI. 05 (5,s); shoulder, 1.5 pounds, 22 cents (6S); lard, 0.5 pound, 7 cents (62; Fish: Trout (lake), 3 pounds, 36 cents (S9) Butter, 4 pounds, $1.11 (106) Eggs, 5.62 pounds, 71 cents (105) Milk, 17.8 pounds, 52 cents (114) Total animal food VEGETABLE FOOD- Cereals: Bread, 24.25 pounds. SI. 12 (147): corn- starch, 1 pound, 10 cents (172); crackers, 2 pounds, 15 cents (153): doughnuts, 18. .55 pounds, SI. 65 (1.56); flour, 2 pounds, 8 cents (122); macaroni, 1 pound, 15 cents (127); rice, 0.5 pound, 4 cents (133) Sugars: Sugar, 6 pounds, 36 cents (163); sirup, 6 pounds, 20 cents ( 166) Vegetables: Lettuce, 1.32 yiounds. 15 cents (187); onions (dry), 1.87 pounds, 8 cents (189): pota- toes, 35 pounds, 63 cents (196): tomatoes, canned, 1.78 pounds, 10 cents (209); turnips, 0.44 pound . 5 cents (212j Total vegetable food. Cost. Cost. Dollars. 2.01 1.59 .36 1.11 .71 .52 C'enti<. .D.6 4.4 1.0 3.1 2.0 1.4 6.30 17.5 Protein. Grams. 40 19 4 1 9 7 80 Fat. Grams. 85 50 2 43 7 9 146 3.29 ..56 1.01 9.1 1.6 2.8 51 4.86 13. 5 60 56 Total food ; 11.16 Jl.O 140 202 Carbo- hydrates. Grams. 11 11 Fuel value. Calories. 472 521 34 387 98 152 1,664 349 128 69 546 2, 090 512 321 2,923 4,587 DIETARY STUDY NO. 56a. The family in this studv consisted of a man, a German, weighing- 172 pound.s, and a woman, an American, weighing 168 pounds; three children, aged, respectively, 14, 11, and 7 years, and weighing, respec- tively, 120, 90, and 48 pounds. The woman was intelligent and kept very careful records during the dietary .stud}-. She stated that she had received help regarding food and dietaries from talks at Hull House. She endeavored to provide a sufficient diet with good variety. The children were in good health. The}^ drank milk and cocoa and a great deal of homemade root beer. The income of the family was §23 a week. They paid $11 a month rent for four rooms. The fuel cost them about 25 cents a week. During the course of the study they spent 35 cents for coffee, 30 cents for root-beer extract, 8 cents for yeast, 5 cents for salt, 4 cents for vinegar, and 1 cent for nutmeg. The study continued seven days. In addition to the food con.'^umed by the family they gave away the equivalent of one meal. The number of meals taken was therefore as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man) , equivalent to 17 Child, 14 years (21 meals X 0.7 meal of man), equivalent to 15 Child, 11 years (21 meals X 0.6 meal of man), equivalent to 13 Child, 7 years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equivalent to 10 Food given away equivalent to 1 Total number of meals equivalent to . Equivalent to one man twenty-six days. 77 90 Table 2?>.— Weights and rod of food and nutrients in dietari/ stndi/ Xo. oSa. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Kinds and amounts. Cost. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Rump i corned). 3.1 pounds, 24 cents iS); flank, 1.5 pounds, 15 cents (24): soup bone, i> pounds, 22 cents (17); suet, 1 pound, 8 cents (35). Mutton, leg, 5.5 pounds, (iS cents (48)... Pork: Salt pork, 0.5 pound, 0 cents (64) Butter, 2 pounds, 62 cents ( 106 ) Eggs. 6 pounds, 64 cents (105) Milk, 29.:i2 pounds, 84 cents (114) Cheese, 1 pound, IS cents ( 111 ) Dollars. 1.32 .06 . 62 .(54 .84 .18 Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Cost. Protein. Ctnts. Griims. 5.1 Fat. 2.4 2.5 3.2 14 17 5 (rrams. 50 8 30 10 20 6 Carbo- hydrates. Grams. Fuel value. 26 Calories. 613 71 267 145 350 73 Total animal food VEGETABLE Ff)0I). Cereals: Bread, 2 pounds. 10 cents (147); corn meal, 2 pounds, 5 cents (119); Graham meal, 2 pounds, 6 cents (124); oatmeal, 2 pounds, 10 cents (131); macaroni, 1 i)ound, 10 cents (127); rice, 2 pounds, 20 cents (133i: white flour. 1 pound, 4 cents (122): whole-wheat flour, 9 pounds. 54 cents ( 123) Sugars; Cocoa, 0.5 pound, 10 cents (168); sugar, 4 pounds, 22 cents ( 163) Vegetables: Beans (dry). 0.98 pound, 5 cents (177); cabbage, 1.23 pounds, 7 cents (181); car- rots, 0.26 pound, 5 cents (1S2); cucumbers, 2 pounds. Scents (186): lettuce, O.ss pound, 10 cents (187); onions (green), 5 pounds, J8 cents (190); peas (dry), l..s8 pounds, 5 cents (193); peas (green) 1.36 pounds, 10 cents (194); po- tatoes," 14 pounds, 25 cents (196); rhubarb, 2 pounds, 5 cents (201); spinach, 3.19 pounds, 20 cents (206) Fruits: Apples, 9 pounds, 35 cents (214); cocoa- nut (prepared), 1.5 pounds. 50 cents (224); figs, 1 pound, 10 cents (231); oranges. 4.75 pounds, 20 cents (238i: prunes, 1 pound, 16 cents (247) 3.66 14.1 124 26 1,519 1.19 4.6 .32 I 1.2 46 9 1.18 t 4.6 1.31 5.0 259 72 Total vefc-etab'.- fuxl. Total food 4.00 7.66 15.4 29. 5 20 4 : 7-2 1, 291 323 16 79 56 405 382 150 28 466 2,401 152 492 ♦3, 920 DIETARY STUDY NO. 5* A. This stud}- was made with a Hungarian famil}' consisting of three men, two women, and four children, aged, respectively. 14. 12. 1(>. and 23^ears. The children were in fair health. They drank milk, tea. and coffee. The income of the family was not given. They paid §40 a month rent for 8 rooms. The fuel cost them about Si. 50 a week. In addition to the food materials purchased they spent 67 cents for coffee, 50 cents for tea, 5 cents for soup greens. 5 cents for pickles, and 6 cents for candy. The study continued seven days. Two of the men were away during the week. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man -1 Two women (42 meals X 0.8 meal oi man) , equivalent to 34 Two children, 14 and 12 years (42 meals X 0.7 meal of man), equiva- lent to -^^ Child, 10 years (21 meals X 0.6 meal of man) , equivalent to 13 Child, 2 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man) , equivalent to 8 T(jtal number of meals equivalent to 105 Equivalent to one man thirty-tive days. 91 Table 24. — Weights and cost of foml ami mttrii'iits in rllftari/ stiuhj Xo. ■'>7 7*2 Dounds 60 cents fll3i . . . • 166 Total animal food 6.30 18.0 87 184 28 2,097 VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Apple pie, 1 pound, 10 cents (158); bread, 20 pounds, SI (147); cakes, 2.70 pounds, 26 cents (150): crackers, 2 pounds, 17 cents (1.53); wheat breakfast food, 0.33 pound, 2 cents (137); flour, 9.5 pounds, 33 cents (122): oatmeal, 3 pounds, 11 cents (131); rice, 1 pound, 7 cents (1:33) Sugar, 14 pounds, 77 cents ( 163) 2.06 .77 1.22 1.17 5.9 2.2 3.5 3.3 51 14 316 181 27 70 1,593 724 Vegetables: Beans (string), 2.63 pounds. 20 cents (178); cabbage. 2.47 pounds, 12 cents (181); carrots. 3 pounds, 5 cents (182); lettuce, 0.22 pound, 5 cents (187); onions, 2 pounds, 10 cents (189); peas (green i, 2.75 pounds, 10 cents (194) ; potatoes ( new) , 7 pounds. 45 cents (196) ; radishes 0 44 pound, 5 cents ( 200) 5 3 1 2 137 Fruits: Apples, 24 pounds, 60 cents (214); ba- nanas, 3 pounds. 10 cents (218); peaches (dry), 1 pound, 15 cents (240); pears (dry), 1 pound, 10 cents (242); pineapples, canned, 3.81 pounds. 10 cents (244); prunes, 1 pound, 12 cents (247) 310 Total vegetable food . 5.22 14.9 59 17 594 2,763 Total food . 11.52 32.9 146 201 622 4,860 DIETARY STUDY XO. o8a. This was a Bohemian family consisting- of three men, two women, and four children, aged, respectively, 13, 11. 9, and 5 years. The chil- dren were in good health. Thev all drank coffee. The father earned $1-2 a week and boarders paid !^3.50 a week each. The family rented a house of four rooms for §10 a month. They spent o-l cents for coffee in addition to the food materials purchased. The stud)^ continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Three men 63 Two women (42 meals X 0.8 meal > >i man ), equivalent to 34 Child, 13 years (21 meals X 0.7 meal of man) , equivalent to 15 Child, 11 years (21 meals X 0.6 meal of man) , equivalent to 13 Child, 9 years (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man), equivalent to 11 Child, 5 years ( 21 meals X 0.4 meal of man), equivalent to 8 Total number of meals equivalent to 144 Equivalent to one man forty-eight days. 92 Table 25. — Weights and coHt of food and nutrients in dietary study No. 58a. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days). Kinds and amounts. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Shin. 10.5 pound.s, 53 cents (17). Mutton, leg, 7.5 pounds. 68 cent.s (48). Veal chuck, 8.5 pounds, 85 cents (37) Pork: Sausage. 2 pounds, 20 cents (66); sparerib, 12.5 pounds, SI. 44 (-58) Butter. 1.5 pounds, 43 cents (106 ) Eggs, 8.25 pounds, 83 cents 1105) Milk, 21.99 pounds, 63 cents (114) Cheese, 1 pound, 5 cents (110) Total animal food VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Flour (white), 19.6 pounds. 47 cents (122i: flour (rye). 12.5 pounds, 27 cents (121) . Sugar, 14 pounds. 77 cents ( 163 1 Vegetables: Beans ( string i , .5.25 pounds, 10 cents (178): cabbage, 2.47 pounds, 15 cents (181): carrots, 0.25 pound, 5 cents (182): lettuce, 1.25 pounds, 10 cents (181): onions, 1.25 pounds, 5 cents (189): potatoes, 3.5 pounds, Scents (196) Beer, 7 pounds, 35 cents (259) Total vegetable food Total food Cost, nutrients, and fuel value of food per man per day. Cost. 1 Protein. Fat Carbo- Fuel hvdrates. value. 8. 04 16.8 106 89 394 1,035 528 .54 .35 1.1 1 .7 ;.. 2 11 52 32 2.40 5.0 i Z.'. 3 383 1,687 2,792 DIETARY STUDY NO. 59a. The fiiinily in this study oon.sisted of a umii, Irish, weighing 145 pounds, and a woman, Engli.sh, weighing 1 pounds. They were in fair health. The children drank tea and coffee three times a day. The income of the family wa.s $9 a week. They paid S9 a month rent for three rooms. The fuel cost them 50 cents a week. In addition to the food materials purcha.sed, they spent 60 cents for tea and cotl'ee. The .study continued seven days. The number of meals taken was as follows: Meals. Man 21 Woman (21 meals X 0.8 meal of man ), equivalent to 17 Child (21 meals X 0.5 meal of man ), equivalent to 10 Child, 4 years (21 meals X 0.4 meal of man ), equivalent to 8 Total mim ber of meals equivalent to 56 Equivalent to one man nineteen days. 93 Table 26. — Weights and cost of food a month. In addition to the food materials purchased they spent 21 cents for coffee and 16 cents for tea. The study continued seven days. Two men ate their lunches away from home each day. Hence the number of meals taken was as fol- lows : Meals. Three men 49 "Woman { 21 meals X 0.8 meal of man) , equivalent to 17 Total number of meals equivalent to 66 Equivalent to one man twenty-two days. 94 Table 27. — Weights and rost of food and nutrients in dietary studi/ Xo. 60a. Food consumed during the whole study (7 days) . ' ^ost, nutrients^and^fuel >^lue of food per Kind.s and amount.s. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef: Tenderloin steak, 3.25 pounds. 49 cents (32). Veal, neck, 7.75 pounds. 95 cents (42) ... Pork: Bacon (smoked 1.0.75 pound, 8 cents (55): chops, 1.5 pounds, 2:? cents (58); sausage, 1.5 pounds, 18 cents ( 66 ) Butter. 2 pounds, .50 cents (1(36 ) , Eggs, 7.5 pounds, 75 cents ( 105) Cream, 1.13 pounds, 10 cents (113) Milk, 14.66 pounds, 35 cents (114) Total animal food VEGETABLE FOOD. Cereals: Bread, 10 pounds, .58 cents (147i: cake, 1 pound, 25 cents (150): crackers, 1 pound, 18 cents (153); pies, 2 pounds, 28 cent.s(1.58j; rice, 0.5 pound, 4 cents (133 1 Sugar, 2 pounds, 11 cents (163) Vegetables: Beans (green), 0.66 pound, 7 cents (178); onions, 2 pounds, 10 cents (189): pota- toes, 25 pounds, .50 cents (196): rhubarb, 3 pounds, 5 cents (201 i: spinach, 3.19 pounds, 10 cents (206): tomatoes (canned), 3.56 pounds, 24 cents (209 ) Fruit: Bananas, 6 pounds, 25 cents (218) Total vegetable food Total food Cost. Cost. Protein. Dollars. Cents. Grams. 1.44 6.5 33 .49 ..50 .75 .10 .:^5 2.2 2.3 3.4 .5 1.6 10 20 1 10 3.63 1.33 .11 .06 .25 2.75 Fat. Carbo- Fuel hvdrates. 1 value. 16.5 6.1 .5 4.8 1.1 12.5 6.38 1 29.0 74 Grams. Grains. Calories. 18 292 31 316 35 312 15 214 4 1 42 12 15 207 115 16 i 1,383 10 38 112 12 127 163 41 87 18 :i09 325 841 164 405 85 1,495 2, 878 SUMMARY AND GENERAL DEDUCTIONS. The vesult.s of the Chicao'o dietarv studies are summarized in the following- table: T.\BLE 28. — Sinnmarij of results of dietary studies vAlh Chicago families. Dietary study No. Families. Cost. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel value. 29a American, native Cents. 22. 6v 26.3 19.5 31.6 33.4 30.3 19.0 Grams. 108 105 94 119 130 138 123 Grams. 81 133 147 135 2:59 191 133 Grams. 433 489 232 458 756 356 441 Calories. 2, 886 30a do 3,560 31a ..do 2,613 32a do 3, .510 33a do 5, 673 34a do 3, 677 35a ..do 3,441 Average 26.1 117 151 452 3, 623 American German descen t 36a 29.9 18.6 22.2 16.5 18.5 119 110 105 111 100 152 106 94 87 157 310 428 443 487 267 3, ls9 37a do 3, 095 38a do 3,031 39a ..do 3,167 40a do 2,867 Average 21.1 109 1*9 393 3,070 41a 34.5 161 153 910 5. 647 Average all American families. . . German 24.9 117 139 465 3. 566 42a 20.9 20.6 33.0 109 114 153 124 183 175 229 485 501 2, 4.57 43a do 4, 025 44a do 4,173 Average 24.8 125 161 405 3, 552 _ 95 Table 2S. — Summary of results of dietary studies with Chicago Jamil ies — Continued. Dietary study No. 45a 46a 47a 48a 49ii 50a 51a 52a 53a 54a 55a .56a .57a 58a 59a 60a Families. Irish... do do. do do do. Cost. Protein. Cents. Gravis. 23. 5 101 31.7 145 27.8 167 32.9 168 21.6 112 18.1 94 I Crrams. 109 168 239 182 123 104 Average . English English-Bohemian English- American . German-English. . . French-Canadian . German- American Hungarian Bohemian Irish-English Scotch 25.9 131 1.54 Average, all (32) studies 41.8 37.2 31.9 17.4 31.0 29.5 32.9 16.8 37.5 29.0 26.8 189 111 137 79 140 150 146 106 209 112 127 198 65 183 99 202 152 201 89 242 127 149 Carbo- Fuel hydrates, value. Grams. 3.56 512 .552 380 554 290 Calories. 2,799 4,124 5,004 3,813 3, 7.59 2,462 441 3,660 454 4.59 317 336 557 492 622 394 767 325 457 4, 335 2, 860 3,446 2,543 4, 587 3,920 4,860 2,792 6,057 2^878 3,664 The cost of the diet per man per day varied in these studies from 16.5 cents in the lowest to 41. S cents in the highest, but in most cases the range above or l)elow the average, 26.8 cents, was considerabl}" within these limits. In none of the Chicago studies was the expense as small as in two of the Philadelphia studies, but in three of the for- mer it was larger than the largest among the latter. In only three of the Chicago studies was the quantity of protein less than 100 grams per man per day. In two of these it was 94 grams and in one 79 grams. Probably in the latter case the figures should really be larger. One of the two men in the family was ill during the time of the study and doubtless ate less than he would when well, but in the calculations of the results of the study he has been credited with tliree full meals each day. Concerning the dietary study No. 51a, with 189 grams of protein per man per day, and study No. 59a, with 209 grams, it has alread}' been mentioned that the results are considered doubtful. Of the remaining studies the results of a few showed fairly large quantities of protein and energy per man per day, but the diet in the majority supplied not very far from the average of all the studies, namely, 127 grams of protein per man per day. This is practically the same as that of the commonh' accepted American standard for a man at mod- erate muscular work, i. e., 125 grams per day. The energy of the average, 3,664 calories per man per day, is but 164 calories above that triven bv the standard iust mentioned. As in the case of the Philadelphia studies, the data concerning the occupations of the families were so few that but little can be said regarding the adequac}^ of the diet; but it may be inferred that it was sufficient. The families in these studies were more intelligent and were in better circumstances than were those in Philadelphia. They had 96 regular incomes, which in a number of cases were more than enough to provide a comfortable living. It is therefore doubtless safe to assume that these people ate at least as much as they needed. The Chicaoo families were on the whole rather less economical than those in Philadelphia. In the average of all the Chicago studies each cent spent secured 4. T grams of protein and 137 calories of energy, while in the average of the Philadelphia studies there were 5 grams of protein and 14-i calories of energy for each cent of the cost. As was the case in Philadelphia, the Chicago families also differed widely in respect to the economj^ of their purchases. Thus in stud}' No. 31a the family spent 19.5 cents per man per day and secured 94 grams of protein and 2,613 calories of energy, while the family in study No. 35a for practically the same expenditure, 19 cents per man per day, obtained 123 grams of protein and 3,441 calories of energy. The family in stud}' No. 39a secured 111 grams of protein and 3.167 calo- ries of enerofv for 16.5 cents, while the family in study No. 52a obtained the same amount of protein, 111 grams, and about 300 calories less energy, or 2,860 calories, at a cost of about two and one-third times as much, 37.2 cents. There are several other examples of the fact that some of the families paid very much more than was necessary for the quantities of nutrients and energy obtained. The costliness of the diets in these studies was not due to inability to purchase in quantities. Several of the articles used in these studies were bought in this way. the principal one being flour, which was bought in every case by the bag or barrel. The chief reason for the lack of economy in the purchase of food was inattention to or igno- rance of the relation between the cost of food and its actual nutritive value. COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS. Something perhaps should be said regarding the results of the dietary studies in Philadel])hia and Chicago, considered as a whole. It should ])e remembered that the studies were carried on some years ago, before some of the experimental methods at present followed had been devised. Furthermore, it was hardly possible with the limited time and equipment at the investigators' disposal to make an entirely satisfactory record of the foods purchased and eaten, and conse- quently, in manj' cases considerable dependence had to be placed upon information given by the families themselves. Certain errors are almost sure to occur in studies of this kind, even under favorable cir- cumstances and with the most careful attention on the part of those conducting the investigations, especially under conditions like those attending the work in Philadelphia, where the families studied were almost without exception quite ignorant and untrained. The chief source of error lies in the possible tendenc}' of the family to give a 97 false impression of their food consumption; in some cases b}- purchas- ing larger quantities than usual or by reporting larger amounts than were actualh' purchased, and in other cases by omitting to mention some of the purchases made. For instance, it appears that families who had formerly been in more comfortable circumstances would some- times be ashamed to let an outsider know how economically the}' were now living, and perhaps how insufficienth' the}' were nourished. In such cases there might be a tendency to procure more food during the time of the study than ordinarily. Other families, suspecting an opportunity for pecuniary assistance, might be tempted to purchase less food than usual, or to conceal food already on hand. Another possible source of error is in the failure to make proper record of the number of meals taken by each memljer of the family or by any visitors. It is noticeable that quite generally the results of dietary studies among' poor families, where the statistics are recorded by the families themselves, indicate a larger food consumption than is found in the more reliable studies in which the food materials were actually weighed by those conducting the investigations. This was very forcibly illus- trated by the results of dietary studies in Chicago in 1895 and 1896, described in a former publication of this Office.'^' In 25 studies in which the data were collected entirely b}' the investigators the average cost of the diet per man per day was 17.9 cents, and the average quantity of protein 116 grams, and of energy 3,160 calories. The persons in charge of these studies also conducted at the same time 28 others, in which the statistics were kept by the families them- selves. These were made with families in the same localities and living under the same circumstances as the others, but the average cost of the diet per man per day as recorded was 22.1 cents, the average quantit}' of protein 11-7 grams, and of energy 3,550 calories, A comparison of the individual studies shows that where the statistics were furnished by the families the differences in results with different families were very much wider than in the studies made entireh' by the investigators. In the dietarv studies in Philadelphia reported in these pages the families were not very intelligent and were in destitute circumstances; the chances for errors were therefore comparatively large. The fami- lies in the Chicago studies here reported were more intelligent and were in more comfortable circumstances, so that the possibilities of error in this case seem smaller. Bearing these facts in mind, it is evident that too sweeping conclusions should not be drawn from the results of the studies themselves or from the averages as compared with those of later studies of families in similar circumstances. «U. S. Dept. Agr., Office ot Experiment Stations Bui. 55. 25580— No, 129—03 7 98 Considering the net results of these dietary studies they were of undoubted value to the settlement associations under whose auspices they were made. They furnished more accurate information than could have been gained otherwise regarding the ways of living, the adequacy of the diet, and the faults in methods of purchasing, cooking, and serving food. The information gained, it is believed, has been utilized in manv ways to the advantage of all concerned. Investigations like the above have been carried on in man}" other localities and under a variety of conditions. Of such work as a whole, it seems fair to say that it has materially assisted the attempts which have been made to help families like those studied in Philadelphia and Chicago to better methods of living. APPENDIX. As has been explained on preceding pages, the percentages of nutri- ents assumed for the diti'erent food materials used in the dietary studies reported in this bulletin are given in Table 29. These are taken mainly from a publication of this Office giving average values for the composition of American food materials/* but are included here in order that the present bulletin may contain all the data used in the composition of the results here reported. The percentages of nutrients assumed for any food material used iu the dietary studies may be found in the table below by means of the figures given in parentheses following the weights and cost of the food material in the detailed tables of the study in which it was used. The figures thus given in parentheses correspond with the figures in the column headed "Reference number" in Table 29. In computing the fuel value of the studies the following factors were used:. Protein 4, fat 8.9, and carbohydrates 4 calories per gram of the total nutrient. These are smaller than factors used in previous reports, namely, for protein and carbohydrates 4.1 and for fat 9.3 calories per gram, but the new factors are based upon later and much more complete data. Table 29. — Percentage mrnposition of (llffi'reiif food tnaleriah used in computing thenvtri- eids of food in dietary studies iu I'liiladelphia, CJticogo, Boston, and Hpringfield. Ref. No. 1 la 2 3 4 5 6 I 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Kind of food material. Beef: Bologna Brisket Corned Corned, rump Dried Frankfurters Gelatin Heart .'. . Liver Neck Rib roll Roast, chufk Roast, loin Roast, pot (rump) Roast, nb Rump Sausage Shin (as lean shank ) Shin (as medium fat shank) Protein. Fat. [ Carbo- :hvdrates. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent 18.2 12.0 14.3 14.3 26.4 19.6 91.4 14.8 20.2 14.2 19.4 1.=). 8 16.4 13.8 14.4 15.2 18.2 13.2 12.8 a U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of E.xperiment Stations Bui. 28, revised. 19.7 22.3 23.8 22.0 6.9 18.6 .1 24.7 3.1 9. 1.5. 12. 16 20. 20.0 18.6 19.7 5.2 7.3 1.1 2.5 99 100 Table 29. — Percentage composition of different food mcderiah used in compnting the nutri- ents of food in dietary studies in Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, etc. — Continued. Ref. No. Kind of food material. I'roteiu. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. 19 Bsef— Continued. Shoulder and clod Per cent. 16.5 12.3 9.7 5.8 1.5.3 18.6 25. 7 19.0 19.1 19.2 16.4 15.2 13.8 16.5 16.5 9.6 4.7 1.5.7 16.0 16.8 18.3 19.0 16.1 13.9 15.2 20.1 15.4 13.1 13.8 15.4 23.1 12.2 13.7 13.7 13.7 16.0 9.5 9.1 13.0 13.2 13.4 14.3 20.2 Per cent. 8.4 1.6 3.9 1.5 11.1 19.9 11.5 12.8 17.9 9.2 6.9 18.6 20.8 16.1 8.4 5.3 81.8 8.2 4.7 9.6 5.8 5.3 8.2 4.6 7.1 7.5 19.1 31.5 23. 2 14.5 9.0 19.6 17.1 15.5 17.1 19.7 59.4 62. 2 3.5.6 26.0 24. 2 29.7 22.4 100.0 24. 2 86.2 59.6 44.2 18.3 33.0 29.7 14.2 13.0 1.2 100.0 21.9 12.3 18.4 .6 1.1 .2 .4 .3 8.8 2.3 .2 4.4 14.0 3.9 8.8 5.1 .7 4.2 3.5 Per cent. •;n Soup bone, fore shank 21 Soup bone, hind shank 22 Soup stock 23 Steak, chuck 24 Steak, flank •?5 Steak, Hamburg 26 1)0 ». . 27 Steak, porterhouse 28 Steak, round •?9 Steak, round, lower cut 30 Steak, rump """ 31 Do 32 Steak, sirloin 33 Stew 34 Do 35 Suet 36 Veal: Breast Chuck 37 38 Heart 39 40 Liver 41 42 Neck 43 Rib 44 Round 45 Breast 46 47 Hind quarter 48 Lee 49 Liver 5 0 50 Neck 51 Shoulder ' 52 Shoulder, medium fat 53 Lamb: 54 Leg 55 Bacon 56 Bacon, fat 57 Bacon, lean 58 59 Fresh 60 61 Ham, boiled 62 63 Loin 13.4 1.9 7.4 13.4 3.3 12.6 14.3 24.8 18.9 11.7 64 .Salt, fat €5 .'^alt. lean 66 1 1 67 Scrapple « 11 2 68 69 Steak 70 71 Tenderloin '?9. 2 73 Poultry: 74 Duck 14.5 13.7 16.1 10.0 10.6 11.1 16.0 21.5 20. 5 22.3 8.4 15.3 19.3 11.2 20.5 9.1 5.9 10.2 11.6 75 Fowl 76 Turkev 77 Bluefish 78 5 2 79 Cod, fresh 80 «1 Cod, salt (edible portion) 82 Finland bloaters «3 Finnan haddie 84 86 Halibut, fresh 86 87 Herring, fresh ." «8 89 Lake trout 90 9 91 Mackerel 92 Do (t Estimated compo.sition. 101 Table 2^.— Percentage composition of different food materials usedin computing the nutri- ents of food in dietary studies in Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, e/c— Continued. , Ref. No. Kind of food material. Protein. 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 Fish — Continued. Oysters Perch Salmon Salmon, canned Salmon, salt Salmon, whole Sardines Shad roe Smelt Smoked ti.sh (as halibut) Whitefish Wliitefish, smoked (as halibut) Prr Eggs Butter Butterine Cheese, American . . . Cheese, Camembert Cheese, cottage Cheese, full cream . Cheese, Neufchatel . Cream Milk. Milk, skimmed Cereals: Barley Barley meal Buckwheat Corn meal Corn meal, yellow Flour, rye Flour, wheat — bread Flour, wheat — entire wheat. Flour, wheat — graham Flour, wheat — pastry Hominy Macaroni Noodles Oat breakfast food Oatmeal Oats, rolled Popcorn (popped) Rice Samp Spaghetti Wheat breakfast food Do Do Do Wheat, cracked Wheat, germs Wheatena Wheat, shredded , Bread, Boston brown Bread, graham Bread, rye , Bread, white Bun.s Buns, cinnanuiu Cake Cakes Cookies, sugar Crackers Crackers, Boston Crackers, soda Doughnuts Ginger snaps Pie Rolls Rolls Wafers, salted Sugars, starclies, and oils: Sugar, brown Sugar, white Honey Molasses Sirup Chocolate Cocoa Irish moss (as tapioca) Oil, cotton-seed Fat. cent. 6.1 7.3 16.7 19.5 19.3 15.3 23.7 20.9 10.1 19.3 10.6 19.3 13.1 1.0 1.2 28. 8 25.9 20.9 25.9 18.7 2.5 3.3 3.4 8.5 10.5 7.5 9.2 7.5 6.8 11.4 13.8 13.3 13.3 8.3 13.4 11.7 15.5 16.1 16.7 10.7 8.0 8.3 12.1 11.9 11.8 10. 6 10.7 11.1 10.5 14.1 10.5 5.4 8.9 9.0 9.2 6.3 9.4 6.3 7.0 7.0 10.7 11.0 9.8 16.7 6.5 3.1 9.7 8.9 10.6 .4 2.4 12.9 21.6 .4 Carbo- hydrates. Per cent. 1.3 1.5 14.8 7.5 14.3 8.9 12.1 3.8 1.0 14.0 3.0 14.0 9.3 85.0 83.2 35.9 33.7 1.0 33. 7 27.4 18.5 4.0 .3 1.1 2.2 4.2 1.9 4.2 .9 1.0 1.9 •> 2 r..5 .3 .9 1.0 7.4 7.2 7.3 5.0 .6 .8 .4 1.5 1.0 1.9 1.4 1.7 2.0 3.1 1.4 1.8 1.8 .6 1.3 6.5 7.2 9.0 9.7 10.2 8.8 8.5 9.1 21.0 8.6 9.8 4.2 4.1 12.7 Per cent. 3.3 48.7 28.9 .1 100.0 .3 2.4 4.3 2.4 1.5 4.5 5.0 5.1 77.8 72.8 65.9 75.4 65.9 78.7 7.5.1 71.9 71.4 72.7 79.0 74.1 75.6 66.8 67.5 66.2 78.7 79.0 79.2 76.3 76.6 76.3 76.2 7.5.1 75.5 76.0 73.5 77.9 47.1 52. 1 53.2 53.1 57.3 59.1 63.3 73.7 73.2 71.9 71.1 73.1 53. 1 76.0 42.8 59.9 56.7 68.5 9.5.0 100.0 81.2 69.3 71.4 30.3 37.7 88.0 102 Table 29. — Pfrcentage compoxitioa of (liferent food materials used in computing the nutri- ents of food III dietary studies in Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, etc. — Continued. Ref. No. Kind (if food material. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. 171 Sugars, starches, and oils— Continued. Oil, olive Prr cnit. Per cent. 100.0 Per cent. 172 Starch, corn 90.0 88.0 8.3 14.6 71.1 59.6 6.9 3.8 7.7 4.8 7.4 2.6 19.0 7.7 2.6 2.5 6.8 8.9 5.5 10.8 9.8 62.0 9.8 62.0 14.7 46 7 17?, Starch, tapioca 0.4 1.8 4.7 18.1 22. 5 2.1 1.1 1.3 1.4 .9 .y 2. 8 1.2 .7 1.0 3.5 1.4 .5 1.8 3.6 24.6 3.6 24.6 1.8 6.8 1.4 .5 .9 .4 1.0 1.3 1.7 1.8 . / 3.6 1.2 . 7 .9 .9 4.2 .3 .5 1.0 4.7 .8 .5 .6 1.1 1.1 1.2 6.3 .5 .4 .4 .4 2.4 1.9 4.3 1.0 .3 .6 1.1 .7 .5 .6 .7 ; 4.7 .5 2.8 .4 .4 1.8 4.7 1.8 2.3 .1 .2 .3 1.5 1.8 .3 .1 .1 .2 .2 .1 1.2 .4 .2 .2 .4 .3 .1 .4 .2 1.0 .2 1.0 .1 39.8 .6 .1 .1 .4 .2 .4 .5 .4 .3 .2 1.0 2 :i .4 .1 .6 .3 174 Vegetables: Asparagus 175 Beans, butter 176 Beans, Lima 177 Beans, navy 178 Beans, string 179 Beans, string, canned ISO Beets 1S1 Cabbage lS-2 Carrots '. 1S3 Celery 1S4 Corn, canned 185 186 Cucumbers 187 188 Mushrooms 189 190 Onions, green 191 Parsnips 192 Peas, canned 193 194 T'eas, green 195 196 Potatoes 197 198 Potatoes, sweet 21 9 199 2.6 4.0 2.2 2 6 200 Radislies 201 202 Roman lettuce 203 Salsifv (as parsnips) 10 8 204 Sauerkraut 3 8 205 1 7 206 Spinach 3 2 207 4 5 208 Succotash, canned 18 6 209 4 0 210 Tomatoes, conserve 57 6 211 3 9 212 Turnips 5 7 213 6.3 10 8 214 Fruits: 215 Apple butter 47.2 12.6 62 5 216 217 Apricots, dried 1.0 .4 218 14 3 219 Barberrv jelly 68 8 220 .1 .1 84 5 ?21 Cherries, canned 01 1 222 59 8 223 Da!....:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;: ::: 59 8 204 57.4 31 5 225 Crab-apple jellv 61 7 226 65.8 9 9 227 Cranberries .6 228 64 0 229 Currants, dried 1.7 2.5 .3 1.2 74 2 230 70.6 74 2 231 Figs 232 14 4 233 Grape jellv . . . 64 3 234 .1 8 5 235 .Tellv 59 9 236 .5 5 9 237 Marmalade, orange 74 4 238 r)ranges .1 .1 1.0 .4 5.4 .3 .7 8 5 239 Peaches, canned 10 8 240 62 5 241 Pears . . 12 7 242 72 9 243 Pineapples 9.7 244 36 4 245 Plums, canned 62.2 246 1.0 62.5 247 Prunes, dried 62.2 248 3.0 68. b 103 Table 29. — Percentage comj>osition of different food materials used in computing the nutri- ents rffood in dieiari/ studies in Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, etc. — Continued. Ref. No. Kind of food material. 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 Fruits— Continued. Raspberry jam (as cherry jelly) . . Strawberries : Strawberries, preserved Nuts: Almonds Hieliory nuts Peanuts (as purchased ) Peanuts (edible portion) Walnuts, English Walnuts, English (edible portion) Country pudding" Beer & Protein. Fat. Per cent. i Per cent. 0.7 .9 0.6 .7 21.0 54.9 .5.8 2.5.5 19.5 29.1 25.8 ■ 38.6 6.9 26.6 18.4 64.4 4.6 5.3 .5 Carbo- hydrates. Per cent. 69.4 7.0 24.0 17.3 4.3 18.5 34.4 6.8 13.0 31.9 11.5 a Compo.sition assumed. ''Alcohol computed to equivalent of carbohydrates. o LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS ON THE FOOD AND NUTRITION OF MAN-Continued. Bui. 81. Nutrition. Investigations at the California Affricultiiral Experiment Station, 1896-1898. By M. E. Jaffa. Pp. 39. Price, 5 cent.«. Bui. s.'>. A Report of Investigations on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread. By C. D. Woods and L. H. Merrill. Pp.51. Price, 5 cents. Bui. H'J. 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EG Y PTl A.\ I R R IG ATIOX: A STUDY OF IRRIGATION METHODS AND ADMINISTRATKjN in EGYPT. BY (l^ARENCE T. JOHNSTON. ASSISTANT CHIEF, IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 190 3: LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS ON IRRIGATION/' Bui. 36. Notes on Irrigation in Connecticut and New Jersey. By C S. Phelps and E. B. Yoorliee,«. I'p. 64. Price, 10 eent8. Bui. 58. Water Rights on the ^Missouri River and its Tributaries^. By El wood Mead. Pp. 80. Price, 10 cents. Bui. 60. Abstract of Laws for Acquiring Titles to Water from the Missouri River and its Tributaries, with the Legal Forms in ITse. Compiled by Ehvood Mead. Pp. 77. Price, 10 cents. ". ." ,. • Bui. 70. Water-Right ProV)lems of Bear River, ByClarcnccT. Jnlmsti maud Joseph A. Breckons. Pp. 40. Price, 15 cents. Bui. 73. Irrigation in the Rocky Mountain States. By J. C. Ulrich. Pp.64. Price, 10 cents. Bui. 8L The Use of Water in Iniiration in Wyuniin^'. P.y P.. C. Buffum. Pp. 56. 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Frontispiece. N-. < z < O 3 z < 602 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— BULLETIN NO. 130. A. C. TRUE, Director. EGYPTIAN IRKIGATIOX: A STUDY OF IRRIGATION METHODS AND ADMINISTRATION IN EGYPT. BY LIBRA!?> NEW YORK BOTANICAL OARDEiV CLARENCE T. JOHNSTON. ASSISTANT CHIEF, IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1 9 0 3 . OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. A. C. Tm-E, I'll. I)., J>ircdoi: K. AV. Allen, I'll. D., Asmtaut JUnrtor. IKKKiATION lXVE«TI(iAT10NS. Elwood Mead, <'hiif. C. T. Johnston, Assistant ridcf in Charge Central District. Samuel Fortier, Agent and Expert in CJiarge Pacific District. C. Ct. P^lliott, Agent (xnd Expert in charge of Drainage Inrestigations. R. P. Teele, Editorial Assistant. C. E. Tait, Assistant in Charge of yktpx and JllnMnilioiis. 9 LETTER OE TRANSMIITAL U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, W^ishini/ton, D. a. May '20, 1903. Sir: 1 have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for publication a report on Egyptian irrigation, prepared under the direc- tion of Elwood Mead, chief of irrigation investigations of this Office, b}^ C. T. Johnston, assistant chief. This report gives the results of observations made by Mr. Johnston during the winter of 1901-2 on the irrigation works, practices, and administrative system of Egypt, under authority of the act of Con- gress making appropriations for the irrigation investigations of this Office, which provides, among other things, for investigation and report upon ^Hhe laws "'' * ''' and institutions relating to irriga- tion and upon the use of irrigation water at home or abroad." The bulletin is illustrated by twenty-five full page plate illustrations and nine text figures, all of which are necessary to a complete elucida- tion of the text. Respectfully, V A. C. True, Director. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. 3 LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Washington, I). C, 2Lnj 20, 1903. Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith a report on Egyptian irrigation, prepared by Clarence T. Johnston, assistant chief of irri- gation investigations of this Office. Mr. Johnston spent the winter of 1901-2 in Egypt, making a study of irrigation methods and laws. This report gives the results of his observations and inquiries. In the valley of the Nile irrigation has been practiced for thousands of years, and if time and experience were in themselves sufficient we ouoht to find water distributed with more skill and used with better results there than in any other country. Such, however, is not the case. On the contrary, the irrigators of this country have little to learn from Egypt so far as practical methods are concerned. The reasons for this are not obscure. One is the lack of inventive and mechanical skill on the part of the fellah. Here every implement used in agriculture has been subject to constant change and improvement; the Egyptian still uses a crooked stic-k for a plow and beats out his corn as did his ancestors in the time of the Pharaohs. In this country we have already evolved special machinery for the construction of canals, building of laterals, and cleaning out and enlarging of ditches; in Egypt many canals are still cleaned by throwing the mud out by hand. The lessons of Egypt, therefore, so far as irrigation practice is concerned, are of negative value. There is another reason why this is so. Irrigators in Egypt are paid 15 cents a day. Their methods are possible onl}^ with this low wage rate, hence they can not be adopted in a countr}' like ours, where higher wages are paid. The showing of the yield and profits of irrigated land in Egypt is, however, full of significance and promise to the arid conmionwealths. It is only on irrigated land that the average net return from sugar cane reaches |80 to $85 an acre. The revenues of the Egyptian Gov- ernment from the areas devoted to dates runs from $lo to $1:5 an acre, and the net profit to the cultivator approximates J^150 an acre. This little tract of agricultural land, no larger than the irrigable area of 6 California, supports between 5,000,000 and 6,000,000 people, pays the expenses of a costly government, and meets the interest on a national debt half as large as our own from the returns on agriculture alone. Three suljjects have a vital relation to the future extension of irri- gation in this country. These are storage, drainage, and the utiliza- tion of water by pumping. The great storage works of Egypt have especial interest to our Government engineers; but Egypt has few examples of the small storage works such as are })eing built in large numbers by private parties in the West and which are destined to be an important feature of our irrigation systems. The accumulation of alkali in the surface soil, which has already become a troublesome feature in Western irrigation, at one time rendered unproductive larg(^ areas in lower Egypt. These are being reclaimed by drains which carry ofl the excess of salts and tend to prevent their further accumulation. So far as lifting water from wells or streams is con- cerned, the devices in Egypt are inferior to the gasoline and electric engines and centrifugal pumps now extensively used in the West. Some of the simpler and cheaper devices of Egypt are efficient for the lifting of small quantities of water, and there are many places in this country where such machines can ))e used to advantage. Mr. Johnston's description of the dams ))uilt liy the French and Enp'lish (lovernments will have much interest. Their success from an engineering standpoint and the great benefits which have come to the people from this expenditure of government funds are unques- tioned. But it is doubtful if we can adopt the administrative methods employed in Egypt. Political and economic conditions in that country difler so widely from our own that methods which are there useful are clearly inapplicable here. Egypt is governed by a foreign power, which has assumed arbitrary control over the water supply, recogniz- ing no riofhts as l)elonging to the users of this water. Such a system has brought about an efficient use of the Nile, but it is repugnant to American ideas. It is a success in Egypt because of lack of means on the part of the agricultural population and lack of the experience in business and political att'airs, needed for the successful operation of irrigation systems under private ownership. The American farmer has both the economic ability necessary to the management of irriga- tion works and the political power and the intelligence to create insti- tutions for controlling the water supply which will be in harmony with our ideas of free government. The study of Egyptian laws and administrative methods, while interesting, is of little value as an example to be followed. Respectfully submitted. El WOOD Mead, Chief of Irrigation Investigations. A. C. True, Director, CONTENTS. Page. Introduction ; 1^ A general view of Egypt 12 The Nile 20 Nile gages 26 Agricultural seasons - 2/ Farms and villages 29 Cost of raising crops and value of farm products 31 Development of Egyptian irrigation 32 The canals of the Nile Valley 34 Construction and maintenance of canals and levees 39 Water-raising devices '*0 The shaduf 40 The sakiyeh 41 The Archimedean screw 43 The natali 44 Pumping 44 Duty of water 45 The Cairo barrage , 47 Reservoirs 49 The Assuan reservoir 52 The Assiut dam 58 Drainage 59 Laws and regulations 61 Conditions to be considered 61 Authority of officials 61 Causes of litigation 65 Irrigation and drainage laws 67 Installation of water-raising devices <- Drainage ''^4 The corvee ^^4 Reform of the corvee system 78 Conclusions 81 Appendix 1 83 Powers of the governors and inspectors of irrigation 83 Canals and levees 85 Order of the Minister of the Interior of July 16, 1898 94 Appendix II - - - - - 96 Installation of machines for elevating water 96 Appendix III 99 Drainage of swamps and marshes 99 7 ILLUSTRATIONS, PLATES. Page. Manufia Canal Frontispiece. Plate I. Map of Egypt,, showing provinces and irrigation circles 12 II. Fig. 1. — Plowing with ox and buffalo. Fig. 2. — Plowing land which has been baked by the sun 16 III. Cleaning a large canal 16 TV. Fig. 1. — Irrigation basin near Pyramids of Gizeh. Fig. 2. — Irriga- tion basin west of Cairo, water returning to Nile in channel 28 V. Fig. 1. — Irrigating strawberries. Fig. 2. — Perennial irrigation, wheat field under check system of irrigation 28 VI. Fig. 1. — Thrashing Indian corn. Fig. 2. — Thrashing wheat 28 VII. Plat of the village of Talbia, showing town and tributary farms 28 VIII. Map showing irrigation works in a portion of the province of Keneh 32 IX. Fig. 1. — Camels carrying ruins of village to be used for fertilizer. Fig. 2. — Cleaning a small canal 32 X. Map of the Nile Valley from Cairo to the Delta showing the location of the barrages and the head works of the principal canals 36 XI. Fig. 1.— Lateral head gate. Fig. 2.— Head gate of Manufia Canal... 40 XII. Theshaduf 40 XIII. Fig. 1. — Sakiyehs. Fig. 2. — A steam pump on a scow 44 XIV. Archimedean screw, showing interior construction at riglit 44 XV. The natali 44 XVI. Fig. 1. — The Damietta Ijarrage from eastern bank of the Nile. Fig. 2. — Rosetta barrage from western Ijank of the Nile 48 XVII. Details of the Cairo barrage. . : 48 XVIII. Map comparing the Nile Valley with that of the Platte River 52 XIX. ^lap showing the Assuan dam across the Nile 52 XX. The Assuan dam 52 XXI. Western end of Assuan dam from downstream, January 7, 1902 52 XXII. Fig. 1. — Cast-iron lining for sluiceways being put in place at the Assuan dam. Fig. 2. — Deep foundation work near western end of Assuan dam 56 XXIII. Diversion dam across the Nile at Assiut 60 XXIV. Map of lower Egypt, showing principal canals and 2 o > 33 O m O > 2 > Xi*^- ■ ♦ 17 ally a piece of land was being- leveled; crude wooden scrapers drawn b}^ oxen were alternately tilled from the hig-her places and emptied into the depressions. Some farmers had tinished plowing and were driving oxen attached to heav}^ framework drags to break the clods and smooth the surface of the fields. The journey from Cairo to Assuan can be made either by rail or by water. By rail one sees the canals and irrigated fields and the different methods emplo3'ed in tilling the soil and cleaning water channels, B3' boat the diversion works at the heads of canals, the water-raising- devices and irrigation structures near the river can best be studied. The journey by water has some advantages over the trip by rail. The boats have regular stopping places, where the surrounding country can be studied, and as the valley is in no place more than 9 miles wide, a considerable portion of the farming land between the river and the desert can be examined in a few hours. Leaving Cairo in the morning by rail, Assuan is reached the next afternoon. The road runs south, on the west side of the river, parallel- ing the Ibraimia Canal as far as Assiut; it continues then to Nagi Hamadi, 373 miles from Cairo, where the river is crossed. The southern terminus of the road is at Chellal, 6 miles south of Assuan. Probably the most interesting part of the trip, to one making a stud}' of irrigation and agi'iculture. is between Cairo and Assiut, a distance of 240 miles. The broad Ibraimia Canal parallels the railroad for some distance below Assiut. During the winter it is dry for a short time, when the channel is hurriedly cleaned. Laborers carrying baskets, which are filled by means of the hoe, swarm the Ijanks and bottoms of the canal. The side slopes are formed accui-ately and smoothed w4th that instrument in a wa}' seldom equaled in the United States. There are no plow marks along the l)anks and runways for teams are unnecessary, while the bare feet of the laborers tend to smooth rather than scar the surface of the ground. The material to be excavated has been cross-sectioned and each man or company of men is required to remove a certain volume. (See PI. IIL) The more industrious make the better wages. The regulating works at Dirut can best be examined by stopping at the station for a few hours. These are representative of the l)est regulators in Egypt. Two large and two small canals begin at this place. The former are the Bahr Yusef and the Ibraimia canals, while the latter are the Dalgawi and Dirutieh canals. Running direct from the Nile and supplying water during the flood is the Saheliyeh Canal. The masonry works run from the point where this canal enters the channel above the regulators to the Ibraimia, thence to the Dirutieh, thence to the Bahr Yusef, and end just beyond the point where the Dalgawi Canal has its head. The works are substantially built and are maintained in good condition. One man can operate the gates of any 277.52— No. 130—0.3 2 18 of the canals by means of a traveling- winch. On the east bank of the channel, about 500 feet above the entrance of the inlet gates of the Saheliyeh Canal, is a waste gate which discharges surplus water into a channel connecting with the Nile. The Dalgawi regulator has two o-ates, each nearlv 1< > feet wide. The Bahr Yusef has five, the Dirutieh has three, the Ibrainiia has seven, and the entrance regulator of the Saheliyeh Canal has two gates. The wasteway has live gates. The latter, as well as the regulators of the two large canals, are supplied with locks which permit the passage of such boats as are employed on these waterways. The Ibraimia Canal will henceforth be supplied at all times of the year from the new headworks at Assiut, which have been built in conjunction with the reservoir work at Assuan and the diverting dam at the former place. The latter structures are described elsewhere in this report. The farming country liecomes narrower as one ascends the river from Assiut. No perennial irrigation is practiced above Assiut except on the lands lying near the Nile, which are served l)y water-raising devices of various kinds. The Arabian desert breaks otf abruptly on the eastern l)ank of the river in many places, and the principal areas of farminir lands are found on the western side of the river. Large sugar plantations are common, and at the principal towns sugar mills are in operation. Light railways have been built through- out Egypt wherever demand for transportation facilities warrants the outlay. These are narrow-gage roads, and the rolling stock is of the lightest. The Sohag Canal, which was probably once a channel ot the river, irrigates a large area between Assiut and the town of Sohag during the Hood of the Nile. In the winter it lies high and dry, while the adjoining farms are green, as a result of inundation. At Dendera, farther up the river, where ruins of the celebrated temple bearing the same name have been found, the agricultural lands showed that a sea- son of adequate water supply had been enjoyed. The temple was nearly l)uried by the crumbling nuid bricks of a village which grew up about it, and has only recently been thoroughly excavated. The farming lands reach to the base of the temple, and during the flood season the water almost touches its foundation. The giant temple of Amnion at Karnak was originally surrounded by a high embankment; but this has been destroyed in places, so that now during the flood water stands to a considerable depth around it. The ruins cover an area 1,o 11 -V .--•• S'' / '-.. .... gc ^ •«- t/ 5- ^ « *; > F ^ s r - "] ^ ";?i V "^ ° ni 2 i 2 'J / A -^ = c o CO •» S > 15 4 ^ =4 — _ — — — — — — — — a 1 T A — — — — — — — — « i i i s r P 7 — ~ ~ ~ "~ 2 > i 1 ^/ \i :»' J^iL' :^- L=, . k; \f ■ ^ — — i : ^ ■" ' c A :i — 1^ — Ji 7.y< ou z_ ffi 17 — — u ^= — ^ % % % I § ^ » g 4. i 5 ? s S s 1 1 S 1 I ■ \ V m — -z :a s i£e C~ z ^ i; 7. *~~ — „ _^_^ . — — — fP ' — — — — -J ^ ^ ' — E^ I ." ^ ' — — z ' 1— — — ^ — — — a;a azj 3 s — "~r — rrr T= '^ — — — — = ■^ .... .... L--;f ' -^ — " ■.--:' "~1 ,. ^ _ v^ .< ' <- — — V \ "^ ■■*:: .... '"1 »- p=j r- V —\ .^_ .ill I ^ .... :ii: l::::. ^ ■> — — — — • — — ^ X ^ — — "•* ■^•:: "^ — — — ^ — — — — — ' — ^ "-- "-V V. • \'-': ^ 1 — ■^ \ S ")r ■' ,.^ ^ ^^■ ^ s^ s- K- / •^ c^: »- — ? ^ ^ =? ^^ ' ^ = ^ — — _ — _ — — — — — 7^ - 3? — — = "" ^ — =j — ^ ■y ^= = :=: — _ — — — £^ r" *) — — • 1 •-;•'' f' ' K ~ --. __ n^ # ^ ;» ^,. .-; ■ ■~~ 1 X ^ / " > ^ < 1 r^. -^ -> ^ y l^ __ — ■ ■'■< " /^ ^ '^ > c • ^ --; <^ \ <; ■^ / ^ ■^ " — <^ ■■.... r- ^ y "T " ^ :/ •^ :"■' ^ :§- /) li^ s^* j«^ ^ ^ ' j,-- y /f? •A ^ -' -^ C ,^. / ,-<- fr^ I'fi <% / ^"1 u / ' 1(^' y T it ".. y ^ V u y ■v; } "/:■ ^. r ' £^ -n? 1 / ^ ^- -^ ■o" ^ -'«■ / -/ Z' ^ 1 / / /' y ^ . / / / .'/ / / / / / ■•. / / ' / / / ? / y 1 / "''■ / ' / / J/.V ^ / / irregular. The absence of great fluctuation in the discharge of the Nile can probabh' be explained by the fact that there are but few 24 tributaries to the main stream and no local precipitation in Nubia or Egypt. The ancient Egyptians worshipped the Nile and the sun. All bene- fits came from these two sources. The inscriptions on man}' of the temples show the Nile in different phases of its discharge, and many of the scenes pictured there represent the rulers or priests navigating the river. Unfortunateh% the tourist seldom sees the Nile in flood. Instead of a gigantic river he sees a sluggish stream of muddy, unin- vitino- water. Its channels are tilled with many sand bars. Its banks may be protected l)v riprapping; they may be rocky or sandy to the water's edge, or supporting a luxurious growth of wheat, clover, or beans. As the river falls crops are planted wherever possible to the water's edge until extreme low- water level is reached. The tourist observes shadufs and other water-raising devices by thousands, ])ut unless he travels otherwise than by boat he has but little opportunity to examine these curious devices for carrA'ing water over the high banks of the Nile, nor does he see much of the land which is watered in this way. He often leaves Egypt without understanding why the Nile should be known as the Father of Rivers and one of the most remarkat)le in the world. To an American it looks like the Missouri below Omaha at low water. The similarity would be even more strik- ing if the bluff's bordering the Missouri were barren sand hills instead of being covered with vegetation. The low-water period of the Nile continues until the middle of July. The critical season is between the middle of May and the middle of July. The sun shines from a cloudless sky and the air is filled Avith dust. Land not perennially irrigated'' is cracked with heat and thor- ouohlv sun baked. Both man and beast suffer for water except where the Nile, the perennial canals, or wells can be easil}^ reached. Even the branches of the Nile in the delta are practically dry in many places, the water all being diverted at the barrage or pumped from the chan- nels of the river lielow this structure. During the first part of July all are anxiously awaiting the first appearance of high water. About the 12th or loth of August the basins of Upper Egypt begin to receive water. The canals for perennial irrigation in both Upper and Lower Egypt are then running bank full and everyone is irrigating the crops so lately threatened with drought. About the 1st of September the Nile is a mighty torrent, having increased from 12,000 cubic feet per second to 400,000 cubic feet per second or more. Upper Egypt, with the exception of the land peren- nially irrigated, is a lake dotted with island villages for thirty to forty- five days. After thirty days have expired people are anxious for signs of retreating waters and eagerly await reports from Assuan and other « Lands along deep canals which always carry water are irrigated throughout the year, hence the terms "perennially irrigated," "perennial irrigation," etc. 25 places. It is believed that if the water stands on the land more than forty days insects will be plentiful and crops will be i^artially destro3^ed. By prolonged high water the planting season is much dela3'ed and the harvest extended into the hot spring months, which greatly reduces the yield. The basins, however, can not be drained until the Nile begins to fall. During all this time the levees must be watched and an army of men working without compensation is called out for this dut}'. About the 1st of October the flood is generally over and the basins begin to empt}'. This is not only a diflicult operation in itself, but the volume of water turned back into the Nile causes high water on the lower reaches of the river and lengthens the period during which the banks have to be guarded. In the delta the Nile runs above BANK OF RIVER Fig. 3. — Spur to prevent tTosion of river banks. the level of the surrounding agricultural lands and a breach of one of the emV)ankments means an immediate overflow of the neighboring country. Changes take place in the channel of the Nile during each season of high water. Often the current will change, and where there had formerly been a gradual slope and considerable agricultural land a steep, caving bank will remain. The lowlands and the 1)anks of the Nile which are farmed each year vary considerably in area from one season to another. The agricultural land adjacent to the river is perennially irrigated, and therefore highly productive. In addition, the Nile banks are lined with )>uildings and expensive pumping machiner3^ To protect the land and improvements the government 26 309.632 Feet. 30S.976 Feet. 308.320 Feet. must either build a masonry wall or reduce the slope and riprap it. It is quite common to jDut spurs in the banks some distance above the points threatened to throw the current farther out in the stream. This is often a dangerous expedient, as the current thus deflected niRy do considerable damage at other points. Fig. 3 shows one of these spurs con- s'^ructed by the government. NILE GAGES. Much has been written about the flow of the Nile, yet it has never been care- fully measured until recently. Although Nile gages, now known as '' nilometers," were established at an early date, the relation between the gage heights and the discharge was never determined until during the last half century. The meas- urements first made, even b}- persons qualified for sut-h work, were rough and can be regarded as onh' aiDproximate. The use of the current meter has finally permitted accurate gagings to be made, and it will doubtless not be long until enough of these have been taken to give value to the gage heights alread}" recorded. On many of the rocks along the Nile in Nubia extreme high-water levels have been recorded. Such marks were doubt- less the earliest gages of the Nile. Dur- ing the past few years some old gages have been discovered at Assiut and other points along the river. The most inter- esting and among the most ancient of the gages are on the island of Philae. The two which can be seen to-day are on the west side of the island. They con- sist of- a- narrow stairwa}^ leading by a short subterranean passage from the surface of the ground on the island to the river. The gages are placed on the walls of this passageway and are in sections of 3 or -i feet each. The ancient gage is graduated in cubits or pics and kirats. On the Nile gage toward the south end of the island of Philae there are a number of different scales, the most modern one being graduated in meters and centimeters, similar to the gage on Elephantine Island, as shown in the accompanying cut (fig. 4). .307.ee4 Feet. 307.00S Feet above sea level. Fig. 4.- -Xilometcr on the Elphaiitint' Island. 27 Instead of taking the bed of the river as the zero of the scale, it is referred to mean sea level at Alexandria/' It is impossible, therefore, to tell the depth of the water b}' reading- the scale. The gage on the south end of Elephantine Island is of the same character as those on the island of Philae. The modern gage is carefully constructed, being inscril)ed on pieces of white marble. The gages at Philae are the most reliable, as the channel of the river there is composed of granite, and from the records of a great many .vears it is found that the aver- age heights of the river have varied l:)ut little. The gages on the Lower Nile are of little value in comparison, as the bed of the river is constanth" changing. B}" far the most celebrated of the gages on the Lower Nile is the one on the island of Rhoda. The graduations are -on a pillar which stands in the center of a well, the bottom of which is connected with the Nile by a passage. This column is of stone, octagonal in cross section, and the well in which it stands is about 10 feet square. The nilometer is graduated in pics and kirats. At the present time the irrigation engineers depend for their hrst news regarding the stage of the Nile on telegraphic reports from Khartum. The people, however, look to Assuan for their informa- tion and are scarcely satisfied until reports are received from that place. From apjjroximate gagings . made of the Nile at Assuan the writer has prepared a rating table, from which the yearly discharges of the river have been computed, as shown in ligs. 2 and 3. These diagrams are trustworthy only in so far as the gagings are assumed to be correct. The English engineers have established gauges at a number of points along the Nile above Assuan, among which are those at Khartum, Ber- ber, Wad}' Haifa, and Lake Victoria. From the reports received from these gaging stations the engineers know approximately what kind of a flood to expect each year, and the irrigator is advised according!}". AGRICULTURAL SEASONS. There are three agricultural seasons in Eg3^pt. The land not receiv- ing perrennial irrigation can take advantage of but one. This ])egins as early as the middle of October and ends with March. The crops grown then under the basin sj'stem are sown iunnediately after the su])sidence of the flood, hence the time of planting depends upon when the fields become dry enough for the seed (PI. IV). The lands in southern Egypt are generally ready for the seed about the beginning of November. In the Delta crops are often planted as late as the 20th of December. Wheat is the principal'winter crop, although clover, « In the same manner the height of a dam or other structure is usually given by- referring to the actual elevation of its base and top above sea level. 28 barle}', beans, and many other products are quite couinionly raised. The ground is seldom plowed before the wheat is planted. The seed is scattered over the still moist soil by hand, and it is either tramped into the ground by the cattle or pressed in with a primitive wooden roller. Sometimes the ground is beaten with a piece of wood and the grain actually driven into it. The harvest in extreme upper Eg3'pt begins in Feln'uary and is in progress down the river until the middle of April. In upper Egypt the winter harvest is the most important of the 3'ear because a large part of the land there depends wholl}' upon the ancient system of flood irrigation. The summer crops are grown between April and August (PI. V). However, a great many crops arc planted in April and ^lay which are not harvested until the following fall or winter. Among these are cotton, sugar cane, and rice, the most vahiable crops grown in Egypt. Rice is generalh' planted in Ma}' and is not harvested until the follow- ing November. During exceptionally dry seasons a difl'erent variety, which ripens in from seventy to one hundred days, is planted quite late in the summer. Owing to the short time required for its growth it is known as sebani rice, meaning seventy-dav rice. Cotton is sown in April and picked in November or December. Sugar cane is planted about the same time, and harvested in the following Januarj^ and Februarv. The third season has a length of al:)Out eighty days, running from August to October and sometimes until November. During this time considerable sorghum is raised, the stalks of which the natives eat. Corn is the chief crop grown, and is second only to wheat among' Egyptian cereals in 3ield. It is probal)l3' the most valuable crop to the poorer classes. As soon as it ripens it is cut or pulled up by the roots and piled on the levees, where the stalks dry thoroughl}" and where the corn is husked. The corn on the ears is then piled on the ground where the earth is firm and the grain is beaten from the cob by heavy sticks in the hands of the farmers. (PL VI, fig. 1.) The corn is next ground or crushed and bread is made directU' from it, or it is mixed with bean flour before being prepared for food. Wheat is thrashed by a method almost as crude. A sledge furnished with rollers carrying metal disks is pulled bv oxen, which travel around a stack of wheat until the straw is thoroughly chopped and the grain is separated from it. (PI. VI, fig. 2.) The whole mass is then tossed in the air and the wind blows away the lighter material while the grain falls to the ground. This latter process is ver\^ tedious, as the straw has to be handled many times before the grain is all separated and cleaned. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 130, Office of Expt. Stations. Irrigation Investigations. Plate IV. Fig. 1 .—Irrigation Basin Near Pyramid of Gizeh. Fig. 2.— Irrigation Basin West of Cairo, Water Returning to Nile in Channel. U. S, Dept. of Agr., BuL 130, Office of Expt. Stations, lirigation Investigations. Plate V. Fig. 1 .—Irrigating Strawberries. Fig. 2.— Perennial Irrigation, Wheat Field Under Check System of Irrigation. U. S. Dept. of Agr,, Bui. 130, Office of Expt. Stations. Irrigation Investigations. Plate VI. ■> ^ ^' .^. .% Fig. 1.— Thrashing Indian Corn. Fig. 2.— Thrashing Wheat. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 130, Office of Expt. Stations. Irrigation Investigations. Plate VI "0 r > -1 H I m < r > o m > CO I o H o z > z o H CD c H > > 33 2 29 FARMS AND VILLAGES. The term '•village'' as used in Egypt refers generally to an area of land surrounding and including a town. The farmers have their dwellings in the towns. In the portions of Egypt subject to inunda- tion the}^ are obliged to retreat to the towns during high water. A frontao-e on the river or other source of water supplv is always desir- able and these channels are generally boundary lines of farms, the dimensions of which are as unusual as the tools used in cultivating the ground. To enalile the greatest number to enjoy the advantages of a water front the width dimension of the farm usually lies along the river or canal. Where water channels do not exist it has become the custom to establish a few lines by permanent monuments. These lines then become the end boundaries of the fai-m. When a small area is sold its length is the same as that of the original tract and its width is laid oSl along the lines fixed by permanent monuments. As the area owned or cultivated by each fellah is small, their farms are long and narrow. A square piece of land containing the same area could be worked to much greater advantage. The accompanying map (PI. VII) shows the sul)diyisions of the farm- ing jands of the village of Talbia, near Cairo. The holdings are small in the neighborhood of this village and the land is quite productive. The areas of ten farms, selected more or less at random, ranged from 0.02 to l.Oi acres. Any small district throughout which the productiveness and there- fore the rate of taxation is unusually uniform is known as a hod. The farms of each hod are numbered independently. The official records therefore may refer to farm No. lU, hod No. G, of the village of Tall)ia. The maps compiled from government surveys show the farms and hods with their numbers, permitting any particular farm to be identi- fied. Fences are not provided along farm boundaries, as the}' would occupy too much land. In the siu'veys for the finance ministry, villages are mapped inde- pendently. It is almost impossible to make up from these separate surveys a general map showing a number of villages, as the boundaries of the villages are irregular and discrepancies always occur in approx- imate work of this kind. A survey of the boundary between two villages defined by a canal or other water course may be made during the season of high water. At the time it may be impossible to locate the water channel accurately on the map. If the adjoining village be surveyed during low^ water, it is easy to see that maps made from the surveys would not fit when applied to each other. Outside of these surveys, the Government possesses little information regarding the topography of the country-. Under the French occupation some general surveys were made, l)ut no monuments were established. The English engineers are making 30 a surve}" of Egj-pt and are e8tal)li.shing monuments in some cases. It is doubtful whether these will have any great permanent value as they are not tied to guide meridians or standard parallels. The laek of monuments in the surveys of the villages makes it necessary for the farmers in the districts inundated to resurvey their lands after each subsidence of the water. A few permanent monuments may alwa3's be found in the villages and from these the rest of the land is laid out. The work is repeated until a majority are satisfied that the land has been properl}^ measured. It would cost the farmer only 5 or 10 cents per stone to establish permanent monuments at the corners of his farm, })ut so fixed has become the custom of remeasuring the land each year that it is preferred to a more convenient system. English engineers in the survey department are handicapped not only by their inabilit}^ to secure the best kind of assistance in the field, but ))y existing survej^s recognized by the native farmer. His ances- tors measured land to their satisfaction, and he is content to follow their example, not oidy in the surveys but in the computation of field Fui. -'i. — l)iiigram showing inaccuracy of land measurements. notes. The Egyptian has a special formula for computing the area of land to which he adheres with a steadfastness which would be praise- worth}- in a better cause. For instance, when a triangular piece of ground is to be surveyed, only the lengths of the sides are taken. To compute the area the lengths of two adjacent sides are added, the sum is divided by 2, and this quotient is multiplied by the length of the remaining side divided b}- 2. If the figure happens to be a quadri- lateral, the two opposite sides are added together and divided by 2 and the quotient is multiplied by the two remaining sides added together and divided by 2. Putting the formula in figures and refer- ring to the accompanying diagram, the inaccuracy of the method may be plainly seen (fig. 5 ). , ab -f be ac Area or triangle = ^ X -^ ■ ,. T ., , ab-fcd ac + bd Area ot quadrilateral = ^ — X — ^ — ■ 31 The formula for the urea of a trianole never gives accurate results. The formula for a quadrilateral is correct only when the ligure is a rectangle. A few years ago an investigation was made to determine the average size of the land holdings in Egypt. At the same time considerable information was gathered regarding the number of farms and as to whether the owners were natives or foreigners. It was found that foreigners owned 5,130 farms, having a total area of 233,838 acres. The average size of these farms was therefore 45.87 acres. There were 22,699 farms owned by natives who, having consideralde influ- ence, had secured titles to large areas under the conditions prevail- ing prior to the occupation of the English. These people held 1,420,187 acres, the average size of the holdings being 62.59 acres. There were 502,810 farms belonging to the peasantry. They owned 2,752,500 acres, making the average size of their holdings 5.47 acres. The total number of farms in Egypt was 530,548. The total culti- vated area exclusive of state lands and the area administered Ijy the Daira Sanieh was 4,406,525 acres. The average size of an Egyptian farm was therefore 8.3 acres. The total population of Egypt at the time the census was taken was 6,754,050, so that one person in twelve was a landowner, while 80 per cent of the landholders owned less than 10 acres each. COST OF RAISING CROPS AND VALUE OF FARM PRODUCTS. The cost of raising diflferent crops, as well as the yield of the same, varies greatl}" throughout Egypt. Crops grown in the winter on lands employing the basin system of irrigation can be matured much cheaper than those grown under perennial irrigation where water must be lifted. In the best agricultural districts of Upper Egypt sugar cane is the most valuable crop. In preparing the ground for seed and sowing the -same an outlay of about $7 per acre must be met. The seed costs from $10 to $12 per acre, irrigation al)out §10, cultivating and harvesting $14, making the total cost per acre amount to $40 or $45 per acre. If the land requires fertilizers the cost of these may make the yearly expense $2.50 higher. The 3deld of sugar cane aver- ages about 32 tons per acre, which is worth $128. The net profit from an acre of sugar cane is, therefore, between $80 and $85 per acre. If the land is rented the tenant probably pays from one-third to one-half of the crop to the owner. The landowner pays between $5 and $10 in taxes each 3^ear on such land. The cost of raising cotton in Upper Egypt is about one-third as much as for raising sugar cane, while the net profit approximates $50 per acre, or about live-eighths as much. The cost of raising other crops runs from $1 to $6 per acre in Upper Egypt. The principal crops grown there in order of their importance are sugar cane, cotton, wheat, Indian corn, millet, vegetables, beans, 32 and clover. Some fruit is grown, especially in the Fayiun, where oranges, lemons, limes, olives, etc., are quite common. In the southern half of the delta sugar cane is grown principalh^ for eating purposes. The cost of raising the cane there is about the same as in Upper Egypt, l)ut the net profit derived from the ground is about twice as great. Fruits of different kinds are among the most profitable crops of this portion of Egypt. The date is grown exten- sively, and a special tax is levied on this fruit. When a tree is cut down another must be planted in its place. The government revenue from an acre devoted to raising dates runs from $10 to $-1:5 per acre. The cost of cultivating the ground approximates $50 per acre, while the net profit is about $150 per acre. (Considerable land is devoted to the growing of different vegetables. The cost of raising vegetables averages about $15 per acre, while the net profit from the ground is about $55 per acre. While some cotton is grown in the northern half of the delta, this portion of Egypt must be regai-ded as essentially a rice district. The net profit from the cotton fields is about $25 per acre, while rice pays from $6 to $18 per acre only. Much of the rice grown in this portion of Egypt is planted on ground which is ))eing reclaimed and put in condition for the production of more valuable crojis. Indian corn, barley, wheat, and clover are the other crops grown in the northern portion of the delta. Some fruit is produced in the vicinity of the towns and villages. DEVELOPMENT OF EGYPTIAN IRRIGATION. Originally all of the agricultural lands along the Nile, except a narrow strip, depended upon the flood of the river for irrigation. But one crop could be grown each year, and this in the winter time. Dur- ing the remainder of the year the land remained fallow. Most of the large canals were built during the twelfth dynasty (2200-1(500 B. C). Levees were built along the Xile and the farming land was divided into basins, which were filled with water from canals when the river rose to a marked place at the head of the El Khalig Canal at Cairo. As soon as this height was reached word was sent throughout Egypt; the temporary earthen embankments at the heads of the canals were then broken, and the water ran to the ))asins. If the Nile failed to rise sufiiciently high to furnish water for the basins, considerable suffering resulted. If the river was too high, embankments would break, levees would be washed away, and widespread desolation would result. It was not only necessary to fill the basins with water, Init the water had to be red with silt from the mountains and plains of Abys- sinia. If the land failed to receive the deposit of red mud. the yield would be reduced. E^mptying the basins was even more difficult than filling them. The lower basms had to be emptied first, or, if good U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 130, Office of Expt. Stations. Irrigation Investigations. Plate VIII. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 130, Office of Expt. Stations. Irrigation Investigations. Plate IX. Fig 1.— Camels Carrying Ruins of Village to be Used for Fertilizer. Fig. 2.— Cleaning a Small Canal. 83 regulators were provided between them, the water from all could be run at once. If one of the embankments of an upper basin l)roke, it meant devastation to everything below. The basins could not be emptied until the Nile began to recede, and there was nearly as much danger in having the flood continue too long as in not having a suffi ^ cient supply of water. This system has survived to the present time. While the basins lirst laid out were crude, they have developed after many years of experience into well-regulated systems. Expensive regulators have been constructed and canals have been made large enough to carry water to supply the land they were intended to serve. The escapes into the Nile have been perfected. The land near the Nile is above the level of the adjoining farms (tig. 6). For this reason it is difficult to lill the basins near the Nile eml)ankments. The grade of the Nile varies from one-half to one-third of a foot per mile. Owing to this slight fall the canals have to be quite large, because their o-nide must be less than that of the river. Even under the most favorable conditions they can not gain more than a small fraction of a fEET 5,000 lO.OOO 15,000 20,000 25,000 30.000 .35,000 4O,0OO 45,000 60,000 0 t— LkJ UJ Lt- lO 20 30 ■c 1 ic c E % 6 u e 1 ^^v ■^ ' f A^ 'M_ I r Fig. fi.— Typical cross section of the Nile Valley. foot per mile over the river. When a canal reaches the edge of the desert, or. in other words, covers all of the arable land except the Nile berm, it follows the desert until a* new canal is taken out, when the first canal siphons under the new one and covers the high land along the river. The second canal proceeds in the same way and siphons under the third. By this system canals can be made to serve the entire area of agricultural land. PI. VIII shows a portion of the Nile Valley in the province of Keneh where the river has a general course from east to west. The strip of irrigated land, bounded t)y right lines, is in no place over 7 miles wide. It will 1)6 seen that the Rannan Canal heads at the right, on the south bank of the river, and that the Marashdah Canal siphons under it just below the point of diversion. The latter canal is on a higher line at their intersection and waters the elevated lands along the berm of the Nile for 12 miles below the siphon. The Rannan Canal continues westerly and soon covers all the land to the border of the desert. Just 27752— No. 130— (13 3 34 before it reaches the Heu Escape, which was built to empty the basins above the south side of the river, it divides, one branch serving the high lands along the desert and the other furnishing water to the basins near the Nile. The Ijasin boundaries are shown by dotted lines. The canal and basin system on the north side of the river are also shown. There are small areas here and there in Upper Egypt which are irrigated from wells, but the larger part of the land is still flooded by the Nile and enriched by its sediment, as it has been for thousands of years past. But this ancient system of irrigation has one great drawback — but one crop can be raised each year, while all other conditions, except the water supply, fav^or the raising of several crops. Recognizing this, Mohanuned Ali in 1837 l)egan reforms looking to the supplying of water to crops during the whole year. The great barrage at the head of the delta was begun in 18-13, as a part of the plans for peren- nial irrigation. The tirst perennial canals were in the delta and the Fa3'um, but the s\'stcm is being gradually extended to the south, the country between Cairo and Assiut l)eing in a state of ti'ansition. and the recent great works at Assuan and Assiut being for the purpose of increasing the area supplied with water throughout the year. The returns from the soil have been greatly increased by the adop- tion of perennial irrigation. However, this system is accompanied with certain drawbacks. Only by the old flood-irrigation system can the land receive any considerable amount of rich Nile silt, and Avhen two or three crops per year are taken from the ground the soil deteri- orates (juite rapidly. Artificial fertilizers are necessary, and these are expensive in Egypt. The principal supply of fertilizer at present is from the ruins of old towns and villages. This is simply the Nile deposit which has been used in times past in the manufacture of brick for the construction of houses, impregnated with more or less fertiliz- ing matter derived from the village wastes. Long lines of camels may be seen carrying this material to the farms. (PL IX, fig. 1.) Sometimes it is to be transported 10 or 15 miles or farther, each camel carrying about acres of land. About 600,000 acres of this is still irrigated vinder the ancient basin system. The Yusef Canal supplies a number of basins along its course, but its principal duty is to furnish the Favum province with water for perennial irrigation. The cross-section dimensions of this canal are very irregular. It averages al)out 175 feet in width on the bottom and has a depth of about 20 feet. There are levees on each side, however, which enable it to carry 30 feet of water at high Nile. During May and June it carries about 600 cubic feet of water per second. During high Nile the discharge is about 30,000 cul)ic feet per second. Dur- ing low water summer cultivation is prohibited along the canal except in the Fayum province. The entrance to this province is between two desert plateaus, and the low gap is closed by a dike which completely separates the province from the Nile Valley proper. The Yusef Canal crosses this dike on a masonry structure composed of three arches. The Fayum province A\'as formerly cultivated as the valley of the Nile had always been, but perennial irrigation is practiced at the present time, owing to the increased supply of water furnished by the canal. At the town of INIedinet the canal separates into many smaller ditches, and a large part of the province is watered by these. About 250,000 acres are cultivated in the province. The slope of the land in the Fayum is greater than in any other farming district of Egypt. All the land in the province drains into Lake Kerun, which is 130 feet below the level of the Mediterranean. In the province of Minieh three canals divert Avater from the right bank of the river. The three canals on the left bank are laterals of the Il)raimia Canal. These are quite important among the distributing works of the province. In the province of Benisouef six canals take water from the left and two from the right bank of the river. There is one important branch of the Ibraimia Canal in this province. In the province of Gizeh three canals take water from the left and one from the right l)ank of the river. Below Cairo there are many canals (Pis. X and XXIV). The principal ones are those leaving the Nile at the barrao-e and the Ismailia Canal, which diverts water from the river at Cairo. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 130, Office of Expt. Stations. Irrigation Investigations. Plate X. SCALE OF MILES HUM ^SHfe/^ "'i.0 S C #?? <^ JVA f-ff YSH m -a^ Q CL-MUaAOILEH K \ 12 1 fY"^ Q ,J#^/ .gT^v^ ^'%l ■vi-wj^ -^^11^ js,\l»0 B. C, King Nekos began the construction of a navigation channel running between the east arm of the Nile and the Red Sea. The channel was never finished, although 120,000 natives employed upon it lost their lives in the undertaking. The length of the Ismailia Canal from Cairo to Lake Timsah, near the town of Ismailia, is about 80 miles. The length of the branch leading south from Ismailia to Suez is about 53 miles. The bottom width of the main canal is about 40 feet. The slopes are 3 to 1. The bot- tom width of the branch canal leading to Suez is only about 25 feet, but the channel was not well excavated and the width is not uniform. In places it does not exceed 16 feet. Many important masonry struc- tures are found throughout the length of the canal. Swing bridges are numerous, and substantial head gates and regulators are found wherever the discharge of the canal has to be changed. Owing to the depth to which the canal has been dug, and the necessity for keeping it cleaned out so that it will carry sufficient water for navigation dur- ing low stages of the Nile, large quantities of silt have to be removed each year. Formerly this deposit frequently, amounted to 350,000 cubic yards each season. It has been reduced to about 160,000 cubic 38 ■ yards b}' partially closino^ the head gates of the main canal during high water and supplying it through the smaller canal already referred to, di\erting water -i^ miles north of Cairo. Considerable work is required each year at the head gate of the supply canal. It is over a quarter of a mile from the bank of the river. The channel leading to this head gate tills Avith back water from the river during high Nile and immense quantities of mud are deposited. Many of the canals in the delta are ancient river channels. Those taking water from the Nile at the barrage are artificial. Among these latter is the Manutia Canal (frontispiece). M'hich is one of the most cele])rated in Egypt. It furnishes water for the irrigation of nearly all the land in the delta lying between the two branches of the Nile. The head gate of the canal is similar in design to the barrage itself. (PI. XI, lig. 2.) A lock has been provided at the head gate, and the canal furnishes an important waterway for the internal commerce of the delta. The canal is from 160 to 175 feet wide on the bottom, and at high water carries nearly 3<> feet of water in depth. Its summer discharge is nearly 4.(MK) cubic feet per second. The Tewtiki Canal diverts water from the Damietta branch of the Nile at the eastern extremity of the barrage. It was l^egun many years ago. but was not finished until after the occupation by the English. It furnishes water for a large area Wing east of the Dami- etta branch, and its construction has added greatlv to the value of this region through the introduction of perennial irrigation. The Behera Canal leaves the Rosetta branch of the Nile at the western extremity of the barrage. It is about Gi» feet wide on the bottom, with slopes of 2 to 1. It runs for a considerable distance along the margin of the desert, hence receives large volumes of sand which, with the silt deposited during high Nile, have to be cleaned from the channel each year. Until recently nearly 1,000,000 cubic yards had to be removed annually, and, in spite of the enormous amount of work performed, the canal carried less than 600 cubic feet of water per second. The Behera Canal is about 25 miles long. At its lower extremity the Katatl>eh Canal 1)egins. It has about the same dimensions as the' Behera Canal. It supplies all the smaller canals to the north and west. The surplus water from the drainage of the land it serves flows into Lake jNIareotis. The Mahmoudia Canal begins 34 miles from the barrage of the Rosetta ])ranch of the Nile. This canal runs for about •15 miles to the northwest and ends at Alexandria. It supplies fresh water for that city besides furnishing water for irrigating a large area. The Mahmoudia Canal has for a long time been supplied with water b}' means of immense pumps located at Atfeh. Since the repair of the barrage the pumps of Katatbeh have been removed to Mex, which station keeps down the level of Lake Mareotis, 39 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF CANALS AND LEVEES. Nearly all large public works in Egypt have been constructed by the corvee (See p. 74.) The system was much abused when the English began their occupation in 1882. As soon as possible some relief was afforded the corvee by direct appropriations, under which a part of those employed on pul)lic works were paid for their labor at a price fixed ])y the government. These appropriations were increased until in 1889 all work of cleaning canals was paid for. Since that time the corvee has been called out only for the protection of the Nile levees during flood season, a period of from sixty to ninety days. While thou- sands of men are thus compelled to give their time without compensa- tion, it is for the public benefit, and the length of their service is short, seldom longer than fifteen or twenty days. But little complaint is now heard, as the work is necessary and the service must ])e compulsory to be eflicient. The time will doubtless come when this service will also be paid for. The manner in which the native digs or cleans canals is interesting. His one tool, which resembles a hoe, is illusti-ated in the accompanying sketch (fig. T). The engineers measure the material which is to be removed, and each man or party excavates a certain section contain- ing a known yardage. (PI. III). Frequently a number of men will work together, one using a hoe and the others carrving Imskets holding ^ _ „ , ^ .. , ^ ^ ^ Fig. I. — Hoe used by native farmer. about half a cubic foot of earth. The earth is loosened and the baskets filled by the use of the hoe. Where dry .sand is encountered the hands are used to fill these baskets. Children are often seen carrying the baskets, but the hoe is nearly always handleut in rare cases, when the screw is especially large or the lift considerable, a small engine is employed. High lifts are practically impossible on account of the difficulty of supporting a screw of great length. This device is more efficient than the lifting machines contrived by the natives. One man can irrigate from 1 to 2 acres a day with this machine, provided the lift be not over 2 feet. The efficiency of the Archimedean screw is shown in the following table*. Efficiency of the Archimedean screw as a water-raising device. Height of Hft. 3.3 feet 4.5 feet 4.6 feet 5.1 feet 5.9 feet Number of men working periods of two hours. Cost of Area Cost per operation irrigated acre each , per dav of in ten irriga- ten hours hours. tion. Acres. 80.31 1.22 $0.25 .27 1.12 .24 .27 1.36 .20 .29 1.02 28 .30 1.14 .26 per day. Acre- foot. 0.47 .49 ..52 .45 .41 Area of field irri- gated. Acres. 14.2 10.8 10 6.4 11.7 Cost per acre for each foi't of lift. $0.08 .05 .04 .06 .04 44 THE NATALI. In the delta a great deal of water is raised by means of another curious device, known as a natali. Two men operate a bucket to which is attached four cords. These cords arc held by the men and the bucket is alternately tilled and emptied with remarkable dexterit}^ PI, XV shows this device in use. But little prcliminar}- construction is needed before the work of raising- water can be commenced. A channel is generally dug from the water into the bank of the canal and platforms are made for the men to stand on. Where the water is poured into the ditch leading to the fields the bank is protected, as in the case of shadufs, by a matting of vegetable fiber. Two men can raise about 1(»0 cubic feet of water per hour to a height of 3 or 4 feet. The accompanying table gives some information relative to the efficienc}" of this contrivance: Efficien<-;i nftlu' iiata/i 45 in many cases, been su])stituted for those orig-inally employed. Pump- ing plants are f requenth^ seen on scows on the river, (PI. XIII, lig, 2.) These go from place to place and furnish water under contract. Where the lift is not over 8 or 10 feet and where the owner of the field is a part owner in the plant, steam pumps furnish water at about $1.90 per acre for each irrigation. If the farmer is not interested in the plant the cost per acre mav run as high as $3.75 or $4 for each irri- gation. Cotton has to be watered four or live times during the grow- ing season. A\'heat. maize, and all fodder crops are generally twice irrigated. Figures quoted by engineers as to the cost of pumping water var}- greatl}'. The outlay for this service depends largely upon the local practice of the irrigator. Mr. Thorwald L. Smith, agricul- turist of the Societe du Behera, which controls a considerable area in the delta, has furnished the following information regarding the char- acter of the pumps emploved l)}- the society, together with their dis- charge, the quantity and cost of coal consumed, etc. The pumps employed are either of English or French manufacture, and are not superior in any way to tho.se made in the United States. A detailed description of them is therefore unnecessary. Efficienry of pumpiny plants owned bij the Societr (Ik JJchera, Alexandria." Description of centrifugal pump and engine. Discharge per second. Expense of operation per day of ten ' Total cost per hours. ■ 1 day. Coal. '' Lubri- Engineer cants and and sundries.' fireman. Ten hours. Twelve Pounds. Cost. hours. 20-inch flirect-.acting compound condensing Gwynne i)nmp 20-incli Ruston and Proctor, driven by belt from semiportable com- pound condensing engine by same makers Cubicfeet. 17.66 17.66 17.66 10.60 6.70 1,212 1.212 1,212 772 662 g.5.4.5 .S.4.5 5.4.5 3.47 2.98 80. IS .18 .18 .18 .18 SI. 23 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.23 S6.83 6.88 6.83 4.86 4.86 S8.13 8.13 8.13 5.83 5.83 18-inch Dumont pump, driven by belt froma Ruston- 'roctorcom- pound condensing portable 16-inch Ruston-Proctor pump, driven by belt from compound condensing portable by same makers 12-inch Gwynne pimip, driven by belt froni single cylinder non- condensing portable a Tests running from 189.5-1901: lift, 6.5 feet. '^Coal atS8.94perton. DUTY OF WATER. Some tests have been made in both Upper and Lower Egypt to deter- mine the duty of water. The lack of careful measurements of the water supplied for irrigation discredits many reports which would otherwise be valuable. The rated capacity of the pumps is too often used in computing the volume of water furnished. When gaugings are made to check the pumps, it is generally found that the discharge has been overestimated. The water is usuallv measured on the border 46 of the field, so that but little loss occurs between the pump and the irrigated land. In lower Egypt it has been found that a depth of water of 2.55 feet is sufficient for the irrigation of cotton. A depth of 4.3 feet is required for rice. The winter crops, which have already been enumerated, demand from 1.6 to 2 feet. Although the growing season of sugar cane, the most valuable crop in upper Egypt, covers a period of nine months, a depth of water of 2.5 feet suffices for its needs. The following discussion of the duty of water under some of the pumping plants of the Societe du Behera. in Lower Egypt, has been furnished V)y Mr. Thorwald L. Smith: * * * The loss throujih evaporation and absorption varies greatly according to the following conditions: (1) Quality of soil: (a) Sandy; (b) medium; (c) heavy. (2) Time of year: (a) Hot; (b) cold. (3) Number of days elapsed since last watering. (4) Distance of field from pump: (a) Water carried in old permanent channel; (b) carried in temporary channel for that particular crop. As to the first, we find that in (a) sandy soil (pure alluvial deposits) the quantity of water reciuired for each watering is aV)out double that wanted for heavy (c). On the other hand, such soil cracks less, and, consequently, there is not so much loss, should the time between Uvo waterings be prolonged, as there is in heavy soil where, after a long drought in summer, the cracks (unless the land be frequently hoed) will continue to absorl) all the water for some minutes and will conduct it to the sub- soil, which is salt, where it can be of little use to the surface-feeding crops. Second. Time of year makes a difference in two ways: First, 1)ecau8e in summer a lot of water is lost by evaporation so soon as it is spread in a thin layer over the baked land, and second, because in the cooler months the canals are all generally running full and consequently all low lands can be irrigated by gravitation and are more or less water-logged, especially where drainage is bad. In fact, for winter crops the only time when pumps are used for such lands is when the upper reaches of the canals have been closed for clearance and the water in the lower reaches falls below the ground level. Third. The number of days between each watering for cotton should be an aver- age of fifteen, but through want of water this is frequently prolonged to thirty or even more. Naturally from causes mentioned above, i. e., cracking, and from the fact that evaporation directly and through the plants has been going on continually, the land takes more water to show any sign on the surface. For the rice crop these last conditions can not obtain, for water must be changed in rice fields while the crop is young at least every four days, and when stronger at a maximum of eight days on good soil. (Where the land is very salt the crop would suffer very much, if not die, in an eight-day interval.) On the other hand, as the rice land is continually wet the absorption at the time of watering is much less, and of course there are no cracks. However, as the water is on the surface there is great"evaporation from sun and wind, especially so long as the plant is small and does not shade its own roots. In calculating (theoretically) the amount of water necessary for each watering, about 3.(U inches in depth would appear to be sufficient. Indeed, in the case of cotton which is sown on ridges, one might think that the area of the furrows only, into which the water runs, i. e., about half the total area, would be the figure on which to liase the quantity necessary. But the ridges, being made up entirely of loose soil, soak up water at once, especially the first watering or after a hoeing, and 47 carry almost as much as a furrow. I may say at once that the 3.9-1 inches over the whole area for cotton, even when the ground is not much cracked, is quite insufficient, and in a long furrow that quantity would not reach the end. Of course, to equalize the supply to each plant the field is divided longitudinally into narrow belts and these belts crossways into short beds. This division is made after the field has been prepared and ridged up, the original ridges stretching from one end of the field to the other. Between each belt is a small water channel, which is what I refer to in 4 (b). In these channels a good deal of water must be wasted. As to the permanent waterways we calculate a mean loss of 10 per cent for absorption and evaporation. * * * THE CAIRO BARRAGE. In 1798 and 1790, during- the French occupation, Napoleon called attention to the advisability of constructing dams across the Rosetta and Damietta branches of the Nile. Perennial irrigation had probably not occurred to him, but he saw the advantage of being able to turn the whole discharge of the river down one branch or the other so that the lands along either might receive the benefit of the entire flow. The dam would probably not have been built had this been its only function, but his suggestion may have led Mohammed Ali to intro- duce perennial irrigation in Lower Egypt. In 1833 Mohammed Ali favored building a stone dam across the Rosetta Branch so that it might be entirely closed. This would raise the level of the water considerably at the site of the dam and afford a better supply to the canals taking water from the Damietta Branch, along which was the larger irrigated area. Before work was begun he was persuaded to change his plans. It was suggested to him that in place of building a dam across the Rosetta Branch one be erected on each branch 6 miles below their point of divergence. The khedive approved this plan and ordered that the stone be taken from the Pyra- mids. All protests against this latter scheme were without avail until Linant Pasha, a government engineer, showed that, as the Pyramids were built from the bottom to the top, they would have to be dis- mantled from top to bottom, and that the stone thus procured would be more expensive than if taken from new quarries opened near Cairo. Everything seemed now to promise speedy completion of the dam. Workshops were erected and some material for construction had been delivered on the ground, when Mohammed Ali again changed his mind and stopped the work. Nothing more was heard of the barrage project until 1842, when Mougel Bey, a French engineer, was called to Egypt and his plans, as altered by the khedive so as to include the fortifications, led to the construction of the barrage as it stands to-day. The dam was finally completed in 1801 at a cost of 89,000,000, not counting the services of the corvee. The additional cost of fortifica- tions, canal head gates, and incidentals made th(! total outlay about $19,000,000. After this vast expenditure the dam was of no value except as a 48 highway across the Nile. Onh' the Rosetta Branch of the barrage was .supplied with gates. The additional head produced by closing these caused enough pressure to crack the masonry of the dam. At the same time water ran under the structure and a number of springs appeared below. During the reign of Ismail Pasha nothing was done toward repairing the barrage. Suggestions that it might be put in condition to hold back water for the irrigation of lower Eg3^pt were never considered seriously. The barrage is shown in the accompanying illustrations (Pis. XVI and XVII). The Rosetta dam has 61 archways, while the Damietta Branch has 71. The height of the archways is 41.82 feet from the floor of the structure to the crown of the arch, or 32. S feet to the spring line of the arches. The archways are 16.4 feet wide, and the piers support- ing them are 6.56 feet thick. The original foundation of the dam was simply a layer of concrete 111 feet wide and nearly 9 feet thick, cov- ered by a stone and brick floor 1.64 feet thick. As work on each section was undertaken, sheet piling was driven to keep the water quiet while the concrete was being laid. The piers were constructed on this floor. Locks were built at both ends of each dam and at the head u-ates of the three canals. The flow of water through the sluice- wa}^ was to have been regulated by gates of a new design, })ut they never proved satisfactory, although a few still remained in the dam until 1890. The gates now used close tightly, but a grating, through which the water flows at all times, is beneath the sills on which the gates rest. Since the English have been in control of Egypt repairs to the barrage have been going on almost constantly. A new floor was laid, widening the foundation 30 feet on the downstream and 78 feet on the upstream side. It was thought better to widen rather than deepen the founda- tion, because the material did not improve with depth. After this work was completed new gates were put in the dam throughout. These were made of wrought iron and provided with rollers, and they slide in cast-iron grooves made fast to the piers. The gates are lifted b}^ a traveling winch. One rail for supporting the car carrying the lifting device was put on the upstream parapet of the dam. Brick towers were l)uilt on the piers to support the second rail. These towers, with the gates now employed, are shown in PI. XVII. Until 1896 the springs on the downstream side of the dam continued to flow. Some water came through the gratings, but a large volume flowed under the piers. In 1896 repairs were begun which will doubt- less make the barrage an enduring structure. Through holes 5 inches in diameter, drilled from top to bottom of the piers and lined with iron pipes, clay or cement mortar was rammed. It was found in this work that large cavities existed under the foundation, and as much as 40 barrels of cement were used for a single pier. The total cost of U. S, Dept. of Agr., Bui. 130, Office of Expt. Stations, Irrigation Investigations Pi ATE XVI. Fig. 1.— The Damietta Barrage from Eastern Bank of the Nile. Fig. 2.— Rosetta Barrage from Western Bank of the Wile. U. S Dept. of Agr., Bui. 130, Office of Expt. Stations. Irrigation Investigations. Plate XVII. a m H > X m O > O 00 > 33 > D 49 these repairs amounted to $3(>0,0(»0. Another safeguard has l)een added to the barrage. Across each branch of the Nile below the bar- rage low dams have been built, raising the surface of the water there and correspondingly' reducing the pressure to which the larger works are subjected. The P^gyptian Government had many times prior to 1882 discussed the matter of repairing the ])arrage. At one time a scheme was on foot wherebv it was thought that an expenditure of $6,200,000 would make the structure serviceable. Luckily, the Arabic custom of not making repairs prevailed in this instance. Another scheme which received the attention of the government was to pump water into the canals instead of relying on the liarrage at all. This would have necessitated an expenditure of nearly $3,500,000 for the establishment of the pumping plant, and an annual outlay of about §1,25<»,00() to keep it in operation. The government actually made a contract with a company to pump water into one of the canals during low water, and bound itself to pay at least $128,000 a year for this service. So successful, however, were the engineers in repairing the dam that by 1892 the canals heading there were fully supplied. The barrage fur- nishes water at a much less cost than a pumping plant, and. as the flow is regulated during the season of high water as well as at other times, a great reduction is made in the volume of silt which has to be removed from the canals each year. However, until after the occupation of the English, labor had but little value, and this item was probabh' not taken into consideration. As early as 1881 the barrage performed some beneficial service for the irrigators of the delta. The alterations which first put the dam in w^orking order cost about $2,250,000. One hundred and tifty thousand dollars are required each year for maintenance and operation. While the repairs were being carried on, the Tewtiki Canal, taken out at the eastern end of the Damietta branch of the barrage, was completed, Manv auxiliarv canals and ditches were dug and considerable reform was brought about in the drainage system throughout the delta. RESERVOIRS. Ilie construction of reservoirs is a new departure on the part of the Egyptian Government. Storing water at Assuan during the winter for the benefit of the irrigator during the months of scarcity will necessitate changes in the irrigation sj'stems now existing if the sup- plv thuf> made available is to be distributed to the best advantag-e. The water supply afforded by the Nile is such that storage works can be extended almost indefinitely, or until all of the arable land of Egypt is served by perennial irrigation. The total area of Egj-pt proper, eml)racing the great Lybian Desert, 27T52--NO. 130—03 1 50 which contains live oa.scs and a large part of the Sinai Peninsula, is about 890,000 square miles. Of this less than 3 per cent, or about 6,000,000 acres, can ever be cultivated. The accompanj^ing map (PL XVIII) enables a comparison to be made of the Nile Valley with that of the Platte Eiver. It will be noticed that the mouths of the Platte and the Damietta branch of the Nile are coincident. The two rivers cross the north boundary of Colorado near the same point, and Denver and Assnan lie only a few miles apart. Egypt proper, therefore, has about the same length as the Platte Valle}^ from Denver to the Mis- souri River. The width of the Platte Valley in Ne))raska is about the same as that of the Nile from Assuan to Cairo. Only 5,1-15,000 acres are now cultivated in the valley of the Nile. A similar area of agri- cultural land in Nebraska would have produced in 1900 crops having a total value of about $26,000,000. The farming lands of Egypt pay more than this in taxes each year. Nebraska received in 1900 a little over f (>,000,000 from all its sources of revenue. Egypt received about $60,000,000. Nebraska has no bonded indebtedness and but a small floating debt. Egypt has a complication of tinancial troubles, owing in the aggregate $516,000,000, or $100 for each acre of agricultural land. But little arable land in Upper Egypt remains unreclaimed, and the area enjoying perennial irrigation can not be extended until reservoirs are provided to store the water which is needed in May and June. With the growth of the reservoir system basin irrigation will disap- pear. There are now 120 of these basins in Upper Egypt, varying in size from 500 to 35,000 acres. Each year many of these basins fail to receive the volume of water needed and the yield of the crops is cor- respondingly reduced. Taxes on such land have to be remitted, entail- ing a loss to the treasury of $220,000 annually. Although the basin system has been greatly improved during the past twenty years, yet so evident are the advantages of perennial irrigation that the demand for reservoirs has been growing. In Lower Egypt 1,300,000 acres can be reclaimed when water for irrigation is made available. According to a rough determination of the duty of water, made ])y engineers, it will require 33,00o cubic feet per second, or T5,1:(J0 acre-feet per da}^, to irrigate this land. The mean discharge of the Nile for January is about 140,000 acre- feet per day. For February it is about 104,000, and for March it is 73,000 acre-feet per day, in this month falling below the volume which will be needed when all the irrigable land in Egypt is brought under cultivation. In April and June the mean discharge per day is about 61,000 acre-feet. In May it falls as low as ■14,500 acre-feet per day. The mean discharge in acre-feet per day for July is 182,000. While some shortage may occur very early in this month, yet it is not one of 51 the critical months. During the remainder of the year the river always furnishes more water than is needed. Mean discharge of the Nile, 1S7S-1892. Month. January. February March . . April May June July Acre-feet. 4, 192, 050 3, 116, 728 2, 210, 85S 1,538,460 1,335,114 1,538,400 5,484,600 Month. August September. October . . . November December . Total Acre-feet. 17,684,568 20, 620, 106 19, 650, 906 9, 329, 7C0 5, 899, 014 92,001,224 The reservoir system would, during average 3'ears, have to supply 126,000 acre-feet in March, 799,000 acre-feet in April, 1,002,000 acre- feet in May, 799,000 acre-feet in June, and probably 120,000 acre-feet during the first few days of July. The reservoirs would have to store a total volume of 2,852,000 acre-feet in order to furnish water for the irrigation of this land. Even in low-water years the Nile supplies plenty of water to till a reservoir system of nmch larger cay)acity. If the reservoir system could be made large enough to maintain a uniform flosv in the river throughout the year, it would at all times discharge about 257,230 acre-feet per day, or about 130,000 cubic feet per second. The Nile furnishes an average volume of 92,600,000 acre-feet annuall3^ Disregardinglosses in storage and transit, it is estimated that 27,521,000 acre-feet of water would irrigate all of the agricultural land. Under this assumption the land would be covered to a depth of 1.27 feet. This would leave 65,200,000 acre-feet of water unused when Egypt was fully supplied. It will be seen that the building of the Assuan reservoir, with an estimated capacity of 863,100 acre-feet, is only the first step in the construction of storage works. The Wady Ryan site alone could probably store about 3,000,000 acre-feet, enough water to supply Egypt, but it could be used only in Lower Egypt; but the nat- ural flow of the Nile furnishes more water than is needed for Upper Egypt. If this site w^ere improved, the Assuan reservoir would not be needed; hence, it will very likely be the policy of the government to build* a number of storage works similar to the Assuan reservoir farther up the river. That the expense of maintaining these and the difficulty of controlling the discharge of water from them will be much greater than for one large reservoir, can not be doubted. If reservoirs are constructed farther up the Nile, they must be farther from Egyptian territory, and consequently more difficult to control. Much discussion has occurred as to the feasibility of utilizing lakes Victoria and Albert in central Africa as reservoirs. But little has been done toward making surveys in that locality and no figures are available as to the cost of converting the lakes into storage works. 52 THE ASSTJAN RESERVOIR. The engineers of the Egyptian Government have realized for a long time that it would be nece.ssar^- to ytore some of the Nile water l)efore Upper Egypt could receive the benefits of perennial irrigation or a large area of Lower Egypt be reclaimed. For ten years Ijefore work was undertaken toward liuilding the reservoir preliminary surveys were made and manv reservoir sites were discussed. Investio-ators resorted to ancient history and brought forth all the known facts regarding Lake Moeris, which occupied part of the Imsin now known as the Fayum province. One American engineer, who had studied this subject and made some surveys, held that the Wady Ryan was formerly Lake Moeris. Whether or not this })e true does rot matter at this time. To-day it is the only practicable i-eservoir site between the Mediterranean and Assuan. (See PI. XIX.) Early in 1894. after considerable discussion as to how reservoir con- struction should be carried on and what sites should be utilized, a technical commission was appointed. This commission consisted of Sir Benjamin Baker, an Englishman; Auguste Boule, a Frenchman, and Giacomo Torricelli, an Italian. They left Cairo February 26, and returned March 23, having examined all the sites in less than a month. The Wady Ryan and a number of Nile valley reservoirs were discussed, the majority of the commission linally agreeing upon the Assuan site. The Nile, from the town of Assuan to the dam site, is broken into many irregular channels. The bed and banks of the river are largely composed of granite. The first cataract of the Nile begins where the water first encounters the granite. Engineers agreed that the dam should be Iniilt in this locality, but as to its exact line there was a great deal of discussion. Mr. Willcocks recommended that it be of irregular alignment, running from one island to another, where his studies indicated that the granite was solid, thus atiording a good foundation; but the dam as finally luiilt is straight, and crosses the river where rapids first appear. It was originally planned to make the dam 100 feet high, but when it was found that a dam of this height would cause the submersion of the temples on the island of Philae it was determined, in vieAV of the protests of those interested in the preservation of these ruins, to reduce the height 30 feet, although it is possilde that it may still be raised to 100 feet. This would give the reservoir a storage capacity two or three times greater than it now has, while the ratio between the cost of the work and the volume of water impounded would be greatly reduced. (Pis. XX and XXI.) The dam is 70 feet high, 6,400 feet long, 23 feet wide on top, and 82 feet wide on the bottom at the deepest part. It contains approxi- mately 1,000,000 cubic yards of masonry. The depth of water at the U. S. Capt. of Agr., Bui 130, Office of Expt Stations. Irrigation Investigations. Plate XVIII. 'Sca7e yof milf.s ^'iff'' im f, (te ■ •) a: ^--10' 1 ,\ :-V/.-^ -- *■' -'•■'--,- .r Map Comparing the Nile Valley with that of the Platte River. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 130, Office of Exot Stations Irrigation Investigations. Plate XIX. >«;^\--~ Map Showing the Assuan Dam Across the Nile. U. S. Depf. of Agr., Bui. 1 :0 Of ice c' Exot. Stations. Irr gation Investigat ons. Plate XX. H I m > z D > U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui 130, Office of Expt. Stations. Irrigation Investigations. Plate XXI. ail • *' f')^./^ 53 dam will be 65.6 feet when the reservoir is full. The cross section of the dum shown herewith {fig. 8) needs but little explantition. Tlie roadway running along- the top of that portion of the dam containing sluiceways is 16.4 feet wide. A large part of the eastern end of the dam, containing no sluiceways, is narrower, and the roadway there is Fig. 8.— Crosssoction of Assiian dam. reduced to D.8 feet. The rubble masonry of the -body of the dam is laid in -1 to 1 cement mortar, and the downstream slope is faced with squared rubl)lc laid in the same mortar and pointed in 2 to 1 cement mortar. The upstream slope, being submerged a large part of the year, is faced with squared ru!)ble laid in 2 to 1 cement mortar and pointed in the same. The batir of the lower slope of the dam is 1 to li. 54 Buttresses 3.75 feet thick and 26 feet wide are located ])etween each set of 10 shiicewavs, or a)>out 2-1:0 feet apart. The l)uttres.ses were added rather for the sake of appearance than to increase the strength of the wall. The four locks at the western end of the dam are each 200 feet long- and 81 feet wide. They will enable small boats to pass at nearlj- any time during- the year. Fig. 9.— Details of apparatus for raising gates, Assnan dam There are 180 sluiceways through the dam. Of these 65 have been placed with their sills practically on a level with the bed of the river. Forty of these low sluiceways are lined with cast iron (PI. XXII. tig. 1), all others being lined with ashlar masonry. The cast iron is not con- sidered as durable as the granite, but by employing it the work was much hastened, so that the sluiceways connucnced at the end of one 55 high-water season could ])e finished before the flood again appeared. Seventy-live shiiceways liave their sills 14. 7f) feet above the bed of the river. ^ Of the latter 25 are supplied with roller gates and the remain- ing 50 have simply sliding gates, to be operated only when the head of water against them is small. Eighteen sluiceways have been placed 27.88 feet and 22 sluiceways 41 feet above the bed of the river. All of the sluiceways except the upper 40 are 6.50 feet wide and 22.96 feet high. The upper sluiceways have the same width but are only one-half as high. The rollers lie between paths on the gates and paths fastened to the masonry of the dam. The gates themselves are built up of steel plates, stiffened by rolled steel joists, which in turn are bolted to the cast-iron roller path beams. The following description of the gates and gearing for raising them has been furnished by Ransomes & Rapier, Limited, the manufacturers: The gates are suspended by steel-wire ropes passing around pulleys so as to give 10 parts of rope. The two ends of the rope are -wound upon a cral) barrel placed at the side of the roadway at the top of the dam. The crah gear is such that one man can operate each gate with the full head of water against it, the gate not being in any way counterV)alanceolted together in place. A cast-iron sill piece and a cast-iron lintel form the top and bottom of the sluiceway opening. An arched roof casting supports the masonry over the entrance to the culvert in front of the sluiceway. Owing to the cutting nature of the silt in the Nile water, it has been thought advis- able to provide stanching rods on each side of the gate and also in the lintel casting. These rods will make the gates practically water-tight when shut down. In the case of the 50 sluiceways 14.76 feet above the bed of the river, which are without rollers, the gates slide against the planed faces of the groove castings and are made water-tight against the faces, and also on the sill when the gates are com- pletely lowered. The top is rendered water-tight l\v an adjustable bar bolted to the gate which lowers onto a projection from the lintel when the gate is in its final position. The location of the sluiceways on the high level Avill permit the water of the reservoir to be controlled without its being necessary to manipulate the oth(>r gates, which will withstand a pressure of 300 tons when the reservoir is full. Toward the 1st of December of each year the lowest 65 and the 50 ordinary gates 14.76 feet above will be closed. The reservoir will immediately begin to fill, and the 25 sluice- ways furnished witn Stoney gates will be slowly closed as the discharge of the Nile warrants. It is hoped that in this way the reservoir may be entirely filled without appreciably affecting the flow of the rixer. The upper gates will be the last to be closed while the reservoir is fllling and the first to be opened when the water is turned back into the Nile in May. The sluiceways furnished with Stoney gates will next be gradually opened, and all the gates will be raised by the middle of July, when high water appears. They will remain open 56 until the flood has practically disappearea and comparatively clear water again flows in the Nile. Work on the foundation and lower parts of the dam had to be prose- cuted during low Nile. The numerous channels into which the river is divided at the head of the first cataract favored this work. Tempo- rary dams thrown across one channel turned the w^ater into others, and, by thus changing about, each part of the foundation was com- pleted and put in shape so that the next flood could pass over it with- out injur3% Along the west margin of the river immediately above the dam it was found necessar}' to resort to riprapping. as the mate- rial is rather fine and the current sets in aofainst that Inink durinsf high water. The greatest difliculty in the construction of the dam was to find stable material upon which to place the foundation. In one of the channels the partly decomposed granite had to be excavated to a depth of 60 feet below the bed of the river (PI. XXII, fig. 2), mak- ing the total height of the dam at this point over 120 feet. The neighboring country supplied a fine quality of granite in unlimited quantities. The Egyptian Kailway coimects directly with steamers at Alexandria, and cement was delivered at Shellal, within 2 miles of the dam site. The contractor built light railways from the dam to Shellal and to the quarries. In this wny the stone, cement, and other sup- plies were brought to the point where needed and were lifted direct from the cars to their final positions in the dam. The rubble masonry stone of which the interior of the dam is composed Avas carried up inclined planes by natives to the masons. The cement mortar for this work was mixed alongside the dam and handled in the same man- ner. The large dimension stone of which the face of the dam is con- structed was cut at the quarry and shipped as needed. The edges of the stone were protected by wooden frames, and other precautions were taken to keep the corners true while the heavy blocks were being handled. The first cost of the dam was §9,740,000* which, with interest, will be paid in (>(» semiannual installments of §382,845.31 each, the first payment to be due July 1, 1903. This makes the final cost of the dam, including interest, §22,970, 718. (3(». The cost of the work, not includ- ing the purchase of land which the reservoir covers or the repairs made to the temples of Fhilae, amounts to §11.26 per acre-foot of capacity. The ultimate cost to the people of Egypt, including inter- est charges, will be §26.56 per acre-foot. Egypt has also raised §5,746,600 for improving canal sj-stems, especially those of Upper Egypt, so that the water supplied by the reservoir may be distributed. As the water stored by the reservoir could not serve all the land which might be reclaimed in Egypt, it was decided to furnish water to the areas alread}' under cultivation but which suffer from drought during the months of scarcitv. That part of the vallev Iving between U. S Dept, of Agr., Bui. 130, Otf'ce of Expt. Stations Irrigation Ini^estigations Plate XXII. Fig. 1.— Cast-iron Lining for Sluiceways Being Put in Place at thz Assuan Da M. Fig. 2.— Deep Foundation Work Near Western End of Assuan Dam. 57 Assuan and Assiut was allotted 137,800 acre-feet. The lands between Assiut and Cairo were allotted 482,400 acre-feet. Gizeh province alone, near Cairo, was allotted 68,900 acre-feet. The territory north of Cairo, principally in the delta, was allotted 243,200 acre-feet. The sum of these tigures is 863,400 acre-feet, the estimated capacity of the reservoir. The engineers have estimated that about 70,000 acres can be irri- gated from the reservoir between Assuan and Assiut, giving' this area about 2 feet in depth, the water being measured in the reservoir and no allowance made for loss either through evaporation or seepage. One authority states that only one-third of the land is cultivated in any one season, which allows 210,000 acres to be served. It is extremely doubtful if over 70, 000 .acres can be served in this portion of Egypt during the three seasons of the year. If this area can be changed from flood to peremiial irrigation the annual yield of the land will be increased at least $700,00<). If 210,000 acres could be brought under perennial irrigation in this part of Upper Egypt, it would mean an increase in the returns to the farmer of about $2,lOO,(»0() and in the revenue of the state of about $60,000 per 3'ear. The engineers hope to bring under perennial irrigation 468,000 acres of land lying between Assiut and Cairo. This would make an annual increase in the returns to the farmer of al)Out $5,700,000 and in the revenue of the government of about $950,000. It is estimated that 160,000 acres can be brought under perennial irrigation in Gizeh province alone, 3nelding an annual increase in agricultural products of nearly $l,O0(»,000 and about $300,000 to the government. B}' the perennial irrigation of 120, OOo acres in the delta it is hoped to increase the annual returns from agriculture there by about $3,000,000 and the revenue through taxation by about $400,000. In addition to the direct benefits from the reservoir, it is estimated that an average of $1,000,000 will be saved each year on the cotton crop. One year in five the Nile is so low that about $5,000,000 is lost by a failure of a portion of this crop. Besides this, about $5,000,000 will ultimately be realized from the sale of government land brought under perennial irrigation. It is believed that the water stored in the Assuan reservoir will add annually to the wealth of the country a total of $11,000,000. Land which can be perennially irrigated rents about $5 per acre higher than that which depends upon inundation alone. As shown above, the taxes on perennially irrigated land are much higher than on land not so watered. It is expected that the semian- nual payments on the reservoir will be met by the increased revenue from the lands deriving benefit from the stored water. In the woixis of Sir Alfred Milner, ''The Egyptian Government is relieved from the difiiculty of paying for the works until return is received from them; until, in other words, they pay for themselves." 58 There is no doubt })ut that hind \-ahies liave increased greatl}^ since the construction of the reservoir ]>egan, and ahnost any irrigation project in Upper or Lower Egypt has no trou))le in securing tinanciai backing. This demand I'or farming huid and the increasing number of capitalists interested in Egyptian agriculture led to a number of inquiries regarding the actual capacity of the reservoir. Engineers were detailed from foreign countries to visit the site of the reservoir and obtain tiofures to satisfv cai)italists that the reservoir would accom- plish what it was advertised to do. In this way, and through the annual reports of the goveriuuent engineers, the Assuan dam has probal)ly become })etter known throughout the world than any other work of equal importance. However, outside of the surveys in the immediate vicinity of the site of the .dam, little has been done to deter- mine the actual capacity of the reservoir. A survey was begun during the winter of r.M)l-2 to establish the boundary line of the reservoir when full. THE ASSIUT DAM. The dam at Assiut was constructed for the purpose of raising the level of the water so that it would tiow into large canals supplying water to land on the west side of the river. But one canal leaves the river at the dam. At Dirut, a few miles below Assiut, a wasteway has been l)uilt and a number of masonr}^ regulators have been provided. At this ])lace another channel comes in from the river. This latter channel is used only during high Nile. A number of divisions of the Ibraimia Canal at Dirut furnish water for the only perennial irriga- tion in Tpper Egypt until the Assuan reservoir shall have become avaiial)le. The most important canals below the regulators are the Ibraimia, running parallel with the Nile, and the Yusef, which parallels the l))raimia for a distance, and ends in the Fayum province. The Assiut dam resembles the })arrage below Cairo .somewhat, and, like the barrage, is founded upon soft material, Avhich necessitated a very broad foundation. The general character of the dam is shown in PI. XXIII. Its 'total length is 2,640 feet or about half a mile. The heiu-ht of the roadwav above the bed of the river is 4-1. 5 feet. The piers supporting the roadway are 6.56 feet thick. Every ninth pier is 13.1 feet thick. The sluiceways are 16.5 feet wide. The depth to which water will flow through the archways during high Nile is 33.5 feet. Two gates, each T. 8 feet high, were provided for each sluiceway. When these are in position they are capable of increasing the depth of water about 10 feet. The gates are raised by a traveling Avinch which can be moved to any point along the dam. It is the supposition that the gates will not need to be lowered until the latter part of April each year, and they will 1)e raised })efore the appearance of high water in July. During high Nile all sediment which may have collected above 59 the dam lietween April and July will be washed away. A lock has been provided at the western end of the dam. This desig-n has proved to be the best for dams where the material on which the foundation rests is not solid. It would doul)tless give g-ood service in the Platte, Arkansas, and other American rivers where the beds of the streams are similar to that of the Nile north of Assuan. The Assiut dam cost |1, 986,030. The stone was transported from quarries farther up the river and the cement and ironwork were brought from England. The Ibraimia Canal head gate, located on the west side of the river just upstream of the dam, cost |370,(mX). It is of the same general type as the dam except that it is provided with gates which are designed to withstand the flood water. As reservoir con- struction progresses on the upper reaches of the Nile, dams similar to the one just completed at Assiut will have to be erected wherever large canals are taken from the river. DRAINAGE. In Eg3"pt, as elsewhere, irrigation and drainage go together. The Nile and the canals deposit material along their courses, and, after running in one channel for a long period, this deposit raises the chan- nel above the level of the surrounding country. The water ultimately overflows their banks and runs across the low adjacent country, making for itself shorter routes to the sea. This change in channels has taken place many times since Egyptian history was first recorded. The delta is almost entirely separated from the sea l)y lakes which are supplied by rainfall, by water escaping from the river, by water from the canals, and l)y drainage from the holds. The boundary between these lakes and the sea is maintained by w^ave action of the Mediterranean. The process of draining them would be compara- tively simple were it not that in some cases their surfaces are below sea level. Before perennial irrigation was generally extended throughout the delta, evaporation alone kept down the level of these lakes and they did not injure the bordering farming lands. Many drains had been dug, however, by the earlier irrigators. During the periods when Egypt was occupied ])y Turks, Arabians, and others, who paid but little attention to the condition of the farming class or to the suc- cess of agriculture, many drains were a])andoned. while others were used as canals. Large areas, once good farming lands, reverted to salt marshes. It is with great difliculty that this land is ])eing reclaimed at the present time. Into such a state of disorder had things drifted w^hen the English took charge in 1S82 that many of ■these early drains w^ere used for canals and cantds for drains. ]Many thousand acres wdiich had previously been agricultural land reverted to the original swampy condition. These are ])eing slowly reclaimed. 60 Immense pumping plants have been installed to remov^e the water from the surface, and drains have been dug. The surface of the ground is pulverized before fresh water is applied. After the water has dissolved some of the salts it is allowed to flow away. That which is a])sorbed by the soil reaches the drains and runs away by gravity or is lifted by pumps. This is an expensive and tedious process, but as soon as a portion of the salts are removed rice can be grown, and by careful use of the water the land continues to improve in quality. Much land has l^een thus treated and is now growing cotton and the more valuable crops of Egypt. Since the occupation of the English S5,U(H»,0(JU or 'S0,U(JO,UU(» have been spent in drainage work. After the barrage was put in condition for service perennial irrigation in the delta was greatly stimulated, and it became necessary to provide for removing the added volume of water drained from the tields. Much of this water ran into channels tributary to the lakes. (PI. XXIV.) The level of these gradually rose and threatened large areas of adjoining farming lands. Some of the lakes were drained b}' constructing simple works which permitted them to flow into the sea whenever there was sufficient ditterence in level. Lake Edku })clongs to this class. Lake Mareotis, near Alexandria, has probably given the most tr()u])l(\ Its surface varies from (U to 11 feet below the sea level. Unless it can be maintained at least 8 feet })elow sea level large areas of adjoining lands already drained revert tcj their original condition. Until 1892 evaporation kept the level of the lake at a satisfactory height and pumping was not practiced. A pumping plant was installed in the winter of 1892-93, but, in spite of the fact that it discharged 2 > o o en CO H I m > > CO CO c -i U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 130, Office of Expt. Stations. Irrigation Investigations. Plate XXIV. (31 LAWS AND REGULATIONS. CONDITIONS TO BE CONSIDERED. Eg}'pt was the granaiy of the world tour thousand 3^ears ago, and it is natural to look to such a country for model irrigation laws. Unfortu- nately irrigation in P^gypt has developed under conditions ditt'erent from those of any other country. The character of the Nile flood is such that until perennial irrigation was introduced there was no need of hiws and regulations. Beyond some recent reforms therefore, the irrigation code of Egypt is as inapplical^le to American conditions as are the saki\'eh and the wooden plow. While the present irrigation law of Egypt provides that certain canals, drains, and other improve- ments are the property of the government, the rights of neither the state nor the irrigator in the water of the Nile are deiined. There are no special regulations regarding the use or the distribution of water, and no legal limit is placed on the volume applied to the fields. Measuring flumes and weirs are unknown. A reform is slowly 1)eing brought about through the gradual regulation of the capacit}' of the liftino- devices, but it will be vears before these furnish water in ratio to the area of the land irrigated. When one of these raising devices has to be replaced by a new one, or an altogether new plant is installed, the government prescribes the size of the pump, and in this way limits to some extent the volume of water furnished to the lands. Many large pumping plants have been installed, which will for years con- tinue in use practically as they are to-dav- Nearly all of these furnish water in excess of the quantity actually needed. The native farmer general!}' raises water by some of the ancient devices, and hence it is that he suffers by the introduction of the large pumping plants which rapidly deplete the water supply. AUTHORITY OF OFFICIALS. To enable the positions of the Egyptian irrigation officers to be understood it will ])e necessary to describe l)riefly the character of the government at the present time, treating only incidentally the com- plex foreign relations which have been entered into during the past thirty years. Egypt is divided into fourteen provinces; six of these are in the delta and eight in Upper Egypt. The Fayum is one of the latter, and includes two oases in the desert. Two oases are also included in the province of Assuit. Egypt, as a whole, may be compared to one of our smaller States, and the provinces with our counties. The accompanying map shows the location of each of these provinces and also the irrigation circles or districts. (PI. I.) The chief officer of each province is the governor. Under him is the council, which is made up of the vice-governor, the tax gatherer, a clerk, an accountant, a superintendent of police, a supervisor of 62 canals and public works, a head physician, and a supreme judge, who is a representative of the Mohannnedan Church and is the authorit}" on religious affairs. Some of the larger towns have independent govern- ments similar to that of the provinces. Each province is divided into districts, over each of which there is a chief officer who is at all times under the orders of the governor of the province. Under these dis- trict officers come the sheiks, who are mavors or local maoistrates. The larger towns are also divided into precincts, each of which has its magistrate. In theor}^ the government of Egypt is one of the most complicated in the world; in practice it is comparative!}^ simple. The British min- ister plenipotentiai-y and his advisers are the real government. Native Egvptian officers have certain duties, but the English have all the authority. The theoretical heads of the government are the Sultan of Turkey, represented by the khedive; a number of foreign nations, including Great Britain; while tlie third and most important is Great Britain alone. The government therefore has three heads, only one of which is authoritative. Apparently the khedive is an absolute monarch; in reality he has no authorit}' except such influence as the locial representative of the Mohammedan Church in a Mohammedan country would naturally have. Then again, Egypt is a dependency of Turkey and pa3^s §2,262,000 annually in tribute to Turkey", receiving nothing in return. While the Sultan has no political influence in Egypt, he is at the head of the INlohanunedan Church. The ffnances of Egypt are largely controlled l^y a conmiission made up of represen- tatives from foreign countries. Foreign judges sit in the mixed tri- bunals. Criminal suits against foreigners are tried in consular courts of the nationality of the accused, or he is returned to his own country and tried by a competent court there. A decree of the khedive has no weight unless sanctioned l)y the British minister; neither can he veto a measure against the advice of that official. Before any measure can become a law it is prepared in the shape of a decree by one of the seven ministers. The minister of the interior is the prime minister and president of the council of min- isters. Under him are the minister of public works, the minister of public instruction, the minister of foreign affairs, the minister of finance, the minister of justice, and the minister of war and marine. These ministers are native Egyptians, but the undersecretaries are British and control the policy of each department. These under- secretaries are advised by the British minister, and in this way his influence is felt through every department of the government. After a decree has been prepared by one of the ministers it is submitted to the council of ministers and the British financial adviser, or his dele- gate, who has a right to attend the meetings of the council. Any measure which provides for a change in the financial affairs of the government 63 this official has a right to veto. His power in this particular is abso- lute, and he is not required to give a reason for his actions. The business affairs between Egypt and Turkey are conducted by the prime minister and a special commissioner from Turkey. Egypt has no popular government. No elections are held; hence the public takes little interest in the affairs of the government. In fact, public sentiment does not exist. Under the organic law of May, 1883, a representative assembly is provided for, but the same act contains so many restrictions that the functions of this body are entirely advisory. Some of the larger towns of Egypt and the fourteen prov- inces have something like local government, but, owing to the compli- cated nature of the control of Egypt, privileges of this kind can not be much extended. About all the advantage enjoyed by the provinces or these cities is that their local councils or assem])lies may discuss measures which affect their conmuuiities. The council of ministers considers their recommendations when it meets, and in this way becomes acquainted with public needs as nearly as the council can interpret them. The legislative council, composed of thirty members, meets at Cairo about once a month. Fourteen of the members of this council are named by the government, and the government reserves the right to delegate any other official to attend its meetings. Nothing can origi- nate in this council, but it can examine the estimate of expenditures and discuss decrees which affect internal administration. The gov- ernment is not required to accept amendments made by the legislative council, but the reasons for rejecting any amendment must be sub- mitted in writing. In addition to the legislative counril, there is a body known as the "general assembly.'' It is composed of the ministers of state, the thirty members of the legislative council, and forty-six delegates, of whom thirty-live are chosen from the fourteen provincial assemblies and eleven are selected bv the g-overnment. Before this bodv can meet the khedive must issue a decree calling for a session. The asseml)ly should convene every two years; in practice its sessions are irregular, and when it meets its sittings are short and the business coming before it is of minor importance. It has no legislative privileges, but can veto any measures relating to taxation. No new taxes can be imposed without o])taining the consent of the general assembly. In fact, this is its only real power. Regardless of the seemingly complicated nature of the government, the lawmaking power is quite simple. After the council of ministers has approved a decree it is transmitted to the khedive. It makes but little difference whether he signs it or not. His power of veto can not be exercised when it conflicts with the advice of the British minister. As these acts or decrees originate with the ministers, and the policies 64 of each minister are dictated by a British undersecretary, it is but seldom that measures are introduced that have not the indorsement of the English. The irrigation oflicials are under the minister of public works and include an inspector-general of irrigation, one inspector of irrigation for Upper Egypt and one for Lower Egypt, and an inspector-general of reservoirs. These officials are all English, and all but the inspector- general of reservoirs have permanent positions, and his will doubtless last until reservoir construction has been completed. In the same rank with these officials stand six heads of the irrigation admioistra- tion, who are native Egyptians. The head of the technical service is an Egyptian, and this branch is closeh' allied with the irrigation administration. To him are referred all technical questions relative to the issuance of licenses for pumps and other lifting devices. The survey department is in a way connected with the irrigation w^ork. It has an English director. Two other departments, one dealing with towns and buildings and the other with antiquities, have but little to do with the irrigation administration. The two inspectors for Upper and Lower Egypt and the heads of the drawing and mapping divisions have their offices at Cairo. pjgypt is divided into irrigation districts, which, for convenience, are known as circles, and each circle has an inspector. The inspectors of the lirst and second circles have their offices at Cairo, the inspector of the third circle is at Alexandria, of the fourth at Mineh, of the fifth at Keneh, and of the sixth at Sohag. The directors of the first, thii-d. and fourth circles are English. The remaining three are Egj-p- tian. The inspectors of the circles have immediate charge of cleaning canals, building smaller diversion works, repairing masonry structures, keeping gauge heights on the Nile and on canals, and dividing the water among canals in accordance with the area under each or as the inspector-general may otherwise instruct. Under these men are other officials, most of whom are natives, who travel about and see that the instructions of the inspectors of the circles are carried out. Ordinarily the responsibility of the engineer ends when the water is turned into the canals. Every canal which serves more than two villages is held to be public, and comes directly under the irrigation administration. There is nothing in the law which requires a certain discharge to be supplied in the canal during any part of the year. There is nothing to prevent an irrigation official closing one canal or all at his pleasure. When water is supplied the canal the irrigator can use as much as he can lift and convey to his land. What he does not need he is free to waste. If the canal supplies too much water and floods adjoining land, or if it fails to supply enough to irrigate the farms depending on it, the irri- gator has no recourse except to apply for a remission of a part or all of the tax ordinarily paid. 65 During- the seasons of scarcit}' time rotations are enforced, over ^vhich the eno-ineer has ahnost absohite control. The purpose of the administration is rather to save the more vahiable crops than to pro- tect the irrigators uniforndy. This insures a maximum return to the treasury through taxation, hut seldom atiords an impartial and equi- table division of the water. For instance, during some seasons rota- tions occur ever}^ four days; that is, irrigators are allowc^d to use the water a certain length of time and then be di^prived of it for four days. Dtiring the warm seasons of the year, in June and July, four days of drought is sufficient to kill rice. The fellah who has i)lanted this crop is the sufferer, and, although his taxes ai-e remitted, he has no income from his land and nuist earn his living in some other way. It has been found necessary to modify the rotations under some of the longer canals l)ecause it often occurs that the water never reaches the lower end of a canal. Usually when water is turned into a canal it is allowed to run for a dav before any one is permitted to divert it. In this way it will run a considera])le distance before the volume is dimin- ished to any great extent. CAUSES OF LITIGATION. Owing to the fact that the government controls the diversion and division of water there is no litigation l)etween irrigators as to water rights. Cases are occasionallv brought against the government because the water supply is short or because the size of the pump the engineers have permitted to be installed does not suffice for the irriga- tion of the lands it was intended to serve. These cases are becomino- rare, as the engineers can generally show that the water was distributed as generously as the supply furnished hy the river would warrant and that the volume made availalJe l)y pumping, if properly used and distributed among the irrigators, would have sufficed for all. Such suits, if the amount of money involved is small, go first before the native courts, where, at present, a government officer is usually looked upon with suspicion. For this reason an engineer outside of the government service can often greatly annoy the administration by juaking adverse reports or giving testimony in contradiction to that presented by the government engineers. As the irrigation cases in the courts are nearly all small and relate generally to rights of wa}" and similar questions, the engineers have ne^■er had to give them much attention, and as the English have slowlv instituted reforms in the ■court proceedings, just decrees and decisions are now the rule rather than the exception. The P]gyptian engineers are also favored by the absence of any specific laws or regulations which would limit them to certain prescril)ed duties. With the power behind them which secured them their positions in the first place, they are enabled to take what- 2TT52— No. 130—03 5 66 ever decisive action i.s necessaiy and to institute such reforms as, in their judgment, are plainly necessary. Another question which often leads to lawsuit aoainst the g'overn- ment is the remission of taxes on the irrigated land or the i-eduction of taxes on the lands where the water has to be pumped. For instance, during the summer of 1901, onh" 38 acres out of a 50-acre farm were covered during the Nile flow, leaving 1'2 acres to be watered by pumping. As the owner failed to notify the govern- ment at the time that the water was not high enough to irrigate all of his land, he was taxed for the entire 50 acres as though it had all received the benefit of the high Nile. The government taxes on land which has to be irrigated by pumped water are only half as much as where the land is flooded. A suit of this kind is often expensive, and the testimony is generallv ([uite voluminous. If a native brings the suit, and the area is small, involving a loss of less than $500, the case goes to a native court. If the land belongs to a foreigner the case goes to the mixed tribunals. In the former court the proceedings are in Arabic, and the records are published in Arabic and English. In the mixed tribunals the proceedings are generally in English, French, or Italian, and the proceedings are always published m French oi' Ital- ian. If an appeal is taken from the decision of the mixed tribunals, the case goes to the court of appeals at Alexandria, where the pro- ceedings are in French and are published in French. When Mohammed Ali undertook the execution of the perennial irri- gation works in Egypt, he carried on the reform as though he were the proprietor of all the land and water in Egypt. He flxed the rate of taxation, hired engineers to design the irrigation works and super- intend the construction of the same. Where labor was wanted, he forced the fellaheen to leave their farms, either to excavate the canals or to work on the numerous irrigation structures connected therewith. The Egyptian farmer has long been used to this kind of treatment. In fact, he has never seen an3'thing else until within tiie last tifty years, and it will take him a long time to entirely recover, even if the gov- ernment makes it possible for him to do so. It is not surprising that a wise irrigation code has not developed in Egypt, when all of these conditions are considered. In a country where land titles were un- known, it would not be presumed that the rights of an irrigator would be recognized or protected. Mohammed Ali, while not granting permanent title to agricultural land, instituted many reforms. Among these was the distribution of fi-om 2i to 5 or 6 acres of land to each person. This was made quite early in his reign, and in 1842 he permitted the holders to dispose of their land as they pleased. At no time, however, did they hold any actual title to the land thev farmed. Together with the lack of titles and the weight of taxation, the fellaheen have in many cases been 67 forced to dispose of their land, and much of this is now included in the large estates. Under Ismail largo tracts Avere contiscatcd by the government. About a tifth of the agricultural area of Kg vpt is either directh' or indirectly under the control of the state at the present time. Some- thing- over 500,000 acres have been in charge of the Daira Sanieh, which company has a contract with the government that stipulates that the land shall ]>ring- a tixed price when disposed of. About 96 per cent of the tillat)lc land in this area is rented in small parcels to the peasantry. They pay on an average aljout ^'Jo per acre per year in rentals. The land remaining unsold in 190.5 reverts to the govern- ment. The land sold prior to that date goes largely to the small farmer, and whatever profit is made recompenses the company for its bringing the land under irrigation and placing it on the market. In this way a large area will return again to the fellaheen. About 4*40, 000 .acres are still included in the domains of the state. One hun- dred thousand acres of this land are located in Tpper Egypt and the remainder in Lower P^gypt. Probably so.ooo acres of this land will never be cultivated. *» While Ismail Pasha intlicted many wrongs upon Egypt, one of his acts has resulted in benotit to the people. He was indirectly responsible for establi;^hing the first titles to farming land in P>gypt. He taxed the people to the limit, borrowed money with whatever credit he had, and without credit when this was exhausted. In an attempt to secure ready money he finally issued a decree providing that all persons who paid their taxes six 3'ears in advance would be given permanent titles to their land. Those who could afi'ord to do so took advantage of this otier, and the titles thus obtained have since been recognized. The law was repealed in 18S0, however, because it was not as good a financial measure as it had pnjmised to be. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE LAWS. When the English engineers first undertook a study of Egyptian irrigation it was found that the law of Egypt was fragmentary and it was difficult for them to tell what provisions were in force. As early as December, 1885, the public works ministry issued regulations defining the respective powers of the governors of provinces and the inspectors of irrigation. These regulations (see p. S3) are still in force and are among the first reforms in irrigation law. Such duties as the law of Egypt prescribes for the officers in charge of the division of water are not clearly defined. The relative powers of the director-general of irrigation and the inspector of Upper and Lower Egypt and the subordinates are not set forth. This leav(\s the authorit}" wholly with the director-general and enables him to take such steps as may in hi> judgment l)e necessary during times of omer- 68 gency. There is nothing in the law which would govern the acts of the officials during- times when rotations are necessary. The}' are not authorized to distribute the water so as to save any particular crop or to favor any localit}' or person. AVhen a scarcity of water exists the relations between the governoi-s of the provinces as prescribed liy law have but little force. Water is distrilmted according to plans originat- ing in Cairo and carried into eti'oct ))y the inspectors for Upper ajid Lower Egypt and their subordinates. Even during such periods no attention is given to the necessities of the irrigators. Canals supplying water to the most valual)le crops receive Avater in rotation, and each irrigator may raise and use as nuich as he can while there is water in his canal. If waste occurs, but little attention is })aid to it. Under this system one canal may be favored this year and another the year following, depending upon which serves for the irrigation of the more valuable crops. The irrigator, it will ])e seen, has no recourse should his water supply fail. An a})peal to the officers of the ])rovince might be heeded, but the engineers of the government would not be con- strained to alter their plan of distribution. It will ))e seen that the operation of such u system places all respon- sibility on the government. The defect in the system is that the peo- ple are not considered as having any rights. 1)ut are treated solely as a revenue-producing body, and a farmer who receives water one year has no assurance that he will be served the next year. There can be no stability in land vahu^s and no justice in the operation of a land-tax law under such conditions, although the rate of taxation is, to some extent, regulated by the value of the farm products. It seems that the time must come when the distrilmtion will be fixed permanenth\ Under such a S3\stem the farmer would know, :is soon as the stage of the river was reported from Assuan, as to whether he would be sup- plied or not. The completion of the reservoir system will do much toward settling this question. l)ut it will be fifteen or twenty years before the farmers of Egypt can (»xpect to receive entire relief. The regulation of Deceml)er, 1885 (see p. 83), fixes the relation between the governors of provinces and the irrigation officials. Sec- tion 1 provides that: " It is the duty of the governor to see that a just distribution of the water is made in the various districts composing his province." This is followed by a sentence which reduces his authority to reporting the needs of irrigators to the irrigation inspec- tors and listening to the complaints of the village chiefs. The second section requires the inspectors to report to the govern- ors, as well as to the minister of i)u]>lic works, should it be impossi])]e to satisfy all demands for water. Section 3 defines the duties and powers of the inspectors control- ling the distribution of water and permits no gate to l)e operated without written orders from them. If the governor does not approve 09 of the action of the inspector or enoineer he may appeal to the minister of the interior, but the order of the inspector will stand until coun- termanded b}^ the hioher official. Durinu- hiuh Nile, or whenever work is necessary to avoid disaster, the orders of the governor super- sede those of the engineer, and the engineer gives notice that discord exists, when the governor becomes responsible for what takes place. As the work is largely of an engineering character, it is only in rare cases that the governor prefers to take charge in the field. The classitication of improvement works provided for in articles 9 and 10 is worthy of notice. The governor has nothing to do with awarding the contracts for excavation requiring the services of more than 1,000 men, masonry work costing more than §974, or work where machinery is necessary. The law provides, however, that the gov- ernor shall be notilied as to the character of the contract, and he has the privilege of reporting any failure on the part of the contractor to the engineer. In smaller improvement works the governor and engineer work together, selecting the contractor and supervising the work, the governor being the judge as to the reliability of bidders. This regulation not only prepared the way for the irrigation laws that were to follow, but made it much easier to introduce reform meas- ures regarding the corvee. As soon as the contractors on large enter- prises were brought directly under the minister of public works and his assistants a solution of some of the la])or problems could be under- taken. It was supposed at the time the regulation went into force that the use of machinery would go a long way toward reducing the labor of the corvee, but experience has not proven this to be the case. While the need of better laws was evident to the engineers under the Egyptian Government, it was impossible or impracticable to bring about the enactment of a fairly comprehensive code until 1894-. The first article of this decree (see p. So) di'tines a canal as a w^ater- way which supplies more than two villages. These are public and are maintained by the government. A ditch is a channel which provides water for one or two villages, or for land belonging to one person or family, even if located in several villages. These latter are private property and must be maintained by those deriving benefit therefrom, but the government may clean them should the owners neglect to do so and tax the cost against the owners. As the number of irrigators under anv canal increase, the necessity for go\'ernment control in this respect evidently l)ecomes greater. Drains are classified in much the same manner as are ditches and canals. If a drain serves but one or two villages it is considered as a private work, unless it serves more than 2,()00 acres. In the latter case or when it serves more than two villages it is considered puljlic. Drains are maintained under the same regulation as are canals and ditches. This is probably due to the difficulty of distributing the work 70 of maintenance fairly among the owners. A provision has therefore been inserted in article 2 under which any ditch may be considered as public property should it serve for the iri-ioation of as nnich as 1.000 acres belonging to several persons. Em))ankmeuts and levees for protecting the country against the flood of the Nile are considered public pi'operty. These are main- tained l)y the government. Article 0 and many others of this decree ha\ •' been recommended by the inspectors. During the first ten or twehc years of English occu- pation the jn-ovisions of section 0 would have been of great benefit in many cases. It stipulates that the owners of lands through which a public ditch passes can not destroy the same in order to make the land tilla))le without the written consent of the persons depending on the canal. If it is necessary tt) close a canal for repairs or in order to give the water to others who are in greater need, irrigators can collect no indenuiitv from the goveriuncnt for the loss occasioned by a lack of water. Article 8 is particularly interesting to those who have made a study of public supervision of water. One of the first uecessities under such supervision is that the State shall have authority to limit the diversion of water w hen further canal construction may injure users already on the ground.' Even in Egypt, where the Nile furnishes an almost unlimited sui)ply during a large portion of the year, it has been found necessary to limit construction work where the rights of others are threatened. The intent of the law throughout is to dis- tribute the cost of in-igation works in proportion to the benefits i-eceived by each user. This is Avell illustrated in the article under discussion. If a permit is granted authorizing the construction of a ditch others may use the works, providing they pay toward the cost of construction and maintenance in proportion to the benefits they are to receive. The procedure for condemning lands for right of way for canals and ditches is set forth in article !». The value of farming land in Egypt is well illustrated by the pro- vision of article 10 relating to enlargements of existing ditches. A rio-ht of wav does not give the canal owners title to land Iving on either side of the channel; hence when enlargement is contemplated it is necessary to condenm the additional land that must be used for the enlargement. Article 12 relates to the diversion of water from canals. No lateral can be taken from a canal without the approval of the inspector, but if it is desired to install a sakiyeh the chief engineer decides the matter, and also designates the location of the lateral or sakiyeh. Periuits are 71 applied for and granted under provisions of the deeree of March 8, Where a ditch, canal, or drain Ijecoines a detriment to agriculture in an}^ W'a3% it may ])e tilled in at the request of the owners of adjoin- in o- property, providing another watercourse can l)e used in its place without injuring- other lands. Article 14 illustrated the necessity of limiting- the size of ditches and head gates to the dimensions necessary for serving the lands irrigated therefrom. If water were measured in Egypt as it is in some of the irrig-ated districts of the United States there w^ould l)e no necessity for such restrictions. The time and money spent in changing the dimensions of canals and masonry regulating works would go far toward maintaining an adequate system of discharge measurements. The close relation between irrigation and drainage is evident through- out the decree. Article 15 sets forth the procedure for locating a drain when the party to be benetited and the party through whose land the drain is to pass fail to come to an understanding. The provision of article 19 is interesting when compared with the laws of some of the Western States. The article relates to the break- ing of ditch banks, embankments, etc., and prescribes that if such an oliense is committed complaint is made to the governor, who refers the matter to the inspector or cliief engineer, who makes an examina- tion of the ground, after having given at least fourteen days' notice of the examination. It' the accused is found guilty he is recjuired to restore the property or bear the expense of such work as may l)e necessary to restore it. In some of our States the fact that the water has been used is prima facia evidence that a ditch ]>ank has been cut or a head gate has been tampered with. No notice is necessary and the water commissioner has police authority and can arrest the oliender at once. Another example illustrates how slowly the huv is carried into effect in Egypt. If in the judgment of the engineer a small gate needs repairs, forty days' notice nuist l)e given the interested parties, that they may remedy it. If the work is not accomplished in the time, another period of forty days is allowed. If the parties still fail to perform the work the government has it done at the expense of the owners. The decree does not define the rig-hts of irrigators, the unit of meas- urement, or the ])asis upon which the Avater shall l)e divided among- claimants, while other details of seeming less importance to us have been fully set forth. The Egyptian government can compel the owner of land through which a canal runs to remove trees w^hich are found to interfere with the full fiow of water in the canal. It permits cultivation of a canal 72 and its banks under certain restrictions, but assumes no responsibilit}^ and no rlaini can l)e ])rouoht against it should the crops be lost or damaged. If the bank is needed for a highway or other purposes, no procedure is necessarj- in order to convert it into such, and the farmer who may have planted crops thereon has no recourse. The articles relating to oii'enses and prescribing penalties therefor indicate that the engineers who framed the law desired to cover all ofl'enses which had been called to their attention during the previous ten or twelve years. The sections referring to navigation are inter- esting in so far as the}' show the importance of the canals to the internal commerce of the country. The decree is given in full in Appendix I. INSTALLATION OF WATER-RAISING DEVICES. The decree of March 8, 1881, relative to the installation of machines for raising water, propelled by steam, by a current of water, or by the wind, provides that persons intending to erect such devices shall first apply for a permit, which application is approved or rejected, as the minister of public works or the head of the technical commission may decide. The decree exhi))its plainly the attitude of the govern- ment toward the user of water. In article 7 it is stated that the approval of the permit carries with it no assurance from the govern- ment that water will be supplied the water-raising device. In other words, the government mav approve of the installation of a water- raising device on a canal or a branch of the Nile where the water sup- ply is inadcijuate. The government does not keep itself informed as to the actual discharge of the various waterways which serve the irri- gator, nor do the irrigation offic-ials know the capacity of the water- raising devices which are alread}^ in operation. After application has been made for a permit to establish a water-raising device one of the officials of the technical department makes an examination of the s'te where it is proposed to erect the machine. The approval or rejection of the application generally depends upon the report of this officer. AVhcn the application is granted a permit is given the applicant. The technical department keeps a supply of the permit l)lanks, which are l)Ound in book form. The stul)s of these blanks contain the permit in full, one side of the sheet being printed in French and the other side in Aral)ic. The permit itself, which is torn from the stub when the application is approved, is printed in Aiabic only. On the reverse of the permit are extracts from the law relating to the installation of machines for raising water. These extracts are taken from the decree of :\Iarch 8, 1881, and fi-om the decree of April G, 1881. The form of permit is as follows: 73 [Form Xi>. iS T. P.] Minister of PrBuc Works. TEfHNiCAL Service. Permit Xo. . N.\.ME OF .\PPLICANT. CAPACITY OF THE DEVICE. Xo.- Resnlar permit fori stationary water- v Certificate, raising device, j CANAL. The applicant acknowledges receipt of this permit, together with a copy of the agreements and conditions imposed and of the design. Cairo, 1S9- CorreotTy translated. :airo, — . 1S9— . Mr. residing at — . province of , is anthor- ized, tnider the decree of March S and the rules of April G, 1881, relative to water-raising devices, and according to the report of the circle of irrigation, under date of at in water-raising device- having , province of — a capacity of H. P.. intended to propel a pump for acres, appurtenant to . The device will be ■ ■ on the ■ - according to the design accepted by the applicant and in conformity with the agreements and conditions imposed by the aforesaid report, a copy of which, together with a copy of the design, is attached hereto. The applicant hereby agrees to abide by the provisions of this permit and also by the instructions that will be given him by the said circle of irrigation, to which this i>ermit must be shown whenever it is requested. A failure to abide by the conditions and obligations imposed by this permit will relea.se the undersigned from all provisions of this permit, without prejudicing the right which the government reserves to recover damages and reimbursement for expenses incurred, (.\rticle 4 of the decree of March 8, 1881.) Done at Cairo, . 189—. Chirf of Technical Service. .\ccepted by the undersigned aj>plicant. Cairo, ■, 189—. -Approved. Cairo. 1S9— . Thi.s permit is of special interest because it is the only form which is recognized by the Egyptian irrigation law. It is the onh" paper which the government gives an irrigator that recognizes in any way the right to divert and use water. It will be noticed that the permit states the horsepower of the engine which propels the pump and the area of the land proposed to be irrigated. It gives no information regarding the height of the lift, the size of the pump, or the efficiency of the engine. The decree relating to the installation of water-lifting machinery other than that just described (Appendix II, p. 96) is of special inter- est, and is of a.'? much importance as any of the laws or regulations governing the use of water. The original decree was i.ssued in ISSI, and its provisions were extended in 1890. Any person ma}" still con- struct and maintain a saki^^eh, a shaduf , or other water-lifting device, except those mentioned in article 1 of the decree of 18S1, upon the banks of the Nile. Permission must be ol)tained from the govern- ment before water-lifting devices of any kind may be erected on the banks of canals. As the Nile in man}- respects di tiers but little from many of the canals, it i.-. rather strange that this distinction has been made. The levees are more difficult to maintain than are the banks of the canals. Both classes of channels are public property, and most canals, as well as the river, are navigable. Navigation interests, how- 74 ever, are secondaiy to the needs of the irrig-ator, as is shown in the inconvenience to which viver boatmen are subjected when the entire discharofe of the Nile is turned into the larg-e canals in the delta. DRAINAGE. The most important drainage work in Egypt is prosecuted bj' the government, A large part of the main drains and the largest of the pumping plants are therefoi-c under its control. However, there are a number of large holdings. lK)tli in the delta and in Upper Egypt, where drainage is necessary. The government has also disposed of a number of tracts under condition that the land be reclaimed and improved so as to yield a revenue to the treasury. There are to-day large areas in the delta which must be drained before as much of Lower Egypt will be cultivated as was farmed before the invasion of the Turks, who permitted the drainage system to deteriorate. The Societe du Behera, owning- lands near Alexandria, has done nnich in the line of reclamation through drainage. Water is first drawn oft" by drains or b}- pumping, and large volumes of fresh water are applied. The surface is kept well cultivated, and gradually the salts are I'emoved to such an extent that rice can be grown. After a few 3'ears of rice cultivation more vahiable crops can ])e substituted. In 18S0 there were about 438,000 acres of public land outside of that which had recently l)een acquired from the khedival estates and put in charge of the Daira Sanieh administration. In 1899 this area had decreased to 210.000 acres, the remainder having been sold to farmers. In 1880 the Daira Sanieh administration controlled about 520,000 acres. In 1899 they had but 302.000 acres remaining-. As a considerable portion of this land required drainage works, it became necessarv for the government to enact laws which should place the work partially under government control. It was essential that the government engineers shoidd have authority to direct this reclamation, so that the systems ])hinned and- constructed by private parties should supplement rather tiian interfere with the work already performed by the government. Two decrees have been rendered relating to drainage. One was issued Eebruary 21, 1891, the other not until April 26, 1900. The decrees in full are given in Appendix III, p. 99. THE CORVEE. The sj^stem of forced and unpaid labor known as the corvee has always been an important factor in all kinds of public construction in Egypt. From building- the Pyramids to digging the Suez Canal or the excavation of a small drain, the corvee has been called into service. The labor of the corvee has made Eg-3'pt renowned for the products of the soil. 75 The conditions under which such a s^'stem has obtained a foothold in Eg-ypt are largely responsible for the adoption of existing laws and regulations governing the use of water. The difference in the stand- ing of farmers in the United States and in Egypt is almost wholly produced by the operation of the corvee regulations. If w^e are to make it clear as to why certain laws and practices are particularly well adapted to Egypt and not suited to arid America, the relation between the farmers called into the corvee sier\ice and the governing classes should be set forth in some detail." Formerly the corvee was called upon for all kinds of public and private service. At present the sys- tem must be considered as an intermediate step between slavery and freedom; many changes for the better have been introduced during the past one hundred years and the futui-e independence of the Egyptian farmer seems assured. But little has been recorded of the character of the corvee during the early history of P^gypt. The innnense masonry monuments and temples, as well as the irrigation works which still exists, show how the unpaid labor Avas utilized. Up to the time of Joseph, some 1750 years B. C, the practice was recognized, and abuses became common after the system of slavery inaugurated under his administration came into full effect. The government owned the people and everything in Egypt from that time until during the early part of the nineteenth century. Some of the recent reports dealing w4th the use and abuse of this free labor enable us to realize- to what extent the fellah has been imposed upon. The following report on forced lal)or l)v Mr. H. Villiers Stuart in March. 1883, sets forth the faults in the system at that time: FORCKI) l..\K(1R IN' THE DELTA. The complaints made upon this subject are that the apportionment is arbitrary and capricious, poor districts Iteintr required to furnish most and wealthy districts fewest laborers. The richer class of landowners is also entirely exempt. They suggest that in lieu of tlie present system there should be a proportionate labor rate upon all land alike, instead of throwing the burden upon those least able to bear it. Every landowner up to 100 acres is liable to forced labor; but he may, if he likes, pay a substitute. Some go and work themselves and some send substitutes. Those who possess no land are not liable. Those who are liable get no pay whatever for their work; neither does the govern- ment provide them with any food whatever. Their friends at home have to send them food from their villages. Usually bread dried in the sun is their sole nourish- ment. It is sent in sacks, a couple of men from each village l)eing deputed to convey it to the scene of operation. They have also to find their own tools and baskets. "The system has had great influence on the practice of irrigation and has made necessary the enactment of laws which would not be applicable in countries where the same conditions do not exist. In discussing the customs of the people of Egypt and the irrigation law there in operation, it should be borne in mind that regulations which might oi)erate satisfactorily there would fail in the United States where authority comes from the people. 76 As a matter of fact, their hands are often their only tools. With these they load the baskets and excavate the soil. No shelter is provided for them at night nor any covering. A certain number of overseers are appointed. These are armed with sticks and superintend the work. One complaint made universally was that instead of allowing the men of each dis- trict to work in their own districts the ])ractice was to send them to distant parts of the province, thus needlessly increasing tlie dithculty and cost of feeding them and ministering to their wants. Common sense would seem to suggest employment on the canals and embank- ments in their own neighborhood by preference, because they would then have a direct personal interest in the work. They complained that there was much bribery and corruption connecteil with the appointment of the forced labor, wealthy communities thus purchasing partial exemptions at the expense of those who were too poor to l)ribe high enough. They said that this was the real reason why the system of letting each district find the labor for its own puljlic works was not adoj)ted, because that would be an obstacle to these corrupt exemptions. All admitted forced labor to l)e a necessary institution in Egypt, the maintenance of canals and embankments ])eing of vital importance, but there had been great abuses, and even now they assured me that men were still forcc(l to labor on the estates of the government and of the wealthy pashas, but they said that now those so employed on the privileged lands received pay; previously they received none. This abuse, like many others, has been nominally abolished, but nevertheless con- tinues, the sheiks conniving. Indeed, it is through their instrumentality alone that these abuses are possible. FORCED I.AKOK IN TPPEH ECJVPT. A cut about L'~l feet deep has been made tlirougli a conglomerate of sand and gravel; this trench was flanked right and left by high embankments, consisting of the debris excavated. From the summit of these ridges to the floor of the canal was from 85 to 40 feet dee]i; along the bottom and on the slopes right ami left men swarmeil thickly like bees on a honeycoml) for a distance of about a nnle in length. The overseer told me that the entire forced labor of the province was concentrated there, 40,000 men in all; that they worked from sunrise to sunset without intermis- sion except a brief interval at midday for a meal consisting of bread soaked in unfil- tered Nile water. This liread was sent to them 1iy their relatives, and they had a meal of it before conunencing work and another at night. They have also to pro- vide their own baskets for carrying the excavated soil. They were engaged in fill- ing these baskets with gravel (using their fingers for the purpose), climl)ing the sides of the cut, and tipping them on the outer slope. The majority had no imple- ments V)ut their hands. A limited mnnber had short picks a foot" long, which they also have to provide, the government contributing nothing whatever. The matter liow coarse; old sacks would he better than nothing. REFORM OF THE CORVEE SYSTEM. When the Engli.sh euj^'ineers Ijoo-an their work, in 1883, the}^ found that all earthwork necessary in the construction and cleaning- of canals was performed by this kind of labor. Tnder the original basin s\'S- teni, before the farmer had a title to the land he cultivated and while he was simply a slave, this practice might have been excusable. There are no good reasons, however, why it should have been continued after the reforms introduced by Moiuunmed Ali were put in operation. Under the old system the farmer had nothing to do when there was no water, and he could do nothing during the flood. Under the perennial system some kind of farm work is in progress throughout the year, and if the farmer is taken aw^ay from his land the results are as serious to the taxjjfatherer as to him. Perennial canals require a great deal more labor to keep them in repair than do the ancient inundation canals. This is because the canals are deeper and carry water through- out the year. The whole agricultural population was formerly employed a large part of the year in keeping these canals in condition, ' although but a small portion of the people so engaged were directly interested in them. 80 long had the system been in force in Egypt that inunediate reform was impossil)le. The increased security to land titles did nuich toward bringing about a change for the better. The first khedival decree relating to the corvee appeared in January, 1881. Articles 1 to 4 of this decree prescribe what works shall be main- tained by the public. Article 5 provides that all male inhabitants of the country, of sound health, between the ages of 15 and 50 years, with the exception of those indicated in the following section, are subject to corvee duty. Article O: The following persons are exempt from corvee duty: Law students of the Koran; those who recite the Koran; persons engaged in teaching; students of the mosijues and schools; persons attached to charitable institutions, shrines, convents, and hospitals; those in the service of the mosques, tombs, and holy places having distinct offices; priests, monks, rabbis, and persons attached to the service of churches, temples, cemeteries of the various sects and holding permanent posi- tions; people having professions or trades who pay professional taxes and who exercise their calling; also fishermen and boatmen; the watchmen of the villages. Article T: Every person who is subject to corvee duty can redeem himself by furnishing a substitute. The following persons can redeem themselves by a payment in cash: Inhabitants of isolated settlements who have been included in the census; Bedouins who own land or cul- tivate the same and who have heretofore been exempt from such labor; the inhabitants of the villages working on the state domain and the 79 Daira Sanieh in Lower Egypt, wherever these administrations liave more than lOO acres, on the condition that the land is not rented and that the ransomed men shall devote their labor to cultivation. Forced labor is obligatory from the inhabitants of the villages where rice is the predominating crop, or where the land tax is adjusted as it is for such villages, but the corvee duty of such inhabitants will be only half of that required from the inhabitants of other villages. Article 8: Where a cash payment is permitted in lieu of services, about 1^6 is required in Lower Egypt and about l^-t in Upper Egypt. After the year 1882 the amount of this payment shall be tixed annually, and the minister of public works shall so notify the governors of the provinces one nionth before the commencement of woi'k. The condi- tions which shall affect the amount of this payment are the quantit}' of material to be moved and the time when it is necessar}^ to perform the work. Article 9: The minister of public works can, when he deems it nec- essary, withdraw the privilege of the payment of cash instead of labor as provided for in article 7, or he can substitute machine work iov hand lalior. Article K): The money received in each province from this source will be entered in a special register and deposited in the treasur}' of the province and kept at the disposal of the minister of public works. These sums can be spent only on works which have for their object reduction or suppression of the corvee. Article 11: It is the duty of the minister of the interior to collect and keep in service those subject to the corvee. The khedival decree issued in 1882 permitted the Arab farmers to redeem themselves from the corvee b}^ a cash payment, and the same decree frees the Bedouins from this service entirely. Lender the pro- visions of this decree those having political influence gradually secured relief from both the payment and the corvee service and the whole burden fell on the poorer classes. Early in 1885 some of the fellaheen of one of the districts applied for an investigation to l)e made of the corvee conditions. It was found in an examination of the corvee serv- ice from 11:5,000 acres that the entire number of men furnished came from 33.000 acres. The state lands included within this district redeemed about half of the renters, and the large landholders, Avho own about 51:),00(» acres, paid nothing and furnished no labor. The partial reconstruction of the barrage in 1885 brought about the first real relief to the fellaheen. This structure not Qnly furnished water for the farmer during the period of low Nile, but also enabled the discharge to be regulated in such a way as to reduce the volumes of silt which were annuall}' deposited. In addition to this relief $150,000 was spent in paying those who worked on certain canals. This was an experiment to see whether it was possible to relieve or wholly do awaj^ with forced labor. The work was entirely successful. Mot only were 80 the inhabitants better satislied to carry it on, l)ut tlie ^vork was better done, and the money re^'erted to those who bore the burden of the tax. This kind of work is carried on ))y contract, and each person is paid for the volume of earth he removes. Owing- to the improved quality of hand labor it was possible to clean canals in which 125,000 cubic yards of silt had deposited. At tirst it was estimated that machinery would have to be employed when the volume exceeded 50,000 cubic yards for any one c:mal. In 188(3 the tirst systematic work of cleaning- the canals was undertaken by the government, and this was £fradually extended until all earthwork was carried on with- out the emplo3'ment of the corvee. The cost of cleaning- the canals amounts to nearly t^2,000,000 per year. While this is a serious drain on the treasury of the country, 3'et it is a long- step in advance of the conditions which existed prior to the initiation of reform. The corvee is still called out to w^atch the ])anks of the Nile during- hig-h water. A number of decrees have been issued dealing- with details reg-ulat- ing- the corvee service, but they are comparatively unimportant. On Deceml)er 19, 1889, the following- decree was rendered: We. the khedive of Egypt, at the instance uf our eonncil <>f niinigters and in view of the deliberations of the general assembly, decree: Article 1. The corvee is suppressed throughout Egypt. Article 2. The guardianship and charge over the (Ukes and other works, as well as all urgent measures in case of danger owing to the rise of the Nile, shall continue to be carried out at the expense of the inhabitants. Article 3. The corvee and redemption tax are replaced l)y the establishment, both on Ushuri and Kharadji lands, of a special tax Mith a maximum tax of SO. 214 per acre, the total jiroduce of which shall not exceed $741,500 per annum. The assessment of this tax shall be made by a further decree issued on proposal of our council of ministers, after consideration ])y the legislative council. .\rticle 4. The produce of this special tax shall, with the authority of the com- missioners c^if the delit, be employed under the conditions prescribed by our decree of the 14th of June, 1889, for the sum of §1,235,750 provided for in the said decree. Article 5. Our ministers of linance and public works are charged, in so far as they iire each concerned, with the execution of the present decree. Done at the palace of Alxlin the 19th of December, 1889. (Signed) Mehemet Tewfik. By the Khedive: Th.e President of the Council of ^Ministers. The Minister of Finance. (Signed) Riaz. The Minister of Public Works. (Signed) Mohamed Zeki. Many preliminary steps were necessary before this tinal decree could be rendered. Some of the foreign powers objected to increasing- tax- ation for the purpose of relieving- the fellaheen in this work. The French were particularly active in this opposition. Althoug-h to-day the fellah is not imposed upon as he was twentj^ 3'ears ag-o, yet he does not enjoy liberty as we understand it. The work of watching- the Nile levees during high water results in consid- 81 erable hardship to the farmer. The following- table shows the number of men called out during the twenty years from ISSd to 1S9!>, inclusive: Xumher of men called on for an-ire dutij, 18S0-1899. Year. Number of men. 1880 110,385 281,283 262,923 '; 202,050 165,105 1881 1882 1883 1884 Year. 1885, 1886 1887 1888 1889 Number of men. 125,936 95, 093 87, 120 58, 788 49, 904 Year. Number of meu. Year. 1S90.. 1891 . . 1892.. 1893. . 1894.. 48, 488 44, 962 84, 391 32, 752 49, 488 1895 1S96 1897 1898 1899 Number of men. 36,782 25, 794 11,069 34, 770 17.564 The inimber of men needed in this work depends upon the stage of the Nile during flood. The higher the flood the more men are required to watch the banks during this critical period. The diti'erence between this work and the cleaning of canals is that those employed in the latter service receive compensation fixed ly the government. Service is compulsory in both cases. If an acc-ident occurs to the government railway line, men are forced to leave their homes and put it in repair, and are paid for their services as the government may deem sufficient. It can not be said, therefore, that forced labor has been abolished. Those who are best acquainted with the conditions admit that the sys- tem has simply been modified and reformed. CONCLUSIONS. The climate of Egypt being mild, the needs of the people are easily satisfied; the population is dense and the individual holdings of land are small. Labor is cheap, enabling much to be accomplished by the use of crude implements which could l)e performed profitalily in America only b}' the employment of modern machinery. The irrigation canals of Egpyt convey water to the farms, but the irrigator must raise the water for his fields. He has few other duties wdiich demand his time and energy during- the growing season, and therefore can use with profit machinery which requires a large expenditure of labor hut little expenditure of money. In lifting water from the Nile the Egyptian deals with the same obstacles as the irrigator in many locali- ties in the West where water can be secured at depths ranging from 10 to 25 feet, but there the reseml)lance ceases. The standard of liv- ing of the American irrigator is higher, his farm is larger, and the returns from an acre are les.s. He can not adopt water-raising devices of low efficiency like the shaduf or natali. The hoe, practicallv the onl}" tool used in distributmg- water over the fields in Egypt, has no meiit to the American farmer. We can not, therefore, learn much from the Egyptian irrigator. Many of the irrigation structures of Egypt are models of their kind. The barrage below Cairo is one of the most interesting dams in the world. Its architecture reflects some of the recent politic-al struggles in Egypt. The towers which embellish the dam should be classed 27752— No. 130—03 6 82 with the ruins bequeathed to tlie modern world ])y ancient Euypt. The barrage is a monument to the French engineers, while the fortiti- oations along it remind us that it was only a few years ago that the caprice of the khedi\'e overshadowed the designs of the engineer. The Assiut dam follows the general plan of the ])arrage below Cairo. The design of the dam at Assuan is new in Egypt as well as in the world. It marks the l)eginning of a great reservoir system which will ultimately control the waters of the Nile and furnish a supply to every ara})lc district of Egyx)t. The head gates, waste gates, regu- lators, and bridges of the larger canals wnll alwaj'S be objects of study for iri'igation engineers of other countries. The excellence of the recent irrigation works of Egypt is beyond question. The fame of the dam at Assuan has been heralded throughout the civilized world; })ut such works are costly. Before the distrilnitary systems are perfected the cost of the system supplied by the Assuan reservoir will exceed ^57 per acre of land irrigated. Such an outlaj' is not at present pr()tital)le in the United States. It is advisable, nevertheless, for us to study the larger irrigation works of Egypt, because it may l)e possil)le for American engineers to modify these desio-ns to suit the needs of irrigation here. Many of the smaller details of construction can be readily introdu<-cd The Nile is an easy stream to divide, hence laws for the economical distribution of water are not so severely tested as they will be on the streams of the arid West, ^^'ater is diverted only at the lower end of the Nile, and not from all its ramifying triliutaries, as is the case on the ]Missouri and Colorado. In addition, Egypt is one of the few countries where the water supply can l)e made adequate for the needs of all by storage. This will not be possil)le in the United States except under rare conditions, where the area of irrigable land along a river afi'ord- ing the supply is comparatively limited. In Egypt the demand for land will in a few^ years exceed the demand for water. AVith us the artni of irrigable land will rdtimately be limited by the water supply. The Egyptian irrigation law aims to bring about such a distribution of the water of the Nile that the country as a whole will produce the largest returns and the treasury receipts be the greatest. The irriga- tion laAvs of the Western States of the United States are framed to protect the individual farmer, and not for the purpose of producing revenue. This fundamental ditference in the objects to be attained makes Egypt's administrative system inai)plical)le to this country. There does not seem to be any reason for changing our policy. On the contrary, it seems wise that our irrigation administration should promote the prosperity of the water user as far as practicable, so that we may say in the words of Ameni, as inscribed on his tomb at Beni Hassan, 50 miles above Cairo, "'And behold, when the inundation was great, and the owners of the land became rich thereby, I laid no additional tax upon the fields." APPENDICES Appendix I. >^oTE. — The laws as given in thes^e appemlices are tree translations of the texts, as given in La Legislation en Matiere Immobiliere en Egypte, Le Caire, Imprimerie, Nationale, 1901. POWERS OF THE GOVERNORS AND INSPECTORS OF IRRIGATION. [KfKulatidii of December, 1NS5. lixiiiu Hie relation between tbegovernors and inspectorsof irrigation.] ( 1 ) It is the dtity of the governor to see that a just distribution of the water is made in the various districts composing his province. He will make known at an oppor- tune time to the irrigation inspectors appointed by the minister of public works the places where more water is needed and at what times, and hear the complaints on such subjects as may be addresseil to him by the chiefs of the villages. (2) It is the duty of the inspectors to satisfy all demands as far as possible, and where they can not for any reason carry out these instructions they shall report the matter to the governor an(trtant improvements which the insju'ctor l)elieves should be made in the irrigation or drainage of a region, he must act in concert with the governor, and in all cases they mu.*t inform the minister of the interior and the minister of public works, who shall be members of the council of ministers. In public improvements and reforms of less importance it is the duty of the inspect- ors to personally inform the governor regarding what they jji-opose to do, the effects of the proposed changes, and theobstacies which they will have to overcome. Noti- fication in Avriting, either English or Arabic, is not sufhcient for this, and the inspect- ors must never fail to explain their ideas at least by maps and diagrams. Because of his special knowledge of the agricultural interests the governor can and should indicate how the proposed work might occasion loss or damage to private or public property. The two ministers and the council must be informed also. (7) The number of the corvee, as before stated, is determined by the agricultural council. The governor must decide as to the number of men who should be included in the corvee, and agree with the engineer as to the order in which the canals should be cleaned and the time for said work. The governor is not to be called upon for the technical execution of the work; the chief engineer is alone answerable and bears all responsit)ility for the completed work. The governor may, should there be occasion therefor, call upon the chief engineer to permit those of the corvee who have finished their work to return home. (8) When, for any reason, the inspector desires to close a canal for more than four- teen days, he must inform the governor of his intention as soon as possible, so that the latter may present his objections if he has any. (9) Irrigation works. — Irrigation works maj' be divided into two classes. The first class includes those for which bids are advertised in the othcial journal, which bids are submitted under the ]>revailing I'ules of the minister of public works. These works comprise all excavation requiring more than a thousand men per day, all masonry work costing more than £200 (1^974), and all work m which machinery is necessary. In work of this class the governor will not be consulted as to the choice of the contractor, but he shall l)e informed regarding the nature of the contract. During the execution of the work he must, if he deems neces.«ary, call the attention of the engineer to the manner in which the contractor is executing the work. 85 (10) The second claps covers the excavation and cleaning of pmall canals, small works where masonry is not needed, and repair of masonry works. Contractors shall submit bids to the governor for work of this class. The inspector shall sub- mit to the governor a copy of the specifications. The bids shall be opened and a contractor chosen to the satisfaction of l)Oth the governor and the inspector or his assistant. It is not necessary to accept the lowest bid. In work of this class the governor must always judge as to the reliability of the bidders. The governor should, if possible, favor local contractors. CANALS AND LEVEES. [Decree of February ■>■!, 1.S94, foncerniuK regulations reganliiiK <-anals and levees.] , PUBLIC CANALS AND LEVEES. Article 1. The word "canal" refers to a water course which serves for the entire or partial irrigation of the lands of more than two villages. All canals of this kind are considered public property. They are generally constructed and maintained at government expense and are a part of the public domain. The use and occupation of banks of canals are permitted only under certain restrictions laid down in article 21 of this decree. PRIVATE DITCHES. Article 2. By the word " rigole " is understood a water course which serves for tlie irrigation of the land of one or two villages or of land l^elonging to one person or to a single family living in one community even if belonging to several villages. All rigoles are considered private property. The cost of construction and mainte- nance is borne by those who derive profit from the works. In case of delay in cleaning these works the government may perform the work at the expense of the prf)prietors. The sum thus spent will be distributed by the governor in proportion to the taxes paid by each, and it will be collected in con- formity with the provisions of the decree of March 25, 1880. However, if a ditch serves for the irrigation of 1,000 acres belonging t(j one or several persons it can always, upon request of the owners, be co^sidered a public waterway. DRAINS. Article 3. The word "drain" indicates a channel in the earth for carrying away rain water, drainage water, or water from irrigated fields. A drain is public when it serves more than two villages; private when it serv'es one or two only, unless it drains a surface of more than 2,000 acres in area, when it is considered a public work, although it may be situated in one village. The public drains are maintained by the government and the private drains by the parties interested. The provisions of the second paragraph of the preceding article are applicable to private drains. WORKS FOR PROTECTION AGAINST ININDATIOX. Article 4. "Works for protection against inundation " are levees, transverse and longitudinal dikes, and all structures serving to protect farms and villages fr.jni the overflow of water. These works are considered public i)roperty and are wholly under government control. Private levees upon the banks of the Nile, or those which form the boundaries of the basins and which are constructed by the owners, nmst be maintained at the expense of those benefited. 86 POWERS OP" IRRIGATION 1 N8PKCTORS AND CHIKF ENGINEERS. Article 5. Irrigation inspectors are the representatives of the minister of public works and have under tlieni tlie chief engineer and all those in the irrigation admin- istrative service. Their poM'ers and tlieir relations to the governor are fixed by the regulations of December 31, 1885. PI'BLIC WORKS ox i'RIVATE l.AXI). Article 6. The owner of land crossed by a public ditch, drain, or other work des- tined to serve the lands of neighbors can not, witlmut tlie written consent of the owners of the lands served, till the land occupied by sucli works in such a way as to destroy the usefulness of the works. STOPPING OF WATER-RAISING MACIIIXES AND CLOSING OF CANALS. Article 7. No indemnity can be claimed from the government for loss occasioned by a reduction or stoppage of the flow of water in a canal resulting from extreme necessity or having for its object repairs or changes recognized to be necessary, or by any measure which the irrigation inspector may deem necessary in order to maintain the volume or regulate the fiow of water — such, as for example, the closing o*' a canal or the suspension of irrigation for a certain number of days on all or a jmrt of a canal, so that other places in greater need of water may receive it. In case it may he necessary to clean or repair a canal the irrigation inspector, through his agent, the chief engineer of the province, shall determine when water may best be dispensed with for irrigation that these operations may be carried on. However, having commenced any work of this kind, the irrigation inspector should act in accord with the governor, as re(]uired by the provisions of the regulations of December 31, 1885, fixing the jtowers and relations of inspectors of irrigation and governors of provinces. The governor should notify and consult those interestecl or their legal representa- tives. CONSTRUCTIOts OF I'KIVATE DITCHES. Article 8. If tlie citizens of a village desire to construct a canal on their own lands for their own use they shall apjily to the governor. He will communicate the application to the inspector of irrigation, accompanying it by his recommendations and advice, and if the inspector agrees, the governor will ai)prove or reject the appli- cation as the circumstances may warrant. The ditch thus authorized shall be constructed at the expense of the api)licants and their associates. However, privileges so extended shall not permit the parties to debar neighboring property owners from utilizing the ditch for the irrigation of their lands, even during low water, after the original applicants shall have receiveil what they need for their own lands. These neighbors shall in such cases become contributors toward the cost of construction and maintenance in proportion to the extent to which tlieir lands may be benefited by the ditch. DITCHES through LANDS OF PERSONS NOT BENEFITED. Article 9. When a property owner finds that, without the construction of a ditcli upon land not belonging to him or not served by a Nili " canal or by a ditch already constructed on the property of others, it is impossible for him to irrigate his own land, on account of his being unable to arrive at an amii-able agreement with the proprietors of the private works or their legal representatives, he may make a state- ment of the c^se to the governor, who will communicate the same to the inspector of «A canal which tiows onlv during the Nile flood. 87 irrigation, with his reioinmendations and aou the claim of the owners interested or their legal repre- sentatives, the inspector of irrigation finds that a ditch is useless for irrigation, an obstacle to the drainage of bordering lands, that it al)sorbs water from l)ordering lands or loses it in transit, or, in fact, that it is a detriment to agriculture in any way, he should, after consulting the governor aiid after the latter has lieard the interested ])arties, communicate his recommendations to the minister of public works, wlio will order the canal to be closed at the end of the harvest and will per- mit the adjoining property holders to fill it up if it be shown that the land irrigated by the ditch can be watered from another without injuring lands or agriculture in any way. The tract of land occupied by the ditch thus filled in shall be subject to the laws relating to such land. INCREASING OR DIMIXISHIXCi THE SIZE OF THE HEAD tiATE OF A DITCH OK CHAXfilNf; THE LEVEL OF THE BOTTOM OF THE SAME. Article 14. If the inspector of irrigation l)elieves that a head gate of a ditch is too large or that its flow iiermits the passage of a volume of water in excess of that needed by the land irrigated by the ditch, he should so inform the governor, who will invite the parties interested, or their legal representatives, to meet him on a certain day. After having the opinion of the inspector stated to them, they will fix, if they approve the recommendations of the inspector, the time when changes may be made. The time should be so chosen that crops Avill not need irrigation while the work is being performed. If the parties object to the recommendations of the inspector, the case will l^e referred by the governor to the minister of public works, Avho will act as he deems expedient regarding the proposed changes. If it is necessary to enlarge the head gate of a ditch tjr to lower the level of the bottom of the same so that sufficient water may be delivered, a certain time shall, in like manner, be fixed for the alterations. In all work of this nature the government will l)ear the expen.se. DRAINS PASSING THROUCiH LANDS OF PARTIES NOT BENEFITED. Article 15. "Where, in order to drain his farm, a party has to construct a channel across the land of another, and the i:iarties can not come to an amicable agreement, a complaint should be presented to the governor, who will transmit it, accompanied with his recommendations and advice, to the inspector of irrigation. The latter will fix the course of the drain; the governor and the inspector of irrigation shall agree as to how the land for the drainage channel shall be acquired. If they fail to agree, the case shall be submitted to the minister of public Avorks, who, if he approves of the construction of the drain, shall take such steps as he may deem necessary to accomplish the Avork. All expenses thus incurred and the indemnity charged must l)e paid ])y the parties benefited. The construction of the drain shall not in any Avay injure land through Avhich it passes. 89 REPAIRING A DITCH OR DRAIN' TO PREVENT DAMAGE. Article 16. A party who-se land is injured by a ditch or drain which i)asseff! through it, whether such injury be due to a partial filling in of the ditch or drain or to inse- cure construction of the banks of the same, may appeal to the governor, who, after consulting with the inspector of irrigation or with the chief engineer of the province, may order the closing of the ditch or drain or may compel the owners to clean it if he deems this sufficient. If the ditch or drain is essential for serving other lands, the governor will require the owner or owners of the same to keep it in good condi- tion or pay damages to those injured. CHANGING THE LOCATION OF A DITCH WHICH DOES NOT MEET THE DEMANDS OF THE IRRIG.\T0RS under IT. Article 17. When a party finds that a ditch passing through his land makes the irrigation thereof difficult, and he desires to replace the channel by another, lie may present a petition to the governor, who will transmit it, accompanied by his recom- mendations and advice, to the inspector of irrigation, who, after having consulteil with the governor, will authorize the closing of the ditch and the substitution of another at the expense of the owner of the land, provided that the new ditch is in all respects as good as the first and fulfills the required conditions, and that the origi- nal channel be not closed until the new one is in condition to he used. But if the ditch concerns only the owner of the land through which it jiasses, he may replace the same by another channel upon his own land without having to obtain a permit. difficulties WHICH MAY ARISE IN (ONNECTION WITH THE KEI-AIK OF DITCHES. Article 18. If any party disagrees with his associates as to whether or not a canal should be repaired, and so notifies the governor, the latter shall delegate the chief engineer to make investigation on the ground and ascertain the facts. If it is con- sidered necessary to have the repairs made, the governor will notify the interested parties to do so. But if the parties are found to be unal)le to j)erform the neces.sary work, either for want of labor or money, the government may defray the expenses necessary for making the repairs and reimburse itself for the money so expended by numerous payments from those benefited, the amounts of such payments to be fixed by the province according to the means of the parties. The government may renounce all claims for reimbursement if the parties are recognized as being poor. The minister of the interior will decide as to whether poverty exists or not DESTRUCTION OF DIKES OR FILLING IN OF DITCHES OR DRAINS. Article 19. If any party complains to the governor that one of his associates in an irrigation ditch or drain maintained at the expense of those interested, under the provisions of article 2, has destroyed the Vjanks or has filled in or encroached upon a part thereof, the governor will communicate the grievance, accompanied with his recommendations and advice, to the inspector of irrigation, who will make a personal examination of the ground or delegate the chief engineer of the province to do so, after having given notice to those interested at least fourteen days in advance. If it is found that dikes have been destroyed or channels filled in, the inspector will make an estimate of the cost of reestaljlishing the works as they formerly stood, and the governor will require, according to law, the offender to restore the property he has damaged. In case he refuses he will l>e obliged to bear the expense of such repairs. In case an owner or a tenant complains to the governor that some one has inter- cepted the water of a ditch which serves him for irrigation, the governor, as stated in the foregoing paragraph, will transmit the complaint, accompanied with his recom- 90 mendations and advice, to tlie in^- work of jirotection, or who may have committed acts which might injure works of art. The sheiks of the villages who may have taken charge of these works of art will • be held legally responsilile by the government for the said acts, unless they have informed the government that Jhey will no longer act in this capacity, so that guardians might be appointed by the government. Second. Those who may have interred a l>ody in the banks. Third. Those who may have taken water from a canal, whether by opening the gate of a canal or ditch or by making an opening in the bank or l)y raising the level of the water during the time the inspector of irrigation or other duly appointed authority shall have given notice that water should not be used. Article 33. The following offenders will be punished by a fine of from 25 to 200 P. T. ($1.23 to $9.86) and imprisonment from five to thirty days: First. Those who, without written authority from the inspector of irrigation, may have diverted water from a drainage canal to a public canal. Second. Those who, without special authorization, may have constructed over a canal any l>ridge, either permanent or temporary, or who may have established a pipe or a siphon. Article 34. The following offenders will l)e punisheil by a fine of from 10 to 50 P. T. ($0.49 to $2.47) and imprisonment from one to fifteen days: First. Those who may have deposited upon the banks (jr berms of a canal the material obtained from excavating or cleaning a ditch, a c( induit to a sakiyeh, or a steam pump. Second. Those who may have damaged the banks of canals or public drains by running water over them from the fields or by discharging into the channel of a public drain sand or mud carried by water. 94 Third. Those who may have driven stakes in a e-anal U) Imld fishine found, they shall order a new hearing, which shall take place within three days. Article 10. If the sunnnons has l)een properly issued, judgment by default will be given, and no appeal may l>e taken. Akticlk 11. Where an appeal is granted in accordance with the provisions of article 38 of the law on levees and canals, the accused, in making the appeal, must produce a receipt showing that he has deposited in the treasury of the province the amount of the fine and damages which have been imposed. The appeal will not be received if it is not accompanied by the said receipt. The appeal shall be transmitted within three days to the minister of the interior, with the decision and the other pai)ers in the case. Article 12. During the period of rotation in the sunnner— that is, the peritxl dur- ing which rotations apply to machines and pumps — the commission shall assemble at least once a week. But if, within three days before the time of meeting, there has been no summons, and there is no case of emergency, the governor may give notice to the members of the commission that no meeting will be held during the said week. Article 13. The governor shall be charged with the execution of the decisions, both of the commission and of the special committee of appeal. Appendix II. INSTALLATION OF MACHINES FOR ELEVATING WATER. [DL'CTfc of Marcli s, 18S1.] Article 1. Any person, before establishing a machine for elevating water either for irrigation or drainage, whether the machine be stationary or movable, or propelled liy steam or by a current of water, or l)y the wind, must receive permission from the public works ministry. This i)ermit carries with it no right or title to the public or private lands traversed by the pipes, conduits, aqueducts, head gates, or occupied by the pumping plant, in any way whatsoever. The government remains neutral in all respects in all disputes between the people and the person receiving the permit and leaves to him all responsibility resulting from damages which may occur in the installation of the plant or in any other way. Article 2. The erection of stationary elevating machines will be authorized only upon the banks of the Nile. At the same time the minister of public works may make exception and authorize the establishment of such machines upon certain canals. The minister is to be sole judge of the expediency of issuing a permit, and to him will be left all freedom regarding all agreements and conditions to which it will be subjected, as the case may demand. 97 Article 3. All machines for elevating water, whether stationary or movable, must be so installed as not to interfere with travel along the banks or the navigation of the canals, to respect all existing rights, and not add to the expense of maintenance of the canals or their banks, or to the defense of the country against inundation. Article 4. In case the aijplicant fails to comply with the conditions and obliga- tions imposed by the permit, it will be canceled without any claim on the govern- ment on account of such procedure as it may deem necessary to reimburse itself for such damage as may be done. Article 5. A site for the installation of a machine at a certain place may not be changed except by the issuance of a new permit, which will be granted without requiring the payment of additional fees. Article 6. The Government retains the right, whenever a public utility may require, such as the execution of public works dangerous to the dikes, irrigation works, etc., to cause any authorized pumping plant to be removed. Article 7. The permit given for the installation of an elevating machine, whether stationary or movable, carries with it only the right for the applicants to install the plant in order to take water from a canal or the Nile. It carries with it no assurance from the government of a supply of water for the machine, nor does it insure a passage for the water elevated by the machine. The applicants must come to an understanding with their associates, or the people whose land they must cross, with- out interfering with the government in any way. In order to conduct water over waste or other land of the government, the applicant must secure a special permit. It is prohibited to make ditches to bring the water along the l)anks of the canals or of the Nile, as well as upon the roads or slopes of the banks. Article 8. The ditches or conduits for carrying the water from the machines to the land will be constructed in such a manner and be of such a kind as not to inter- fere with travel, the flow of water, or with irrigation, according to the rights reserved by the people to whom the applicant alone remains responsible. The government willallow such construction as it deems safe and necessary for permitting the passage of conduits under dikes and roads and under or above canals. Article 9. For the general good, in case of exceptional low water, or when the flow of the canal becomes greatly inferior to the needs of the agriculture which it serves, the public works ministry, in accordance with a measure generally applicable to canals or a single reach of a canal, may order the immediate closing of the elevating machine, or reduce the capacity of the same in accordance with its location, the relative importance of the machine, the area of the land which it irrigates, and in no case will the government incur any responsibility for damage caused to agriculture. Article 10. Un