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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

F O R E S T RY^ p I V I S I O N .

Bulletin No. 8.

TIMBEE PHYSICS.

F^HT II.

PROGRESS REPORT.

RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS ON LONG-LEAF PINE.

(PINUS PALUSTRIS.)

1. INTRODUCTORY.

2. MECHANICAL TESTS MADE AT WASHINGTON

UNIVERSITY TESTING LABORATORY, ST.
LOUIS, MO.

3. THE LONG-LEAF PINE, ITS CHARACTERISTICS

AND DISTEIBUTION.

4. RESULTS OF MECHANICAL TESTS.— Johxson.

5. FIELD REPORT REGARDING TURPENTINE TIM-

BER.— Roth.

6. RESINOUS CONTENTS AND THEIR DISTRIBU-

TION IN THE LONG-LEAF PINE.— Gomberg.

7. FIELD RECORDS OF TEST MATERIAL.— Monn.

UNDER THE DIRECTION OP

CHIEF OF FORESTRY DIVISION.

PUBLISHED BY AUTHOEITY OF THE SECRETARY OF AGEICULTUEK.

WASHINGTON:

GOVEKNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1893.

LEHER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department op Agricultxjre,

Division of Forestry,
Washington, D. C, February 1, 1893.

Sir : I have the honor herewith to submit for publication a " Progress Eeport" on investigations
undertaken by this Division into tlie nature of our important woods, being the second of a series of
bulletins on Timber Physics. It contains the results of tests for strength made on the long-leaf
pine collected in Alabama and a comparative study by Prof. J. B. Johnson of the various exhibi-
tions of strength as related to each other and as dependent on certain conditions of the test
specimens.

I woiUd call especial attention to the comparison of bled and unbled timber, which is accom-
panied by a study into the chemical conditions of this timber by Mr. M. Gomberg. An account
of the general characteristics of the timber of long-leaf pine and of the geographical distribution
of the species and a brief recapitulation of the methods pursued in this work are added.
Respectfully,

B. E. Fernow,

Chief.
Hon. J. M. Rttsk,

Secretary.

m

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Introductory. By B. E. Fern-ow 1

Mechanical tests jiade at W'AsmNGTON University Testing Laboratory', St. Louis, Mo. By Prof.

J. B. Johnson 3

Sawiug, storing, and seasoning 3

The testing laboratory 4

Description of tests 4

The cross-breaking tests • 4

The moisture test 6

The specific gravity test ■ 6

The tension test 7

The endwise compression test 7

Compression across the grain - 7

Tlie shearing test 7

Test of full-sized columns 7

Signiflcauce of results -- - 8

Bauschinger's relations - 10

Relation between strength and stiffness 10

Relation between strength and weight 11

Relation between the compressive strength and the percentage of moisture 11

Relation l>etween specific gravity and moisture 11

The long-leaf tine. By B. E. Feknow 14

Market names 14

Field names 16

Distribution and habitat ' 17

Characteristics of the wood 20

Special adaptations of long-leaf yellow pine -'1

Results of mechanical tests. By .J. B. .Tohnson 22

Variation of strength with lupisture 22

Eft'ect of moisture 24

Relation between strength and stiffness - - - 24

Relation between strength and spcci fie gravity 24

Range of individual results as compared with the average of all 24

Variation in strength of different trees 25

Comparison of single qualities with the average <]uality 27

Relative strength of large and.small beams - 27

Variation in strength across the section of a log 29

Variation of strength at difi'ereut heights from the ground 30

Shearing and crushing strength parallel and transverse to the annual rings 30

Shrinking in seasoning - 30

Etfect of boring or bleeding for turpentine on strength of timber 30

Field report regarding ti;rpentine timber. By Filbert Roth 32

A chemical study of the resinous contents and their DISTRIBtTTION IN TRE^S OF THE LONG-LEAF

PiS'E before and AFTER TAPPING FOR TURPENTINIi. By M. GOMBERG 3i

Chemical composition of turpentine 34

Analytical work 37

Description of the method employed 38

Discussion of results obtained ■'1

FlKLD REt'ORDS OF TEST MATERIALS. By CHARLES MOHR iJO

V

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FKiURES. PAGE

1— i. Method of sawinsj; tost sticks -^

5. Stiimlardiziug tests with ca.librat.iujc springs 5

6. Determination of relative elastic resilience 9

7. Relation between eross-broakiug strength anil modulus of elasticity 12

8. Relation between compressive strengtli and specific gravity 113

SI. Variation of compressive strength and specific gravity for varying percentage of moisture 13

10. Kolatiou between cross-ljreakiug strengtli and percentage of moisture 13

11. Method of constructing curves of averages -3

X2. Diagram showing the relation between strength and weight, when reduced to a standard dryness of

15 per cent moisture. Long-leaf yellow pine 25

13. Diagram showinsr the range of individual results, in all kinds of tests, in terms of tlie percentage of

the average, of 430 tests on small specimens. Long-leaf yellow pine 26

14. Relative average quality of different trees as compared with strength in cross-bre ikiug and crushing

endwise - -7

ir>. Results of tests on 4" by 4" sticks from log 1, tree 52, Fmiis paluslris, showing variation of strength

acro.ss section of log 28

ICi. Variation of strength with distance from tlie gri>und. Mean values from trees 1, 2, 3, and 4 29

17. Metliod of chemical analysis of turpentine 37

18. Method of distillation of turpentine 38

11). l)istril>utiou of turiiontino in trees - '10

20. Relationship of dill'ereut parts of same disk 11

21. Yield of volatile oil from constant quantity of turiientine 42

22. Diagram of detail analyses representing radial-dimeusions of test pieces in each disk Hi

PLATES.

I. Floor plan of test laboratory at St. Louis.
II. Plan of large beam-testing maehine.

III. Plan of small beiim-testing machine.

IV. Plan of universal (Riehle "Harvard") testing machine.
V. Illustration of tension and shearing tests.

VI. Plan of columu-testing machine.

VII. Fig. 1. Diagram showing the increase in the modulus of rupture in cross-breaking, with decrease in
percentage of moisture. Tree averages plotted. Long-leaf yellow pine. Fig. 2. Diagram show-
ing the increase in the modulus of strength at the elastic limit, with decrease in the ]>erccutage of
moisture. Tree averages plotted. Long-leaf yellow pine.

VIII. Fig. 1. Diagram showing the increase in the modulus of elasticity or tlie modulus of stiffness, with

decrease in the percentage of moisture. Tre(! averages plotted. Long-leaf yellow pine. Fig. 2.
Diagram showing tlie increase in the relative elastic resilience, with decrease in tln^ percentage
of moisture. Tree averages plotted. Long-leaf yellow pine.

IX. Figl. Diagram showing tiie increase in crushing strength endwise, with decrease in pen-entage of

moisture. Tree averages plotted. Long-leaf yellow pine. Fig. 2. Diagram showing thl^ increase
in crushing strength across the grain, with decrease in pi^rcentage of moisture. Tree averages
plotted. Results correspond to a distortion of 3 per cent of dejith of specimen. Long- leaf yel-
low pine.

X. Fig. 1. Diagram showing the increase in shearing strength, with decrease in the percentage of moist-

ure. Tree averages plotted. Long-leaf yellow pine. Fig. 2. Diagram showing the relation be-
tween strength and stiffness, when reduced to 15 per cent moisture. Tree averages plotted.
Long-leaf yellow pine.

XI. Fig. 1. Diagram showing the crushing strength endwise and the specific gravity or weight, when

reduced to 15 per cent moisture; I.ong-leaf yellow pine. Fig. 2. Diagr.am showing the absence
• of any material change in specific gravity, with changes in moisture, as a ri'sult of seasoning.

Tree averagers of "green" and "dry" tiwts plotted. Long-leaf yellow pine.

XII. Diagram showing the absence of .any geni^ral relation between tensile strength and jii^rcentage of

moisture. Tree averages of "green" and "dry " tests plotted. Long-leaf yellow pine.

VU

TIMBER PHYSICS.

INTRODULTOKY.

The progress report liercwitli presented on the work of timlier investigations is published
iu less complete form than had been eontciuplated, in order to avoid longer delay in brini;ing resnlts
before tlie public. The delay is occasioned by inadequate apiJiopriiitions for the work; and since
the work is now to be stopped entirely for lack of funds, it was thought best to publish what
lesultswere in such shape as to present valuable information.

The data contained in the report refer altogether to the timber of long-leaf pine (1'. palustris)
from Alabama, being the results of mechanical tests obtained in the test laboratory under direc-
tion of Prof. J. B. John.son at St. Louis. These data refer to over 2,(t()0 tests on material furnished
by twenty-six trees collected from fonr different sites by Dr. Cliarles Molir.

These tests inay be said to represent fairly well the range of strengtli pertaining to the
species, unless unexpected differences are found in the material collected from other climatic sta-
tions. Such material has been collected from Louisiana and Texas, but the hick of funds mentioned
before has prevented its utilization for this report.

The following table represents the range of value of tlie various exhibitions of strength as
compiled from Table I of Prof. Johnson's report:

Coiidcnxrd hibh' of iiiirJiiniicdl properties of Loiuj-lcaf I'inc.
[Kaii^r.s rccUici'd to 15 per ct-lit iiioiBturo. ]

Specific
gravity.

Cross bending te.sts.

Cnisbiug
endwise.

Crushing

JUTOSS

grain.

Tension.

Shearing.

^lodnliis of

strength at

elastic limit.

StreiTgtli,

p _ 3 w L

2bh2.

Modulus

of
elasticity.

Kelative

elastic
resilience

iu
in. lbs.
per cu. in.

Strength,
per sii'. in.

Strength,
per sq. in.

Strength,
per sq. in.

Strength

(ineun),

per S(i. in.

Per sq. in.

p. , 3 w L

2 b h'.

Butt logs

Miildit! logs...
Top toga

■
0.449-1.039
0. 575—0. 859
0.484—0.907

4702—16200
7640-17128
4208—15554

IIIS.SOO— 3117370
1I30J 20-2981720
842000—2697460

0. 23— t. C9
1.34—4.21
0. 09—4. 65

47S1-9850
5030—9300
4587—9100

675-2(104
656—1445
584—1760

8600-31890
6330—20500
4170—23280

464—1299
539—1230
484—1156

4930^13110
5540—11790
2553—11950

Prof. -Tohnson has attempted to relate the values of strength to other qualities, especially
moisture contents of the test piece, and compared the various exhibitions of strength with each
other, t« find if possible their relation. It is to be understood that tliis di,scussiou refers only to
the species in hand, and does not a<lmit of generalization to other timbers.

Some of the deductions for the long leaf pine may even have to be modilied upon further
study. We summarize the more important deductious as foUoiii's:

(1) With the exception of tensile strength, a reduction of moisture is accompanied by an
increase in strength, .stiffness, and toughness.

(H) Variation in strength goes generally hand in hand with variation in sjiecitic gravity.

(3) The strongest timber is found in a^ region lying between the pith and the sap at about one-
third of the radius from the pith in the butt log; in the top log the heart ptu'tion seems strongest.
The difference in strengtli in the same log ranges, liowever, not over 12 per cent of the average,
excei)t in crushing across the grain and shearing, where no relation according to radial situation
is apparent.

(4) Eegarding the variation of strength with the height in the tree, it was found that for the
first 20 to 30 feet the values remain constant, then occurs a more or less gradual decrease of
strength, which finally, at the height of 70 feet, amounts to 20 to 40 per cent of that of the butt log
for the various exhibitions of strength.

(5) In shearing and crushing across and parallel with the grain, practically no ditterence was
found.

(G) Large beams appear 10 to 20 per cent weaker than small pieces.

(7) Compression tests seem to furnish'the best average statement of value of wood, and if one
test only can be made this is the safest, as was also recognized by Bauschinger.

The investigations into the effect of bleeding the trees for turi)entine leave now no doubt of
the fact announced in a preliminary circular, that bled timber is in no respect inferior to unbled
timber.

This conclusion, to which the mechanical tests lent countenance, is strengthened by the chem-
ical study of Mr. M. Gomberg into the distribution of resinous contents throughout the trees bled
and unbled. These show what physiological considerations would lead us to anticipate, that the
resinous contents of the heart wood take no part in the flow of resin induood by the "boxing" or
"chipping" of the tree, being nonfluid, and also being found present in larger amounts i)i the
heart wood than in the sap wood as well before as after bleeding. The drain appears to be entirely
from the sap wood, and as this does not enter into lumber production, being hardly more than two
inches on the radius, it may be left out of consideration.

The result of the tests, to the efliect that bled timber is stronger than unbled, which Prof.
Johnson proposes to explain as a result of the bleeding, does not seem to admit of such relcrcuce.
It is suspected that the timber from the orchard might have come from a locality the soil coiiili-
tions of which were apt to produce better quality, the comparison of bled and unbled timber
having been made on material from different localities.

From the field report of Mr. Eoth it would appear that opinions of practical men are so much
at variance as to the effect of bleeding as to be of no special value, and we can claim that the
discrimination made against bled timber, be it on account of inferior strength or inferior durability,
is due to an unwarranted prejudice.

Tlie physiological considerations and the processes employed m the gathering of turjicnline
in this and otlier (countries will be found fully discussed in the annual I'eport of the h'drcst ry
IJivision for the year 1S92.

The arduous a7id difficult task of collecting the test nniterial in the careful manner required
for this work has been performed by Dr. Charles Mohr in a 7nost efficient manner. An ins])cction
of tlie field records will give an idea of wliat this involves in the way of selecting, examining, and
describing sites and specnnicns, but no idea of the hardships wliich are encountered in tlie ])er-
formance of the work of securing and shipping logs and disks. There are now collected, in all,
si)ecimens from 233 trees, on twenty different sites, of Pinus jmlustris, echinata, Twda, (^uercus
michauMi, rubra, falcata, Phellas, tinctoria, alba, obtusiloba, comprising in all 409 logs and 1,<S.')5
disks.

Thanks are due to the management of the Louisville and Nashville, the Iron Mountain, and tli(!
Southern Pacific railways for free transportation of men and materials, without which, in the face
of scant appropriations, the x>rogress could not have been as rai)id.

Eegarding the methods used in analyzing and comparing the results of tests, we are indebted
to Mr. William Kent, C. e., for valuable suggestions. The idea of the "average quality" is his
own. This, to be sure, does not pretend to be an expression of actual quality, but serves the
useful purpose of a practicable ba.#is for arrangement of material for comparison.

On the whole, the niethods of handling the very large amount of data from mechanical and
physical examinations for comparative study have not yet been fully matured and determined upon.

It is contemplated, wlieu work can be resumed, to study as a separate series tlie influence of
various methods of seasoning upon quality, besides extending the mechanical tests to a number
of important species tlnit are still imperfectly known in their properties, like the Douglas spruce
and the bald cypress. The work will jnogress and results be published in jiroportion to the funds
approi)riated for the investigations.

B. E. Feenow.

MIXHANICAL Tl^SlS MADE AT WASHINGTON^ UNIVHRSITY

ST. LOUIS. !lO

HSTING LABORATORY,

Writtou by Prof. J. I(. John.son (reiiriiiti-d with corrections from liiillctiu 6)

SAWING, STOltlNtx, AND SEASONING.

On arrival of the logs iu St. Louis they were, sent to a sawmill and cut into sticks, as shown
in Figs^ 1 to i.

In all cases tlie arrangements shown in Figs. 1 and 2 were used, except when a detailed study
of the tind)er iu all parts of the cross-section of the log was intended. A few of the ino.st perfect
logs of each species were cut up into small sticks, as shown iu Figs. 3 and 1. The l(jgs tested for
determining the effects of extracting the turi)entine from the Southern pitch ])ines were all cut
into small sticks.

In all cases a " small stick" is nominally 4 inches square, l)ut when dressed down for testing
may be as small as Si inches square. The "large sticks" vary from 0 by 12 to 8 by 1(5 inches in
cross-secti<in.

All logs varied from V2 to 18 feet in length. They all had a north and south diametral line,
together with the number of the tree and of the log plainly marked on their larger or lower ends.

The stenciled lines for sawing were adjusted to this nortli and .soutli line, as shown in the figures.
Each space was then l)randed by deei> dies with three nund)ers, as for instance thus: -', which

4

signifies that this stick was number 4, in log .;, of tree 25. A facsimile of the stenciling was re '
corded in the log book, and the sticks there minibcred to correspond with tlie numbering on the
logs: After sawing, each stick can be identilied and its exact origin determined. These three
numbers, then, become the identification marks for all specimens cut from this stick, and they
acconqiany the results of tests in all the records.

After sawing, the timbers were stored in the laboiatory until they were tested. The "green
tests" were made usually within two months after sawing, while the "dry tests" were made at
various subse(iuent tim(>s. One end (<!<) inches) of each small stick was tested green, and the
other end reserved and tested after seasoning. The seasoning was hastened iu some cases by

3

meaiifs of tlie diyiiis box shown on Plate i. The temperature of the inflowing air in this drying
box wasjcept at about 100'^ 1<\, with suitable precautious against the checking of the wood, and
the air was exhausted by means of a fan. The air was, therefore, somewhat rarefied in the box.
The temperature was at all times under control. It operated when the fan was running, and this
was only daring working Inmrs.

THE TESTING LABOUATOKY.

The testing laboi'atory is the basement *tory of the gymnasium building of Washington Tni-
versity. Its dimensions are 71 by 10 feet, with one corner partitioned off, as shown on the tioor
plan, Plate i. The net area used for hib )ratory purposes is 2,500 square feet. All the apparatus
suspended from tlie ceiling, as sliafting, steam pipes, exhaust fan, etc., is shown in dotted lines.

The apparatus pertinent to the timber tests consists of a 1,0()0,(KK) pound column-testing
machine; one IdO.OOO i)ound beam-testing machine, one l()0,(tO()-](oun(l universal testing machine,
of Richie's " Harvard" pattern ; (me small portable l)eam machine, one (Miorsc power Prayton coal-
oil engine, one 4- horse power steam engine, one planer and one lathe, for ironwork; one planer,
one band saw, and one cutting-ott'saw, for shaping and dressing wood specimens; suitably scales,
drying ovens, etc., for the moisture and si)ecific gravity tests; the drying box with its steam coils
and exhaust fan, and all the necessary appliances, benches, tools, desks, etc., including a Thatcher's
slide rule for makint;- the comi)utations. The timber is stored in various parts of the rocmi not
otherwise utilized. The broken specimens are stored in the museum building at the Missouri
Botanical Gardens.

UESClllPTlON OE TESTS.
The o'iifHihrcal'nKj tests.

Lar<ifi beams. — The large beams are tested on the large beam testing machine shown on Plate Ti.
The base of this machine consists of two long-leaf pine iitii:k» (I'mus palustri.s) 0 inches by IS
inches by L' t feet long, with a steel plate three fourths of an inch by 18 inches by 20 feet long, all
bolted up as one beam. The power is ai»plied by hydraulic |)res.sure upon a jilungcr below, to flie
crosshead of whicli are attached the two side S('rews, on w hich the u])|ier crosshead is moved by
sleeve nnls and s[>nv gearing.* The beam to be tested rests on pivots at the ends, ])laced on t()|(
of the base beam, and the upper crossheail is moved down by meansof tli<^ gearini; until the central
pivot attached to it conies in contact with tlie beam, or rather with the distribution blocks placed
on the beam at this point. Theteet then begins, the power originating In a double jilungcr jiunip,
operated by hand or by steam jiowcr in another part of the room.

To prevent the jiivots or "knife-edges" from crushing into the timber, it is necessary to make
the contact at liofh ends and center, first upon a cast-iron plate, then through longer wooden
blocks to the timber. The center block is curved somewhat on the lower side, to allow for a con-
sidei'able deflection in the beam when iiearing its maximum load.

In the tests of all beams, both large and small, the load is put on at the same uniform rate, so
as to eliminate the time eftect, w hich is very great in timber tests. The losid on the small beams
is increased at such a rate as to iiroduce an increase in the deflection of one-eighth inch |)er
minute without any jiause until rupture occurs. This causes rupture in from ten to fifteen minutes
time. The load is read off when it ri^aches certain even amounts, and an observer notes the cor-
responding detleittion without stopping the test. The time required for the large beam tests is
about the same, the deflection rate being greater when the total dellection is expected to be
greater, as is the case with I by S inch sticks 12 feet long. The dellections of the large beams
are observed upon a jiolished metallic scale, graduated to inches and tenths, which is tacked to
one side of the stick at the center. A tine thread is stretched, by means of a ruliber band, over
nails driven into the side of the stick above the end supports on the line of the neutral axis. This
string or thread is moved about an inch away from the surface of the timber, and nil parallax, or
error of reading from an oblicjue position of the eye, is avoided by keeping the eye where the
thread and its image in the metallic mirror coincide and form one and the same line. The read
ings are taken to iiu'hes and liundre(ltlis by estimating the tenths of the graduation spaces on the
scale.

The loads are weighed oxi the hirge universal testing machine in another i)art of the room.
This is done by liaviug both machines connected up to the same ])nni]), liiocking the weighing
machine so that the load on its plunger is transmitted to the scales and weigiiing beam, and then
l)umping into both machines. The plungers are of exactly the same diameter; they have similar
leather cup jtacking, and hence the error of this method is simi)ly the ditterence in the friction of
the two plungers in their packing rings. To test tlu^ accuracy of this method, and to deteiiuine
the error, if any, at auy time, a nest of calibrating sjjrings (shown on Plate ii) was made and tested
first on the Emery machine at the United States Arsenal, at Watertowu, Mass. The loads were
found which corresiionded to given detiections, or in other words the stress diagram of these
springs up to a 30,00l>-pound load, which correspoiiils to a little more than one inch elastic detlec-
tion. By repeating this test on Hie l()(),Oii()-ponnd universal or weighing machine, and then on
the large beam inachine, and plotting the stress diagrams obtained from each, not only can these
machines be compared with each other, but both can be com]tared or calibrated with tiie lunery
machine at the Watertowu Arsenal.

In Fig. 5 the three curves corres])onding to the three machines are given. Tlu;^y are so nearly
coincident that it is sliown tiiat not only is the universal l(H».(t(K> pound lliehle uuichine correctly

]"i(i

BcHoction in incln-a.
-StaiHl:iri1izin<r tests with faliliriitini;

spriuy

graduated, but that the method used of weighing the loads on the beam machine by means of the
universal machine results in no appreciable error. This test can be applied at any time, and jnoof

6

readings have been made at frequent intervals. The beam machine is greatly simplified by thus
dispensing with all attached weighing ai)paratus, which would be greatly in the way in the
handling of large beams sometimes weighing over 1,000 pounds.

*S'W(«// beams. — The snuill beams, which are nominally -i inches square and GO inches hmg be-
tween supports, are tested on the small beam-testing machines (shown on Plate iii). This machine
was designed originally for testing east-iron beams, the load at one end or one-half the load at
the center being weighed on a pair of ordinary platform scales. The deflections are read off to
thousandths of an inch upon a micrometer screw held in the to|) iron crossbeam. By this means
a rigid connection is obtained, through parts not uiuler stress, from the eml supports to the center
bearings. The movement of the center with reference to the ends is therefore obtained, regardless
of the absolute movements of the parts. The load is put on by the hand wheel and power screw,
and the weighing beam kept in balance by putting on overweights and moving the poise. Thn-e
men are required to make this test. One moves tlic power screw, wliich has oue-forth inch pitch,
so as to make one revolution every two minutes, and he coutinues this uniform motion till rup-
ture occurs. Another keei)s the scales balanced and calls off the even hundreds of i>ounds.
Another kee]ps the nncronieter screw in contact with the head of the power screw, reads it tin- cer-
tain even hundred-pound loads called off, and records the time of ea<li such reading to the nearest
minute, the load, and the corresponding reading of the micrometer screw. Here also the en<l and
center ijeariugs are jirotected by iron plates large enough to prevent any appreciaWe distortion
from lateral compressi(»n.*

After rupture occurs the stick is bored for samples from which to obtain the moisture tests
and the uninjured ends ai'e sawed olf and used for the remaining tests, as described below.

The moisture testA

The borings are taken from two holes, 20 inches from each end and at about one-third the
width of the stick from either side. These borings are first weighed on a delicate balance, then
idaced in a drying oven, at a temperature of 212° P., until they have icached a nearly constant
weight, when they are reweighed. The dry weight is taken as the basis on which to compute
the percentage of moisture. Thus, if the original weight is twice the final weight, then there
■was as much water as woody fiber in the stick, or one-half or 50 ])er cent of the original weight
was water. But when comijuteit on the basis of the dry weiglit there would be 100 per cent of
water. The advantage of computing the i)ercentage on thj dry weight is that it furnishes a con-
stant basis of comparison, wliereas if computed on the actual or wet weight the basis on wliieli the
percentage would l)e computed Avould vary with every change in the amount of moisture.

The specific yriirit;/.

The specific gravity is found by taking one of the end i^ieces, usually i by 4 by 8 inches,
measuring carefully its lateral dimensions by calipering them at the middle points of the sides
at the central section, measuring the length in a similar manner, and taking the ]U-oduct of these
three dimensions as tlu' volume. From the total vohune and the actual total weight, the weight
per unit volume or per cubic foot is found, and from this the specific gravity, which is the weight
per cubic foot divided by the weight of a cubic foot of distilled water. It nmst be understood
that all the small (-t by 4 inch) beams are planed up true aiul rectangular before testing and
that all the crosscuts are made by power saw so adjusted as to cut truly at right angles to the
sides. The volume can therefore be very accurately comjiuted from the dimensions as above
described.

* Since December 1, 1892, all tests made on this small machine are arranged witli two center hearings, 12 inches
apart, on sticks 72 inclies long.

t Thi! percentage of moisture is imw found by sawiug oil a thiu scctuiu of thr entire stick and using it in phice
of the borings.

The tension test.

The tension test piece is ent from one end of the broken beam. It is 16 inches long, 2J inches
wide, and li incites thick. Its tliickness at the center is reduced by cutting out with a band saw
circular segments, leaving a breaking section of some 2i inches by three-eighths inch. This
specimen is then placed between the plane wedge-shaped steel grips and pulled, the same as a
bar of iron in the Universal Machine (shown on Plate IV). This simple method has been found
very satisfactory in jjractice and is fully illustrated on Plate V. For this test care is taken to cut
the specimen as nearly parallel to the grain of the wood as iiossible, so that its failure will occur
in a condition of pure tension.

The endwise compression test.

Most of these test.s are made on sticks 4 inches square by 8 inches long, the ends having been
cut perfectly true and at right angles to the sides. They are tested in the Universal Machine,
the compression contiuning until the stick has been visibly crushed and has passed its maximum
load. Tlie crushing usually iiiauifests itself over a phxne section, by crushing down or bending
over all the fibers at this section, which may be either a right or an obli(iu(! section. The section
of failure, however, is seldem«it the very end. The slightest source of weakness may determine
its position, as a very small knot for example, for knots are a source of weakness, iu compression
as well as in tension.

Some tests are made on columns 40 inches long by 4 inches square on the large beam machine,
but these usually fail the same as the short blocks, and not by bending sidewise.

Compression across the grain.

Specimens 4 inches square and C inches long are tested in compression across the grain. An
arbitrary limit of distortion, namely 3 per cent of the height, has been chosen as a reasonable
maximum allowable distortion in practice. 'I'liis limit is indicated iu the test by the ringing (d'an
electric bell and the load then on the specimen is called the compressive strength across the grain.
The test is then continued until the distortion has re-aclied l.T ]ier cent of its height, and l)o<h
results are given in the records.

The shearing tests.

Since timber fails by shearing or splitting ofteiier than any other way, this test becomes a
very important one. The specimen is taken 2 inches square and 8 inches long, and rectangular
holes mortised 1 in(!h from each end and at right angles to each other, as shown on Plate V.
The si)ecimen is then pulled, in the Universal Machine, by means of suitable stirrups and keys,
as shown in the plate. The ends are kept from spreading or splitting by putting on small
c]anii)s, with just enough initial stress in them to hold them in place. After one end shears ont
two auxiliary hoops or stiri-ups are used to conne<!t the key which sheared out to a i)iii ])ut
through the liole at the center of the specimen, as shown. The other end is then sheared, and two
results are obtained on planes at right angles to each other. In this way the shearing strength
is determined on two planes at right angles to each other.

Test of full-sized columns.

No set of experimental tests of timber would be complete without numerous tests on full-
sized columns. This requires a machine of not less than l,(M)(),(t(M) pimnds capacity, capable of
crushing to failure (columns from 12 to 14 inches square and at least 30 feet long. Such a machine
has been built expressly Hn- this work and is shown on Plate VI. It is cajiable of exerting a com-
pressive foi'ce of 1,000,000 pounds on a length of .'30 feet or less. The sides or tension mend)(>rs of
this machine are made of four long-leaf yellow pine sticks {Finm jialii.strus), from (ieorgia, eacli 8
by 12 inches and 45 feet long. The power is applied by the same hydraulic pump, which operates

8

botli the large beam machine and the 100,000-i>oiincl universal machine. The hiads are weighed
on this latter machine the same as for the beam tests. Tlie plunger in the column machine
hasjust ten times the area of that in the weighing machine, and hence the loads in the column
tests are just ten times those indicated on the weighing beam. The tail block is of cast iron, rest
iug in a spherical socket, which is carried on a.car and which can be held by struts resting in slots
in the timber. The outer ends of these struts are kejit from spreading by means of tiebars, as
shown, and the whole combination can be moved forward or back, so as to malvc the distance be-
tween face plates any even number of feet from two to thirty-six. The spherical s i.-kct in the tail
block will produce an accurate adjustment of the end bearings at the beginning of the test, but
after the load is on it is thought tluvt this joint will remain rigid, the same as a solid block, espe-
cially if precautious are taken to increase the frictional resistance between these bearing surfaces.
This spherical socket is provided to eliminate the effects of unequal shrinkage in the side timbers
or any unequal comjnession in the bearing sockets, and not to serve as a round-end bearing for
tlie column. VVlien long columns are testetl a part of their weight will be supported by means of
lines and ])ulleys, so as to make the test correspond to a vertical load in actual practice, ^^o tests
of (lolnmns on long-leaf yellow pine have been made <ni this machine at the time of the publication
of this bulletin.

iSifinificance of results. ^

From the cross-breaking tests are obtained the cross-breaking modulus of rupture, the modulus
of strength at the elastic limit, the modulus of elasticity, or measure of the stiflhess, and the elas-
tic resilience, or measure of the toughness.

The loads and their corresponding deflections are plotted as rectangular coordinates, and the
strength at the elastic limit, the modulus of elasticity, and the elastic resilience are obtained from
a study of this strain diagram.

The following is an example of the record made for every beam test. This is a record of a test
made on a 4 x 8 inch stick of long-leaf pine, 12 feet long, which was placed on supports 140 inches
ajjurt.

CROSS-BREAKING TEST.

^P

Mark <3

h

Length, 140.0 inches.
Height, S.Ot inches.
Breadth, 4.02 inches.

Modiihis of Ruptures,
3W1

wh(Te /' ^= =10,910 ponnds i>er square inch.

2 /( /- -
Modulus of Strength at the Elastic
3W'l

Liniit=/= =»><,100 pounds per sciunn- inch.

2b h-
Modulus of Elasticity =2,070,000 pouuds ]ier sipiarc inch.
Total Resilienee = 3."i,410 inch pounds.
Resilience, p(^r cub. iuch = 7.83 incli-i>onnds.
Total Elastic Resilience =8,050 iuch-)>ound8.
Elastic Resilience, per cubic inch = 1.91 iuch-pouu^l3.

(Number of annu.il rJDgs per inch= 14.)

Aiijiust
•J7, !»i)l.

Load.

Deflection,

Scale
reading.

h. 111.

1 .18

1,000

0.17

11,02

50

2.000

0.34

11, 111

5!1

3, 000

0.50

11, 35

2 00

4. 000

0. 06

11,51

00

5, 000

0..S2

11.67

01

C, 000

0. 1)0

11,81

02

7, Olio

1. 13

11.98

02

K, 1100

1.27

12. 12

03

9. 000

1.46

12, 31

03

10. 1100

1.65

12.511

04

11.000

1.93

12. 78

05

12. Olio

2. 27

13.12

07

13,000

2. H5

13.70

09

13, 500

3,85

14.70

Remarks.

Bntt vm\.

Maximum load.

The observed data are given in the columns headed "Time," " Load," and "Scale reading."
These results are recorded on this sheet in ink as they are observed. The result in the " Detlec-

15000

10000

5000

Deflection 1 in inches. K 2 3 JS? 4

Fio. 6. — DotiTiiiiuiition of relative elastic resilieiice.

tion" column is coiiixiuted from the scale reading. It is placed next to the <;olumii of " Loads" for
convenience in ijlotting the strain diagram, which is done on the ruled squares at the bottom ot
each sheet. These i)lotted results fall in all cases on a true curve, similar to the one shown above.
The total area of tJiis curve 0. D. E., properly evaluated by the scales used, represents the total
nnmber of foot-pounds or inch-[)ounds of work done upon the stick before rupture occurred. This
is called tlie Total Gross-brraliiH) Resilience of the stick, and when divided by the volume of the
stick in cubic iuclies it givers appnjximately the total cross-breaking resilience of the stick in incii-
pounds per cubic inch of timber. (Fig. G.)

A better criterion of toughness, or resistance to shock, is some detinite i)ortion of this strain
diagram area, as O P K, for example. This amount of resilience or spring can be used over and
over again, and is a true measure of the toughness of tin; timber as a working fpiality. To locate
the point 1', the following arbitrary rule has been followed.

Draw a tangent to the curve at the origin, as O A. Lay oft' A G=iB A and draw O C.
Draw m » parallel to O G ami tangent to the curve. Take the point of tangency as the point P
and draw P K. The area 0 P K is then called the Belutivc Elastio Resilience.*

There is no "elastic limit " in timber as there is in rolled metals. In this respect it is like cast
iron. The point V is the point where the rate of deflection is 50 per cent more than it is at first,
and usually falls on that part of the curve where it begins to change rapidly into a horizontal
direction or where the deflection begins to increase rapidly. The areas of these curves are nunis-
nred with a iilanimeter aiul reduced to inch-pounds. Thus, if 1 inch vertically represents o,0()0
|)ounds and 1 inch horizont;dly reiireseiits 1 inch deflection, then 1 s(|uare inch represents .'),0(H)x
! =."),000 inch-pounds. If the area 0 P K is 1.73 square inches, then the corresponding resilience
is S,C."iO inch-i)ounds. This mealis that a weight of 100 pounds, falling 86.0 inches, or 1,000 pounds
lalling S.d,-) inches, would have strained the l>eani up to the point P or it would lia\-e deflected it
l.fiG inches, and the b<'a-m would have been then resisting with a force of 10,000 jjounds, since /'
falls on the iO,000-poun(l line. If this result — 8,0.")0 inch-pounds — be divided by tlic numbeiof

' This term lias been eoiiieil to deliiie this )iarticular portion of the resilience which will hr used fur cumpariug
the relative elasticity or toughness of dift'erent timbers.

14.-,(lO_No."8 2

10

cubic inches in the stick between end bearings, the result is the true Relafirc Resilience in Croftif-
bnakiny in inch pounds per cubic inch. Tiiis result is independent of the dimensions of the test
si)ecimen and is therefore a true measure of the quality of timber which is usually known as
toughness. It depends, as toughness in the usual undeistanding does, on both the strength and
the deflection; in fact, it is very nearly the halt' product of the strength developed and the detle<'
tion produced at this particular point P. It is probably the nearest quantitative measure of tlie
toughness that can be arrived at.

The modulus of rupture is computed by the ordimiry formula —

•^ jibli'- . . . (^)

where /=modulus of rupture in pounds jier sijuare inch,
ir=load at center in ponnds,
/=length of Ijeam in inches,
ft=breadth of beam in inches,
/t=height of beam in inches.
In green timber, where tlie crushing strength is greatly I'cduced by the presence of the sap,
the crushing resistance is only about one-third as much as the resistance to tension, so that the
stick invariably begins to fail on the compression side. This causes the neutral jd.ane or plane of
no stress to be lowered, and at the time of linal rnptnre.this plane may be from one fourth to one-
sixth the depth from the bottom side of the beam. The value of/ computed by this I'ormula from
a cross-breaking test, therefore, will always be intermediate between the crushing strength and
the strength in tension. Thus the crashing strength of a given stick was found to be 5,820 jiounds
per square inch, wJule tlie tensile strength was l.'»,7S() jiounds; the cross-breaking strength was
found by this test to be 10,900 i)ounds.

The modulus of strength at the elastic limit is found in tlie same manner as the above, except
that for l)reaking load is taken the load at tlie i)oint 7', d(>scribed abov(% this being called the
"elastic limit," although strictly speaking tindjer is not perfectly elastic for any load if left on any
great length of time.

The modulus of elasticifi/ is computed from the formula —

,,_ 117' _ WP _ W I' ■

" 4H 1) I 4l)bh^ l)-4b¥ . . . . \)

where E = modulus of elasticity,

and ^^^' '' ''' '^"^^ ''■ "^ '" ^'^- (-^^
D = detlection of beam.

1 = moment of inertia of the cross-section = ^^b h^ for rectangular sections.

To find this modulus, a tangent line is drawn to the strain diagram at its origin, as O ^l, and
the cocinlinates of any point on this line used as the IT and /> (.V(>'n which to compute E.

The modulus is thus seen to vary directly as the load and inversely as tlie deflection; hence it
is a true measure of the stiffness of the material. It is the most constant and reliable property ot
all kinds of engineering materials* an<l is a necessaiy means of computing all deflections or dis-
tortions under loads.

In using the modulus of elasticity of timber for computing deflections, it must be remembered
tliat in this case the time effect is very great (it is nearly zero in nu'tals) and that this factor can
(udy be used to comi)ute the detlectioii for temporary loads. The deflection of floor or roof timbers,
for instance, under constant loads is a very difterent matter, as it increa.ses with time.

baxjschingee's relations.

Relation between strength and stiffness.

In Fig. 7 is shown the relation found by Professor Banschingert betM'een the modulus of
elasticity (stift'ness) and the cross-breaking strength, from tests on ])ine, larch, and flr timber.
Although the results show a wide range, there is evidently a general relation between these two

• The wide range of values of the modulus of elasticity of the various metals, found in i>nblic resoids of tests,
must be exjilained liy erroneous methods of testing.

t See PI. II, vol. 16, of Professor Bauschinger's Reports of Testo made at Govermnent Testing Laboratory at
Munich.

11

qnautities, ;ts iuclicated by the straight line drawn through the plotted points. The algebraic
expression ot the hiw shown by tliis line, rendered into pounds per square ineh, is, in round
numbers —

Cross-breaking strengtli = 0.0045 Modulus of Elastieity + 450. (3)

If it should be found that there is such a law for all kinds of tindier, then there nuiy lie derived
!in equation of this form, but with different constants, for each species.

Relation heticeen strength and ireiyht.

In Fig. 8 is shown the relation between the crushing strength and the specific gravity, when
both are reduced to the standard percentage of moisture, which was taken at 15 pev cent.

These results are also taken from Professor Bauschinger's published records of tests on i)ine,
larch, and lir tindjers, and they conchn-ively show that the greater the weight the greater the
strength of the timber. The law here is a well defined one, so far as these timbers are concerned.
When rendered into English units (iwunds per sq. in.), the eciuation of this line is:

Crushing strength = 13800 specific gravity — 900. (4)

when the tiiiilier contains but 15 per ce7it of moisture. This equation would also vaiy in its con-
stants for each species of timber.

Relation heticeen the compressire strength ami the pereentage of moisture.

In Fig. 9 are plotted some very careful tests by Prof. Bauschinger to show the relation
between the percentage of moisture and the crushing strength.

There is no question but the crushing and the shearing strength are both greatly reduced by
moisture. The crushing test also gives a very fair indication of the strength of the timber in all
other ways. In this instance four sticks were taken and sections tested first green, or having an
average of 37 per cent of moisture when coTiiputcd on the wet weight, or 59 per cent of moisture
when conq)uted on the diy weight, as is the practice in the tests made by this Depaitincnt. The
sticks were then dried until there was an average of 14.0 per cent moisture on the wet weight or
17 per cent of the dry weight. The remaining portions of the sticks were further syasoned until
there remained but 8.2 per cent moisture C((mputed on the wet weight, or 9 per cent moisture on
the dry weight, and then tested. This is a smaller percentage of moisture than out-door lumber
ever reaches, as the ordinary humidity of the external aii- will usually maintain at least 10 per
cent of moisture in all kinds of timber.

When these three groups of results are plotted, and the most probable curve drawn tlirough
them, there is seen to be a remarkable increase in the crushing strength when the percentage of
moisture falls below fifteen or twenty. The variation in strength abt>ve that Ihnit is very small.
Prof. Bauschinger has published a great many such curves, all showing the same general law.
This curve illustrates the necessity for finding the percentage of moisture for every test of strength
made.

Prof. Bauschinger has published very few tests showing the relations between the cross-
breaking strength and the moisture, but Fig. lOisa reproducticm of such results as he has given.
"When the percentage of moisture sinks as low as 10 there appears a wide variation t)f strength,
not satisfactorily explained. There w<mld seem to be a law of dependence, however, but less
marked than in the case of compressive strength.

Relation hetireen specijie gravity and moisture.

In Fig. 9 the "specific-gravity" curve vshows the relation between the specific gravity and the
percentage of moisture. At first the specific gravity diminishes rapidly as the percentage of
moisture is reduced, but when this has been reduced to 15 per cent the specific gravity changes
very little for any further reduction in moistuie. This shows that the shrinkage is insignificant
until the timber becomes nearly dry, when it swells and shrinks almost directly with the percent-
age of moisture, so that the weight of a unit volume, which is a measure of the sijccific gravity,
remains nearly constant. This curve is also only one of a great many similar ones given by I'rof.
Bauschinger.

12

800

o

°^-

^

600

o

o

(

o

o

o

oS^
o^^ o

o

o

400

o
o o

0
O o

o

»

O

•

^

U — c

o

1

J 1

200

70.000

o

1

130.0QQ

1

'I

Croes-ltrt'.lkinf; slit-ni^lh in atiimspluTfs.
Fig. 7. — Relation between cross breaking strength aiiil nioilulus olCliisticity or stiffness lor Tine. Lanli. Sprmi-, and

Fir timlier. (Alter Uansrliinger.)
I Cross lirtakinj; stri-njith — (J.UIUS ranihilus ul ihiatiiit.v + 450.)

Speciiic {gravity (reduft'd tii 15 per i-ent moisture) .
Fig. 8. — Kelatiou between compressive strength and specific gravity or weigbt lor Pine, Larch. Spruce, ami Fir
timber. (After Bauschinger.) [Compressive strength = 13,800 speciiic gravity — 900.]

13

10 20 30 40

PercBDtas*^ ol" iiinistiire (coraputeil on the wet \vi'i;_^til).

Fio. 9. — Variation erf conipicssive, strength and of specific gravity for varying percentages of moisture. Results on

Scotch Pine timber. (After Bauschinger.)

-Kelatiou between cross-breaking strengtli and percentage of moisture for rinc. Lanli, Sprncc. and Fir

timbers. (After Bauschinger).

THI: LON'G-LI'AF PINE.

(Fill UK palustris Mill.)

BRIEF ACC'OrNT (IF THE SrECIES— ITS lillTANILAL AND TECHNICAI, CHAEACTEEISTICS AND IHSTRIBT-TION.
[Kfjiriiit, with additions, from ^^iiuii:il Kuport ol* the- Cliiof of the l>ivision of Forestry for 1891.]

There are in the Soiit hcni Athiiitic and Gulf States ten species of pine which are or can be cut
into lumber. Two of these, llie wliite jiine (7'/«».v Sfrohii.s L.) and the pitch-pine, also called yellow
oi- l)]a(k pine (Z'/h».s- riyida iNIill.) occur only in small bodies on the Allegheny Mountains from
Virginia down to northern Georgia, being rather Northern pines. Three, the Jersey or scrub-
pine, occasii nally also called shortleaf or spruce-pine {I'inus rm/v/ifrtHft Mill.) along the coast to
iSouth Carolina; the sand, scrub, or s^irucc-pine \riinis chuisa (Engelui.) Sarg.], found in a few
localities in Florida, and the poinl, also called loblolly or Savannah pine (Pimis serotina Mx.) along
the coast from North Carolina down to Florida, occur either so sparingly that they do not cut any
tigure on the lumber nnirkct or do not often produce sizable trees for sawlogs.

There remain, then, five distinctly Southern species which are actually cut for lumber; one of
these, the spruce-pine, also called cedar pine or white pine (P/hm* (//rt&rrt Walt.), probably does
not reach the market excejit by accident. But the other four may be found now in all the leading
markets of the East.

There exists considerable confusion among architects, builders, engineers, as well as dealers
in lumber and lumbermen themselves, as to the identity of these species and their lumber.

The confusion arises mainly from an indiscriminate use of local names and from ignorance as
to the differences in characteristics of their lumber as well as the diiiiculty in desci'ibing these.
Besides the names used in designating different species, there are names used by lumbermen to
designate ditlercnccs of quality in the same species and, in addition, names used in the markets
without good distinction, until it becomes almost imiiossible to unravel the multiplicity of desig-
nations and define their meaning. Architects are apt to specify "Southern pine," not knowing
that the greatest range of qualities can be supplied under that name; or refuse to accept "Texas"
or "North Carolimi pine" for '-Georgia pine," although the same pine and quality can be furnished
from either State. . Dealers handle "long-leaf pine" i'rom Arkansas, where the timber that is
understood by that name never grew. Millmen fill their orders for this pine, either overlooking
differences or without knowing them.

The table (page lo) of common names, which have been found applied to the four species fur-
nishing Southern iiinc lumber, will most readily exhibit the difficulty arising from misapprehen-
sion of names. These names are used in the various markets and in various localities in the home
of the trees. Where possible the locality in which the name is used has been placed in brackets
by the side of the name,

MARKET NAMES.

The various names under which Southern pine lumber appears in the market are either
general or specific: the former being more or less geneial in application to lumber manuiactuied
in the South, without reference to special localities, the latter referring to special localities from
which the Inmber is actually or presumably derived. In regard to the latter .class of names it is

14

15

Names of Sonlhern lamher jnnes iyi use.

Eotaiiic:il names.

moil ii.-iinr"..
ii'KrI, ;iii(l luni-

PiJivs pahisfiis Miller.
Syu. K auatialis Michx.

LONCJ-LEAF PINE;

Southorn yellow piiio.

SontluTii iianl [line.

Southern hnart-pine.

SiJUthoni pitch-}»iiie.

Hard pine (Miss., La.).

Heart pine (N. C. ami
So. Atlantir).

Pitch-innc (Atlantic).

Loiiii-h'aved yellow jiino
(Atlantic).'

Lonj; - Iciivcd pino (At-
lantic)-

Lonj; leaved piteli pind
(Athmtie).

T,(»n^- straw pine (At-
lantic).

North Carolina ]iit('ti-
in'ire.

(tporgia yellow pine.

tiecH-^ia pine.

tieorgia heart-pine.

GeDrgia long ■ 1 ea vod
pine.

Georj:ia pitch-pine.

Florida yellow piu(r.

Florida i»iue.

Florida lon^-Ieaved jdno.

Texas ;\ellow jiinc^

Texas lon^j-leaved pino.

I'innsciiheymisGvicsvh-.Uih
Byu. Fmus TasdavAT. hct-
eropbi/Ua Ell.
P. ElHotii Kn;;clm,
P. cubensis var. ier-
throcarpa Wright

Cuban pine:
Shish-puae (Ga., Fla.).
Swamp "tine (Fla. and

Ala.), in ])urt.
Hastai'd piui' (Fla., Ala.)
Meadow ]iine "(Fla., E.

Mias.). Ill part.
She intch-i>iuc (U.i.).

I'lniis cchinntn stiller.
Syu. I'iiin.s imlis Alichx.
I'l.i Hi, rn-'iiiiuinavai.

icliiimta l>u lioi.
1'. Twda var. variabi-
lis Aiton.
J*, rariabilis Lamb.
P. rifjida Poreher.

SnOET-LKAK PINE:

Yellow jiine (N. C. Ya.).
Short-leaved yellow piue.
Sliort-leaved pine.
Virginia yellow pine (in

part).
North Carolina yellow

pine (in jiart).
North Carolina pine (in

part) .
Carolina pino (in part).
Slash-pine (N. C, Va.), in

pari.
Old lii'ld pine (Ala.,Miss.).
];iill-prni^(0.
Spruee-piuo.

riniis Ticda Linn.
Syn. rhnis Tteda vaf. (c»-
uifolia Aiton.

Loblolly pine:
SlaRh-pino (Va., N. C).

in part.
LohloIIy.pine (Gnlf lie-

;:ion).
Old-fiohl pine (Gulf Ke-

gion).
Eosemaiy - pine (S. C.,

Va.).
Sbort-leavcd pine (Va.,N.

C..S.C.).
Bnll-])ine {Texas and Gnlf

Kejiion).
"^''irlii[lia pine.
Saji pine (Va.,N. C).
Mrad(.w pine (Fla.).
(:MnisI;ilk lune (Va.).
llhi'k jpine (Va.).
Frix tail pine (Va.,Md.).
Indian pino fVii.,N. C.i.
Spriiii-pine(Va.),in part.
Uastard pine (Va., N. (J.).
Yellow pine (No. Ala.. N.

C).
Swamp pine fVa., N. C).
Long-straw pino (Va.,N.

C), in part.

to be* n'^rel ted, perhaps, tluit they have lK»,cn found necessary, tlie more because through their
use not a lew luisconceptions aud dithculties have arisen between consumers, manufacturers, and
wholesale dealers, owing to the difficulty in defiiung what tree species furnish lumber included
by sucli name or names.

The uninitiated may not understand that the various kinds of ])ine himbcr manufactured in
different States, although called by a specific name, may, after all, be of the same species and the
same in all respects. ^'Florida long-leaved yellow ]>ine" or "Florida pine," is in no way difterciit
from that cut and nmnnfa-t^tured in Georgia under the distinctive name of "Georgia long-lea vcd
yellow pine," or " Georgia pine." The question as to any difference of quality dependent upon
locality ol'gi-owth is as yet undecided.

The market names given to the varions pines, uncertain as to their precise application in the
minds of those that use them, or at least at variance with the conception of other authorities, are
the following:

G^ewcraV.— Yellow pine, Southern yellow pine. Southern pine, long-leaved yellow pine, long-
leaved i>ine, hard pine, pitch-i)ine.

AS;/;r(v>'r.— Virginia yellow pine, Virginia pine, North Carolina yellow pine, North Carolina
])ine, Getngia yellow pine, Georgia pitch-]>ine, Georgia pine, Georgia longleaf yellow, Georgia
long-leaved pine, Florida yellow pine, Florida pine, Florida long-leaved pine, Texas yellow pine,
Texas long-leaved pine.

The names "yellow pine," "Southern pine," seem first of all to be used as generic names,
without distinction as to sjiecies. In the quotations from Western markets only ^'yellow pine"
and "long leaved yellow pine," or "long-leaved pine"ai;4J distinguished; the first name seemingly
being now always used when "short- leaf" is meant, although it is also applied by advertisers from
the long-leaf-pine region to their product. In a market report of a leading lumber Jimrnal we find
that "in the yelIow-i)inc line, long-leaf, short-leaf, and curly pine can be bought,'' which would
show that the attempt to distinguish the two kinds by their proper names is made. Curly ])ine,
however, is in most cases long-leaf pine with a wavy or curly grain, a sort which is also found in
the short-leaf species. Loblolly seems not to be quoted in the Western markets

Formerly, while the long-leaf pine was the only pine reaching the markets, it was commonly
known under the name of "yellow pine," but now the supply under this name may be made up of

16

all the species indisciimiiKitely. In Texas and Louisiana "yellow pine" rtesifrnatcs the long-leal
species, in Arkansas and Missoui-i the short leaf, while there the name " loiig letit" is applied to
the "loblolly," which is rarely cut.

In Florida, the Carolinas, and Crcorgia the name "yellow pine" is also used with less distinc-
tive application. In Florida, l)esides the Cuban pine, which is never distinguished on the market,
loblolly may also appear in the luiuber pile. In Geoigia and the Carolinas, although locally the
name "yellow pine" is most fre(iuently ajjplied to the sluirt-leaf, in the market a mixture of long-
leaf, short-leaf, loblolly, and Cuban pine satisfies the uauie.

In England, wlicre probably nothing but long-leaf pine is handled, the current name is "pitch-
pint;," and this name is also most commonly used in (leorgia and North and South Carolina,
strictly applying to long-leaf pine. In Boston only Southern and hard ]iine is mentioned without
distinction. It is in New York, Philadelphia. Baltimore, and otlier Atlantic markets that the
greatest variety of names is used, with an attinnpt to distinguish two kinds, the long-leaf aiul
short-leaf, by using the name of the State from which the lumber is supposed to come, but neither
the name nor the lund)er pile agree always with the species that was to be represented.

"North Carolina pine," which is supposed to api)ly specitically to short-leaf, will be found to
include in the pile also better qualities of loblolly, sometimes to the amount of 50 per cent. Long-
leaf forms only very occasionally a part of the supplies from this section.

" Georgia pine" is meant to designate the long-leaf species, and, like " Florida pine," does mostly
conform to tliis designation except as noted before under the name of yellow pine.

" VirgiiHa pine" and "Virginia yellow pine" are names hardly known elsewhere than in the
markets of Baltimore and Washington, where the bulk of the common building timber consists ol
it. It applies iu the main to the loblolly, with a very snmll percentage of short le;if making its
way into tlie pile. While tliis is mostly coarse-grained, inferior material, selected stutt when well
seasoned furnishes good finishing and flooring material.

FIELD NAMES.

Field names are those appHed to the four Soutliern pine lumber species in the tree and logs.
Such names are usually more or less known to dealers and manufacturers, but, aside from the
market names already discussed, are rarely, if ever. ai»plieil to lumber in the market.

Of the three pines, long-leaf, short-leaf, and loblolly, the first alone is perfectly known by lum
bermeu and woodmen as a distinct "variety"(species). The remaining species, presenting to the
lumbernmn's eye various forms according to the site producing the timljer, are commonly sup])osed
"varieties" or "crosses" more or less rt'lated to the long-leaf pine. Specific difierences in the bim-
ber both iu appearance and (piality, form, however, a sufficient basis of distinction as far as liimlier
is concerned, although this distinction is not necessarily carried out iu putting lumber on the

market.

A few of the names in common use are fretiuently applied by kimbermen to entirely ditterent
species from tho.se usually known to botanists by t lie same name. The perplexity thus arising,
upon the supposition that the common names of our botanical text-books are applied to the species
by lumbermen, is not inconsiderable, and can doubtless be avoided only by a nuire careful atten-
tion on the part of the people to real .specific distinctions.

The confusion in names is .such that it is almost impos.sible to analyze properly the use of these
names in the various regions. In the above tabulated account of names a geographical distri-
bution has been given as far as possilde. Here only a few of the names are to be discussed.

"ritch-pine" is the name most commonly applied to the long-leaf in the Atlantic regions, and
where it occurs associated with the short leaf and loblolly the former is called "yellow i)ine" and
the latter is called "short leaf." The name "long leaf or long-leaved pine" is rarely heard in the
field, "longstraw" being substituted.

The greatest diftV'rence of names and conseciuent confusion exists in the case of the loblolly,
due no doubt to the great variety of localities which it occuiiies and consequent variety of habit
of growth and quality. "Swamp" and "sap-pine" refer to comparatively young growth of the
loblolly, coarse grained, recognized by the rather deep longitudinal ridges of the bark, growing

17

on low ground. " Slash-pine" in Virginia and North Carolina is applied to old well developed
trees of both loblolly and short-leaf; in Florida it is exclusively applied to the Cuban pine. When
applied to the loblolly it designates a tree of fine grain, one-half to two-thirds sap, recognized by
the bark being broken into large, broad, smooth plates. This same form is also called "short-leaf
pine " in North Carolina. '

"Eosemary-pine" is a name peculiar to a growth of loblolly in the swamp region of the Car-
olinas, representing fully grown trees, fine grained, large amount of heart, and excellent quality,
now nearly exhausted.

"Loblolly" or "old-held pine," as applied to Pimm 2Vcf?ffi, is a name given to the second growth
springing upon old tields iu North and South Carolinas, while in Alabama and Mississippi, etc.,
the name '' old-field" pine is applied to Plnm echinata.

Botanical diagnosis.

Species.

Leaves

Cones (open)

Scales.......

Prickles

Bucls

Pimis pahtstrU Miller.

3 in a bnnrtlo. 9 to 12 (excep-
tionally U to 15) inches long.

6 to 9 in(;hc8 li>iiff: 41 to 5
inches in diameter.

^ to 1 inch broad: tips mnch
wrinkled, liiilit i'.hestnut
brown. j;ray with age.

Very short, delicate, incurveil.

f inchh)ng; ^ inch in diame-
ter; silver white.

Pinus cubensis Griseb.

2 and 3 in a bundle; 7 to 12
(usually 9 to 10) inches long.

4 to 6J (uauallir 4 to 5) inches
long; 3 to4Jlnchesindi;lm■
etcr.

|,\ to S inch broad; tips, wrin-
kh'il: deep russet brown;
shiny.

Very short; straight; declined.

About ^ inch long; J inch in
diameter; brownish.

Pinw echinata Miller.

2 and 3 in a bundle; IJ to 4
inches long; commonly 2^
to 4 inches.

li to 2 inches long; IJ to 1}
inches in diiimeter.

IS to % (exceptionally about})

inch broad ; tips light yel-

low-hrown.
Exceedingly short i-j\ inch),

delicate straight, declined.
J to J inch long: about J inch

in diameter; brownish.

Pimis Tceda Linn.

3 in a bundle ; 5 to 8 inches
long.

2J to 4 J inches long; IJ to 3
inches in diameter.

S to I inch broad; tips
.smooth; dull yeilow-
browu.

Short; stout at base.

i to } inch long; J inch in
diameter; brownish.

In aspect and habit the loug-leaf and Cuban pine somewhat resemble each other. The large
silvery white buds of the long-leaf pine, which constitute its most striking character, and the
candelabra-like naked branches with brush-like tufts of foliage at the end readily distinguish it
from the Cuban pine, which bears a fuller and denser crown. The dark-green, glossy, and heavy
foliage of the latter readily distinguishes this again from the loblolly, where these may appear
associated, the latter having sea-green and thinner foliage.

As a rule, the Cuban pine grows taller (up to 110 or 115 feet, with a diameter of 2J to 3 feet)
than the longleaf, which rarely exceeds 105 feet and 20 to 36 inc-hes in diameter. The Cuban pine
forms massive horizontally spreading limbs, and at maturity a crown with rounded outlines; the
long-leaf pine forms a more flattened crown with massive but twisted, gnarled limbs, which are
sparingly branched.

The thin bark of the long-leaf (only one quarter to one-half inch thick), of uniform reddish
brown color throughout, exfoliates in thin, almost transparent, rhombic Hakes; the thick bark of
the Cuban pine of the same color exfoliates in very thin, broad, purplish flakes.

The short-leaf pine is readily distinguished by the comparatively shorter and more scant
appearance of its foUage. Moreover, this species is at once recognized by its characteristically
small cones. Its habit is spreading, if compared with the nuu-e ascending, compact habit of the
loblolly. At maturity the short-leaf has a much shorter bole (85 to 95 feet, diameter U to 2 feet)
than the loblolly (125 to 150 feet, diameter 4 to 5 feet), with which it is often associated, and a
more pyramid-shaped crown.

The reddish bark of the short-leaf in mature trees is broken into long plates, while the loblolly
bark appears of grayish color and breaks into broader, larger, and more deeply fissured plates.

[ DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT.

The geographical (botanical) distribution of the long-leaf pine is shown in a map published in
the annual report of the chief of the forestry division for 1891, which was prepared by Dr. Charles
Mohr, of Mobile, Ala., agent of this division, and much of the information here giveu, is taken"
from his still unpublished monographs on these pines.

Within the boundaries of geographical distribution each species is found to occupy certain
soils and sites which form its habitat. The habitat of the piues in general is found on sandy and
14500— No. 8 3

18

mostly well drained soils. In regard to moisture conditions of the soil, the diflVMeiii si)ecies
adjust themselves diflerently. The long-leaf pine is found (only excei)tioually otherwise) on the
best-drained, deep, sandy, siliceous alluvium, while the Cuban pine is confined to the moister
flats or pine meadows of the coast, and will grow closely down to the saiuly swamps; not objecting
to clayey admixtures in the soil, but shunning the dry sandy pine hills. The short-leaf pine pre-
fers a well-drained, light, sandy or gravelly chiy soil, or warm light loam, while the loblolly, often
struggling with the short-leaf for the possession of the soil, can adapt itself to wetter situations.

From the southern confines of Virginia the long-leaf pine covers the later deposits of sands,
light loanis, and gravel which follow the Atlantic coast to the everglades of Florida, and west on the
gulf shore to the valley of the Trinity Kiver (Texas), in a belt from (iO to loO nules wide. In nortli
ern Alabama and the adjoining part of Georgia the forests of this pine reach a short distance
beyond the 34'' north latitude on isolated and more or less restricted areas iu similar soil. In its
distribution tlnougli the Atlantic States and the eastern Gulf region, three distinct divisions can
be recognized in this coast pine belt: First, the coast jdain, from 10 to 30 miles from seashore, rising
above the marshes and alluvial swam])S, forms a belt 5 to 30 miles iu width. In the grassy Hat-
woods this ]>ine is found scattered and of rather stunted growth, while on the higher level, where
it once prevailed in greater perfection, it has been largely replaced by the loblolly and tlie <'uban
pines.

The second division embraces the rolling ]iine lands or pine barrens proper, the elevation o,
which is rarely over 250 feet above tidewater. These undulating lands often s])read out into
extensive table lands, and are, almost without any interruption, covered with a pure gvnwlhul
mature long-leaf i)ine of the greatest perfection.

The third division, forming the upper ])artof1he maritime inne belt, is a region of mixed
growth, where on the steep rocky or gravelly ridges the longlcMf pine is frcijuently associated with
the short leaf and loblolly ]iine and haidwood trees. In tliis division, generally on a richei' s<iil,
the long leaf jiine attains a gi-eater size with a larger number of full-si/.cd trees to the acre. Tiie
h>ng leiif tind:>er of this division generally shows a larger i)roiiortion of sapwood and a slightly
coarser grain than that of the other divisions, and has therefore been considered somewhat infci ior
in quality. It is found more generally wind shaken.

In Virginia the lung leaf i)iiu' is, for all ])ractical puiposcs, extinct. In North Carolina, in the
division of nuxed growth aiul in the plain between the Albenuirle and Pandico Sound, the long Icat
])ine has likewise been almost entirely removed and is replaced by the loblolly. The fon-sts ol
longlcaf pine begin with Bouge Inlet, stretching for a distance of from 95 to 150 miles inland,
reaching down to the State line and cover, roughly estimated, about (i, 500, 0(10 acres. These for-
ests hav(> l)een to a great extent despoiled of their timber wealth by the tapi)ing of the trees for
turpentine.

From the statement of the Tenth Census Iicport the timber supply of long leaf i>ine in South
Carolina is but slightly exceeded by tliat of North Carolina. The pine belt in this State is about
150 miles wide. It is mainly occupied by the long-leaf pine, but on the hill lauds is intermixed
with the short leaf pine. The forests on the elevated table-land in the southwestern part of the
State, almost untouched, are spoken of as being of the finest quality. It is interesting to note
that there has been during the past ten years a steady increase in the development of the lumber
resources of the State. Iir Georgia, the great pine State of the southern Atlantic, the forests ot
long-leaf pine cover, almost exclusively, the vast interior plain of over 17,000 square miles in
extent. The timber from this extensive lumbering region (in the markets favorably known as
"Georgia pine") is mostly rafted down tlie Savannah River and the Altamaha lliver to Savannah,
Darien, and Brunswick. During the past twelve years shipments aggregating about 300,000,000
square feet of lumber ami square timber have been made annually from these ports, with but
slight tluctuations in the amount of the annual outputs. In eastern Florida the pine belt can be
traced to St. Augustine. Farther south, the long-leaf pine is replaced by the Cuban pine. On
the Gulf side more important areas of the long leaf growth are found extending until the savannas
and everglades are reached, where again the Cub.m pine replaces it, but the timber seems to be
of an inferior quality and the pine forests are frequently interrupted by swamps with hardwood
trees. Since 1880 the kuubering industry iu eastern Florida has been on the decliue.

19

In the Gulf States, from the Chattahoochee Eiver to the lowlands of the Mississipiji, the pine
belt covers about 40,000 sqnare miles. The forests of long-leaf pine in western Florida have been
largely exhausted. The most extensive and flnest bodies remaining are found between the Perdido
and Escambia rivers toward tlie Alabama State line and in some of tlie remoter townships along
the same bonier further east to the Yellow River.

In Alabama the best and largest snpi)lies of long leaf pine timber are found in the forests of
undulating pine lands between the (Jliattahoochee Valley and Perdido River. Over one-third of
the timber and lumber annually shipjied from Pensacola, amounting on the average for the last
live years to about 250,000,000 feet, is derived from these forests. The high (luality of their
timber is strikingly exhibited in the quantities of hewn square timber exported from the above
Itort and fnmi Mobile to England and I-:ur(>i)e. At present Mobile is meeting tlie highest require-
ments in this line of export trade, furnisjiing sticks without a blemish of 120 (;ubic feet on the
average. During the past year 2,903,000 cubic feet of hewn square timber has been shipped from
this place. In the up))er diNision of the coast ])ine belt, or region of mixed growth, the forests of
long-leaf pine arc contined to the steep gravelly or rocky ridges and can be said to cover about
7,000 square miles; where the long-leaf pine is found either alone or associated with the short-leaf,
the loblolly pine, and hardwood trees. The growth is heavy, the trees generally ranging between
20 and 25 inches in diameter, breast high ; they are from 200 to 250 years old, and for the greatest
part found to be wind-shaken, a result, no doubt, of a freer exposure to the force of the wind
The forests of long-leaf pine crossing the State centrally in a belt from 5 to over 20 miles wide ami
covering a little over 1,000 square miles, and those of lesser extent found in the northern half of
the State, furnish timber not inferior to that from the rolling pine lands of the maritime belt. The
drift deposits along the Ooosa River, covering about ;!00,000 acres, and a detached portion of
drift in Walker county of 00,000 acres, is covered with pine of tine quality hardly yet touched.
Tlie forests of long-leaf pine in Mississippi in their extent fall but little short of thos'e in Alabama,
and are fully ecjual in the quality of their timber; not less than 300,000,000 feet of timber and
lumber have been shipi)ed by water and rail from the mills along the Pascagouhi and Pearl
ri\'cvs and the :N\>w Orleans, Northeastern, and Illinois Central Railroad lines.

During the year 1892 fully 751,000,000 feet of timber and lumber have been shipped to foreign
and domestic markets from the coast pine belt of the Gulf States east of the Mississippi Eiver.
Toward the west, in Louisiana, the coast pine belt gradually passes iiito a mixed growtli of short
leaf pine, oaks, and hickories on the uplands bordering the Mississippi. The slightly undulating
Hatwoods of Louisiana sniqiort a better timber growth than is generally found in tlie upland pine
barrens; but this forest has been largely invaded, while the pine-hill region of Louisiana has re-
mained almost untouched. The pine region west of the Jlississippi River, limited to the sands
and gravels of the region, follows on its eastern boundary the valley of the Ouachita River for 150
miles.

In the center of the region above the Red Eiver pine ridges alternate with tracts of oak and
hickory.

In western Louisiana and eastern Texas the forests of the long-leaf pine occupy, roughly esti-
mated, an area somewhat exceeding 10,000 square miles. The pine lands north of the Red River
are undulating and ditfer in no way in the nature of their timber growth from similar lands in the
coast pine belt of the eastern Gulf States. South of the Red River the rolling laiuls merge into
flat woods which, from Lat. 31° N. continue from the basin of the Calcasieu Eiver without change
across the Sabine River to the valley of the Trinity Eiver in Texas. These flat woods of south-
western Louisiana- and eastern Texas suppoit a denser timber growtli, said by experts to fre-
quently exceed 7,000 square feet to the ace. The trees are for this species of a remarkably quick
growth. As observed in the forests near the Xatchcz Eiver in Texas, full-sized trees from 23 to
25 inches in diameter, breast high, showed from 20S to .■540 lings respectively im the stump; and
trees from 19 to 21 inches in diametershow 105 and 113 annual rings; trees of tiiis stage of growth
show, on a radius of from 9^ to 9f inches (clear of bark), 4 iiK'lies ol' sap. In the mature trees
mentioned first the thickness of sap was found in the first instance 2i inches on a radius of 13
inches and in the second IJ inches on a radius of nearly 11 inches. The grain is coarser and
even, and the timber remarkably tree from the defects caused by wind shaking. Nearly all of the

20

timber of Lhese western forests of the long-lenf pine is sa.wu into lumber and square stuff, used for
framing- and car building, and shipped to the northern markets to sui)ply the timberless regions
of the west. During tlie past year the cut has been ascertained to fall not far short of 8(»0,00(»,000
feet board measure. Of this output 225,000,000 square feet have to be ascribed to Louisiana and
575,000,000 to Texas.

CHARACTEIIISTICS OF THE WOOD.

No more difticult task could be set than to describe on paper tlie wood of these pines, or to
give the distinctive features so that the kinds can be distinguished and recognized by the unini-
tiated. Only the combined simultaneous impressions ui^on all the senses permit the expert to make
sure of distinguishing these woods, without being able to analyze in detail the characters by wliich
he so distinguishes them. While in many cases there would be no hesitation in referring a given
stick to one or the other si>ecjes, others may be found in which the resemblance to more than one
species is so close as to make them luirdly distinguishable. The following attempt to diagnose
these woods nuist, therefore, be takeu only as an imperfect general guide. So far even micro-
scopic examination has not furnished unfailing signs. Color is so variable that it can hardly serve
as a distinguisliing feature. The direction of the cut, roughness of surface, exudation of resin,
coudition of health, wid:h of grain, moisture condition, even the mode of drying, exposure, etc.,
all have their share in giving color to the wood. Bearing iu mind this great complication of color
effects it will be granted that descriptions of the same, disturbed by peculiarities of each separate
observer, w'ill aid but little iu identifying the woods.

The sapNVood of all the pines looks very nearly alike, and so does the heartwood. The color
of the springwood in the sap is a light yellowish with a shade of brown; the summer wood con-
tains nunc brown, variable with the density of the cells and appearing darker when the bands are
more abruptly separated from the spring wood. The heart-wood shows a nuirkedly darker color
with a reddish tlesh-color tinge added.

It is perhaps easiest to distinguish the wood of the long-leaf and Cuban pines fnmi that of the
short-leaf and loblolly. It is also possibh^ to keep apart the long-leaf from the Cuban; but while,
in general, the short-leaf ami loblolly can be more or less easily distinguished by color or giaiu,
some fornts of the latter (rosemary-pine) so nearly resemble the former that no distiuguishing
feature is apparent.

The most ready means for distinguishing the four seems to be the specific gravity or weight
in eonneetion with the grain. The proportion of sap a^nd heart-wood will also be an aid in recog-
niziu"- a log or log run lumber iu the pile. These distinctive features are tabulated as follows,
the figures representing average conditions of merchantable timber and mature trees:

Diagnostic feat II reti of the wood.

Name of species.

[Possible
kiln dried wood.

q 11 e n t
range.

"WeiKlit, poundat Possible
ppr onbic feint,'? range,
kiln dried wond.(Avernj:e .

Cbaraoter of j;ruin aeeu iu
cross eeetion.

Color, general appearance.

Sap wood, proportion

Keain

Long leaf pine
(Pinvuimliibhifi Miller).

.58 (o .90
.m to .70

44 to 52

4S
Fino and nvm; animal
rings nnirortnly narrow
tlirnuglinni,; not le-sa
llian H {nm.stly about
18-*J5) rings to tlieinc^li.

Ev«ii dark rt'ddish yellow
to reddisb browu.

VerylilHf: r;i rely over 2
'to 3 imlu's of radiusi.

Veiy abundant ; tree turn-
ing into '"light wood;"
pitcliy throughout.

. Cuban pine
[Pinue cnbettsiit Oriseb.).

.05 10.84 (SiU-g.)

Variable and coarse;

rings niosllywidi*: from
() to 8 rings to the inch.

Dark straw color with
tinge of flesh color.

Nearly one-half of the
radius.

Abuiulaut, sometiniifs
yiidding more pitih
tlian loiig-Ieaf : not turn-
insj; into " light wood."

Short-leaf pifie
Pinuh fchuiata AUUer).

.as to .70
.50 to .Uft

'^G to 44

4U

Very variable; medium,
coarse; ring.s wiilf iinar
lipart. followed by zone
of nari-ow ring**: not
less than 4 (niustly
abcuit 10) rings to thi_^
inch.

Yellowish-red

Commonly over 4 inches

of radius,
Moderately a b u n d a n t,

least pitthy; only near

stumps, knots, and

limbs.

Loblolly pine
(Piiiim Trnia Linn.).

.38 to .61
.43 to .48

34

Less variable, mostly very
coar.se; 3 to 12 rings to
the inch ; generally wider
than in short-leaf.

Whitish to brownish yel
low; the daik hajuls of
sunitnrr wmuiI beinu pro-
]Ku tioiiatrly narrow.

Vi'ry variable, i to i of the
radius.

Abundant; more than
short-leaf, less than iong-
leaf and Cuban.

21

The loug-leaf pine, then, is best distinguished by the following- fonr characteristics :

(1) Width of the anuiial rings, having usually from 18 to 25 rings to the inch, as against 11 to
12 in the short-leaf and loblolly. Fewer rings to the inch would lend countenance to the suspicioji
that the material is not long-leaf.

(2) Weight, whicli for partially seasoned wood averages about 48 pounds, being S to 12 pounds
heavier than short-leaf and loblolly. The lowest specific gravity found by Prof. .lolmson was O.CG
for tree 52, or 38 pounds.

(3) Amount of resin, which produces, when the wood is cut across the grain with a sharp knife,
a polished and vitreous or horny appearance of the sunimerwood. This is, however, not a very
reliable sign, as other pines react in the same maTiner. Whether the pi-esence of large amounts of
resin account for the great weight and lor superior strength is still an open i|nestion. '

(4) Thickness of sap-wood, which, at least in the pines now cut for Innilier, is rarely over 2 or
3 inches wide, much less than the other pines with which it might be confounded.

SPECIAL ADAPTATION!? OF LONGI.EAF YELLOW PINE.

In regard to the use of this timber, Prof. Johnson makes the following statements regarding
the extensive tests here reported.

The long-leaf pine timber is specially fitted to be used as beams, joists, posts, stringers in
wooden bridges, and as flooring when ([uarter-sawed. It is {n-obably the strongest timber in
large sizes to be had in the United States. In small selected specimens, other species, as oak and
hickory, may exceed it in strength and toughness. Oak timber, when used in large sizes, is apt to
be more or less cross-grained, knotty, and season-checked, so that large oak beams and posts will
average much lower in strength than the long-leaf pine, which is usually free from these defects.
The butt cuts are apt to be wind-shaken, however, which may weaken any large beams coming
from the lower i^art of the tree. In this case the beam would fail by sheai'ing or splitting along
this fiiult with a much smaller load than it would carry without such defect. These wind shakes are
readily seen by the inspector, and sticks containing them are easily excluded, if it is thought worth
while to do so. For highway and railway wooden bridges and trestles, for the entire floor system
of what is now termed "mill" or "slow-buriiing" c(uistruction, for masts of vessels, for orflinary
floors, joists, rafters, roof-trusses, mill-frames, derricks, and bearing jjiles; also for agricultural
machinery, wagons, carriages, and esiiecially for iiasseiiger and ti-eight cars, in all their parts
requiring strength and toughness, the long-leaf pine is pe(ailiarly fitted. Its strength, as compared
to that of short-leaf yellow piTie and white pine is probably very nearly in direct proportion to their
relative weight, so that pound for jiound all the pines are probably of about equal strength. The
long-leaf pine is, however, so much heavier than these other varieties that its strength for given
sizes is much greater.

A great many tests have now been made on short-leaf and on loblolly pine, both of which may
be classed with long-leaf as "Southern yellow pine," and from these tests it appears that both
these species are inferior to the long-leaf in strength in about the ratio of their specific gravities.
In other words, long-leaf pine {Finns pnltistris) is about one-third stronger and heavier than any
other varieties of Southern yellow pine lumber found in the markets. It is altogether likely that
a considerable proi)ortion of the tests heretofcu-e made ou "Southern yellow pine" have been uiade
on one or both of these weaker varieties.

RESULTS OF MECHANICAL TESTS.

By J. B. Johnson.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

In Table I are given the principal re.sults of tests on the individual sticks of long-leaf pine,
made in 1S91 and 189:2. They comprise tests on twenty-six trees, all from Alabama. Ten of these
were normal, healthy, living trees, from two localities, averaging abont two hundred years old and
about 21 inches in diameter. Sixteen of them had been tapped for turpentine ("boxed"), eight of
them being taken from an orchard abandoned five years, ;ind eight from an orchard recently
boxed. These trees averaged 18 inches in diameter. The logs from the unboxed trees were cut
into both large and small beams. Those from the boxed trees we>-e cut wholly into four by four
inch sticks. There have been about 4.30 tests made on these sticks in each of five ways, or some
2,150 tests in all. These tests may be divided in general into two classes, "green" and "dry."
The green tests on the unboxed trees were made some six months after sawing, while those on the
boxed timber were made some two months after sawing. The dry tests on the unboxed timber
were made about eighteen mouths after sawing, and the dry tests on the boxed timber some
fourteen months after sawing. Some of the dry tests were made on sticks which had been
treated for a few days in a dry kiln which was operated by an exhaust fan drawing air over steam
coils, the temperature of the box being less than 100° F.

The bold-faced type in this table indicates the experimental values reduced for 1.^ per cent
moisture. This is abont the ordinary percentage of nniisturc of sea.scnied Inndter, under shelter,
but out of doors. These are the values which have been used in all the subsequent .studies and
in Tables II, III and IV,

VARIATION OF STRENGTH WITH MOISTURE.

In Plates vii-x are shown the curves which exhibit the variation of strength due to differ-
ence in moisture of the test piece. No curves are given for speciiic gravity or for tensile strength,
as both of these properties seemed to be practically independcnit of moisture, as shown in Plates
XI and XII. The curves in Plates vii-x were obtained as follows: The average of observed
results of tests on specimens trom singletrees were lirst plotted on cross-section pai)er, with their
corresponding percentages of moisture, the several mean results (green and dry) on one tree being
joined by straight lines to indicate that they all belonged to one and tlie same tree. These results
scattered widely, since all other sources of strength entered into the result, aside from moisture.
A provisional curve was then drawn, showing the probable law of change of strength due to mois-
ture conditions alone, and this curve was then traced ott' upon aiiother sheet. The several i)airs
of mean observed results on single trees (green and dry) were now copied ui)on this sheet in their
true moisture relations, but without any reference to their ab.solute strength relation, any farther
than that they were made .symnietrical horizontally (strength cooi'dinate) with the assumed cur\e
already drawn. That is to say, each pair of results (green and dry) were moved horizontally until
they became symmetrical in a horizontal direction with this curve. Thus, while their relative
strength was left the same, their absolute strength was ignored. In this way all other sources of
influence upon strength were eliminated except that of moisture, and the law of variation of
22

23

strength with moisture was developed entirely free from other influences. In many cases a second
assumed curve was drawn and a new diagram of results obtained. (Fig. 11.)

Notwithstanding this method of elimination of other sources of strength it was found in sev-
eral instances, as in the modulus of elasticity, crushing across the grain, and in shearing (Plates
VIII, IX, and X), that some of the trees showed such discrepancies in their relation of strength
to iiioisture, that the curve of mean values could not be used for reducing results on these trees.
Such discrepant sets of results are inclosed by dotted lines, and separate curves of correction

3000 PERCENTAGE OF MOISTURE^

Fig. 11.— Method of coiistmctiiig ciuvos of .averages. Long-le.af pine (Phuis polustris).

employed in tliese cases. The corresponding pairs (dry and green) of curves for these trees can

be ide^itilied by the attached numbers of the trees, the average values for which arc re])rcsente(l

by the jilotted points.

Oh those sticks which were originally 18-feet long beams three sets of results were obtaincil
by tests at approximately .iO, 20 and 12 per cent moisture. The very high percentages of niois
ture shown in all these <-urvcs do not represent averages for the tree, but represent the mean re-
sults from such sticks as iiad a very liigh pro])orti(m of moisture in tlic grc-u tests. They are
inserted to give some further indication of the form of this end of tlie curve.

24

EFFECT OF MOISTURE.

It will at once be evident from a casual inspection of tbese curves that all kinds of strength
(except tensile strength, which seems to be independent of moisture) increase greatly as the
moisture diminislies, and that this increase becomes very rapid after the timber has become, say,
half dry, or below 20 per cent moisture. Not only is the timber stronger, but it is more elastic.
Thus the gain in relative elastic resistance between 30 and 15 per cent of moisture is by a much
greater proportion than tlie corresponding gain in the elastic limit strength. The modnhis of
elasticity is also greater, so that we may say tiiat tlie drier the timber (within practical limits)
the stronger, the stififer, and the tougher it bec<mies.

Since the si>eciflc gravity does not appreciably change as the timber dries ciut from 30 to 15
per cent of moisture (computed on the dry weight), it follows that the shrinkage in \dlume is
practically equal to the diminution of moisture, so that the weight of unit volume remains prac
tically constant in this species of timber.

RELATION BETWEEN STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS.

On Plate X are ])latted the average values of the moduli of elasticity for whole trees and
of the moduli of cross-beudiug strength at tlie elastic limit. The relation of these two curves
represents the relation \shi3h exists between the working strength and stiffness of a beam. It
appears that the stittiiess is a true index of the strenglli. and that in tiiis species the stift'er the
beam the stronger it will prove. The equation of tlie mean line as drawn on this jdate is —

Elaxt if- limit nioihihts of sfrcnf/fh in ryonH-hreakiiKj = 5(10 + 0.0047 U (1)

Where £' = niodulus of elasticity as found from a cross-bending test by making

I]= J!^ . • . . . . (2)

Where 17= concentrated load at center of beam.
I = length of beam.
/) = deflection of beam under load IT.
li = breadth of beam.
// = height of beam.
All dimensions being in inches and the load in jmunds.

RELATION BETWEEN STRENGTH AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

Plate XI exhibits the relation found to exist between crushing strength and specific gravity
or weiglit. Assuming this cuiv(^ to be a parabola, its ecpiation would be —

Endwisrcnixhiiu/ st irii(/th =4:,0i)0 + 0,300 Vl^Hrav. — . 47 . . (3)
The diagram (Fig. 1-') shows the relation between the "average (jnality'' of the tind)er
and itssi)ecific gravity. In tiiis case each <piality was reiu'esented by a jjercentage of its own
average, and tlien the average of all those percentages was taken as -'average (piality" of eaeli
tree in eonii>arison with the "average quality" of all other trees. Here, also, a regular increas«
in average strength with an increase in spei-itic gravity is indicated. It was to be ])resunled lliat
this would l)e the case, wlien the results are all reduced to a standard dryness, since then tlie
weight ])er unit volume is a true measure of the amount of woody fiber and resinous matter in
the timber, and those in the same species determine to some extent the strength.

RANGE OF INDIVIDIIAI, RESITLTS AS fJOMPARED WITH THE AVERA(iE OF ALL.

I

In Fig. i;i is shown a series of cuives which indicate tlie number of results ot each kind of test
falhng within given limits. Thus, tlie most accordant results were those of the endwise crushing
tests, over one third of which (150 in 430) fell between 05 jier cent and 105 ])cr cent of the mean
of all, while none of Ihem fell below !iO ])er cent or above 140 ]ier cent of the mean, wherea.'^iu

25

tension only 270 tests fell between 75 per cent and 125 per cent of the mean, wliile some fell as
low as 25 per cent and some were as high as 190 per cent of the mean.

The greater nniformity of the tests in compression can be explained by the fact that in this
case some ten s(|uare inches were always under test, whereas in tension only about one square
inch was under test.

If but a single test is to be made of timber, the compi-ession endwise gives the best indication
of the general value of the wood.

0.9

RELATIVE AVERAGE STRENGTH

*
o
CO

o

o

o

o

O

0.8

o

a

© /

»

>-
1-
:>

s

ID

9

u.
o

in

/ 0

0

/ ©

s

0.6

Fig. 12. — Dinnruni sliowinj; tlie reliitioii lipt\v("<'ii strfiifjtli and \YeigTit
when ii'diici'il to ;i staiulaiil dryness dI' 1."i ]ii'1- rent nmistnrr. I,iinf;-leaf
yellow ])ine (I'hius jw/Mshv's).

VARIATION IN STRENCJTH OF DIFFERENT TKEES.

The accompanying diagram (Fig. 14), showing the variation in strengtli ol' diHerent trees, lias

been made up from the results recorded iuTahlclli. This table gives in hold faced type the mean

results of all tests on specimens taken from the first 20 fcH'tof the tree (butt). Tiic light-fat'ed tyiie

gi^es the percentage which each result is of the mean of all. The average of these percentages

14.500— No. 8 4

26

NUMBER OF TESTS

27

for any one tree, given in the last column of Table HI, represents an average percentage of all
finalities, or it may be considered an indication of the relative average quality. These averages
have been used in iilotting the acconipanyiug diagram, in the order of their magnitude. No
attempt is made here to explain the apparent discrepancy of 20 per cent between the lowest and
highest average quality, any further than to call attention to the fact that in a general way this
variation in strength corresponds fairly well with the variation in specilic gravity.

COMPAKISON OF SINGLE QUALITIES WITH THE AVERAGE QUALITY.

While the relations which exist between the relative average quality of a tree and its relative
standing in specific gravity, compressive and cross-breaking strength (exhibited in Fig. 14), all
agree, in a general way,with those trees which give less values in one of these directions having less

120 %

Fig. 14. Relative average qu.ality of different trees aa compared with strength in cros8-hreaking and crushing

endwise. Long-h^afpine {Pinna ^'o^i'^f'''")-

values in all the others here named. In some other matters the agreement is not so close, as may be
found by plotting the corresponding percentages given in Table III upon this figure. It has been
well established that strength is no function of the width of the annual rings. It is, however, a
function of the jn-oportion of summer wood to spring wood in each annual ring, or, since the sum-
mer wood is always more dense, this is tlie same as saying that the strength is a function of the
density or of the specific gravity, which relation is clearly shown in Fig. 14, as well as in Plate xi.

RELATIVE STRENGTH OF LARGE AND SMALL ISEAMS.

In Table IV the mean results of all tests on large and small beams are tabulated separately.
By comparing these mean values, as given at the bottom of Table IV, we are forced to conclude —

(1) That large beams are from 10 to 20 per cent weaker in ultimate strength than the corre-
si)onding 4x4 inch beams from the same logs.

(2) That large beams are stronger at their elastic limits than the small beams from the same
logs.

28

LOG I. TREE 52

MODULUS OF RUPTURE
IN CROSS-BREAKING

I

ELASTIC LIMIT
IN CROSS- BENDING

z

,20

'0

o6

a:

Tn

^

s

t

no

\

\

\^

\

o

looi

o

\

V

(fi

o.T

s

\

u

,^

^-

>

UJ

flo*.

i> O

o

*
o

o

o

o

o

o

Dib

CU

IVl

Mt

AH

RELATIVE ELASTIC RESILIENCE

r^

CRUSHING

ACROSS

GRAIN

z

10

fe?

100

^s

//f

6'

<^o

03

o5

'is

on:

>

801

< o

°

0

0

0

0

to

0

0

0

0

120?

\-

^\

3

iin

i

\

0

\

03

ino

/<?

-^5

0

13

\

5

90

,,'

^..

>

<

fl/s^

q:

/—
/ 0

0

0

*

0

0

0

0

0

0

DISTANCE. FROM HEART

V

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

110"/

^x

/

^

100

/

«v]

N

V

L

^

\,

90

1

to

y^

80^

1

Q

0

0

■0

0

0

00

0

0

0

2o.„CRUSHING

ENDWISE

4 z

110

^

oC

—

<4

too

^

^-

^?

'},

o5

tj

\

C"

^£

?01

i 0

c

0

0

0

r-
0

&

0

0

T

en;

ilO

\1

,oS

100

/

/,?

N

j

/

0'

V

\

^n

/"'

/

flns

;/i

o

C

c

0

c

<0

0

s

0

5

a

p

■3
"1

1

SHEARING

AVERAGE QUALIIY

i?n

/.

no

o5

%

100

»6-

03

0

0

'(O

«

or
0

0

n

0

0

0

0

0

/i

91

d

a:

p

^^

i?ni

110

06

/

--

^

ion

(

r«

\

^5

1

'3

:s>

.»«

J

''(•

0

C

0

0

0

0

r-

0

0

Distance from heart

OISTAMCE: from HtART

Fici. 15.— Results of tests on 4"x4" sticks from log 1, tree 52, Pi»us juilunlrh, showing viiriatiou of strength across'

section of log. Long-leaf piiie (Piiiits pulioiliis).

29

(3) Tliat larse beams are stiffer in prnpoitioii to tlieir size than the small beams. In other
words, the modulus of elasticity as (letermiiied iiom a large beam is greater than that determined
from a 4 inch square beam from the same log.

Cantion: It must beljorne in mind that the number of tests on large sticks here ottered in
evidence is too small to base much of an argument upon; also that, as shown by the log dia-
grams in Table IV, the 4 inch l)cams were taken from nearer the sapwood than the large sticks,
and this alone may fully explain all the ditterences found.

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

STRENGTH IN LBS. PER SU. IN.

Fig. ni.— Variatidn of" strength with (list.ince from tho .uroniid. L(iii;j;-lfal'
pine {I'iiiiis jinluslris).

VAKIATION IN STRENGTH ACROSS THE SECTION OF THE LOG.

In Fig. 15 are shown the jilotted mean results of tests on ditt'eient portions of the cross-section
of a bottom log. These results are from one log only, but many other similar studies show sim
ilar relations, so that for any full-grown tree the butt-log, at least, will show similar variation.
The general law is that the outer rings of annual growth are the weakest portions of the log, readily

30

explained by the fact tliat here the eell wmH.s are tliiuuer. Passing towards the heart, the strength
increases and reaches a niaxinium in llie butt of a mature tree at a distance of abont one-third of
the radius from the heart. In the immediate vicinity of tlie heart tlie strengtli decreases again.
In very old trees this strength may diminish to zero, the heart portion det-aying and wasting away
entirely. For the upper parts of a tree, the central heart portion is doubtless the strongest part
of the log.

Tlie variation of strength is not great, however, as shown in Fig. 15, the range being only abont
12 per cent of the average strength, namely from 4 per cent below to 8 per cent above the mean
strength of all the sticks in this log.

In crushing across the grain and in shearing there seemed to be no relation of variation of
strength and radial situation within the log exhibited.

VARIATION OF STRENGTH AT DIFFERENT HEIGHTS FROM THE GROUND.

In Fig. 1("> is shown the diminution in strength at increased distances from the base of the tree
under the ordinary kinds of stress. The modulus of elasticity (.stiffness) and the tensile strength
show greatest loss, each losing abont 40 per cent of their strength at a height of 70 feet. The
cross-breaking strength is reduced by one-third and the crushing endwise strength by only about
one- fifth in this distance. The first 20 or 30 feet of the tree seems to be of about a c(>Hstant strength.

SHEARING AND CRUSHING STRENGTH PARALLEL AND TRANSVERSE TO THE ANNUAL RINGS.

The shearing tests were made in two ]ilanes at right angles to each other on each stick.
Whenever these shearing planes came parallel and perpendicular to the annual rings, an opportu-
nity was offered for determining the difference in strength in these two ways. The mean results
from seventy-live such cases showed a shearing strength on planes parallel to the annual rings of
579 pounds per square iiu'h, and perpendicular to or across the rings of CKi pounds per square
inch, a difference of (1.2 per cent. In a similar way the crushing strength across the grain was
found to be (mean of 70 tests) 1,106 pounds per square inch, while parallel to the grain it was 1,257
]>oiinds per square inch at theS per centdistortiou limit,or a slrength 12.8 percent greater parallel
to the annual rings. Tiicse percentages are both too small to take any account of in actual prac,
tice, and can therefore be ignored in this sjiecies of timber.

*

SHRINKAGE IN SEASONING.*

Plate XI seems to indicate that the specific gravity remains practically constant as the per
centage of moisture diminishes from 30 to 15 per cent of the dry weight. This implies that the
diminution of volume is practically equal to the diminution of weight, so that the weight of unit
volume is about constant. This proba1.)ly holds true in all timbers for slight variations in the
percentage of moisture of seasoned lumber or for changes in moisture between 10 and 20 ])er cent.
Ordinary seasoned lumber, left out of doors, will retain about 15 per cent moisture, comjjuted on
the dry weight, while wood used indoors, as in house-finishing, furniture, etc., will retain alxiut
10 per cent.

EFFECT OF BOXING OR BLEEDIN(J FOR TURPENTINE ON STRENGTH OF TIMBER.

In a circular by the Forestry Division (No. 8) a |ircliminary statenu'nt oC results of tests on
timber bled for turpentine was made, which contained the following language:

One seiifs of tests Wiis instituted t(i determine tlH-ett'ect wliicli the praetiir (ifgatherinf; rcsinons matter ('(n the
inannfaeture of turpentine and naval stores from the h>ng leaf pine of tlie South may liave upon the strength oltlic
timher of trees subjected to this practice.

The gathering of resin is done by cutting a recess (box) into the foot of the tree, whieli is called "boxing"
the tree, and tlien scarring (chipping) the trunk above the box, increasing tlie size of tlie scar from year to year.
From this scar the semi-liquid resin exudates and drains into the box; this process is continued for four years nn<l
then the trees, lessening in yielil, are abandoned.

- Special studies on tliis nuestiou are carried on in the physical laboratory by Mr. F. Roth, aud -veill be pub
lished as soon as completed.

31

The current pulilir lieliet'bay been that the timber of these " 1>oxe(l" trees, sometimes calleil "turpentine tJn;-
ber," is deterioratiMl l>y tlie process. Not only is its durability, in which this species excels, believed to be
lessened, but also its streujjth, and hence its value in tho market has been considerably reduced.

Since annually from ,500,000 to 750,000 .acres of this pine are boxed, involving in this assumed deterioration, at the
lowest estimate, 1.000,000,000 feet, I?. M., of lumber, a considerable loss in values, counting l>y millions of didlars. is
thereby incurred.* Tho tests conducted in the test laboratory at St. Louis, in charge of Prof. J. B. Johnson, give
countenance to the import.int conclusion that '' turpentine " timber seems to possess greater strength than timber
from unboxed trees.

Tlie followiiij;' ciiiHlciuscd table of results was given:

Comparative xtreiif/lh of "hoxfd" and "unboxed" loiig-Ieaf pine.

'Boxed " timber:

25 .sticks " fjreen 'i

25 sticks " dry "

Percentape otcli.aiise

Pprcentage of chaiiaeto reduce to
20 per cent moisture

>te.in of 115 tests

Corrected for 20 percent moisture
'Unboxed" timlter:

Mean of i:i:t tests

Excess of "boxed" over "un-
boxed" timber

Excess "boxed" over "nnboxed,"'
per cent , ...

Specific
gravity.

0.759
.687
9.5

-8.5
.760
.696

.710

- .014

-2.0

Per cent

of
moisture.

Per rent.
30.91
18.91
—3n. 0

—3.5
30. 9
20.0

20.11

0.0

0.0

Tensile
strength.

Lbe.per

stf. inch,

15.448

14, 757
—4.2

—3.8

15, 985
15, 485

16, 429
— 944

—5.7

Compress-

ivestre7i(;th

endwise.

Cross-
breaking
strength.

Lbs. per
aq.inch.
4, 755
6,637
+39.4

+35,5
5,118
6,935

5,661

+ 1,274

+22.5

Zihs. per
sq.inch.
8,709
11.330
+ 30.1

f 27. 0
8,988
11,118

9,333

+ 1,785
+ 19.2

Modulus
of

elasticitv-

Elastic
resilience.

ivestrength
across grain

Lbs. per
sq. inch.
1, 566. 400
1,644.360
-I 4. 9

+4.4
1.623.000
1.694,000

1, 800, 000

—106, 000

^5.9

In lbs.

per cit. in.

1.73

2.71

-i 56.6

h51.0
1.83
2.76

1.92

+.84
+43.8

Compress. L,.

Lbs. per
sq.inch.
680
1.064
+56.5

+51.0

743

1,122

855

+ 267

+31.2

atrenjilli.

Lbs. jwr
8q. inch .
540
648
+ 20.0

+ 18 0
539
B3B

652

—16
—2.4

We give in Talilc i II the average results on all '-butt'' cuts or b()ttoin logs of all trees tester! „
Tlie first ten trees were nubled, while the remaining sixteen were bled. Eight of these latter
{Nos. 52-59) were taken from an orchard which had been abandoned five years; the rest (Nos.
(i()-()7) were from an orchard still in service.

The percentages given in light-faced tyiie in this table are obtained by dividing each test
result by the average resnltsfor the .same kind of tests given in the tirst four lines of the averages
at bottom. The last live vertical cohimns of the table are deriverl from these percentages. The
"average quality" jii'icentage for each tree represents the average of eight qualities, or it shows
the "relative average <iuality" of this tree as referred to the average of all in its group. These
average percentages are given in column 17. In column 18 are given the percentages of each
tree (average (luality) as related to that of all of its kind, bletl or unbled. In column 19 ate given
the percentages of each group of trees (average quality) as related to that of all of its kind, bled
or unbled. These i)ercentages show the two groups of unbled timber to be of exactly equal gen-
eral strength, while it indicates that freshly bled timber was 1 per cent stronger than that from
the trees which had been abandoned five years.

The relative strength of bled and unbled timber is given in column 2(», where the percentage
of each kind is given in terms of the average of all, giving both kinds eipial weight. The.se per-
centages show that the butt cuts, <n- bottom logs, of Itled timber are about 7 jter cent stronger than
those from natural or unbleil trees.

J'>y consulting percentage figures in the third and fourth lines from the liottom, it apjK'ars that
in all of the eiglit (jualities except two, stiffness and tensile strength, the bled timber is superior.
In cross breaking it is 3.4 percent stronger; theelastic limit in cross-bending is 7 percent stionger;
in elastic resilience it is 15.G per centstronger; in crushing endwise ii is 7.2 stronger; in crushing
across the grain it is 2o per cent stronger; and in shearing it is 13.8 per cent stronger. The bled
timber is, however, 0.2 per cent more flexible and 10.4 per cent weaker in tension.

These results ])rove conclusi\-ely that, to say the least, the e.xtrat-ting of the turpentine tioni
long-leaf yellow qtine trees does not in any material sense injure them, so far as strength tjnalities
are concerned. The bled timlter is also slightly heavier in the bottom cuts, by about two pounds
])er cubic foot, as shown by the average specific gra\ities.

Later informatiou would increase the average annually added to the turpentine orchards to nearly 1,000,000

FIELD REPORT ON TURPENTINE TIMBER.

By FlLIBERT KOTH.

To learn what was known to practical men, sawmillers, and dealers with regard to the matter
of "bled" and "luibled" yellow longleaf pine, a special journey was undertaken by the writer to
tlie principal ])ine districts of Alabama, Georgia, and the Caroliiias. Through the great courtesy
(tf every person visited, valuable information was collected. •

The following condensed summary contains this information in brief form:

(1) Most of the timber in Georgia and the (Jarolinas is hied. In Alabama only a small part is
said to be bled. The same answer pertains probably to Mississippi and Louisiana, and in Texas
probably no bleeding is practiced.

(2) There is no attempt made in the mills to keep bled and unbled timber separate, nor in
the yard.

(3) To the question whether bled and unbled lumber can be distinguished, the universal
answer was negative. Of the few exceptions, three belong to South Carolina, one to Georgia, and
four to Alabama. Neither of these, when brought to test or asked to state the distinction, were
successful.

(4) Experts in lumber being put to test, were said never to have been successful in distinguish-
ing bled from unbled lumber.

(5) Orders for lumber specifying that it be all unbled are not uncommon, though it is said in
Atlanta, Ga., they are less common than some years ago.

(fi) Serious troubles, involving cousideral)le loss of money, have arisen out of this matter iu
Alabama and Georgia. These were never settled by selecting the bled from the unbled lumber,
but had to be compromised.

The most instructive case of this kind was related in Alabama. It was a case with the
Louisville and Nashville Railroad Company, who accept only unl)led luml>er. The lumber was to
be furnished by a mill which cuts only unbled timl)er. Circumstances retarded the work at this
mill, and another mill was engaged to furnish part of the lumber, without special consent of the
railway company. When the latter learned of it, they remonstrated; the niiller offered to take
back all that could be picked out as bled lumber. The railway engineers failing to distinguish
the lumber, the matter had to be dropped.

(7) Regarding the effect of four years' bleeding upon the lumber, the following answers were
given :

(rt) It makes it more " pitchy."

(ft) It is less "pitchy," except in the butt.

(c) It frees the sap of resin, but leaves the heart unaffected.

{d) It leaves the tree unaffected, except in the butt.

(e) It produces "fat streaks" and large amounts of "light wood."

(8) Regarding the question whether bled lumber works better than unbled, the answer was
both ways, yes and no; but it was admitted commonly that petroleum was used in cither case to
keep the knives clean.

(9) Regarding the question whether bled lumber lasts as well as unbled, three answers were
given. The general answer was, no; in Georgia it was, yes, and there it was even maintained
that it lasts longer. Everywhere it was contended that at least the butt log lasts longer as timber
or piling. For inside work no difference was made.

32

33

(10) Does bleeding lessen the v;iluc of the timber? The common answer was, "yes'"; fre-
quently, however, in all parts, " no" ; in Georgia it was contended that bleeding improves tiie timber.

(11) It was generally stated that the yield per acre for the saw-miller was reduced by the
practice of turpentine orcliardiug, even though he followed the turpentine man at once.

(lii) Abandoned orchards are always visited by fires and these tires always reduce the yield
of saw timber per acre to a very large, although variable, extent.

According to one of Geiirgia's foremost lumbermen, an orchard l)led four years, and then left
two more years because the miller was not ready for it, lost 60 percent of its mill-sized timber.

(1-3) It is common for turpentine mcu to box timber far under mill size. The miller can use
only from 20 to 50 per cent of the boxed timber and the bled trees not used by the miller mostly
die ofl".

(li) If tire is kept (jut the bled trees rcuuiin alive, but are said, in North Carolina at least,
not to be tit for lumber.

From the foregoing statements it appears that all lumbermeu are agreed upon thefollowing
imjiortant points:

(1) That a large proportion of the yellow or long-leaf pine lumber is from bled trees.

(2) That it is never keiit apart or distinguished from the unbled by either millers or dealers.

(3) That no available criteria exist by which to distinguish the two kinds of lumber after
manufacture.

It is also plain that the oi)inions regarding ditfcrence in (juality or the intiuence of bleeding on
the timber or luml>er are too contradictory to be convincing, and also that the harm which follows
the practice of bleeding lies not in the injury to lumber, but consists in —

(1) Bleeding of trees too small for the sawmill.

(2) lileeding of tracts of timber not ready for the miller at the time (tf abandonme>nt.
Careful examination in the laboratory and iu the field did not confirm any of the opinions

with regard to the eti'ects of bleeding. Some of the most resinous logs were from orchards in
South Carolina; some of the '-driest" from unbled forests in Alabama. The ordinary "fat streak"
is a snuill wound nuide and healed over at a time when the place is still at the periphery or out-
side of the tree, therefore, it is sometimes made more than a hundred years before the bleeding
occurred. The long reaches of "light wood" are met in unbled tindter. Weight and color are
more dependent on the proportion of spring and summer wood than on the amount of resin (except
in lightwood) and can, therefore, not serve as distinctions.

The eftect of bleeding on the forests appears at first as loss of foliage or thinning of the crown
and some trees are evidently killed iu two seasons of bleeding; old abandoned orchards every-
where are the very picture of desolation and ruin. The old long bled trees of North Carolina are
runts, and show that with the methods at present pursued by the turpentine orchardists, the
extraction of resin may sometimes be carried on for long periods, but not without injury to the
health and thrifty growth of the trees.
11500— No. « 5

A CHEMICAL STUDY OF THE RESINOUS CONTENTS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN
TREES OF THE LONG-LEAF FINE, BEFORE AND AFTER TAPPING FOR TURPENTINE.

By M. GoMBERG.

Botanists tell us that resins are produced by the disorganization of cell walls anil by the
breaking down of starch granules of cells. Chemists believe that resins are oxidation products of
volatile oils, the change being expressed by fornnila as follows: liC,oHi6 + 3() = C!2,iHM02+ HjO.

Whatever view be correct * one thing is certain, and that is that the formation of either resins
or essential oils requires the presence in the tree of those peculiar conditions which we call vital.
The tree nuist live, must be active, must assimilate carbon dioxide and imbibe moisture, in order
that oil of turpentine and rosin be formed.

The heart of the tree is the dead part of it. It docs not manufacture any turpentine. A jiart
of the oleoresin in it had been formed when the heart wood was yet sap wood, and remained there
after the change from sap to heart liail taken place. It is also probable that the heart of the tree
acts as a storehouse in which there is deposited a portion of the oleoresin formed in the leaves
and sap.

When a tree is tapped for turpentine there are two possible changes tliat might be supposed
to take place: (1) The tree may be considered as placed in a pathological condition, when it will
strive to ]iroduce a lai'ger amount of oleoresin in order to supply the amount removed. In a few
years the energy of the tree will be exhausted, and the amount freshly supplied will fall tar below
the amount of oleoresin drawn oft" by the tapping. The tapping will then have to be discontinued.
The oleoresin in the heart wood will in this case remain untouched. ('2) The oleoresin previously
stored away in the heart might, by some unknown means and ways, also be directed toward the
wound.

If the tirst change takes place then, the tapping will have little effect ui>on the chemical com-
position of the heart wood. If, however, the second condition i>revails during ta])ping, then, of
course, the heart wood will be seriously aftected for some time after tapping, and will contain a
muchsnuiller amount of oleoresin than it contained before tapping. Moreover, the tapping may
aftect not only the amount of oleoresin, but also the quality of the new product and the relative
distribution of volatile and nonvolatile products.

For this reason the chemical side of the problem has been approached by parallel analyses of
tapped or untapped trees for their relative amounts of turi)entine. It was hoped that by a large
series of analyses an average might be obtained showing whether lapped and untapped trees differ
from each other in that respect.

«

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TURPENTINE.

Under the name of turpentine is known an oleoresinous juice produced by all the coniferous
trees in greater or less amount. It is found in the wood, bark, leaves, and other parts of the trees.
It flows freely as a thick juice from the incisions in the bark. It consists of a resin or resins dis-
solved in an essential oil; the latter is separated from the former usually by distillation with steam.

There are many varieties of turpentine corresponding to the different varieties of Conifera',

* The one view does not exclude the other.
34

35

but only three ;ire comiucrcially important, as they arc the source of the three princii)a] oils of
turpentine.

(1) The turpentine oi Pinus ^liiicstcr (.syu. I', maritima) collected in the southern departments
of France around Bordeaux. From it is obtained the French tnriientine, which yields 25 per cent
of volatile oil.

(U) The turpentine from Tinun palusiris, P. to'da, P. Ciibenfiis, collected in the Southern sea-
bordering States from North Carolina to Texas. From them, princii)ally from the first source, is
obtained the English or American oil of turpentine, which yields 17 per cent of volatile oil. For-
merly the P. rif/ida was also worked for turpentine in the North Atlantic States, but it is now
exhausted.

(3) The turpentine from Pinus laric-io var. Austrkiva, collected mainly in Austria and Galicia.
From it is obtained the German turpentine oil, which yields 32 i)er cent of volatile oil.

The Russian oil of turijeutine is obtained from Pinus syli-cstris and Pinus Ledehourii, by the
direct distillation of the resinous wood, without jireviously collecting the turpentine. It is said
to be identical with the (rerman oil of turpentine, but more variable, as it contains products of
destructive distillation both of wood and rosin.

The turpentines from the different sources differ from each other — (1) in their action uiwn
polarized light, (2) in the relative amounts of volatile oil they yield on distillation with steam, and
(3) in the nature of the volatile oils they contain.

Colophon}/. — The rosin in the different varieties of turpentine is practically the same. It is
known as common rosin or colophony.* It consists chemically of a mixture of several resin
acids and their corresponding anhydrides. The chief constituent is abietic anhydride, C44H62O4,
abietic acid being C44ll64()s. Tht; crystals that are noticed in crude turpentine are the free abietic
acid; on melting the thick tiu'i)entine, or on distilling the volatile oil, the acid is changed to the
anhydride. Colophony is nonvolatile, tasteless, brittle, has a smooth shining fracture, sp. gr.
about 1.08. It softens at SO"^ C, and in boiling water melts completely at 135° C

The voUdile oil. — The second principal ct)nstituent of turpentines are the volatile oils. The
chief ingredient of the three turiientine oils is a hydrocarbon of the same composition, OioHir;
nevertheless the three oils hiive distinct liydrocarl)ons differing from each other in physical if not in
chemical properties. The empirical formula of the hydro(!arbon is CiuHis, and according to the
latest researches of Wallacht it has the following structural formula:

thus being a dihydro-para cymene, paracymene being OjoHu,

CH(CHJ>i

I
c

c/\

CH

CCHi

The position of this particular terpens, pinene, will be best seen from the general classification
of terpenes taken from Wallach. J

I. — Hemiterpenes, or Per.oenes of the formula CsHs.
II. — Terpenes or Dipeiitenes, of the formula CuiHie.

(1) Pinene, obtained from many varieties of turpentine.

(2) Camphene, obtained artificially from camphor.

■ Colophon, a city of Ionia, whence rosin was obtained by the Greeks.
tAnn. Chem. (Liebig), 239, -19; Ber. d. Chem. Ge8.,24, 1545.
tAnn. Chem. (Leibig), 227, 300: Ber. d (Chem. Ges.), 24, 1527,

36

(3) Fencheite, obtained artifidally from ftnchoue, a constituent of many fennel oils.

(4) /.imu/icHC occurs in orange-peel oil, in oils of lemon, lierganiot, cummin, etr.

(5) Dipeidenc, obtained artificially from pineue. Occurs in Russian an 1 Swedisli turpentine.

(6) Siih-eslrene. occurs in Russian and l^wedisli turpentine.

(7) Phelandreiie. occurs in the oils of l)itter fennel and water fennel, elemi. eucalyptus.

(8) Tfipiiieiir. occurs in oil of cardamom.

(9) Terpinohne. only slij^htly known.

Ill.—I'olijlerpoici, of the formula (Gr,HK)„, as cedrenes Ci=,H.,|, caoutcliouc (CjH„)„, etc.

The hydrocarbon of the American and French oils of turpentine is pinene. It is dextro-
rotatory when obtained from tlie American turiientinc ()il, and is known as austro-fcrrhinfhciic or
aii.stmlcne; licvo-rotatory wlien obtained from the Frencli turpentine oil, and is known as tere-
hinthenc. Otherwise the two hydrocarbons agree entirely in specific gravity, boiling point, and
behavior towards chemical reagents.

The hydrocarijon of the Russian oil of turpentine is sylvc.strenc. It is dextro-rotatory, and
has a higher boiling point than pinene. The latter boils at io.jo to 156° C, the former at ITo'^ to
178° C.

But even the turpentine oils of high grade as found on tlic market do not consist of pure
pinene; especially is this true of ordinary oil of turpentine, which is obtained I'rom the cruder
turpentine by a single distillation with steam. Different samples vary from (me another consider-
ably in their specific rotary power as well as in their boiling point.

American oil of turpentine has a density of O.SGio to O.cSTO-^'. According to Allen* it begins
to boil at a temperature l)etwecn 150° aiid \i',0o (].^ a]id fully iiasses over below 170^ ('. ''A good
sami)le of rectified American oil will give it(l-'.i;5 ]ier cent of distilhite l)elow KioO, the greater part
of which will pass over between 1.">S^' and l(!()'^J"t, while in the experience of J. 11. Long,| "In
the examination of a large number of pure commercial samples of turpentine oil it was observed
that the boiling point was uniforndy at l.V.^ to IT.lP, and tliat .S.'. per cent of the samples distilled
between 155o and KiS^. The distillation is practically complete below l8o^ C."

Then, again, as found by Long, the vapor densities of many samjiles of oil are too high to
allow tlie formula tl,„II,„ for the entire oil. Fractions of different boiling points show different
degrees of specific rotation. All this would indicate that ordinary turpentine oil contains hydro-
carbons heavier than pure pinene, OioHiii- They are ju'obably either isomeric with pinene, but of a
higher boiling |)oint, or may belong to the polyterpenes.

Still less do we know of the source of these hydrocarbons. Whether they are produced by
the tree simultaneously with pinene, and are, therefore, to be found in the oleoresin, or whether
they are all or in i)art i)roduceil by external agencies after the turpentine has been dipped, can not
be answered. Probably the formation of these other hydrocarbons takes ])lace in both ways spon
taneou.sly in the tree and by some intluences outside the tree.

Indeed, all terpenes have this property in common that they easily undergo change, from optic-
ally active to inactive, fromhemitcriK-nes to terpenes and polyterpenes. The change can be brought
about either by heat alone, or by heating the terpenes with salts or acids. So, when a sample of
American turpentine oil of +18.0° was heated to 200° C. for two hours, it showed an opposite rota-
tj,„, ,,f —!).<)'.§ riuene heated to 250° to oOO"^ is converted into dipenteiu' C,„H„„ l)oiling at 175°^
and a hyilrocarbon CioH,., l)oiling at 2()(l'^ C.

These illustrations will suttico to show that the transformation of pinene into isomeric and
heavier hydrocarbons may occur, at least partially, after the turpentine has been removed from
the tree.

The crude turpentine from Fiiiun palustrh, or hnig-leaf pine, is thus made up of —

(1) Rosin, 7.5 to 'JO per cent ; mostly abietic anliy<lride.

(2) Aiistralene, 2.5 to 10 per cent; boils at 1.55 to 1.56° C.

(S) Some othiT terpenes of CiiiHit,; small portions; kind not known.

(4) .Some polyterpenes of (CsHs),, ; small portions; kind not known.

(5) Cymene ( ?) CioHu; small portions, if any ; boils at 175 to 176" C.

(6) Traces of formic anil acetic acids; produced probably by atluospheric oxidation dnrinj; collection of tur-
pentine.

'Allen, Com. Ilry. Anal, 2, 437. t Allen, Cnm. tlifl. JnnL, 2, 441.

XJoiir. Amd. and A2)pL Chem., 6, 5 \^ Muspratt's Cbemie, 4th ed., 1, 153

37

ANALYTICAL WORK.

As both the rosin and the volatile oil are easily soluble in chloroform, ether, carbon disnlphide,
etc., their separation from wood by any of the above solvents woidd appear to be an easy matter.
But an exact quaiititative determinaticm of the volatile oil i)resents considerable ditficnlties, and
for these reasons: (1) Wood cau not be dried free from moisture without driving off some of tbe
volatile hydrocarbons; (:i) the ether extract cau not \h' freed eutu-ely from ether without some
loss of the volatile oil.

If a weighed (juantity of wood shavings is exhausted with ether, the residue dried at 100° C.
and weighed, the total loss thus found will represent:

The moisture == H.
The rosin = h'.
The vohitile hydrocarbons = 7'.

It is suflicieut to determine two of these factors; tiie third could then be determined by differ-
ence. But as has been mentioned before, the ether extract can not be obtained in any degree of
purity without loss of turpentine. The evaporation of ether iu a stream of dry air, as proposed by
Dragendorf, for the estimation of essential oils iu general, docs not give satisfactory results with
turpentine oil, as Dragendorf himself observed.

A weighed quantity of a mixture of rosin and oil, made up in about the same proportion as
they exist in crude turpentine, was dissolved in a suitable amount of ether. The latter was then
evaporated in a current} of dry air till the odor of ether was hardly noticeable. The mixture was
found to have gained considerably in weight by retaining ether in the thick sirupy oleorosin. It
was only by heating at 100^ C. fm- some time tiiat all of the solvent could be driven off, and then
the mixture was found to have lost in weight. Repeated trials proved that this method could not
be used safely.

r^7

Fig. 17. — Mctlioil ol' chemical aualysis of tmiicntine.

An attempt w:is then made to determine the ([uantities B and E, and tlius lind T by dif
ference. A weighed quantity of wood shavings was placed in a small flask, a. The latter was
connected on (me side with a tray of drying bottles, on the other with two CaCl_. tubes, I> and c,
sinnlar in size and form. Tlie tlask is immersed in boiling wati'r and a current of dry air is ])asscd
through the whole apparatus for one ami oue-half hours. The Mask is then cooled and air is
passed for one and one half hours longer. (Fig. 17.)

It was thought that while l> would retain all the moisture and a port ion of the volatile com-
pounds, c would retain about the same amount of the v<datile ])roducts only, (lain in weight of c
subtracted fnnn that of h would then give the moisture H. The sample of wood shavings is then
exhausted with ether, the latter evaporated, and the residue heated at about 140° to 1,50'^ to con-
stant weight; this gives the, rosin R. If L be the total loss by extraction with ether, we have

But it was soon found by experiments upon i>ure turpentine oil that the two ('aCUj tubes did
not retain an equal amount of volatile oil. The quantity retained depended ujion many circum-
stances, the chief one being the amount of moisture alread.v j)resent iu the CaCl.. tubes.

38

Even had the tubes retained equal quantities of turpentine oil, this method would still have the
objection that one of the constituents Avas to be determined by ditt'erence — an objection esi)ecially
serious when the ingredient to be so determined is small in comparison witli the materials to be
weighed.

The writer has therefore attempted to make use of a somewhat different principle. A few trials
were sufficient to show that the method x^omised to give satisfactory results. Tlie basis of the
method is the same which serves for the production of Eussian turpentine oil on a large scale,
namely, the distillation of the volatile products from the wood itself, without previously obtaining
the turpentine. But instead of condensing the volatile products, their vapors are passed over
heated copper oxide whereby they are burned to water and <;arbou dioxide. Many trials were
made with this method upon pure materials and on samples of resinoiis wood; as the results were
found to be entirely concordant and satisfactory, the method was adopted, and by it were obtained
the results presented in this report.

DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD EMPLOYED.

A weighed amount of wood shavings is placed in a straigiit OaOU tube a. The tube is con-
nected on one side by means of a ca])illary tube with a drier A, which serves for freeing the air from
moisture and OO.. Tiie other end of the tube is connected with an ordinary combustion tube h
containing granulated GuO. The tube is drawn out at one end as is shown in the figure, and the
narrow portion is loosely filled with asbestos wool. The connection is made glass to glass, so that

Fig. 18. — Method of distillutiuu uf liuiifutiue.

the vapors of distillation do not come in contact with any rubber tubing. The forward end of the
combustion tube is connected with a OaCla tube c, (me-half of which is filled with granulated CaCU
and the second half with P2O5. Then follows a potash bulb d provided with two straight tubes, the
first one filled with solid KOH, the second with P2O3. The last tube is connected with an aspirator.
All the connections having been made air-tight, the connection between the tube a and the
drier A is shut off by means of a clamp and the aspirator turned on. When the combustion tube
Las been heated to dull redness the burner under the air-bath B is ht and the temperature raised
to lli)°-V2()° 0. The moisture contained in the tube escapes (juite rapidly, carrying with it some
turpentine oil. The capillary tube at the other end of a practically checks backward diffusion or
any accumulation of condensed vapors. In about 15 minutes all the moisture appears at the for-
ward end of the combustion tube. The clamp is now opened and a stream of air at the rate of
somewhat over one liter an hour is passed though tlie whole apparatus, while the temperature of
the air bath is raised to 155° to 16()o C, and kept at that point for about 45 minutes. Towards the
end of the operation the temperature is raised to 165° to 170° 0. for 10 minutes. Then the light
under the air-bath is turned off and air aspirated for 20 to 25 minutes longer. As the air- oath is

39

in close contact with the combustion furnace the whole length of the tube is kept at a temperature
above the boiling point of tuiijentine oil; in this way a complete distillation is insurert.

All the moisture is retained by c, while the CO2 is absorbed in the potash bulb d. The gain
in weight of c represents the moisture originally present in the sample of wood + the water pro-
duced in the combustion of the hydrocarbons. The gain in weight of <1 represents the amount of
COi derived from the combustion of the volatile products.

The tube a is now transferred to an ordinary Loxhlet's extraction apparatus and exhausted
witli ether. The latter is distilled off. th(>. residue dried for about 2 hours at 100° C. and weighed.
This represents the amtiunt of rosin iu the sample of wood taken.

As has been previously mentioned, the volatile oil of the oleoresin is not pure australene
CioHip = (C5H8)2. It probably contains some other hydrocarbons, either of the same formula or
belonging to the class of polyterpenes {G^Ha)!!- It is clear that whichever they be, their jtercent-
age composition is alike iu all; they all have 0 = 88.2.3 per cent, H= 11.77 per cent. Therefore,
so far as th« combustion of the volatile terpenes is concerned, they can all be represented by the
equation

0,0 H,6 + UO2 = IOGO2 + 8H2O

130 440 144

In other words, 440 parts of GO2 are derived from 136 parts of volatile terpenes.

440 : 1.3G = 1:X; X = 0.3091

i. e., 1 pait of OO2 obtained in the combustion i-epresents 0.300 parts of volatile hydrocarbons.
For every 440 parts of CO2 produced there are 144 parts of H2O formed.

440:144 = 1:X; X = 0.3272.

i. e., simultaneously with 1 part of CO2 tliere is produced 0.327 parts of HjO.

Let the weiglit of the sample taken = (('
Let the weight of CO2 obtained^ TT'
Let the weight of H2O obtained = W"
Then — JT' x 0.309 = T, the amount of volatile hydrocarbons.

W X 0.327 = if', the amount of H.iO corresponding to the volatile hydrocarbons.
tV" X — H'^H, the amount of moisture in the vrood.
T = per cent of T; H = per cent of moisture.

w 7f

Thus the moisture, the volatile hydrocarbons, and rosin are obtained directly from the same
sample. Where many estimations are to be made it is of course unnecessary to cool down the
combustion tube between successive combustions.

The temperature of distillation. — Some experiments were made to determine at what tempera-
ture it is safe to conduct the distillation. Although pure turpentine boils at 156-160° C, yet
in open air it can be volatilized at a much lower temperature, even on the water-bath, without any
difficulty. Especially is this the case when the vapors are removed as soon as formed by a stream
of air, but it must be remembered that the volatilization of the essential oil directly from the wood
might be considerably hindered by the large amount of rosin.

A sample of wood distilled by tlie method outlined above gave the following results at diiier-
ent temperatures :

120°

UO"

156O-60O

170°

T =
H20 =

Pf.r cent.

1.09

11.17

Per cent.
1.18
11.33

Per cent.

1.30

11.23

Per cent.
1.26

Per cent.
1.32

Another sample gave:

T =
HjO =

Per cent, l Per cent.
4.00 ■ 3.98
8.79

40

The results would indicate that the distillation is practically complete at 160° and that the
wood itself does not contribute any COj by partial deijonipositiou at that high temperature, for,
should the latter be the case, higher results might be expected at ISO" than at 100° and then the
sapwood would give much higher numbers for turpentine oil than tliose actually obtained.

Even if this method does not give tlie absolute amounts of volatile hydrocarbons, yet it certainly
gives results very near tlie truth, and, what is more im])ortant, under the same ('onditions it gives
constant results. Therefore, by employing strictly parallel conditions in the analysis of the differ-
ent samples, results are obtained whiclicau be safely used as indices of comparison of the relative
amounts of volatile hydrocarbons in the samples under analysis.

Materkd for iiHahjKh and method of de-ilf/uation.

ilaleriah. — Trees No. 'I'J nnil 53, iibnndoiipd f) years.

Trees No. 60 iintl 61, aliinidmied 1 year.

Trees No. 1 and 2, not taiijied.

Trees .54-.57, abandoned 5 years.

Trees 58-59, abandoned 5 years

Trees 63-65, abaniloned 1 year.

Trees 66-69, al)andonpd 1 year.

Trees 17-19, not tnpiied.
Generally disk II is 23 I'eet from fjronnd.
^ disk III is 33 feet from gronnd.

disk IV is 43 feet from gronnd.

Method of dcsifinafion. — It was thouglit best to make a somewhat detailed analysis of a few bled
and unbled trees in order to gain an insight into the quantitative distribution of turpentine in the
trees. Each disk was divided into pieces of about thirty lings each, the heart and sapwood,
being kept separate. The number of the disk is designated by a Tioman tigure, the kind of wood
by either a for sajjwood or A for heartwood. The Arabic tigure which precedes the // or .v desig-
nates the number of the piece counting for the sapwood from the bark, for the heartwood from the
line of division between sap and heart.

Is

28

Ih

SK

3K

■tH

Fio. 19. — Distribiitidii of tnrpenlinc in trees. (A piece marked Ti'i. III. 2h iiie.iua tree Ko. 5*J. di.sk ITI, tlio secoiid piece of the heart.)

Preparation of material. — The fir.st six tables give the results of what might be called "detail"
analysis, where each piece of about tliirty rings has been analyzed separately. The material for
analysis was jirejjared in the foUowiug way: A radial section oC the disk, about 1 to 2 incites
thick, is selected. A piece of 1 inch is cut off transver.sely and the strij) is then divided into
l)ieces of about thirty rings each. From the freshly cut transvei'se surface ahont 15 grams of thin
shavings are ]>laned off and iilaced in a stoi>pered Itotth'. Tlie exact amount used for analysis,
usually from 3 t(t 5 grams, is found by weighing the bottle before and after taking out the portion
for analysis.

The second set of tables, Yll to XII, inclusive, give the results of ''average" analy.sis. The
nniterial for these analyses was obtained by mixing ctjual (inanlities of shavings from the corre-
sponding j)ortions of several trees and taking for analysis an average sample of the mixture. The
saj) wood fnrnished one analysis, and the heart wood was either analyzed as a whole or divided
ii:to two i)ortions, l/( and 2h, if of considerable thickness.

Xotes on Tablex I to XII.

Each table contains a column "tralculated for wood free from moisture," giving the per cent of
vf)latile hydrocarbons and rosin obtained by calculation from results actually found. Objections
might be raised to this mode of interpreting the results. It miglit be said that the moisture in the

41

wood can not he disregarded because it is as mncli an essential proximate constituent of wood as
the turpentine itself is. But since the analyses were not made soon after the trees had been felled,
the moisture fonnd in the samples does Tiot represent the original moisture, uor does it represent
e(|ual portions of it in all samples. Tlie numbers given iu the column '-water" are of course sug-
gestive as to tlu- comparative degree of retention of moisture by the dilferent samples, since the
latter were all exposed to about the same intlnences. lint it seemed best to compare the amouuts
of volatile hydrocarbons and rosin on wood free from that variable constituent; the more so as
some time elapsed between the analysis of the first and last samples.

The last column in each table contains the ratio between the volatile hydrocarbons and rosin.
This ratio is multiplied by 100 and means that for every 100 parts (tf rosin as many parts of the

volatile hydrocarbons are found as is indicated in the colnmn. This ratio ( p ) is of little value

in cases when the amount of turpentine is small, because a very small increase of the first con-
stituent— an increase within experimental error — will change the (pioticnt considerably. An

T
increase of 0.07 per cent of volatile hydrocarbons in (iO, IV, l.v will bring up ,, from T.li to 10. A

decrease of 0.07 iter cent in 5li, IV, li.v will chan<

T

from 25.20 to alxiut 10. These numbers are

therefore of very litth> significance when api)lied to the sapwood of all samples, to entire tree.r»2,
and to some parts of trees CO and 1, all of which show only small portions of turpentine.

DISCUSSION IIF UESlTI/rS ( IIJTAINEI).

Relation of rosin und rolatUe hydroi-dilmn to moisture. — The amount ol' moisture retained Ijy
different samples does not seem to have any direct relation to the amount of oleoresin in these
samjdes. Yet in the same tree, or rather in the different jiarts of the same disk, there seems to exist
something like a relation of the two. This is especially noticeable iu tree No. r»3. The moisture
retained seems to vary inversely with the amount of oleoiesin iu the sami)le. (Jompare for example
in 5;5 11, Ih, 2/(, ."./(; in o.'! Ill, l/t, 2/i., .y*, 17/; in o;5 IV, 2//, 3/(, 1/;. The piece richest in oleoresin
is generally the ])Oorest in moisture. But this is by no means a universal rule. Some trees show
about the same per cent of moisture iu parts widely ilitt'eriiig from each other in the amounts of
turpentine, and in many instances a snmller amount of turpentine is associated with a smaller ])er
cent of moisture.

S(iiin-oo(] (Old heartirood. — All the analyses, detail aiul average, show conclusively that the sap-
wood is comparatively very poor in turpentine; it is inunatcrial whether it comes from a rich tree
or a poor one, from a tapped tree or an untapped one. The turpentine in sapwood reaches 3 to 4
per cent in very rich trees, as in Nos. :>?,, (11, and 2; in the renuiining trees it is 2 to ;! jter cent.
(;onse(pxently the results obtained for sai)woo(l aic; not taken into account in the following iiara-
graiihs. When dilferences between trees are spoken of, it applies entirely to heart-wood.

The different jxiris of the xonie dink show a constant r(datioii in nearly all instances. In most
cases Ih is the richest, and the heartwood glows pooler as we approach the pith of the tree. In
a few cases, as in I 111 and in 1 IV, \h and 2// are practically identical, while in some instances,
ill 2 III, 01 II, 01 111, and 5;) 11, \h is poorer than 2/(. In nearly all cases the decline is marked
in .■{/(, and 4// is usually found to be the poorest part of the disk. This relationshii) can be repre-
sented in a general way by the following curve.

Ih

2h

3Ji

4K

Fhi. 20.— Kflntioiisliip of difloreiil, i nits (if same ilisk.

Relation of volatile hydrocarbons to ronin.— As the turpentine in the tree is a solution of rosin
in an essential oil, it will follow that the richer a tree is in turpentine the richer it will be in the
constituents that go to nmke u)) this mixture. One would also expect that the ratio between the
volatile hydrocarbons and rosin would be tolerably constant in the different i)arts of (he same
tree. But the results of analysis do not indicate it. They show that this ratio increases with the
11500— No. 8 6

42

amount of rosin. A part of heartwood having twice as much rosin as another part will contain

more than twice as much volatile products as the second part. This is true in a general sense of

parts of the same disk, of parts of different disks in the same tree, and parts from different trees;

there is no distinction in that respect between bled and unbled trees. This relationship can be

formulated in the following way: The crude turpentine from heartwood rich in oleoresin, wUl

yield a comparatively larger amount of turpeutine oil than the turpentine from heartwood poor in

oleoresin.

It has been shown that the heartwood grows poorer from Ih towards the pith of the tree. It

T
will therefore follow from what has been said in the preceding paragraph that — will also grow

H

smaller from Ih to the pith. The yield of volatile oil from a constant quantity of turpentine can

be expressed in a general way by a graphic illustration similar to that which expresses the yield

of total oleoi'esiu from different parts of tlie disk.

Ih

2K

3h

4h

Hla

Fifi. 21.— Yield "I' volatile nil from i-(>iist,:nit iiiiaiitily nf turiM-atine

It is difficult to explain satisfactorily this decrease of . The two parts of the radial sections

that have been the longest exposed to air arc. l.v and the last /(. the ijuestion naturally arises —

T
May not the decrease of ^be due to a greater evai)pration of volatile hydrocarbons from these

two ends? But this can hardly be so. S;}, II, -ih was analyzed at intervals of two months and
furnished the following data:

I. Sept. 28.

II. Nov. 27.

H50=11.23
T = l.HO
K = 7. 96

7.24
1.34
8.12

Calculated for wood free from moisture:

I.

II.

T=l.3n

K-.8.96

1.30
8.75

Sufficient experimental data are lacking to prove conclusively that the volatile hydrocarbons
do not evaporate to any extent from the heartwood, except from freshly cut surfaces of it.

Relation, hctn^een (liffereitt (lisls of the .same tree. — There is no constant relation between the
different disks of the same tree so far as the amount of oleoresin is concerned. Although the disks
do vary from each otlier, the variation can not be connected with gravitation by virtue of which
the lower disks would contain a larger amount of turpentine than the upper ones; for different
trees vary from each other considerably in that respect, the variation being apparent in both bled
and unbled trees. If a, b, c stand for the amounts of oleoresin in disks denoted by Roman numbers,
the relative magnitudes being represented by the letters in the alphabetic order, then the results
of analysis can be condensed in the following table for the trees denoted in Arabic numbers :

53

60

61

1

2

TV

a

b

ffl

c

III

i

c

a

c

b

II

c

a

b

b

a

43

It is evident that no constant relation, as to amounts of oleoresin, exists between the disks of the
same tree.

Comparison of tree 52 with 53. — These two trees were both supposed to have been sound,
healthy trees at the time of felling, and yet they differ from each other as much as two trees could
differ. The heartwood of one is very rich in turpentine, that of the other contains comparatively
very small quantities, only a trace. How to explain this difference? Previous to felling they had
both been tapi)ed for four consecutive years, consequently both must have contained considera-
ble amounts of turpentine. Since the last tapping they stood for live years side by side, both
exposed to the same influences. This great difference can not be traced directly to tapping, for
tlie latter, it may be assumed, would have affected l)otli trees equally. The cause of the difference
between 53 and 52 ought to be looked for, rather, in the condition of the two trees before tapping.
In connection with this it would be interesting to know how much turpentine had each tree yielded
when tapped.

Comparison of tree 60 irith 61. — There is a decided difference l>etween the two trees. The
highest numbers in 60 are 0.84 per cent for volatile hydrocarbons and 5.35 for I'osin, while in 61
0.75 and 5.67 are the lowest numbers for the corresponding constituents, the highest being 3.49
and 16.29, respectively. Here again we have two trees of about the same age, under apparently
tlie same conditions of growth, tapjied at the same time and abandoned for the same length of time
before felling, and yet differing very widely from each other. It is difficult to conceive why tap-
ping should have aff"ected the heartwood of these two trees in such a strikingly different manner.
If the assumption is made that the tapping had drained both trees equally, what explanation can
be given for the fact that within only one year of abandonment one tree is very lich in turpentine,
while the other has less than one- fourth as much?

Comparison of trees 52 and 53 with (JO and 61. — Compare 53 and 01. Here we have two trees
both very rich in turpentine, but while 53 had five years of rest after tapping, 01 had only one
year. Had the tapping forced the trees to jiour out their oleoresin previously stt)red up in the
heart, we should expect to tind in the time of rest the prime factor for a tree in resuming its natural
condition. But, on the contrary, results of analysis show that time ol' abandonment before felling
is of little importance. While we can have a tree very rich in turpentine within Ave years after
tapping, we can also have trees rich and poor even within one year, and trees almost totally
deprived of turpentine in the heartwood within Ave years after tapping.

Comparison of 1 with 2. — These two trees had never been tapped, and yet neither is rich in
turpentine. No. 2 contains about twice as much turpentine as No. 1, the difference becoming
smaller as we go up the tree. The highest niimbcivs for 2 are 1.93 and 14.10 for T and B, respec-
tively, the lowest O.SO and 5.89, with an average of about 1 and 7. We can say that there is as
much difference between untapped trees as there is between trees that have been tappied.

Average anah/ses. — The average analyses cover 16 trees; 13 trees furnish 4 sets of analyses of
tapped trees, and 3 trees furnish 1 set of untapped. The results obtained are summarized in the
following table :

II.

III.

Remarks.

r.

72.

T
j^X 100.

1
T. i Jt.

T

-j,.< 100.

54-57
57-59
63-65
66-69
17-19

Per cent.
0.93
0,80
0.91
0.89
0.64

Per cent.
5.88
4.06
5.32
4.95
2.98

15.58
19.63
17.18
18.00
21.37

I'er cent.
0.58
0.82

Per cent.
3.98
4.29

14.04
19.10

Abandoned 5 years.

Do.
Abandoned 1 year.

Do.
Not tapped.

0.71

3.21

21.76

These results show a pretty constant average number for turpentine in tapped trees. The
heartwood of untapped trees is poorer in both volatile oil and rosin than that of tapped trees.
And here again it is worthy of notice, that time of abandonment is of little importance to tapped
trees. The trees that had been abandoned for one year are fully as rich as those that had live years
to recover from tapping.

Comparison of tapped with untapped trees. — If now the heartwood of tapped trees be com-

44

pared witb that of untapped, one is at a loss as to what conchisious should be drawn from so few
analytical data. It is remarkable that the two richest trees and the poorest tree are among those
that had been tapped. Of the remaining 19 trees there is no difterence between the 14 tapped and
5 untapped. Whatever differences are found among bled trees are equally found among those that
have not been tapped.

Indeed, from the study of the results of analysis the writer is of the opinion that the difi'erence
in untapped trees is due to the same cause as the difference in trees that have been tapped. As
stated on page 43, the cause of the difterence. among tapped trees can not be traced directly to
tapping; it ought to be looked for, rather, in the condition of the trees previous to tapping.

The difterence between trees 52 and 53 can be explained on the following hypothesis: 53 had
been a rich tree fn)m early growth, and had a large amount of turpentine stored up in the heart-
wood ; 52 for some reason or other had very little stored away. When the two trees were subjected
to tapping they gave up whatever turpentine they had in the supirood and whatever they t^ould
produce from season to season, till at the end of four years the production became too small in
amount and too poor in ([uality. The trees were then abandoned. But tree Xo. .53 hail its oleo-
resin in the heartwood untouched, while Xo. 52 had hardly any before tapping, and for the same
unknown cause did not store away any in the heartwood since the tree had been abandoned.

The explanation offered in the preceding paragraph gains still more probability when trees CO
and 01 are compared with each other and also with 52 and .53. The dift'eience between 1 and 2,
the results of average analyses, all these are very suggestive of the theory that the sap and not
the heart of the tree supplies the turpentine \vhen the tree is tajiped. The fact that the heartwood
of trees felled one year after tapping is fully as rich or as poor as that of trees felled five years after
tapping seems to the writer of especial signiticauce, for it shows that the richness of the heart-
wood in a tapped tree is independent of time of rest before felling.

It is a well known fact that when a pine tree is cut transversely, liquid turpentine immediately
appears on the fresh surface of the sapwood, while the heartwood remains perfectly clear. It would
seem as if the turpentine iu the sap is far less viscid than that in th<', heart of a tree. It is prob-
able that the turpentine in the sap is richer in volatile hydrocarbons than that in the heart. [A
difterence of cell structure and manner of existence of oleoresiiis may also account for this ditter
ence iu part. — B. E. F.|

It is generally stated that crude turjjentine as obtained on a large scale yields from 10 to 25

T

per cent of volatile oil. This gives p = 11.11 to 30, with an average of over 20. This average is

T

somewhat higher than that for the p as found for the turpentine from heartwood of the 21 trees

analyzed. Although experimental data are wanting to show conclusively that the difi'erence in
the consistency of the oleoresin from sapwood and heartwood is due to a difference in the relative
amount of volatile oil, yet it is <[uite jn-obable that this should be the cause. The oleoresin in the
heartwood of trees has been produced for the most part when the heartwood was yet sa|)wood.
Therefore that part of turpentine which is found iu the heartwood is the (jldest in age, and con-
sequently has been exposed the longest to oxidizing influences of air, which gradually rei)lacethe
water when the sajiwood changes to heartwood. It is the same kind of oxidation and of thick-
ening whicli takes jdaee when crude turpentine is exposed to the air and sun, or when a fresh

T

cut is made in the bark of a tree. It is probably for the same reason that ^ becomes smaller as we

approaeh the pith of the tree, because the i»arts nearest the pith are the oldest.

It is diflicult to conceive how the thick oleoresin of the heartwood could be made to flow
towards the incision when a tree is tapped. It is also ditticult to explain by what means the tree
could change this thick turpentine into a less viscid solution in ftrder that it may flow toward the
wound.

One would. iudge, a priori, from the great difference in the consistency of the turi)entine in the
heart and sap that only the liquid turi)entine will flow when a tree is tapped. Tapping will then
have little eft'ect, if any, upon the oleoresin stored \\\> in the heartwood of the tree. A tree wliosc
heartwood is rich in turpentine will remaiu so after tapping.

45

The writer is not willing to generalize too hastily from so few results and consider them as a
solution of the problem. A large number of aualyses devoid of the possibility of chance selection
of samples is lu^'cssary b(!fore a positive or a negative answer can be given to the queslion, Does
the tappiug of trees for turpentine attect the subsequeut chemical comxjosition of theheartwoodi!

But, however few in number the results are, they admit of the following couclusious:

(1) Trees that have been tapped can still contain very much turpeiitiue in the hcartwood.

(2) Trees that have beeu abandoned for only one year before felling can contain fully as much
turpentine in the heartwood as trees that have been abandoned for five years.

(3) Trees that have not been tapped at all do not necessarily contain more turpentine in the
heartwood than trees that have been tapped.

The accompanying diagram (page 46) serves to show what proportion of each disk was involved

in each of the detail aualyses, and the results in each (;ase. The right-hand vertical line represents

the pith of the tree, the horizontal lines represent the radial extension of each disk as numbered by

ronian number, the position of the disk in the tree being maintained as in natuie, IV being the top,

II the lower, and III the intervening disk. The subdivisions of radii represent the actual divisions

of the disk to scale of one-half natural size, the portions to the left of the heavy subdivision line

representing sapwood .s 1 and s 2; the portions to the right hcaitwood hi,h.,, divided according to

the method as indicated on page 41. The four columns of figures over each disk piece represent

results pertaining to that piece; they stand in order from the top for (1) number of rings, (2)

T
volatile hydrocarbons, (3) rosin, (4) ratio ^ ; (2) and (3) as calculated on wood free from moisture.

For instance, for tree No. 53, disk IV, s 2, we find —

40 =Nniiiber of rings.
0.40 =Per cent of volatile hydrocarbons.
3. 81 = Per cent of rosin.

10.37 = -^.

46

Tree
No. 53.

37.
0.18
0.97

18.39

40.
0.40
3.81

10.37

I

30.
0.46
3.96

11. SO

34.

4.58
24. 01
19.02

33.
4.43

22.23
20.12

31.

3.86
17.74
21.77

35.

2.66
15.19
17.53

40.
0.39
2.96
I 13.01

37.
0.42
3.02
I 13.82

I

35.
3.87
21.77
17.85

38.
3.81
20.09
18.94

30.
2.10
11.97
I 17. 53

18.
1.25
9.71

13.10

40.
0.19
0.96

19.77

33.

2.56

12.02

I 21.23

32.00

4.39

24.70

22.43

32.

2.22
12.30
18.29

1.46

8.96

16.33

Tree Ko. 52.

40.
0.26
1.40

18.78

35.
0.34
1.34

25.20

I

32.
0.15
1.65
9.33

34.
0.22
1.97

11.11

30.
0.23
1.72

13.38

30.
0.26
1.92

13.64

30.
0.25
1.99
I 12. 71

40.
0.25
1.87

13.67

30.
0.15
1.77
I 8.64

30.
0.20
1.87

10.51

32.
0.14
1.86
7.65

27.
0.18
1.60
I 9.65

11.

0.18
l..i3

I

40.
0.30
2.19

13.64

40.
0.31
2.01

15.48

I

36.
0.30
2.17

14.14

32.
0.26
1.83

14.38

35.
0.17
1.98
8.83

24.
0.17
1.61

11.60

IV.

m.

II.

IT.

in.

u.

Tree
No. 61.

30.

0.22

3.01

7.35

35.

0.20

3.01

6.50

36.
0.28
2.75

10.20

40.
3.07
13.55
22.65

33.
3.49

16.29
21.42

35.

3.14
14.18
21.42

30.

1.08
8.04
13. 39

35.
0.26
3.11
8.36

36.
1.57
7.88

19.85

33.
2.69
13.57
19.86

30.
2.92
11.34
25.81

35.
0.75
5.67

13.28

Tree No. 60.

1

30.
0.16
2.32
7.02

1

27.
0.24
2.66
9.09

28.
0.84
5.35
1 15. 59

1

36.
0.41
3.13

12.85

1

40.

—

30.
0.28
2.65

10.33

34.
0.35
2.88

12.16

30.
0.58
3.60

15. 27 1

36.
0.40
2.99

13.23

1

36.
0.42
2.42

17.04

1

20.
0.50
3.39

14.70

'30.
0.29

2.26
12.74

35.
0.33
2.63
1 13. 66

,

37.
0.71
5.03

14.07

33.
0.51
2.71
1 18.62 1

35.
0.73
5.19

14.02

1

27.
0.47
3.62

13.00

n.

IV.

m.

TreeXo.l.

30.

28.

32.

19

0.22

0.25

1.

07

1

06 — J-

1.43

1.57

7.61

6

63

1

15.27

15. 97 1

14.

12

1 16,04 1

80.

33.

30.

25.

13.

0.32

0.34

0.94

0.73

0.40

2.25

2.25

4.90

5.12

3.67

1 14.49

1 13.90

1 19. 11

1

14.21

1

11.20

30.

35.

36.

34.

15.

0.20

0.17

0.18

0.66

0.37

1.06

1.32

6. 57

3.92

2.23

1 18.55 1

13. 72 1

17.97 1

16.67

1

16.50

30.

36.

30.

30.

0.31

0.34

1.13

0.87

2.52

2.71

8.10

6.41

1

12.12

1

12. 36 1

13. 98 1

13.53

80.

36.

33.

28.

17.

0.18

0.24

1.37

0.92

0.86

1.95

2.24

9.14

5.89

7.40

TroelTo.2.

1

8.94 1

10.06

1

14.77

1 15. 61

1 11. 64

30.

26.

34.

30

30.

11.

0.20

0.31

1..55

1

93

1.39

1.16

4.29

3.05

10.10

U

19

8.78

8.94

1 4.56

1 10. 00

1 15.35

1

14

4

1 15.75

1

12.99

IV.

ni.

u.

IV.

III.

Fig. 22. Diagram of detail analyses, representing radial dimensions of test pieces in each disk. Scale, one-half natoral size.

47

Table I.~Trec No. 53.

Calculated on wood

No. of
disk.

Part

of

disk

Num-
ber
of

Width.

Water.

Volatile
hyflrocar-

Rosin.

free from

moisture.

Vol.hydroc. . .

Volatile

Kosin. >■ lO"

rings.

hydrocar-
bons.

Rosin.

Cm.

Percent.

Fercent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

1»

37

3.3

10.51

0.18

0.87

0.18

0. '7

18.39

•Is

40

4.0

10.05

0.17

0.86

0.19

0.96

19.77

II

Ik

33

3.0

9.11

2.32

10. 93

2.56

13.02

21.23

■ih

32

2.9

8.79

4.00

17.83

4.39

24.70

22.43

3ft

32

5.0

8.47

2.03

11. 26

2.22

12.30

18.29

ih

28

10.0

•11. 23

1.30

7.96

1.46

8.96

16.33

U

40

2.7

9.08

0.35

2.69

0.39

2.96

13.01

2«

37

2.6

8.90

0.38

2.75

0.42

3.02

13.82

m

lA

35

3.5

7.89

3.57

20.05

3.87

21.77

17.85

2ft

38

4.1

8.04

3.50

18.48

3.81 ,

20.09

18.94

•

3A

30

5.5

8.65

1.92

10.95

2.10

11.97

17.53

4A

18

7.0

8.79

1.14

8.86

1.25

9.71

13. 10

U

40

4.0

8.96

0.36

3.47

0.40

3.81

10.37

2s

30

3.0

8.67

0.42

3.62

0.46

3.96

11.60

IV

1ft

34

3.9

8.04

4.20

22.08

4. .56

24. Ul

19.02

2A

33

3.0

7.93

4.13

20. .=16

4.49

22. 33

20.12

:iA

31

5.8

8.65

3. .53

10.21

3.86

17.74

21.77

4A

15

5.3

9.55

2.41

13.74

2.66

15.19

17.53

Table ll.—Ttce No. 52.

,

\s

40

3.1

9.72

0.27

1.98

0.30

2.19

13.64

2»

40

3. 9

9.77

0.28

1.81

0.31

2.01

15.47

II

lA

36

4.6

8.67

0. 28

1.98

0.30

2.17

14.14

2A

32

3.0

8. «

0.24

1.68

0.26

1.83

14.38

3A

35

6.8

8.80

0.16

1.81

0.17

1.98

8.83

4A

24

7.4

8.55

0.16

1.38

0.17

1.51

11.60

1*

30

3.0

9.12

0.23

1.81

0.25

1.99

12. 7r

2.S'

40

3.5

9.00

0.23

1.68

0.25

1.87

13.67

lA

30

3.4

8.44

0.14

1.62

0.15

1.77

8.64

m.,

2A

30

3.0

8.01

0.18

1.71

0.20

1.89

10. 51

3A

32

4.8

8.37

0.13

1.70

0.14

1.86

7.65

4ft

27

6.9

9.35

0.14

1.45

0.15

1.60

9.65

5ft

11

.5.0

9.21

0.13

1.39

0.14

1.53

9.26

1»

40

3.5

8.88

0.24

1.28

0.26

1.40

18.78

2»

35

3.3

8.49

0. 31

1.23

0.34

1.34

25.20

rvJ

lA

32

3.0

9. lis

0.14

1. 50

0.15

1.65

9.33

2A

34

2.8

8.86

(1. 20

1.80

0.22

1.97

11.11

1

.3ft

30

3.6

8.48

0. 21

1.57

0.23

1.72

13.38

I

4ft

30

6.8

8.10

0.24

1.76

0.26

1.92

13.64

Table III.— Tree No. 61.

c

u

35

3.0

7.94

0.18

2.77

0.20

3.01

6.50

2r

35

3.0

7.90

0.24

2.87

0. 26

3.11

8.36

n

lA

36

2.8

7.35

1.45

7.30

1.57

7.88

19.85

2ft

33

3.2

7.58

2.49

12.54

2.69

13. 57

19.86

3ft

30

4.5

7.64

2.70

10.46

2.92

11.34

25.81

4A

35

9.5

7.10

0.70

5.27

0.75

5.67

13.28

Is

30

3.0

7.65

0.20

2.78

0.22

3.01

7.35

2»

36

2.7

7.43

0.20

2. 55

0.28

2.75

10.20

m

lA

40

3.1

7.14

2.85

12.58

3.07

13.55

22.65

2ft

33

3.2

7. 46

3.23

15.08

3.49

16. 29

2L42

3A

35

6.0

7.41

2.91

13. 59

3.14

14.18

21.42

4A

30

8.0

7.09

1.00

7.47

1.08

8.04

13.39

Table IV.— Tree No. 60.

,

i«

30

2.7

9.91

0.26

2.04

0.29

2.26

12.74

2»

35

2.8

9.34

0.30

2.39

0.33

2.63

12. 58

n

lA

37

3.5

8.72

0.65

4.62

0.71

5.03

14.07

2A

33

4.5

9.15

0.46

2.47

0.51

2.71

18.62

3A

35

4.6

8.01

0.67

4.71

0.73

5.19

14.02

4A

27

6.5

8.45

0.43

3.31

0.47

3.62

13.00

f

1»

30

3.1

8.74

0.25

2.42

0.28

2.65

10.33

2j

34

2.8

8.60

0.32

2.63

0.35

2.88

12.18

m-

1ft

30

3.2

8.68

0.53

3.47

0.58

3.80

15.27

2ft

36

4.4

9.02

0.36

2. 72

0.40

2.99

13.23

3A

36

4.5

7.73

0.38

2. 23

0.42

2.42

17.04

I

4A

20

6.0

7.73

0.46

3.13

0.50

3.39

14.70

(

Is

30

2.6

7.51

0.15

2.15

0.16

2.32

7.02

2s

27

2.6

7.84

0.22

2.45

0.24

2.66

9.09

1^1

1ft

28

3.7

7.77

0.77

4.94

0.84

6.35

15.59

1

2A

38

5.0

8.12

0.37

2.88

0.41

3.13

12.85

3A

40

8.0

7.92

0.26

2.81

0.28

3.05

9.18

* 53, H, 4ft has been analyzed some three weeks earlier than the remaining parts of this tree, henco
I large per cent of moisture. See page 46.

48

Table \.—Iree No. 1.

Calculated on wood

N"iim

free from nujisture.

No. of

Tart

of
ilisk.

l)pr
of

Widtli.

Water.

Volatile
hydrocar-
bon.

Rosin.

Vol.hvdrop,.

RoBin, X 1«»

Volatile

rings.

livdrocar.

Kosin.

bona.

Cm.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

U

30

2.0

8.67

0.18

0.97

0.20

1.06

18. 55

2»

35

3.0

8.77

0.16

1.21

0.17

1. 32

13.72

11^

U

35

3.6

8. .56

1.08

6.01

1.18

6.57

17.97

1

2ft

34

0.5

8.39

0.60

3.60

0.06

3.92

]<<,67

[

:);i

14

3.0

7.67

0.34

2.06

0.37

2.23

16. .50

1»-

30

2.8

7.94

0.30

2.07

0. 32

2.25

14.49

2«

33

3.0

7.92

0.31

2.23

0.34

2. 42

13.90

mi

l/l

30

3.8

8.13

0.86

4.50

0. 04

4.90

19, U

2/1

25

4.2

7.78

0,07

4.72

0. 73

5,12

14,21

3A

13

3.5

7.57

0.37

3.30

0.40

3,57

11.22

Is

30

2.2

8.33

0.20

1.31

0.22

1.43

15,27 •

ly

'lu

28

2.8

8.12

0. 23

1.44

0. 25

1.57

1.-..97

1ft

32

5.0

7.94

0.09

7.01

1.07

7.61

14. 12

2ft

19

5.2

7.73

0.98

6.11

1.06

6.62

16.04

Tablk VI.— n-ee No. 2.

1<

30

3.0

7.65

0.18

3.95

0.20

4.29

4.56

(

2«

26

2.7

8.19

0.28

2.80

0,31

3.05

10. i:o

1

1ft

34

3.5

7,31

1.44

9.25

1,55

10.10

15,35

II

2h

30

5,0

8.11

1.77

13. 05

1,93

14. 19

14,41

3ft

30

6,0

8,16

1.27

8.06

1, 39

8.78

15,75

4ft

11

4.2

7.88

1.07

8.24

1,16

8,94

12, 99

It

30

2.7

8.00

0.16

1.79

0,18

1.95

8,94

2«

36

3.0

8.01

0. 22

2.06

0. 24

2.24

10. 06

III-,

1ft

33

3.3

7.44

1.25

8.46

1.37

9.14

14.77

1

2A

28

5.5

7.78

0.85

5.44

0.92

5.89

15, 61

[

3ft

17

4.8

7.12

0.80

6.87

0.86

7.40

11.64

f

Is

'30

2.7

8,2U

0.28

2.31

0.31

3. .52

12. 12

IV

2»

36

3.0

8,08

0.31

2.49

0 34

2.71

12.36

1ft

30

3.6

8,10

1.04

7.44

1.13

8.10

13.98

i

2ft

30

7.6

7.81

0.80

5.91

0.87

6.11

13.53

Table VII

—Trees 54, 55, 56

anA 57.

Serial
No. of
trees.

No. of disk.

No. of
rings.

Width.

Water.

Volatile
hydro-
carbons.

Rosin.

Calculated for wood
free from moisture.

Vol. hydr. „„
Rosin, ^^l""

Vol.hydr.

Rosin.

54
55
56

[ II, «.

{

73
73
48

Cm.
3.8
.5.4
4.8

Per cent.
■ 7. 10

Per cent.
0.18

Percent.
1.37

Per cent.
0.20

Per cent.
1.48

13.14

57

58

3.0 J

54

1

[• 90

10.5

55

56

[ n,ift.

90
33

8.4
6.5

• 7.11

1.03

6.30

1.16

6.78

17.14

57

41

5,8

54

f

31

10.5 ^

55
56

I II, 2ft.

1

1

40
15

8.4
6.5

6.68

0.C5

4.04

0.70

4.97

14.01

57

70

5.8

54
55
57

i ni, s.

1

68
65
52

.3.0
5.8
5.0

\ 6.05

0.24

1.60

0.26

1.93

13.33

54
55
57

I III, ift

1

85
92
60

9.5
8.5
5.0

( 7.09

0.75

4.46

0.81

4.80

16.82

54
55
57

I III, 2ft

\

32
41

63

9.5
8.5
6.0

( 7.46

0.31

2.75

0.34

2.97

11.27

Table VIII.— 2Vee« 58 an

a 59.\

58

69

] II, S. \

56

5.7
5.5

\ 6.48

0.26

1.65

0.28

1.78

15,76

58
59

1 II. H. ^

.^2
24

7,0
5.5

1 7.04

0.74

3.77

0.8

4.06

19.63

58
69

\ III, s. \

00

87

5.2
6.0

I 7.20

0.18

1.25

0.20

1,35

14,14

58
69

\ m.H. \

5S
23

7.0
5.5

^ 7.27

0.76

3.98

0.82

1.29

19.10

49

Table TK..— Trees GS, fi4, and GS.

Serial
No. of
trees.

No.ofdiat.

Ko.of
rings.

Width.

Water.

Volatile
hydro,
caxbons.

Eosin.

Calculated for wood
free from moisture.

Vol. hydr. ^j„p

Vol. hydr.

Eosin.

Eosin .

63
64
65

S-1

03
95
50

Cm.

5.2
3.0
0.6

Per cent.
I 8.02

Per cent.
0.16

Per cent.
1.60

Per cent.
0.18

i'er cent.
1.74

10.00

63
64
65

] ...... {

106
53
20

1(1.0
6.0
4.5

I 8.20

0.74

3.99

0.81

4.35

18.65

63
64
65

I n,2A. i

41
21
18

10.0
0.0
4.5

i 7.68

0.02

5.81

1.00

*

6.29

15.80

Table X.— 'frees 66, 67, 68, and 69.

66

] r

48

7.0 1

67
68

I U.S. \

GO
60

6.5 1
3.3 f

8.35

0.13

1.63

0.14

1.78

8.00

69

I 1

36

3.0 J

66

] f

30

4.8 1

87

I II. H. \

27
21

8.0 1
2.5 (

7.03

0.83

4.60

0.89

4.05

18.00

69

J I

48

7.5 J

Table XI.— Trees, 17, 18, 19.

17
18

1 n, s. 1

42
C7

4.0
6.8

\ 8.45

0.13

1.36

0.14

1.49

9.56

19

04

7.6

)

17
18

> 11, u. <

48
03

6.0

in. 0

\ 8.18

0.72

3.19

0.78

3.48

22.81

19

37

6.5

S

17
18

[ II, 1h. I

40.3

37

0.0
111.0

( 8.1G

0.45

2.37

0.50

2.47

19.82

19

20

0.5

17
18

[ m, s. ^

38
03

3.7
6.3

\ 8.31

0.10

1.22

0.11

1.34

8.20

19

73

8.2

S

17
18

\ in, u. 1

53
55

7.0
6.5

\ 7.95

0.84

3.34

0.91

3.63

25.15

19

37

6.3

5

17
18

K 111,2/1. \

46
40

7.0
6.5

> 8.26

0.47

2.56

0.50

2.79

18.36

19

27

6.3

S

Table XII. — A summary of results in Tables VII to XI.

Serial No.
of trees.

54,55,56,5

&8,S9j

63,04,65!
66,67,68,69'

17, 18, :

Part of
disk.

Volatile
hydrocarbon!

!id^\

S.
H.

s.

H.

Dison.

Pf.r cent.
0.18

0.28
0.80

0.18
0.81 (
1.00 5

0.14
0.89

0.14
0.78
0.50

J 0.645

Eosin.

Per cent.
1.48

Vol. hydr.
Kosin.

XIOO.

Volatile
hydrocarbons

6.78?
4.97 5

1.76
4.06

1.74
4. 3,-, J J
6. 29 5 ■■

1.78
4.95

1.49
3. 48 ;
2.47'

5.88>

2.98.

13.14

15. 76
19. i;:!

70.00

Is: 80 5 "-18

8.00
18.00

0.56
22. .«7 ( „ ,7'
19.82 5"^-^^;

Disc in.

Per cent,
0.26
0. 81 !
0.345

0.20
0.82

[|0.58{

0.11
0.9t
0.50

|0.71^

Eosin.

Vol. hydr.

Per cent.
1.93

4.80
2.97

1.35

4.29

I 3. 89 f

1.34
3.

;:?9l3.2i{

is: 82? J, ^
11.27 5 *

14.14
19.10

8.20
25. 15 J
16. 36 ;

21.76

14500— No. 8 7

FIELD RFXORDS OF TEST MATERIAL.

By Charles Mohr.

Species: Pinus Paliistria,

Station (denoted by capital letter) : A.

State: AJaiama. County: Escnmhia. Town: Wallace.

Longitude: 86° 12' . Latitude: 31'^ 15'. Average altitude: 75 to 100 feet.

General configuration: Plain — hills — plateau — mountainous. General trend of valley or hills: Tmw undula-
tions with broad, expanded ridijen.

Climatic features: Suhtropical; mean annual temperature, 65*^; mean annual rainfall, 62 inchci.
Site (denoted by small letter) : a.

Aspect: Level almost — ravine — cove — bench — slope (angle approximately).

Exposure : Elevation (above average station altitude) : 125 feet.

Soil conditions:

(1) Geological formation (if known): Soutlirni slratifird drift.

(2) Mineral composition: Clay — limestone — loam — marl — sandy loam — lo!imy sand — sand — gravelly.

(3) Surface cover : Bare — grassy — mossy. Leaf cover: Aliumlant — moderate — scanty — lacking.

(4) Depth of vegetable mold (humus): Absent almont — moderate — ])lcuty — or give depth in ini'lies.

(5) Grain, mechanical conditions, and admixtures: Very fine — liue — medium — coarse — porous — 2.'glit—

loose — moderately loose — compact — binding — stones or rock, size of:

(6) Moisture conditions: Wet — moist — fresh — dry — arid — well drained — liable to overflow — swampy — nciir

stream or spring or other kind of water supply

(7) Color: Ashy gray.

(8) Depth to subsoil (if known) : Shallow (S to 4 inches to 1 foot) — deep, (1 foot to 4 feet) — very deep,

(over 4 feet) — shifting.

(9) Nature of subsoil (if ascertainable): Tied ferritghwiis sandy loam, moderately loose, or rather slightly

iinding, always of some degree of dampness, of grriii depth.
Forest conditions : Mixed timber — pure — dense growth — modiiatidy dense — open.

Associated species : Norte.

Proportions of these :

Average height: 90 feet.

Undergrowth : Dense — scanty, irt the original forest often none — kind :

Conditions in the open : Field — pasture — lawn — clearing (how long cleared) : In natural clearing, untouched by
fire, dense groves of second growth of the species.

Nature of soil cover (if any) : Weeds — brush — sod.

Station: A. Site: a. Species: Pinus paluslris. Tree No.: 1.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

rather light or dense position, etc., protected by bviildings).
Origin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting).

Diameter breast high: 19 inches. Height op stump: IS inches.

Height to first limb: 70 feet. Length op felled trke: 111 feef.

Age (annual rings on stump) : 182. Total height: 113 feet.

Note. — As much as possible make descriptiou by underscoring terms used above. Add other descriptive terms
if necessary.

60

51

'No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Weight of

combined

disk piecos.

Remarks.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

LonKth of
log.

Diameter,
butt en«l.

rnsition.

i . .

Feet.
0
13
19
32
47
57
67
77
87
97
107

Pounds.
33
26
24
22
19
20
IS
10
15
11
10

Crown slightly cov-
ered : distance from
nearest tini ber tree,
20 to 50 feet; crown
not perfect; limbs
creaf ly tbattered
by fall.

1

II

ni

IV

V

VI

VII

vin

IX

X

XI

Ft. In.
0 8
13 8
19 8
32 8
47 8
57 8
67 8
77 8
87 8
97 8

107 8

Ft. In.

12 4

5 4

12 4

14 4

9 4

9 4

9 4

5 5

3 5

3 6

8 6

Inches.
19

l.ii

*UJ
133
13i
12i
11
^
8*
11

Buttend.

Do.
Upperend.

n

in

IV

V

VI

Vil

vm ...

IX

X

XI

* Average.

Distance prom butt of tree: 98 foot. Position on trunk: East. Total lengtu: 11 foot.

Number of di.sks taken : Two.
No. I, disk X. Weight, 2+ pounds.
No. II, disk X, distance of tree from trunk, .5 feet 6 inches. Weiglit, If pounds.

Remarks.— Top of tree and limbs much shattered by fall. Upper part of logsVlll and IX rejected. Lower
end of logs IX and X rejected.

Station: A.

Site: a.

Species : rinns palustris.

Tree No. : 2.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to
light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings): Distance from nearest timber trees, from 18 to 30 feet;
moderatly dense for the species.

Origin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting).

Diameter breast high : 181 inches.
Height to tir.st limb : 62 feet.
Age (annu.al rings on stump) : 196.

Height of stump : 20 inches.
Length of felled tree : 111 feet.
Total height: 113 feet. ,

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

"Wnisht of

combined

disk pieces.

Kcmarks.

No. of log.

Distiince
from butt.

Length
of log.

Diameter,
butt end.

I

Feet.
0
13
19
3-.!
47
57
67
77
87
97

Pounds.
33
26
24
22
19
20
IS
17
14
7

Crown entirely free.

I

II

JU

IV

V

TI

vn

viu

IX

X

Ft. In.
0 8
13 8
19 8
32 8
47 8
57 8
67 8
77 8
87 8
97 8

Ft. In.

12 4
5 4

12 4

14 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
7 11

Inches.
19

13J
14*
13i
134
124
12*

nil
H

II ::::::;

m

IV

V. .

VI

VII

vm

IX

X

Distance from butt of tree : 90 feet.
Number of disks taken: 3.

Note. — Upper end of log X rejected.

Station: A. Site: a.

Position on trunk : Northeast. Total length : 19 feet.

Species : Pinua palustris.

Tree No. : 3.

PosiTiONof tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or rather dense for this species, position, etc., protected by buildings).
Origin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial plantingl.

Diameter breast high : 16 inches.
Height to first limb : 53 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) : 183.

Height of stump: 20 inches.

Length of felled tree : 110 feet 4 inches.

Total height: 111 feet 8 inches.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

"Weight of

combined

disk pieces.

Kemarka.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length
of log.

Diameter,
butt end.

Position.

I

Feet.

a

13
19
32
47
57
67
77
87
97

Founds.
27
20
20
18
16
14
17
14

Crown touching
those of nearest
trees to the N. and
NE. ; open toward
SW.

I

II

Ill

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

X

Ft. In.
0 8
13 8
19 8
32 8
47 8
57 8
67 8
77 8
87 8
97 8

Ft. In.
12 4
5 4
12 4
14 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
3 6
3 3

Inches.
16J
144
14
13i
124
114
9i

7*
5

Buttend.
Bo.

n

TTT

IV

V

VI.....

vn

vm

IX

X

52

Distance i-rom butt of trek: 98 feet.

NiMBKR of disks taken: 2.
Disk No. I, distant, from trunk of tree 4 inches. Weight, 3 pounds.
Disk No. II, distant from trunk of tree 5 feet i inches. Weight, 2 pounds.

Position on trunk : South. Total length: 15 feet.

Bgmabks. — llie upper ends of logs IX and X rejected.

Station: A.

Site: o.

Species : Pinus palustris.

Tree No. : 4.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense for the species, position, etc., protected by buildings).
Origin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout from stump, artiticial planting).

Diameter breast high : 19 inches.
Height to first limb : 57 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) : 189.

Height of stumi-: 1 foot 10 inches.
Length of felled tree : 109 feet.
Total height: 111 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

■Weight of

comoined

disk pieces.

Kemurks.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length
of log.

Diameter,
butt end.

Position.

I

Feet.
0
13
19
32
47
67
67
77
87
97

Pounds.
28
25
23
23
19
18
16
16
14
6

Crown partially cov-
ered, poorly devel-
oped, limb's gnar-
led, below normal
average length.

I

n

m

rv

V

VI

vu

VLLL

IX

X

Ft. In.
0 8
13 8
19 8
32 8
47 8
57 8
67 8
77 8
87 8
97 8

Ft. In.
12 4
5 4
12 4
14 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
S 4
9 4
5 4

Inches.
19
18
17

13

Hi

Top end.
Do.

II

ni

rv

V

VI

vn

vm

IX

X

Position on trunk : Northeast.

Total length : 15 foet.

Distance from butt : 93 feet.
Number of disks taken: 2.
No. I, disk distant from trunk of tree, 5 feet.

Remarks. — Of logs VIII and X butt ends were rejected, having been badly shattered.

Station: A. Site: a. Sp-eciks: Pinus palustris. Tree No. : 5 X.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings). Almost level, with slight incline N. Open distance of

nearest tree, 25 to 50 feet.
Origin of tree (if ascertainabh^; natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting).

Diameter breast high: 26| inches. Height op stump: 1 foot 2 inches.

Height to first limb: 53 feet. Length of felled tree: 105 feet.

Age (annual rings on stump) : 216. Total height : 106 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Weight of

combined Eemarks.
disk pieces.!

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of
log.

Diameter
butt end.

I

Feet.
2
8
14

Pounds.
40
35
33

Crown free from all sides; per.
/ectly developed with rich foli-
age; wood resinous. Some per-
haps more resinons on account of
the full development of numer-
ous lateral ones and fuller
leaved branches are distin-
guished by the lumbermen as
pitch pines. The timber trees
of a less resinous wood being
called yellow (long leaved)
pines. Position of largest limb
north ; at least 35 feet long.

I

II

Ill

Ft. In.
2 8
8 8

14 8

Ft. In.
5 4

5 4

6 4

Inches.
27
24
22i

II

m

Remarks.— The stumjp was found defective in the center; the disk affected near the center by an apparently
slight "riiigshnke." The tol lowing sections showing the same defect in a small and decreasing degree" toward the top.
According to the information of logmen and manufaeturors this defect is not regarded as a material injury to the
quality of the timber, and never causes its under classification. On the broad level expanses of the undulating
uplands most exposed to wind, hundreds of trees of such dimension and ripeness of age might be felled before om
is fonnd to be absolutely free from such ringshake.

Species: Pinus palustri$.
Station (denoted by capital letter) : B.

State: Alabama. County: Clark. Town: Thamasville.

Longitude: <?^° 45'. Latitude: 53° 4'. Average altitude : 5*0 /ee«.

General configuration: Plain— bills— plateau— mountainous. General trend of valleys or hills: E, S, E. toNW,

Climatic features: subtropical; mean annual temperature, 6S° J*'.; mean annual rainfall, 56 to 60 inches.

53

Site (rlenoted by small letter): a.

Aspect: Level — raviue — cove — bench — slope (angle apjiroxiraately: ^0° to 40°).

Exposure: Elevation (above average station altitude): 350 feet.

Soil Conditions:

(1) Geological formation (if known) : Lowest Eocene. Buhmtone.

(2) Mineral composition: Clay— limestone— loam— marl— sandy loam— loamy sand— sand— gravelly.

(3) Surface cover: B:iresomewhut grassy— mossy. Leaf cover: At)im(lant— moderate— scanty-lacking.

(4) Depth of vegetable mold (humus) : Absent— moderate— plenty— or give depth in inches

(5) Grain, mechanical conditions, and admixtures: Very tine-line— medium— coarse— porous— light-

loose — moderately loose — compact — binding — stones or rock, size of :

(G) Moisture conditions: Wet— moist— fresh— dry— arid— well drained— liable to overflow— swampy— near
stream or spring or other kind of water supply

(7) Color: Ashy.

(8) Depth to subsoil (if known) : Shallow. (6 inclies to 1 foot)— deep, (2 feet to 4 feet) very deep, (over 4

feet) — shiffciug.

(9) Nafure of subsoil (if ascertain.able) : fine, mndij, redfcniuifiil.

Forest conditions: Mixed timber^pnrc— dense growth — moderately dense — open

Associated species: Black Jack. fi})anish Oak, Dogxcmid, Bind; ijmn.
I'roportions of these: All eqnally in vci-y Kmall jn-oportions. Not rcuchliif/ 10 per cent.
Average height: oO to 40 feet.

Undergrowth: Dense— scanty— kind : Scnibhy groirlh of above huidirooiln, with Vacciniiim Staminlum.
Conditions in the open: JMeld— pasture— lawn— clearing (how long cleared) : Pinna Taeda with P. eschinalcr,
, cleared scarceli/ over C5 ycurs.

Nature of soil cover (if any) : Weeds— brush— sod. Brush of pines and hardwoods. Pinus palmtris rarely
seen amongst it, and of crippled growth.

Station: B.

Site: a.

Species : Pinus paluslris.

Tree No. : 16.

Position of tree (if any special points notable not appearing in general desciiptiou of site, excei)tional exposure to
light or dense position, etc. protected by buildings), on gentle decline W. S. W., eroion partially covered N
io L. not touching and free S. and W. > i j

OitiGiN of tree (if ascertainable; natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting.)

Diameter breast high: 20 inches.
Height to first limb : 56 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) : 202.

Height of stump: 3 feet.
Length of felled tree : 105 feet.
Total height : 108 feet.

No. of diaks.

Distance
from butt.

■Weight of

com hilled

disk pieces.

Remarks.

No. of lo^.

Distance
from hutt.

Length of
log.

Diameter
hutt end.

Annual
rings at
butt end.

I

Ft. In.
0 9
19 3
31 9
U 3
54 3
64 3
74 9

Lbs. Oz.
24 0

18 7
15 0
14 3
13 4

All disks measured 6

inches in height.

]5i inr-hes.

11'^ inches.

12 iuches.

I

II

Ill

IV

Ft. In.
0 15
13 3
19 9
32 3

Feet.
12
6
12
12

Inckef!.
20
19J
10
15

20O

ige'

II

in

IV

"V

VI*

VII

7 0

8J inches.

* Rejected, too knotty for splitting.

No. n, no disk taken, radical fissure above butt cut very small, timber sound, without limb knot to leneth of
44 feet. ^

Station: B.

Site: a.

Species : Pinus palustria.

Tree No.: 17.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general descriiitiou of site, exceptional exposure to
light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings). Near top of ri.lge, slight western decline, crown not
touching with nearest trees ot similar height, which are from 40 to 50 feel di.stant.

Origin of tree (if ascertainable ; natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting.)

Diameter breast high: 21 inches.
Hekjht to first limb : 53 feot.
Age (annual rings on stump) : 163.

Hekhtt op stump: 3 feet.
Length of felled tisee: 112 feet.
Total height: 115 feet.

Note.— As much as possible make description by underscoring terms used above. Add other descriptive terms
if necessary.

54

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Weiglit of

combined

dislc pieces.

Kemarlis.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of Diameter 1 ;l°°"?i
iSg. butt end. -f-t.

I

Ft. In.
5 0

17 8
24 4
37 0
51 8
62 4
73 0

Lbs. Oz.
33 8

26 12
26 2
24 3
20 4
20 1
19 0

Dists, as in all fol-
lowing mature trees.
8 inches bigli. ITive
above butt cut re-
jected on account of
wind shake and
radial fissures.

13 inches.
12 inches.
12 inches.

I :.

11

lU

Ft. In.

6 8
18 4
23 0

Feet.

12

6

1

Inches.
20
17J
16

156
154
152

n

Ill

IV

V

VI

VII

The fourth log, 14 feet long and 15| inches in diameter, had to be discarded ou account of fre(|ucnt small limh
knots, not discovered until its intended removal; length of timber free from any knot little less than 40 feet, fur-
nishing lumber of low grades to length of 50 feet above bntt cut.

Station b.

Site a.

Species : Finus jxilustris.

Tree No. 18.

Position of tree (if any special jjoiut notable not appearing iu general description of site, exceptional exposure to
light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings). On gentle slope to S.W., crown touchiug N. to E
Exposed S. and west.

OniGiN of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sjjrout from stump, artiticial planting).

Diameter breast-high: 22 inches.
Height to first Umb : 47 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) : 210,

Height of Stu.mp: 3 feet.
Length of felled tsee: 107 feet.
Total height: 110 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Weight of

combined

disk pieces.

Kemarks.

Noo""?- f^^'lutl

Length Diameter,
of log. butt-end.

I

Ft. In.

5 0

17 8

32 4
39 0
53 0
08 4

Lbs. Oz.

28 4
30 6

27 12

29 10
25 11
23 8

First 5 feet above butt-cut rejected
on account of central small
wind shake (ring shake).

Two feet above lo^ thrown out
on account of limb knot.

I

n

Ill

Ft. In.

5 S

18 4

33 0

Feet.
12
12

e

Inches.
21i
21J
20

11

in

IV

V

TI

Above log No. HI, numerous small limb knots up to first limb,
obtained.

No further log of the required length couW 6e

Station B. Site a.

Species : Finns palustria.

Tkee No. 19: ("Check tree.")

Position of tree (if .any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to
light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings). On gentle southern decline. Crown free from all sides.
Surrounded by several trees of almost equal dimensions, but not touching.

Oi'.Kii.N" of tree (if ascertainable: natural seeding, sprout from stump, artidcial ]>lanting).

DiAMKTEit breast-high: 26 inches.
Height to first limb : 43 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) : 160.

Height of stump: 3 feet.
Length op felled thee : 108 feet.
Total Height : 111 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

"Weight of

combined

disk pieces.

Eemarks.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length
of log.

Diameter,
butt-end.

Annual
rings at
butt end.

I

Ft. In.
0 0
12 8
25 4
39 8
49 8
59 8
70 4
80 0

Lbs. Oz.
44 0
35 13
35 10
31 7
27 —
25 8
24 3
17 3

Of vigorous growth
above butt-cut, with
very slight radial
fissures which com-
pletely disappeared
before reac^hing log
No. n. No cause
can be given for its
rapid growth if itis
not to be ascribed
to the southern and
freer exposure.

I

11

Ill

Ft. In.

0 8

13 4

2G 0

Ft. In.

12 0

12 0

13 8

Inches.
26
232
22J

155
146
136

II

in

IV

V

VI

vn

VIII

Log No. II or III, from all appearances perfectly solid and without any wind shake,
log and 6-foot log for Mr. Roth.

Might serve for 6-foot check

55

Station B'.

Site a.

Speciks: Piiius paJiistris. Tkf.e No. 20.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to
light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings). On slope of a section of about 20 degrees: sontlieni
exposure; crown/ccc S. to S. W., sligbtly touching N. to N. E.

Origin of tree (if ascertainable: natural seediiicj, sprout from stump, artificial planting).

Diameter breast-high: 17 inches.
Height to first limb: 36 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) : 110.

Height oi-- stump : 2 feet 9 inches.
Length of felled tuee : 89 feet 3 inches.
Total Height: 92 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Weight of

combined

dislc pieces.

Reraarlia.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length
of log.

Diameter,
butt-end.

Annual
rings at
butt end.

I ....;

Ft. In.

0 0

12 8

32 —

42 i

Lbs. Oz.
31 12
25 11
25 3
21 3

Perfectly free from
wind shake : of
sturdy ^owth : free
from any knots to
the heisht of 32
feet in felled tree.

I

II

*

ft. In.
0 8
13 4

Ft. In.
12 0
18 8

Inches.
17
16J

no

107

II

in

rv

Species: Pinua palustria.
Station (denoted by capital letter): A.

State: Alabama. County: Esvnmhia. Town: Wilson.

Longitude : 87° 34'. Latitude : Sl° 2". Average altitude : 2S0.

General configuration : Ltvel, or uuditlating, or loxo. Plain— hills— plateau — mountainous. General trend of

valleys or hills. Southern.
Climatic features: Subtropical; mean annual temperature, 65^^; mean annual rainfall, S5 to 60 inches.
SiTF. (denoted by small letter) : a.

Aspect: Level — ravine— cove— bench — slope (angle approximately upland). Turpentine orvhard abandoned
1SS6.

Exposure: Elevation (above average station altitude), about 30 feet.

Soil conditions :

(1) Geological formation (if known): Post-tertiary, Oranije or Lafayette, sands of stratified southern drift.

(2) Mineral composition: Clay — limestone — loam — marl — sandy loam — loamy sand — sand — gravelly.

(3) Surface cover: Bare — grassy — mossy. Leaf cover: Abundant — moderate — scanty — lacking.

(4) Depth of vegetable mold (humus): Absent — very moderate- plenty— or give depth in inches: about 3

inches mixed with soil.

(5) Grain, mechanical conditions, and admixtures: Very fine — fine — medium — coarse — porous — light

loose— moderately loose— compact — binding — stones or rock, size of

(6) Moisture conditions : Wet — moist — fresh — dry — arid — well drained— liable to overflow— swampy — near

stream or spring or other kind of water supply

(7) Color: Ashy yray.

(8) Depth to sub.soil (if known) : Shallow (5 to 4 inches to 1 foot)— deep, (1 foot to 4 feet)— very deep (over

4 feet) — shifting.

(9) Nature of sub.soil (if ascertainable)

Forest conditions: Mixed timber— pure— dense growth— niodirately dense— open loamy yellow sand for 1 foot,

followed by coarser sandy loam, irrcijularhj trurcrscd by ledyes of compact f err uyiuuns cunylomerate.
Associated species : None.

Proportions of these

Average height

Undergrowth: Dense— scanty-kind: Scrubby lilack Jack, Blue .Jack, Barren and Post Oak.
Conditions in the open : Field— pasture— lawn— clearing (how long cleared) : Dense yrowlh of species.
Nature of soil cover (if any): Weeds — lirusli— sod.

(rarely)
Tlie undergrowth of scrub oak scarcely exceeds 2 feet in height.

Note.— As much as possible make description by underscoring terms used above. Add other descriptive terms
if necessary.

56

Station: E.

Site : a.

Species: Finns palv stria.

Tree No. : 52.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense "position, etc., protected by buildings, see remarks).
Orioin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout from stump, urtificial planting).

UiAMETEU breast high: 28^ inches clear of bark.
Height to first limb: 61 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) : — .

Height of stump: 3 feet.
Length of fei.lei> tree: 108 feet.
Total height: 111 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from hntt.

Kemarks.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of
log.

Diameter
butt end.

Annual rings at
butt end.

Ft. In.
0 0
20 6
33 0
43 0
53 0
63 0
73 0
83 0

Slight ring sliake.

I

Ft. In.
0 8
21

Feet.
20
12

Inches.
29
24

Slight ring shake.

u

II

III

IV

V*

vr

VII

vin

* Rejected; central knots.

Remarks on situation, exposure, etc. — Good pine land, well timbered. On gentle slope towards the north and
west; trunk bearing two boxes, chip from 5 to 6 feet high (to base of box), and chijipcd for fully four seasoiLs; near
middle of chip on the callus, the sapwood in one place perforated by borers, not penetrating to tlie heartwood
which, with the exception of a slight ring shake near the center, is perfectly souud to a height of over 43 feet.

Station: E.

Site: a.

Species : Finns palustris.

Tree No. : 53.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense ixi.sition, etc., protected by buildings, .see renuirks).
Origin of tree (if asccituiuable, natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting).

Diamkteu breast liigh : 29 inches.
Height to Hr.st lijiib: 30 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump): 192.

Height ok stu.mi': 3 feet.
Length of felled TitEE: 115 feet.
Total height: 118 leet.

No. of disks.

I

II.

Ill

IV.

V.

Distmice
I'rniii butt.

Ft. In.
0 U
20 6
43 0
55 0
65 0

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Ft. In.

0 6

43 6

Length of
log.

Feet.

20
12

Diameter
butt end.

Inches.

30
22

Annual
rings at
butt end.

Remarks on situation, exposure, etc. — Situated on first-class pine land, well timbered, luxuriant in grass and herb-
.ige, about 300 yards distant from branch; on a gentle decline to the west, near large pines in the open forest allow-
ing free exposure in every direction; no undergrowth. One hirge limb 30 feet above butt cud; perfectly clear from
there for next 12 feet. Sapwood slightly rotten on the surface in con-sequence of a deep burn; slightly cracked in
the base of first log, and with a few splinter holes, insignificant injuries, caused in felling the tree; besides, the tim-
ber was foiiud perfectly solid and sound. Boxes, two.

Station: E.

Site: a.

Species : Finus palustris.

Tree No. : 54.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense i)Osition, etc., protected by buildings, see remarks). ,

Origin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting).

Diameter bre.ast high: 23 inches.
Height to first limb: 66 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) : 180.

Height of stump : 3 feet.
Length of felled tree : 102 feet.
Total height: 105 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Lengtli of
log.

Diameter
butt end.

Annual
rings at
butt end.

I

Ft. In.

0 0

12 6

I

Inches.
6

Feet.
12

Inches.
21

180

n

Kemarks on exposure, situation, etc. — Situated on a broad ridge forming a table-laud several hundred acres in
extent, of average good quality, well timbered, with a number of trees of and below medium size; soil covered
with grass and herbage; crowii not fully exposed, but not touched by the trees next by. A niii.st sound tree, appar-
ently without flaw for the length of 50 feet above the cut to the first few small limb knots. Bearing two boxes.

57

STATro.x: E. Site: o. Species: Pinus palustris.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general aeseiiption of site, exceptioual exposure to
light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings, see remarks.) i ii- tu

Okigin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting).

Diameter breast high : 21 inches. Height of stlmp : 3 feet.

Height to tirst limb : 59 feet. Length of felled thee •

Age (annual rings on stump): — . Total height: 114 feet

Tree >fo. : 55.

Ill feet.

No.ofdists.

Distance
from butt.

Eemarks.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of
log.

Diameter
butt end.

I

Ft. In.
12
13 6

The first foot above cut rejected
on account of central ring
sli.ike and eccentric cracks.

Ft. In.

1 C

Feet.
12

Inches.
20}

II

bl

Eemarkaon situation, exposure, etc. —Flat, broad, extensive ridge, among trees similar in size, crown not exposed
It not touching; boxes, two; timber in log perfectly sound; pine land of good average quality and well timbered.
Station: E. Site: a. Species: Pinus palustris. Tree No. : 56.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not aj.peariug in general description of site, exceptional exno-fuie to
light or dense po.sitiou, etc., protected by buildings, see reniarlis).

Origin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout i'rom stump, artificial planting).

Diameter breast high: 16^ inches. Height of stitmp: 3 feet

Height to tirst limb: 57 feet. Length of felled thee

Age (annual rings on stump): — . Total height: 100 feet.

97 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Remarks.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of
log.

Diameter
butt end.

I

Ft. In.

Perfectly sound in heartwood;
Bound and resinous; slightly
wind shaken.

Inches.
6

Feet.
12

Inches.
IG

n

12 6
22 6

in

Eemarks on situation, exposure, etc.— On good pine land rather closely tiniliered, flat, wide extended back of rid^-p
from a group of trees varying from 10 to 16 inches in diameter ; crown not fully exposed ; boxed on two sides • timber
showing in log no sign of injury or decay. '

Station: E. Site: a. Species: Pinus palustris. Tree No. : 57.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings, see remarks).
OuiGiN of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout from stump, artiticial planting).

Diameter breast high : 14^ inches. Height of sto.mp : 3 feet.

Length of felled tree : 67 feet.

Height to first limb : 33 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) : — .

Total height: 70 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Kemarks.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of
log.

Diameter
butt end.

I

Ft. In.

Diameter 14J, with slight radial
wind shake through center; U
inches; sound.

I

Inches.
6

Feet.
12

Inches.
14i

11

12 6

Pemnrks on situation, exposure, etc.— On broad extended ridge; partially shaded by larger pines somewhat freelv
exposed to the north. One box: ^ o i j

Station: E. Site: a. Species: P/HHs^a^wsicis. Trek No. : 58.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings, see remarks).
Origin of tree (if ascertainable) : Natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting.

Diameter breast high : 12 inches. Height of stump : 3 feet.

Height to first limb : 43 feet. Length of felled tree : 87 feet.

Age (annual rings on stump) : Total height : 90 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Eeniarka.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of
log-

Diameter,
butt end.

I

Ft. In.

Diameter, 12 inches; sound.
Diainetf-r, 11^ inches; sound.
Diameter, 11 inches; sound.

I

Indies.
6

feet.
12

Inches
12

II

12 6
24 C

Ill

14500— No. 8—8

58

Remarks on situation and exposxtre.— On broad ridge; from a dense grove of trees of about the same dimensions
grown in contact with that of trees of similar heiglit. One bos.

Station: E.

Size: a.

Species: Finns paliislris.

Thee No. : 59.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings, see remarks^.
Origin of tree (if ascertainable), natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting.

Diameter breast high : 12 inches.
Height to first limb: 46 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) :

Height of stump : 3 feet.
Length of felled tree : 88 feet.
Total height: 91 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Eeniarka.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of
log.

Diameter
butt euil.

I

Ft. In.

Diameter, 12 inches.
Diameter, lOJ iucliea.
Diameter, 10 inches.

I

Inchei.
6

Feet.
12

Inches.
12

II

12 6

24 6

Ill

Bemarlcs on situation and exposure. — Both the same as in tree 58.

Species: Finns palustris {boxed timher from turpentine orchard).

Station (denoted by capital letter) : A.

State: Alabama. County: Kscambia. Town: Wilson.

Longitude: S7° 54'. Latitude: 5i° 5'. Average altitude: ^.?0/i.

General configuration: Plain, undulating or flat, lotc hills — plateau — mountainous. General trend of valleys or
hills; South.

Climatic features: Subtropical; mean annual temperature, ti-o'-; mean annual rainfall, 60 in.
Site (denoted by small letter) : a. Turpentine orchard abandoned 1S90.

Aspect: Level — ravine — cove — bench — slope (angle approximately).

Exposure: Elevation (above average station altitude) : 30 feet.

Soil Conditions:

(1) Geological formation (if known) : Post-tertiary, Orange, or Lafai/eiie. Sands stratified drift of the South.

(2) Mineral composition: Clay— limestone — loam — marl — sandy loam to loamy sand — sand — gravelly.

(3) Surface cover: Bare — grassy — mossy. Leaf cover: Abundant — moderate — very scanty — lacking.

(4) Depth of vegetable mold (humus) Absent — moderate — plenty— or give depth in inches: 3 to S inches

mixed with soil.

(5) Grain. mechanical conditions, and admixtures: Very fine — (ine — meiliiim — ('oarse — porous — light — loose

— moderately loose — c(mipact — binding — stones or rock, size of: From size of a buckshot to a piijemi
egg, mixed with furruginous gravel.
(G) Moisture conditions: Wet — moist — fresh — dry — arid — well drained — liable to overflow — swampy — near
stream or spring or other kind of water supply

(7) Color : licddish brown.

(8) Depth to subsoil (if known): Shallow (below 3 inches to 1 foot) — deej) (1 foot to 4 feet) — very deep (over

4 feet) — shifting.

(9) Nature of subsoil (if ascertainalile) : Deep jielhiw or reddish brown.

Forest conditions : Mixed timber— pure— dense growth— moderately den se— open— aa » dy loam or loamy sa'id,
retentive of moisture and almost to same degree moist.

Associated species :

Proportions of these :

Average height:

Undergrowth: Dense — scanty — kind: almost entirely wanting.
Conditions in the open : Field— pasture— lawn— clearing (how long cleared) : The same as in site a.

Nature of soil cover (if any): Weeds — brush — sod.

Note. — As much as possible make description by underscoring terms used above. Add other descriptive terms
if necessary.

59

Station: E.

Site: 6.

Spf.ciks: Pinna j)a!u8tris.

Tree No. : 60.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

ligbt or dense position, etc., protected by buikliugs, see remarl£s).
Origin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout trom stump, artificial plantin"-).

Diameter breast high : 23 inches.
Height to first limb : 43* feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) : 225,

Height of stump : 3 feet.
Length of felled tree : IIU feet/
Total height: 117 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Keni,irk8.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of
log.

Diameter,
butt end.

Annual

ring.s
atbutt end.

I

Ft. In.

0 6

21 0

33 6

45 0

Diameter, clear wood, 23 inches.
Diameter, clear wood, 21 inches.
Diameter, 19 inches.

I

II

Ft. In.

2 0

21 6

Feet.
20
12

Inches.
23
19J

223
220

II

Ill

IV

Bemarks on situation, exposure, etc.— On gravelly ridge, partially covered by equally large trees on the north side
timber with two boxes, chips 17 inches each; sapwood slightly wormeaten along the base of the callus of chin
not penetrating heartwood, ''

Station: E.

Site: b.

Species: Finns palustris.

Tree No. : 61.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings, see remarks).
Origin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout li-om stump, artificial planting)

Diameter breast high : 26 inches.
Height to first limb : 64 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) : 214.

Height of stump: 3 feet.
Length of felled tree : 117 feet.
Totat height: 120 feet.

No. of di.sk3.

Distance
fruiu butt.

Hoinarka.

No, of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of
log.

Diameter,
butt end.

Annual

ring.s

atbutt end.

I

Ft. In.

0 0

21 0

33 6

Diameter, 26^ inches.
Diameter, 22A iuches.
Diameter, 2li inches.

I

n

Feet.
1
21

Feet.
20
12

Inches.

22J

214

II

Ill

KemarU on sifuatwn, exposure, etc.— A fine, to all apjiearances, perfectly sound tree, grown in a shallow depression
with a luxunaut soil cover ot grass and but sli-litly gravelly; surrounded by large trees partially covered to the
northward; elsewhere ot tree exposure. Timber clear of knots for a length of 50 feet. Diameter below crown 19

inches. Boxes, two,

Station: E.

Site: b.

SPECIE.S: Pinus palustris.

Tree No. : 62.

Position of tree (if any specyil point notable not api)eariiig in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings, see remarks).
Origin of tree (if ascertainable; natural seeding, sprout from stump, artifical plantin-;

Diameter breast high: 21 inches.
Height to first limb : 42 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) :

V-

Height op stump: 3 feet.
LiiNGTH of felled tkee: 93 feet.
Total Height : 96 feet.

No, of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Remarks,

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of
log.

Diameter
butt end.

I

Ft. In.

0 0

12 «

Diameter, 21J inches.

Indies.
6

Feet.
12

Incties.
21J

n

liemarks on situation, exposure, e(c.— Evidently a perfectly sound tree, clear of knots or limb to the height of 50 feet
above cut, with a diameter of 16 inches below crown. On gravelly ridge; on all sides freely exposed. Boxes, two.

Station: E.

Site: b.

Species : Finns paUtstria.

Tree No. : 63.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense position, etc, protected by buildings, see remarks).
Origin ^f tree (if ascertainable; natural seeding, sprout liom stump, artificial planting).

Diameter breast high : 20 inches.

Height to first limb: 39 feet.

Auk (annual rings on stump) : about 200.

Height of stump: 3 feet.
Length op felled ihee: 106 feet.
Total Height: 109 feet.

60

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Eemarks.

■w.. ^j 1 - Distance
No. of log. f„„butt.

Length of ; Diameter ;^"°"?)

ifg. : butt end. : ->f^.^.

I

Ft. In.
U 0
12 6

Diameter, 20^ inches.
Diameter, 20 inches.

Inchet.
I 6

Feet. Inches.

12 20} 198

II

Bemarlca on situation, exposure, etc. — Timber, to all appearance, perfect; free from knots to the height of 35 feet,
with a diameter of 18 inches below crown. On slightly gravelly ridge. Somewhat covered to the eastward. Other-
wise exposure perfectly free. Boxed on two sides.

Station: E.

Site: 6.

Species : Pinus palustria.

Tree No. : 64.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings, see remarks.)
Origin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting).

Diameter breast high : 16 inches.
Heicuit to tirst limb: 49 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) :

Height op stump: 3 feet.
Length of felled tree: 110 feet.
Total Height: 113 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Eemarks.

-KT., *■ 1 „ Distance
No. of log. from butt.

i

Length of

log.

Diameter
butt eud.

I

Ft. In.
0 0
12 6

Diameter, 16 inches.
Diameter, 13 inches.

Inches.
1 6

Feet.
12

Inches.

\l

1 1

Eemarks on situation, exposure, etc. — Sound tree on slight declivity of gravelly ridge to the north; covered on
all sides by crowns of trees of about equal height. One box.

Station: E.

Site: 6.

Species: Pinus palustria.

Tree No.: 65.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing iu general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense position, (^tc.., protected by buildings, see remarks).
Origin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout troui stump, artificial planting).

Diameter breast high : 15 inches.
Height to first limb : 34 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) :

Height of stump : 3 feet.
Length of felled tree : 78 feet.
Total Height: 81 feet.

No. of disks.

fSmbnU. «— l'-

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of
log.

Diameter
butt .nd.

Ft. In. 1
1 0 [ On account of split in felliujr; di- [
1 amctcr clear of bark, U inches.
13 6 i Diameter, llj inches. j

1 1

I

Ft. In.
1 6

Feet.
12

Inchet.

n

Remarlcs. — Sound, growing on gentle declivity; towards northeast of gravelly ridge; slightly covered to the
southeast; othi-rwi.se pcifcctly free of exposure. One box.

Station: E.

Site: h.

Species: Pinus palustris.

Tree No.: 66.

Position of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings, see remarks).
Origin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting).

Diameteu breast high: 12 inches.
Height to first limb: 26 feet.
Age (anuual riugs on stump) : 91.

Height of stump: 3 feet.
Length op felled tree : 65 feet.
Total Height : 68 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Eemarks.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length ot
log.

Diameter ^^TaJ
butt end. ^^^fl^l

Ft. In.
0 0
12 8

Diameter, U inches.
Diameter, 9i inches.

I

Inclia.
S

Feet.
12

Inchet.
11

M

II

Remarks on situation, exposure, eto. — Ou slight northeastern decline of gravelly ridge; wood sappy and very
resinous; wood sound. One box.

61

Station: E.

Site: ft.

Spkcies : rinus palitslris.

Tkee No. : 67.

Position of tree (if any s]icoinl point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to

light or dense position, etc., protected by buiblings, see remarks).
Origin of tree (if ascertainable, natural seeding, sprout from stump, artificial planting).

Diameter breast high : 12i^ inches.
Height to first limb: 48 feet.
Age (annual rings on stump) : 116.

Height op stump: 3 feet.
Length of felli-.d tree : 84 feet.
Total Height: 87 feet.

No. of disks.

Distance
from butt.

Kemarka.

No. of log.

Distance
from butt.

Length of
log.

Diameter
butt end.

Annual
rings at
butt end.

I

Ft. In.

0 0

12 6

Diameter, laj inches.
Diameter, 12 inches.

I

Inches.
6

fee*.
12

Inches.
12*

110

II

Utmarka on silaation, exposure, etc. — Same as in 66.

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PLATli: I.

J L

lJ9ejO XH9N31 NO 5ST OOOOOO I - AXIOMI/:) iO ilWII

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n

UJ

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PLATE II

PLATE in.

PLATE IV.

yT.ATE IV.

PLATE V.

p™»

TENSION TEST

B^

Fig.f.

Vtli^Millllllll

SHEARING TEST

SCALE IS INCHB8.
7 t

CRUSHING ENDWISE

CRUSHING ACROSS GRAIN

PLATE V.

,rT;il-

inHBL

TENSION TEST

K=.2.

i^.

m

li I

-- toiW --^

SHEARING TEST

SCAI.B IN INCHBS.
7 «

mi^ii^^m

^^^^^^i^22^^^<-y/gi2m^/'d

CRUSHING ENDWISE

CRUSHING ACROSS GRAIN

PLATE VI

"

V

1

O

3

03

<

1-

1

L

J

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\

[

^

i

z

:
[

L

UJ
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tn

]

]

]

o
u

LJ

a.

o

z
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>-
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C

c

m

z

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bi

5

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u
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01

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]

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z
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CO

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u

o

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2

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CO

>-

o
<

<
o

L
o

h
J

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(J

10

'sij

Bulletin No. 8, Division of Forestry.

Plate VII.

RELATIVE MODULUS OF RUPTURE IN LBS. PER SQ.IN

40

o\

30

0

o
o\o

20

\o o
°\ o

o\ o
\o

o

o

o

o

10 ^

a
o
o

00

o

s

o

o

o
o
o
tvj

o

-iG o

Fig. 1. — Diagram sho-wing the increase in the mndnlns of rupture in cross-breaking, with decrease in percentage

of moisture.

50 RELATIVE MODULUS Or STRENGTH AT THE ELASTIC LIMIT. IN LBS PER SO. IN.

o
o
o

tn

\ o

\ o

\ o

\ '^

o
40

c

o
o
o

00

C

c

c

8

o
o

o
o
o

o
o
o

fVJ

IjJ

1-

o
o

30

■^ o\

o

UJ

<

1-

UJ

o
q:
lij

20

Q NP
Q \

Oo

o

G \.

o

.o

10

° O G

o

— e-___o o 0

SLa___

Fici.2. — Diagram showing the increase in the modulus of strength at the elastic liuiil, with decrease in the

percentage of moisture.

Bulletin No. 8, Division of Forestry

Plate VIII.

50

RELATIVE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY IN LBS. PER SQ. IN.

o
o
o
o
o

1500000

o

05.T-.9 g

S

o
o
o
o
o

O
O

o
o
o

CM

2300000

40

» \

\ '-'

30

3-,

\p CO

^.W

§Y

O ',

'-,

o o\

S

0/7
o

0 '■

20

\,

\o'S

''.

Obseruations
doUect Unrs

eactosecL bif
were reduced

: o 20 Si

o

o

■— -— ■^o)

by separate

curoefi .

a

if*

10

•,-0 3_

f

^5~ ■

.^o

"— — ^_

Fk;. 1. — Diagram showing the iiureaso iu the modulus of elasticity or tlie uiodiihis of stitluess, \\ ith decrease in

tlie percentage of moisture.

60

RELATIVE ELASTIC RESILIENCE

IN INCH-POUNDS PER CUS-IN.

50

\

\ ^

\ °

D
1-

40

0 \

>

O

5

\

O

\ ''

<

h
z

30

° \

o

Q:

UJ

n.

JO

o

G

"°Nb

°^

O r,

Q

^^^---^jj^

o

10

<M

TO

^

""*^-s-^^

h —

Fig. 2. — Diagram showing the decrease iu the rehative elastic resilience, with decrease in tlie jierceiitage of moistur

Bulletin No. 8, Division of Forestry.

50 RELATIVE CRUSHING STRENGTH ENDWISE IN LBS. PER SQ. IN.

Plate IX.

\ °
\ °

40 \

■

cr

h-
lO
o

L.-

o

30

\ o

LiJ

CD
<

Z
o

CL

a

20

0 N

o

p

o

o
o

o

CO

o

o

o

10 '^

o
o
o

10

03

o
o
o

o ^^^

o 5

1^ CD

-■ir^-^^

Fig. 1. — Di.TsiTam shdwiiij^ tlie iuci-oa.'ie in crushing' strength endwise, with decrease in percentage of nioistnre.

50

RELATIVE CRUSHING STRFM6TH ACROSS THE GRAIN IN LBS. PER SQ, IN

AT 3% DISTORTION

\ o

\ 0 s

o
o

CO

O

o
o

o

o

o
a

O

o

40 \ ^

o \

a

gV "

30 0

,. -^x

«? 0
0 N

G

■'-4T

20

^\^

.o)/8

e °--^

°o

Observations
dxjtted. Lilies

enclosed by
were reduced.

o 3

° o

o

O 0

by separute

curaes.

\ei7

^

-^^.^.^^

10

Fl(i. L'. — Diagraiu sliowing the increase in crushinj; strength across the grain, with decrease in percentage of moisture.

Bulletin No. 8, Division of Forestry,

Plate X.

50

RELATIVE SHEARING STRENGTH

IN LBS.

PER SO. IN

o

50 \

o

*

o

in

o

in

o
in

O
in

o

ID
01

uJ

tr

D
1-

o

2

o \
40 \

\

Li-

o

\

o

UJ

\

130

::::^s

\ o 9^.^.

gM

t-r

X

o
q:

UJ

\ 0

0

vqf o?*

b"-

^^^ o

0

■qW.

20

"^^

e's

,Oj3'?

^■^-^^^^o

Observaiwns
dolled Ones

enclosed by
were reduced

*-_

■~--,'o^2

^r%^

bt/ separate

cu/-ves

^t^ o

oo^-^.^

10

"^

Fig. 1. — Diagram showing- the iuoiciMse in shearing streugth, with decrease iu the percentage of moisture.

^ d

DO i-"

i)d CC

00 UJ

O 0-

5 «

X -

I-

03

1/3

3
—I
3
Q
O

11000 MODULUS

OF ELASTICITY [STIFFNESS

IN LBS.

PER SQ.

IN.

O

1500000

o

o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o

CD

o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o
o

o
o

o

/

o

o,

) o

^ / ~

o

/ §

o
o
o

CM

9000

<
o

/ 0

y o

o

o

<

8000

nV

o

O y'

o

G
O

7000 /

'^

c

Fig. 2. — Diagram showing the relation between strength aiul stiti'uess, when reduced to 15 per cent moisture.

Bulletin No 8 Division of Foresfrv

Plate XI.

CRUSHING STRCNGTH ENDWISE AT 15% MOISTURE; IN LBS. PER SQ IN

I'hc Plotted ^^pfnts arc t/ir avcrcL<^es
of' a/l tests on\ .stic^:s /lat'if?^
the ,sa/ne s/jeciOi^ ^fu\-iO/ .

The nccompa/u^in^ f\<fure'S tn(iu:a.t.e
t/ie number o/' Aeoulta ai-eraefed
Ln eac/i cci.se.

Fig. 1.— Diagram .skuwiug the tiushiiig .sti-ength ciulwisr. and llir spt-cilic gravity or wt-iglit, wUi-u reduced to

15 per ceut moisture.

f.//(

Tree ruiml/fr\s
fjlotlerf in -enu n

20

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Fig. 2. — Diagram sliowiug tin' ahseiire

of auy material change iu specific gravity, with changes in moistvrre, as

a result of seasouiug.

Bulletin No. 8, Divtsion of Foiestry,

Plate XII.

PERCENTAGE OF MOISTURE

10000

a

c

05

New York Botanical Garden Library

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