SA tal Bie no eek th ¥ ,, : Be Oe SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ©: 4 ea: 1 UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. |... Bulletin 390 baal Rie aK (Parts A to 8) Ny DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND : PRESERVING SPECIMENS ins: “WASHINGTON PRINTING OFFICE - 7921, TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part A.—Directions for collecting birds. By Robert Ridgway. 1891, pp.1-27, 0 figs. B.—Directions for coliecting recent and fossil plants. By F. H. Knowlton (with notes on collecting and preserving fresh-water alge, by Frank S. Collins). 189, pp. 1-46, 10 figs. C.—Notes on the preparation of rough skeletons. By Frederic A. Lucas. 1891, pp. 1-11, 12 figs. D.— Directions for collecting, preparing, and preserving birds’ eves and nests. By Charles Bendire. 1891, pp. 1-10, 7 figs. FE.— Directions for collecting reptiles and batrachians with supplementary note giving directions for preserving smali herpetological specimens in for- malin). By Leonhard Steineger. 1891, pp. 1-13, 5 figs. F.—Directions for collecting and preserving insects. By C. VY. Riley. 1892, pp. 1-147, 1 plate, 139 figs. G.—Instructions for collecting mollusks, and other useful hints for the con- chologist. By William HI. Dall. 1892, pp. 1-46, 8 figs. H.—Directions for collecting minerals. By Wirt Tassin. 1895, pp. 1-6, 8 figs. I.—Directions for collecting recks and for the preparation of thin sections. ey By George P. Merrill. 1895, pp. 1-15, 17 figs. ¥ J.—Directions for collecting specimens and information illustrating the aborig- inal uses of plants. By Frederick V. Coville. 1895, pp. 1-8. K.—Dtrections for collecting and preparing fossils. By Charles Schuchert. 1895, pp. 1-31, 13 figs. L.— Directions for collecting and preserving scale insects (Coecidee). By T. D. A. Cockerell. 1897, pp. 1-0. M.—The methods employed at the Naples Zoological Station for the preserva tion of marine aninials. By Dr. Salvatore Lo Bianco. Translated from the original Italian by kdmund Otis Hovey. 1899, pp. 1-42, frontispiece. N.—Directions for preparing study specimens of small mammals. By Gerrit S. Miller, jr. 1899, pp. 1-10, J fig. Revised edition, with abstracts in German, French, and Spanish. 1901, pp. 1-25, 38 figs. O.—Directions for collecting and rearing dragonflies, stoneflics, and mayflies. By Jamés G. Needham. 1899, pp. 1-9, 4 figs. P.—Directions for collectors of American basketry. By Otis T. Mason. 1902, pp. 1-381, 44 figs. Q.—Instructions to collectors of historical and anthropological specimens. ( Especially designed for collectors in the insular possessions of the United States.) By William H. Holmes and Otis T. Mason. 1902, pp. 1-16. e R.—Directions for collecting information and specimens for physical anthiro- pology. By Ales Hrdli¢ka. 1904, pp. 1-25, 8 pls. vA S.— Directions for collecting information and objects illustrating the history of medicine. By James M. Flint, M. D., U.S. N. (retired). 1905, pp. 1-3. 3 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. PwC HIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS. BY ROBERT RIDGWAY, Curator of the Department of Birds. Part A of Bulletin of the United States National Museum, No. 39. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OI'FICE, 189Q1. 4 CONTENTS. Page (Gemenall mEnneARS Gooo55 cooods caosHo ooo0Ge HEH copSoOdobesa Gaco ppeesce Soaoasess 5) (Oumratiik tore CME CNN Soen6 booed b6oHes beecas dooedeecem csedeaas600e A Secievasetle 7 Gnas AMG) HANTNMONHOM sooose cedaee ascose cn66n0 coSeuS o6oc5e d50050 oobocuEC 7 Skinning tools and materials ..---.--..------ oeoeso Se5neo cé06 CounoS DESHSS 3 TEREQGIRVANUAVES oaoc banced Gaoboo sons00 sag500 copa neds oS5bEa ESS meee af sites eieal 11 Miscellaneous..---.---..-----.------------- = ob serene ieeie qaeooudaau cocucedn 12 Procuring specimens.-.....---- ..---- ---- +2222 eee eee ne eee ce een cnn eee 13 What to do with birds after they are killed........---.---..----.---.---- 13 ow; bo) ill wounded! birds=25- +s. -+.c5 ase closes cose coe sl Ee RATS 14 Care of specimens on reaching camp or ates See See BODE CH EEA TOO HES 15 Preparing and preserving specimens.----.------------ -----+ --------- ee eee 15 How to skin birds ........-.-- SS Gnaoas BaSton Cae > Hoes o nao semcoSeoedet ose 15 Poisoning the skin.......----. .----- --+--2 ------ -- 2222 2-2 0es toc eee ese ces 18 Cleaning soiled or greasy specimems ........-------- -----0 2-222 eee eee 19 slow GO Gutmnite @, lool SRM 55556 5666 Conoco boobod ood coasnc0 cenece booacdoces 21 Determining the sex of specimens...... Gi Fs) sale Tame ety Rist sate iaietane eatteae 95 Labeling specimens ,..c0.-..---- ----2 2 enone ne nee eee ene ee nee een ee 25 Drying skins ..-.-.---. cece enone ee ec 2 ee ene one rene te nee wane cnee 26 Protection of skins against insects .......-.-.2 .-se-2 ---2---- -------:--=s 26 Packing specimens for shipment....-. ...--. -----+-----+ 222+ --- 222+ sees eee 26 TREGORGS. sage coos caGcuc soap pegu Cnocoo GooDCU cobu. beds Geccioscosgedag ean soonesou 27 [3] DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS. By ROBERT RIDGWAY, Curator of the Department of Birds, U. S. National Museum. § 1. GENERAL REMARKS. The general principle to be observed in making collections of natural history, especially in a country but little explored, is to gather all the species which may present themselves, subject to the convenience of the collector or practicability of transportation. The number of speci- mens of each species to be secured should, of course, include all the varieties of form or condition caused by the different features of age, sex, or season, and also show, within reasonable limits the range of individual variation. As the object of the Institution in making its collections is not merely to possess the different species, but to determine their geographical dis- tribution and variation, their migrations, and other matters of scien- tific interest, it becomes important to have as full series as practicable from each locality. In commencing such collections, the commonest Species should be secured first, as being most characteristic, and least likely to be found elsewhere, and even the commonest should be taken while they are to be had, since they may totally disappear when least expected. It isa fact well known in the history of museums, that the species which from their abundance would be first expected are the last to be received. In every little known region the species which are the commonest are rarest elsewhere, and many an unscientific collector in Texas, Mexico, the Rocky Mountains, Alaska, etc., has been surprised to find what he considered the least valuable species in his collection (owing to the ease with which they had been obtained in numbers) more prized by the naturalist than the rarities, which were in fact only well-known strag- glers from more accessible localities. The first specimen procured, however imperfect, should be preserved, at least until a better can be obtained. Where a small proportion only of the specimens collected can be trans- ported, such species should be selected as are least likely to be procured in other localities or on other occasions, [5] BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [6] In gathering specimens, it is very important to fix with the utmost precision the localities where found, as well as the dates of capture. It has too often happened that collectors in little known regions have neglected or ignored this very essential matter, and thus their work has practically been in vain, for specimens with imperfect data as to place and time of capture are comparatively valueless. To give an illustra- tion: All large collections contain a great many specimens, labeled simply “ Brazil,” or ‘‘ Mexico,” or with the name of some other equally extensive country. Now, Brazil, while politically one country, is zoologically a portion of several very distinct provinces, whose bird-life is far more distinct, one from the other, than is that of North America from that of Europe, or that of the latter from the bird-life of northern and central Asia or northern Africa! Were all the specimens in col- lections labeled accurately as to precise locality and date, the problems of geographical distribution and variation and their attendant phenom- ena would be far better understood than they are at the present time, and human knowledge proportionately advanced. Where collections can not be made in any region, it will be very . desirable to procure lists of all the known species, giving the names by which they are generally recognized, as well as the scientific name, when this is practicable. The common local names of specimens pro- cured should also be carefully recorded. All facts relating to the habits and characteristics of the various _ Species, however trivial and commonplace they may seem, should be carefully recorded in the note book, especially those having relation to the peculiarities of the season of reproduction, ete. The accounts of hunters and others should also be collected, since much valuable informa- tion may thus be secured. The colors of the unfeathered parts when the bird is alive, or soon after being killed, should always be given, when practicable, or, still better, painted on a rough sketch of the object. As a general rule, birds of brilliant plumage, or those which are in any way very conspicuous, are much less likely to prove interesting scientifically than those of dull or ordinary plumage. Most of the col- lecting which has been done in tropical countries has been for com- mercial purposes, there being at least 100,000 bird-skins sold to milliners to 1,000 that are sold to museums or collectors, and brightly colored birds being therefore most salable are naturally those preferred. Even the collector who has chiefly in view the scientific results of his work must be strongly tempted to give preference to the humming- birds, trogons, tanagers, and other birds of ‘‘ gorgeous plume,” so strongly do they appeal to his sense of the beautiful. Thus, on the one hand, the wrens, ant-birds, sparrows, and others of modest attire are purposely ignored, while on the other they are half unconsciously neglected. [7] DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS—RIDGWAY. The collector, therefore, if he desires to make the most of his oppor- tunities, will reverse the usual custom, and search the woods and copses, fields and river-banks for birds which would pass unnoticed by the ordinary observer, feeling sure that many new forms will be his reward.* § 2. OUTFIT FOR COLLECTING. Guns and ammunition.—For “ all round” collecting the best gun is a 12-gauge, double-barreled, breech-loading shotgun of approved make,j with barrels 28 inches long, length of stock and “drop” to suit the user. One barrel should be “ choked,” the other ‘‘ cylinder bored,” and the latter should have fitted to it an auxiliary barrel for .32-caliber shells. These should be loaded with American wood powder, grade D, and No. 12 shot, and the shells may be either rim or center fire, though only one or the other can be used, if being necessary to decide before the auxiliary barrel is made which kind of cartridge is to be used with it. The writer prefers rim-fire shells, for the reason that the bother and loss of time in reloading is avoided, while they are so much cheaper that there is no pecuniary loss in the end. On the other hand, there is the disadvantage that one may get out of ammunition; but this may be avoided by taking a sufficient supply. With this auxiliary barrel, which may be carried in the pocket or in the game basket when not in actual use, the collector is always pre- pared for the smallest specimens. Without it he will find great diffi- culty in loading his 12-gauge shells with a sufficiently light charge. For shooting about houses, in orchards, or any places where a noise is to be avoided, as well as for other considerations, a cane gun of .22 caliber is exceedingly useful. A good substitute is an ordinary .22 cali- ber breech-loading pistol, with the barrel lengthened by soldering to it a piece of brass tube anywhere from 12 to 24 inches in length,t though if a long barrel is preferred it should be made into two sections, which screw together, in order that the gun may be carried in a pocket or put into a valise. The .22 caliber shells are, of course, rim fire. They * By following this course, a collector on the Lower Amazon, a region supposed to be practically exhausted of ornithological novelties, a few years since, discovered 19 new species in a total of alittle more than 100 collected, and 3 new genera. t There are so many individual preferences as to the patticular make of guns that any recommendation in this respect would be superfluous, except to those who have not had sufficient experience to have decided upon some particular kind. Every- thing considered, there is probably no better gun made than the “ Parker,” while the “Fox,” though peculiar in its action, has some points of excellence over other kinds. This, however, isa matter which may well be left to the person most concerned, pro- viding, however, that selection be made from some one of the reliable makes, cheap guns, which are cheap at any price, being avoided. { Such an arm may be obtained, in both .22 and .32 calibers, for about $5, from J. A. Ross & Co., 29 Oliver street, Boston, Massachusetts. It is called ‘The Favor- ite Collecting Pistol.” BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [8] should be loaded with American wood powder, grade E, and No. 12 shot. Black powder mixed with the wood powder will give better pen- etration but more noise, and fouls the gun much sooner. Fic. 1.—‘ Favorite” collecting pistol. In addition to shotguns, a good, well tested .32 caliber rifle will prove very useful for wary birds of large size, such as the various hawks, eagles, herons, ete. With a rifle of this caliber birds the size of a large hawk may be killed without injury as specimens, while the ball is large enough for ordinary game. Even a good .22 eali- bre rifle would be very useful if used with the proper ammunition. As to ammunition for the 12-gauge gun, paper shells which are not to be reloaded should be mainly depended on; but to guard against the possibility of being with- out ammunition a sufficient number of metal shells should be kept in reserve. Regarding the use of the gun, directions are unneces- sary, If being taken for granted that each person for whom these suggestions are intended has already had more or less experience, and knows enough to always, when in the presence of companions, consider a gun as loaded and liable to “‘ go off” when least expected, and to never, under any circumstances whatever (unless harm is intended), point it towards any one, blow into the muzzle, pull it toward him muzzle foremost, or do any of the various foolish things which have been the cause of nearly all the accidents from fire- arms. The kind of ammunition to be taken of course depends largely on the kind of guns in which it is to be used and the special purpose for which it is intended. Only the best of powder should be used; and in addition to a sufficient supply of good black powder, one or more cans of American wood powder (grade D for .32 caliber Shells and light charges for the 12-gauge gun, and grade Ei for .22 caliber shells) are necessary. Plenty of good felt wads are also required. The sizes of shot needed are not easily determined; but as a general rule it is unnecessary to have more than three, or at most four sizes. For the smallest birds, No. 12 is the proper size, the finer so-called “dust” shot carrying too close and cutting the plumage too much. Perhaps the most serviceable selec- tion would be Nos. 12, 8, and 4, or 3, for a 12-gauge gun, only the first being used with the .32 and .22 caliber pieces. Some collectors use other sizes in addition to those designated above, and possibly the substitution of No. 10 tor No. 8 and No. 6 for No. 4 would work very [9] DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS——RIDGWAY. well;* and it would perhaps be advisable to have a few extra large shot, such as No. 1 or BB, though the occasions where they are actually required would probably not be frequent. In countries where large mammals of a dangerous nature are apt to be met with,it would not be unwise for the collector to carry constantly with him two or three car- tridges charged with powder and a conical ball that will pass easily through the barrel, which may be quickly substituted for a charge of shot in an emergency.t Or what will answer equally well, paper shells loaded with a full charge of shot may be cut in two (not quite severed, however) between the two wads separating the powder from the shot, which will cause the latter to carry “solid,” and prove effective as a ball any distance up to seventy-five yards, or more. Skinning tools and materials.—The fewer implements one has the bet- ter, few things being a greater hindrance to quick work than complicated apparatus. Some very skillful collectors use nothing but a pocket knife or a pair of short bladed, sharp-pointed scissors in skinning a bird; but such simplicity is hardly to be recommended to the novice, who will find the following tools essential (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8): (1) A sharp Des LMM UL ttt betrays MLL oder nae Fic. 2.—Scalpel. scalpel or dissecting knife; (2) a pair of scissors with sharp-pointed and rather short blades, either straight or curved, as may be preferred ; Fic. 3.—Scalpel. (3) a pair of heavy cutting forceps, known as “ bone-cutters,” to be used for breaking the leg- and wing-bones of large birds; (4) a pair of small Fic. 4.—Straight-pointed scissors. spring forceps, with rather narrow points, for adjusting the feathers, and *Tf a 20-gange gun is used, Nos. 12, 8, 6, and 4 are probably the best sizes. tif the cylinder-bored barrel is fitted with an auxiliary barrel, as has been previ- ously recommended, and the other barrel is choke-bored, care must be taken to select a ball that will pass easily through the “choke”; otherwise an accident may occur. BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [10] for other purposes; (5) needles and thread for sewing up incisions of the skin. All these implements, especially the scalpel and scissors, should be taken in duplicate, or even in larger numbers, to makeup for possible or even probable loss, while needles may be taken in consid- Fie. 5.—Curved scissors. erable quantity. In addition to the articles named as being absolutely necessary, one or two large steel-handled scalpels or “ cartilage knives ” would be useful in skinning large birds, and a pair of long straight forceps is very handy for introducing cotton into the neck, but these may easily be dispensed with. Fia. 6.—Small curved scissors with blunt point. Many collectors and taxidermists use a hook by which to attach the carcass of a bird during the process of skinning, thus allowing the free use of both hands. If the beginner can learn to do without this appli- ance, however, it will in the end prove advantageous, since a complica- tion of apparatus is one of the things much to be avoided. There can be no question, however, that at times such an appliance would be found very useful, particularly in the case of birds so large as to be difficult to handle. For making it, take a good sized fishhook (about a number 7 * Limerick” with ringed end), file off the barb, and fasten securely to a piece of stout twine 2 or 3 feet long. The other end of the twine can then be tied to a stout nail driven into a beam or post, or to a limb, and the hook stuck into the bony part of the lower back or pelvis of the carcass, immediately after the vertebral column has been severed at the base of the tail and the skin peeled from the rump for a short distance. Should the same arrangement be considered desira- [11] DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS——RIDGWAY. ble for smaller birds, much smaller hooks should be used (No. 2 or 3 “‘ Limerick ”), and-instead of one there should be two—one at each end of the twine, which should not be more than about a foot long. The second hook can be stuck into the top of the table on which the bird is Fie. 7.—Bone-cutters. being skinned and the line hung over the edge, the bird being skinned thus hanging conveniently in front of the operator, while its position can be changed to suit each particular stage of the operation by simply changing the position of the farther hook. -= WA Wa Fig. 8.—Spring forceps. For stuffing the birds, after they have been skinned and poisoned, raw cotton or cotton batting of the best quality (long fibered) is neces- sary, and this should be used for all specimens of small and medium size. For larger specimens tow, oakum, or “excelsior” shavings are better and more economical, especially the last, than which, if of a fine quality, nothing can be better. In the absence of these materials any Fic. 9.—Long stuffing forceps. dry, elastic vegetable substance may be used, but never any animal sub- stance, such as hair, wool, or feathers, which would invite the attacks of insects. Preservatives.—Altogether the best material for the preservation of skins of birds or other animals is powdered arsenious acid (common arsenic), for which there is no satisfactory substitute. It may be used either pure or mixed with finely powdered alum in the proportion of two to one. The mixture of arsenic and alum is preferable to the pure arsenic for several reasons, chief of which are that poisoning of the BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [12] fingers, through cuts or abrasions of the skin, is far less likely, while | the alum also greatly accelerates the drying of the specimen. It has been stated that there is no satisfactory substitute for arsenic ; but in its entire absence corrosive sublimate (dissolved in alcohol and brushed over the inside of the skin), powdered alum, or other astrin- gent substances may be used, especially if combined with some strong- smelling substance to repel the attacks of insects, as camphor, oil of red cedar, oil of bitter almonds, naphthaline, creosote, ete. Some persons prefer arsenical soap to the pure arsenic or mixture of arsenic and alum, but there are several serious objections to its use and it is not to be recommended. : Sometimes the application of arsenic or other substances named above, while sufficient to preserve the specimen from decay, will not repel the attack of insects, especially in tropical countries, where pests of this kind abound. It therefore would be well to paint the bills, feet, and other unfeathered parts with an alcoholic solution of the oil of bitter almonds, oil of red cedar, camphor, or some other highly pun- gent substance.* Miscellaneous.—In addition to the various articles already mentioned, many other things are quite necessary for successful collecting, among which may be mentioned the following : : (1) A receptacle for carrying the birds while out collecting. The very best thing for this purpose is a tin box with sliding lid, similar to the ordinary botanical collecting box, or differing in shape only, as may suit the taste or convenience of the collector. This is to be suspended by a strap hung over the shoulder of the opposite side. The next best thing is a fishing basket or ‘ creel,” of as large size as can be conve- niently carried. (2) A box with tightly fitting hinged lid, not less than 5 by 8 by 2 inches,{ to contain arsenic or the mixture of alum and arsenic, and which should always be kept about half full. It should also contain a rabbit’s foot, which is by far better than any other sort of brush for applying the arsenic to the skin. When not in use this box should be kept closed and put out of reach of children, and when moving from place to place it may be wrapped in paper and packed with other im- plements. (3) A similar, but perhaps smaller, box, to contain corn meal or other absorbent substances. (5) A plentiful supply of *‘ merchandise tags.” to serve as temporary labels, and blank labels with tying-threads already attached. (6) A box of moist water colors, with suitable brushes (see page 16). *An alcoholic solution of strychnine has been recommended, but the writer has found this unreliable. t One of larger dimensions would be better, so that birds of medium size may be laid inside the box while the arsenic is being applied to the skin. [13] DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS—RIDGWAY. §3. PROCURING SPECIMENS. The collector having provided himself.with the kind of gun and am- munition which seem according to his experience or judgment most suitable, he should then place in his collecting-box or basket the follow- ing implements and materials : (1) A considerable “ wad ” of raw cotton, for plugging shot-holes and the throats of specimens. (2) An insect-powder bellows filled with corn meal, and an extra quantity of the latter. (3) A supply of paper cones or “‘ cornucopias.” These are best made of some moderately soft, bibulous paper, as newspaper or pamphlets. Some collectors prefer making the cones as they are needed, and carry with them folded newspapers or old pamphlets, but time will be saved if the cones, or some of them at least, are made before starting. (4) A small bottle filled with strong carbolic acid. (This is needed only in warm weather.) What to do with birds after they are killed.—Immediately after a bird is killed it should be picked up by the feet (never by the tail) and held head downward to allow the blood to drain from the motth, which may be hastened by gently pressing the bird; “flip” off or otherwise care- fully remove the blood clots which may adhere to the bill, feathers, or other parts, and apply corn meal to absorb what may remain. In the absence of corn meal clean sand will do, and in the case of birds with white plumage pilaster of Paris will answer, but should be carefully removed before it becomes hard. The holes made by the shot, together with the throat and the internal (but never the external) nostrils, should be plugged with cotton, to prevent the escape of blood and the juices of the stomach. Before plugging the throat a small quantity of corn meal or clean sand should be inserted, as this will absorb the blood, ete., and prevent its escaping around the cotton.* Should an eye be broken by the shot, the liquid should be carefully pressed out and what can not be otherwise removed absorbed with corn meal or sand, as nothing is more difficult to remove from feathers after it once becomes dry. It is very important that as much pains be taken as time and other circumstances will allow to clean blood and other stains from the plum- age before becoming dry, as neglect of this precaution will in the end involve far greater loss of time or perhaps necessitate loss of the speci- men itself. In very warm weather, before the throat is plugged the gullet should be swabbed with carbolic acid by saturating a small wad of cotton which has previously been wrapped around the end of a small stick, * Perhaps a still better plan is to push one plug of cotton down the gullet nearly to the stomach, before the throat plug is inserted, to prevent the juices of the latter from collecting in the throat, since, if allowed to do so in warm weather, they cause the feathers to slough off. BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [14] straw, or wire, or held in small spring forceps, with the acid, and then a small quantity of the acid should be applied to the skin along the median line of the abdomen, the feathers having of course been pre- viously parted. In both these operations great care should be taken to prevent the acid from coming in contact with the feathers.* Some persons use for this purpose a hypodermic syringe, but this instrument is quite unnecessary, besides being cumbersome and expensive. When the bird has been properly cleaned and plugged it should be carefully dropped, head downward, into a paper cone of suitable size, the end of which should then be folded over the tail—care being taken not to bend or break the latter,t and also to avoid doubling the head, which is likely to be done unless the bill is kept exactly in the middle of the cone and guarded from too forcible contact with the paper dur- ing its insertion. The bird thus enveloped should be carefully placed in the collecting basket, which should never be closely packed with specimens, as the pressure thus caused will not only force the blood through to the plum- age, but in hot weather will also hasten decomposition. The larger specimens should be placed at the bottom, the smallest on top; and if the box or basket is only partly empty the space should be loosely filled with grass, leaves, or paper, to prevent the specimens shifting about. How to kill wounded birds,_-A wounded bird should never be killed by thumping or pounding the skull. If the specimen is of small or medium size much the easiest and best way is to take it between the thumb and fingers, underneath the wing, and squeeze it tightly, thus causing its deatn almost instantly by suffocation. If of large size this can not be done, and the collector sometimes has a difficult problem to solve, particularly in the case of the larger birds of prey, whose sharp talons are to be avoided, it being very often extremely difficult to release one’s self from their powerful grip, which, besides being exceed- ingly painful, may lead to serious results, A bite from the beak of such birds, even the most powerful, is comparatively a trifling matter, and in the case of the larger hawks and owls may safely be quite ignored. These birds when wounded usually throw themselves on their backs, with open feet presented for defense. In such cases the legs of the bird should be quickly seized and held firmly, which can easily be done by a careful and alert person. Then, while the feet are held, a sharp- pointed knife or scalpel should be quickly plunged into the anterior portion of the breast, so as to strike the heart or its vicinity, and the bird held head downward to allow the blood to drain from the mouth. All these methods are more or less cruel, and therefore naturally dis- * An experienced collector informs me that by this method he has kept birds for three or four days on the hot coasts of Central America. tCrumpled or bent feathers may have much of their elasticity and original shape restored by dipping in hot water. Steaming will answer the same purpose. ikea ie [15] DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS—RIDGWAY, tasteful ta a sensitive person. But there can be no question that it is far more merciful to dispatch at once a wounded bird than to delay putting an end to its suffering. When practicable, chloroform can be used advantageously by simply saturating a handkerchief and holding it tightly over the bird’s head for a few moments, Care of specimens on reaching camp or quarters.—In very hot weather, when specimens decompose rapidly, a drop of carbolic acid should be put into the throat and another into the intestines, to retard decay. This is most easily done by means of a **swab,” improvised of a small stick and a little cotton, Care must be used not to allow the acid to come in contact with the feathers. When camp or quarters are reached, the specimens should be taken out of the cones, one at a time, carefully examined, and the cotton in the throat removed and a fresh plug substituted. Never delay skinning a specimen until it begins to bloat or until it begins to smell offensively, although, should it be impracticable to prevent this, very desirable specimens should be skinned even in this condition, The best way is to skin the birds as soon as possible, though in cold weather they may of course be kept several days without danger of decomposition. At the same time, however, allow a specimen to relax somewhat before you begin skinning it, §4. PREPARING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS. How to skin birds.—Before the process of skinning is actually begun, certain preliminaries are necessary, if the work is to go on smoothly, A suitable table, stand, or workbench must first be provided and placed in a good light. A paper cover should then be put over it (an old news- paper is as good as anything), ‘Then the box containing the arsenic or mixture of arsenic and alum; that containing the corn meal; theskin- ning and stuffing implements; the cotton, needle and thread; labels or tags; pencil, cleaning sponge and brush; cup of clean water, etc., are to be placed in convenient positions on the table, room for the specimen and the hands of the operator being of course reserved. A basin of water and towel, for cleaning and drying the hands,should also be within reach, When everything is ready a label or tag should be securely fastened to one leg of the specimen, and the locality and date, as well as a number, inscribed on it, the same data being written in the collector’s field cata- logue, after thecorresponding number, No measurements are necessary, since all measurements of scientific value are best taken from the dried skin, though in the case of very large birds (and smaller ones also, if the collector has plenty of time) the total length and the spread of the fully outstretched wings may be taken, and for convenience may be written with the length first and the spread last, with a multiplication sign between, thus, 36. x 84.50, the measurements being best taken in inches and decimals. Then, if there are any noteworthy features as to color BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [16] of the soft parts, they should be carefully noted, this being a very im- portant matter and one sadly neglected by collectors. If the collector ean provide himself with a small box of good water colors and suitable brushes, together with some pads of drawing paper, rough sketches of bills, feet, etc., may be made and the colors exactly reproduced.* If not thus provided, or even as an additional aid if he is, a set of named colors on paper should be at hand to help him in naming the different hues.t The girth of the bird may then be taken by means of a band of stiff paper passed round the middle of the body over the wings, and pinned in the form of aring. It is then slipped off towards the feet and, after the skin is prepared, is replaced, the stuffing inserted being enough to keep it from falling off. The exact circumference of the original bird can thus be readily maintained. In fact, the ring may be slipped on before the stuffing is commenced and enough cotton inserted to fill out the shoulders within the paper. After these preliminaries, relax the wings and legs by pulling and stretching; then make an incision through the skin only, from the lower portion of the breastbone to the anus. Should the. intestines protrude in small specimens, they had better be extracted, great care being taken not to soil the feathers or to mutilate the sexual organs, thereby rendering it difficult or perhaps impossible to determine the sex. Now, proceed carefully to separate the skin on one side from the subjacent parts until you reach the knee, and expose the thigh, when, taking the leg in one hand, push or thrust the knee up on the abdomen and loosen the skin around it until you can place the scissors or knife underneath and separate the joint with the accompanying muscles. Apply a quantity of corn meal to the space between the skin and the carcass to prevent adhesion and to keep the feathers clean. Repeat this operation for the other leg. Loosen the skin about the base of the *The writer would, from practical experience, recommend that a japanned tin box with spaces for 18 to 24 half pans (or 9 to 12 full pans) be obtained, and filled with the following moist water-colors, all half pans, except the Chinese white, which should consist of a full pan: 1. Lamp Black. 7. Lemon Yellow. 13. Burnt Umber. 2. Payne’s Gray. 8. Pale Cadmium. - 14. Raw Umber. 3. French Blue. 9. Searlet Vermilion. 15. Bistre. 4. Permanent Blue, 10. Carmine. 16. Yellow Ochre. 5. Viridian. 11. Light Red. 17. Chinese White. 6. Emerald Green. 12. Burnt Sienna. The above list is indispensable and will enable one to imitate almost any hue found in nature; but, if the collector does not mind increasing the number of pigments, the following might be added with advantage: 18. Hooker’s Green, No. 2. 20. Cadmium Orange. 22. Purple Madder. 19. Olive Green. 21. Indian Red. 23. Antwerp Blue. + For this purpose a small book entitled ‘‘A Nomenclature of Colors for the use of Naturalists,” published by Little, Brown & Company, Boston, Massachusetts, is _ specially adapted, and may be obtained at a cost of $4. [17] DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS—RIDGWAY. tail and cut through the vertebre at the last joint, taking care not to sever the bases of the quilis. Suspend the body by inserting the hook into the lower part of the back or rump,* and invert the skin, loosening it carefully from the body. Onreaching the wings loosen the skin from around the first bone and cut through the middle of it, or, better, sep- arate it from the body through the joint. Continue the inversion of the skin by drawing it over the neck until the skull is exposed. Ar- rived at this point, detach the delicate membrane of the ear from its cavity in the skull, if possible, without cutting or tearing it; then, by means of the thumb nails, loosen the skin from other parts of the head until you come to the eyes, where extreme care is necessary in cutting through the white nictitating membrane to avoid lacerating the ball. Scoop out the eyes, and, by making one cut on each side of the head, through the small bone connecting the base of the lower jaw with the skull, another across the roof of the mouth behind the base of the upper mandible, and between the jaws of the lower, and a fourth (horizontally) through the skull behind the orbits and parallel to the roof of the mouth, you will have freed the skull from all the accompanying brain and muscle.. Should anything still adhere it may be removed sepa- rately. In making the first two cuts care must be taken not to injure or sever the zygoma, a small bone extending from the base of the upper mandible to the base of the lower jaw bone. Clean off every particle of muscle and fat from the head and skin of the neck, and invert the skin of the head to the very base of the bill. Then skin the wing down to the wrist joint, detatching the roots of the larger feathers (secondary and primary quills) with the thumb or finger nails; remove the muscle from the bones, leaving all of the latter.t The legs should then be skinned down to the lower joint of the thigh (the heel, or tibio-tarsal joint), and the flesh removed from the bone. Kemove all the muscle and fat, including the oil gland, from about the base of the tail, great care being taken not to cut the roots of the feathers, which would cause them to drop out. During every stage of the process of skinning the following very im- portant things should be specially remembered: (1) always handle the skin, when detatching it from the body, as close as possible to the point of adhesion, to prevent stretching, a stretched skin being far worse than one full of holes or rents; (2) always keep the fingers between the feathers and the flesh, to prevent soiling the plumage; (3) apply plenty of corn meal or other suitable absorbent whenever a bloody or fatty place is exposed. Certain kinds of birds require deviation from the above rules in some * As mentioned on page 10 this hook may, with practice, be dispensed with. In fact, many collectors and taxidermists never use one. + Many prefer to clean the wing by an entirely different method, an incision being made on the under side along the bone, and the flesh removed through the opening thus made. This is the better way with large birds. 28321—Bull. 39 2 BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [18] particulars. Most woodpeckers and ducks, forinstance, have the head so inuch larger than the neck, that it is quite impossible to skin over the head by the ordinary method. In such cases the neck should be cut off before the skull is reached, and the skin turned “right side out;” then make an incision from the top of the occiput down to the base of the skull and skin the head through this opening. Of course the in- cision should be sewed together after the skinning is completed, or at least after the specimen has been stuffed. Pigeons, cuckoos, and some ducks, as well as other birds, have the skin very tender, and adhering so closely to the rump and lower part of the back (sometimes the breast also), that its separation is a matter of very great difficulty. Such birds should be kept until they are fully relaxed before work on them is commenced, and the operation of skinning should be done with ex- treme care. In warm weather or in hot countries very large birds (as herons, cranes, hawks, ete.) should have an incision made below the heel (tibio- tarsal) joint and the tendons cut off; then, by making another incision on the sole of the foot the tendons can be drawn out. The space made by the removal of the tendons should be filled with arsenic. This will prevent fermentation of the juices in the leg and generation of gases, which so often cause the skin to “blister” or separate, thus entirely ruining the specimen for mounting. Birds having a pure white and very compact plumage on the lower parts should be skinned through an incision made under one wing, along the side, or on the back, which will be found very easy after a little practice. Poisoning the skin.—The skinning and cleaning of the specimen having been completed,* the next thing is to apply the preservative. For this, as has already been stated, only arsenic or a mixture of arsenic and powdered alum should be used. This may be applied either dry or as a paste, by mixing with alcohol or water (alcohol being preferable), If the dry powder is used, it should be kept in a shallow box large enough to hold a medium-sized bird, and while the skin is in every part turned ‘“wrong side out,” it should be laid upon the arsenic and the latter ap- plied thickly to every part, care being taken to put plenty of the poison about the head, particularly close up to the base of the bill, about the lower end of the denuded wing and leg bones and about the base of the tail. This is best done with the foot of a common rabbit (or, better still, that of the northern species, which has longer hair on the soles); but if one can not be had, a substitute may be made by securely tying a wad of cotton to the end of a stick. After the skin is covered with the arsenic (which should be applied while its inner surface is moist),t * Special instructions for cleaning bloody, greasy, or otherwise soiled specimens are given on pages 19 to 21. tIf the skin has become dry it may be moistened by gently touching the surface with a wet sponge; but if the paste is used, this is of course unnecessary. [19] DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS—-RIDGWAY. it should be held over the box and gently tapped to loosen the superfinu- ous powder. Should the alcoholic paste be preferred, it may be applied with a bristle brush, or better still with a wad of cotton tied to the end of a small stick, the advantage in the latter being that it can be thrown away when a day’s work is done and a new one quickly made when another is required. Cleaning soiled or greasy specimens.—While blood-stained specimens are supposed to have been partially cleaned immediately after they were shot, as directed on page 13, further cleaning is necessary before the bird can be considered a good and finished specimen. This final clean- ing should be done when the bird is entirely skinned, but before the preservative is applied. Bloody specimens should never be washed before they are skinned, as the application of water only serves to draw out more blood through the shot holes. After the bird has been skinned, however, and the inner surface of the skin thoroughly freed from blood by sponging or wiping, then the feathers may be washed clean, using a soft sponge and warm water, and dried with corn meal or some other clean absorbent substance, care being taken not to allow any of these substances, especially plaster of Paris, to dry on the feathers, each application being thoroughly removed as soon as it becomes saturated with moisture. Repeated applications and much patience are required to clean a specimen thoroughly, but the result is well worth all the trouble and loss of time, unless the specimen is one of no value. Corn meal is probably the best of all substances for drying moistened feathers, but can not always be obtained. In its absence, clean dry sand, whiting, or plaster of Paris may be used, although the two last named should not be used on birds of dark plumage, since it is next to impossible to remove it all from the feathers, which ever after have a dusty or powdered appearance. On birds of white or very light-colored plumage, however, plaster of Paris is better than anything else; but even on these as much as possible should be removed by persistent whipping and blowing of the feathers. Dry blood stains should not be washed, but should first be pried or chipped off with the finger nail, or back of a knife, and then carefully scraped and manipulated with a stiff brush, such as a jeweler’s brush or a toothbrush. Fat birds are very difficult to clean, but the removal of every particle of fat is very important, since, in addition to the certainty of the fat which is allowed to remain on the skin gradually working out through the shot holes and other openings and greasing the feathers, the combi- nation of the fat with the arsenic produces a chemical compound which is very injurious to the skin, rendering it ‘“‘rotten,” or brittle. A bountiful application of corn meal, plaster, ete., during the process of skinning is a great help toward removing the grease, and in the case BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [20] of large birds a piece of calico or cotton cloth sewed to the skin along each edge of the incision will serve to keep the feathers from contact with the fat, though even then an absorbent substance should be freely used. Ducks and some other water birds when fat are particularly difficult to clean, owing to the fact that the roots of the feathers form numerous _ prominent points all over the inner surface of the skin, the spaces be- tween them being filled with fat. In such cases the surface of the fatty coating should be slightly gashed with the knife or scalpel to re- lease the oily substance, which shouid then be gradually absorbed by a persistent application and “rubbing in” of the absorbent substance. Of course all free pieces of fat should be first cut away. - Should the feathers have become greasy they should, after the bird has been skinned and the inside of the skin itself cleaned, as above directed, be washed with spirits of turpentine, and the latter removed by absorption with corn meal, whiting, or plaster, repeatedly applied and removed, the absorbent substance, when saturated with the turpen- tine, being first shaken off and the feathers then carefully whipped with a light elastic stick, until no more remains. This process is tedious, but the excellent results amply repay for the time and trouble ex- pended. — The cleansing of water birds, especially sea birds, requiring special treatment, the following directions (prepared, at our request, by Mr. William Palmer), should be closely observed : AS prevention is better than cure, time employed in taking proper . care of sea birds when first killed is well utilized; but it seldom hap- pens that one is able to do this, and therefore it becomes necessary to spend more time in cleaning specimens than is desirable. When freshly killed, if a sea bird is immediately hung up by the legs for sev- eral hours, much vexatious work is spared the collector, but if one is on a lonely shore, with miles to travel, this is impossible. A box, open on top, but with movable slats on which to suspend the birds, is per- haps the best plan to adopt in a boat or on shore where several hours are spent. When tramping, specimens may be hung up or laid on a rock or hummock until return, the object being to prevent friction and pressure while the body is warm and lax. When cold and hard it is best to wrap in cheese cloth, corn meal being freely used at the shot holes, and the mouth and internal nostrils plugged just before wrapping. But with even the greatest care the feathers will soil and it becomes necessary to clean them. If a bird is very bloody when picked up, wipe off the excess of blood with a piece of raw cotton, and do not, if possible, allow the blood to get dry on the feathers; never wash it until you are ready to skin, © unless you can dry also, and never wash in salt water if by any means you can get fresh. [21] DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS—-RIDGWAY. When ready to clean, provide a vessel of warm water and dip the bloody feathers into it, working it the while with the fingers; do this in several waters until the blood is all dissolved out, then dry by _ pressure with a towel or cheese cloth ; now, with a piece of raw cotton partly saturated with turpentine, gently wipe the wet feathers down- wards, so as to leave, as it were, a thin layer of turpentine; on this place dry plaster an inch or more thick, according to the size of the bird, etc. {na few minutes replace with more plaster, and continue until all the moisture is drawn from the feathers, when the plaster adhering may be wiped off with raw cotton and the feathers blown apart with a bellows, or by taking it to a windy place and smartly striking and alternately raising the feathers, the plaster will be blown away. A second application may be needed if the feathers are stained. This cleaning is usually done after the bird is skinned, but sometimes it will be found convenient to do it before. Benzine may be used in- stead of turpentine, and sometimes soap or washing compounds will be found useful. With small dirty spots the water may be applied with a piece of raw cotton, a sponge, or cloth, and the feathers gently stroked downward toward the tail, parting the feathers with the left hand while the right applies the water. Cotton is much the best, as when dirty it can be thrown away and a new piece used. The essential points in cleaning a bird skin are (1) never let the blood get dry on the feathers; (2) always use the plaster immediately after washing, and (3) always blow out the plaster from the feathers. At its best cleaning feathers is a nasty job, but by following the above an otherwise worthless bird may be made almost as good as an unsoiled one. How to stuff a bird-skin.—There is far more art in stuffing a bird-skin properly than in getting the skin off the bird, a skillful taxidermist being able to make a good specimen out of a skin which had been badly torn or otherwise abused, while an inexperienced operator will naturally make a poor specimen out of one that has been properly prepared for him. The most essential of all things, in the way of material, is a good quality of raw cotton, that with a long staple or fiber being necessary. The orbits (holes from which the eyeballs were removed) should first be filled, a smoothly rounded, elastic wad being inserted in each, with the smoothest and roundest side outward. This is best done while the skin is reversed and the first thing after the preservative is applied. A moderately compact, elastic roll of cotton, free from irregularities and about the thickness of the natural neck, is then inserted through the neck and pushed forward until the end of it can be grasped by the fin- gers or a pair of forceps within the mouth, where it should be firmly held until the foreceps are withdrawn, when the anterior end within the mouth should be carefully pushed back so that when the bill is closed ~ BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [22] no part of it is exposed.* While a pair of long foreceps is usually used for inserting the cotton through the neck, a far handier tool for the purpose is an ordinary knitting needle, around which the cotton may be deftly twisted and shaped, while the smooth needle can be much more easily withdrawn than can a pair of forceps. This same needle may also be used for shaping the eyelids, by pushing from the inside the wad of cotton which fills the orbit, and is convenient for other pur- poses. The next step is to take a wad of cotton and manipulate it into an oval, loose or fluffy, ball, as near as possible the size and shape of the original body. Insert one end of this into the opening of the skin, beneath the end of the neck roll, which shouid be carefully raised and held while the body stuffing is worked beneath it; then taking hold of the edge of the incision, first on one side and then on the other, push the cotton into place, or else, by holding the cotton, gently pull the skin overit. A single stich, about the middle of the incision, is sufficient to close the opening, but even this is not necessary. Should the bird be of medium or large size, the leg bones should be wrapped with cotton (or whatever material has been used for stuffing), so as to give the thigh its proper shape. All birds with long necks or tender skins should be stiffened by wrapping the neck stuffing as well as that of the body around a wire or stick. Ifa wire, it should be sharpened at both ends, the anterior end being forced through the anterior portion of the head and the opposite end through the root of the tail. If a stick is used the anterior end may be blunt and fitted into the cavity of the skull, or it may be sharp- ened and forced into the bones of the palate or anterior portion of the head. All water birds (especially ducks and small waders), as well as doves, trogons, Caprimulgide, and other tender skinned birds, should be thus strengthened. Now comes one of the most important and in some respects the most difficult parts of the whole operation—the shaping or “making up” of the specimen. No matter how faultlessly the bird has been skinned, or even stuffed, if badly “made up” it will be a bad specimen, while on the other hand many defects of either skinning or stuffing may be hidden by careful manipulation at this important stage of the process. To do this properly proceed as follows: Take a thin sheet of long-stapled raw cotton (the thinner the better, if it only holds together and will stand the least strain) of sufficient size to entirely inclose the bird when wrapped around it. Lay this on *Many taxidermists, instead of passing the cotton along the throat to the mouth, push the end of it into the cavity of the skull, and fill the throat with bits of loose cotton passed through the mouth. ‘This is a very good method, especially if the head is bent so that its axis reposes at more or less of an angle with that of the body, specimens thus prepared being far easier to mount than those which have been made with the axis of the head continuous with that of the body. \ [23] DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS—RIDGWAY. the table in front of you, with the fibers running toward and from you; lay the bird carefully on this, on its back, with head to your left.* Fluff up the long, loose feathers on each side until the thumb and forefinger can be placed beneath them and then gently press the sides _ beneath the wings together, just as you would squeeze a wounded bird to kill it, only the pressure need not beso strong. Then bring the wings up against the sides in a natural position, allowing the feathers of the sides to fall or lay over them, and adjust the wing-tips beneath the base of the tail. Lay the feet in a natural position, spread the tail as much as may be desired, and touch up the plumage wherever there is any disarrangement of the feathers. | When the specimen has been thus properly shaped and smoothed take up one edge of the cotton and lift or wrap gently over that side of the bird and hold until the opposite edge is brought up and lapped over it, drawing less where the circumference is greater and more where it is smaller—the main object being to have the cotton envelope fit as exactly as possible the contour previously given to the specimen. Care should be taken to see that the feathers of the abdomen overlap and cover the incision and that they are held thus by the cotton envelope. The cotton about the head may be twisted around the point of the bill, so as to keep it closed, but it is better to first close the bill by passing a slender needle and thread through the nostrils and tying beneath the lower mandible.t This had best be done imme- diately after the neck filling has been inserted. Different collectors, however, have almost as many methods of wrap- ping skins. One of the best, and perhaps easier to follow, as well as more satisfactory in its results, is the following, practiced by Mr. C. W. Richmond, of Washington, whose specimens are particularly admired for their fine shape and smoothness. After the incision on the abdomen has been stitched together,t the feathers arranged and the legs crossed, the skin is ready to be wrapped. For wrapping, physicians’ absorbent cotton is the best. Take a strip of this about three times as wide as the diameter of the bird’s body, and, finally arranging and smoothing the feathers on the under parts, lay the sheet of cotton over the bird, which should be held, on its back, in one hand, between the thumb and forefinger to prevent the wings getting out of place. One end of the cotton should be brought over the head, and the bird then placed on the table or skinning-board, belly downward, resting on the cotton. Any excess of that portion of the cotton which has been brought over the head may be removed, the plumage of the back arranged, and the corners of the cotton sheet *If the operator is left handed the position should of course be reversed. + Thick, short bills (such as those of grosbeaks) cannot thus be kept closed, but this may be done by sticking a pin (not too large) through the extreme anterior _ angle of the chin into the under surface of the upper mandible. { As mentioned on page 22 it is not absolutely necessary to sew the edges of the incision together; in fact, many good collectors dispense with this entirely. = BULLETIN 89, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [24] brought up over each wing, taking care that they bind somewhat firmly at the shoulders, so that the wings will be kept in the proper position after the opposite edges of the cotton have been lapped and blended together. The two posterior corners of the cotton sheet should then be brought together over the rump, to hold the tips of the wings in place. Care should be taken to have the sheet of cotton of uniform thickness, otherwise the skin will present, after drying, irregularities of contour, corresponding to the varying thickness of different parts of the wrap- ping. Itis very important to avoid drawing the cotton too tight and thus squeezing the skin too much, a very common and very serious fault with many collectors, an undersized skin being far more objec- tionable than one which is overstuffed, for the reason that the defect is practically irremediable. After the bird has been wrapped the wings may be proper ad- justed, care being taken to have the tips even with one another and not crossed or overlapped. In fact, at this stage the skin may be so manipulated that any desired degree of smoothness and regularity of shape may be given it, practice being of course required before the be- ginner can become really proficient. The finishing touches should then be given and the skin laid aside to dry, the last thing being to see that the feet and tail are properly adjusted. The proper wrapping of a specimen, as described above, simple as it may seem, is one of the most difficult of all things connected with the preparation of a bird skin, and requires some patience as well as considerable practice. Some experienced collectors and taxidermists, though able to make first-class specimens in their own way, never be- come expert in it, and consequently do not adopt this method. If the - beginner can learn, however, to make up his skins in this way he should do so, since there can be no question as to its advantages, the most important of which are that specimens dry much quicker than when put away in a paper cylinder, hold their shape better, and when dried are all ready for packing. The only serious defect is the danger of wrapping the skin too tightly, thus making it “ undersized,” alluded to above as a very common fault with those who have adopted this method. This may be ayo? by first taking the circumference of the bird before it is skinned, by means of a paper band or hoop just wide enough to hold the wings up against the sides (as recommended on page 16), and then putting this hoop around the stuffed bird before the cotton is wrapped around it. Very large birds should never be stuffed to their full size, which would involve unnecessary waste of space—a very serious thing when travel- ing. Just enough cotton, tow, or excelsior, or whatever is used for stuff- ing, to keep the opposite sides of the skin from coming in contact with each other is sufficient, the neck, however, and the thighs being stuffed to nearly, if not quite, the natural size. | 5S “"y" [25] DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS—RIDGWAY. Large birds with very long necks or legs should also have these mem- bers folded or doubled over to economize space in packing. If the tail has peculiar markings which can not be satisfactorily seen unless it is spread, they can be easily displayed by the following very simple process: The base of the tail having been properly cleaned by cutting out the wedge-shaped piece which projects into the middle por- tion, removing the oil-gland, ete. (as described on page 17), pass a needle and thread from one side of the base to the other across the interven- ing angle, and then tie the thread after it has been drawn sufficiently tight—the tighter it is drawn, of course, the more the feathers will be spread apart at the end. The primaries can be spread for a similar purpose by passing a suffi- ciently small sharpened wire through their stems, near the base, and separating the individual quills to the desired distance from one another. Birds with crests should have the head turned so that while the bird lies upon its back one side of the head lies upward, the feathers of the crest being erected and kept in that position until the skin is dry. Determining the sex of spectmens.—The sex of a specimen should never be guessed from the character of the plumege, as is unfortunately very often done, but always by dissection. Sometimes the generative organs have been so injured by shot that this is impossible. Should this be the case, the sex mark* should be wholly ignored or else queried, as cir- cumstances most justify. If the organs have not been injured, the sex of the specimen may be ascertained after skinning by making an in- cision in the side near the vertebree and exposing the inside surface of the “small of the back.” The generative organs will be found tightly bound to this region (nearly opposite to the last ribs) and separating it from the intestines. The testicles of the male will be observed as two spheroidal or ellipsoidal whitish bodies, varying with the season-and species from the size of a pin’s head to that of a hazelnut. The ova- ries of the female, consisting of a flattened mass of spheres, variable in size with the season, will be found in the same region. A good magnifying glass is of great assistance in determining the sex of small birds, particularly the young, in which the organs are but shghtly developed. Labeling specimens.—The labeling of a specimen is a very impor- tant matter; in fact the label is part of the specimen, whose value is in direct ratio to the conciseness of the data inscribed on its label. While tags have been recommended for temporary use, a permanent labei, attached to the specimen as soon as it is prepared, is far better, and should, if practicable, be used in preference. Tie your labels on securely, and do not tie with a string longer than is necessary. Essential data are precise locality, date, sex, and name of the collector, but other items of information may be added if the collector sees fit. *The signs used to denote the sex are ¢ for male, 2 for female. BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [26] To tie the label to both legs (where they cross one another), is possi- bly an advantage as making it less easy to tear the label off; but this doubtful advantage is much more than counterbalanced by several dis- advantages, which are unpleasantly realized when a measurement of the tarsus has to be made or when one is describing or making a draw- ing of the specimen. It is recommended, therefore, that the label be always tied to one leg only, preferably the right. Drying skins.—Skins should be dried before they are packed for ship- ment, otherwise they may mold. This may be done by exposing to the sun for a short time (a longer time is of course required for larger speci- mens), or keeping in a warm dry room for the necessary length of time. They should not be dried too quickly, however as this will cause them to become brittle, and, above all, never attempt to dry them by baking. Protection of skins against insects.—No matter how well poisoned with arsenic, Skins are apt to be attacked by insects, which destroy or disfig- ure parts not protected by the poison, as the bill, feet, shafts of the quill- and tail-feathers, etc. In order to prevent this, the parts liable to such injury should be painted with an alcoholic solution of oil of bitter almonds, oil of red cedar, or some equally pungent substance, and the box in which the specimens are packed should be tight as pos- sible, and tobacco leaves, naphthaline, or camphor placed in with the specimens. An alcohclic solution of corrosive sublimate is very effect- ' ive, but is also dangerous to the health, and its use is not to be recom- mended unless other equally efficacious substances can not be obtained. An excellent way to protect specimens from destructive insects is to wrap each one in a piece of paper and gum together all the openings so that insects can not enter—a drop of oil of red cedar or oil of bitter al- monds, a few crystals of naphthaline, or something of the kind being inclosed with the skin. §5. PACKING SPECIMENS FOR SHIPMENT. If specimens are not properly packed they can not be expected to reach their destination in good condition, but it is very easy to pack them in the right way if the following rules are observed: (1) Never pack bird skins in the same box with geological speci- mens, stone implements, deer heads, or other hard and heavy objects. (2) Place the largest birds at the bottom of the box, the smallest on top. (3) Fill spaces between the specimens with ‘‘excelsior” packing or some other dry elastic vegetable substance (not cotton, which is too light, except for small birds alone), (4) Pack the box quite full. (5) Line the box, if practicable, with thick paper before the birds are put in. [27] DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS—RIDGWAY. §6. RECORDS. The field notes of a collector may be nearly as valuable as his speci- mens. They should include observations on the habits, notes, etc., of _the various species met with, the kinds of localities they frequent, their food, and all matters which concern their life history. These notes may be written either in a book or on separate scraps of paper (pref: erably the former), but should never be written on both sides of the paper, unless the supply runs short, in which ease it will be necessary to have one page of each leaf copied before the notes can be properly utilized. In addition to these field notes, the collector should catalogue his specimens as they are obtained, beginning with No. 1, and he should have a single set of numbers. The catalogue number of each speci- men should be given both in this catalogue and on the label of the Specimen itself, and the full data also duplicated in the same manner. e) ewe ue is in \ 5 en snr Hie SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Pe aeCkiONS FOR COLLECTING RECENY AND POSSE, Je LAIN IS. BY F. H. KNOWLTON, Assistant Curator of the Department of Botany. Part B of Bulletin of the United States National Museum, No. 39. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1891. CONTENTS. Page. the TAGGGI) PIRINUS Gear ape thee dy Sem eres Rae epee nee ie Ree Ea, pat eae 5 JRUROCIMCWION os SSE eee depo See SB SUE EU OU ESE RaGD ENT Gabe are aE ene ee aueias 5 I. List of implements and appliances for collecting ..---........:.......- 5 OT bLO Oma ercre mee nee cere esos Sie ae ciel Siete oie ee Sane ae ee 6 Botanizin'eycase (vascullum:) S55... cocs Coane ccs Sa ceecst sccee ace cee a ocCketakmilepmane recs. sala iec cise a eam ae sce ones clocajec cae asses 8 TROWG Sen SSS BOSEROSE SS HEU SOI SE rc Sarena eee yt aie ears eeretian an 8 IDIREGIGD, Ge SR GCOS ORE OS EE RISE See eS cca re ee Oe SBN yelin EE is” patent ne 8 HOMES = © 2 no Seine snes 's cans War lene tas saisideci a seawater aciie to nay enn aa 9 IPI ORES ocdg ods popocoradeceabcoue 9occc0 HbUday S655 eopececucEEaeue 9 IDINGHS seas coseouondaso eo Condot Coonro oSocad uSSaa0 seb ooN esousoooSeES 10 IDI (OATES SSeS SCO Scenes SEO bH bor Sor Mees He ee te a Sein Sein motiniers 10 ea erspOlmanted: Pl atS3 ais setae e ck mae anal ene eee os Soe eee eases ae ‘ 10 Noe pb OO kere ace seis cae ci rneseeicicis mesic ons oe Se elortinie Sissies si oe ee te 10 Ii Directions for collecting plants -.-....-.--..2.2-.----+.----.---------- 11 1. Phanerogams and vascular Cryptowams...........-..-.-..--..--.- 11 CAC INIGCED ALES Se ebne REA! 5 ae aie Ae in ac lesea tl uals penne et § 18 wae ry plocamousg, plants [cellular 01-22. -ces, cc onc se oa eee ec ern ae 20 Nogsesran dUliVerWOLtSs><.eaeaaa sss sources wee we tasers ee ara 20 MOSS OS Faave seus ste sists we iets Sores aie = roe et ee OR Bee ee ae 20 IGIVELWOLUS) ee ae ciacrn cose SN eee Seema soe Oe sae eco eens ween 21 ACH ENS Hear sae tak seen es Sea ee ae anu CMT elu oey Shen ee Oe 21 NIGER 5 Crbe BopotaoRG eae Soeu CCSUL EERO ORAS EOONO ar seme Calamene ck 22 IB RES INS Wich Gly atm ten yen ep Sea at eer eer = Se eaerdea ne, ie 22 VISTI Olesen ce tsreres state a eee ras AC a Meee a eh ateyerce eae, Fer seis wt 22 UBF is Sete a elateleinia wie ev cre sca rartn < darter Griuv; @ Srusller flieh-wtrid j Fic. 5.—Sample label; natural size. In tying the label on be careful not to fasten it tighter than necessary to prevent the label from slipping off. Never tie a label round the neck of a specimen; in lizards and salamanders fasten it round the body just behind the fore leg; in frogs and toads in front of the hind legs; in snakes round the body at about the anterior third; finally, in turtles tie the string to one of the legs, and only in this case is it necessary and permissible to draw it very tight. Before finally placing the specimen in alcohol the preserving fluid Should be made to enter the body eavities, as the specimens are almost sure to spoil if the alcohol is only allowed to act on the outside. To prevent its decomposition from the inside I have found it most useful to inject a quantity of strong alcohol by means of a hypodermic syringe. The point of the latter is run down the throat and under the scales into the alimentary canal, in one or more places according to size, and in large specimens it will be found advantageous also to inject alcohol into the larger muscles. In this way the appearance of the specimens is not injured in the least and the preservation is perfect. If a syringe is not at hand the abdominal cavity should be opened with a pair of pointed [11] COLLECTING REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS—STFJNEGER. scissors to allow the fluid to enter; by this process snakes should be cut open in several places along the middle of the under side across the wide ventral plates, the so-called gastrosteges. Should a large lump indicate that a snake contains food not yet digested, the belly should _be opened and the contents of the alimentary canal removed—or pre- served separately, if desired. Before placing turtles in alcohol head and feet should be drawn out from the shell, the mouth should be opened, and a small piece of wood placed between the jaws so as to prevent the mouth from closing. If the mouths of lizards, snakes, salamanders, and frogs ean be kept open without injuring their teeth so much the better, as some of the most _ important systematic characters are derived from the dentition and the shape of the tongue, and it is very difficult to open the mouths of spec- imens which have become hardened in alcohol. A wad of cotton or paper may be found useful for this purpose. The specimen is now ready to be placed in alcohol, the only really effective and reliable preserving fluid. When starting out the collector should provide himself with alcohol of about 95 per cent strength, but he should not use alcohol of this strength. 'The full strength alcohol Should be kept in stock in the large tank, while the specimens them- selves are kept in the smaller tank in alcohol of about 75 per cent. But the best result will be obtained, if the collector has opportunity to put his specimens in still weaker alcohol during the first 24 hours, so. as to allow the preservative fluid to penetrate the tissues thoroughly before placing them in the 75 per cent alcohol. It should also be remembered that this strength only applies to reptiles, as 50 to 60 per cent alcohol will do better for batrachians, which are apt to shrivel up entirely in too strong alcohol. If the specimens can remain undisturbed in. the same place for some time no further precautions are necessary, but if the collector is travel- ing all the time each specimen should be placed separately in one of the cheese-cloth bags, so as to prevent it from being rubbed during transportation. However, quite a number of smooth-skinned speci- mens, or such with scales which do not come off easily or are provided with spines, may be accommodated in one bag. In default of bags they may be wrapped in cheese cloth, mosquito netting, or any other suitable material at hand. Specimens brought home alive may be sent to the museum in that condition, if the prospects for their safe arrival are favorable. This will be found especially practicable with turtles, which can usually be kept a long time without food. If the specimens, however, are to be killed this can best be done by drowning them in strong alcohol. For that purpose they should be placed in an empty vessel and the alcohol poured into it through a narrow opening. The vessel should be so full as to exclude every particle of air from it and then be covered up to prevent the animal from breathing. Even with these precautions some kinds require a long immersion before they die. BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [12] The above directions apply chiefly to small and medium sized speei- mens which can be accommodated whole in an ordinary collector’s out- fit. He will oceasionally, however, come across large specimens, which have to be treated in a different way. _ Crocodiles, alligators, and very large lizards may be skinned in the Saine manner as indicated for large mammals, only that no attempt is made at removing much less mutilating the skull. The crocodiles and alligators may be dried or salted, while the lizard skins are better placed in alcohol, in which case the entire head and the limbs are left in the skin. Snakes too large to be preserved in alcohol should be skinned in very much the same manner. After having noted the total length of the specimen carefully in the note book make a longitudinal section along the middle line of the entire underside from a little behind the head to a few scales from the anal opening, taking great care not to injure the last scale in front of the vent. The skin is now removed from the body by gradually loosening it on each side from the cut toward the median line of the back. The body is cut off behind the skull, and a little in front of the anal opening, and the tail, like the head, left in the skin. Properly labeled, the skin is then placed in alcohol. For skinning chelonians the old “‘Smithsonian Directions” (Mise. Coll. 34) contain the following: Turtles and tortoises are more difficult to prepare in this way, although their skin: ning can be done quite rapidly. ‘‘The breastplate must be separated by a knife or siw from the back, and, when the viscera and fleshy parts have been removed, re- stored to its position. The skin of the head and neck must be turned inside out as far as the head, and the vertebra and flesh of the neck should be detached from the head, which, after being freed from the flesh, the brain, and the tongue, may be pre- served with the skin of the neck. In skinning the legs and the tail, the skin must be turned inside out, and the flesh having been removed from the bones, they are to be returned to their places by redrawing the skin over them, first winding a little cotton or tow around the bones to prevent the skin adhering to them when it dries.”— RICHARD OWEN. Another way of preparing these reptiles is as follows: Make two incisions, one from the anterior end of the breastplate to the symphysis of the lower jaw, and another from the posterior end of the breastplate to the vent or tip of the tail; skin off these regions and remove all fleshy parts and viscera without touching the breastplate it- self; apply the preservative, stuff, and sew up again both incisions. TRANSPORTING. The collector should make it a point to transmit his specimens to the museum as soon and as often as possible, and not allow them to aceu- mulate on his hands when in the field. If he is within reach of a United States post-office the question of transportation is a comparatively easy one. His specimens after an immersion in alcohol of one to two weeks duration, according to size, will be found hardened, and once in this condition they will stand trans- portation in a nearly dry state for considerable time. A cigar box, an old tomato can, or better still, an empty baking- [13] COLLECTING REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS—STEJNEGER. powder can, answers the purpose very well. Take some cotton batting, soak it in alcohol and squeeze it nearly dry; then wrap each individ- ual specimen up and pack them solidly in the box or can; when the can is fall add so much alcohol as the contents will hold without drip- pings: wrap the parcel in several thicknesses of strong paper, and tie a string securely around the whole; finally, paste on a Smithsonian frank label, which will be supplied upon application, and the package is ready for the mail without the sender having to go to any expense for postage. The specimens may also be packed in their original cheese-cloti bags or wrappings, in which case it will only be necessary to fill up the vacant space with cotton saturated with alcohol. Specimens thoroughly cured and packed in this way will arrive at the museum in good shape even after the lapse of weeks. They can, therefore, also be sent from foreign countries, not too remote, through Express Companies with but little risk or trouble. It is doubtful if they could be sent through foreign parcel post on account of the writ- ten labeis. For long distance transportation it may be necessary to employ sealed tin caus, screw-top collecting tanks, or wooden kegs, which will allow the use of more alcohol. But even in this case the specimens should be packed dry and as closely as possible without crowding, and the vessel filled entirely so as to admit no rubbing of the contents. If there are not enough specimens, fill the vacant space with eetton or other suitable material, being careful not to employ any from which the alcohol will extract any discoloring matter ; alcohol is then poured in until all vacant space is filled, and the vessel sealed hermetically. If a metal vessel is used it should be inclosed in a solid wooden box. Glass jars should be avoided, if possible, as too liable to break. 66 D ON’T.” Finally, to sum up a few of the more important things to be avoided— Dovw’t tie a label around the neck of the specimens. Don’t forget to give the alcohol access to the interior of the speci- mens. Doweé slit the specimens open with a knife, but, if you have no hypodermic syringe, use pointed scissors. Dont forget to label the specimens properly. Dowt wrap the specimens in dry cotton, but soak it first in alcohol. Dow’t use glass jars, if you can possibly help it. Don’t put sealing wax on the cork. Dowt be satisfied with one specimen of a kind, if more can be ob- tained. Dont let your hypodermic syringe dry up; keep the top screw tight with ample packing between. 2) ~~) pats Axe mnt Af SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Sel =e6TlIONS FOR COLLECTING AND isin VUNG, SUN Siem S: BY Oy W, IRIDLION Wi, AY 1s, ID), Honorary Curator of the Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum. Part F of Bulletin of the United States National Museum, No. 39 (wich one plate). WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1892: ai ap ' CONTENTS. Page, iN GR ODUCT ORY sha 5c oc sean sacs SS asie Oe wisn clases sein one cee aca eee anes oaee sieee 3 MANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS...--- 5 OHABRACTERISTICS*OF INSECTS: -/-.2. 2 55c,s'0 2 alene 22 ss oss Seen ctisiee ssi cese ss sae 5 SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENTOMOLOGY ....-.-..---------------- +++ -+-ee- 6 CMASSIMICATION OF HEXAPODS 222. sso. cco oss. cose coed sciesac Sole seis steeies 8 Ordlersbbymenopterawesseo- 5 Saas sec odes seine oes ne ot ee acs. ae aE 12 Onder Coleopbenar meses ce nea e cic eee ce eee ins oie ote etre are ey eee 14 Order Lepidoptera .........--.---.--..- SOS vars Sera a CE a ey SPS ot evar 16 Orderpelemipleran ica crec + oases iclsecraeisiseieme ce jsiseitcw see sns Ses see sea eas if Suborder Mn ysanoOptera S.f2nccsce sede cso ates Sete ee a meee meee 18 OrdergDipterd e225. sors oe soe cee eee Soe ccm oeres deere meas en meets 19 SubordemAphanipterars-cescss cteceese cece. sooeee -ose eee eeue se aeee 20 OrdemOrthopterae cs aacscss ose ses auseeeeae ose bee ecules oot ec epee 21 SUpord cre ermap Lena ssa ac eles ces ene series as See ee ee reas ae 22 Orders NeuLopberaa mass aesemc sce a= cee sia See Ciana we aia a brie te ere ees see 22 Suborderirichopteraya::.\5¢ secs. sescnc cise cee soles See Seceee ie eels 23 SUpOrdersMecopleraysscacscs yeu vans ec oa avs Sais a sere Sere aeons eee 23 Suborder: Neuroplerans2 sc c6 casas sess sen enie css wees oe see ejeisince 23 SubordersPla typterara se sceeees cece sce sas cee ee sce ce ee eyelllevae eee 24. Subordervelecopteravas soos veancscnae o2 se vee ates eee Soe aise = cere 25 SuborderOdonatars se osccse tease ece ceatees See ween eccee a eaeee 25 SMOOnMer ep heMmeLOpberaes an saves a aise a Ses oes hee eter ae ete 25 NUbOLdereLhysanurar sacs) Ses assanee aes chee Sat ote ace aae ees eae enero 26 © CLITICTING cod a Gb Ss Eo etis baa sn CC URE CCE DOR aE IES CREE Eira aS aiaHn ames cnainein cy 26 Generalgconsiderationsss2 sos. 22 sean sen cecae wee see nies eae can een ne ee 26 Collecting apparatus........----.....-..- ss Sia Sista Aen eee aur Sieve drecs eee 29 {Nays} GyGe Shlain ae ooo mS pncicoes Heo AUER ONC Sen Um ama A SEeescdeeatere coe 29 Hew Aber e Gin sen ncn sees SAS ee Ne ae RA a RS NS aA At ee Ree 31 Wyiterdip=ne bass = Scaccewasmaescce sae oee sacle cee cee seas ooac cou ee Seer 32 Whemmbrellai sss eee eee BOOS DAH CHES CeO His aueC Hem re SiS 32 Mheyweatinay cloth vas se ase gens Sark scrscc atone eee er eee 33 Rhemmbrellanetiasssseecs ssc s cone sem Soa sae ee ties e kee see eee 34 MINOISTON Cleese ue Boerne as ae Mae Sey aps ALA Seni tga cin a (Nc) BEER e ne een 35 pblvese hi Sel eat ya ccea nhs ae ays NPR he aha eT et Bee 0 BN aes ee 36 Pe SCLONVel Bases ha eee See eR mare eh Qed et Lei eae 36 MnexcollectimaeshweeZeTsrs 5.44 ese cose see eee eae Se ee eee 36 TNXS) [ONES OU ee ernie ee ete rete Neen er eet ES aca URN ea RR Recap WaPiac eu nt 37 AUT) SUN CAT EN oy eA SOS el PR a egeal aee mi en 38 shies ANELS AC koa seems aa eA He Lee 8 BS EIU ORI AO mk ee Ae 38 siireplenssand;mMilcrOscopeics sas cece tet Ok eens oat ee ee ee 39 Collectinovrlymenopteray sys qs as saa se ce as tose ee cn cee ee Se eee ore 39 Collectimner@ oleopterays se emen tosses ems aeee eget ena ones oc cece beens 42 Gonerale dineebions sas se screen tao aan cele eee eR aka 42 AWAINLO TEC OSG itn cose yyy ile Cit ce sh tia a cra ane 43 [1] CONTENTS. COLLECTING—Continued. Collecting Coleoptera—Continued. Page. Sprinte collecting: sys A ei eye oe eae eae reel 44 Myrmecophilous and Termetophilous species -...............-..- 44 Spring fiehts of Coleoptera22-4-2.se ass e-es eee ene eee 44 Beach: collecting 2. sss ster ep eee Cee eee eee ee 45 Abtractin ge My, Inehtsy. 22 oc oes ok Neel eo es ee 45 PET ADS se Ba oN ee Sat Scr eS ia, Re ania ir ae Joa eet el too 45 JON Cis1 FY jess SA ee ea lee ae Wine Se MEA ae yok; 45 Summericollecting = 220s secre ce Soak ue sere Ok ae eye aie 46 Collectincjunderistonesteee a eee ese ee eee Cena aes 46 Collecting in rotten stumps and logs ...--.-.-..--.-..----.-----. 46 Collecting; inidyins or. deadstrees=sec- 5 eee eee eee eee 47 Beating living trees, shrubs, and vines.-...--.....-..----------- 47 SWEOPIN Ossi 2 Scere st eco) soe ie ee a ae 47 Collecting on mud and gravel banks -......--.....-.-----..----. 48 Collecting aquatielbeetles 3.822525 ess eae eee ee Ag Collecting at the seashore and on sandy places ......--.- Hoje use 49 Collecting, dun'o beetles. 25.0. 25255) ee ee ee eee AQ Night collecting 3. 2c. ces 62245 ose eats seen ec cao ee 50 Rallicollecting . co sec cat Bete hn cee ee ee 50 Collectine Lepidopterai..2 0 5225 5s. Ske sense seccee a eee ee 50 Collecting: theradults 2220 23-225 - eee eee eee ace eee Eee 50 Colllectine theearlyistatess--eeeseeeeeseee ee eee eee eee eee eee 53 Collectine: “Hemiptera ato eee Ne. oe all a a, Sa ee 54 Collecting Diptera wee sce eee eee ee PGS eee edad coc 55 Collecting Orthopteray ose es A ee ee ee 57 Collecting Neuroptera i: ics. es oe se aia a ey 58 Rseudoneuropterai. <2 222 ok cto tes ee ea onee eee eee 58 Neuropberaccciteleteisc sso celeste ee tae ce 59 KIGEING AND PRESERVING INSECTS 225422-2¢ == scien) 5 seein sees ae eee 60 First preservation of living specimens.........-..--...---.------+------- 60 Retlline specimens!) -//-\jc 1 -clapaiciters iain) se aie nisin sae Oe 61 A Coh Ole seS hoes eee ee eee 0 ot ace area pen a ee 61 Chloroformiand ether S235 2a Gee ee sear 62 Cyanide of potassiumis: 33622 5222.2 oe eS ee ee ae 63 Other agents 2.22) 05ers e 65 Special directions for different orders <22---22- 2-22-2223 2225 eee eee 66 IN TOMOPARY << cs ces iss his wes came S ese ee ol aeieumare Sarsinnlae a aes cle eee 67 Care of pinned and mounted specimens..........---.-.------------------ 67 IMSeCb PINS) 5. ess ese eee eae ie acces pe ciene es oo eee ee ae 67 Preparation. of specimens, 4s... 25-5 -.2. 2 4.2- 2s 4c asses eae eee 68 PinmiIn@: jie ie See ee ae 2c arise Saeie as eticee cle ee Pees psiere ieee 69 Mountineon) poimtse oo. ek ce is Sai Ue See ee 70 Mounting duplicates) noise eae cee pene hse cogs area eee 73 Temporary storage of specimens .--...--..--------.----------------- 74 nyelopes tor wepidopteraiete=. 24455 9) ees ee eee eee eee ee eee 74 Directions) forspreading imsectses=-= 5. ees- eee eee eee eee 75 A new apparatus for spreading Microlepidoptera ..........---.------ 76 Spreading Microlepidopterdee.==5 seer eer ee nee ee eee eee 77 1) bb. ah 1h eee ean a Name le mara a ran MAM bain sare Ga mGwS cian o Some 79 Inflation of the larve of Lepidoptera.............--..----.-.--------- 80 Stuffing insects 3/025) 65 ee ee Ee ee eee eee aa 82 Dry preservation of Aphides and other soft-bodied insects .......-.-- 82 i? 4 CONTENTS. [111] ENTOMOTAxy—Continued. Care of pinned and mounted specimens—Continued. Page. Mounting specimens for the microscope ...-...-.-..----.------------ 84 Preparing and mounting the wings of Lepidoptera --....-.-......... 86 Presenyation of alcoholic specimens .2...........).- 2.522220) eee eek 88 ADDONS CINGL IME HOGS —256 455 585605 su cacao ssbb eaohed ss4eaoure. 88 Waals stoppers,andvholderse (hoc. sacs Soir cic ee ee 89 Preserving micro-larve in alcohol...............--..------------ 92 IPReSeLVAuly evil Seam cayenne ic mee cteeieeiere ne, cn cae wie euaeaer cents 93 AM COMOM esis eoe ce ee cee SES Cobre oe ay Sm IRE ee hagmen atest et “he: 93 AUlcoholrand whitesaTsemic: sacs te me wis cece ccs ek eee cae ee 93 Alcohol and corrosive sublimate .......--..-.--.--.-..-..-..---- 94 Two fluids to preserve form and color........--...--..---------- 94 (CR KGS OTT sean s Ace eee Set A aro geile Sree Leet oe ae 94. The Wickersheim preserving fluid. ..-.....-- Sector ies Ole are) Seles 94 Mabehimorspecimensincsashen. ose ee ee et ee ue ean 95 Generalidire cgi ons) 2 swe scree roe tnoe cieiarcjlne lamer ho Oa eee 95 Labels for pinned specimens ...--.....-....---.----------.------ 95 Habelineralcoholicispecimens 5 cemes se = oe ese ee eae see eee 97 CabineoHtorapparatws! Ho hsec.sh oe echoes yok ee seed. eas SAS ee eee 98 PACH REBOXES-AND ‘CABINETS.2cc oo cdce tec cnc sss Joo ccc e te qeleuee mee eee 98 Se OROT MECIROC FIOM Se aceere s aatete a rae see ae oe tec Se ML e Ia aye cel Stans nee ae 98 sinerroldimesbOx tee tow ecea. ene e esses sea Ges Sore eden ee ease 98 shereabimet) 6 Scssse cee oe eae Hee SURE SEE rae ne ah ioe nie emamte cee 100 Rropeininer display POX. < shee Gane ee oe eee) ote mca wise sce eee ae 101 heMoartindale box tor hepidoptera 2.505222 os. 2 ote es ee 104 Horizontal versus vertical arrangement of boxes....-..-.-..-.-------.---- 104 PHT OTN SECU DOKCS eo ar sears yee Sec ce ee Se taeine eee cin case Neem oe Same 104 ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS IN THE CABINET .........----------------- fh. See 106 Sysremahic:and-biologic:collectionsss-.5-2 522-422. 8as2- sess 2 8 See eee 106 1 SECO WING. CUS OE AVS Bere Ae ee Se eer eee cm rm ope ee ate pa AS oe 106 PEO EM TMORC OMS CIIONS (ent easeeteR Maer ae aa ese eer ae OS ee 107 CSUN EES TS MOLD, WNC) sec ae snes acre ee se ee eee oe seine cc eitan ee ee Oe 108 NTIS OUT D OSESW ese Sere wn oe eee cs eee Ren elean ole uis oo ep alae eincete aie Shape ee 108 FROME CICS se yue eaters ose ce aero et es Rede IE 2 eee a 109 INE OHay A OCH DDO See: te Bees be Aen eo ot ah a ee eR aL ep Meta ee 109 BISuhphitleLO ree aT yO Meas vs eres sect ceo eee ee et 110 INTER CUT VAD EWS CSe 1 ain Aes Ss eee Press a Uae cto ace ee et eae 110 MOAT OUT CHA CLR eee ae aret ceo tare ont ENO Serres rs etapa Sen Re a 110 A means of preserving insects in dry, hot countries............-. 110 WHIDUIGL sisi Sat Sets cit A pete SSNS PON ar!) 00 ha a Uy aS lp aR MIR eta atom 8 111 BSLUUO RISING aM ONO POASHAO: cas See ese Olle aePSe eset Aion inane rea 111 SEE GREARING OF ENSECTS) 222502 . 2c. ace s00% esc ae se eee cee Spe ere ote ene ne ae Rrepe ie cis aie oth cee eaeerete 120 DIRECTIONS FOR PACKING AND TRANSMITTING INSECTS..-....--.-..----.---- 121 RUG RE See eN ID MeNE MOR ANIDAI Sensis cis ae notte So see Sein Mos cara sess sede oom eee 128 INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING ARACHNIDS AND MYRIAPODS. 124 Mirecwionsrrorcollectine spiders. 5 6-45. 6-545 cae ne kieee ae aes cee 124 PASTA ATEN DU Seep ee ee ey mee dee ace ees el ate I LY niet ela 124 Minierandelocaliby tor collecting son es ooh e. Ponies el eee Saale ee 125 [iv | CONTENTS. COLLECTING AND PRESERVING ARACHNIDS AND MyriIarpops—Continued. Page. Collecting other Arachnids, mites, ticks, scorpions, etc..---...--...----. 126. @Wollectinig) Meyriayod ays) -tnla ia eee caine alate eee etal 130: TEXT BOOKS AND ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS ..---.---------------------------- 181 Comprehensive works most useful for the student of North American in- ROSIE Ee Aes eo OSA SUS SARA Sa esE mess EoEe sol ase soc Sosadhd cado.conGoC 132 General works on classification .......---------------------------------- 132 TEhypineI Oy NO Che sas Hhes coca ss ecooucecco sess aooscs sneceecesone oscos: 132 OMe SUED, 5 s6ec5s ness bobo cecoao geo sacoma ene sosecosesoes ose5 soncce 132 Wepidopterde cer rete =o nae eee eee eee 133. TSIGMN} OUI) 6 cogdobooos sso5 poo Se coos cosees D056 neue asco Sssses osbo Goce 134 IDM ONY Beaee Sos sees Gone Sod sce ess Jods poeconenan osh6 Soone lez soc5 ses 134 OveINO) OWE - Aoceed sage cad66 5456 0555 sono eSadannK Des eases sans SoSS Secs 135. INGUERD) DUEL « Sasoas coco 2905 coo cca soneco ccocSn sosano ease sesscu occa cess 135 WRABIENTCORY ¢aubaccss neon oobe se coors an soso cess saesas cDesea ssos 550° 135 INYO), Sooo nenesds 2608 cSd 568 bob aus soba ocoocn odes5 cotsc4 o5a0 se02 136 American periodicals) sess se sce = a9 eee Sela eet ee ie eee 136. Foreign periodicals .........--.------------- +--+ -------+---+------------ 138 The more useful works on economic entomology. -.-..----.--------------- 140 Entomological works published by the United States Entomological Com- mission and by the United States Department of Agriculture... --.----- 141 Works by the United States Entomological Commission - -.-.-------- 141 Bulletins of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agri- CUlitbUTe yee ee eee eee cares cei he Slee le 142 - Special reports and bulletins.........-.-.--------------------------- 144 How TO OBTAIN ENTOMOLOGICAL BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS......-.-.--------- 145. eae EN ia Obs Cl Orv: There is a constant demand, especially from correspondents of the Museum and also of the Department of Agriculture, for information as to how to collect, preserve, and mount insects. There is also great need of some simple directions on a great many other points connected with the proper packing of insects for transmission through the mails or otherwise; labeling; methods of rearing; boxes and cabinets; text-books, etc. Interest in the subject of entomology has, in fact, made rapid growth in the last few years, and now that nearly every State has an official entomologist connected with its State Agricultural Experiment Station, the number of persons interested in the subject may be expected to increase largely in the near future. Ihave hitherto made use of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, No. 261, which is a pamphlet on collecting and preserving insects prepared by Dr. A. S. Packard. This is out of print, and I have been requested by Prof. Goode to prepare for Bulletin 39, U. 8S. N. M., something that would cover the whole ground and give the more essential information needed for collectors and students of insect life. I have deemed it unnecessary to go too much into detail, but have studied not to omit anything essential. Cus- toms and methods vary in different countries and with different indi- viduals, but the recommendations contained in the following pages are based upon my own experience and that of my assistants and many acquaintances, and embrace the methods which the large majority of American entomologists have found most satisfactory. Much of the matter is repeated bodily from the directions for collect- ing and preserving insects published in my Fifth Report on the Insects of Missouri (1872) and quotations not otherwise credited are from that Report. The illustrations, also, when not otherwise credited or not originally made for this paper, are from my previous writings. Some are taken from Dr. Packard’s pamphlet, already mentioned; others, with the permission of Assistant Secretary Willits, from the publications of the Department of Agriculture, while a number have been especially made for the occasion, either from photographs, or from drawings by Miss L. Sullivan or Dr. Geo. Marx or Mr. C. L. Marlatt. When enlarged, the natural size is indicated in hair-line. In the preparation of the pamphlet [ have had the assistance of Mr. E. A. Schwarz, and more particularly of Mr. C. L. Marlatt, to both of whom I desire here to express my obligations. Co Vie Re [3] U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 39, PL. | 53 e & | Pedisis ie |LLUSTRATION OF BIOLOGIC SERIES. MANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRE: SERVING INSECTS. By C. V. RILEY, Honorary Curator of the Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum. CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS. The term ‘“‘insect” comes from the Latin imsectum, and signifies ‘cut into.” It expresses one of the prime characteristics of this class of animals, namely, that of segmentation. This feature of having the body divided into rings or segments by transverse incisions is pos- sessed by other large groups of animals, and was considered of suffi- cient importance by Cuvier to lead him, in his system of classification, to group with Insects, under the general term Articulata, Worms, Crus- tacea, Spiders, and Myriopods. Worms differ from the other four groups jn having no articulated appendages, and in having a soft body-wall or integument instead of a dense chitinous covering, and are separated as a special class Vermes. The other four groups of segmented animals possess in common the feature of jointed appendages and a covering of chitinous plates, and are brought together under the term Arthropoda. The division of the body into a series of segments by transverse incis- ions, characteristic of these animals and these only, justifies the use of Cuvier’s old name, Articulates, as this segmented feature represents a definite relationship and a natural division—as much so as the verte- bral column in Vertebrates. The Cuvierian name should be retained as a coordinate of Vertebrates, Molluses, ete., and the terms Vermes and Arthropods may be conveniently used to designate the two natural divisions of the Articulates. The term “insect” has been employed by authors in two different senses—one to apply to the tracheated animals or those that breathe through a system of air tubes (trachex), comprising Spiders, Myriopods, and insects proper or Hexapods,* and the other in its restricted sense as applied to the Hexapods only. To avoid confusion, the latter signifi- cation only should be used, and it will be thus used in this article. *From the Greek éfazovc, having 6 feet. [5] BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [6] We see, then, that insects share, in common with many other animals, the jointed or articulated structure. Wherein, then, do they differ? Briefly, in having the body divided into thirteen joints and a subjoint, including the head as a joint, and in the adult having six true, jointed legs, and usually, though not always, wings. The five classes of Articulates differ from each other in the number of legs they possess in the adult form, as follows: Hexapoda, 6 legs; Arachnida, 8 legs; Crustacea, 10-14 legs; Myriapoda, more than 14 legs; Vermes, none. This system holds for the adult form only, because some mites (Arach- nida) when young have only 6 legs, and many true insects in the larva state either have no legs at all, or have additional abdominal legs which are not jointed, but membranous, and are lost in the perfect or adult state. These are called false or prolegs. It will serve to make these instructions clear if I at once explain that the life of an insect is marked by four distinct states, viz, the egg, the larva, the pupa, and the imago, and that the last three words will constantly recur. We have no English equivalent for the words larva and pupa, for while some authors have written them with the - terminal e, so as to get the English plural, yet “‘larves” and “ pupes” so shock the ear that the terms have not been (and deserve not to be) generally adopted. We have seen that an insect in the final state has six true legs. Yet even here many species depart from the rule, as there are many in which the perfect insect, especially in the female sex, is apodous or without legs, just as there are also other cases where they are without wings. Sometimes the legs seem to be reduced in number by the partial or total atrophy of one or the other pair, but in all these exceptional cases there is no difficulty in realizing that we have to deal with a true insect, because of the other characters pertaining to the class, some of which it will be well to allude to. Insects are further characterized by having usually three distinct divisions of the body, viz.: head, thorax, and abdomen, and by under- going certain metamorphoses or transformations. Now, while a num- ber of other animals outside of the insect world go through similar transformations, those in the Crustacea being equally remarkable, yet, from the ease with which they are observed and the completeness of the transformations in most insects, the metamorphoses of this class have, from time immemorial, excited the greatest curiosity. SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENTOMOLOGY. But few words are necessary to indicate the importance of entomology, especially to the farming community; for while insects play a most important part in the economy of nature and furnish us some valuable products and otherwise do us a great deal of indirect good, yet they are chiefly known by the annoyances they cause and by the great injury they do to our crops and domestic animals. Hence some knowledge of q COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS—RILEY. insects and how to study them becomes important, almost necessary, to every farmer. The scope of the science may best be indicated by a statement of the number of species existing, as compared with other animals. The omnipresence of insects is known and felt by all; yet few have any ac- curate idea of the actual numbers existing, so that some figures will not prove uninteresting in this connection. Taking the lists of described species, and the estimates of specialists in the different orders, it is safe to say that about thirty thousand species have already been described from North America, while the number of species already described or to be described in the Biologia Centrali-Americana, 1. e., for Central America, foot up just about the same number, Lord Walsingham hav- ing estimated them at 30,114 in his address as president of the London Entomological Society two years ago, neither the Orthoptera nor the Neuroptera being included in this estimate. By way of contrast the number of mammals, birds, and reptiles to be described from the same region, is interesting. It foots up 1,937, as follows: Mammals, 180; birds, 1,600; reptiles, 157. If we endevor to get some estimate of the number of insects that occur in the whole world, the most satisfactory estimates will be found in the address just alluded to, and in that of Dr. David Sharp before the ~ same society. Linneus knew nearly 3,000 species, of which more than 2,000 were European and over 800 exotic. The estimate of Dr. John Day, in 1853, of the number of species on the globe, was 250,000. Dr. Sharp’s estimate thirty years later was between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Sharp’s and Walsingham’s estimates in 1889 reached nearly 2,000,000, and the average number of insects annually described since the publication of the Zoological Record, deducting 8 per cent for synonyms, is 6,500 species. I think the estimate of 2,000,000 species in the world is ex- tremely low, and if we take into consideration the fact that species have been best worked up in the more temperate portions of the globe, and that in the more tropical portions a vast number of species still remain to be characterized and named, and if we take further into con- sideration the fact that many portions of the globe are yet unexplored, entomologically, that even in the best worked up regions by far the larger portion of the Micro-Hymenoptera and Micro-Diptera remain absolutely undescribed in our collections, and have been but very par- tially collected, it will be safe to estimate that not one-fifth of the Species extant have yet been characterized or enumerated. In this view of the case the species in our collections, whether described or un- described, do not represent perhaps more than one-fifth of the whole. In other words, to say that there are 10,000,000 species of insects in the world, would be, in my judgment, a moderate estimate. BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [38] CLASSIFICATION OF HEXAPODS. Seven orders of insects were originally recognized by Linneeus, namely, Neuroptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Aptera. This classification was based on the organs of flight only, and while in the main resulting in natural divisions which still furnish the basis of more modern classifications, was faulty in several particu- lars. Forinstance, the Aptera, which included all wingless insects, was soon found to be a very unnatural assemblage and its components were distributed among the other orders. The establishment of the order Orthoptera by Olivier to include a large and well-defined group of in- sects associated with the Hemiptera by Linnzeus, restored the original seven orders, and this classification has, in the main, been followed by entomologists up to the present time. HYMENOPTERA, Linn. DIPTERA, Aristotle. ORTHOPTERA, Oliv. Aphaniptera, Kirby. Euplexoptera, West. Dictyotoptera, Burm. | Thysanoptera, Haliday. @ = order. © = Sub-order. Fie. 1.—Pyramid showing the nature of the mouth, and relative rank of the Orders, and the affinities of the Sub-orders of Insects. All insects are, in a broad way, referable to one or the other of these seven primary orders by the structure of the wings and the character of the mouth-parts in the imago, and by the nature of their transformations. Some of these orders are connected by aberrant and osculant families or groups, which have by other authors been variously ranked as inde- pendent orders, but which, following Westwood substantially, I have considered, for convenience, as suborders. (See Fifth Report, Insects of Missouri, etc., 1872.) In the article just cited, I made use of the accompanying diagram in the form of a pyramid (Fig. 1), which gives a graphic representation of the distinguishing characters and the relative rank as usually accepted, of the orders and suborders. ; Full discussion of the different classifications is unnecessary in this [9] COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS—RILEY. connection. Authors have differed in the past and will differ in the future as to what constitutes a natural system. and it would require many pages to give even a brief survey of the various schemes that have been proposed. As I have elsewhere said, ‘‘We must remember that classifications are but a means to an end—applianees to facilitate our thought and study—and that, to use Spencer’s words, ‘we cannot, by any logical dichotomies, actually express relations which in nature graduate into each other insensibly.’” The most philosophical, perhaps, of the more modern systems of clas- sification is that of Friedrich Brauer, who has carefully studied the subject, and has given us an arrangement consisting of sixteen orders. his has many merits and has been adopted, with slight modifications, by Packard in his “ Entomology for Beginners,” and by Hyatt and Arms in their recent and valuable text-book “Insecta.” Comstock, in his ‘‘Introduction to Entomology” strongly recommends Brauer’s classification, but for reasons of simplicity and convenience adheres to a modification of the old classification of Westwood. For purposes of comparison the classification by Hyatt and Arms, which is substantially that of Brauer, may be introduced. In linear arrangement it is as follows: I. Thysanura (Springtails, etc.). II. Ephemeroptera (Ephemeridwe; May-flies). (= Plectoptera Pack.) III. Odonata (Libellulide; Dragon-tlies). IV. Plecoptera (Perlide; Stone-tflies). Y. Platyptera (Termites, Mallophaga, etc.). VI. Dermaptera (Forficulide; Karwigs). VII. Orthoptera (Locusts, Grasshoppers, ete.). VIII. Thysanoptera (Thripide; Fringe-wings). IX. Hemiptera (Bugs). X. Coleoptera (Beetles). XJ. Neuroptera (Sialide, Hemerobiide; Lace-wings, ete.). XII. Mecoptera (Panorpide; Scorpion-flies). XIII. Trichoptera (Phryganeide; Caddis-flies). XIV. Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths). XV. Hymenoptera (Bees, Wasps, ete.). XVI. Diptera (Two-winged flies). The relationship of these orders cannot be indicated in a linear arrangement, and is admirably shown by Hyatt and Arms by means of diagrams which I reproduce (Figs. 2, 3.) — So 1 ese BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. VL9qYoasod) [ E4ap yous wry { =e VVIAWownN aly HI : 87]Pu0PO SSS mA =] [Xa AI X= 242 tH OPEN AT. SSC B4adyto134¥9H C129, YIW3H Al PLaiovald (After Hyatt.) Sane 2h eieuope = P4L2yWoOda1dq~ P49 UYouourayy 4 ‘= CO — 1 CD CO (ey Fie. 2.—Scheme illustrating origin and relationship of Orders. =a BO ; [11] = COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS—RILEY. The relation of these sixteen orders to the older, septenary scheme is shown by the following arrangement: 1. Hymenoptera .. Hymenoptera XV. 2. Coleoptera ...-. Coleoptera X. 3. Lepidoptera .... Lepidoptera XIV. i Homoptera. : 2 ae ( Hemiptera DX... ..-- Heteroptera. + Bene ( Thysanoptera VILL. 5 ? (rea 4 yw § Mmeluding Aphaniptera or Si- 5. Diptera ...-..-- Ria ev) phonaptera of Some authors ( Orthoptera VII. ( Dermaptera VI. ( Trichoptera XIII / 6. Orthoptera...-- Mecoptera XII Neuroptera. Neuroptera XI , esi | Platyptera V 7. Neuroptera....- 4 Plecoptera IV | Odonata IIT > Pseudo-neuroptera. Ephemeropteral! | Thysanura I ) Tt will be seen that the changes are not so great as would at first appear. The three more important orders, namely, the Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera, remain substantially the same in all clas- sifications, and so with the three orders next in importance—the Hem. iptera, Diptera, and Orthoptera. All that has been done with these Diagram 111 Fig. 3.—Cross section of Fig. 2. three has been to rank as separate orders what by former authors were preferably considered as either families or suborders. The princi- pal change is in the Neuroptera, of which no less than eight orders have been made. This is not to be wondered at, because the order, as for- merly construed, was conceded to be that which represents the lowest BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [12] forms and more synthetic types of insects, and as such necessarily contained forms which it is difficult to classify definitely. In the discussion of the characteristics, habits, number of species, and importance of the several groups, I follow, with such changes as the advances in the science of entomology have made necessary, the arrangement shown in Fig. 1. “Order HYMENOPTERA (op7», a membrane; zrepdv, wing). Clear or Membrane-winged Flies: Bees, Wasps, Ants, Saw-flies, ete. Char- acterized by having four membranous wings with comparatively few veins, the hind part smallest. The transformations are complete: 7. ¢., the larva bears no resemblance to the perfect insect. ‘Some of the insects of this order are highly specialized, and their mouth-parts are fitted both for biting and sucking, and in this respect they connect the mandibulate and haustel- late insects. The common Honey-bee has this complex structure of the mouth, and if the editors of our agricultural papers would bear the fact in mind, we should have less of the never-ending discussion as to whether bees are capable of injuring fruit at first hand. The lower lip (labium) is modified into a long tongue, sheathed by the lower jaws (mawxille), and they can sip, or, more properly speaking, lap up nectar; while the upper jaws (mandibule), though not generally used for purposes of man- dueation, are fitted for biting and cutting. The Hymenoptera are ter- restrial, there existing only a very few degraded, swimming forms. “This order is very naturally divided into two sections—the ACULEATA and TEREBRANTIA. The aculeate Hymenoptera, or Stingers, comprise Fia. 4.—Bald-facad Hornet, Vespa maculata. (After Sanborn). Fie. 5.—An Ichneumon Parasite, Pim- Fig. 6.—A Chalcid Parasite, Chat- pla annulipes, showing male and fe- cis flavipes. male abdomen. all the families in which the abdomen in the female is armed with a sting connected with a poison reservoir, and may be considered the typical [13] COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS—RILEY. form of the order, including all the social and fossorial species. The insects of this section must be considered essentially beneficial to man, We i It Els Marz.dcah fila Fic. 7.—A Horn-tail, Tremex columba. a, larva, showing Thalessa larva attached to its side; b, head of larva, front view, enlarged; c, female pupa, ventral view; d, male pupa, ventral view; e, adult female—all slightly enlarged. notwithstanding the oceasional sting of a bee or wasp, the boring of a carpenter bee, or the importunities of the omnipresent ant. Not only do they furnish us with honey and wax, but they play so important a part in the destruction of insects injurious to vegetation that they may be looked upon as God-appointed guards over the vegetal king- dom—carrying the pollen from plant to plant, and insuring the fertiliza- tion of dicecious species, and the cross-fertilization of others; and being ever ready to clear them of herbivorous worms which gnaw and destroy. The whole section is well characterized by the uniformly maggot-like hhature of the larva. The transformations are complete, but the chitin- ous larval covering is often so very thin and delicate that the budding of the members, or gradual growth of the pupa underneath, is quite plainly visible, and the skin often peels off in delicate flakes, so that the transition from larva to pupa is not so marked and sudden as in those insects which have thicker skins. “The terebrantine Hymenoptera, or Piercers, are again divisible into ‘two subsections: first, the ENTOMOPHAGA, which are, likewise, with the exception of a few gall-makers, beneficial to man, and include the parasitic families, and the gall-flies; second, the PHYTOPHAGA, com- prising the Horn-tails (Uroceride), and the Saw-flies (Tenthredinide), BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. {[14]7 all of which are vegetable feeders in the larval state, those of the first family boring into trees, and those of the second either feed- ing externally on leaves or in- closed in galls. They are at once distinguished from the other Hymenoptera by the larve having true legs, which, however, in the case of the Horn- tails, are very small and ex- articulate. The larve of many Saw-flies have, besides, prolegs, Fic. 8.—Sawfly and Larva. Pristiphora grossularie; a, larva; 0, imago, Walsh. which are, however, always dis- tinguishable from those of Lepidopterous larvee by being more numerous and by having no hooks. “Order COLEOPTERA (zodz6-, a sheath; zzze6y, wing). Beetles or or Shield-winged Insects. Characterized by having four wings, the front pair (called elytra) horny or leathery, and usually united down the back with a straight suture when at rest, the hind ones membranous and folded up under the elytra when at rest. Transformations complete. “This is an order of great importance, and in the vast number and diversity of the species comprised in it outranks any of the others. The ease with which the insects of this order are obtained and preserved make it one of the most attractive to the amateur, and beetles are, per- Fie.9.—A Chafer, Cotalpa lan- haps, of all insects, the best known and under- 9°" (After Packard.) stood in the popular mind. For the same reason they have, in the perfect state, received most attention from the entomologists, but their transformations and preparatory forms yet offer a wide and inviting Fic. 10.—A Longicorn, Saperda candida. a, larva; b, pupa; ¢, beetle. field for the student. The simplest and best-known classification of the beetles is the tarsal system, founded on the number of joints to the tarsi, by which we get four great sections: (1) PENTAMERA, in which [15] COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS—RILEY. all the tarsi are 5-jointed; (2) HETEROMERA, with the four ante- rior 5-jointed and the two posterior 4-jointed; (3) PSEUDO-TETRA- MERA, with apparently only four joints to all the tarsi, though, in reality, there is a fifth penultimate joint, diminutive and concealed; (4) PSHUDO-TRIMERA, with apparently only three joints to all the tarsi. This system, like most others, is not perfect, as there are numerous spe- cies not possessing five joints to the tarsi belonging to the first section; and for practical purposes beetles may be very 5 well arranged according to habit. We Fic.11—ThePlumCureulio, Conotrache- thus get, fist, the ADEPHAGA, oF Carmi. ee are a pascie orous species, including all those which and crescent. prey on other living insects, and to which, following Mr. Walsh, I have, for obvious reasons, applied the suggestive term ‘Cannibal’; second, the NECROPHAGA, comprising those which feed on carrion, dung, fungi, and decaying vegetation; third, the PHYTOPHAGA, embracing all those feeding on living vegetation. This arrangement is by no means perfect, for there are beetles which are car- Fig. 12.—A Soldier-beetle, Chaulioynathus pjyorous ip the larva and herbivor- pennsylvainicus. a, larva; b-h, parts of 5 : 0 A ‘aoa gullomeeile & eee ous in theimagostate; while some of the NECROPHAGA are actually para- sitic. Yet, itis not more artificial than others which have been proposed. The carnivorous species, broadly speaking, are Pentamerous, the only striking exception being the Coccinellidee (Lady-birds), which are Pseudo-trimerous. The carrion-feeders are also Pentamerous; but veg- Fie.13.—The Bogus Potato-beetle, Doryphora juncta. a. eges; b, larve; ec, beetle; dand e, parts of beetle enlarged. etable-feeders are found in all the tarsal divisions, though the Pseudo- tetramera are the more essentially herbivorous, and consequently the most injurious.” BULLETIN 39, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [16] “Order LEPIDOPTERA (exis, a scale; zrepd», wing). Butterflies and Moths, or scaly-winged insects. Characterized by having four branching-veined membranous wings, each more or less densely covered on both sides with minute imbricated scales which are attached by a stalk, but which easily rub off, and appear to the unaided eye like minute particles of glistening dust or powder. Trans- formations complete. ‘“ Next to the Lepidoptera, the Cole- optera are, perhaps, most familiar to the popular mind. Every one admires the beauty of these frail creatures, dressed in every conceivable pattern, and adorned with every con- ceivable color, so as to rival the delicate hues of the rainbow, and eclipse the most fantastic and elaborate designs of man. When magni- fied, the scales, to which this beauty of pattern and color is entirely due, present all manner of shapes. according to the particular species or the particular part of the indi- vidual from which they are taken. According to Lew- enhoeck, there are 400,000 of these scales on the wing of the common silk-worm. “The transformations of these insects are complete, and the changes are usually so sudden and striking as to have excited the wonder and admiration of observers from earliest times. “The more common form of the larva is exampled in the ordinary eaterpillar—a cylindrical worm with ahead, twelve joints and asub-joint; six thoracic or true legs, four abdominal and two anal prolegs. But there is a great variety of these larvae, some hav- ing no legs whatever, some having only the jointed legs, and others having either four, six, eight, or ten, but never more than ten prolegs. With few exceptions they are all vegetable-feeders, and with still fewer exceptions, terrestrial. The perfect insects make free use of their ample wings, but walk little; and their legs are weak, and not modified in the various ways so noticeable in other orders, while the front pair in some butterflies are impotent. “As an order this must be considered the most injurious of the seven. Fig. 14.—A Buttertly, Pieris oleracea. Fig. 15.—A Sphingid, Ampelophaga myron. Fic. 16.—A Moth, Utetheisa bella. [17] COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS—RILEY. “A convenient system of classification for the Lepidoptera is based on the structure of the antennae. By it we get two great sections: Ist, But- terflies (RHOPALOCE- RA); 2d, Moths (HET- EROCERA), which lat- ter may again be di- vided into Crepuscu- Jar and Nocturnal Moths. Butterflies are at once distin- guished from moths by their antenne be- ing straight, stiff and knobbed. and by being Fig. 17.—A Clothes-moth (Tinea pellionella)—enlarged. a, adult; b, , S larva; c, larva in ease. Cbitdiy fla bd Af; if ul! ) day-fliers or diurnal; while moths have the antenne tapering to a point, and are, for the most part, night-flyers or nocturnal. The crepuscular moths, composed mostly of the Sphinges or Hawk-moths, hover over flowers at eve, and connect the two sections not only in habit, but in the character of the antennee which first thicken toward the end, and then suddenly termi- nate in a point or hook. “Order HEMIPTERA (%»:, half; zzrepdv, wing), Bugs. The insects of this order are naturally separated into two great sec- tions; 1st, Half-winged Bugs, or HETEROPTERA (repos different; zcepd», wing) having the basal half of the front wings (called hemelytra) coriaceous or leathery, while the apical part is membranous. The wings cross flatly over the back when at rest; 2d, Whole- Wig. 1A Plat. Wiaged Bugs, or HOMOPTERA (épéc, equal; zxrepdy, bug (Euschistes Wing), having all four wings of a uniform mem- mauetines) branous nature and folding straight down the back - when at rest. The latter, if separated, may be looked upon as a Sub- order. “Transformations incomplete; i. ¢., the larvae and pupze have more or less the image of the perfect insect, and difter little from it except in lacking wings. “The genuine or half-winged Bugs (Figs. 18 and 19) are usually flattened in form, when mature; though more rounded in the adolescent stages. They may be divided into Land Bugs (Auwrocorisa) and Water Bugs (Hydrocorisa). The species of the first division very generally possess the power rg. 494 Soldierbua | (Milas of emitting, when disturbed or alarmed, cinetus). b; beak enlarged. a nauseous, bed-buggy odor, which comes from a fluid secreted 25642 BULLETIN 89, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. [18] from two pores, situated on the under side of the metathorax. Such well-known insects as the Bed-bug and Chinch-bug belong here. The habits of the species are varied, and while some are beneficial, others are quite injuri- ous to man. “The Whole-winged Bugs (Figs. 20 and 21), on the Fic, 20.-A Treehop. COutrary, are all plant-feeders, and with the excep- per (Ceresa bubalus). a, tion of a few, such as the Cochineal and Lac insects, side; 0, topview. are injurious. The secretion of a white, or bluish, waxy, or farinose substance from the surface of the body is as charac- teristic of this section as the nauseous odor is of the first. It forms three natural divi- sions, arranged according to the number of joints to the tarsi—namely TRIMERA, with three joints; DIMERA, with two joints, and MONOMERA, with one joint to the tarsi.” Suborder THYSANOPTERA (Jdsavos, a frin Se; xrreEpdy, wing): This suborder con- vals the single family HR Fig. 21.—A Plant-louse (Schizoneuralanigera). a, infested pide, which comprises minute root; b, larva; ¢, winged insect; d-g, parts of perfect insects commonly known as _ msect enlarged. Thrips, and of which a common species, Thrips striatus, is Shown in the accompanying figure. (See Fig. 22.) They bear strong relations to both the Pseudoneuroptera and the Hemiptera and by later writ- ers are generally associated with the latter order. They feed on plants, puncturing and killing the leaves, or on other plant-feeding species of their own class, and are characterized by having narrow wings crossed on the back when at rest, and beautifully fringed, from which lat- ter feature the name of the suborder is derived. The mouth parts are peculiar in that they are intermediate in form between the sucking beak of He- miptera and the biting mouth parts of other insects. Their eggs resemble those of Fic. 22.—Thrips striatus, with wings enlarged Hemiptera; the larve and pups ae are active, and in form resemble the adult, except in the absence of wings. Some species, also, are wing- less in the adult stage. a a [19] COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS—RILEY. The pup are somewhat sluggish and the limbs and wings are en- closed in a thin membrane which is expanded about the feet into bulb- ous enlargements, giving rise to the name ‘“bladder-footed” (Physo- poda) applied to these insects by Burmeister. “Order DIPTERA (dis, twice; zt