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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 78.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

BY

T. L. LYON,

Agriculturist and Associate Director of the Agricultural

Experiment Station of Nebraska, and

Collaborator of the Bureau of Plant Industry,

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATIONS,

IN COOPERATION WITH THE

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF NEBRASKA.

Issued October 24, 1905.

m.

WASHINGTON:
government printing office.
1905.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

B. T. GALLOWAY,

Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge, Acting Chief of Bureau in Absence of Chief.

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS.

Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge.

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.
W. J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
G. B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.
A. J. PiETERS, Botanist in Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.
L. C. CORBETT, Horticulturist in Charge.

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.
E. M. Byrnes, Superintendent.

J. E. Rockwell, Editor.
James E. Jones, Chief Clerk.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge.

Erwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Pathology.

Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Breeding.

Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Life History.

Newton B. Pierce, Pathologist in Charge of Pacific Coa.s-< Laboratory.

M. B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge of Investigations of Diseases of Orchard Fruits.

Mark Alfred Carleton, Ccrealist in Charge of Cereal Investigations.

Hermann von Schrenk, in Charge of Mississippi Valley Laboratory.

P. H. Rolfs, Pathologist in Charge of Subtropical Laboratory.

C. O. TowNSEND; Pathologist in Charge of Sugar Beet Investigations.

P. H. DORSETT," Pa^/ioto^w^.

T. H, Kearney, Physiologi.st, Plant Breeding.

Cornelius L. Shear, Pathologist.

William A. Orton, Pathologist.

W. M. Scott, Pathologist.

Joseph S CHAMBERhAiisi, b Physiological Chemi.st, Cereal Investigations.

Ernst A. Bessey, Pathologist.

Flora W. Patterson, Mycologist.

Charles P. Hartley, Assistant in Physiology, Plant Breeding.

Karl F. KEi.hERiiA's, Assi.stant in Phy.nology.

Deane B. Sv<'i}iGLE, Assistant in Pathology.

Jesse B. Norton, As.nstant in Phy.siology. Plant Breeding.

James B. 'Rorer, Assistant in Pathology .

Lloyd S. Tenny, As.nstant in Pathology.

George G. 'Ret)GCO(:'k., Assistant in Pathology.

Perley Spaulding, Scientific Assistant.

P. J. O'Gara, Scientific Assistant, Plant Pathology.

A. D. Shamel, Scientific Assistant, Plant Breeding.

T. Ralph HoniNSoy;, Assistant in Physiology.

Florence Hedges, Scientific Assistant, Bacteriology.

Charles J. Brand, Assistant in Physiology, Plant Life History.

Henry A. 1\\.i\aje.r. Scientific Assistant, Cereal Investigations.

Ernest B. Bro'K-s, Scientific Assistant, Plant Breeding.

Leslie A. Firz, Scientific Assistant, Cereal Investigations.

Leonard L. Harter, Scientific Assistant, Plant Breeding.

John O. Merwis, Scientific Assistant.

W. W. Cobey, Tobacco Expert.

John van Leenhoff, Jr. , Expert.

J. Arthur Le Cler';-,'- Physiological Chemist, Cereal Investigations.

T. D. Beckwith, Expert, Plant Physiology.

a Detailed to Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution.
b Detailed to Bureau of Chemistry.
c Detailed from Bureau of Chemistry,

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,
Washington, D. C, April 15, 1905.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript of a
lechnical paper entitled "Improving the Quahty of Wheat," pre-
pared by Dr. T. L. Lyon, Agriculturist of the Agricultural Experi-
ment Station of Nebraska, who, as a collaborator of this Bureau, is in
charge of the cooperatiye breeding experiments conducted by the
Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station and the Department of
Agriculture, and I recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 78 of
the series of this Bureau.

Respectfully, B. T. Galloway,

Cli ief of Bureau .
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

3

PREPACK.

The following' technical paper on "Improving the Quality of
Wheat," })y Dr. T. L. Lyon, of the Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion of Nebraska, embodies the results of extended investigations on
the application of chemical methods to the selection and improve-
ment of wheat. The investigations were carried on mainly at the
Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station in connection with the
cooperative work of that institution and the Plant-Breeding Labora-
tory of this Office.

Li the breeding of wheat more extended data are greatly desired
so that more intelligent methods of selection may be devised. The
investigations of Doctor Lyon, it is believed, have established
methods which wdll be of great value to wheat breeders and mate-
rially facilitate the work in their field.

This paper was originalh' presented as a thesis to the faculty of
Cornell University for the degree of doctor of philosoph3\ The
author wishes to express his api)reciation of the guidance of Prof.
L P. Roberts, Prof. G. C. Caldwell, and Prof. Thos. F. Hunt, who
constituted the committee having his work in charge, also of the
assistance of Prof. L. H. Bailey and Mr. G. N. Lauman, with whom
he frequent!}^ sought counsel. For the analytical work, extending
tlu'ough a ]:)eriod of seven years and involving several thousand
chemical determinations, he is indeljted to Prof. S. Aver}', Mr. R. S.
Ililtner, Prof. R. W. Thatcher, Mr. Y. Nikaido, ISIiss Rachael Corr,
]\Ir. II. B. Slade, and Mr. G. II. Walker. I\Ir. Alvin Keyser has
kept the records of wheat-breeding plats and Mr. E. G. Montgomery
has assisted in keeping other records.

A. F. Woods,
Pathologist and Physiologist.

Office of Vegetable Pathological

AND Physiological Investigations,

Washington, D. C, March 31, 1905.

5

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Wliile the art of plant breeding has been practiced for nearty a
century, the last decade has witnessed a marvelous awakening of
interest in the subject, both from a scientific and practical stand-
point. The keen competition in crop production and the resulting
cheaper prices, the great and varying demands of modern trade con-
ditions, etc., render it necessary that the modern plant breeder have
the most thorough knowledge possible of the plant which he is striv-
ing to improve. Not only must we secure varieties and races differ-
ing in external characters and yielding more heavily under a certam
set of conditions, but we must also examine the chemical constit-
uents of the product and strive to change and improve them in order
that they may better fit our purpose.

The great achievements of plant breeding in the past have been
mainly in physical characters, requu'ing only superficial knowledge
and gross examination for recognition. Many of the improvements
now demanded, however, require the most careful chemical exami-
nation of the product and the devising of careful means and methods
of selection based on the knowledge thus obtained.

The first and still the most noteworthy achievement of this nature
is the increase of the sugar content in the sugar beet. When the
work on this subject was first started by Louis Vilmorin, the mother
beets, which were supposed to contain the most sugar, were separated
by their greater density, this being determined by throwing the beets
into a solution of brine of such density that the greater number of them
would float. The few heavier ones which were found to sink were
retained as mothers and planted to raise seed. Later the methods
were improved, and finally the percentage of sugar content in the
different individual beets was determined by actual chemical analy-
sis. This careful method of selection has been in operation for more
than forty j^ears, and has resulted in greatly increasing the sugar
content in the beets, and has rendered their cultivation profitable
w^here otherwise the industry would have failed.

The second most noteworthy case of increasing certain chemical
constituents in a plant b}- careful breeding is that furnished by the
investigations of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station in
increasing the nitrogen, oil, and starch content in corn. These note-
worthy experiments carried out by Doctor Hopkins and his assist-
ants have greatly stimulated breeding work of this nature, and have
paved the way for further research of a similar kind.

In wheat it is particularly necessary that a thorough knowledge
be obtained of the variations in the chemical constituents and their
relation to the other characters of the plant, such as yield, size of

8 INTRODUCTORY STATIMEN^T.

kernel, size of head, season of maturity, etc. Doctor Lyon's exten-
sive researches will thus be found very valuable in enabling us to
understand more clearlj^ these complex relations and in pointing out
the main factors to be considered in breeding wheats to increase the
gliadin and glutenin content, and still obtain increased yield and
better bread-making qualities.

The gross selection of wheat seed heretofore has largel3" been based
on the separation of large and heavy kernels. Doctor Lyon's re-
searches have demonstrated that the smaller and lighter kernels
contain the largest percentage of nitrogen, and that while the yield
from kernels of this kind at first gives a smaller yield of grain, the
total yield per acre of nitrogen is nevertheless greater. By con-
tinuous selection of the smaller and lighter kernels for several gen-
erations he shows that the grain 3'ield gradually increases and finally
approaches or equals the 3'ield derived from the select large and
heavy kernels. This gives us a new view of the process of wheat"
selection necessar}^ to increase the nitrogen yield per acre.

The very numerous chemical anal3"ses made by Doctor L^^on give
an indication of the great variation of the percentage of proteid
nitrogen present in different plants. In the analyses of samples in
1902 the plants varied from 2.02 per cent to 4 per cent, while in the
analj'ses of the next jesir a variation from 1.20 per cent to 5.85 per
cent was found. The existence of this wide variation affords abund-
ant opportunity for improvement hj selection.

Evidence is also given which shows conclusivel}^ that the average
composition of a spike of wheat may be judged from the analyses
of a row of its spikelets. A satisfactory method of conducting selec-
tions has thus been devised.

The results also show. that early-maturing plants give much the
largest average yield, which is a most important point in guiding
selection to increase the j-^ield. The percentage of proteid nitrogen
is rather less in the early plants, but the total nitrogen per plant is
probably greater.

The quality of the gluten largely determines the bread-making
value of a variety of wheat, and it is thus important to keep the
ratio of the two elements constituting the gluten — the gliadin and
glutenin — the same. Doctor Lyon has shown that as the gluten
content is increased b^^ selection the ratio of gliadin to glutenin
remains about the same, so that the value of the wheat for bread-
making purposes is not impaired.

The extensive data presented in this bulletin bearing on important
matters relating to the improvement of wheat b^^ breeding will
enable wheat breeders to plan and conduct their operations with a
degree of certainty which would otherwise not be possible.

Herbert J. Webber,
Physiologist in Charge of Lahoratory of Plant Breeding.

Washington, D. C, MarcJi 30, 1905.

CONTENTS.

Page.

Object of the investigation ; 13

Part I. — Historical:

Some conditions affecting the composition and yield of wheat 17

Composition as affected by time of cutting 17

Influence of immature seed upon yield 20

Influence of climate upon composition and yield 20

Influence of soil upon composition and yield 23

Influence of soil moisture upon composition and yield 29

Influence of size or weight of the seed-wheat kernel upon the crop yield.. . 30

Relation of size of kernel to nitrogen content 35

Influence of the specific gravity of the seed kernel upon vield 37

Relation of specific gravity of kernel to nitrogen content 39

Conditions affecting the production of nitrogen in the grain 40

Part II. — Experimental:

Some properties of the wheat kernel 49

Yield of nitrogen per acre 72

Method for selection to increase the quantity of proteids in the kernel 76

A basis for selection to increase the cjuantity of proteids in the endosperm of

the kernel 84

Improvement in the quality of the gluten 91

Some results of breeding to increase the content of proteid nitrogen 95

Yield of g ain as affected by susceptibility to cold 100

Yield and nitrogen content of grain as affected by length of growing period. . 104

Relation of size of head to yield, height, and tillering of plant Ill

Summary and conclusions 118

9

TABLES OF EXPERIMENTS.

Pago.
Table 1 . Analyses of kernels of high and of low specific gravity 49

2. Proportion of light and of heavy seed 50

3. Analyses of large, heavy kernels and of small, light kernels 50

4. Analyses of spikes of wheat, arranged according to nitrogen content of

kernels. Crop of 1902 52

5. Summary of analyses of spikes of wheat, arranged according to nitrogen

content of kernels. Crop of 1902 56

6. Summary of analyses of spikes of wheat, arranged according to specific

gravities of kernels. Crop of 1902 56

7. Sunnnary of analyses of spikes of wheat, arranged according to weight of

average kernel. Crop of 1902 57

8. Analyses of plants, arranged according to percentage of proteid nitrogen.

Crop of 1903 59

9. Summary of analyses of plants, arranged according to percentage of pro-

teid nitrogen. Crop of 1803 64

10. Analyses of plants, arranged according to weight of average kernel. Crop

of 1903 65

11. Summary of analyses of plants, arranged according to weight of average

kernel. Crop of 1903 71

12. Summary of analyses of plants, arranged according to grams of proteid

nitrogen in average kernel. Crop of 1903 72

13. Crops grown from light and from heavy seed for four years 73

14. Analyses of twenty-five spikes of wheat, showing their total organic nitro-

gen 77

15. Analyses of twenty-three spikes of wheat, showing their percentage of

proteid nitrogen 77

16. Analyses of twenty-one plants, showing total nitrogen and proteid nitro-

gen 78

17. Analyses of spikes of wheat, showing difference in proteid nitrogen 79

18. Variations in content of proteids 80

19. Relation of gliadin-plus-glutenin nitrogen to proteid nitrogen 85

20. Summary of analyses, showing relation of gliadin-plus-glutenin nitrogen

to proteid nitrogen 88

21 . Relation of proteid nitrogen to gliadin-plus-glutenin nitrogen 88

22. Summary of analyses, showing relation of proteid nitrogen to gliadin-plus-

glutenin nitrogen 91

23. Ratio of gliadin to glutenin as the content of their sum increases 92

24. Summary of analyses, showing the ratio of gliadin to glutenin as the con-

tent of their sum increases .- 94

25. Analyses showing transmission of nitrogen from one generation to

another 96

11

12 TABLES OF EXPERIMENTS.

Page.
Table 26. Summary of analyses, showing transmission of nitrogen from one genera-
tion to another 98

27. Analyses showing transmission of proteid nitrogen in average kernel 99

28. Analyses showing transmission of kernel weight 100

29. Yields of plants, arranged according to percentage killed in each family. . 101

30. Summary of yields of plants, arranged according to percentage killed in

each family 104

31. Yield and nitrogen content of grain, tabulated according to length of

growing period 105

32. Summary of yield and nitrogen content of grain, tabulated according

to length of growing period '. Ill

33. Summary of nitrogen content, etc., tabulated according to yield per

plant Ill

34. Summary of yield, etc., tabulated according to nitrogen content Ill

35. Relation of size of head to yield, height, and tillering of plant 112

36. Summary of relation of size of head to yield, height, and tillering of plant . 118

37. Relationof yield of plant to height and tillering, and to the yield per head . 118

38. Relation of yield per head to yield, height, and tillering of plant, and to

weight of average kernel 118

B. P. I.— 158. V. P. P. I.— 133.

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

OBJECT OF THE INVESTIGATION.

Efforts to improve the wheat plant have been numerous and have
accomplished important results. The work of Fultz, Clawson,
Rud}^, Wellman, Powers, Hayne, Bolton, Cobb, Green, and Hays in
improving by selection, and of Pringle, Blount, Schindel, Saunders,
Farrar, Jones, Carleton, and Hays in improving by hybridization,
has resulted in giving this country many prolific strains and' varieties
of wheat, while Garton Brothers, of England, Farrar, of New South
Wales, Vilmorin, of France, Rimpau, of Germany, and others have
accomplished the same for other portions of the world. Attempts
at improvement have, however, been directed primarily toward effect-
ing an increase in the yield rather than in the quality of the crop.
While the latter property has not been entirely lost sight of, selection
based on quality has never been applied to the individual plant, but
only to the progeny of otherwise desirable plants.

Why selection for quality of grain in the individual plant has not
gone hand in hand with selection for other desirable properties is
perhaps to be explained by the fact that no method for such selection
has ever been devised. Mr. W. Farrar, of Queanbeyen, New South
Wales, in an address made a short time ago, said:

Before we can make any considerable progress in improving the quality of the grain of
the wheat plant we shall have to devise a method for making a fairly correct quantitative
estimate of the constituents * * * of the grain of a single plant and yet have seeds
left to propagate from that plant.

In devising a method for increasing the percentage of nitrogen in
wheat it becomes desirable to know the causes that produce variation
in this constituent of the kernel. Numerous experiments and obser-
vations have been made on this subject, the results of which agree in
the main in attributing such variation to the following conditions:

(1) Stage of development of the kernel.

(2) Variation in temperature of dift'erent regions.

(3) Variation in temperature of different years in the same region.

(4) Variation in the supply and form of soil nitrogen.

(5) Variation in the supply of soil moisture.

13

14 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

All of these factors have been studied, and are recognized as opera-
tive. Nothing, however, appears to have been done to show their
influence upon the actual amount of nitrogen taken up by the wheat
plant and deposited in the kernel. This is really the point of greatest
interest; for although it is desirable to secure a wheat of greater nutri-
tive value, it should not be done at the sacrifice of yield of nitrogenous
substance.

Admitting that variation in the nitrogen content of wheat is
induced by the conditions mentioned, it is essential to the plant
breeder to know whether a high or low nitrogen content may be,
under similar conditions, a characteristic of an individual plant;
whether this cpiahty is transmitted to the offspring; Avith what con-
stant characteristics it is correlated, and whether a high percentage
of nitrogen in a normal, perfectly matured wheat plant is an indica-
tion of a large accumulation of nitrogen by that plant.

The data contained in this paper cover the points mentioned, and
it is hoped that some definite information has been gained that will
lead to a practical solution of the problem of improving by breeding
the quality of wheat for bread making.

fj^:rt I.

HISTORICAL

15

SOME CONDITIONS AFFFXTING THE COMPOSE
TION AND YIELD OF WHEAT.

Experiments to ascertain the effect of different conditions upon
the composition and yield of wheat have been conducted mainly
along the following lines:

(1) Stage of growth at which the grain is harvested.

(2) Influence of immature seed upon the resulting crop.

(3) Effect of climate.

(4) Effect of soil.

(5) Effect of soil moisture.

(6) Influence of size or weight of seed upon the resulting crop.

(7) Influence of specific gravity of seed upon the resulting crop.

A brief summary of a number of these experiments is herewith
given.

COMPOSITION AS AFFECTED BY TIME OF CUTTING.

In 1879," and again in 1892,^ Dr. R. C. Kedzie conducted very
careful experiments to note the chemical changes that occur in the
wheat kernel during its formation and ripening. These agree in
the main in showing a gradual decrease in the percentage of total
nitrogen, albuminoid nitrogen, and non-albuminoid nitrogen from
the time the grain set to the time the kernel was ripe. The decrease
in all of these constituents was much more rapid during the first
than during the last stages of this development. The percentage
of ash decreased at the same time.

In 1897 Prof. G. L. Teller^ carried on some experiments in which
he covered the ground already gone over by Doctor Kedzie and
also contributed to the knowledge of the subject some very important
data concerning the proportion of the various proteids contained
in the wheat kernel during the process of development. Teller
found that the proportion of total nitrogen in the dry matter steadily
decreased from the time the kernel was formed up to about a week
before ripening, but that, unlike Doctor Kedzie's results, it gradually
increased from that time on. He intimates that this increase before
ripening may have been due to defective sampling and hoped to

« Report of Michigan Board of Agriculture, 1881-82, pp. 233-239.
'' Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 101.
'■ Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 53.

27889— No. 78—05 2 17

18

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

repeat the experiment to remedy this, but he has j^ubhshed nothing
further. The amid nitrogen continued to decrease up to the time of
ripening, as did also the ash, fats, fiber, dextrins, and pentosans.
There was a gradual and marked increase in the proportion of gliadin
up to the time of ripening, and a somewhat less and rather irregular
decrease in the proportion of glutenin during the same period.

Failyer and Willard " report analyses of wheat in the soft-dough
stage and when ripe. The ash, crude fiber, fat, and the total and
albuminoid nitrogen were higher in the soft-dough wheat, and the
nitrogen-free extract and non-albuminoid nitrogen were higher in
the ripe wheat.

Dietrich and Konig ^' quote results from five experimenters — Reiset,
Stockhardt, Heinrich, Nowacki, and Handtke. Only in one case
(Heinrich) is there a constant decrease in total nitrogen as the grain
approaches ripeness. There is much inconstancy in the results, there
being in some cases a decrease in nitrogen between the milk stage
and full ripeness and sometimes an increase. There is little informa-
tion to be gained from the results quoted by Dietrich and Konig.

Kornicke and Werner in their ''Handbuch des Getreidebaues "'^
refer to the work of Stockhardt, and also that of Heinrich, to show
that during the process of ripening the percentage of nitrogen in
the wheat kernel gradually diminishes, as does also the percentage
of ash, and that, on the other hand, the percentage of carbohydrates
increases during the same period. Heinrich also shows by a state-
ment of the number of grams of these constituents in 2,600 kernels
at different stages of development that the absolute amount of
nitrogen and ash increases up to the time of ripening, and that
consequently the decrease in the percentage of these constituents
is due to the rapid increase in the cai*bohydrates. The results
obtained by Heinrich appear as follows when tabulated:

stage of growth.

Starch.

14 days after bloom
Beginning to ripen.

Ripe

Overripe

Percentage
in 100

parts of
dry matter

of kernel.

61.44
74.17
75.66
76.38

Grams in

2,600
kernels.

Protein.

Ash.

Percentage
in 100

parts of
dry matter

of kernel.

22.0
58.5
67.0
70.0

14.05
12.21
11.82
11.67

Grams in

2,600
kernels.

5.0
10.0
10.5
10.7

Percentage
in 100 "

parts of
dry matter

of kernel.

Grams in

2,(;oo
kernels.

2.48
2.14
1.97

1.88

0.84
1.70
1.75
1.79

Nedokutschajew'' analyzed wheat kernels at different stages of
development and found an almost uniform decrease in the percentage

(' Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 32.
b Zusanimensetzung u. Verdauliolikeit der Futtermittel, 1, p. 419.
f Handbuch des Getreidebaues, Berlin, 1884,.2, pp. 474-476.
<'Landw. Vers. Stat., 56 (1902), pp. 303-310.

COMPOSITION AS AFFECTED BY TIME OF CUTTING.

19

of total nitrogen, a slight but irregular decrease in the percentage of
})roteid nitrogen in the dry matter, and a constant decrease in the
percentage of amid nitrogen. He holds that the amid substances
are converted into albumen as the kernels ripen
as follows :

His figures are

Date.

July 13..
July 18..
July 24..
July 29..
August 3
August 9

Weight

of
kernel

Percentage of—

Dry

Total

Proteid

Aspara-

(mg.).

matter.

nitrogen.

nitrogen.

gin
nitrogen.

9.17

30.14

2.87

1.90

0.29

15.80

37.23

2.55

1.94

.20

30.79

45. 18

2.65

2.33

.19

37.99

38.37

2.46

2.08

.16

46.39

51.. 52

2.32

1.98

.13

45.46

49.83

2.37

2.13

.11

Amid
nitrogen.

0.68
.41
.13
.22
.21
.13

Judging from these results there can be no doubt that the per-
centage of nitrogen, both total and proteid, decreases as the kernel
develops, owing to the more rapid deposition of starch that goes
on during the later stages of growth. The larger part of the nitrogen
used by the wheat plant appears to be absorbed during the early
life of the plant. This is transferred in large amounts to the kernel
in the early stages of its development, after which nitrogen accretion
by the kernel is comparatively slight. The deposition of starch,
on the other hand, continues actively during the entire development
of the kernel. It would further appear that the amid nitrogen is
converted into proteid compounds as development proceeds.

As showing the stages of growth of the wlfeat plant at which the
greatest absorption of nitrogen occurs, some experiments may be
quoted.

Lawes and Gilbert " say :

In ISSJr we took samples of a growing wheat crop at different stages of its progress,
commencing on June 21, and determind the dry matter, ash, and nitrogen in them. Calcu-
lation of the results showed that, while during little more than fiye weeks from June 21
there was comparatiyely little increase in the amount of nitrogen accumulated over a given
area, more than half the total carbon of the crop was accumulated during that period.

Snyder's analyses* show that of the total amount of nitrogen
taken up by the wheat plant, 85.97 per cent is removed from the soil
within fifty days after coming up, 88.6 per cent b}^ time of heading
out, and 95.4 per cent by the time the kernels are in the milk.

Adorjan'' finds that assimilation of plant food from the soil is not
proportional to the formation of dry matter in the plant, but that
it proceeds more rapidly in the early stages of growth. During early
growth nitrogen is the principal requirement. The nitrogen stored

« On the Composition of the Ash of Wheat Grain and Wheat Straw, London, 1884.
f> Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin 29, pp. 152-160.

'"Abstract, E.xperiment Station Eecord, 14, p. 436, from Jour. Landw., 50 (1902),
pp. 193-230.

20 IMPEOVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

up at that time is, he says, used kiter for the development of the
grain.

It is too well known to require substantiation by experimental
evidence that the yield of grain per acre and the weight of the indi-
vidual kernel increase as the grain approaches ripeness. It is there-
fore quite evident that immaturity, although resulting in a higher
percentage of nitrogen in the wheat kernel, would curtail the pro-
duction of nitrogen by the crop, and, furthermore, that the produc-
tion of proteids would be still further lessened by reason of the
greater proportion of amid substances present in the grain at that
time.

INFLUENCE OF IMMATURE SEED UPON YIELD.

Georgeson " selected kernels from wheat plants that were fully ripe,
and from plants cut while the grain was in the milk. He seeded these
at the same rate on 2 one-tenth acre plots of land. The immature
seed yielded at the rate of 19.75 bushels per acre of grain and 0.8 ton
of straw, while the mature seed produced 22 bushels of grain and
1.04 tons of straw per acre. Georgeson says that in a similar experi-
ment the previous year the difference in favor of the mature seed
was still more pronounced.

Although the evidence is limited, it may safely be considered that
the use of immature seed will result in a smaller jaeld of wheat than
if fully ripe seed be used.

INFLUENCE OF <*LIMATE UPON COMPOSITION AND YIELD.

Lawes and Gilbert'' state that "high maturation in the wheat crop
as indicated by the proportion of dressed corn in total corn, propor-
tion of corn in total product (grain and straw), and heavy weight of
grain per bushel, is, other things being equal, generally associated
with a high percentage of dry substance and a low percentage of both
mineral and nitrogenous constituents." This is based upon the
wheat crops at Rothamsted for the years 1845 to 1854, inclusive.

More recent publications '^ by these investigators reaffu'm their
belief that the composition of the wheat kernel depends more largely
upon the conditions that affect its degree of development than upon
any other factor. The}^ found almost invariably that a season that
favored a long and continuous growth of tlie plant after heading,
resulting in a large jaeld of grain, a high weight per bushel, and a
plump kernel, produced a kernel of low nitrogen content.

« Abstract, Experiment Station Record, 4, p. 407, from Kansas Experiment Station
Bulletin 33, p. 50.

& On Some Points in the Composition of Wheat Grain, London, 1S57.

<' Our Climate and Our Wheat Crops, London, 1880, and On the Composition of the Ash
of Wheat Grain and Wheat Straw, London, 1884.

INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE UPON COMPOSITION AND YIELD. 21

Kornicke and Werner " cite an experiment in which winter wheat
grown in Poppelsdorf for several years was sent to and grown in the
moist cUmate of Great Britain, in Germany, and in the continental
climate of Russia (steppes) . The results were as follows :

Locality.

Great Britain. . .

Germany

Soutliem Russia

Number
of exper-
iments.

Weight (in grams)
of—

Percentage of —

37
18
19

100
plants.

600
500
365

Kernels
from 100
plants.

227
204
160

Grain.

37.8
40.8
44.0

Straw.

62.3
59.2
56.0

These investigators conclude from the results that in a moist cli-
mate relatively more straw and less grain are produced than in a dr}",
warm climate. The thickness of the straw and the weight of the
kernels from 100 heads are greater, while the percentage by weight
of kernels to straw is much less in a moist climate. They also quote
Haberlandt as saying that a continental climate produces a small,
hard wheat kernel, rich in gluten and of especially heavy weight.

Deherain and Dupont ^ report some interesting observations as to
the effect of climate on the composition of wheat. They state that the
harvest of 1888 at Grignon was late and the process of ripening slow.
There was a heavy yield of grain having a gluten content of 12.60 per
cent and a starch content of 77.2 per cent. The following season was
diy and hot, with a rapid ripening of the grain, resulting in a smaller
crop. The gluten content of the grain was 15.3 per cent and the
starch content 61.9 per cent. They removed the heads from a num-
])er of plants. The next day the stems were harvested, as were also
an equal number of entire plants. The stems w^ithout heads showed
that carbohydrates equal to 5.94 per cent of the dry matter had been
formed. The stems on which the heads remained one day longer
contained 1.63 per cent carbohydrates. They argue from this that
the upper portion of the stem, provided it is still green, performs the
functions of the leaves in other plants and thus ela})orates the starch
that fills out the kernel in its later development.

A report from the Ploti Experiment Station ' states that the con-
ditions that favored an increase in yield caused a reduction in the
relative proportion of nitrogen in the grain. Excessive humidity
favored the process of assimilation of carboh3'drates, while drought
hastened maturation and produced a grain relatively rich in proteids.

"Handbuch des Getreidebaues, Berlin, 1884, pp. 69, 70.
''Ann. Agron., 1902, p. 522.

'.Abstract, Experiment Station Record, 14, p. 340, from Sept. Rap An. Sta. Expt.
Agron. Ploty, 1901, pp. xiv-180.

22 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Wiley" sent wheat of the same origin to Cahfornia, Kentucky,
Maryland, and Missouri. The original grain and the product from
each State were analyzed. The results of one year's test were
reported. Regarding the effect of climate, he says:

There appears to be a marked relation between the content of protein matter and starch
and the length of the growing season. The shorter the period of growth and the cooler the
chmate the larger the content of protein and the smaller the content of starch, and vice
versa.

Shindler,* in his book upon this subject, says (p. 75) :

With the length of the gi-owing period, especialh' with the length of the interval between
bloom and ripeness, varies not only the size of the kernel, but also the relative amount of
carbohydrates and protein it contains.

Again, on page 76, Shindler says:

All this shows that the protein constituent of the kernel depends in the first place upon
the length of the growing period and next upon the richness of the soil.

Melikov '" made analj^ses of different varieties of wheat of the crops
of the years 1885-1899 grown in southern Russia. The protein
varied in different years from 14 to 21,2 per cent. Melikov concludes
that the nitrogen content is highest in dry years and lowest in years
of larger rainfall, in which years the yield of wheat per acre is also
greater.

Gurney and Morris,'^ in one of their reports, say:

This increased gluten [over previous years] is probably largely due to differences in the
seasons, the weather being hot and dry while the grain was ripening, since it is character-
istic not of these wheats alone but of most of the grain grown in the colony.

The conclusion to be inevitably derived from these observations
is that climate is a potent factor in determining the yield and compo-
sition of the wheat crop, and, further, that its effect is produced by
lengthening or shortening the growing season, particularly' that por-
tion of it during which the kernel is developing. A moderately cool
season, wi*h a liberal supply of moisture, has the effect of prolonging
the period during wliich the kernel is developing, thus favoring its
filling out with starch, the deposition of wliich is much greater at
that time than is that of nitrogenous material. With this goes an
increase in volume weight and an increased yield of grain per acre.
On the other hand, a hot, dr}- season shortens the period of kernel
development, curtails the deposition of starch, leaving the per-

« Yearbook U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1901, pp. 299-308.

^ Der Weizen in seinem Beziehungen zum Klima und das Gesetz der Korrelation, Berlin,
1893.

f Abstract, Experiment Station Record, 13, p. 4.51, from Zhur. Opuitn. Agron., 1 (1900),
pp. 256-267.

'^Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, 12, pt. 2, pp. 1403-1424.

INFLUENCE OF SOIL LTPON YIELD.

23

centage of nitrogen relatively higher, and gives a grain of lighter
weight per bushel and smaller yield per acre.

The fact that one variety of wheat is adapted to a hot, dry climate
and another to a cool, moist one does not mean that the former under-
goes as complete maturation as the latter, even though the grain is not
shriveled. This is shown by the fact that a variety of w^heat well
adapted to a hot, dry climate will, when planted in a cool, moist one,
immediately grow plumper and the kernel weight will increase, as
was the case in the experiment of taking Minnesota wheats to Maine.

INFLUENCE OF SOIL UPON COMPOSITION AND YIELD.

In considering the effect of the soil upon the wheat crop there will
naturally be included experiments designed to show the effect of
fertilizers upon the crops. It is, in fact, upon experiments with fer-
tilizers that we must depend for most of our information on this
subject.

Experiments to ascertain the effect of fertilizers upon the composi-
tion of the w^heat kernel were conducted b}^ Law^es and Gilbert for a
period of years extending fro in 1845 to 1854." Plots of land in
Avhich wheat was grow n continually were treated annually as follows :
Unmanured, manured with ammoniacal fertilizer alone, and manured
Avith ammoniacal fertilizer and proportionate amounts of mineral
salts. In composition calculated to dry matter, the wheat on the
plots receiving ammoniacal fertilizer alone contained quite uniformly
a slightly larger amount of nitrogen than either of the other two.
The averages for the ten. years were as follows :

Percentage of—

Weight
of grain

per

bushel

(pounds).

Percent-
age of
good

kernels.

Yield per

acre
(povmds).

Band of fertilizer, if any.

Nitrogen

in dry

matter.

Ash in

dry
matter.

2.13
2.26

2. 22

2.07
1.85
1.96

.58. 51

58.9

60.2

90.6
90. .3
92.8

1,045

Animoniiim salts

1,668

Minerals and ammonium salts

1,969

There w^as practically no difference in the nitrogen content of the
straw^ From these experiments the authors quoted conclude that
there is no evidence that the nitrogen content of the wheat kernel
can be increased at pleasure by the use of nitrogenous manures.

Ritthausen and Pott '' report an experiment in which plots of land
were manured (1) with superphosphate alone, (2) with nitrate alone,
(3) with a mixture of superphosphate and nitrate, and (4) w^ere left

« On Some Points in the Composition of Wheat Grain, London, 1857.
&Landw. Vers. Stat., 16 (1873), pp. 384-399.

24

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

unmanured. There were three plots of each. The following is a
tabulated statement of their results :

Kind of fertilizer, if any.

Unfertilized

Superphosphate

Nitrate

Superphosphate and nitrate

Weight of

52 c. c. of

kernels

(grams) .

Yield of
grain on

plot
(kilos).

Percentage
of nitrogen

in dry
.matter.

1,306
1,339
1,413
1,451

2.72
2.30
2.03

2.60
3.49
3.43
3.62

It will be noticed that the effect of the nitrate fertilizer was to
decrease the yield of grain, but to increase the size of the kernel and
its content of nitrogen.

Wolff/' as early as 1856, in summing up the experiments of Hermb-
stadt, Muller, and John with barley, and of Lawes and Gilbert with
w^heat, says :

In the presence of a sufBcient amount of phosphoric acid and alkali the effect of manuring
with an easily soluble nitrogen compound is an improvement in the grain both in quantity
and quality [meaning plumper kernels]. The kernels decrease in percentage of nitrogen,
l)ut become plumper, become absolutely and relatively richer in starch, and have a better
appearance and a higher commercial value. But when the nitrogenous food in the soil
exceeds a certain relation to the temperature and rainfall the quality of the grain becomes
poorer [harder], it becomes lighter and smaller, takes on a darker color, and generally
becomes richer in percentage of nitrogen in the air-dry substance.

Yon Gohren^ also reports results of experiments in fertilizing wheat.
All experiments were apparently made in the same year. He grew
the crop on six different plots of land, five of which were manured and
each with a different fertilizer. In the crop he distinguished between
large kernels and small kernels to show the quality of the product.
Determinations of proteids and starch were made, and these were
calculated to the jaeld of each constituent on each plot.

The following table shows the jdeld of each of the characters deter-
mined, and compares those raised on the unmanured plot with those
on the manured ones by taking the former as one and reducing the
others to the corresponding figure :

Yield and percentage.

Yield of grain

Yield of large kernels.
Yield of small kernels.

Yield of proteids

Yiel 1 of starch

Percentage of proteids
Percentage of starch . .

Unferti-
lized.

Ashes.

1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
14.42
62.67

1.011

.146

. 9.53

.999

1.009

14.25

62.56

Oil cake.

1.071

1.928

.704

.915

1.081

12.70

63. 25

Bat
guano.

1.143
2.552

.538
.936
1.174
11. SI
64.41

on cake

and
ashes.

215
226

781
070
264
70

65.24

Peruvian
guano.

1.286

2.786

.642

1.114

1.303

13. 22

63. 55

The results show an increased yield from the use of fertihzers, the
production increasing with the application of complete manures.

« Die naturgesetzlichen Grundlagen des Ackerbauer, Leipzig, 1856, p. 774.
6Landw. Vers. Stat., 6 (1864), pp. 15-19.

INFLUENCE OF SOIL UPON YIELD.

25

The yield of grain of good quality increases in the same way, and the
yield of grain of poor quality decreases proportionately. It must be
remembered that by good quality of grain in these early writings is
meant plump kernels and not necessarily what would be considered
wheat of good milling quality at the present da.j. The production of
proteids per acre decreased with the use of the incomplete fertilizers,
ashes and oil cake, and even with the bat guano. It increased, how-
ever, with the use of oil cake and ashes combined and of Peruvian
guano. The percentage of proteids was greatest in the unfertilized
grain and the percentage of starch least, with the exception of one
fertilized plot.

The very evident effect of the fertilizers in this case was to produce
a more completely matured kernel. It will be noticed that the plots
producing grain of highest starch content were those having the
greatest proportion of plump kernels.

Again, in 1884, Lawes and Gilbert" report results obtained from
manured and unmanured soils. These experiments cover a period of
sixteen j^ears and are divided into two periods of eight years each. In
one of these periods the seasons were favorable for wheat, in the other
unfavorable.

Character.

Favorable seasons.

Unfavorable seasons.

Barnyard
manure.

Weight of grain per bushel

(pounds) 62.6

Percentage of grain to straw . j 62. .5

Grain per acre (pounds) I 2, .342. 0

Straw per acre (pounds) ; 6,089.0

Percentage of nitrogen in dry

matter ' 1. 7.3

Percentage of ash in dry mat- I

ter i 1.98

Nitrogen per bushel (pounds) 1. 083

Un-
manured.

60.5

67.4
1,156.0
2, 872. 0

1.84

1.96
1. 11,3

Ammo-
nium salts
alone.

Barnyard
manure.

60.4

66.2

1,967.0

4, 774. 0

2.09

1.74
1.262

57.4

54.5

1,967.0

5, 574. 0

1.96

2.06
1.125

Un-
manured.

54.3

51.1

823. 0

,4.33.0

1.98

2.08
1.075

Ammo-
nium salts
alone.

r-,3. 7

46.7

1,147.0

3,601.0

2.25

1.91
1.208

It is evident from this statement that the largest crops and best
developed kernels were obtained from the soils treated with barnyard
manure, and that these kernels contained the lowest percentage of.
nitrogen. The crops on unmanured soil stood next in these respects,
except in jaeld. Those on the soil receiving ammonium salts pro-
duced the most poorly developed kernels and those of highest nitrogen
content, but gave larger yields than the unmanured soil.

In the unmanured soil there was a very evident lack of plant food,
as indicated by the light crops. The effect upon the kernel was to
curtail its development, leaving it of hght weight and with a relatively
high nitrogen content.

« On the Composition of the Ash of Wheat Grain and Wheat Straw, London, 1884.

26

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Hermbstadt obtained some curious results, as quoted by D.G.F.
MacDonald/' as follows :

He sowed equal quantities of wheat upon the same ground and manured them with equal
weights of the difi'erent manures set forth below. From 100 parts of each sample of grain
produced he obtained starch and gluten in the following proportions:

Kind of fertilizer, if any.

Unfertilized

Potato peels

Cow dung

Pigeon duug

Horse dung

Goat dung

Sheep dung

Dried night soil. . .

Dried ox blood

Dried human urine

starch.

Produce.

66. 7 Threefold.

65.94

62.3

63.2

61.64

42.4

42.8

41.44

41. 43

39.3

Fivefold.

Sevenfold.

Ninefold.

Tenfold.

Twelvefold.

Do.
Fourteenfold.

Do.
Twelvefold.

These results are not to be considered seriously, representing as
they do an impossible condition.

Prof. H. A. Huston'^ treated 0.01-acre plots of land each with
nitrate of soda, dried blood, sulphate of ammonia, rotted stable
manure, and muck, respectively, either in the autumn or spring, or
in both seasons. In 1891 all the plots treated with nitrogenous com-
pounds showed marked increase in the percentage of nitrogen in the
grain. In 1892 the results were by no means so uniform and would
not justify the conclusion that nitrogenous fertilizers increased the
nitrogen content of the wheat.

Vignon and Conturier^" tested the effect of phosphate fertihzer
alone upon the nitrogen content of the grain of two varieties of wheat.
On Plot 1 they used 75 kilograms of phosphoric acid per hectare; on
Plot 2, 150 kilograms, and on Plot 3, 225 kilograms.

Variety.

Percentage of nitrogen in
grain.

Plot 1.

Plot 2.

Plot 3.

1.83
2.07

1.61 1.54

1.98 1.82

There was a very evident decrease in the nitrogen content of the
crop as the quantity of fertilizer was increased.

It was concluded from experiments conducted at the Ploti Experi-
ment Station^' that, with favorable meteorological conditions, manure
increased the total amount of nitrogen taken up by wheat, but,

« Practical Hints on Farming, London, 1868.
''Indiana Experiment Station Bulletins 41 and 45.
cCompt. Rend., 132 (1901), p. 791.

''Abstract, Experiment Station Record, 14, p. 340, from Sept. Rap. An. Sta. Expt.
Agron. Ploty, 1901, pp. xiv-180.

INFLUENCE OF SOIL UPON YIELD.

27

although it thus increased the total production of nitrogen, it
decreased the relative proportion of nitrogenous substance.

Bogdau " conducted investigations the results of which indicated
that with an increase in the soluble salt content of 22 alkali soils the
nitrogen and ash contents of the wheat kernels increased, but the
absolute weight of the kernels diminished. These soluble salts are
rich in nitrates.

Experiments were conducted by Whitson, Wells, and Vivian* in
which plants were grown in pots the soils of which were in some cases
fertilized with nitrates and in others with leachings of single and
of double strengths from fertile soils. Field experiments were con-
ducted on manured and unmanured plots. All of the analyses,
except in the case of oats, were of the whole plant. Of the ripe oat
kernels those from the unfertilized soil contained 2.57 per cent of
nitrogen, while the average of those from the fertilized soil was 2.78
per cent.

Guthrie'" conducted experiments with fertilizers for wheat during
two years, in which he kept a record of the yield and gluten content of
the grain. The following is a statement of the results:

Kind of fertilizer, if any.

None

Ammonium sulphate

Superphosphate

Potassium sulphate

Ammonium sulphate, superphosphate,
potassium sulphate

Experiments in 1901 —

At Wagga.

Yield
per acre
(bush-
els).

7.7

8.7

13.3

13.0

10.0

Percent-
age of
gluten.

At Bathurst.

Experiments in
1902, at Wagga.

11.90
10.43
12.0ti
12.02

11.70

Yield
per acre
(bush-
els).

13
16

13.. 5
13.0

13.7

Percent-
age of
gluten.

Yield
per acre
(hush-
els).

11.80
11.21
12.01
11.29

12.05

17.6
17.6
22.6
19.2

20.3

Percent-
age of
gluten.

9.8

8.7

11.4

10.0

12.0

In this experiment there was in each case a higher percentage of
gluten in the wheat raised on the fertilized soil than in that from the
soil fertilized with ammonium sulphate, and in the latter less than in
the grain fertilized with other material.

The most striking feature of these results is their apparent lack of
uniformity. In some cases the use of nitrogenous fertilizers was
accompanied by an increase in the nitrogen content of the grain and
in other cases no increase appeared; in some cases phosphoric acid
fertilizers apparently increased the nitrogen content and in others
the}" did not have this effect.

Climatic influences have doubtless operated largely in these results,
but they are not considered by any of the experimenters except Wolff.

^'Abstract, Experiment Station Record, 13, p. 329, from Report of Department of Agri-
culture, St. Petersburg, 1900.

''Wisconsin Experiment Station Report, 19 (1902), pp. 192-209.

f Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, 13 (1902), Xo. 6, p. 664; and Xo. 7, p. 728.

28 IMPKOYING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

It is evident that in all experiments with depleted soils the plants on
the plots receiving complete fertilizers would take up larger amounts
of plant food, including nitrogen, than would plants on unmanm-ed
soils. Any conditions that would prevent the normal ripening of the
crop on both soils woidd therefore leave a liigher percentage of nitro-
gen in the plants upon the unmanured soil. On the other hand,
imder conditions wliich would permit of a complete maturation of the
crop there might be no difference in the composition of the grain from
the manured and unmanured soils. It is evident, however, that the
production of both nitrogen and starch in pounds per acre would be
greater on the manured soils.

Another condition that may affect the results is the arrested devel-
opment of kernels on unmanm-ed soils that are seriously' depleted of
plant food. Such depletion may interfere with complete matiu-ation
of the crop while the crop on the manured soil ^vill mature fully. In
consequence the grain on the unmanured soil will contain a highef
percentage of nitrogen but a smaller yield per acre. The use of a
nitrogenous manure alone on exhausted soils mav hkewise result in.
a grain of higher nitrogen content.

Expressed in a more general way. this means that wheat of the
same variety grown under the same chmatic conditions will have
approximately the same percentage of nitrogen if allowed to mature
fully, but any permanent interruption in the process of maturation
will result in a higher percentage of nitrogen, and in the latter case the
percentage of nitrogen will depend upon the stage at which develop-
ment was interrupted, and also upon the amount of nitrogen accumu-
lated by the plant, that being greater on soils manured with nitroge-
nous fertihzers alone than on exhausted soils, and greater on soils
receiving complete manures than on exhausted soils receiving only
nitrogenous fertihzers, provided the stage at which development
ceased be the same in both cases. It thus happens that wheat grow-
ing on the soil allowing it to absorb the largest amount of nitrogen
will, other things being equal, have a higher nitrogen content if the
development of the kernel be permanently checked, although if it
were allowed to mature fully it would not have a greater percentage
of nitrogen than that gro^m on the soil affording less nitrogen.

Reviewing the experiments, we find that in Lawes and Gilbert's
first experiment the percentage of nitrogen in the unmanured soil was
less than on the soil receiving only nitrogenous fertilizer, and that the
weight of grain per bushel and the percentage of good kernels on the
two plots v.ere practicaUy the same. It would not appear, therefore,
that the wheat on the plot receiving the nitrogenous fertilizer was less
well matured than that on the unmanured plot. In this case there
appears to be a shght increase in the percentage of nitrogen, due
entirely to the use of nitrogenous fertilizers. Comparing the giain on

INFLUENCE OF SOIL MOISTURE UPON YIELD. 29

the plot receiving only nitrogenous fertilizer with that receiving the
complete fertilizer it will be seen that the former has a higher percent-
age of nitrogen, but this is evidently due to the poorly developed ker-
nels wliich weigh l^ss per bushel than the grain on the completely
fertilized plot.

Yon Goliren's results show plainly that the kernels on the manured
land developed better than on the unmanured. and with this better
development there was an increase in the percentage of starch and a
decrease in the nitrogen.

In Lawes and Gilbert's second experiment the percentage of nitro-
gen in the wheat on the soil manured with ammonium salts was less
than that in the wheat on the unmanured soil, but the weight of grain
per bushel shows that the higher nitrogen content was due, in part at
least, to incomplete maturation. The liigher percentage of nitrogen
in the wheat on the soil receiving only nitrogenous manures as com-
pared with that receiving complete manures can be traced to the same
condition of the grain.

INFLUENCE OF SOIL MOISTUTJE UPON COMPOSITION AND YIELD.

Experiments were conducted by D. Prianishinkov " in which wheat
was raised with different degrees of moisture, but in the same soil and
under the same conditions of light and temperature. With a larger
amount of moisture in the soil there was a lower nitrogen content in
the grain. It was also stated that the duration of the period of vege-
tation was somewhat shorter when the moisture supply was greater.

Traphagen^' reports marked changes in the composition of wheat
grown with and without irrigation at the Montana Experiment
Station. A wheat grown under uTigation on the station farm was
planted the following year on land not irrigated. Presumably the
land was of similar character. The two crops of grain were analyzed
and the percentages stated below were found.

„ Mois- Crude Ether ^^\^^^f^' Crude

'-'■"P- ture. protein, extract. exWaet. *''^'""

free ^J?'^^ Ash.

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.

Irrigated wheat 7.87 8.81 1.93 76.99

Vnirrigated wheat 7.65 14.41 2.23 -1.33

Per ct.
2.60
2.65

Perct.
1.80
1.70

No records of yields or of weights of kernels are given, but it is fair
to suppose that the unirrigated wheat possessed the light, shrunken
kernel wMcli is characteristic of wheat raised without sufficient
moisture.

"Abstract, Experiment Station Record. 13, p. 631, from Zhur. Opiiitn. Agron., 1 (1900),
No. 1, pp. 13-20.

* Montana Experiment Station Report (1902), pp. 59-60.

30

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Irrigation experiments were conducted by Widtsoe ^' in which wheat
of the same variety was raised on plots of land each one of which
received a different quantity of water. A record was kept of the
yield and composition of the grain on each plot.

Plot.

Water
applied
(inches).

Yield
per acre
(bush-
els).

Percentage of—

Yield (in pounds)
per acre of—

Protein
in grain.

Ash in
grain.

Nitrogen.

Ash.

317
319
320
318
321
325
322
326
327
328
329
330

4.63

5.14

8.73

8.89

10.30

12.09

12.18

12.80

17.50

21.11

30.00

40.00

4.50
3.83
10.33
11.33
14.66
11.16
11.66
13.00
15.33
17.33
26.66
14.50

24.8
23.2
19.9
19.4
18.4
21.3
23.1
17.1
17.2
15.9
14.0
17.1

2.50
3.07
2.54
2.93
2.34
3.25
2.88
2.52
2.57
2.34
4.14
2.52

10.7
8.5
19.7
21.1
25.9
22.8
25.8
21.3
25.3
26.4
35.8
23.8

6.75
7.05
15.74
19.72
20.24
21.44
20.30
21.50
23.64
24.33
66.20
21.92

The results show that with an increase in the water used for irriga-
tion up to 30 inches there were in general an increase in the jdeld of
grain and a decrease in the nitrogen content. No volume weights
or other means of judging of the development of the kernels on the
different plots are given, but there is no reason to suppose that the
grain on the plots receiving small quantities of water was not poorly
developed. The column added showing the yield of nitrogen in
pounds per acre indicates a lack of nutriment in the grain on these
plots.*

High nitrogen content arising from a small supply of soil moisture
is sometimes due to a restricted development of the kernel. There
is nothing in these results to indicate a greater absorption of nitrogen
by the crop on soil having less moisture, but results of this nature
are cited elsewhere in this bulletin.

INFLUENCE OF SIZE OR WEIGHT OF THE SEED-WHEAT KERNEL UPON

THE CROP YIELD.

Sanborn ^ reports experiments to ascertain the effect of separating
seed w^heat into kernels of different grades to ascertain the effect upon
the yield. He divided the kernels into large, medium, small, ordinary
(grain as it came from the thrasher), and shriveled, and continued
the experiments for four j^ears. Apparently the large kernels were
separated from the crop grown from large seed the previous year, and

« Utah Experiment Station Bulletin 80.

^ Nitrogen has been calculated from proteids by dividing by 6.25.

c Utah Elxperiment Station Report, 1893, p. 168.

INFLUENCE OF SIZE OR WEIGHT OF SEED KERNEL.

31

SO with the other classes of kernels. He tabulates his results as
follows :

Kind of seed.

Yield of grain on plots (in
pounds).

Average
for 4
years.

1890.

1891.

1892. 1893.

Bushels
per acre.

Larsfe

S8.5

72.5
70.0
105.0
95.0
43.0

Ill 63.0
87 67.0
64 74.0
87 29.5
78 31.0

18.72

16.60

Smnll

94.0
84.0

18.72

16.42

Shrivpled

11.25

The relation between yields of the crops representing different
sized kernels is so irregular from year to year that suspicion is
aroused regarding the accuracy of the results, due to lack of uni-
formity in soil. Sanborn's conclusion is that very little, if any,
advantage is to be gained by separating seed wheat and planting
the large kernels.

At the Indiana Experiment Station, Latta" conducted experi-
ments in which wheat was separated by means of a fanning mill into
heavy and light kernels, but impurities and chaff}^ seed were fanned
out of each lot of wheat. The experiments were continued three
years, but the separations were made each year from seed that had
not been so separated the year before. The average gain from the
large seed for three years was 2.5 bushels per acre.

Georgeson,^^ at the Kansas station, seeded plots of land with (1)
light seed weighing 56 pounds per bushel, (2) common seed weighing
62.5 pounds, (3) heavy seed weighing 63 pounds, and (4) selected
seed, obtained by picking the largest and finest heads in the field just
before the crop was cut, weighing 61.5 pounds per bushel. Seed was
separated each year from wheat not grown from previously selected
seed. The average results for three years were as follows:

Grade of seed.

Light

Common.

Yield of
grain

per acre
(bush-
els).

25.19
26.57

Grade of seed.

Heavy

Select (average for 2 years) .

Yield of
grain

per acre
(bush-
els).

27.07
25.82

Desprez'' reports experiments extending through three years in
which large kernels were selected from a crop grown from large seed

« Indiana Experiment Station Bulletin 36, pp. 110-128.
& Kansas Experiment Station Bulletin 40, pp. .51-62.

'^ Abstract, Experiment Station Record, 7, p. 679, from Jour. Agr. Prat., 59 (1895), 2,
pp. 694-698.

32 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

for several j^ears and small seed from a crop grown from small seed
for several j^ears. Five varieties of wheat were used. The average
results for three years were a difference of 1,067 to 1,828 kilograms
of grain ])er hectare in favor of the large seed, but the difference was
in general greater the first year than later. The use of large seed
gave a crop with kernels larger than those grown from small seed.

Middleton ^' reports the yields obtained from large wheat kernels
to be almost doulile those obtained from small seed kernels.

Bolle}^'' as the results of experiments continuing for four years in
which plump kernels of large size and plump kernels of small size
were selected for seed, concludes that ''perfect grains of large size
and greatest weight produce better plants than perfect grains of
small size and light weight, even when the grains come from the same
head." '

At the Ontario Agricultural College. Zavitz'' selected large plump
seed, small plump seed, and shrunken seed of both spring and winter-
wheat. Experiments were continued for eight years with spring
wheat and five years with winter wheat, the selections each year
being from a crop grown from previously unselected seed. His
results are as follows:

Kind of seed.

Yield per acre (in
busliels) .

Spring
wheat.

Winter
wheat.

Larerp tjIuitii)

21.7
18.0
16.7

42.4

34.8

Shninkpn

33.7

Deherain and Dupont*^^ report that the yields from small and large
kernels of a number of varieties of wheat were in all cases in favor of
the large kernels, but a large difference in yield was obtained only
when there was a marked difference in the weight of the kernels.

Soule and Vanatter* conducted experiments for three years in
which large and small kernels were separated by means of sieves.
In addition a plot of unselected seed was planted. The large seed
was, each year after the first, selected from the crop grow^n from
large seed the previous year. The same was true of the small seed.
These investigators say:

« Abstract, Experiment Station Record, 12, p. 441, from 'Univ. Coll. of Wales Kept.,
1899, pp. 68-70.

'' North Dakota Experiment Station Report, 1901, p. 30.

'Ontario Agricultural College and Experiment Farm Report, 1901, p. 84.

'' Abstract, Experiment Station Record, 15, p. 672, from Compt. Rend., 135 (1902),
p. 654.

« Tennessee Experiment Station Bulletin, vol. 16, No. 4,. p. 77.

INFLUENCE OF SIZE OE WEIGHT OF SEED KERNEL.

33

The average difference in 3'ieid at tlie end of three years between large grains (607 per
ounce), commercial sample (689 per ounce.), and small grains (882 per ounce), with Med-
iterranean wheat, was 2.06 bushels in favor of large grains as compared with the commercial
sample, and 5.18 bushels in favor of large grains over small grains. The difference in yield
between the large grains and the commercial sample chiefly occurred the first year; but it
is possible, though hardly probable, that the difference was partly due to variation in the
soil. The experiment has been carried on in different parts of the field for the last two
years, and the difference in yield is now only 0.32 Ijushel per acre in favor of the large grains.

Cobb" reports tests of various grades of wheat kernels with respect
to size, and conckides that large kernels give better yields of grain.
The seed of one year was not the product of the corresponding grade
of the previous one.

Grenfell'^ selected plump and shriveled kernels from the same bulk
of grain. Of these 150 kernels were sown in each row, with rows of
plump and shriveled kernels alternating. The germination in both
ro\vs appeared much alike, but the plants in the rows sown from
plump grain soon began to gain on the others and kept ahead for the
remainder of the season. The tillering was better in the plump-
grain plants. Grenfell tabulates his results thus:

Variety.

Kind.

Stein wedel Plump

Do Shriveled.

Purple Straw do

Do Plump

Do Shriveled .

Do Plump

Do Shriveled .

Plump-kernel averages

Shriveled-kern( 1 averages

''oTptnTs'^N^^'^^'-
tha?g,w.i°fhe'^d-

96.0
89.3
89.3
90.0

7fi.O
92.0
98.0

92.7

88.5

Average
Tillering >'i|ld per

Po^^-e'-- (bush-
els).

179
174

153
200
140
161
155

180
155

1.24
1.29
1.14
1.49
1.16
1.23
1.34

1.32
1.23

10.9
9.9
6.1

10
6.9
8.4
7.2

9.8
7.5

As bearing upon this subject some experiments conducted by
Riinker'' are of interest. He weighed each of the kernels of a large
number of heads of wheat of the Spalding Prolific and Alartin Amber
varieties, and found that the heaviest kernels occur in the lower half
of the spike. With spikes of different lengths and weights, the
weight of the average kernel increases with the size of the spike.

Weights of individual kernels from the same spikes show that
there is a great range in this respect. One spike, of which Riinker
gives the weights of all the kernels, and which is given as representa-
tive of the average, shows kernels varying in weight from 36 to 71
milligrams.

« Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, 14 (1903), No. 2, pp. 14.5-169.
''Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, 12 (1901 ), No. 9, pp. 1053-1062.
c Jour. f. Landw., 38 (1890), p. 309.

27889— No. 78—05 3

34 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

It is therefore quite evident that a sample of wheat taken from
spikes of different sizes when separated into lots of light and heavy
kernels would have both the larger spikes and smaller spikes repre-
sented in each lot of kernels, but doubtless the proportion of kernels
from large heads would be greater in the lot of heavy kernels.

It would appear from these results that the evidence was over-
whelmingly in favor of large or heavy wheat kernels for seed. Most
of the experimenters selected seed of different kinds each year without
reference to previous selection. If large seed or small seed represent
plants of different characteristics and if these properties are hered-
itary, the results of selection of large or small seeds for several
years may be quite different from what they would be the first 3'ear.
It is only those experiments in which selection of the same kind of
seed has been continued for several generations that ma}^ be relied
upon to indicate the value of continuous selection of large kernels
for seed.

Such experiments have been conducted by Sanborn, by Desprez,
and by Soule and Vanatter. The work of Desprez indicates that the
size of the kernel is a hereditary qualit} . That being the case, it is
evident that the small seed of the first separation may be composed
partly of seed that is small on account of immaturity and parth^ of
seed that is small hj inheritance, but which is perfectly normal.
When such seed is planted the immature seed will be largely elimi-
nated in the crop, but the naturally small seed will have reproduced
itself and will compose most of the crop. When the seed is again
separated a much smaller percentage of small seed will be immature,
and in consequence a larger number of kernels will produce plants.
It would appear from Desprez's experiments, however, that those
plants producing small kernels are not so prolific as those producing
large kernels.

Sanborn's results make a ver}^ good showing for the small kernels,
but, as before stated, the extreme irregularity would lead to the
belief that the soil on the plots lacked uniformit}', or that some other
errors had influenced the results. To offset this the tests cover a
period of four ^^ears, which should help to rectify mistakes, and in
consequence the good showing made by the small kernels is entitled
to some consideration.

Soule and Vanatter's results fulfill exactly the conditions of the
hypothesis that the small seed would the first j^ear contain a much
larger proportion of immature kernels than it would in subsequent
years, and hence yield more poorly the first year. Their results with
heavy kernels as compared with ordinary seed offer little encourage-
ment to the continuous selection of large kernels.

RELATION OF SIZE OF KERNEL TO NITROGEN CONTENT. 35

The fact before referred to that both large and small kernels are
found on the same head of wheat is perhaps an argument against the
superior value of large seed. If the plant and not the seed is the unit
of reproduction, small seed from a plant whose kernels averaged
large size may be better than large seed from a plant whose kernels
averaged small size.

On the other hand, there can be no doubt that the majorit^^of the
kernels in the lot of heavy kernels would be from plants having large
spikes, and vice versa. This would give the kernels in the heavy lot
some advantage. Again, the advantage that the large kernel is sup-
posed to possess for seed may not be in producing a large kernel in
the resulting crop, but in giving the plant a better start in life, or
producing a more vigorous plant.

RELATION OF SIZE OF KERNEL TO NITROGEN CONTENT.

Richardson " has made a large number of analyses of wheats from
different parts of the United States. The weight of 100 kernels was
also determined in each sample. There can not be said to be any
constant relation between the nitrogen content and the kernel weight,
l)ut in the main the large kernels have a lower percentage of nitrogen
than the small kernels, and inversely.

PagnouF' reports that in a test of eleven varieties of wheat there
was in the main a decrease in the percentage of nitrogen in the crop
as compared with the seed when there was an increase in the weight
of 1,000 kernels in the crop as compared with the seed.

The same investigator'' again states that in an examination of
seventy varieties of wheat there was no constant relation between
the size of the kernels and their nitrogen content, but that in general
the varieties with small kernels were the varieties richest in nitrogen.

Marek'' separated wheat of the same variety into lots of large and
of small kernels. He found on anah^sis that the large kernels con-
tained 12.. 52 per cent protein and the small kernels 13.55 per cent
protein.

Woods and ^^lerrilP made analj'ses of a number of wheats grown
in Minnesota and of the same varieties grown in Maine. The wheats
uniforml}^ developed a larger kernel when grown in Maine. Grouping
five varieties raised in ^Minnesota and five raised in Maine, it will be
seen that with this increase in the size of the kernel there was a

« U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Chemistry, Bulletins 1 and 3.
'^Abstract in Centrlb. f. Agr. Chera., 1893, p. 616, from Ann. Agron., 1892, p. 486.
c Abstract in Centrlb. f. Agi'. Chem., 1888, p. 767, from Ann. Agron., 14, pp. 262-272.
''Abstract in Centrlb. f. Agr. Chem., 1876, from Landw. Zeitung f. Westfalen u. Lippe,
187.5. p. 362.

( Maine Experiment Station Bulletin 97.

86 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

decrease in the nitrogen content. The analyses, reduced to a water-
free basis, are as follows :

■\^■here grown.

Weight of

100 kernels
(grams).

Minnesota 2. 239

Maine 3. 109

Percentage
of protein.

16.22
15.43

In a review of the experiments concerning the relation of weight
to composition of cereals, Gwallig" says that the results obtained
by Marek, Wollny, Miircker, Hoffmeister, and Nothwang divide
barley and rye into one group, and wheat and oats into another, as
regards this relation. With barley and rye, the largest, heaviest
kernels are the richest in protein. With wheat and oats, the smallest,
lightest kernels have the highest protein content.

Gwallig sa3^s further that with an increased protein content there
is a decrease in nitrogen-free extract. The fat and ash do not stand
in a definite relation to the kernel weight, but the small, light kernels
have a higher percentage of crude fiber, which circumstance is
accounted for hy the larger surface possessed by the smaller kernels.

Snyder'^ has divided small kernels into two classes — those which
are small because shrunken and those which are small although well
filled. He finds that as between small kernels of the first class and
large, well-filled kernels, the former contain a higher percentage of
nitrogen, but as between the small, well-filled and the large, well-filled
kernels, the latter contain the higher percentage of nitrogen. In
testing this he used large and small kernels of the same variety in
each case, and the wheats represented a large portion of the wheat-
growing area of the United vStates. As regards the relation of large,
perfect, and small, perfect kernels there were twenty-four out of
twenty-seven cases in which the large kernels contained a greater
percentage of nitrogen.

Johannsen and Weis,^ in experiments witli five varieties of wheat,
find that as a general rule the percentage of nitrogen is increased
with increasing grain weight, but that there are many exceptions
to the rule.

Cobb'' states that small wheat kernels contain a larger proportion
of gluten than do large ones, but he does not submit any analyses to
substantiate his statement.

^'Abstract in Centrlb. f. Agr. Chem., 24 (189.5). p. 388, from Landw. Jahrbiicher, 2.3
(1894), p. 83.5.

'' Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin 8.5.

<■ Abstract, Experiment Station Record, 12, p. 327, from Tidsskr. Landbr. Planteavl., 5
(1899), pp. 91-100.

«/ Agricultural Gazette of New Soutli Wales, 5 (1894), Xo. 4, pp. 239-2.50.

INFLUENCE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SEED KERNEL.

37

Kornicko and Werner" quote the experiments of Reiset to show
that shriveled kernels have a higher nitrogen content than plump
ones. With different varieties of wheat he found the following :

Variety.

Kind.

Percent-
age cf

nitrogen
in dry

matter.

Shriveled

2.48

Do -

Plump

2.33

Vi.'»toria *-

Shriveled

Plump

2.44

Do

2.08

Shriveled

2.59

Do .

Plump

2.35

Cai'leton'' records the weight of 100 kernels and the percentage of
'albuminoids" in sixty-one samples of wheat from various parts of
the world. Dividing these into classes according to the weight of
100 kernels we have the following:

Weight of

100 kernels

(grams).

Average

weight of

kernels

(grams).

Percent-
age of albu-
minoids.

Number
of sam-
ples.

2 to 3

3 to 4
over 4

2.66
3.67
4.57

14.58
!2.31
11.62

6
25
30

Reviewing these experiments there would seem to be no doubt
that shrunken kernels contain a higher percentage of nitrogen than
do well-filled ones, but as between large and small kernels, both of
which are well filled, there is not a great deal of information. Snyder's
experiments are the only ones that cover this ground, but they are
extensive and very uniform, and may be considered as deciding the
question in favor of a higher nitrogen content for the large kernels,
so far as small, plump kernels and large, plump kernels are concerned.
But, as small and light kernels are usually not plump, taking the
crop as a whole and dividing it equally into large and small or
heavy and light kernels, the evidence would be in favor of the small
or light kernels for high nitrogen content. As between wheats from
different regions and of different varieties, those having small kernels
are generally of higher nitrogen content.

INFLUENCE OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE SEED KERNEL UPON

YIELD.

Sanborn'' separated seed wheat with a sieve into large, medium,
small, and shriveled kernels. The large seed was separated by means

"Handbuch des Getreidebaues, 1, pp. 520-521, Berlin, 1884.

''U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology,
Bulletin 24.

•Abstract, E.xperiment Station Record, 5, p. .58, from Utah Experiment Station Report,
1892, pp. 133-135.

38

IMPRtn"ING THE QrALITY OF WHKAT.

of a brino solution into two nearly equal parts. The seed thus sepa-
rated was planted on separate plots. The experiment was con-
tinued three years. The heavy seed yielded lO.S bushels and the
light 16.3 bushels per acre. Unselected seed yielded 16.4 bushels
per acre.

Seed wheat of four varieties was separated by Church" by means
of solutions of calcium chlorid havmg specific gravities of 1.247.
1.293, and 1.31. The seed was first treated with a solution of mer-
curic clilorid to remove adherent air. Each lot of seed was planted
separately. From the results the following conclusions are drawn:

(1) The seed wheat of the greatest density produced the densest
seed.

(2) The seed wheat of the greatest density yielded the largest
amount of dressed grain.

(3) The seed of medium density generally gave the largest number
of ears, but the ears were poorer than those from the densest seed.

(4) Seed of medium density generaTly produced the largest number
of fruiting plants.

(5) The seed wheat that sank in water, but floated in a solution
havmg the densitv 1.247. was of verv low value, vielding on an
average oidy 34.4 pounds of dressed grain for every 100 ^'ielded by
the densest seed.

Ilaberlandt/' as the result of experiments with several cereals, has
shown that the comparative weight of kernels is transmitted to the
grain resulting from this seed. Tliis was the case with wheat, rve,
barlev. and oats. The results with Avheat were as follows:

Number of pounds.

Weight of kernels.

Light. Medium. | Heavy.

1,000 seed kernels.
1,000 crop kernels.

Grams. ' Grams, i Grams.
29.5 31.2 33.0
34.3 35.5 i 36.3

Wollny" objects to the results of the experiments by F. Haberlandt,
CIuutIi, Trommer, HelMegel, and Ph. Dietrich with various cereals,
in wliich almost without exception the kernels of liigli specific gravity*
produced the best yields, because no distinction was made between
absolute weight and specific gravity in the kernels. He claims that
the value of the seed lies in the kernels of absolutely heavy weight
rather than in the kernels of high specific gravity. He concludes
that the specific gravity of the seed exerts no influence on the yield
of the crop.

"Science with Practice.

''Jahresh. Agr. Chom.. 1S60-67, p. 298. . -

•Abstract in Cent rib. f. Agr. Cheni., 1SS7, p. 169, from Forsclumgen a.d. Gebiete Agri-
kulturphvsik, 9 (1886), pp. 207-216.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND NITROGEN CONTENT, 39

In the light of the experiments that have been conducted with
seed wheat of liigh and low specific gravities, it would appear that,
in general, seed of very low specific gravity does not yield well, and
it is evident that such seed must be deficient in mmeral matter and
is probably not normal in other respects. There would not appear,
however, to be any marked difference in the productive capacity of
kernels of medium specific gravit}' and kernels of great specific
gravity.

RELATION OF SPECIFIC GKAVITY OF KERNEL TO NITROGEN CONTENT.

Marek" found that with an increase in the specific gravity of the
kei'nel there was a decrease in nitrogen content.

Pagnoul,'^ in testing seventy varieties of wheat, found that the
nitrogen content rose with the specific gravity, but not regularly,
and that a definite relation could not be traced.

WoUn}"'' took kernels of horm' structure and kernels of mealy
structure. He says it is generally recognized that the hard, horny
kernels have a higher specific gravity, and that it is commonly
attributed to their higher content of proteids. He contends that as
starch has a higher specific gravity than protein the meah' kernels
must really have a higher specific gravity than the horn}' ones.

Kornicke and Werner"' state the specific gravities of the various
chemical constituents of the wheat kernel as follows: Starch, 1.53;
sugar, 1.60; cellulose, 1.53; fats. 0.91 to 0.96; gluten, 1.297; ash,
2.50; water, 1.00; air, 0.001293. They state also (p. 121) that the
specific gravity" of the kernel does not stand in any relation to the
volume weight, for the factor which results from weighmg a certain
volume mass is influenced b}' the au- spaces between the kernels, and
these depend upon the form and size as well as the surface and acci-
dental structure of the kernel. They also contend that there is no
relation between the volume weight and the content of proteid
material.

Schindler'' shows that by tabulating a large number of varieties
of wheat from different parts of the world, and representing different
varieties, there is no relation between the weight of 1,000 kernels
and the volume weight of 100 c. c. By separating these into varieties,
even when grown in different localities, kernels of the same variet}'
did show a definite and constant relation. The volume weight
increased with an increase in the weight of 1,000 kernels.

« Abstract in Centrlh. f. Agr. Cheni., 1876, p. 46, from Landw. Zeitung f. Westfalen u.
Lippe, 1875, p. 362.

''Abstract in Centrlb. f. Agr.Chem., 1888, p. 767, from Ann. Agron., 14, pp. 262-272.

^Abstract in Centrlb. f. Agr. Chem., 1887, p. 169, from Forschungen a. d. Gebiete Agri-
kulturphysik, 9 (1886), pp. 207-216.

''Handbuch des Getreidebaues. 2, p. 120, Berlin, 1884.

^ Jour. Landw., 45 (1897), p. 61.

40

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

There has long been a desire manifested b}^ workers in this field to
establish some definite relation between the specific gravity of the
wheat kernel and its composition, or at least its nitrogen content.
Very contradictory results have been obtained by several experi-
menters, and little progress has been made.

It is true that the various- chemical constituents that go to com-
pose the wheat kernel have different specific gravities, and as those
of the carbohydrates are all less than those of the proteids it
might be argued that a wheat having a large proportion of proteid
material would have a low specific gravity. However, the specific
gravity of the ash is so much greater than that of any other constit-
uent and the ash in wheats from different soils and climates varies so
much that these factors completely prevent the establishment of a
definite relation. The size and number of the vacuoles also influence
the specific gravity.

In general, it may be said that as between kernels of the same
variety grown in the same season and upon the same soil, the specific
gravity is inversely proportional to the nitrogen content.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE PRODUCTION OF NITROGEN IN THE GRAIN.

So far as the writer has been able to ascertain there is no literature
bearing directly upon the conditions affecting the production of
nitrogen in the grain of wheat.

Regarding high nitrogen in the wheat crop as arising merely from
failure on the part of the kernel to develop fully, it would seem that
a high percentage of nitrogen would inevitably be accompanied by
a small production of nitrogen per acre. This, however, does not
always appear to be the case.

Taking, for instance, the yields of wheat obtained by Lawes and
Gilbert" for a period of twenty years, which they divide into two
periods of good and of poor crops, each covering ten years, we have
the following figures :

Seasons.

Good crop seasons.
Poor crop seasons.

Average
yield of

grain per
acre

(pounds).

1,833

1,740

Weight
per liushel

Yield of
nitrogen
per acre

- IN Ut'l ill 1 C

(pounds), (j^ounds)

60.2
57.1

28.0
29.8

It will be noticed that the largest production of nitrogen per acre
was in those years in which the weight per bushel and the yield per
acre were least.

Of course this is not always the case, but that it should occur at
all is an indication that the conditions that make for high nitrogen

« On the Composition of the Ash of Wheat Grain and Wheat Straw, London, 1884.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING PRODUCTION OF NITROGEN.

41

content in the grain also conduce to a large accumulation of nitrogen
by the crop, or perhaps it. would be more accurate to say that the
conditions which favor a large accumulation of nitrogen by the crop
often result in giving it a high nitrogen content.

Reference has already been made to the observations of Deherain
and Dupont" on the wheat crops of 1888 and 1889 at Grignon. The
figures for the yields of grain, the percentages of starch and gluten,
and the production per acre of these constituents for the two years
are as follows:

Year.

Yield of

grain per

hectare

(kilos).

Percentage of—

Gluten per
hectare
(kilos).

Starch per

Gluten.

Starch.

hectare
(kilos).

1S8S

3,44.5
2,922

12.6
15.3

77.2
61.9

434
447

2,6.59

1889

1,808

From tliis it will be seen that for the year in which the Aaeld of
grain was less per acre the production of gluten per acre was greater.
Apparent!}' the conditions were favorable for a large accumulation
of nitrogen by the plant in 1889, but were unfavorable to the pro-
duction of starch. If the latter had not been the case, the crop of
1889 would have been larger than the crop of 1888.

A number of instances of this kind have occurred among the wheat
crops at the Nebraska Experiment Station. In fact, it may be said
that, in general, large yields of grain have there been accompanied
by a low percentage of nitrogen per acre as compared with the same
properties in small yields of grain. The following table will show
this :

Production of nitrogen per acre in wheat raised at the Nebraska Experiment Station.

Variety.

Year.

Yield of

grain
per acre
(pounds).

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen.

Proteid
nitrogen
per acre
(pounds).

Date of
ripen-
ing.

Turkish Red

1900
1901
1902
1903
1900
1901
1903
1902
1903
1902
1903

1,980
2.370
1,800
1,864
1,320
1,794
f 962
1,60.5
1,891
1,475
1,830

3.02
2.00
2.86
2.40
3.01
2.18
2. .54
3.16
2.10
2.92
2.16

52.73
43.04
51.48
44.74
34.58
36.08
24.43
46.32
39.71
43.10
39.53

June 27

Do

June 24

Do

June 23

Do

July 9

July 2

Do

July 1

Do

July 14

Weissenburs'

June 24

Do

July 10

Pester Boden

June 24

Do

July 10

Averaf'e

1,717

41.43

II Yield decreased Ijy lodging of grain.

A word in regard to the character of the seasons that produced
these crops may help to an understanding of their differences.

« Ann. Agron., 28 (1902), p. 522.

42 IMPKOVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

The season of 1900 was rather dry and hot from the time growth
started in the spring until harvest. There was no time when there
was an abundant supply of moisture, but occasional rains wet the
soil for a few d&js at a time. The temperatures during the day
were high and the air was dry. In 1901 the spring was quite moist
and cool until June, when it became extremely hot and dry. A few
da3"s before harvest the temperatures ranged above 100° F. daily,
with no rainfall. The season of 1902 was the direct opposite of that
of 1901, except that the change came earlier. It was extremely dry
and hot until the middle of May, when abundant rains came, and
the temperatures were considerably below normal until harvest.
The season of 1903 was wet and cool throughout.

In general, it may be said that in those seasons, like 1900 and
1902, in which the temperatures were high and moisture scarce dur-
ing all or the early part of the growing season, the grain had a liigh
percentage of nitrogen, and there was a large production of nitrogen
per acre. In years of low temperatures and abundant moisture,
as in 1903, or even when such conditions obtained late in the sea-
son, as in 1901, there were a low percentage of nitrogen in the grain
and a small production of nitrogen per acre.

High temperatures and scant moisture during early growth would,
therefore, seem to favor the accumulation of nitrogen by the wheat
plant.

It may also be noted that these are the conditions favorable to
the process of nitrification and to the accumulation of nitrates near
the surface of the soil.

Comparing the wheat crops grown at Rothamsted for a period of
twenty years, the yields and nitrogen production of which have just
been stated, with the averages for the Nebraska-grown wheats con-
tained in the last table, it will be seen that the yields of grain were
larger at Rothamsted, but that the production of nitrogen per acre
was considerably greater in Nebraska. ''

station.

Yield (in pounds)
per acre of —

Grain.

Nitrogen.

Rothamsted station

1,786
1,717

28.9

Npbra ska station

41.4

The maximum production of nitrogen per acre at Rothamsted
during the twenty years was 38.1 pounds, while at Nebraska it was
52.7 pounds.

There can be little doubt as to whether this difference was due
in greater measure to soil fertility or to climate. Nowhere is better

« The yield of nitrogen at Rothamsted is calculated from total organic nitrogen, while
at the Nebraska Station it is from proteid nitrogen. ■

CONDITIONS AFFECTING PRODUCTION OF NITROGEN. 43

tillage given or are crops more scientifically provided with food
than at Rothamsted. It is true that of the ten plots of land on
which these wheats were raised one received no manure and three
were not sufficiently manured. In order to make the comparison
more favorable to the English environment, the five plots completely
manured and producing the largest yields may be taken. The jdeld
of nitrogen per acre was 36.4 pounds for the years 1852-1861 and
34.6 pounds for 1862-1871. Even with the best manurmg the yields
of nitrogen fall very much short of those in Nebraska.

In Nebraska no commercial fertilizers had ever been used on the
land on which the wheats were grown, but farm manure had been
applied. The soil was a heavy one, well adapted to wheat growing,
and had been well tilled. It had been well manured for corn in a
rotation of corn, oats, and wheat. The varieties, with the exception
of Turkish Red, had just been introduced from Europe and had not
fully adapted themselves to the new environment. The average
nitrogen production for the only acclimated variety, Turkish Red,
was 48 pounds per acre. It would seem, therefore, that a cKmate
affording high temperatures, dry air, and a moderately dry soil is
favorable to the accumulation of a large amount of nitrogen by the
wheat plant, provided there is a large supply of nitrogen in the soil.

The heat and scant soil moisture are doubtless instrumental in
making available the nitrogen of the humus, and the bright sunshine
and dry, hot air stimulate growth and increase transpiration.

It has just been said that hot, dry weather in the early growing
season contributes to a large nitrogen accumulation by the wheat
plant. The same conditions cut short the growing period of the
plant and prevent the large accumulation of starch that takes place
in the kernel of wheat raised in a cool or moist region. It thus
happens that such wheats are high in nitrogen and low in starch.

The properties of the wheat kernel characteristic of a continental
chmate and rich soil are probably due to rapid nitrification and
liighly stimulated growth causing a large accumulation of nitrogen
by the crop, and to incomplete maturation, caused either by heat,
or frost, or lack of moisture, resulting in high nitrogen.

It would be interesting to know what relation the production of
nitrogen per acre bears to the production of mineral matter, but
the necessary figures are not at hand.

The wheat kernel produced in a continental climate is not usually
plump as compared with the kernel produced in an insular or coastal
one. The yield of grain per acre is also usually less. That this is
due to incomplete maturation is shown by the fact that winter
varieties of wheat that make their growth early in the season always
yield better than spring varieties. The latter, on the other hand,
have a higher, percentage of nitrogen, but usually not so large a

44 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

nitrogen production. Their disadvantage lies in the fact that their
roots are not sufficiently developed to absorb a large quantity of
nitrogenous matter at the time most favorable for its accumulation.
As a maximum nitrogen accumulation is the chief desideratum,
spring wheats are not desirable where winter ones can be grown.

This does not mean that a variety of wheat which has been grown,
for instance, in England will show all the qualities of an inland
wheat when first grown in Kansas or Nebraska. Such a wheat will
undergo modifications that will give it some of these qualities, such,
for instance, as less well-filled kernels, and less weight per bushel.
On the other hand, the Turkish Red wheat, when raised in a cool,
moist climate, becomes later maturing, and the kernel becomes
plumper, more starchy, and softer. It is betw^een varieties adapted
each to its peculiar climate, and raised there for years, that these
distinctions are most marked, but the fact that a modification of
an}^ variety begins at once when transferred from one climate to
another shows that such qualities as those mentioned are influenced
by the climate.

It must be quite apparent, although it has not often been remarked,
that the ordinary selection of seed wheat to increase the yield has
resulted in producing a grain of lower nitrogen content.

This has been noticed by Girard and Lindet " and by Biff en, ^' and
incidentally by Balland,'' who, in commenting on the decrease iii
the nitrogen content of wheat in northern France and the increased
yields, attributes the former to a deficiency of nitrogen in the fer-
tilizers used, and states that the gluten in the wheat of that region
in 1848 ranged from 10.23 to 13.02 per cent, while fifty years later
it ranged from 8.96 to 10.62 per cent. In the same time the aver-
age yield increased from 14 to 17.5 hectoliters per hectare. In the
light of the results of experiments to ascertain the effect of nitroge-
nous fertilizers upon the composition of wheat, it can not be supposed
that tliis decrease in nitrogen content can be due primarily to lack
of nitrogen. It would seem more likely that the increased yield
was largely due to the deposition of starch in the grain, and that
consequently the percentage of gluten was smaller.

Has the improvement in the yield of wheat been accompanied by
a greater yield of nitrogen per acre? It is evident that the increase
in the grain and that in the nitrogen are not proportional, but it is

« Le Froment et sa Monture, Paris, 1903.
& Nature (London), 69 (1903), No. 1778, pp. 92, 93.

c Abstract in Centrlb. f. Agr. Chem., 1897, p. 785, from Corapt. Rend., 124 (1897),
p. 158.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING PRODUCTION OF NITROGEN.

45

desirable to know whether there has been any increase in nitrogen
per acre. Returning to the figures given by Balland it will be seen
that the wheat of 1848 produced on an average 163 kilos per hec-
tare, while that of fifty years later produced 171 kilos, an increase
of about 5 per cent in gluten per hectare, with an increase of 25 per
cent in jdeld. These figures can not, of course, be taken as strictly
accurate, as they are based merely on what M. Balland refers to as
the range of nitrogen content.

Some data on this subject are available in the published records
of wheat improvement at the ^Minnesota Experiment Station. «
Yields and gluten content of improved varieties and of the original
variety from which the improved strains have been developed by
selection are given. The figures cover the same seasons for all
varieties, and the averages of six trials are reported for each, as
follows :

Variety.

Minnesota No. 149, produced from Power's Fife. . :

Power's Fife, unmodified by selection

Minnesota No. li 9, produced from Hayne's Blue Stem
Havne's Blue Stem, unmodified by selection

Yield per

acre
(bushels) .

25.6
23.fi

28.5
24.6

Percent-
age of
dry glu-
ten.

13.5
14.0
12.5
13.4

Gluten Nitrogen
per acre per acre
(pounds), (pounds).

207.4
198.2
213.7
198.8

36.4
34.8
37.5
34.7

In each case the new variety yielded more grain per acre, possessed
a lower gluten content, and produced more nitrogen per acre in the
grain. It should be explained that determinations of gluten and
baking tests were made of strains of wheat produced by the selection
of individual plants, and that the cpiantity and quality of the gluten
in these strains were considered in deciding which strain was to be
perpetuated. For that reason the gluten content of the improved
wheat is doubtless greater than it would have been if no attention
had been paid to those ciuahties. Incidentall}^ it may be stated
that the cjuality of the gluten in these new vaiieties of wheat origi-
nated by Professor IIa3's is much better than that in the original
varieties. The difference between selection for gluten carried on in
this wa}^ and selection for gluten applied to the individual plant is
that the latter must increase many times the opportunity for devel-
oping a strain of desirable gluten content.

Returning to the nitrogen production per acre, it is apparent that
it is slightly greater in the improved wheats, or at least is not less
than in the original varieties. This is encouraging, as it indicates
the possibility of increasing the production of gluten per acre.

« Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin 63.

46 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Gluten is the valuable constituent of wheat. The wheat growing
of the future may be looked upon as a gluten-producing industry.
The pro})lem is to secure the highest possible quantity and quality
of gluten per acre. If this can be done by sacrificing starch produc-
tion, it will be economical. Starch can be more cheaply produced
in other crops and, if necessary, added to the flour of wheat.

It may be argued that this is not to the interest of the farmer.
But it is clearly to the interest of mankind and any step toward
its accomplishment must in the end redound to the advantage of
the farmer.

:r^^i?,t II

EXPERIMENTAL

SOME PROPERTIES OF THE WHEAT KERNEL.

If a number of wheat kernels of the same variety and raised under
simiLir conditions are separated into approximately equal parts with
regard to their specific gravity, the kernels of low specific gravity
will be found to contain a higher percentage of both total and proteid
nitrogen than the kernels having a high specific gravity.

A number of samples of wheat grown in different years and repre-
senting different varieties were separated into approximately equal
parts by throwing the kernels into a solution of calcium chlorid bav-
ins such a densitv that about half the kernels would float and the
other half sink. The specific gravity of the solution in which each
sample was separated is given in Table 1 and the signs < and > are
used to represent "less than" and ''greater than/' respectively.
Thus '' <1.29'' means that the kernels have a specific gravity of less
than 1.29, while ">1.29" indicates that the kernels have a specific
gravity greater than 1.29.

Table 1 . — Analyses of Tcernels of high and of low specific gravity.

Serial number.

gra\ity.

1 .

<1.290

2

>1.290

30 . ...

<1.286

31

>1.286

38

<1.250

39

>1.2o0

40

<1.265

41.

>1.265

59

<1.264

60

>1.264

Percentage of

—

Total

Proteid

Nonpro-

teid
nitrogen.

nitrogen.

nitrogen."

3.51

2.49

1.02

3.27

2.39

.88

2.51

1.88

.63

2.51

1.94

.57

2.80

2.26

.54

2.78

2.15

.63

2.95

2.13

.82

2.Hf)

2.01

.65

3.30

2.41

.89

3.06

2.29

. II

Name of variety and year of
growth.

>IIickman, grown in 1895.

Turkish Red, grown in 1897.

\Spring wheat, Marvel, growTi
) in 1897.

jSpring wheat, Velvet Chaff
/ grown in 1897.

JTurkish Red, grown in 1898.

a Proteid nitrogen in this paper = nitrogen by Stutzer's method. Proteids = proteid nitrogen x 5.7.

With the exception of serial Nos. 30 and 31 the kernels of low
specific gravity have in each case a higher percentage of both total
and proteid nitrogen than have the kernels of high specific gravity.
It will also be noticed that the percentage of nonproteid nitrogen is
greater in the kernels of low specific gravity.

Samples of wheat were also divided into light and heavy portions
by means of a machine which operates by directing upward a current
of air, the velocity of which can be regulated. Into tliis current the
grain is directed. The result is that the heavy kernels and the large

27889— No. 78—05-

49

50

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

kernels fall, and the light kernels and small kernels are driven out.
The separation thus accomplished is somewhat different from that
effected by a solution, the difference being that the latter separates
the kernels entirely according to their specific gravities while with
the air blast a large kernel of a certain specific gravity might descend
with the heavy kernels, when if it were smaller, although of the same
specific gravity, it would be blown out.

The number of light kernels that descend on account of their large
size is relatively small, owing to the fact that large kernels are, as a
rule, of higher specific gravity than small ones. The following test
was made to determine the relation between the size of wheat ker-
nels and their specific gravity. An average lot of wheat was nearly
equally divided by means of two sieves into three portions represent-
ing medium, small, and large kernels. Each of these portions was
then thrown upon solutions of the same specific gravity, and the pro-
portion by weight that floated, or light seed, and the proportion that
sank, or heavy seed, were determined.

Table 2. — Proportion of light and of heavy seed.

Kind of seed.

Heavy seed
(grams).

Light seed
(grams).

Ratio.

Heavy.

Light.

Small

8.72

9.62

11.96

11.28

10.78

8.04

1
1
1

1.29

1.12

Larsre

.67

The weight of light kernels among the small was nearly twice that
of light kernels among the large seeds.

Analyses of samples of wheat separated by this machine into light
and heavy kernels gave about the same results as the samples sepa-
rated by solutions of certain specific gravities.

Table 3. — Analyses of large, heavy Tcernels and of small, light Icernels.

Relative
weight.

Percentage of—

Serial number.

Total
nitrogen.

Proteid
nitrogen.

Nonpro-

teid
nitrogen.

Name of variety and year of
growth.

9

Light

2.99
2.76
2.77
2.70
2.91
2.65
2.45
2.19
3.12
3.02
3.13
2.95
3.30
2.46
2.35
2.11

2.21
2.04
2.11
2.04
2.29
2.04
2.00
1.96
3.10
2.93
2.82
2.65
3.06
2.24
2.13
1.94

0.78
.72
.66
.66
.62
.61
.45
.23
.02
.09
.31
.30
.24
.22
. - .22
.17

ISpring wheat, Marvel, grown
1 in 1896.

10

Heavy

Light

.57

[currell, grown in 1898.

58

Heavy

Light

65

[spring wheat, grown in 1898.

66

Heavy

Light

80

[Big Frame, grown in 1899.

81

Heavv

Light

383 . .

[Turkish Red, grown in 1900.
[Big Frame, grown in 1900.

384

385 . .

Heavv

Light

386

Heavy

Light

602

[Big Frame, gro^^^l in 1901.

603

Heavy

Light

613

JTurkish Red, grown in 1901.

612

Heavy

SOME PROPERTIES OF THE WHEAT KERNEL. 51

It thus becomes very apparent that the percentage of nitrogen is
relatively greater in the light wheat selected in the manner described.

It is well known that innnature wheat is of lighter weight than
mature wheat and that it contains a greater percentage of nonproteid
nitrogen. In a field of wheat there are always certain plants that
mature early, others that mature late, and some that never reach a
normal state of maturity. The last condition is very likely to occur
in a region of limited rainfall and intense summer heat. The con-
ditions most favorable for the filling out of the grain are shown to be
an abundance of soil moisture and a fair degree of warmth. The
more nearly the conditions are the reverse of this the more shriveled
the kernel and the lighter the weight. In the same variety and in
the same field there are kernels that are small and shriveled because
of immaturity, disease, or lack of nutriment. All of these classes
would appear among the "light'' kernels separated in this way.

In order to approach the question from another standpoint, a num-
ber of spikes of wheat of the Turkish Red variety were selected in the
field, care being taken that all were fully ripe, and that they were
composed of healthy, well-formed kernels. These spikes were sam-
pled by removing one row of spikelets from each spike and the kernels
so removed were tested for moisture, proteid nitrogen, specific
gravity, and weight of kernel, and from the last two the relative
volume was calculated. It will be shown later that a sample taken
in this way permits of an accurate estimation of the average com-
position of the kernels on the spike.

The number of grams of proteid nitrogen in the row of spikelets
on each spike was calculated from the data mentioned, and the
average weight of the kernels on the row of spikelets was determined
from their total weight and number, thus permitting of the estima-
tion of the number of grams of proteid nitrogen in the average kernel
on each spike.

In Table 4 the spikes having a proteid nitrogen content of from 2 to
2.5 per cent are arranged in one group, and on the same line with each
spike are placed the number of kernels on one row of spikelets, weight
of these kernels, weight of average kernel, relative volume of average
kernel, specific gravity of kernel, grams of proteid nitrogen in one
row of spikelets, and grams of proteid nitrogen in average kernel.
Spikes having a proteid nitrogen content of from 2.5 to 3 per cent are
similarly arranged, and so with all spikes up to 4 per cent. The aver-
age for each group is shown in the table.

There are, in all, 257 spikes, of which 18 have from 2 to 2.5 per cent
proteid nitrogen, 82 from 2.5 to 3 per cent, 107 from 3 to 3.5 per cent,
and 49 from 3.5 to 4 per cent.

52

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 4. — Analyses of spikes of wheat, arranged according to nitrogen content of kernels.

Crop of 1902.

2 TO 2.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

Weight (ir

grams)

Percent-

Proteid

nitrogen

Number
of ker-

of-

-

Volume
of aver-

Specific
gravity

age of

(gram) in —

Record

nels on

row of

spikelets.

number.

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

age ker-
nel.

of ker-
nels.

nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

183

188

17
16

0 4772

0.0280

2.06

0.00983

0.000577

.4425

.0276

2.37

.01049

. 000654

W3

14

.3724

.0266

2.41

.00897

.000642

205

15

.4824

.0321

0.0241

1.3323

2.41

.01548

.000774

291

18

. 5221 1

.0290

.0209

1.3850

2.23

.01616

.000647

304

21

.5336

.0254

.0189

1.3424

2.24

.01195

.000569

318

22

.6708

.0304

.0220

1.3853

2.02

.01354

.000614

347

15

.4549

.0303

.0216

1.4031

2.44

.OHIO

. 000739

357

15

.4063

.0270

.0192

1.4074

2.36

.00959

. 000637

3.58 i

21

.6689

.0318

.0235

1.3544

2.33

.01559

.CX)0742

380

14

.4336

.0309

.0225

1.3735

2.35

.01019

.000726

396

19

.4787

.0251

.0183

1.3680

2.28

.01091

.000572

402

17

.4594

.0258

.0188

1.3718

2.33

.01070

.000601

406

21

.5878

.0279

.0200

1.3915

2.44

.01434

.000681

415

13

. 2771 1

.0213

2.44 '

.00676

.000520

440 1

444 •

445 :

Average...

Yj

4566

0268

2.36

.01078

.000632

16
16

.4110
.4318

.0256
.0269

2.38
2.37

.00978
.01023

.000609
.000638

17

.4759

.0266

.0209

1.374

2.323

.01141

1

.000643 1

2.5 TO 3

PER CE>

TT PROT

EID NITROGEN.

181

182

19
17

0.4482
.4299

0.0235
.0252

1

2.66
2.76

0.01192
.01187

0.000625
.000696

1

185

19

..5041

.0265

1

2.71

.01366

.000718

187

15

.3945

.0263

2.99

.01180

. 000786

189

18

.4871

.0270

1

2.64

. 01286

.000713

196

17

.4995

.0293

2.71

.01354

. t)00794

197

20

.5683

.0284

2.85

.01620

. 000809

199

17

.4589

.0269

2.99

.01372

. 000804

207

15

.4.584

.0305

0.0230

1.3248

2.73

.01709

.000833

210

14

.3955

.0282

.0288

1.2363

2.95

.01167

.000832

211

17

.5211

.0306

.0228

1.3416

2.90

.01511

.000887

212

15

.4298

.0286

.0211

1.3537

2.97

.01277

.000849

217

18

.6299

.0349

.0259

1.3461

2.86

.01802

. 000998

218

18

.5130

.0285

.0214

1.3303

2.. 58

.01324

.fK30735

219

19

.3862

.0203

.0157

1.2950

2.71

.01047

.000.550

222

19

.4611

.0242

.0182

1.333i

2.93

.01351

.000709

227

19

. 5.581

.0293

.0214

1.3704

2.71

.01624

.000794

229 . ..

17

.4849

.0285

.0206

1.3856

2.96

.01387

.000844

''SO

15

.4867

.0324

.0234

1.3815

2.54

.01236

.000823

238

17

.5166

.0303

.0220

1.3794

2.70

.01395

.00U818

239

17

.3910

.0230

. 01649

1.3941

2.60

.01017

.000598

241

18

.4230

.0235

.0178

1.3196

2.76

.01168

.000o49

242

18

.4562

.0253

.0184

1.3753

2.96

.013.50

.000749

252

19

14

.4898
.3792

.02578
.0270

.0186
.0203

1.3875

1.3286

2.55

2.86

.01249
.01085

.000o55
.000772

277

288

17

.49.56

.0291

.0217

1.3428

2.82

.01398

.000821

289

19

..5042

.0265

.0187

1.4155

2.53

.01276

.000670

293

17

.4858

.0285

.0206

1.3835

2.64

.01283

.000752

294

19

.4173

.0219

.0159

1.3813

2.56

.01068

.000561

302

22
19

. .5569
.4922

.0253
.0258

.0190
.0185

1.3312
1.3996

2.68
2.51

.01437
.01235

.000678
.0006.50

306

308

15

.4951

.0330

.0237

1.392

2.85

.01411

.000941

315

16

.4994

.0312

.0224

1.3916

2.75

.01373

.0008.58

319

17

.4644

.0273

.0203

1.3447

2.86

.01328

.000781

320

18

.5668

.0314

.0229

1.3710

2.98

.01689

.000938

322

16

.5107

.0219

.0236

1.352

2.55

.01302

.000813

329

12

.3903

.0325

.0234

1.3911

2.88

.01241

.000936

330

17

.3431

.0201

.0161

1.2498

2.62

.00899

. 000527

332

16
18

.4847
.5399

.0302
.0299

.0218
.0215

1.3879
1.3922

2.58
2.62

.01251
.01415

. 000779

334

.000783

335

18

.6474

.03.59

.0258

1.3928

2.82

.01826

.001012

337

15

.4497

.0299

.0215

1.3877

2.89

.01345

. 000864

340

20

.4155

.0207

.0153

1.3.5.50

2.74

.01138

.000.567

341

15

,5058

.0337

.0243

1.3890

2.97

.01.502

.001001

342

14

.4486

.0320

.0228

1.4037

2.60

.01166

. aX)832

343

13

.4112

.0316

.0224

1.4107

2.. 50

.01028

. 000791

344

16

.4004

.025D

.0184

1.3611

2.93

.01173

. 000733

345

18
19

..5422
.6393

.0301
.0336

.0216
.0242

1.3919
1.3913

2. .56
2.55

.01388
.01630

.000771

346

.0008.57

348

18

.6328

.0351

.0262

1.3415

2.88

.01822

1 .001010

SOME PROPERTIES OF THE WHEAT KERNEL.

58

Table 4. — Analyses of sjyikes of wheat, arranqed accordinq to nitrogen content of kernels.

Crop of 1902— Conthmed. '

2.5 TO 3 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN— Continued.

1

Weight (in grams)

[

Percent-

Proteid

1
nitrogen 1

Record

Number
of ker-
nels on
row of

spikelets.

of-

Volume
of aver-

Specific
gravity

age of
proteid

(gram) in—

number.

Kemels.

Average
kernel.

age ker-
nel.

of ker-
nels.

nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

349

17

0. 4573

0.0269

0.0195

1.3822

2.66

0.01216

0.000716

350

16

.4437

.0277

.0199

1.3891

2.64

.01171

.0(H)731

354

21

.6386

.0304

.0217

1.4002

2.73

.01743

.000830

355

16

.5008

.0313

.0223

1.4022

2.84

.01422

.0()0S,S9

356

19

..5304

.0279

.0200

1.390

2.91

.01543

.(10II,H12

359

15

. 3882

.0259

.0186

1.3915

2.97

.011.53

.000769

360

24

. 6375

.0265

.0191

1.3840

2.89

.01842

.I.10076f)

361

14

.3297

.0235

.0170

1.3819

2.94

.00969

.OdOtiOl

364

18

.4724

.0262

.0191

1.3729

2.92

.01379

.000765

371

18

..5695

.0316

.0227

1.3906

2.99

.01703

.0(10945

373

18

..5861

.0325

.0235

1.3838

2.87

.01682

.0(K)933

376

12

. 2677

.0223

.0162

1.3747

2.60

.00696

.(KKI.'iSO

378

14

.4099

.0292

.0212

1.3761

2.75

.01127

.00(1803

383

12

.3416

.0284

.0206

1.3771

2.96

.01011

.000841

386

16

. 4921

.0307

.0223

1.3741

2.52

. 01240

. 000774

387

19

.5177

.0272

.0198

1.3758

2.73

.01413

.000743

389

21
16
15

.5830
.3547
.3494

.0277
.0221
.0232

.0204
.0171
.0165

1.3.569
1.2947
1.4070

2.96
2.94
2.70

.01726
.01043
.00943

.000820
. 000(1.50
. 0(K)626

392

393

394

16

.3897

.0243

.0180

1.3508

2.77

.01079

. 000673

395

17

.4805

.0282

.0206

1.3693

2.98

.01432

. 000840

419

14
15

.3448
.3097

.0246
.0206

2.86
2. .53

.00986
.00784

.000704
.000.521

421

424

18

.4991

.0277

2.62

.01308

. a)0726

428

430

17
18

.4635

.5714

.0272
.0317

2.60
2.82

.01205
.01611

. 000707
. 000894

434

436

438

16
22
23
18
19
13

.4624
.6138
.6997
.5600
.5327
.4131

.0289
.0279
.0304
.0311
.0280
.0317

2.86 .

2.88

2.67

2.98

2.93

2.51

.01322
.01768
.01868
.01669
.01561
.01037

. 000827
. 000834
.000812
.000927
.000820
.000796

439

441

443

Average...

17.07

.4791

j .0279

.0207

1.3680

2.76

.01332

.000776

3 TO 3.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

173

175

17R

190

191

192

194

195

198

.200

202

20
21
.20
18
17
17
13
19
18
18
14
16

0..5913
. 5773
.5804
.4673
.4279
.4126
.3218
.4924
.4683
.5764
.3824
.5251

0.0295
.0274
.0290
.0259
.0251
.0242
.0247
.02.59
.0260
.0320
.0273
.0328

3.08
3.46
3.10
3.25
3.25
3.12
3.43
3.. 33
3.18
■ 3.24
3.13
3.07

0.01821
. 01997
.01799
.01519
.01091
.01287
.01104
.01640
.01489
.01868
.01197
.01612

0.000909
.000948
.000899
.000842
.000816
.000755
.000847
.000862
.000827
.001040
.000854
.001007

0.0200
.0241

1.3615
1.3614

203

206

17

.3392

.0199

.01.57

1.2709

3.44

.01166

.0006^5

208

19

.4939

.0259

.0192

1.3494

3.21

.01585

.000831

213

15

.4116

.0274

.0204

1.3415

3.31

.01362

.000907

214

16

.4371

.0273

.0208

1.3082

3.09

.01351

.000844

216

15

.3122

.0208

.0165

1.2588

3.33

.01040

. 000693

220

17

.5040

.0296

.0222

1.33.50

3.20

.01613

. 0(X)947

223

17

.4795

. 0282

.0204

1.3970

3.31

.01587

.000933

226

21

.5380

.02.56

.0170

1.4951

3.11

.01673

. 000796

228

14

.4143

.0295

.0211

1 . 3945

3.40

.01409

.(K)1(X)3

231

18

.5888

.0.327

.0242

1.3514

3.11

.01831

.001017

232

13
17

.3825
.5331

.0294
.0313

.0221
.0231

1.3280
1.3,5.58

3.11
3.32

.01190
.01663

.000914
.001039

233

234

16

.5201

.0325

.0243

1.3363

3.23

.01680

.(MlK^iO

236

25

.7451

.0298

.0220

1 . 3504

3.19

.02377

.1X10951

243

24

.6349

.0264

.0196

1.3487

3.47

.02203

.(XKWUi

244

• 19

.5839

.0307

.0214

1.4305

3.30

.01927

.001013

249

16

.4415

.0275

.0199

1.38.50

3.21

.01417

.000883

250

15

.4514

.0300

.0213

1.4100

3.12

.01408

.000936

251

22

.6190

.0281

.0203

1.3823

3.46

.02142

.000972

255

18

.5948

.0330

.0233

1.4146

3.03

.01802

.001000

256

21

.5277

.0251

.0184

1.3629

3.31

.01747

.OOORK

258

17

.4703

.0276

.0211

1.3065

3.38

.01590

. 000933

54

mrKovixcj THK Qr Ai.rrv <n' wuv.X'v

Taule 4. — Analiisfs of apikftt of wheat, ana iKjal accoiirnui to nitrogen content of Irrnels.

' Crop of I90:J -Vin\t\\mi\\.

:i TO ;{."> I'KK I'KN r I'HorKin NrrKin;KN— Continued.

nimihor

2tl2..
2tW..
2t)4 . .

aw..

aw..
2<>i>..

270..
271..
•2?>..
273..
275..
27(> . .
278..
281 . .
2S2

•iv.".!

3(X>..
Wl..
305..
307.-
310..
312..
314..
316..
317..
321..
323..
;«4..
325..
327..
XW..
S3t>..
331)..
351..
352..
3Xi..
3(52..
3(56..
;U»7 . .
3(>S..
3(i9..
370..
3?>..
374..
375 . .
377..
37V»..
oSl..
3S2..

;?8s..

3SX)..

a»i . .
;w . .

4(X1..

401 . .

4t«..

4(M..

410..

411..

414.

41(i..

41S.

4-2;?.

425.
42(>.
427 .
4-29.
431.
432.
433.
437.
442.

WoiiTht (ill jrrains"*

Xuil\l>lM' ' of

of kor-

iiols oil

row of

spikolots

,- ,, , .Vveragt?

.\v»M"aw .

IS

IS

IS

IS

10

17

20

14

15

IS

IS

15

15

21

IS

19

19

Iti

13

20

IS

15

15

17

17

IS

17

17

17

1(>

Iti

13

Iti

15

15

1(1

19

17

20

19

19

17

17

17

IS

14

18

13

19

19

19

IS

12

20

16

17

18

20

14

19

15

21

IS

IC

IS

19

20

IS

21

20

16

17

17.4

0.4fiW
. •.(Viti
.■113S
.44'29
.5010
.4531
. 51S3
.3275
.3858
.4559
.48(52
.3973
.4715
.6938
.4973
.5205
.4994
.5492
.3452
.4122
. 4Sti7
. 4;?24
.4122
.4157
.4412
.5484
. 4075
. 4230
.5110
.41W9
.4610
. 3tv^7
.;^8lX5
.3843
.4497
. 4726
. 52.VS
.4214
.5;«1
.;5S77
. 55(iO
.4-W
.4811
. 5249
.5147
.3173
.5271
.3506
.5057
.5799
.47(i4
.4474
.3058
.5720
.34)96
.5000
.4286
.5368
.3479
.5044
.4-2(«
.4995
.4845
.4801
.5166
.5433
.471H
.4119
.6;?06
.5206
.4336

.4724

0.0255
.OJSO
. 022*,)
.0246
.0263
.0266
.0259
.023;{
.0257
.0253
.0270
.0264
.0314
.0330
.0276
.(K73
.I.V2(i2

.am

.(V2(>5

.02tW

.0270

.02S8

.0274

.IV244

.0259

.(WW

.0239

.IV248

.0300

.0252

.IV2S8

. 027*)

.0237

.0256

.(V29i)

.lV2iV5

.0276

.0247

.0267

.IV204

.025)2

.ir247

.0283

.(Xi(VS

.0285

.0-226

.IV292

.0269

.(V26t>

.(K»5

.0250

.0248

.0254

.0286

.0249

.IV25U

.0238

.0268

.0248

.0265

.0284

.0237

.0269

.03lX)

.0287

.0285

.0235

.0228

.031X)

.0260

.0271

.0228

.0270

VoUiuu> ' Spivific
of aver- ' jiravity
age ker- of ker-
nel. I nels.

Tereent- I'roteiii nitrogen
iige of 1 (grain) in—
^irotoiil

iutn\s;on |

0.0193
.0197
.0169
.0189
.0187
.0205)
.0191
.0177
.0190
.0178
.0197
.0191
.(V226
.IV241
.02(X)
.(V201
.Ol.SS
.0249
.0197
.0140
.OUVS
.IV210
.0-201
.0178
.0193
.0-207
.0177
.0180
.0-2-20
.0191
.(V.W
.019S
.0171
.01S6
.IV217
.0-211

.irjoi

.0185
.0197
.0151
.0214
.OlSO
.OJOii
.0218
.O-JlXi
.0174
.0213
.OIW
.OUH
.0221
.OlSl
.01S2
.01S8
.0-2(Xi

.ois;?

.(V211
.OlA)

1.3-216
1.4-J(Xi
1.3544

l.o(X).".
1.40<X)
1.-2748

i.;»4i

1.3143

i.;v">(>4

1.4-2-28
1.3711
1.3815
1.3tXX<
1.3693
1.3795
1 . 3ti(VS
1.3945
1.37S7
l.34;52
1.4727
1.3(>S1
1.3718
1.3657
1 . 37'.53
1.34-24
1.4lit;0
1.3487
1.3740
l.SlvxS
1.3-2-25
1. ;»,">»>
1.4102
i.;vS-28
i.;58i2
i.;i8-n)

1.3iVS8
1.3-01
1.33,"i()
1 . 3."vVi
1.3497
1.3t>21
1 . 37;v>
1.3714
1.4142
1.401S
l.;?013
1.37lVi
l.;i544
1.37-28
1 . 3773

i.ssix;
i.;?i>2S

1 . 3837
1 . 3575
l.;«)-27
1.3221

in ker- Kernels,
nels.

jVverace
kernel.

.OIW

1.3666

3.20
3.-24
3.37
3. 30
3.11
3.21
3. 37
3.;«)
3.14
3. ;«)
3.;«

3. 15
3.12
3.-26
3. 02
3. (Hi
3.07
3.0>»
3.07
3. 19
3, Hi
3. 49

3. 16
3. 3ti
3. 43
3. 43
3.4;?
3. 19
3. 46
3. 4.5
3.-2ti
3.3ti
3. IV
3. 32
3.05
3.11
3. (V?
3.17
3.37
3.(X>
3.34
3.(X)
3.31
3. 15
3.41
3.47
3. IX)
3.45
3.-23
3.O.".
3.22
3. 2ti
3. 10
3. 35
3. 37
3.(Vt

3.;w

3.27
3.15
3.14
3.-24
3.lVi
3.14
3.;»
3. IX)
3.(Xi
3.04
3. -20
3.(X)

3. 12

3. 13
3.23

3.23

0.01473 '

0.000816

.oii-.;5;!

.(XXXX)7

.01395

. tXX)772

.01462

.(XX)S12

.01.V.8

.IXXVSIS

.01454

.^xx)8,^4

.01747

. IXXVS73

.01110

. (XX)790

.01212

.(XXVS07

.01546 '

. (XH1858

.01619

.(XXXSiX)

.01-251

.(XXVS;V2

.01471

.IXXX)S0

. 0-2-2(>2

.(X)1076

.01. -.02

.(XX)8;{4

.oi:.<w

. ixxxs;c.

.Ol'w

.lXX\s^)4

.01ii97

.lX>UXiO

.010^0

.(XXVS14

.01315

.IXXH=57

.Ol.VW

.(XXXS53

.01. MX)

.IX)KX).5

.013(K?

. (XX\St-)»i

.01397

.(XXVS-20

.01513

.IXX)S88

.01S81

.(X)1043

.oims

.(XX)8-20

.01349

.(XX)791

.OlTivS

.IX)1038

.01393

.(XX)8t^9

.Ol.VV?

.IXXX)39

.01-2-J2

.IXXX>37

.0r2ii6

.IKX)789

.01-J76

.(XX)851

.01372

.IXX)914

.01470

.00(X)17

.01593

.0(xvs;w

.0U»6

.ixx)7s;?

.01803

.IXXXXK)

.01186

.(XXX.24

.01S57

.0(XX)75

.01-298

.(XX)763

.01."i5)3

.IXX)937

.01ti.V<

.01X)970

.017,^5

.IXX)975

.01101

.IXX)784

.Olti-2*)

.(XXXX)2

.01-210

.IXXXVJS

.01633

.(XX)855)

.017ti9

.IXXX)30

.Ol.vW

.IXX)S05

.014,">9

.OOOSOS

.(XXMS

.01X)7S7

.01916

.000958

.0i;U7

.000839

.01,V20

.000894

.01414

.000785

.01755

.IXX)780

.01096

.IXX)7S1

.01584

.IXX)S;?2

.OKVs;?

.1X109-20

.015-23

.01X)?23

.01521

.000815

.Ol.x^

.0005)90

.Ol55Xi

.000887

.016«i2

.0lX)S72

.01^30

.(.XX)714

.0131S

.000732

.0181)2

.000900

.01624

.1X10811

.01357

.000848

.01236

.000736

.01520

.IXXVS74

SOME IMIOPEKTIKS OF THE WHEAT KERNEL.

55

Table 4. — Amilyses of sjnkes of v^lieaf, arramifd arroifJint/ lo nilror/en content of kernels.

'(Jioiiof l'.l()'2~VonUunc(\.

■iJ, T(J 4 I'KK VV.S'V I'liOTKIl) MTItOGEN.

Number
of ker-

Weight (in gnims;

I'ercent-

Protflfl

nitrogen

Recorfl

of

Volume
of nvcr-

Specific
gravity

age of
proteid

Cgram; in

nels on

row of

spikclets.

18
19
19
17
20
21
1.5

number.

174

177

179

\W

1H4

IWi

2()4

Kernels.

0. 402.5
.4073
. 4972
. .5202
..5.512
..5414
.401.5

Average
kernel.

0.0223
.0214
.0201

.o;«)9

.0275
.02.57
.0207

age ker-
nel.

of ker-
nels.

nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

3.70
3. .57
3.85
3.. 58
3. 78
3.97
3.90

Kemelo

0.01513
.014.54
.01914
.01884
. 02084
.02149
.01.506

Average
kemeT.

0.(K)0838
.(KX)704
.(KmK)5
.(Kill 10
.(X)IOIO
.(X)1020
.(K)10t3

0.0198

1 . 3460

2fW

17

. 3.58S

.0211

.0104

1 . 2828

3. 82

.01.371

.(KX)8<)0

21.-)

12

.3318

.0270

.0205

1 . 3493

3. 79

.012.58

.(K)1040

224

17

.4891

.0287

. 0220

1..3039

3. 05

.0178.5

.001048

225

19

. 4970

.0201

.0193

1 . 3.507

3. .5.5

.01760

.(KK)927

23r,

18

.4.5.5.5

.02.53

.0192

1.3104

3.65

.01063

. (KK)923

240

10

..3984

.0249

.0177

1 . 4(e5

3. .53

.01406

. (XK)879

24.^

1.5

.:«71

.0204

.02(Kt

1 . 3230

3.04

.01445

.mm]

24ti

18

.4.502

.02.53

.0194

1 . 30.58

3. 75

.01711

. (XXK)49

247

18

.4937

.0274

. 0202

1.. 3.501

3. .50

.01728

. (HX)9.59

248

17

.4017

.0271

.0193

1 . 4095

3.05

.01085

.(KXK)91

2.03

21

. .5900

.028.3

. 0203

1.3917

3. 03

.02163

.<K) 1.327

2.59 . .

19
17

.4932
..519.5

.02.59
.0.305

.0193
. 0229

1 . 34(X)
1 . 3333

3.M
3. .50

.01894
.01818

. (XXKK)5
.(X)1008

201

274

15

. 3347

.0223

.0108

1 . 33(K)

3.. 57

.01195

.(XXJ790

279

10

. 4304

.0269

.02(K)

1.3441

3.79

.01631

.{X)1020

280

10

. 4.30.5

.0209

.0198

1 . 3000

3.70

.01.593

.(XX)995

283

17

.4974

.0292

.0210

1.3911

3.8*1

.01920

.(X)1127

284

14

.3723

.0205

.0189

1 . 40.5f)

3.72

.01.38.5

.(KK)986

28.-,

18

..5709

.0320

.0233

1..3715

3.87

.022:«

.(XI 1238

28»i

17

.4140

.0243

.0178

1 . 3000

3..5<)

.01474

. 0(X)H(;5

287

10

.4740

.0290

. 0223

1 . 3270

3.87

.018.35

.(KllUO

■><M)

10

..39.5.5

.0247

.0177

1..3921

4.(K)

.01.582

.(XX)f)S8

29»1

17

. .5037

.0290

.0214

1.3832

3.94

.0198.5

.(X)llOO

2(i9

17
18

. 4.5.53
.47.53

.0207
.02.39

.0195
. 02.39

1..3715
. 1.1051

3. 08
3. 75

.01070
.01782

. (XX)98.3
.fXX)9fX)

■■m

313

17

.4798

.0282

. 0202

1..3971

3. .52

.01089

. (XX»993

328

20
17

..5795
.3795

.0289
.0223

.0215
.01*5

1..3406
1..34tW

3.01
3. .50

.02092
.01328

.(X)I043
.fXX)781

3H3

30.5

10

. :i409

.0210

.01 CO

1 . 2787

3..y)

.01214

. (Xl075<i

3W

14

.4012

.0286

.0212

1 . 34W)

3.. 50

.01428

.(X)I020

38.5

1.5

.4102

.0277

. (r203

1.3070

3. 79

.01.578

.(X)l ().-/)

40.5

18

.4940

.0274

. fr203

1 . 3.508

3. 70

.018.57

.fX»l(l30

mi

20

. 4707

.02.35

.0171

1..37fX)

3. 79

.01784

.fXX)>s91

408

im

412

413

417

420

422

4.3.5

19
17
10
17
19
17
23
20
17

. 44fi2
.4329
.3390
.4.393
.4.5.30
.41.50
. .5.395
.4310
.4425

.02.34
.02.54
.0211
.02.58

.()2U
.0234
.0215
.0260

3. 04
3. .59
3.63
3.77
3.80
3.73
.3.-53
.3. .53
.3.75

.01024
.01.5.54
.01231
.016.56
.01721
.015.50
.01904
.01.521
.01659

. (XK)S.-_'
.(XX»9I2
. (XX)700
. (XXK»73
.(KKKI04
.(KKl^llO
. (XX)820
.0007.59
.000975

1"

1

440

Average . .

17.3

.4517

.02.57

.01987

1..3494

3.70

.01672

.000982

Table 5 shows at a glance the averages for each of the clas.ses of
spikes just tabulated, and permits of a comparison of the average
figures for each class/'

"The determinations of .specific gravity were made by the following method, devised by
Prof. S. Averj-: A light ba.sket of wire gauze was suspended by aliair from the hook tliat
supported one of the pan hangers of the balance. The ba.sket was allowed to hang in a
beaker of benzol supported by a shelf above the pan. By using a counterpoi.se the balance
was now brought to the zero point. The balance was kept at zero by the occasional adjust-
ment of a rider on the left aim of the beam. The wheat was weighed on the pan of the
balance, then transferred to the basket and weighed in benzol, and the temperature of the
latter carefully noted. The specific gravity was calculated from the well-known formula:

Wt. in air X -sp. gr. in benzol at T^._ g
\Vt. in air wt. in benzol

56 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table .5. — Summary of analyses of spikes of icheat, arr'anged according to nitrogen content

of l-ernels. Crop of 1902.

Range cf

Per-
centage
of pro-
teid
nitro-
gen in
kernels.

Number of —

Weight (in grams)
of—

Volume
of aver-
age ker-
nel.

Specific
gravity.

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in —

percentage cf

proteid

nitrogen.

Analy-
ses.

Kernels
on row
of spike-
lets.

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

2 to 2.5

2.5to3

3 to 3.5

3.5to4

2.32
2.76
3.23
3.70

18

82

107

49

17
17.1
17.4
17.3

0. 4759
.4791
.4724
.4715

0.0266
.0279
.0270
.0257

0.0209
.0207
. 0199
.0199

1.374
1..368
1.367
1.349

0.01141
.01332
.01520
.01672

0. 000643
.000776
. 000874
.000982

From this table it will be seen tliat with an increase in the percent-
age of proteid nitrogen the number of kernels on a row of spikelets
remains about constant; that in general there were a decrease in the
weight of the kernels on a row of spikelets and a slight decrease in the
w^eight of the average kernel; and that the volume of the average
kernel decreased, as did the specific gravity.

It may safely be stated that a high percentage of proteid nitrogen
was in these spikes associated with a kernel of low' specific gravity,
light weight, and small relative volume, and, as the spikes were
selected for their ripeness and healthy appearance, this relation can
not be attributed to immaturity or disease.

The table last referred to show^s a decrease in the weight of the
kernels on the spike as the percentage of proteid nitrogen increases;
but it also shows that in spite of the decrease in the weight of the
kernels there is an increase in the actual amount of proteid nitrogen
they contain, and that the same is true of the average kernel.

Table 6 gives a summary of the same analyses, arranged according
to the specific gravities of the kernels. All spikes whose kernels had
a specific gravity below" 1.30 are grouped in one class, those having a
specific gravity of 1.30 to 1.33 in another class, and so on until finally
all spikes having a specific gravity of more than 1.42 form the last
class.

Table 6. — Summary of analyses of spikes of wheat, arranged according to specific gravities

of kernels. Crop of 1902.

Range of specific
gra\nty.

Specific
gravity
of ker-
nels.

*

Number cf—

Weight

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Weight
of aver-

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in—

Analy-
ses..

Kernels.

of kernels
(gram).

age
kernel
(gram).

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

Below 1 30

1.255
1.315
1.347
1.375
1.399
1.463

8
17
50
71
40

8

16.7
16.5
17.3
17.2
16.7
19.1

0.3887
.4315
.4008
.4794

.4848
.5287

3.29
3.35
2.91
3.06
3.03
3.07

0.02331 , 0.01280
.02617 ! .01446
.02366 1 .01508
.02786 .01462

0. 0007662

1.30 to 1.33

1 33 to 1 36

. 0008762
. 0008756

1 .36 to 1 .39

. 0008.559

1 39 to 1 42

. 02899
. 02773

.01459
.01605

.0008729

1.42 and over

.0008371

SOME PKOPERTIES OF THE WHEAT KERNEL,

57

This table shows no constant relation between the specific gravity
and the number of kernels on the spike. With an increase in the
specific gravity there is an increase in the weight of the kernels on the
spike, and with some exceptions an increase in the weight of the
average kernel. As the specific gravity increases, the percentage of
proteid nitrogen decreases, which agrees with the previous table.
The grams of proteid nitrogen in the kernels on the spikes and in the
average kernel increase with the specific gravity.

Table 7 shows the summary of the same analyses, arranged accord-
ing to the weight of the average kernel. Spikes whose Jvernels have
an average weight of less than 0.024 gram form the first class, and
each succeeding class increases by 0.002 gram.

Table 7. — Summary of analyses of spiJces of wheat, arranged according to weight of average

Icernel. Crop of 1902.

Range of weight of

average kernel

(gram).

Below 0.024

0.024 to 0.02fi

0.026 to 0.02S

0.028 to 0.030

0.030 to 0.032

0.032 and over. . .

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram).

Number of —

0. 02214
.02528
. 02705
.02896
.03089
.03324

^^- Kernels.

27
38
48
40
26
19

16.9
17.5
17.0
17.0
17.0
16.8

Percent-

Weight

SpeeUie

age of

of ker-

gravity

proteid

nels

of ker-

nitrogen

(gram).

nels.

m ker-

nels.

0.3812

1.341

3.197

.4425

1.361

3.28

.4609

1.360

3.22

.4916

1.372

3.11

..5274

1.388

2.86

.5588

1.373

2.88

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in —

Average
kernel.

Kernels .

0.0007184
.0008294
.0008711
.0009090
.0008787
.0009594

0.01215
.014.38
.01475
.01546
.01506
.01617

There seems to be no relation between the weight of the average
kernel and the number of kernels on the spike. The weight of all
the kernels on the spike naturally increases with the weight of the
average kernel. The specific gravity of the kernels increases with
the weight of the average kernel. The percentage of proteid nitrogen
decreases with an increase in the weight of the average kernel, in
which respect it agrees with the two previous tables. The grams of
proteid nitrogen in the average kernel and the total proteid nitrogen
in the spike increase with the weight of the average kernel.

Samples from each of the spikes of wheat from which these data
were derived were planted, together with samples from other spikes,
all of which have been analyzed, aggregating 800 in all. Each kernel
was planted separately at a distance of 6 inches each way from every
other kernel. The kernels from each spike were marked by a stake
bearing the record number of the spike.

During the winter a considerable number of plants were killed, so
that the stand was irregular in the spring. In some cases all of the
plants resulting from a spike of the previous year were killed, and in
other cases only a portion of such plants. The result was a some-
what uneven stand, which doubtless gave certain plants an advantage
over others in growth and yield.

58 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

When the crop was ripe in 1903 each plant was harvested sepa-
rately, and all of those resulting from spikes which the previous year
had shown a proteid nitrogen content of more than 4 per cent or less
than 2 per cent were analyzed, as were also a certain number resulting
from spikes of intermediate values.

The good kernels on each plant were counted and weighed, thus
giving a record of the yield of each plant. From these data the
average weight of the kernels per plant was calculated. The specific
gravity was not determined and consequently the average volume of
the kernels on. each plant was not calculated, as was done the previous
year.

In Table 8 the plants harvested in 1903 are arranged in classes of
1 to 2 per cent proteid nitrogen, 2 to 2.5 per cent, 2.5 to 3 per cent,
3 to 3.5 per cent, 3.5 to 4 per cent, 4 to 4.5 per cent, and over 4.5 per
cent. The number and weight of the kernels on each plant are stated,
as is also the average weight of each kernel. The number of grams
of proteid nitrogen in all the kernels of the plant is shown, and also
the number of grams of proteid nitrogen in the average kernel on each
plant. Table 9 shows the average for each class.

These results, so far as they cover the same ground as those of the
previous year, have the same significance. They show a quite uniform
although slight decrease in the weight of the average kernel accom-
panying an increase in the percentage of proteid nitrogen, and a very
marked increase in the number of grams of proteid nitrogen in the
average kernel. Especially marked is the increase in the amount of
proteid nitrogen in the average kernel, amounting to 28 per cent of
the weight of the kernel for every 1 per cent increase in the content
of proteid nitrogen.

One column of this table, not contained in that compiled from
results of the previous year, shows the number of grams of proteid
nitrogen contained in all of the kernels on the plant; or, in other
words, the proteid nitrogen production of the plant. This appears,
on the whole, to increase with the percentage of proteid nitrogen,
although the results are not sufficiently consistent to permit of an
unqualified statement to that effect. The uneven stand of the plants,
before referred to, doubtless accounts for these inconsistent results.

Two other columns contain data not obtained in 1902. The first
of these shows the number of kernels per plant, which apparently
decreases slightly as the percentage of proteid nitrogen increases, but
this can not be stated unqualifiedly. The next column shows the
weight of kernels per plant, or the yield per plant, which likewise
seems to decrease slightly with an increase in the percentage of pro-
teid nitrogen. .

SOME PEOPERTIES OF THE WHEAT KERNEL.

59

Table 8. — Analyses of plants, arranged accordinq to percentage of proteid nitrogen. Crop of

1903.

1 TO 2 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

Percent-

Number

Weight (in

grams) of—

Total pro-

Proteid

age of

teid nitro-

nitrogen in

Record num-
ber.

proteid
nitrogen
in kernels.

of ker-
nels per
plant.

Kernels
per plant.

Average
kernel.

gen in all
kernels
(gram).

average ker-
nel
(gram).

.32206

1.81

507

10.4036

0. 02052

0.18831

0.0003714

32605

1.20

225

5.2268

. 02323

.01)272

. 0002788

.33407

1.62

305

7.0889

.02271

.11223

. 0003679

33408

1.39

77

1.1132

.01446

. 01.547

.0002009

33905

1.61

508

11.1476

.02194

. 17948

.0003.533

42206

1.46

25

.3161

. 01264

.00462

.0001846

4.5606

1.91

220

4.0358

.01834

. 07708

.0003.504

45S05

1.84

124

1.5298

.01234

.02815

.0002700

48407

1.50

718

11.2890

.01572

. 16933

.0002358

51005

1.34

862

15. 5935

. 01804

.20881

. 0002422

55307

1.89

342

5.6864

. 01663

. 10747

.0003142

57.308

1.69

577

9. 8378

. 01705

. 16626

. 0002S81

57405

1.98

41

.8328

.02031

.01649

.0004022

57607

1.73

736

16.4433

.02234

.24847

.0003865

.58806

1.88

95

1.9469

. 02049

.03660

.0003853

60605

1.87

35

.5952

.01701

.01113

.0003180

63505

1.90

208

4.0230

.01934

.07644

.0003674

69806

1.66

5.58

12.0136

.02153

. 19943

.0003574

72606

1.89

543

9.3629

.01724

.18538

.0003414

74305

1.98

216

4.4222

. 02047

.087.56

.00040.54

80305

1.81

729

15.7835

. 02165

. 28569

.0003919

SI 705

1.98
1.92

465
396

9.7922
9.1411

.02106
.02308

.19388
. 17550

.0004170
.0004432

S1710

92407

1.66

53

.8983

.01695

.01491

.0002814

94205

1.65

64

1.2117

.01893

.01999

.0003124

94605

1.95

56

.7319

.01307

.01427

.0002549

94908

1.96

125

2.3678

.01894

.04641

.0003713

95510

Average . .

1.81

159

2.83.56

. 01783

.05132

.0003228

1.749

320.3

6.23823

.01871

. 10655

.00032914

2 TO 2 5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

17405

2.13

738

15. 6996

0. 02127

0. .33441

0.0004531

17408

2.18

497

9.2038

.018.52

.20065

. 0004037

18805

2.02
2.16

137

84

2. 1462
1.7216

.01.567
. 02050

. 04335
.03718

. 0003164
.0004427

21212

21705

2.45
2.19

.58
582

1.5420
12. .3685

. 02659
.02125

.03778
. 27086

.0006514
.0004654

21707

21708

2.33

.390

9. 2850

. 02381

.216.34

. 0005547

21709 . ...

2.47
2.31
2.41
2. .36

361
510
891

777

7. 7296

9. 7236

16. 4061

19. 1854

. 02141
. 01907
.01841
. 02469

. 19092
. 22461
. 39539
. 4,5276

.0005289
. 0004404
. 0004437
. 0005827

21912

27205

27206

27306

2.47

684

13.3011

.01945

.328.53

.0004803

27.505

2.12

539

12.0399

. 02183

.24942

.0004627

33107

2.35

318

6. 1026

.01919

.14341

.0004510

33405

2.03

421

8. 1268

. 01930

. 16498

.0003919

33605

2.39

301

7.0596

.02.345

. 16872

. 0005605

3.3606

2.21

382

8. 1890

.02144

. 18098

.00047.38

.34208

2.13

1.56

2. 9886

.01916

. 06366

. 0004081

37706 . ...

2.34

56

1.2069

.02155

. 02824

. 000.5053

37906

2.44

19

.2063

.01086

. 00.503

. 0002649

.39205

2.11

1,031

21.5399

.02089

. 45435

. 0004407

39606

2.37

346

4. 6383

.01341

. 10967

.0003177

44607

2.44

101

1.8246

. 01806

.04452

.0004408

48106

2.38

608

11.6655

.01919

.27765

. 0004567

48409

2.02

2.48

314
167

6. 4302
2. 3160

.02048
.01507

. 12989
.06240

.0004137
. 0003736

.5.5305

5.5.306

2.18

214

4. 1323

.01931

.09008

.0004210

5.5608

2.31

837

22. .5848

.02699

. 52194

.0006236

5.5908

2.42

.562

12. 2210

.02175

. 29575

.0005262

.55909

2.30

302

9.2120

.0.3050

.21187

. 0007016

,56206

2.42

509

9. 3093

.01829

.22529

. 0004426

.56207

2.34

462

10. 9073

. 02361

.25522

.0005524

,57307

2.43

261

4.7117

.01801

.11445

. 0004387

.57.508

2.21

380

12.0728

.03177

.26680

. 0007021

58905

2.43

170

2. 3031

.01355

. 0.5.596

. 000:^292

.59605

2.12
2.16

382
567

7. 1828
9. 7084

.01880
.01712

. 1.5228
. 20970

. 0003986
. 0003698

59606

63107

2.43

417

9.3120

. 02233

. 22628

.0005426

60

IMPROVING THE QLTALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 8.— Analyses of plants, arranqed according to -percentage of proteid nitrogen. Crop

of J90.i— Continued.

2 TO 2.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN— Continued.

Percent-

Number
of ker-
nels per
plant.

Weight (in

grams) of—

Total pro-

Proteid

Record num-
ber.

age of
proteid
nitrogen

in kernels.!

i

1
Kernels
per plant.

Average
kernel.

teid nitro-
gen in all
kernels
(gram) .

nitrogen in
average ker-
nel
(gram).

63506

2.44

153

2. 3986

.01568

0.05853

0.0003825

6.5306

2.41

544

9. 8298

.01807

.23690

.0004355

65307

2.28

373

7.0051

.01878

. 15971

. 0004282

65308

2.09

583

11.7066

.02008

. 24468

.0004197

69505

2.29

225

4.7116

.01847

. 10790

. 0004231

71905

"2.47

1,260 i

28.2136

. 02239

.69688

. 0005531

72705

2.13

372

9. 1522

.02191

. 19936

. 0004668

72708

2.27

398

9. 0386

. 02270

. 20518

. f)0051;)4

72905

2.48

167

2. 6462

.01585

. 06563

. 0003930

73306

2.45

414

8. 5373

. 02062

. 20918

. 000.50,52

73307

2.39

25

.5572

.02229

. 01332

. 0005327

74606

2.30

464

9. 6451

. 02079

.22184

. 0004781

76205

2.35

498

8.4407

.01695

.19836

. 000.3983

81707

2.34

786

18.3614

. 02336

. 42965

. 0005466

81708

2.41

287

7. 3993

.02.578

.17833

.0006213

81709

2.28

757

16. 4692

.02175

.37548

.0004960

84405

2.48

428

8. 7448

. 02043

.21687

. 000.5067

84905

2.32

37

.7130

.01927

.01654

. 0004471

88608

2.47

74

1.. 53.55

. 02075

. 03793

. nOO.5125

88609

2.42

470

9. 8719

.02100

.23890

. (;mjo.50S2

92409

2.30

315

5.7131

.01814

.13140

.0004171

94209

2.49

190

3.6006

.01895

. 0S965

.0004719

94406

2.47

549

10. 5556

.01923

.26073

. 0004749

94407

2.07

419

6.7664

.01615

. 14007

. CKH)3343

94905

2.. 35

286

4.4423

.01.553

. 10439

. 0(K)36.50

9.5.509

2.48

138

2.9475

.02136

.07310

. 0U0.5297

9.5707

2.47

52

.7577

.014.57

.01872

.000.3599

Average

2.319

396.8

8.2502

.020113

. 190316

.0004660

2.5 TO 3 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

17409...,

17410....

20706...

20707...

20708...

20710...

21207...

21305...

21306. . .

21710...

21711...

21805...

21806. . .

21807...

21808...

21809. . .

21810...

21905. . .

22205...

22207...

2.5205...

2.5206...

26106...

26S05...

26806. . .

26807...

26905...

26906...

26907...

26908...

26909...

27005. . .

27207...

27,305. . .

27307...

27.506...

27,508...

27.709...

28S05. . .

32606...

2.78
2.77
2.58
2.83
2.96
2.67
2.90
2. .59
2.71
2.69
2.71
2.73

2.73
2.69
2.64
2.81
2.77
2.71
2.76
2.63
2.81
2.60

2.76
2.71
2.61
2.96
2.80
2.63
2.92
2^58

2. ,53
2.70
2.64
2.90
2.91
2.88

802
744
163
444
122
867
118
312
226
59
873

1,232
599
377

1,156
418
52
791
283
169
522
205
90
220
1.52
721
326
228
102
192
180
866
166
267
167
444
251
243
87
94

14. 8957

16. 9987
3.3138
9.9070
2.4690

17.1115

2.3066

6.2514

4.1516

.8478

17. 1820

20. 9290

14.24.50
9.4172

19. 7446
8.0214
1.0304

14.3111
2.6965
3. 2787

10. 7836
4. 6754
2.0737
4.9456
2. 7255

17. 2324
6.4102
4. 2376
1.8276
3. 9797
2. 9999

16.4120
3. 3266
5. 5666
3.08,50

10.0005
5. 5324
5.3615
2. 1851
2.0162

0.01857
. 02285
. 02033
. 02282
. 02024
.01974
.01955
.02004
.01837
.01437
. 01968
.01699
. 02378
. 02498
.01708
.01919
.01982
.01809
. 00953
.01940
. 02066
. 02281
. 02304
. 02248
.01793
. 02390
.01066
.018.59
.01702
. 02073
.01667
.01X95
.0211(14
. 02085
.01847
. 022.52
. 02287
. 02206
.02512
.02145

0. 40964
. 48957
.09212
.27443
.06399
. 48428
.06804
. 16691
. 12039
.02196
. 46563
. ,56299
. 38604
. 25709
.,50744
.21898
. 02772
. 37781
. 07577
.09082
. 28560
.12904
.0.5454
. 13897
. 07086
. 48250
.17692
.11484
.04995
.11780
. 08400
. 43164
.09712
. 14362
.07805
.27003
. 14608
. 15549
. 063,59
.05807

0.0005108
. 0006580
. 000.5652
.00061S1
.0005221
. 0005586
. 0005766
. 00053.50
. 0005327
.0003722
. 0005334
. 0004569
. 0006444
. 0006664
.0004389
. 0005238
. 0005330
. 0004777
.0002677
. 0005374
. 0005,599
. 0006295
. 0006060
.(X106317
.0004662
. 0006692
. 0(X)5427
0005037
. 0004677
. 0006135
. 0004667
.0004984
.000,58,50
. 0005379
. (KX)4674
. 0(X)6082
. 0(X)C037
. 0006,399
. 0007309
.0006177

SOME PROPERTIES OF THE WHEAT KERNEL.

61

Table S.-^Anahjses of plants, arranged accordim/ to percentage of proteid nitrogen. Crop

of 1903— Cont'nmed.

2.5 TO 3 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN— Continued.

Percent-

Number

Weight (in

grams) of —

1
Total pro-

Proteid

age of

proteid

nitrogen

in kernels.

teid nitro-
gen in all

nitrogen in
average ker-
nel

Record num-
ber.

of ker-
nels per

Kernels

Average

plant.

per plant.

kernel.

(gram).

(pram).

33105

2.91

132

2.5601

0. 01939

0.07450

0. 000.5644

33106

2.94

18

.3089

.01716

.00908 j

. 000.5045

33406

2.87

283

4.6045

.01627

. 13215

.0004670

33906

2.81

119

2.2862

.01921

.06424

.000.5399

34205

2.73

464

9. 1498

.01972

. 24979 :

.0005383

34207

2.84

611

13.5556

.02219

.38505

.0006273

37305

2.96
2.64
2.94

309
461
193

6. 1394
8.0905
3.3004

.01987
.01972
.01710

.18173
. 23998
.09670

.000.5881
.000.5327
.000.5010

37705

37707

37905

2.53

37

.9452

.025.55

.02391

.0006463

38(X)5

2.84

139

2.5134

.01808

.07138

.0005135

38506

2.89

85

1.6799

.01975

.04855

.0005712

38606

2.63

401

8. 4605

.02110

. 22251

.0(X).5.549

38608

2.82

158

3.0228

.01913

.08.522

.000.5394

38609

2.74

293

6. 7665

. 02309

. 18540

. 0006475

38706

2.59

365

7.2545

.01988

.18789

.0005148

39405

2.88

447

9.3541

.02093

.21399

. 0006027

39506 ...

2.93

67

1.9218

. 02869

.0.5631

.0008404

40505

2.82

170

4.1546

.02444

.11716

. 0006892

43405

2.92

124

2.8000

.022.58

.08176

.0006594

44505 ....

2.94

340

5.9990

.01764

.17637

.0005187

44605

2.86

.55

1.1271

.02049

. 03223

. 0005861

44606

2.90

124

2.5235

.02035

.07318

.0005902

45605.. . .

2.82

61

.7081

.01161

.01997

.0003273

46106

2.54

82

1.6103

.01964

.04090

.0004988

46107

2.54

478

8. 3935

.017.56

.21319

. 0004460

48305

2.87

473

12.0278

.02543

.34524

.0007299

48408

2.81

27

.34&5

.01291

.00979

.0003627

4&507

2.64

70

1.6036

.02296

.04233

.0008062

48508

2.76

603

11.2008

.01858

.30986

.0005127

48806

2.70

2.80

547
35

9. 8346
.4701

.01798
.01343

. 26.553
.01316

. 0004877
.0003761

50706

55008

2.60

944

17.4226

.01846

.4.5299

. 0004799

55206

2.56

578

11.3.592

.01965

. 29079

.0005031

55308

2.54

397

9. .5078

.02395

.241.50

.0006225

55506

2.80

866

17.8506

.02062

.49995

. 0005773

55507

2.63

504

9.8228

.01949

. 25834

.0005126

55605

2.64

500

10.9180

.02184

.28823

.0005765

55606

2.58

503

11.0930

.02205

.28580

. 0005690

55607

2.69

138

2.3931

.01734

. 06437

. 0004665

55905

2.67
2.81

331

499

5.7948
7.9968

.01751
.01603

• .15170
.22471

. 0tK)4674
. 0004.503

55906

55907 ....

2.59

749

19. S966

. 02590

.50238

. 0006707

56105

2.73

336

5. 7431

.01709

. 15679

. 0004667

56106

2.57

644

12.0161

. 01866

. 30881

.0004795

56107

2.96

872

14.45.56

.01658

.42790

.0004907

56205

2.51

333

6. .5232

.019.59

. 16373

.0004917

56208

2.61

563

13. .5720

. 02356

. 34616

.0006149

56209

2. .59

9.50

15.8086

.01664

. 40945

.0004310

57005

2.71

88

1..5364

.01746

.04164

.0004731

57006

2.76

701

10. 1836

.01453

. 28107

.0(X)4010

57007

2.65

168

3.3176

.01975

.08792

.000.5233

57105

2.76

407

3. 7263

.00916

. 10285

.0002.527

57306

2.86

434

7.9772

. 01838

.22815

.0005257

57406

2.75

135

2.4923

.01846

.068.54

. 0005077

57407

2.62

762

14.9992

.01968

.39297

.00051.57

57408

2.61

596

12. 2004

.02047

.31842

.0005343

57506

2.80

180

2. 7616

.01.534

. 07733

. 0004296

57507

2.85

359

6.9861

.01946

. 19905

. 0005545

57509

2.54

611

10. 6261

.01739

. 26990

.(K)04417

57606

2.74

132

3.0790

.02333

. 08436

.0006391

57608

2.64

438

8.6189

.01968

. 22756

.0005195

57805

2.87

270

4.8988

.01814

. 14060

.0005207

58206

2.67

148

1.3961

.00943

.03728

.0002519

58505

2. 95

273

7.4516

.02730

. 21982

.0008052

58805

2.74

1,1.58

23. 1471

.01999

. 63422

. 0005464

63106

2.79

165

3. 3006

.02001

. 09208

. (XK)5581

66005

2.63
1 2. 50

370

I 663

7.6690
13. .5696

: . 02073
. 02047

.20170
.33923

. 0005451
.(K)05117

69.506

69705

2.50
2.95

244
430

3. 7810
8. 2929

.015.50
.01929

.094.53
. 24464

. 0003874
. {K105689

72406

73308

2.92

624

14.2986

.02291

.417.52

. 0006.539

74506

2.73

23

.4096

.01781

.01118

. (M)04862

74508

2.60

57

.8172

.01434

.02125

. (H103728

74605

2.60

399

7.1181

.017&4

.18507

.0004638

62

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 8. — Analyses of plants, arranged according to percentage of proteid nitrogen. Crop of

^90.3— Continued.

2.5 TO 3 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN— Continued.

Percent-

Number
of ker-
nels per
plant.

Weight (in

grams) of—

Total pro-

Proteid

Record num-
ber.

age of

proteid

nitrogen

in kernels.

teid nitro-
gen in all
kernels
(gram) .

nitrogen in
average ker-
nel
(gram).

Kernels
per plant.

Average
kernel

74607

2. .56

491

S, 3406

0.01699

0. 21352

0.0004349

81405

2.62
2.94

240
146

4.. 5737
2. 8327

.01862
.01940

.11710
.08328

. 0004879
. (XX)5704

81505

81706

2.71

722

15.3928

.02132

.41715

.000.5778

85205

2.60

214

3.4766

.01625

.09039

. 0004224

85206

2.66

376

4.9315

.01312

.13118

.0003332

86105

2.56
2.63

203

436

3.0282
7.6241

.01495
.01749

.07964
.20052

.0003923
.0004.")(H)

86106

88605

2.80

69

1.6362

.02731

.04581

.0ai76J0

88606

2.53

481

9.9456

.02068

.25162

.0005231

88607

2.61

234

5.1584

. 02205

. 13463

. 0005754

88905

2.83

293

5.3069

.01811

. 1.5019

.0005126

88906

2.65

546

9.9034

.01814

. 26245

.0004807

91906

2.81

200

3. .5486

.01774

.09972

.0004986

92205

2.74

345

5. 2616

.01525

. 14417

.0004170

92206

2.67

46

1.1074

.02407

.02957

.O00'i428

92207

2.55

209

3.6926

.01767

.09416

. 0004.505

92208

2.72

3.53

6. 6206

.01876

.18008

.0005102

92305

2.93

160

2.3859

.01491

.06991

.0004369

92408

2.97

207

3.7820

.01827

. 11233

.000.5426

92507

2. .58

505

9.6779

.01916

. 24969

.0004944

94206

2.78

402

7.5006

.01866

. 20851

.0005187

94207

2.86

718

13. 70.57

.01909

.39190

.000.5460

94907

2.94

626

12. 1918

.01948

. 35844

.0005726

95505

2.81

37

.3146

.00850

.00884

.0002.389

95506

2.74

597

11.0548

.018.52

.30291

. 0005074

9.5507

2.59

571

12. 1592

.02030

. 31492

. 000.5515

95508

2.56

740

14.4617

.019.54

. 37023

.0005003

9.5705

2.54

636

10.3426

.01626

. 26270

.0004131

95706

Average

2.73

267

5.1629

.01934

.14095

.000.5279

2.731

370.36

7. 1755

.019354

. 194423

.00052706

3 TO 3.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

17305

3.03
3.09

183
243

3. 6302
3. 9968

0.01984
.01645

0.10999
. 123.50

0.0006010
.0005082

17306

17307

3.46

138

3. 14.54

. 02280

. 10883

.0007886

17308

3.25

61

1.2275

.02012

.03994

.0006540

17406

3.29

124

2.0907

.0168)

.06878

. 0005547

18906

3.48

65

.9229

.01420

.03212

.0004941

20705

3.09

109

1.8517

.01698

.05722

. 0005249

20709

3.05

258

5.3229

.02063

.16235

. 0006292

20805

3.32

697

14.6942

.02157

.48784

. 0006999

21205

3.16

123

2.3642

.01922

.07471

. 0006074

21208

3.24

287

5. 1.594

.01798

. 16712

. 0005824

21211

3.15

10

.2806

.02806

.00884

. 0008839

21307

3.04

143

2.. 5691

. 01796

. 0-810

.000.5461

21308

3.45

354

5.8080

.01641

.20038

. 0005660

21906

3.18

408

10. 4800

.02.563

. 33403

.0008168

21907

3.35

158

2.9248

. 01851

. 09-98

. 0006201

21913

3.01

492

10. 1925

.02072

.30680

. 0006235

22206

3.22

146

2. .5712

.01720

.08086

.000.5.538

22208

3.18

118

1 . 9090

.01619

.06071

.0005144

22210

3.17

298

6.0173

.02019

. 19075

.0006401

22211

3.17

561

11.. 56^5

.02062

.36671

.0006537

26105

3.02

131

1.8242

.01393

.05508

.0003662

26808

3.09

222

3.8811

.01748

.11992

.000.5402

27507

3.08

75

1.3746

.01833

.04234

.0005646

28206

3.07

219

4. 3698

.01996

.13415

.0006126

2SS06

3.02

6&5

14.4630

.02111

.43679

. 0006376

32207

3.48

69

1.2,5"3

.01822

.04375

.0006341

33305

3.41

150

3. 13-16

.02090

. 10689

.0007126

33607

3.22

136

2. 8903

.02125

.09307

. 0006843

34606

3.12

280

6. 1962

.02213

. 19332

. 0006<K)4

39.507

3.02

HI

1.8862

.01699

.0.5696

.0005132

40305

3.11

179

3.6003

.02011

.11197

. 0006255

40405

3.17

46

.6316

.01373

.02002

. 00043.52

42405

3.07
3.17

66
67

1.4892
1.2499

.02251
.01866

.04572
.0.36.50

. 0006927
.01X)5447

42905

46105

3.00
3.29

260
157

4.6146
2. 6571

.01775
.01692

. 13843
.08742

. 0005324
. 0005568

48306

SOME PROPERTIES OF THE WHEAT KERNEL.

63

Table 8. — Analyses of plants, arranqed according to percentage of proteid nitrogen. Crop of

i90.i— Continued.

3 TO 3.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN— Continued.

Record num-
ber.

Percent-
age of

proteid
nitrogen
in kernels.

48405

48506

48705...'.....

48706

49505

50905

55005

55006

55205

55508

57305

57905

58207

58705

62805

63105

72405

72707

72806

74.507

81406

84906

91305

91905

92405

92406

92.505

94208

94906

Average

3.31
3.20
3.13
3.00
3.24
3.30
3.05
3.16
3.10
3.11
3.19
3.18
3.09
3.01
3.25
3.24
3. .36
3.49
3.01
3.02
3.31
3.43
3.21
3.36
3.10
3.11
3.00
3.10
3.41

Number
of ker-
nels per
plant.

Weight (in grams) of—

Kernels
per plant.

76
556
264
379

67
221
393
451

40
216
501
221
307
235
111

90
213
225
110
493

72
382
138
198
214
380
156
322
6&5

0.9701
9.4585
4.3615
6. 1986
1.2716
2.3982
7.9684
7.1852
.6893
3. 7407
8.5777
2.4731
4.2207
2.5436
1.3451
1.5452
8.4415
4.5806.
2.0970
9. 2130
1.2391
7.5438
3.0940
3.4436
3.4356
8.2366
2. 6615
3.7828
12.3862

Average
kernel.

0.01276
.01701
. 01652
.01635
.01898
.0108.5
.02028
.01593
.01723
.01732
.01666
.01118
.01375
.01082
.01212
.01717
.03963
.02036
.01906
.01869
.01721
.01975
.02242
.01739
.01605
.02168
.01706
.01175
.01808

3.184

235.5

4.38558

. 018366

Total pro-
teid nitro-
gen in all
kernels
(gram).

0.03211
. 30267
. 13652
. 18.596
.04120
.07914
.24304
. 22705
.02137
. 11636
.29188
.07859
. 13042
. 07656
.04272
.05007
.28363
. 15986
.06312
.27823
.04101
.25873
.09932
.11.570
. 10650
.25616
.079^5
.11727
.42236

Proteid
nitrogen in
average ker-
nel

(gram).

0. 0004225
. 000.5444
.0005171
.0004906
.0(X)6149
. 0003581
.0006185
.0005034
.0005342
.(KX)5386
. 0005326
. 0003.556
. 000.1248
.0003256
.0003938
. 000.5563
.0013316
.0007105
. 0005738
. 0005644
.0005697
. 0006773
.0007197
.000.5844
.0004977
.0006741
.0005118
.0003642
.0006166

. 139656

.000.581.56

3.5 TO 4 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

17506

3.52

93

2.2881

0.02460

0.08044

0.0008660

17507

3.80

43

.7220

. 01795

.02933

. 0006S22

18905

3.81

103

1.4864

.01443

.05663

.000.5498

21209

3.61

89

1.4484

.01627

.05228

. 000.5875

21811

3.75

567

11.9114

.02101

.44666

. 0007877

21908

3.82

173

3. 5574

. 02056

. 13589

. 0007855

22209

3.84

31

.4336

.01399

.01665

. 0005371

26107

3.92

' 144

2.0390

.01416

.07993

.000.5,551

32608

3.78

55

1.0183

.01851

.03849

. 0006998

34206

3.73

81

1.5940

.01968

.05946

.0007340

36905

3.88

267

5.0200

.01880

. 19478

.0007295

38505

3.61

563

12. 1088

.02252

.43713

.0007764

42^05

3.63
3.58

94
23.5

1.8494
3.2340

.01967
.01376

.06713
.11.575

.0007142
.0004927

4.5005

4&505

3.66

137

1.91.54

.01398

.07010

.0005117

49905

3.62
3. .54

23
30

.6760
.59.58

.02939
.01986

.02436
.02109

.0010640
.00070.32

50705

50906

3. .57

114

1.7280

.01516

.06169

.000.5411

66006

3.54

366

6.0090

.01642

.21272

. 0005812

66008

3. .59

174

3. 1.555

.01814

.11328

.0006510

72706

3.86

591

14.6802

.02484

..56666

.0009.588

94909

Average

3.60

218

3.6977

. 01696

. 13312

.(H)06106

3.69

190.5

3.68947

.018666

. 13698

.00068723

(54

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 8. — Analyses of plants, arranged according to percentage of proteid nitrogen. Crop

of i90J— Continued.

4 TO 4.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

Record num-
ber.

Percent-
age of

proteid
nitrogen
in kernels.

Number
of ker-
nels per
plant.

Weight (in grams) of—

Total pro- Proteid
teid nitre- nitrogen in
gen in all average ker-
kernels nel
(gram). (gram).

Kernels
per plant.

Average
kernel.

21812

21813

21909

27308

34405

4.26
4.04
4.43
4.15
4.33
4.13
4.18
4.21
4.42
4.45
4.39

983
216
525
254
207

14.8139
4.0258

12. 1819
4.5123
d 19S1

0.01507 ' 0.63107 0.0OOH42O
.01877 i .16377 .(X)07o82
.02317 ! .53889 .0010265
.01777 1 .18726 > .0007373
. 01994 1 7S7.T _ mnsfi.'i.T

43505

45705

55007

69305

76206

92506

Average

93 ' 1.4464
44 1 . 7532
118 2. 1571
103 2.0430
447 5.4411
229 3. 8709

.015.55
.01712
.01828
.01984
.01217
.01690

. 05974 . 0006423
.03148 .0007155
.09082 : .0007696
.09030 : .0008767
.24213 ; .000.^417
.16993 : .0007421

4.27

292.6 j 5.03397

.017689

.21674 .00075594

MORE THAN 4.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN

17505

4.70

29

0.3885

0. 01340

0.01826

0.0006296

21206

5.23

149

2. 8564

.01917

. 14939

.0010026

21210

5.03

237

3.9143

.01578

. 19689

.0007934

21706

4.71

807

19.3318

. 02390

.91052

.0011283

21911

5.48

383

8.4593

.02209

.46356

.0012103

38605..^

5.85

61

1.2124

. 01988

.07093

.0011627

38607

4.55

19

.3037

.01598

.01382

.0007273

40205

4.69

194

3. 6302

.01871

. 17026

.0008776

48406

4.87

249

3.2964

.01324

. 16053

.0006447

65305

4.92

78

1.8018

.02310

.08865

.0011365

69805

5.82

110

2.4420

.02220

. 14213

.0012921

72605

4.65

65

1. 1166

.01718

.05192

.0007988

72607

5.59

188

3.4442

.01832

. 19253

.0010241

92306

Average

4.93

347

6.0091

. 01732

.2962.5

.0008539

5.07

208. 28

4. 15727

. 01859

.208974

.0009487

Table 9. — Summary of analyses of plants, arranged according to percentage of proteid

nitrogen. Crop of 1903.

Range of per-
centage of proteid
nitrogen.

Percent-
age of
proteid

nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Number of—

Weight (in grams)
of—

Proteid nitrogen
(in grams) in —

Analy-
ses.

Ker-
nels.

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

All ker-
nels.

Average
kernel.

1 to2

1.749

2.32

2.73

3.18

3.69

4.27

5.07

28
65
145
66
22
11
14

320.3

396

370

235

190

292

208

6.2382
8.2502
7. 1755
4.38.56
3. 6895
5.0340
4. 1573

0.01S71
.02011
.01935
.01837
.01867
.01769
.01859

0. 106.55
. 19032
. 19442
. 13966
. 13698
. 21674
.20897

0. 0003291
. (K)04660
. 0005271
.0005816
. 000^872
. 0007559
.0009487

2 to 2.5 ...

2.5 to 3

3 to 3.5

3.5 to 4

4 to 4 5

4.5 and over

Table 10 shows the analyses of the crop of 1903 arranged on the
basis of weight of average kernel. Determinations of gliadin and
glutenin were made in these analyses and the sums of these are
inserted in this table/' All plants having an average kernel weight

o Determinations of gliadin and o:lutenin were made by methods practically the same as
those described by Prof. Harry Snyder in Bulletin No. 63 of the Minnesota Experiment
Station, except that smaller quantities were used.

SOME PROPEKTIES OF THE WHEAT KERNEL.

65

of less than 0.010 gram form the first class and each succeeding class
increases by 0.002 gram. Table 11 is a summary of these analyses.

Table 10. — Analyses of plants, arranged according to weigTit of average Tcemel. Crop of 1903.
AVEIGHT OF AVER.YGE KERNEL, 0.000 TO 0.010 GRAM.

Record
number.

\yeight Xum- ^y i i^t
of aver- bei of ^ ^ ? ,

ke^'el "^X'' on plant
(S. .plant. ,^S'-''^^^^

22205. .
57105. .
58206. .
95505. .

0.00953
.00916
.00943
. 00850

283

407

148

37

2.6965

3. 7263

1.3961

.3146

Average . .00915

219

2.0334

Per-
centage
of pro-
teid ni-
trogen
in ker-
nels.

2.81
2.76
2.67
2.81

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in —

Average
kernel.

0.0002677
.0002527
. 0002519
.0002389

Kernels
on plant.

0.07577
. 10285
.03728
.00884

Percent-
age of
gliadin-
plus-glu-
tenin ni-
trogen in
kernels.

1.97

Gliadin-plus-glu-
tenin nitrogen
(gram) in —

Average
kernel.

Kernels
on plant.

0.0001877

0.05312

.0002.528

.05618

1.97

.0001877

.05312

WEIGHT OF AVERAGE KERNEL, 0.010 TO 0.012 GRAM.

37906

45605

50905.....

57905

58705

94208

Average .

0.01086
.01161
.01085
.01118
.01082
.01175

1

19

61
221
221 I
235 j
322 I

0. 2063
. 7081
2.3982
2.4731
2.5436
3.7828

2.44
2.82
3.30
3.18
3.01
3.10

0. 0002649
.0003273
.0003581
.0003556
. 0003258
. 0003642

0.00503
.01997
. .07914
. 07859
.07656
. 11727

2.92
2.47

6. 6663264
.0002673

0.07221
.06283

.01118

179

1

2.0187

2.98

.0003326

. 06276

2.69

■

.0002968

.06752

WEIGHT OF .WERAGE KERNEL, 0.012 TO 0.014 GRAM.

17505

22209

25105

39606....".
40405.....

42206

4.5005

45805

48405

48406

48408

48505

50706

,58207....

58905

62805. . . .

76206

8.5206

94605....

Average

0.01340
.01399
.01393
.01341
.01373
.01264
.01376
.01234
.01276
.01324
.01291
. 01398
.01343
.01375
.013.55
.01212
.01217
.01312
.01307

29

31
131
346

46

25
235
124

76
249

27
137

35
307
170
111
447
,■',76

56

0. 3885

.4336
1.8242
4.6383

.6316

.3161
3. 2340
1.5298

.9701
3. 2964

. 34&5
1.91.54

.4701
4. 2207
2.3031
1.3451
5.4411
4.9315

.7319

. 01323

1.55. 7

2.0.510

4.70
3.84
3.02
2.37
3.17
1.46
3.58
1.84
3.31
4.87
2.81
3.66
2.80
3.09
2.43
3.25
4.45
2.66
1.95

3.12

0. 0006296
.000.5371
. 0003662
.0003177
.0004352
.0001846
.0004927
. 0002700
. 0(K)4225
. 0001i447
. 0ffl)3627
.0005117
.0003761
.0004248
. 0003292
. 0003938
.000.5417
. 0003332
.0002549

0.01826
. 01665
.05,508
.10967
.02002
.00462
.11575
.02815
.03211
. 160.53
.00979
.07010
.01316
. 13042
. 05.596
.04272
. 24213
.13118
.01427

.0004120

.06687

1.36

2.25

'i.76

2.49

"'i.'os

1.98

0.0001871 0.04398

.0002979

. 0002460
.'6663424'

.0002471

.0002641

.08168
.63371'

. 10510
.'11646'

.07499

WEIGHT OF AVERAGE KERNEL, 0.014 TO 0.016 GRAM.

18805

0.01567

137

18905

.01443

103

18906

.01420

65

21210

.01577

237

21710

.01437

59

21812

.01507

983

26107

.01416

144

33408

.01446

77

38607

.01598

19

43.505

.01.5.55

93

48407

.01572

718

.50906

.01516

114

55006

.01593

451

.5.5305

.01507

167

57006

.01453

701

2. 1462

2.02

1.4864

3.81

.9229

3.48

3.9143

5.03

.8478

2.59

14.8139

4.26

2.0390

3.92

1.1132

1.39

.3037

4.55

1.4464

4.13

11.2890

1.50

1.7280

3.57

7.1852

3.16

2.5160

2.48

10. 1836

2.76

0.0003164
.0005498
.0004941
.0007934
.0003722
.0006420
.000.5.551
. 0002(X)9
. 0007273
.000o423
.0002358
.0005411
.0005034
.0003736
.0004010

0. 04335
.05663
.03212
. 19689
.02196

'.63107
. 07993
. 01.547
.01382
. 0.5974
. 16933
.06169
.22705
.06240
.28107

1.54

1.34

2.02
1.35

0.0003218

.0002113

.0003044
.0001912

0.03315

1.75
1.97

.05245

. 29934
.02753

.0002788 .12.574
.0002969 .04957

27889— No. 78—05-

66

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Taele 10. — Analyses of plants, arranged according to weight of average Jcernel. Crop of

1903— Continued.

WEIGHT OF AVERAGE KERNEL, 0 014 TO 0.016 GRAM— Continued.

Record
number.

Weight
of aver-

Num-
ber of

Weight
of kernels

Per-
centage
of pro-
teid ni-
trogen
in ker-
nels.

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in-

Percent-
age of
{.'liadin-
plus-glu-
tenin ni-
trogen in
kernels,

Gliadin-plu?-glu-
tenin nitrogen
(gram) in-

age
kernel
(gram).

k«™^'^ on plant
plant. (^'•^^^)-

Average Kernels
kernel. on plant.

1

Average
kernel.

1
Kernels
on plant.

57506

63506

69705

72905

74508

86105

92205

92305

92905

92906

94905

95707

Average .

0.01534
.01568
.01550
.01585
.01434
.01495
.01525
.01491
.01534
. 01,592
.015.53
.01457

i

180 I 2.7616
1.53 i 2.3986
244 i 3.7810
167 i 2.6462

.57 , .8172
203 3.0282
345 ' 5.2616
160 ' 2.3859
176 , 2.7000

181 ; 2.8816
286 ; 4.4423

52 1 .7577

2.80
2.44
2.50
2.48
2.60
2.56
2.74
2.93
3. .50
2.99
2.35
2.47

0.0004296
. 0003825

0.077.33
. 05853

2.34 ' 0.0003590

0.0r;4r2

.0003874 , .09453
.0003930 ! .06563
.0003728 .02125

.0003923
.0004179
. 0004369

. 07964
. 14417
.06991

.0005369 ! .094.50

.0004760
.0003650
.0003599

. OS.; 16
. 10439
.01872

.01516 232

3.5480

3.00

.0004555

. 10619

1.76 .0002805 .09320.

WEIGHT OF AVERAGE KERNEL, 0.016 TO O.OIS GRAM.

17306

0.01645

243

17406

.01686

124

17507

.01795

43

20705

. 01698

109

21208

.01798

287

21209

.01627

89

21307

.01796

143

21308

. 01641

354

21805

.01699

1,232

21808

.01708

1,1.56

22206

.01720

146

22208

.01619

lis

26806

.01793

1.52

26808

.01748

222

26907

.01792

102

26909

.01667

180

27308

.017^7

254

33106

.01716

18

33406

.01627

283

37707

.01710

193

39507

.01699

111

44.505

.01764

340

4.5705

.01712

44

46105

.01775

260

46107

.01756

478

48306

.01692

157

48506

.01701

5,56

48705

. 016.52

264

48706

,01635

379

48806

.01798

547

55205

.01723

40

55307

.01663

342

55508

. 01732

216

55607

.01734

1.38

.55905

.01751

331

55906

.01603

499

56105

.01709

336

56107

.01658

872

56209

.01664

9.50

57005

.01746

,88

57305

.01666

501

57,308

.01705

577

57509

1 .01739

611

59606

! .01712

567

60605

.01701

35

63105

.01717

90

66006

.01642

366

3.9968

2.0907

.7720

1.8517

5. 1.594

1.4484

2. 5691

5. 8080

20.9290

19.7446

2. ,571 2

1.9090

2. 72.55

3.8811

1.8276

2.9999

4.5123

.3089

4. (i045

3. 3004

1.8862

5.9990

.7532

4.6146

8. 3935

2. 6571

9.4585

4.3615

6. 1986

9. 8346

.6893

5.6864

3. 7407

2. 3931

5. 7948

7.9968

5. 7431

14. 4,5,56

15. 8086

1.5364

8. 5777

9. 8378

10. 6261

9.7084

.5952

1.5452

6.0090

3.09
3.29
3.80
3.09
3.24
3.61
3.04
3.45
2.69
2.57
3.22
3.18
2.60
3.09
2.61
2.80
4.15
2.94
2.87
2.93
3.02
2.94
4.18
3.00
2.54
3.29
3.20
3.13
3.00
2.70
3.10
1.89
3.11
2.69
2.67
2.81
2.73
2.96
2.59
2.71
3.19
1.69
2.54
2.16
1.87
3.24
3.54

0.0005082
. 0005547
. 0006822
. 0005249
. 0005824
.0005875
. 0005461
.0005660
.0004569
.0004389
. 0005.538
. 0005144
. 0004662
. 0005402
. 0004677
. 0004667
.0007373
.0005045
.0004670
.0005010
.0005132
.0005187
.0007155'
. 000.5324
.00044(0
.0005568
.0005444
.0005171
. 0004906
. 0004877
.0005342
.0003142
.0005386'
. 0001665
. 0004674
. 0004503
.0004667
.0004907
.0004310
. 0004731
. 0005826
.0002881
.0004417
. 0003ti98
.0003180
. 0005563
.0005812

0. 12350
.06878
.02934
.05722
. 16712
. 05228
.07810
.20038
. 56299
. 50744
. 08086
.06071
.07086
.11992
. 04995
.08400
. 18726
.00908
.13215
. 09670
. 05696
. 17637
.03148
.13843
.21319
. 08742
.30267
. 136,52
. 18.596
. 265,53
.02137
. 10747
. 1 16.36
.06437
.1.5470
.22471
. 15679
. 42790
. 40945
.04164
.29188
. 16626
. 2n990
.20970
.01113
. 0.5007
.21272

2.15

1.9:1
2.11
2.14

2.28

'i.'ss'

2.10

2.08
2.13
2.17
1..56

O.C0033 6 0 11093

1.56
1.96

1.75
1.47
2. 12
2^23
2.21
2.09

1.38

. 0003348
.00036-;9
.0003465

.OOOSOGa
.'6603i34

.0003.591

.00036.52
. 0003' 04
.0003(91
. 0002577

.0002.594
.0003395

.0003064
. 0002356
. 0003622
.0003697
.0003677
.0003649

. 38700
. 05425
. 040S4

.08849
. 6.564Q

.0.931

. 17458
.05660
. 20525
.0*^804

.08871
.07332

. 10141
.117.55
. 12175
.32236
. 34937
.03211

.0002266 .08292

SOME PEOPERTIES OF THE WHEAT KERNEL.

67

T^BLE 10. — Analyses cf plan s, arranjed according to xveight of average Icernel. Crop of

J903—Vonthmod.

WEIGHT OF AVERAGE KERNEL, 0.016 TO 0.018 GRAM— Continued.

Rrcord

Weight
of aver-

Num-
l;er of

Weight
of kernels

Per-
centage
of pi-o-
teid ni-
trogen
in ker-
nels.

Proteid nitrogen

(gram) in-

Percent-
age of
gliadin-
plus-glu-
tenin ni-
trogen in
kernels.

Gliadin-plus-gUi-
tenin nitrogen
(gi-am) in-

nuni.er. | ^;^^^^^y
(gram).

plant. |(g'-ams).

1
1

Average
kernel.

Kernels
on plant.

Average
kernel.

Kernels
on plant.

72MI'.. -. 0.01 718

65 1.1166

543 9. 3629

23 .4096

4.65

1.89

2.73

2.60

2.56

2.35

3.31

2 60

2.63

3.36

2.81

2.55

4.93

3.10

1.66

3.00

4.39'

2.32

2.07

3.60

1.81

0.0007988
.0003414
. 0004862
. 0004638
. 0004349
. 0003983
.0005697

0. 05192
. 18.538
.01118
. 18.507
.213.52
. 19836
.04101

7450O

74605

74607

76205

81405

8.5205

8610ii

91905

9190.i

92207

92306

92405

92407

92505

92.506

92908

.01781
.01784
.01699
.01695
.01721
.01625
.01749
.01739
.01774
.01767
.01732
. 01605
.01695
.01706
.01690

399
491
498
72
214
436

7.1181
8.3406
8. 4407
1.2391
3.4766
7.6241

0004 ''24

0')(I39

.0(W4599
. 0005844
. 0004986
. 0004.505
.0008.539
. 0004977
.0002814
.mOolIS
.0007421
.0004018
.0003343
. OOOaiOH
. (V)032'5S

.200.52
.11570
.09972
.09416

198

3.4436

200 3.. 5486

209

347

214

53

156
229
187
419
218

3.6926
6.0091
3.43.56
.8983
2.6615
3. 8709
3.2388
6. 7664
3.6977

.29625
. 10n.50
.01491
.07985

4.06

0. 0007032

0.24397

. 16993
-.07514
. 14007
.13312
.05132

94407 i .01615

94909 ' 01696

95510 , .01783 ; 1.59 | 2.83.56

95705 nifi'W 6.36 i 10.. 3426

1

2.54 ' .0004131

. 26270

1

!

Average .

.01709

305.9 5.2055

2.93 1 .0005020 1 .14618

2.07 .aH)3519 .13.548

I 1

WEIGHT OF AVERAGE KERNEL, 0.018 TO 0.020 GRAM.

17305...

17408. . .

17409...

20710...

2120"^ . .

212m;...

21207...

21306...

21711...

21809...

21SU1...

21813...

21905...

21907...

21912...

22207...

26905...

2690")...

270t)5...

27205...

27306...

27307...

27.507...

28206...

32207. . .

32608. . .

33105. . .

33107...

33405...

33906. . .

34205. . .

34203...

34208. .

34405. . ,

36905..

37305..

37705..

38005..

38,506..

38605. .

38608. .

38706..

40205..

.019^

183

.01852

497

.01857

802

.01974

867

. 01922

123

.01917

149

.019.55

118

.018.37

226

. 01968

873

.01919

418

.01982

52

.01877

216

.01809

791 i

.01851

1.58 1

.01907

510

. 01940

169

.01966

326

.018.59

228

.01895

866

.01841

891

.01945

684

.01847

167

.01833

75

.01996

219

.01822

69

.01851

55

.019.39

132

.01919

318

.01930

421

.01921

119

.01972

464

.01968

81

.01916

1.56

.01994

207

.01880

267

.01987

309

.01972

461

.01808

139

.01975

85

.01987

61

.01913

1.58

.01988

365

.01871

194

3.6302
9. 2038
14.89.57
17.1115
2.3642
2.8564
2. 3066
4. 1516
17. 1820
8.0214
1.0304
4.0258
14.3111
2.9248
9.7236
3. 2787
6.4102
4. 2376
16.4120
16.4061
13.3011
3. 08.50
1.3746
4.3698
1.2573
1.0183
2.. 5601
6. 1026
8. 1268
2.2862
9. 1498
1.5940
2.9886
4. 1281
5.0200
6. 1394
8. 0905
2.5134
1.6799
1.2124
3.0228
7. 2545
3.6302

3.03
2.18
2.75
2.83
3.16
5.23
2.96
2.90
2.71
2.73
2. 69
4.04
2.64
3.35
2.31
2.77
2.76
2.71
2.63
2.41
2.47
2. .53
3.08
3.07
3.48
3.78
2.91
2.35
2.03
2.81
2.73
3.73
2.13
4.33
3.88
2.96
2.64
2.84
2.89
5.85
2.82
2.59
4.69

0.0006010
.0004037
.0005108
. 0005586
.0006074
.0010026
. 0005766
.0(X)5327
. 0005334
. 0005238
. 0005330
. 00075S2
. 0004777
.0006201
. 0004404
. 000.5374
.000.5427
. 0005037
.00()49S1
.00O443'7
. 0004803
. 0004674
. 0005646
.0006126
.000;i341
. 0006998
.000.5611
.0004510
.0003919
.0005399
. 0005383
.0007340
.0004081
. 0008635
. 0(.K)7295
. fK)05881
. 0005327
.0005135
.000.5712
.0011627
. 0005394

.oor)5T5rs

.0008776

0.10999 !
.20065 I
.4()9ii4
.48428 !
.07471 i
.14939 ;
.06804 I
.12039
.465(13
.21898 j
.02772 '
. 16377
.37781
.09798 i
.22461
.09082 i
.17692 I
.11484 i
.43164
. 39539
. 32S.53
. 07805
.04234
. 13415
.04375
.03849
. 074.50
. 14341
. 16498
. 06424
.24979
. 0.5946
. 06366
. 17875
. 19478
. 18173
. 23998
.07138
. 04855
.07093
.08.522
.18789
. 17026

2.00

2.18

2.14
2.18
2.15

1.82
2.09
1.82
1.90
1.70

0. 0003948

.0004183

.0004017
. 0003944
. 0003980

.(XX)3531
.0004109
.0003.383
. (HX)3fi00
.0003130

0. 34222

2.42

3.50
1.92

2.44

2.29
1.26
1.23

1.73
'3.07'

.0004830

.0006787

. ooSTieS

.0004865

.0004550
. 000248.5
.0002224

.0003309
.'6065744'

. 17487

.08615
.31198
.06288

. 05967
. 13398
.07712
.31182
. 27890

. 10.575

. 07450
. 12643

. 1(M173

. 14060
.10194
.03091

. 05229
."iii45'

68

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 10. — Analyses of plants, arranged according to ireight of average Icernel. Crop of

i90<?— Continued.

WEIGHT OP AVERAGE KERNEL, 0.018 TO 0.020 GRAM— Continued.

Record
number.

42205

42905

44607

45606

46106

48106

48508

49505

50705

51005

55007

55008

55206

55306

.55507

•56106

56205

56206

57007

57306

57307

57403

57407

57507

57608

57805

58805

59605

63505

65306

65307

66008

69305

69505

72406

72607

72806

74.507

81405

81505

S4905

84906

88905

88906

92208

92408

92409

92507

92909

94205

94206

94207

94209

94406

94906

94907

94908

95506

95oOS

95706

Average .

Weight
of aver-
age
liernel
(gram).

0.01967
.01866
.01806
.01834
.01964
.01919
.01858
.01898
.01986
.01804
.01828
.01846
.01965
.01931
.01949
.01866
. 01959
.01829
.01975
.01838
.01801
.01846
.01968
. 01946
.01968
.01814
.01999
.01880
.01934
.01807
.01878
.01814
.01984
.01847
.01929
.01832
.01906
. 018fi9
.01862
. 01940
.01927
.01975
.01811
.01814 i
.01876
.01827
.01814 I
.01916 j
.01916 :
.01893
.01866
.01909
.01895
.01923
.01808
.01948 '
.01894
.018.52
.01954
.01934

fe^'i Weight

kerne s°^ l^"™'^
nn on plant

plant. (S'-^«i«)

.01901

94

67
101
220

82
608
603

67

30
862
lis
944
578
214
504
644
333
509
168
434
261
135
762
359
438
270
1,158
382
208
.544
373
174
103
255
430
188
110
493
240
146

37
382
293
546
353
207
315
505
529

64
402
718
190
549
685
626
125
597
740
267

349.6

1.8494

1.2499

1.8246

4.0358

1.6103

11.6655

11.2008

1.2716

.5958

15.5835

2. 1571

17.4226

11.3592

4. 1323

9. 8228

12.0161

6. 5232

9.3093

3.3176

7.9772

4.7117

2. 4923

14.9992

6.9861

8.6189

4. 898.8

23. 1471

7. 1828

4.0230

9. 8298

7. 0051

3. 1.555

2.0430

4.7116

8.2929

3.4442

2.0970

9.2130

4.5737

2. 8327

.7130

7.. 5438

5. 3069

9.9034

6. 6206

3. 7820

5. 7131

9.6779

10. 1363

1.2117

7.5006

13. 7057

3. 6006

10. 5556

12. 3862

12. 1918

2.3678

11.0548

14.4617

5.1629

Per-
centage
of pro-
teid ni-
trogen
in Icer-

nels.

6.6327

3.63
3.17
2.44
1.91
2.54
2.38
2.76
3.24
3.54
1.34
4.21
2.60
2.56
2.18
2.63
2.. 57
2.51
2.42

62
2.85
2. 64
2.87
2.74
2.12
1.90
2.41
2.28
3.. 59
4.42

2.
2.
5.
3.
3.
2.
2.
2.
3.
2.

2.
2.
2.97
2.30
2.58
2.70
1.65
2.78
2.86
2.49
2.47
41
94
96
74
56
73

2.88

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in —

Average
kernel.

0.0007142
.000.5447
.0004408
.0003504
.0004988
.0004567
.0005127
.0006149
.0007032
. 0002422
. 0007696
. 0004799
.0005031
.0004210
.0005126
.0004795
.0004917
.0004426
.000.5233
. 0005257
.0004387
.000.5077
.0005157
. 0005545
.0005195
.0005207
. 0005464
. 0003986
. 0003674
. 0004282
. 0004355
. 0006510
. 0008767
. 0004231
.0005689
.0010241
.0005738
.0005644
. 0004879
.0005704
.0004471
.0006773
. 0005126
.0004807
.0005102
. 0005426
.0004171
. 0004944
.0005173
.0003124
.0005187
. 000.5460
.0004719
. 0004749
.0006166
. 0005726
.0003-13
. 000.5074
.000.5003
.0005279

Kernels
on plant.

0.06713
.036.50
.044.52
.07708
.04090
. 27765
.30986
.04120
.02109
. 20881
. 09082
.45299
. 29079
.09008
. 25834
. 30881
. 16373
. 22529
.08792
. 22815
.11445
.0i:8.J4
. 39297
. 19905
. 22756
. 14060
. 63422
. 1.5228
.07644
. 23t,90
. 1,5971
.11328
.09030
. 10790
.24464
. 19253
.06312
. 27823
.11710
. 08328
.01654
. 25873
. 1.5019
. 26245
.18008
. 11233
. 13140
. 24969
. 27367
. 01999
.20851
.39199
. 08965
. 26073
. 42236
..3.5844
.04641
.30-291
. 37023
. 14095

Percent-
age of
gliadin-
plus-glu-
tenin ni-
trogen in
kernels.

Gliadin-plus-glu-
tenin nitrogen
(gram) in —

Average
kernel.

Kernels
on plant.

2.73 . 0.0005370 0.0.5049

1.80 I .0003454 .20997

2.21 I .0004040 .04767
1.58 I .0002917 i .27528
1.87 I .0003675 .21241

2.07
2.09
1.85
1.95

.0004034
.0003900
.0003624
.0003566

2.13
1.86
1.55

2.68
2.11

. 0003932
. (.X)03660
. 0003016

.0004861
. 0004218

1.68
1.81

. 0003036
.0003399

2.51

.0004598

2.65 .0005141

. 20333
.25114
. 12068
. 18153

.0.5309

. 27898
. 10828

. 13126 •
. 48839

. 16514
. 12680

i

.08645

. 07507

.0005476

.18039

2.08 1 .0003979

.15541

WEEGHT OF AVERAGE KERNEL, 0.020 TO 0.022 GRAM.

17308

17405

20706

20708

20709

20S05

0.02012
. 02127
.02033
.02024
. 02093
.02157

61
738
163
122
258
f97

1.2275
15. 6996
3.3138
2.4690
5.3229
14. 6942

3.25
2.13
2.78
2. .58
3.05
3.32

0. 0006540
.0004531
. 0005652-
.000.5221
. 000.-292
.00i),999

0. 03994
.33441

- .09212
.08399
.16235
.48784

1

1

2.05

0.0004168

0. 06793

2.31
2.26

.0004766
.0004875

. 12296
. 33208

SOME PROPERTIES OF THE WHEAT KERNEL.

G9

TiBLE 10. — Analyses of plants, arranged according to weight of average Tcernel. Crop of

iJ>'(95— Continued.

WEIGHT OF AVERAGE KERNEL, 0.020 TO 0.022 GRAM— Continued.

Record

num.^er.

Weight
of aver-
age
kernel
(gram).

Num-
ber of
kerne's

on
plant.

21212...
21305. . .
21707...
21709...
21S11...
21908. . .
21913...
22210. . .
22211...
25205. . .
26908. . .
27207. . .
27305..-
27505...
28806...
3220a...
32fOS...
33305...
33608...

33607

33905

37705

38606

39205

39405

40305

44605

44606

48409

5.5005

55506

55605

5.5908

57405

57408

58806

63106

65308

66005

69506

69806

72705

72707

73306

74305

74606

80305

81705

81706

81709

84405

88606

88608

aS609

92406

92907

95507

95509

Average .

0.02049
.02004
.02125
.02141
.02101
.0205«
.02072
.02019
.02062
.02066
.02073
.02004
.02085
.02183
.02111
.02052
.02145
.02090
.02144
.02125
.02194
.021.55
.02110
. 02089
. 02093
.02011
. 02049
.02035
. 02048
. 02028
. 02062
.02184
.02175
.02031
.02047
. 02049
.02001
.02008
.02073
. 02047
.02153
.02191
.02036
.02062
. 02047
. 02079
.02165
.02106
.02132
.02175
.02043
. 02068
. 02075
.02100
.02168
. 02040
.02029
.02136

.02085

84
312
582
361
567
173
492
298
561
522
192
166
267
539
685
507

94
150
382
136
508

56

401

1,031

447

179

55
124
314
393
866
500
562

41
596

95
165
583
370
663
558
372
225
414
216
464
729
465
722
757
428
481

74
470
380
219
571
138

386.6

Per-

,vei„nr ^f pro-
of kernels -^ ^^_

on plant tj-oeen
(grams). [^.^I^;!

nels.

1.7216

6.2514

12. 3685

7.7296

11.9114

3. 5574

10. 1925

6.0173

11.5675

10. 7836

3.9797

3.3266

5. 56li6

12.0399

14. 4630

10. 4036

2.0162

3. 1346

8. 1890

2. 8903

11.1476

1.2069

8. 4605

21.. 5399

9.3541

3.6(X)3

1.1271

2. 5235

6.4302

7.9684

17.8506

10.9180

12.2210

. 8328

12. 2004

1.94K9

3.3006

11.7066

7. 6fi90

13.5696

12.0136

9. 1522

4.5806

8. 5373

4. 4222

9.6451

15.7835

9. 7922

15. 3928

16. 4692

8.7448

9.9456

1 . 5355

9.8719

8. 2366

4. 4673

12. 1592

2.9475

8. 1267

2.16
2.67
2.19
2.47
3.75
3.82
3.01
3.17
3.17
2.71
2.96
2.92
2.58
2.12
3.02
1.81
2.88
3.41
2.21
3.22
1.61
2.34
2.63
2.11
2.88
3.11
2.86
2.90
2.02
3.05
2.80
2.64
2.42
1.98
2.61
1.88
2.79
2.09
2.63
2.. 50
1.66
2.13
3.49
2.45
1.98
2.30
1.81
1.98
2.71
2.28
2.48
2.53
2.47
2.42
3.11
2.56
2.59
2.48

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in—

2.60

Average
kernel.

0.0004427
.0005350
. 0004654
.000.5289-
.0007877
.0007855
. 0006235
. 000c)401
. 0006537
. 0005,599
.0008135
.000.58.50
.0005379
. (K)04627
. O0OH376
.0003714
.0006177
.0007126
.0004738
.0006843
.0003533
.0005053
.0005549
. 0004407
.0006027
. 0006255
.000,5861
.000.5902
.0004137
.0006185
.0005773
.0005765
.(X)05262
. 0004022
. 000,5343
.0003853
.000.5.581
.0004197
.0005451
.0005117
.0003574
.00046(58
.0007105
.00050,52
.0004054
. 0004781
. 0003919
.0004170
. 000.5778
.0004960
.(X)05067
.000.5231
.0005125
.0005082
.000.,741
.0005220
.000.5515
.0005297

.000.5422

Kernels
on plant.

0.03718
. 16691
. 27086
. 19092
. 44666
. 13589
.30680
. 19075
.36671
. 28560
. 11780
.09712
. 14362
. 24942
. 43679
. 18831
.05807
. 10S89
. 18098
.09307
. 17948
.02824
. 22251
. 45435
. 21399
.11197
.03223
.07318
. 12989
. 24.303
. 4995
. 28823
.29575
.01649
.31842
. 03660
.09208
. 24468
. 20170
.3.3923
. 19943
. 19936
.1.5986
.20918
.08756
. 22184
.28569
. 19388
.41715
. 37548
. 21687
.25162
.03793
. 23890
.25616
.11436
.31492
.07310

Percent-
age of
gliadin-
plus-glu-
t.enin ni-
trogen in
kernels.

. 20510

1.97

Gliadin-plus-glu-
tenin nitrogen
(gram) in —

Average
kernel.

0. 0003948 0. 12315

Kernels
on plant.

2.16
1.88

1..55
1.69

2. 16
1.95
1.73
l.(:5
1.86

2.41
2.' 4,5"

1.39
1.84
1.44

1.29
1.50
1.99
2.20
1.96
1.96

1.92

. 0004538
. 0003955

.0003129
.0003485

.0004478
. 0003908
. 0003607
. 0003602
.0003926

.0005037
.066526(3"

.0002933
. 0003844
.0003014

.0002625
.0003072
. 0004036
. 0004536
. 0004281
.0004263

. 0003999

WEIGHT OF AVERAGE KERNEL, 0.0:2 TO 0.024 GRAM.

17307,
17410.
20707
21706
21708
21806
21909
21911

0.02279
.02285
.02282
.02.390
.02381
.02378
.02317
.02209

138
744
444
807
390
599
525
383

3. 14.54
16.9987

9.9070
19.3318

9. 2850
14. 2450
12.1819

8.4593

3.46
2.88
2.77
4.71
2.33
2.71
4.43
5.48

0. 0007886
.0001)580
.0008181
.0011283
.000.5.547
.0006444
.0010265
.0012103

. 25728
. 06688

.09327
. 19548

.08596
.06487
. 09630
. 19866
. 26901

.07554
.'67081'

.11760
. 39635
. 13470

.03255
.09(,45
. 1.5857
.39272
.21400
. 23953

1.64 I .0003357 1 .20008

2.20 .0004402 .072('l
1.95 1 .0003916 .22828
2.18 ' .00045;9 . 16714

2.05 ■ .0004262 .19772

1.77 i .0003832 .27937

1.96 .0004128 : .19193

2.03 '• .0004328 i .31248

. 17351

70

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table \0.— Analyses of jdants, arranged according to weight of average 'kernel. Crop of

i90.i— Continued.

WKIGHT OF AVERAGK KERNEL, J.022 TO 0.024 GRAM-Coutinued.

llccord
iuiui.:er.

Weight
of aver-
age
kernel
(gram).

25206

2ol0i>

26805

26807

27506

27508

27509

32f0o

33407

33605

34207

34(06

38.505

38609

42405

43405

48507

55308

55606

56207

56208

57606

57607

63107

65305

69805

71905

72708

73307

73308

81707

81710

88607

91305

Average .

0. 02281
.02304

.02248
. 02390
. 02252
. 02287
. 02206
. 02323
. 02271
. 02345
. 02219
.02213
.02252
.02309
.02251
.02258
. 02296
.02395
.02205
. 02361
. 02356
. 02333
. 02234
.02233
.02310
.02220
.02239
. 02270
. 02229
.02291
. 02336
. 02308
. 02205
. 02242

. 02285

Weight

Ver-

centage

of pro-

Nuin-

l:erof ,,fkcniels ^'.P™:

k«™«l« on plant !^"1 "^

(grams) .

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in—

on
plant

in icer-
iiels.

Average
kernel.

205

90
220
721
444
251
243
225
305
301
611
280
563
293

66
124

70
397
503
462
563
132
736
417

78

110

1,260

398

25
624
786
396
234
138

388.1

4.6754

2.0737

4.9456

17. 2324

10.0005

5. 5324

5.3615

5. 2268

7.0889

7.0596

13.5556

6. 1962

12. 1088

6.7665

1.4892

2.8000

1.6036

9.5078

11.0930

10.9073

13. 5720

3.0790

16.4433

9.3120

1.8018

2.4420

28.2136

9.0386

. 5572

14.2986

18.3614

9.1411

5. 1584

3.0940

8.8879

2.76
2.63
2.81
2.80
2.70
2.64
2.90
1.20
1.62
2.39
2.84
3.12
3.61
2.74
3.07
2.92
2.64
2.54
2. .58
2.34
2.61
2.74
1.73
2.43
4.92
5.82
2.47
2.27
2.39
2.92
2.34
1.92
2.61
3.21

0.0006295
.0006060
.0006317
. 0006692
.0006082
.0006037
.0006399
.0002788
.0003679
.0005605
. 0006273
. 0006904
. 0007764
.0006475
.0006927
.0006594
.0006062
.0006225
. 0005690
. 0005524
.0006149
.(I(H1H391
. 0003865
.0005426
.0011365
.0012921
.000.5.531
.00051.54
. 0005327
.0006539
. 0005466
.0(X)*432
. 0005754
. 0007197

Kernels
on plant.

Percent-
age of
pliadin-
pluF-glu-
tenin ni-
trogen in
kernels.

Oliadin-piu.-'-glu-
tenin ni.^rogen
(gram; in —

Average
kernel.

Kei'nrjs
on plant.

0. 12904
.0.5454
. 13897
. 48250

!

.27003
. 14608
. 1.5,549
. 06272

i . 98 6. 66644.59 6. i9866

2.32 .000.5306 .12835
1.09 .0002405 .0.-844

.11223

. 16872

.38.505

19332

i.'92" "."6064.562'

. i3554

.43713
. 18540
. 04572
.08176
.04233
.241.50
. 28580
. 25522
..34616
.0843.)
.248'i7
. 22628
.088i.5
.14''13
. 69fi88
.20-18
.01332
.41 ",52

1.77 .0003986
1.34 .0003094

.21432
.09067

1.18 .6662664

.03304

1

i.49 .6662669
1.83 1 .0004321
1.95 .0004594

. 16529
. 199t0
. 26465

1.94 1 .0004.307

. 04738

.4291:5
. 1~.5.50

. 13-163

.09932

I

2.90

.0006624

. 25166

.747

.0004011

. 15515

WKIGHT UE AVERAGE KERNEL, 0.024 TO 0.026 GRAM.

17506

21807

21906

27206

28805

37905

40505

48305

55907

72706

81708

92206

94105

Average

0. 02460

93

. 02498

377

.02.563

408

.02469

777

. 02512

87

.02555

37

.02444

170

. 02543

473

.02590

749 ;

.02484

591 1

.02578

287

.02407

46

.02543

2?

2.2881

9.4172

10.4800

19. 1854

2.1851

.9452

4. 1546

12.0278

19.3966

14. 6802

7.3993

1.1074

.5,595

.02511 316.7

7.9866

3.52

2

73

3

18

2.36

2

91

2.53

2

82

2

87

2

59

3

86

2

41

2

67

2

67

2

86

0.0008660
.0006664
.0008168
.000.5827
.0007309
. fX)06463
. 0()0(iS92
. 0007299
. 0006707
. 0009588
.0006213
. 0006^128
. 0006790

0.08044
. 25709
. 33403

.45276
. 063.59
.02391
.11716
. 34524
. 50'^38
. 56666
. 17833
. 02957
.01494

2.23 I 0.0005486 0.05102

2.11
2.10
1.46
1.55

. 0005271
. 0005382
.0003(05
.0003894

, 19870
. 22008
.280 10
.0.3387

2.19
1.77
1.61

.000.53.52
. 0004.501
.0004170

.09099
.2r2i-9
.31229

1.64

. 0004228

,1213.-

.0007154

. 22816

1.85

. 0004654 . 16903

WEIGHT OF AVERAGE KERNEL, 0.026 GRAM AND OVER.

21211 1 0.02806

21705 1 .02659

39,506 ; .02869

49905 ! .029,39

55608 02699

55909 03050

.57.508 • .03177

58505 ' .02730

724(l-> 03963

10

0.2,806

3. 15

58

1.5420

2.45

67

1.9218

2.93

23

. 6760

3.62

837

22.. 5848

2.31

302

9.2120

2. 30

380

12.0728

2.21

273

7.4516

2. 95

213

8.4415

3.36

0. 000S839
.0006514
.0008^04
.0010(UO
. 0006236
.(KHrOHi
.0007021
. 0(K)8052
.0013316

0. 00884
.03778
.0.5631
. 02-136
.,52194
.21187
. 26680
.219,S2
. 28363

Average .

.02988 240.3

7.2425

2.81 .0008449

, 18126

!

2.66 6.666.5915 6.03959

i

: l.(i6 ! .000.-)0(!3
' 2.05 1 .000(^513

1

.1,5292
. 24750

1

1.92 .0(X),5.S29

. 14667

SOME PROPERTIES OF THE WHEAT KERNEL.

71

Table 11. — Sunnnary of analyses of plants, arranged according to weight of average 'kernel.

Crop of 1903.

Per-
cent-

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in —

Per
cent-
age of

glia-

Glia din-pl u s-
glutenin nitro-
gen (gram)tn —

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
• nel
(gram).

Range of
weights of

Num-
ber of

Num-
ber of
kernels.

Weight
of ker-

age of
pro-

din-
plus-

average kernel
(gram).

analy-
ses.

nels
(grams).

teid ni-
trogen

Average

Ker-

glu-
tenin

Average

Ker-

in ker-

kernel.

nels.

nitro-

kernel.

nels.

■

nels.

gen m
ker-
nels.

0 000 to 0 010....

4

0. 00915

219

2. 0334

2.76

0.0002528

0.05618

1.97

0. 0001877

0.05312

0.010 to 0.012....

6

.01118

179

2.0187

2.98

. 0003326

.06276

2.69

. 0002968

. 067.52

0.012 to 0.014....

19

.01323

155. 7

2.0510

3.12

. 0004120

. 06687

1.98

. 0002641

. 07499

0 014 to 0.016....

27

.01516

232

3. 5480

3.00

. 0004555

. 10619

1.76

. 0002805

. 09320

0 016 to 0 018....

69

.01709

305.9

5. 2055

2.93

.0005020

. 14618

2.07

.0003519

. 13548

0 018 to 0 020....

103

.01901

349. 6

6. 6327

2.88

. 0005476

.18039

2.08

.000.3979

. 15541

0 020 to 0.022....

64

.02085

386. 6

8. 1257

2.60

.0005422

. 20510

1.92

.0003999

. 17351

0 022 toO 024....

42

. 02285

388. 1

8. 8879

2.90

.0006624

. 25166

1.74

.0004011

. 15515

0.024 to 0.026 ...

13

.02511

316.7

7.9866

2.86

.00071.54

.22816

1.85

.0004654

. 16903

0.026 and over..

9

. 02988

240. 3

7. 2425

2.81

.0008449

.18126

1.92

. 000.5829

. 14667

With an increase in the weight of the kernel, as shown by this
table, there is an irregular increase in the number of kernels on the
plant up to a point somewhat beyond the kernel of average weight,
after which there is a decrease. The weight of the kernels on the
plant seems to follow the same rule. The percentage of proteid
nitrogen in the kernels decreases, in general, with the w^eight of the
a^^erage kernel, while the number of grams of proteid nitrogen in
the average kernel increases steadily. The grams of proteid nitro-
gen in all the kernels on the plant increase up to the same point as
do the number of kernels on the plant, and then decrease.

Table 12 shows the summary of the analyses of the crop of 1903,
arranged according to the grams of proteid nitrogen in the average
kernel. All plants having less than 0.0003 gram of proteid nitro-
gen form the first class, and the following classes increase wdth each
0.0001 gram of proteid nitrogen.

It is difficult to trace any relation betw^een the grams of proteid
nitrogen in tho aveiage kerne] and the number of kernels on the plant,
or the weight of the kernels on the plant. The weight of the average
kernel increases directly with the grams of proteid nitrogen in the
kernel. The percentage of proteid nitrogen increases regularly
with an increase in the grams of proteid nitrogen in the average
kernel. The grams of proteid nitrogen in all the kernels on the plant
show no definite relation to the grams of proteid nitrogen in the
average kernel.

It becomes evident from these results that selection of large,
heavy kernels for seed would result in discarding the immature
and unsound kernels, but that there would also be discarded many
sound kernels, which, although small and of low specific gra^•ity,
would contain a high percentage of proteids.

72

improvijStg the quality of wheat.

Another effect of such selection, as indicated by the foregoing
results, would be to increase the yield of grain from each plant
when grown under the conditions that obtained in these experi-
ments. What the effect would be upon the yield under ordinary
field conditions these experiments do not indicate.

On the other hand, selection based upon percentage of proteid
nitrogen alone would not result in securing plants of greatest yield
when raised under these conditions. It would, moreover, not result
in obtaining plants producing the greatest amount of proteid nitro-
gen, nor even of kernels containing the largest quantity of proteid

nitrogen.
Table 12.-

-Summary of analyses of plants, arranged according to grams of proteid nitrogen
in average kernel. Crop of 1903.

Range of proteid nitrogen in
average kernel (gram).

Below 0 00030 .. .
0.00030 to 0.00040
0.00040 to 0 00050
0.00050 too 00060
0.00060 to 0 0(X)70
0.00070 to 0.(K)080
0.00080 to 0.00090
0.00090 to 0.00100
0.00100 and over.

Proteid

nitrogen

in average

kernel

(gram).

Num-
ber of
analy-
ses.

Number
of ker-
nels on
plant.

Weight (in grams)
of—

0. 0002.509
. 0003602
. 0004537
. 0005406
. 0006409
. 0007430
. 0008538
. 0009588
.0011578

14

42

80

116

59

24

9

1

11

257.9
266.7
409.2
341.5
310. 3
204.9
189.1
591.0
244.9

Kernels
on plant.

3. 9190
4. 6742
7. 5309
6. 7159
6. 7257
4.5158
4.2480
14. 6802
6. 6082

Average
kernel.

0.01.364
.01628
.01811
.01908
.02137
.02110
.02334
. 02484
.02875

Percent-
age of
I)roteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

1.96
2.31
2.54
2.86
3.07
3.66
3.79
3.86
4.62

Proteid
rutrogeri
in ker-'
nels on
plant
(gram).

0. 06531
. 09644
.18644
.18440
. 19805
. 15318
.15944
. 56666
. 27980

It will be shown later that the determination of gliadin-plus-glutenin
nitrogen is a safer guide to the bread-making value of wheat than is
a determination of proteid nitrogen, but whether selection should bB
based upon the percentage of nitrogen or the total production of
nitrogen by the plant, or upon the amount contained in the average
kernel, is a question that can not be solved except by trial under field
conditions.

wSome results of experiments with light and with heavy seed con-
ducted on large field plots for several years may throw some light
on this subject, and are given herewith.

YIELD OF NITROGEN PER ACRE.

It is important to know whether the absolute amount of nitro-
gen per acre of grain raised is greater in light or in heavy wheat.

If the absolute amount of nitrogen per acre is less in light than
in heavy wheat the supposition would be justifiable that the kernels
were immature or had been prematurely checked in their develop-
ment. On the other hand, if the amount of nitrogen per acre is
greater in the light wheat it would be reasonable to suppose that, as
both had been raised under the same conditions, the light wheat had,
in part at least, come from plants that possessed greater ability to
acquire and elaborate nitrogenous material.

YIELD OF NITKOGEN PER ACRE.

73

To afford information on this point analyses were made of crops
grown from light and from heavy seed. Records of the yields of the
plots were kept in each case so that the actual amount of proteid
nitrogen contained in an acre of each kind of wheat can be calculated.
The number of grams of proteid nitrogen in 1,000 kernels of each seed
and crop sample is also stated. The first samples separated, Nos. 78
and 79 of the Turkish Red variety and 80 and 81 of the Big Frame
variety, were taken from seed that had never before been treated
in this wa3^ When planted they produced the crops indicated in-
Table 13 by 78b, 79b, 80b, and 81b, respectiveh^. Each of these
crops was then separated into two portions, of which the light portion
of the light wheat was retained for analyzmg and planting, and the
heavy portion of the heavj' wheat likewise retained. Thus No. 383
is the light portion of No. 78b, and No. 384 is the hea^n,^ portion of
No. 79b.

The accuracy of the records of relative yields of light and heavy
seed harvested in 1902 being open to suspicion, samples of the same
seed were sown again in the autumn of 1902 and harvested in 1903.
The results from this test are stated at the bottom of the table under
the heading ''Check experiment."

These experiments are to be understood as duplicating those of
1902, which, as regards the relative peld of light and heavj* wheat,
should be accurate, although tried ill 1903. The difference between
this check experiment and the regular one of 1903 is that in the
check experiment the seed of the crop of 1901 was used, while in the
regular experiment m 1903 the seed of the crop of 1902 was used.

Table 13. — Crops grown from light and from heavy seed for four years.

SEED.

Farm
num-
ber.

Variety.

Percentage of—

Weight of Proteid

Total Proteid
nitrogen, nitrogen.

Non-
proteid
nitrogen.

Relative
weight.

78

Turkish Red

17.24 '...

Light.
Heavy

79

do . . .

30.63

80

81

383

Big Frame

do

Turkish Red

2.45
2.20
3.12
3.02
3.13
2.95

2.00 0.45
1.96 . .24
3.10 .02

15.57 0.3120
28..56 .5606
27.11 : .8401
28.47 .8350
27.11 1 .7642
28.09 .7446

Light. '

Heavy.

Light,

Heavy.

Light.

Heavy.

Light.

384
385

do

Big Frame

2.93
2.82
2.65

.09
.31
.30

386

do

Turkish Red

do

Big Frame

Light.
Heavy

do

957

Turkish Red

3.33
3.06

2.88

2.87 , .46
2.86 ' .20
2.63 ! .25

Light.
Heavy

956

do

Big Frame

do

952

Light".
Heavy.

Light.
Heavy.

953

CHECK EXPERIMENT.

Turkish Red

do

1

Big Frame

Light.

do

Heavy.

\

74

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 13. — Crops grown from light and from heavy seed for four years — Continued.

CROP.

o

Variety.

Yield per acre
(bushels).

Weight per bushel
(pounds).

Percentage

3f—

Proleid nitrogen
per acre (pounds).

SX

c3

<w be
0 ^^

- iS

0 0

Proteid nitrogen
in 1,000 kernels
(gram).

d

c

■s^

Fann number
seed.

1
0

+^

0

g

•iH

s

■a

c'S

E

d

78
79

Turkish Red

.do

23.0

29.5

20.5

25.1

26.7

29.3

21.2

27.7

19.7

18.0

Losi.

Lost.

25.6
21.3
25.8
20.8

30.9
31.8
23.9
24.2

"60." .5'
61.5
58.0
60.5
57.0
58.0

3.20

3.08
3.13
2.81
2.35
2.11
3.30
2.46
2.15
1.98
3.54
2.44

3.09
2.94
3.06
2. .59
2.13
1.94
3.06
2.24
2.14
1.87
3.32
2.21

3.51
2.18

2.14
1.98

1.95
1.64
1.79
1.62

0.11
.14
.07
.22
.22
.17
.24
.22

!oi
.11
.22

.23

45.54
52.04
37.63
39.01
34.12
34.11
38.92
37.22
25.29
20.20

53.91
27.86
33. 13
24.71

36. .34
31.29
25.67
23.52

1900
1900
1900
1900
1901
1901
1901
1901
1902
1902
1902
4902

1903
1903

1903
1903

1903
1903
1903
1903

78b

25.10

'24.'84"
26.19
27.04
23.89
28.82

0. 7379

".'6423"
. 5581
.5238
.7409
.6451

79b

80

Big Frame

80b

81

. .do

Sib

383
384

Turkish Red

. .do

612
613

385

Big Frame . . .'.

602

386

do

603

Turkish Red

do

Big Frame

621

614

19.56
26.41

12.12
23.13
19.82
23.26

.6494
.5837

.7764
.5042
.4241
. 4605

604

do

Turkish Red

do

Big Frame

do

CHECK EXPERIMENT.

Turkish Red

do

Big Frame

do

611

957

1340

956

1239

952

1248

953

12-19

124.5

1243

12.-2

12.^4

Comparing the analyses of the hght and heavy seed in this table
with those in the preceding tables, it will be noticed that the tot'al
and proteid nitrogen are both uniformly higher in the light seed.
The nonproteid nitrogen is not so uniform as in the previous analyses,
but the general tendency is the same.

In the crop the high total and proteid nitrogen of the light seed is
uniformly transmitted. There is no uniformity in the nonproteid
nitrogen. As was to be expected, the heaA^y seed produced in the
first two years the largest yields per acre. The quality of light or
heavy weight as indicated in the resulting crop by weight of grain
per bushel gave some indication of being transmitted. In 1900
there was an absence of data on the subject, but in 1901 the heavy
seed in each case produced grain having a greater weight per bushel
than did the light seed.

Turning to the column showing the absolute amount of proteid
nitrogen produced per acre, it is very apparent that the heavy seed
produced in 1900 considerably larger amounts of proteid nitrogen
per acre than did the light seed, but in 1901 the difference was very
slightly in favor of the light whea't, which advantage continued
with the light wheat during the remaining years.

YIELD OF NITROCIEN PER ACRE, 75

It would seem from these results that the quality of lightness,
with its correlated qualities of high total and proteid nitrogen, is
hereditary. The question then arises, Why should the light wheat
accumulate more nitrogen per acre than the heavy wheat after the
first generation ?

A possible explanation for this is that the light seed from the fii'st
preneration contained kernels whose lightness was due in some cases
to immaturity, and in other cases to the individual peculiarity of the
plant on which they grew. The latter class transmitted this pecul-
iarity in the crop, while the former became less conspicuous with
each generation, on account of the lesser vitality and productiveness
of the immature seed.

A peculiar feature of these results is found in the fact that the
yield of grain from the light seed approaches each succeeding year
more nearly in quantity to that obtained from the heavy seed until,
in 1903, it becomes greater. These two qualities of seed were
raised on plots side by side, and every precaution was taken to obtain
an accurate estimate of the yield of each. While it is probable that
the results for 1903 are misleading, it is certainty significant that so
little difference in yield exists after three years' selection in this way.
Instead of the difference between the light and heavy seed becoming
greater each year it is without doubt becoming less.

In considering the relative yields of the light and heavy wheat, it
must be borne in mind that the seeding was done with a drill set to
deliver 1^ bushels per acre of ordinary seed wheat. The result
would be to deposit a larger number of kernels of light seed per acre
than of heavy seed. In a season like that of 1903, when the rainfall
was large and the weather moderately cool until harvest, there
might be an advantage resulting from the thicker seeding, which
may account for the greater yield from the light seed in that year.

It is possible that the same cause ma}' have operated in other
years to increase the yields from the light seed, but it is not likely
that it produced a very marked effect, because the seeding was a large
one for Nebraska, and, the wheat being sown in the ear\j fall, there
was abundant opportunity for it to stool, and thus equalize the stand.
It has never been observed that there was any difference between
the plots in this respect.

Taking, together, the results of 1902, which show a decrease in
the weight of the kernels on a single head as the content of proteid
nitrogen increases, the results of 1903, which show a slight decrease
in the weight of the kernels from the plant, accompanying an increase
in the percentage of proteid nitrogen, and the yields of the light and
heav}^ seed for the four years beginning with 1900, there would
appear to be a plight decrease in yield of grain, accompanying an
increase in the percentage of proteid nitrogen. This loss in yield is

76 IMPEOVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

not siifRcient to counteract the increase in nitrogen, and the result
is to increase the production of proteids per acre.

Viewed in the hght of these various experiments, the selection of
large, heavy wheat kernels for seed does not appear to be altogether
unobjectionable, as in this case it resulted in a decreased production of
proteids per acre, without a compensating increase in the yield of grain,
when contmued for a numbei of years. On the other hand, the selec-
tion of the small, light seed is hardly to be recommended. In fact,
selection based upon kernel size or weight is not a satisfactory method
for permanently improving wheat. The individual plant should be
taken as the basis for selection, and very large numbers should be
handled. The figures in Table 8 show what great opportunity there
is for securing not only kernels of high nitrogen content, but also
plants giving at the same time an increased yield of grain and abun-
dant production of proteids. If the average nitrogen content and
yield of grain b}" plants be observed in this table, it will be seen
that numerous plants may be selected that have not onty a nitrogen
content above the average, but also a greater yield of grain. While,
therefore, it is probable that improvement in yield of grain can not
be effected so rapidly where it is combined with improvement in
nitrogen content as if the latter were neglected, yet present yields
of wheat in Nebraska can be increased at the same time that the
production of proteids is augmented.

METHOD FOR SELECTION TO INCREASE THE QUANTITY OF
PROTEIDS IN THE KERNEL.

The following tables show the results of analyses of a total of
forty-eight spikes of wheat. In the case of each spike one row of
spikelets, for instance, row No. 1, was analyzed, and the other row
of spikelets, which would then be row No. 2, was analj'^zed sepa-
rately. In the case of the set of spikes forming Table 14 the total
organic nitrogen was determined in both lots, and in the set com-
prised by Table 15 the proteid nitrogen was determined. The last
column shows the difference between the nitrogen content of the two
rows of kernels.

SELECTION TO INCREASE PEOTEIDS IN KERNEL.

77

Table 14. — Analyses of twenty-jive spikes of wheat, showing their total organic nitrogen.

Numl^er of spike.

1.
2

z'.

7.

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
1.5.
Itj.
17.

Percentage of total organic
nitrogen.

Kow 1. I Row 2.

3.14
2.97
2.89
2.99
2.89

2.85
3.26
2.94
3.45

I Difler-

3.32
3.15
2.99
3.21
2.82
2.81
2.76
3.11
3.18
2.80
2.79
3.07
3.07
3.67

ence.

0.18
.18
.10
.22
.07
.01
.26
.02
.07
.04
.06
.19
.13
.22

Number of spike.

18.

99

23.
24.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.

Average .

Percentage of total organic
nitrogen.

Row 1. Row 2.

2.83
2.78
2.94
2.98
3.00
2.84
3.03
2.65
2.62
3.02
3.02

2.79
2.76
3.03
2.89
3.08
2.67
2.90
2.79
2.84
3.18
2.80

Differ-
ence.

0.04
.02
.09
.09
.08
.17
.13
.14
.22
.16

99

.12

Table 15. — Analyses of twenty-three spikes of wheat, showing their percentage of proteid

nitrogen.

Percentage of proteid

Percentage of proteid

nitrogen.

Number of spike.

nitrogen.

Number of spike.

Row 1.

Row 2.

Differ-
ence.

Row 1.

Row 2.

Difier-
ence.

4

2.90

3.12

0.22

,34

2.86

3.02

0.16

5 - -

2.97

2.86

.11

! 35

2.33

2.52

.19

20

2.68

2.79

.11

36

2.88

2.85

.03

21

2.54

2.76

.22

37

2.43

2.45

.02

25

2.42

2.53

.11

38

3.15

3.14

.01

26

2.42

2.50

.08

39

3.46

■ 3.34

.12

27

3.01

2.91

.10

'40

2.45

2.59

.14

28

2.35

2.71

.36

' 41

2.73

2.68

.05

29

2.72

2.75

.03

42

3.42

3.61

.19

30

2.49

2.44
3.09

.05

.17

43

2.47

2.57

.07

31

2.92

32

2.60

2.48

.12

Average

2.77

2.82

.11

33

3.41

3.37

.04

1

It will readily be seen that the analyses of the rows agree very
closely, the extreme difference being 0.22 per cent, and the average
diiference being 0.12 per cent, in the total nitrogen. If, therefore,
one row of spikelets were to be used for seed and the other were
analyzed, it is quite evident that a very accurate estimate of the
nitrogen content of the kernels used for seed would be obtained. In
the determination of proteid nitrogen there is an extreme difference
of 0.36 per cent in one case, but in the main the differences are small.
As will be shown later, the variation in the proteid nitrogen content
of individual plants is so great that even this maximum difference
would cause no confusion when selecting plants for reproduction.

It is very desirable to have for analysis a larger sample than can
be obtained from one spike. It has therefore been attempted to
ascertain whether a sample consisting of one-half the whole number
of spikes on a plant would afford a fair estimate of the composition
of the other kernels on the remainder of the spikes. The plants
whose spikes were analyzed were grown in hills 5 inches apart

78

IMPKOVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

each way, with one seed in each hill. Each plant was harvested
separately and the spikes from each placed in a separate envelope.
The following table gives the results, lot 1 in each case being com-
posed of the kernels from one-half the number of spikes on a plant,
and lot 2 of kernels from the remaining spikes.

Table 16. — Analyties of twenty-one plants, slwvnng total nitrogen and proteid nitrogen.

1

Number of plant.

Percentage of total nitrogen.

Percentage of proteid
nitrogen.

Lotl.

Lot 2. ^:

Lot 1.

Lot 2.

Differ-
ence.

1

2.65
3.01
3.01
2.82
3.06
2.94
2.84
3.21
2.98
2.59
2.81
3.47
2.61
2.54
2.71
2.85
2.99
2.78
2.78
2.79

2.91
3.02
2.83
3.10
2.97
2.56
3.03
3.05
2.87
2.66
2.62
3.62
2.54
2.46
2.87
3.01
3.13
2.77
2.80

0.26
.01
.24
.28
.09
.38
.19
.16
.11
.07
.19
.15
.07
.08
.16
.16
.14
.01
.02

2.51
2.77
2.69
2.63
2.92
2.51
2.66
2.83
2.59
2.34
2.59
3.04
2.44
2.25
2.25
2.73
2.85
2.61
2.60
2.51

2.69
2.76
2. .57
2.83
2.70
2.42
2.86
2.84
2.70
2.57
2.52
3.35
2.42
2.29
2.71
2.75
2.91
2.33
2. .57

0.18
.01
.12
.20
.22
.09
.20
.01
.11
.23
.07
.31
.02
.04
.46
.02
.06
.28
.03

2

3

4

5

6

7

9

10

11

12 ■

13 .

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

2.71 1 .08

2.48 .03

1 .14

!

1

.13

1

1

The above table shows a maximum difference of 0.38 per cent in
the content of total nitrogen of the two lots of spikes from one plant,
and of 0.46 per cent in the content of proteid nitrogen. The aver-
age difference is only 0.14 per cent and 0.13 per cent, respectively.

These tables give unmistakable evidences that the average com-
position of a spike of wheat may be judged from the analysis of a
row of its spikelets, and that the average composition of all of the
spikes of a wheat plant is shown by an analysis of one-half the num-
ber. In practice it is better to take as the sample for anal3-sis one
row of spikelets from each spike, and the remaining row of spikelets
from each spike for planting.

In order to ascertain what variation occurs between the several
spikes on a single wheat plant, analyses were made of each spike
from a number of plants. On some plants there were more spikes
than on others, but every spike on each plant was analyzed. In the
following tabulation of these analyses the percentage of proteid
nitrogen is stated.

SELECTION TO INCREASE PROTEIDS IN KERNEL.

79

Table 17. — Analyses of spikes of wheat, showing difference in froteid nitrogen.

Spike.

Percentage oi proteid nitrogen.

Plant 23.

Plant 24.

Plant 25.

Plant 26.

Plant 27.

Plant 29.

1.
2.
3.
4.

2.33
2.69
2.37
2.36
2.15
2.31
2.09
2.71
2.32
2.37

2.46
2.73
2.35
2.11
2.19
2.21
2. .53

2.31
2.36
2.47
2. .59
2.35
2.39
2.39
2.60
2.54
2.83

2.73
3.02
2.80
2.60
2.53
2.37
2.72
2.37
2.61
2.45

3.22
3.24
3.02
3.31

2.38
2.60
3.03
3.00
2.34
2.71
2.21

6.
7.
8.
q

2.60
2.30

10.

Maximum

Average

Minimum

Greatest dif-
ference

2.69
2.37
2.09

.60

2.73
2.37
2.11

.62

2.83
2.4S
2.31

.52

3.02
2.62
2.37

.65

3.31
3.20
3.02

.29

3.03
2.57

2.21

.82

These results show that there may be large differences between
the proteid nitrogen content of spikes on the same plant. They do
not, however, indicate that the determination of the average com-
position of the kernels on a plant is not a safe guide for selecting
breeding stock. If the plant is the unit in reproduction, whether the
plant reproduces itself from one seed or another does not affect its
hereditary qualities in very marked degree.

It is evident, from a comparison of the variations that occur in the
composition of the spikes from a single plant, and of the kernels on a
single spike, that it is impossible to do more than obtain a reasonably
close estimate of the composition of the kernels either on a part or on
the whole of a plant. It therefore becomes desirable to obtain as
closely as possible the average composition of the unit of reproduction.
If the plant as a whole, and not any particular part, is this unit, the
average composition of all of the kernels on the plant is a much, safer
guide as a basis for selection than is the average composition of the
kernels of any part of it. One row of spikelets from each spike
should therefore give the best sample for analysis.

In Table 18 is given a statement of the percentage of proteid
nitrogen in the dry matter of the kernels on a row of spikelets of 800
spikes of wheat of the Turkish Red variety. These spikes were taken
from a field of wheat, and were selected with reference to length of
head, plumpness of kernel, uprightness of straw, freedom from rust,
etc. They are therefore not spikes in which high nitrogen content is
likely to be due to immaturity or arrested development." Variations
in the nitrogen content of different plants may in some degree be due
to a larger or smaller supply of available nitrogen, although all were
taken from the same field. Variations due to climate are, of course,
precluded, as all grew during the same season.

« In practice undeveloped kernels are discarded.

80

IMPKOVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 18. — Variations in content ofproteids.

Percentage of—

Record
number.

Percentage of —

Record
number.

Percentage of —

Record
number.

Proteid
nitrogen
in water-
free
material.

Proteids
(proteid
N.X5.7).

Proteid
nitrogen
in water-
free
material.

Proteids
(proteid

N.X5.7).

Proteid
nitrogen
in water-
free
material.

Proteids

(proteid

N. X5.7).

1

2.25
3.04
2.45
3.14
2.86
2.83
3.67
3.42
2.36
2.28
2.98
3.51
3.63
2.48
2.30
3.48
3.55
3.31
2.30
2.52
2.93
3.25

12.82
17.33
13.96
17.90
16.30
16.13
20.92
19.49
13.45
13.00
16.99
20.01
20.69
14.14
13.11
19.84
20.23
18. 87
13.11
14.36
16.70
18.52

78

3.40
3.33
3.79
3.63

2.68

19.38
18.98
21.60
20.69
15.28

155

1.99
3.03
2.07
2.75
2.82
3.06
2. .54
3.33
2.73
2.47
3.22
2.80

11 .37

2

79

156

17 20

3

80

157

11 87

4

81

158

■ 15 64

5

82

159

16 07

6

83

160

17 44

7

84

2.46
2.62

2.87
2.89
2.44
3.56
3.76

14.02
14.93
16.49
16.86
13.91
20.29
21.43

161

14 48

8

85

162

18 98

9 '.

86

163

15 56

10

87

164. . .

14 08

11 . .

88

165

18.35
15 96

12

89

166...

167

13

90

91 . .

14

168

169

170.

3.59
2.52
2.72
3.28
2.74
3.07
3.75
3.46
3.09
3.56

20 46

15 . .

92

93

94

3.41
2.30

19.44
13.11

13.72
15 .50

16

17

1 171

18 70

18

95

172.

15 62

19

96

97.

98

2.75
4.07
3.28
3.24
2.15
3.12
3.00
2.87
3.58
2.61
2.01
2.68
3.10
2. .58
2.76
4. .30
2.89
2.59
2.68
1.71
2.59
3.31

15.67
23.20
18. 70
18.47
12.25
17.78
17.10
16.36
20.41
14.88
11.46
15.28
17.67
14.71
15.73
24.51
16.47
14.67
15.28
9.75
14.75
18.87

173

17 54

20

174 . .

21 43

21

175

176

177

178

19 74

22

99..

17 67

23

100

20 34

24

2.84
2.73
3.55
2.33
2.65
2.82
2.70
1.84
3.10
2.86
2.16
2.58
3.22
3.49
2.76
2.96
2.86
3.50
3. 05
2.88
2.75
2.61
2. .50
3.10
3.17
2.86
2.80
3.65
2.88
3.21
2.96
3.84
3.38
3.11
3.21
3.06
3.02
1.78
2.67
3.39
2.49
2.58
2.12
2.64
2.46
2.35
2.93
2.32
2.20
2.58
2.58
3.22'

16.19
15.56
20.23
13.28
15.11
16.07
15.39
10.49
17.67
16.30
12.31
14.71
18.35
19.89
15.73
16.87
16.30
19.95
17.38
16.42
15.67
14.88
14.25
17.67
18.07
16.30
15.96
20.80
16.42
18. 30
16.87
21.89
19.27
17.73
18. .30
17.44
17.21
10.13
15.22
19.32
14.19
14.71
12.08
15. 05
14.02
13.39
16.70
13.22
• 12.54
14.71
14.71
18. .35

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

25

26

27 .

179

180

1 181

182

183

184

3.85
3. .57
2.66
2. 76
2.05
3.77
2.70
3.97
2.98

21.95

20.38
15 18

28

15 74

29

30

11.73
21.. 53

31

185

1") 43

32

186

2'' 63

33

1.87

188

189

190

191

192

1 193

' 194.

17 m

34 . .

Ill . .

2 36 i ^^^ 4S

35

112

2.63
3.24
3.24
3.12
2.40
3.43
3. .33
2.71
2.85
3.18
2.98
3.23

15 03

36

113

18 52

37

38

114

115

18. .52
17 80

39 ...

116

13 72

40

117

19 .58

41

118

195

IS. 99

42

119

120

121

2.i7

2.88

12.37
16.42

196. . .

15 46

43

44 . .

197

198

199

16.27
18 13

45

122

1.33
2.54
3.20
2.04
2.34
2.89
2.98
2.85
2.99
3.18

7.58
14.48
18.24
11.63
13.34
16.47
16.99
16.24
17.04
18.13

17.03

46

123 .. .

200

201

18 46

47

124

125

48

202

203

204

1 205

206

207

208

209

210

3.12
3.07
3.90
2.41
3.44
2.73
3.20
3.81
2.94
2.89
2.96
3.30
3.09
3.79
3.33
2.86
2.58
2.71
3.19
3.98
2.93
3.30
3. 65
3.. 54
3.11
2.71
3.39
2.96
2. .54
3.11

17 83

49

126

127

17. 51

50

22.24

51 ... .

128 . .

13.74

52

129

130

131

132

19.62

53

54

15. .58
18.30

55

21.76

56

133...

16.79

57 :...

134

211

212

213

214

: 215

; 216

i 217

! 218

219

i 220

221

i 222

223

224

225

16. .52

58

135 ...

16.91

59

136

18.86

60

137

2.13
3.08
1.37

12.14

17.56

7.81

17.62

61

138

21.63

62

139 .

18.99

63

140

16.. 30

64

141

142

143 . . .

2.57
2.75
3.03
3.17
2.09
2.75
2.42
2.68
2.25
2.61
1..51
1.64
2.93
2.85

14.65
15.67
17.27
18.07
11.91
1.5.67
13.79
15.28
12. 82
14.88
8.61
.9.35
16. 70
16. 24

14.72

65

15. 45

66

'S. 22

67

68

144

145 .

22.70
16 71

69

146

18.86

70

147

20.82

71

148

20 23

72

149

1 226

227

: 228

229

230

, 231

17. 73

73

74

75

1.50

151

1.52

153

15.46
19. 36
16 88

76..

14 46

77

154

17.73

SELECTIOlSr TO INCREASE PROTEIDS IN KERNEL.
Table 18. — Variations in content of proteids — Continued.

81

Percentage of—

Record
number.

Proteid
nitrogen
in water-
free
material.

Proteids
(proteid

N. X 5.7).

232

3.11
3.31
3.23
3.65
3.18
4.87
2.69
2.59
3.52
2.76
2.96
3.47
3.30
3.64
3.75
3.50
3.64
3.21
3.11
3.46
2.54
3.63

17.73
18.92
18.43
20.82
18.17
27.79
15.38
14.77
20.12
15.75
16.89
19.78
18.83
20.77
21.39
19.95
20.78
18.32
17.76
19.73
14.52
20.71

233

234

235

236 !

237

238

239

240

241

242 i

243

244

245

246

247 i

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

256

257

3.02
3.31

i7.26

18.88

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

265

3.37
3.84
1.93
3.49
3.19
3.24
3.36
3.29
3.10
3.18
4.10
3.20
3.36
3.39
3.13
3.39
3.56
3.32
3.15
2.85
3.11
3.78
3.70
3.26
3.01
3.85
3.71
3.87
3.55
3.86
2.82
2. 52
4.00
2.23
4.15
2.63
2.56
3.05
3.93
1.99

19.24
21.89
11.03
19.92
18.21
18.48
19.20
18.80
17.70
18.18
23.39
18.29
19.19
19.34
17.88
19.78
20.34
18.96
1^.95
16.26
17.77
21.60
21.10
18.60
17.19
22.00
21.20
22.07
20.26
22.04
16. 09
14.40
22.81
12.73

! 23. 68
15.04
14.60
17.41

' 22.44
11.35

266

267

268.........

269. . . .

270

271

272

273

274

275

276

277

278

279.

280

281

282

283

284

285

286

2S7

288.

289

290.

291

292

293

294

295

296

297

298

299

3.67
3.06
3.08
2.68

20.96
17.49
17.61
15.28

300

301

302...

303

304

305

2.23
3.07

2.50
3.19
2.84

' i2:74

17. 52
14.30
18.20
16.22-

306

307

308

Record
number.

27889— No. 78—05-

309..

310..

311..

312..

313..

314..

315..

316..

317..

318..

319..

320..

321..

322..

323..

324..

325..

326..

.327..

328..

329..

330..

331..

332..

333..

334..

33S..

336..

337..

338..

339.,

340..

341.

342.

343.

344.

345.

346.

347.

348.

349.

350.

351.

352.

353.

354.

355.

356.

357.

358.

359.

360.

361.

362.

363.

364.

365.

366.

367.

368.

369.

370.

371.

372.

373.

374.

375.

376.

377.

378.

379.

380.

381.

382.

383.

384.

385.

-0

Percentage of-

Proteid
nitrogen
in water-
free
material.

Proteids
(proteid

N.X5.7).

3.74
3.15
2.99
3.48
3.52
3.16
2.75
3.35
3.42
2.01
2.86
2.98
3.42
2.54
3.42
3.18
3.45

3.44
3.60
2.87
2.61

2.57
3.25
2.61
2.81
3.35
2.88
4.95
3.33
2.73
2.97
2.60
2.50
2.93
2.55
2.55
2.44
2.87
2.65
2.63
3.31
3.04
3.10
2.72
2.83
2.91
2.36
2.33
2.97
2.88
2.94
3.03
3.49
2.91
3.49
3.16
3.37
3.06
3.33
3.09
2.98
3.30
2.86
3.15
3.40
2.59
3.46
2.74
3.09
2.35
3.45
3.22
2.96
3.55
3.79

21.36
18.01
17.07
19.88
20.11
18.03
15.68
19.13
19.54
11.50
16.33
17.00
19.54
14.53
19.54
18.16
19.70

19.64
20.55
16.39
14.93

14.68

18.56

14.92

15.70

19.11

16.45

28.23

19.01

15.61

16.94

14.82

14.27

16.71

14.57

14. 55

13.92

16.39

15.18

15.03

18.90

17.38

17.72

15.53

16.18

16.61

13.47

13.60

16.95

16.45

16.77

17.28

19.89

16.62

19.94

18.04

19.23

17.47

19.02

17.64

17.04

18.84

16.33

17.97

19. 89

14.76

19.76

15.65

17.64

13.42

19.67

18.40

16.88

20.26

21.62

Record
number.

Percentage of-

Proteid
nitrogen
in water-
free
material.

2.52
2.73
3.05
2.95
3.22
3.26
2.93
2.70
2.77
2.98
2.28

3.09

3.35

3.36

2.32

3.03

3.30

3.75

2.43

3.79

3.63

3.59

3.26

3.15

3.63

3.77

3.13

2.44

3.23

3.79

3.05

2.85

3.73

2.53

3.53

3.14

2.61

3.29

3.08

3.06

2.59

3.03

2.81

3.20

3.00

3.12

2.85

3.53

2.88

3.12

2.66

2.98

2.35

2.93

3.22

2.50

2.37

2.37

3.75

2.86

3.13

2.76

3.61

2.92

3.17

3.15

3.14

2.62

2.71

3.14

3.18

2.60

3.91

Proteids
(proteid
N. X 5.7).

2.39

15.07
15. .59
17.41
16.87
18.36
18.60
16.74
15.41
15. 81
16.99
13.02

17.65
19.12
19.20
13.26
17.31
18.83
21.43
13.90
21.63
20.74
20.47
18.63
17.95
20.70
21.51
17.89
13.93
18.44
21.65
17. .39
16.28
21.27
14.45
20.12
17.90
14. 93
18. 81
17.60
17. 46
14.80
17.31
16.06
18.25
17.11
17. 80
16.28
20.14
16.44
17. 82
15.20
16.99
13.44
16.72
17.98
14.30
13. 56
13. 51
21.37
16.33

16. 67
15.76
20. 62

16. 68
18.07
17. S6
17.92
14.95
15.47
17.92
1,'^.20
14.84
22. 29

13.64

82

IMPKOVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 18.— Variations in content of proteids — Continued.

Percentage of-

Record
number.

463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477,
478
479
480
481,
482,
483,
484,
485,
486,
487,
488,
489
490
491
492,
493,
494,
495
496
497
498,
499,
500,
501,
502
503
504
505
506
507,
508,
509,
510,
511,
512.
513.
514,
515,
616,
517.
518,
519,
520,
521.
522
523,
524
525
526
527
528,
529
530
531
532
533
534
535,
536
537
538
539

Proteid
I nitrogen

in water-
free
f material

2.49
1.98
3.32
2.98
2.89
2.95
2.74
2.80
2.24
2.49
2.76
2.80
2.95
2.52
2.95
3.15
2.27
2.72
3.04
3.15
2.60
3.45
2.59
2.68
3.01
2.41
3.45
2.46
2.87
2.06
3.18
2.45
2.36
2.52
2.84
2.82
2.97
3.06
2.64
2.72
2.31
3.06
2.71
2.49
3.13
2.89
3.20
2.93
3.61
2.71
2.86
2.41
2.27
3.28
2.36
3.64
2.81
2.54
2.68
3.12
2.99
1.93
2.51
1.71
3.15
2.35
2.88
2.64
2.97
2.75
3.22
2.95
3.03
2.57
2.88
2.64
3.76

Proteids
(proteid
N. X 5.7).

Record
number.

Percentage of-

Proteid
nitrogen
in water-
free
material.

3.17
3.09
3.33
3.50
1.29
2.10
2.54
2.73
3.01
2.50
2. 84
2.99
2. .30
3.21
2.91
3.16
3.02
3.30
3.25
2.94
3.32
3.00
1.12
2.36
3.83

3.49
3.08
2.17
3.03
3.20
2.5i
3.12
2. ,52
3.25
3.17
2.52
3.09
2.73
3.35

3.79
2.59
3.13
3.49
3.05
3.27
2.56
2.83
2.84
2.86
3.06
3.20
2.88
,'i.32
3.18
3.09
3. .32
2.34
3.12
2.97
2.08
3.64
2.56
2.53
2.56
3.13
3.01
3.05
2.75
3.51
3.00
3.26
3.84
2.77
2.72
3.72

Proteids
(proteid

N. X 5.7).

21.61
14.77
17.86
19.91
17.40
IS. 65
14.60
16.17
16.20
16. 31
17.44
18.29
16.47
18.93
18.17
17.66
18.93
13.39
17.81
16.97
11.91
20.77
14.62
14.45
14.60
17. 85
17.20
17.41
15.72
20.05
17.15
18.02
2i: 92
15.79
15.52
21.22

Record
number.

18.12
17.66
19.01
19.96

7.37
11.98
14.49
15.59
17.21
14. 30
16.20
17.08
13. 11
18.35
16.59
18.06
17.26
18.86
18.58
16.78
18.93
17.13

6.40
13.49
21.84

19.49
17.57
12.39
17.29
18.27
14.37
17.82
14.41
IS. 53
18.10
14.40
17.61
15.60
19.10

617.
618.
619.
620.
621.
622.
623.
624.
625.
626.
627.
628.
629.
630.
631.
632.
633.
634.
635.
686.
637.
638.
639.
640.
641.
642.
643.
644.
645.
646.
647.
648.
649.
650.
651.
6.52.
653.
654.
655.
656.
657.
658.
659.
660.
661.
662.
663.
664.
665.
666.
667.
668.
609.
670.
671.
672.
673.
674.
675.
676.
677.
678.
679.
680.
681.
6S2.
683.
684.
685.
686.
687.
688.
689.
690.
691.
692.
693.

Percentage of-

Proteid
nitrogen
in water-
free
material.

3.12
2.67
3.59
2.68
2.24
3.19
3.52
2.67
2.68
2.69
2.88
3.68
3.47
2.48
3.39
3.22
1.64
2.10
3.42
3.08
2.77
3.54
3.15
2.82
3.37
2.57
3.35
3.41
2.44
3.77
2.82
2 53
2.56
2.59

2.83
2.50
2.59
3.21
2.56
2.55

2.92
3.26
2.55
2.50
2.82
2.80
3.33
2.35
2.31
2.50
4.36
6.33
2.32
4.82
3.39
3.24
3.41
3.11
2.51
3.09
2.48
2.30
3.36
2.49
2.70
3.59
4.04
2.79
2.83
2.65
2.68
3.38
3.04
2.81
2.35

Proteids
(proteid
N. X 5.7).

SELECTION TO INrREA.SE PROTEIDS IN KERNEL.

83

Table 18. — Variafion-^i iti content of proteids — Contimicd.

Percentage of— '

Record
number.

Percentage of— 1

Record
number.

Percent

Proteid
nitrogen
in water-
free
material.

age of—

Record
nuniuer.

Proteid
nitrogen
in water-
free
material.

2.15
2.92

Proteids
(proteid
N. x5.7>.

Proteid
nitrogen
in water-

f ee
material.

Proteids
(proteid '

N. X 5.7).

Proteids
(proteid
N. X5.7).

■'4

12.23
16. 69 1
(

7-0

731

7 2

733

2.09
3.18
2.41
2.06
2.76
2.09
2.29
1.61
2.01
2. 85
1.87
1.75
3. 57
2.63
1.97
2.98
1.77
2.79
1.83
2.29
2.22
3.48
3.48
1..33
3. 55
2.43
2.30
2.14
1.67
2.14
3. 72
2.47
2.93
2.02
2.18
2.20

11.92
18.18
13. 78
11.77

15. 73
11.96
13. 09 :

9.20
11.44

16. 26
10.71

9.99
20. 36
15.02
11.23
16.99
10.10

15. 95
10.44
13.06
12.66

19. 85
19.87

7. .53

20. 29
13. 00
13. 15
12. -24

9.54
12. 25

21. 21
14.12 I

16. 72 ;
11.. 56
12.47
12. .57

766

76,

768

760

2.87
2.22
2.45
2.37
1..37
1.02
2. 00
1.73
2. 32
1.88
2.28
2.80
1.98
2.35
2.85
2.79
2.64
2.81
1.92
2.25
3.29
2.95
2.13
2.20
2.86
3.02
2.16
2. 32
2' 82
2.48
2.45
2. 20
2.95
2.18
2.02

16.41

12.69

13.98

2.11
.3. o:i
2.64
4.10
2.51
2.27
2. .3.3
2.43
2.48
1.87
.3. 07
2.12
1.87
2.10
2. OS
2.61
2. 20
2.16
3. 23
2.77

2. .38

3. 14
2.16
1.80
2.14
2.16
2.18
2.04
2. 32
2.19
1.70
2.49
2.92

12. 07

17.29

15.09

23.42

14.33

12.96

13.34

13.94

14.18

10.69

17.52

12.09

10. 67

12.00

11.87

14. 88

12. .58

12. 32 '

18. 44

15.81

13.61

17.91

12.35

10.29

12.22

12. 36

12.43

11.67

13.26

12. .52

10. 23

14.22

16.46

13.51

00'

on?

:o )

701

702

70 '

7 '4

7.>5

7-6

737

738

770

771

772

773

774

7.86
9. 27

11.42
9.87

13 26

739

10.76

704

70 i

740

74!

742

74i

744

745

;76

13.03
16.02

700

70-

70^

70 •

778

779

1 780

781

7'2

783

784

7,'5

7S6

787...

788

789

11.33
13. 40
16.29
15.94

710

711

712

7i:*

746

747

748

740

7.50

751

7.52

7.5-!

7.54

7o/>

15.09
16.02
10.96

12.88

714

71.")

18. 75
16. 82

71fi

717

12. 17
12. 57

71S

7)0

790

791

792

793

794

795

790

797

798

799

io.;-2
17. 22

720

721

756

12.36
13. 24

;22

75S

10. 11

72!

724

72.">

7.50

760 ■

761

762

76"

764

765

14. 15
14.00
12 56

720

16. .'■2
12.48

720

800

11.57

It will he noticed that there is a very large range of variation in
the proteid nitrogen content of these wheats, running from 1.12 to
4.95 per cent. By referring to Table 8, it will be seen that an equally
large variation occurred between the plants when the whole plant
was sampled. In the 351 anah'ses the nitrogen ranges from 1.20 to
5.85 per cent. This is due in the main to the ability of the plant
to gather nitrogen from the soil. In no one of the experiments to
ascertain the effect of nitrogenous manures on the composition of
wheat has there been an increase of more than a few tenths of 1 per
cent, even when the nitrogenous fertilizer was added to an exhausted
soil. It is, therefore, not lils;ely that such large variation in nitrogen
content could be due to irregularities in the supply of soil nitrogen.
If this ability of the plant to store up a large amount of nitrogen in
the kernel is hereditar}^, as results given later indicate, there is ample
onportunity to develop by selection a strain of wheat of high nitrogen
content.

84 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

A BASIS FOR SELECTION TO INCREASE THE aUANTITY OF
PROTEIDS IN THE ENDOSPERM OF THE KERNEL,

White bread flour, which constitutes the major portion of the
wheat flour consumed in this country, is derived entirely from the
endosperm of the Avheat kernel. The portions of the kernel not
entering into the flour are the germ and the seed coat, attached to
each of which discarded constituents are portions of the endosperm.
The larger part of the aleurone layer either adheres to the hull and
constitutes the "bran" of commerce, or appears in the product
known as "shorts," and sometimes in low-grade flour.

As it is the flour in which it is desired to increase the nitrogen,
and as the flour consists entirely of the endosperm, it becomes desir-
able to have some way to determine the nitrogen content of the
endosperm alone and to select for reproduction plants possessing a
large amount of nitrogen in this portion of the kernel.

It is a question how this can best be done. A determination of
gluten by the ordinary method of washing, to carry off the starch
and fiber while the gluten is being worked in the hand, is not well
adapted for use with the small cpiantities of wheat obtainable from
a single plant. This also has the disadvantage that it gives no
indication as to the quality of the gluten.

Determinations of gliadin and glutenin promise to be of some help
in affording a basis for selection from individual plants. It has
been shown by Osborne and Yoorhees " that the gluten of wheat is
composed of gliadin and glutenin. It does not necessarily follow,
however, that the sum of these two substances is a measure of the
gluten content of the sample analyzed. Osborne and Campbell'^
have stated that the embryo of the wheat kernel does not contain
either gliadin or glutenin. This being the case, the sum of the
gliadin and glutenin would represent these proteids in the endosperm,j
with, perhaps, a small amount in tlie hull.

A recent investigation byNasmith' leads him to conclude that
ghadin exists in afl portions of the endosperm, including the aleu-
rone layer, but that glutenin is contained only in the starch-bearing^,
portion of the endosperm. A determination of glutenin may, there-
fore, give an indication of the gluten content of the wheat.

Table 19 shows the percentage of proteid nitrogen, the sum of
the gliadin and glutenin nitrogen, the amounts in grams of proteic
and of gliadin-plus-glutenin nitrogen in the average kernel, and thej
grams of proteid and of gliadin-plus-glutenin nitrogen in all of the
kernels on each plant. The plants are grouped into those having

"American Chein. Jour., 1893, pp. 392-471.

'Connecticut Experiment Station Report, 1899, p. 305.

<Trans. Canad. Inst., 7 (1S03), Univ. Toronto Studies, Physiol. Ser. (1903), No. 4.

SELECTION TO INCREASE PROTEIDS IN ENDOSPERM.

85

from 1 to 2 per cent proteid nitrogen, those having 2 to 2.5 per cent
proteid nitrogen, etc. Table 20 gives the averages for each of the
groups in Table 19.

Table 19. — Relation ofgliadin-plus-glutenin nitrogen to proteid nitrogen.
1 TO 2 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

Record luimber.

Percentage
of-

Num-
ber of
ker-
nels.

\^

'eight (in grams) of—

Pro-
toi.l
nitro-
gen.

Glia-
(lin-

plUE-
gUl-

tenin
nitro-
gen.

Ker-
nels.

Average
kernel.

Gliadinr
Proteid plus-
nitro- gluteniii
gen in nitro-
kernels. gen in
kernels.

Proteid « tg^:
nitrogen V^f^_

ageker:; * -gen in
nel • average
^^^- 1 kernel.

5.5.307

80305

' 81705

1.S9

1.81
1.98

1.56
1.77
1.96

342
729
465

5. 6864

15. 7835

9. 7922

0.01663
. 02165
.02106

0. 10747 0. 08871
. 2S.569 . 27937
. 19388 . 19193

0.0003142 0.0002.504
.(W03919 .(X)03.S:V2
.0004170 , .01X14128

Average . .

1.89

1.76 1 512.10.4207 1 .01978 .19.568 . 18f;fi7

. 0003744 . 0003518

2 TO 2.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

21212

''7205

2.16
2.41
2.36
2.12
2.35
2.39
2.11
2. .38
2.02
2.48
2.42
2. .30
2.42
2.34
2.21
2.41
2.28
2.09
2.30
2.34
2.41

0.19
1.70
1.46
1.65
2.12
1.92
1.84
1.80
1..50
1.97
1.96
1.66
1.95
1.83
2.05
1.68
1.81
1.95
2.05
.64
1.64

84
891
777
539
318
.301
1,031
608
314
167
562
302
509
462
380
544
373
583
464
786
287

1. 7216
16. 4061
19. 1854
12. 0399
6. 1026
7. 0596
21. 5399
11.66.55

6. 4302
2. 5160

12. 2210
9. 2120
9. 3093

10. 9073

12.0728
9.8298
7.0051

11.7066
9. 6451

18. 3614

7. .3993

0.02049
.01841
.02469
. 02183
.01919
.02345
. 02089
.01919
. 02048
.01507
.02175
. 03050
.01829
.02361
.03177
.01807
. 01878
.02008
. 02079
. 02336
. 02578

0. 03718
.39.539
. 45276
. 24942
. 14341
. 16872

. 454:;.-.
.27(65
. 12989
. 06240
. 29575
.21187
. 22529
. 25.522

. 2ri(;sn

.L'.iliCO
. 1.5971
. 2446S
.221S4
. 429115
.178^3

0.00327
.27890
. 28010

. 19S6ti
. 12(i43
. 13554
. 39():;5
. 20997
. 09645
.04957
. 23953
. 15292
. 181.53
. 19960
. 247.50
. I(i514
. 12680
. 22828
. 19772
.11750
. 121.35

0. 0004427
. 0004437
.0005827
. 0004627
.0004510
. ()005t)05
.()()044117
. 0004567
.0004137
. 0003736
. 0005262
. 0007016
. 0004426
. 0005524
.01)07021
. 0004355
.0004282
.0004197
. 0(X)4781
.0005466
. 0006213

0. 0000389
. 0003130
.0003605
. 0003602
. 0004163
. 0004502
.()( 10.3844
. 0003454
. 0003072
. 0002969
. 0004263
. 0(X),5063
. 0003566
. 0004321
. 00()()513
.(l()(i:>036
.0011.3399
. 0003916
. 0004262
.0001495
. 0004228

27206

27.505

.33107

33605

39205

48106

48409

55:309

55908

55909

56206

56207

57508,

65306..

65307

65308

74606

81707

81708

Average..

2.30

1.68

489.6

10.5874

.02173

.24272

. 17872

.0004991

. 0003652

2.5 TO 3 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

20706

2.78
2.77
2.83

2.05

1.85
2.00

163
444
867

3.3138

9.9070

17.1115

0.02033
. 02282
.01974

0. 03212
. 27443

. 48428

0. 06793

. 18328
. 34222

0. 0005652

.(K1061S1
.0005.586

0.0004168
. 0004222
. 0003948

20707

20710

21207

2.96

.17

118

2. 3066

.019.55

. 06804

. 00392

. 1KK)5766

. tX)00332

21.305

2.67

1.97

313

6.2514

. 02004

. 16691

. 12315

. 0005353

. 0003948

21306

2.90

.97

226

4. 1516

. 01837

. 12039

.04027

. 0005327

.0001782

21805

2.69
2.73

.23
2.11

1,2.32
377

20.9290
9. 4172

.01699
. 02498

.56299
. 25709

. 04704
. 19870

. 0004569
. 0006664

.0000391
. 000.5271

21807

21808

2.57

1.96

1,156

19. 7446

.01708

. 50744

.38700

. 0004389

. 0003348

21809

2.73

2.18

418

8.0214

.01919

. 21898

. 17487

. 0005238

.0004183

21905

2.64

2.18

791

14.3111

.01809

. 37781

.31198

. 0004777

. 0003944

22205 :.

2.81

1.97

283

2.6965

. .00953

. 07577

.05312

. 0002677

. (X)01.877

22207

2.77

1.82

169

3. 2787

. 01940

.09082

. 05967

. 0005 174

. 000"531

26905

2.76
2.71

2.09

1.82

326

228

6. 4102
4.2376

. 01966
. 01859

. 17692
.11484

. 13398
.07712

. 0005427
. 000.5037

.0004109
.0003:;8.3

26906

26908

2.96
2.80

2.16

1.88

192
180

3. 9797
2.9999

.02073
.01667

. 11780
. 08400

. 0S596
.05640

.0(K)6135
. 0004667

. 0(X)4478
.00031.34

26909

27005

2.63

1.90

866

16.4120

. 01895

. 43164

.31182

. 000 1984

. 01X)3600

27207

2.92

1.95

166

3. 3266

. ()20(M

. 09712

. 06487

. 000.5850

. (X)039()S

27.305

2.58

1.73

267

5. 5666

. 020.^5

. 14362

. 09630

.000.5379

. 0(«).i607

27307

2. .53

.82

167

3. 0850

.()1,''47

. 07805

.02.530

. (M)04674

.0001515

27506

2.70
2.64

1.98
2 32

444
251

10. 0005
5. .5 '24

. 02252
.02287

. 27003
. 14608

. 19800
.128.35

. 000G082
. 0006037

. 0(X)4459
. (KX15:;66

27.508

27509

2.90

1.09

243

5.3615

. 02206

.15549

. 05844

. 0006399

. 0002405

86

IMPEUVING^ THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 19.— Relation of (iliadin-plus-c/lutenm nitvo(jen to proteid nitrogen— Cont'nmed.
2.5 -TO 3 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN— Continued.

Weight (in grams) of-

Ker-
nels.

2. 1851
2. 5601
6. 1394
8. 0905
3. 3004
2. 5134

8. 4605
3. 0228
6. 7665
9. 3541
1.9218
4. 1546
2.8000
5. 9990
2. 5235
8. 3935

12. 0278

9. 8346
17. 4226
11.3592

9. .5078
17. 8506

9. 8228
10. 9180
11. 0930

5. 7948

7. 9968
19. 3966

5. 7431
12.0161

14. 4556

6. 5232
13. 5720

15. 8086
1.5364
2. 4923

14.9992

12. 2004
2. 7616
6.9861
4. 8988

23. 1471
3. 3006
7. 6690
2. 8327

15. 3928

Average
kernel.

0. 02512
.01939
.01987
. 01972
.01710
. 01808
.02110
.01913
. 02309
. 02093
. 02869
. 02444
. 02258
.01764
. 02035
. 017.56
. 02543
. 01798
. 01846
. 01965
. 02.395
. 02062
. 01949
. 02184
. 02205
. 01751
. 01603
. 02590
. 01709
. 01866
. 01658
. 01959
.02356
. 01664
.01746
. 01846
. 01968
. 02047
. 01.534
. 01946
.01814
. 01999
. 02001
. 02073
.01940
. 02132

Proteid
nitro-
gen in

kernels.

0.03 '59
.07450
. 18173
. 23998
. 09670
. 07138
. 22251
. 08522
. 18540
. 21399
. 05631
.11716
.08176
. 17637
. 07318
. 21319
. 34524
. 26553
. 45299
. 29079
. 24150
. 43995
. 25834
. 28823
. 28580
. 15470
. 22471
. 50238
. 15679
. 30881
. 42790
. 16373
. 34616
. 40945
. 04164
. 06854
. 39297
. 31842
. 07733
. 19905
. 14060
• . 63422
. 09208
.02017
. 0S32S
.41715

Gliadin-
plus-

glutenin
nitre- ,
gen in

l.ernels.l

Proteid
nitrogen
in f ver-
age 1- er-
nel.

0.

03387
. 03960
.14060
. 10194
. 06931
.03091
. 11760
. 05229
. 09067
. 13470
. 03959
. 09099
. 03304
. 04199
. 03255
. 17458
. 21289
. 07376
. 27528
.21241
. 06180
. 39272
. 20333
.21400
. 16529
.10141
.11755
. 31229
. 12175
. 25174
. 32236
. 12068
. 26465
. 34937
.03211
. 05309
. 27898
. 20008
. 06462
. 10828
. 13126
. 488.39
.07261
.16714
. 07507
. 31248

.0007.309
. 0005644
.0005881
.0005327
.0005010
. 0005135
. 0005549
. 0005394
. 0006475
. 0006027
. OOOS404
. 0006892
. 0006594
. 0005187
. 0005002
. 0004460
. 0007299
. 0004877
. 0004799
. 000.5031
. 0006225
.0005773
.0005126
. 0005765
. 0005690
. 0004674
.0004.505
.0006707
. 0(X)4667
. 0004795
. 0004907
. 0004917
.0006149
. 0004310
. 0004731
. 0005077
. 0005157
. 0005343
. 0004296
. 0005545
. 0005207
. 0005464
. 0005581
. 0005451
. 0005704
. 0005778

Gliadin-
plus-glu-
tenin ni-
trogen in
average
kernel.

0. 0003894
. 0006787
. 0004550
. 0002485
. 0003591
. 0002224
. 0002933
. 0003309
. 0003094
.0003014
. 0005910
. 0005352
.0002664
. 0001235
. 0002625
. 0003652
. 0004501
. 0001348
.0002917
. 0003675
. 0001557
. 0004536
. 0004034
. 0004281
. 0002609
. 0003064
. 0002356

• .0004170
. 0003622
. 0003900
. 0003697
. 0003624
. C004594
. 0003677
. 0003649-
. 0003932
. 0003660
. 0003557
. 0003590
.000.3016
. 0004861
. 0004218
. 0004402
.0004519
.0005141
. 0004328

419. 3 8. 2271

.01991

. 22222

. 14658

. 0005468

. 0003557

■ 3 TO 3.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

20709

1
3.05
3.32
3.16
3.24
3.04
3.18
3.35
3.22
3.18
3.17
3.17
3.09
3.07
3.02
3.41
3.22
3.29
3.20

2.31
2.26

.22
2.15

.46
2.10
2.15
2.11
2.14
1..55
1.69
2. 28
2.42
1.86
2.41
2.45
2.13
2.17

258
697
123
287
143
408
158
146
118
233
561
. 222
219
685
150
136
157
556

5. 3229

14. 6942
2. 3642
5. 1594
2. .5691

10. 4800
2. 9248
2. 5712
1.9090
6. 0173

11.5675
3.8811
4.3698

14. 4630
3. 1346
2.8903
2.6571
9. 4585

1
0. 02063
.02157
. 01922
.01798
. 01796
.02563
.01851
.01720
.01619
. 02019
. 02062
.0F48
.01996
.02111
. 020nQ
.02125
.01692
.01701

0. 16235
. 48784
.07471
. 16712
.07810
. 33402
. 09798
. 08086
.06071
. 19075
. .36671
.11992
.13415
. 43679
. 106S9
.'09307
. 08742
. 30267

0. 12296
. 33208
.00520
.11093
.01182
.22008
.06288
.05425
. 04084
.09.327
. 19548
.08849
. 10.575
. 26901
. 07554
.07081
. 05660
. 20525

0. 0006292
. 0006999
. 0006074
. 0005824
. 0005461
.000X168
. 0006201
. 0005538
. 0005144
. 0006401
.0006.537
. 0005402
.0006126
. 0006376
. 0007126
. (NX)6843
. 0005568
. 0005444

0. 0004766
. 0004875
. 0000423
. 0(X)3866
. 0000826
.0005382
. 0003980
.000362?)
. 0003465
.0003129
. 0003485
. 0003985
. 0004830
. 0003926
. 0005037
. 0005206
. 0003604
. 0003691

20805

21205

21208

21307

21906

21907

22206

22208

22210

22211

26808

28206

28806

33305

33607

48306

48506

SELECTION TO INCREASE PROTEIDS IN ENDOSPERM.

87

Table 19. — Relation of gliadin-plus-glutenin nitrogen to proteid nitrogen — Continued.
3 TO 3.5 "per cent PROTEID NITROGEN— Continued.

Record number.

4S70.^.
48700.
5.5005.
55006.
5.550S.
57905.
58207.
5*^705.

-Vverage

Percentage
of—

Pro-
teid
nitro-
gen.

3.16

Glia-
din-
plus-
glu-
tenin
nitro-
gen.

Num-
I'er of
ker-
nels.

3. 13

1. .56

3.00

.71

.3.05

1.99

.3.16

1.75

3.11

1.96

3.18

2.92

3.03

2.49

3.01

2.47 (

37<
.393
451
216
221
.307
235

Ker-
nels.

264 I 4. .3615

6. 1983
7. 9684
7. 18.52
3. 7407
2. 4731
4. 2207
2. 5436

1.95 ; 239.5 i 5.5817

Weight (in grams) of—

Average
kernel.

0.016.52
. 01635
. 02028
. 01593
. 01732
.01118
. 01375
. 01082

.01817

Proteid
nitro-
gen in

kernels.

Ghadm- p^.-j^j Gliadm-

glutenin ,„ ^.f,." tenin ni-

°'"?" age ker- ^'■'^g"^ i^

genm *^„pi , average

Iiernels. kernel.

0.1.36.52 0.06S04 0.0005171 ! 0.0002.577

.0004906 .0001161

.0006185 .0004036

. 0005034 . 0002788

. 0005386 . 0003395

. 000.3556 . 0003264

. 0004248 . 0003424

. 0003258 . 0002673

. 18.596

.04401

. 24303

. 1.5857

. 22705

. 12574 1

.11636

. 07332

. 07859

. 07221

. 1.3042

. 10510

.07656

.06283 1

.17602

.10889

.000.5741

. 0003516

3.5 TO 4 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

17.506.
18905.
21811.
2190S.
26107.
.38.505.
42205.
45005.
4.8.505.
66006.

Average .

3.52

2.23

3.81

1.54

3.75

2.16

3.82

1.88

3.92

1.35

1 3.61

1.77

3.63

2.73

' 3.58

1.36

3.66

1.76

3.54

1..38

3.68

1.82

93
103
567
173
144
563

94
235
1.37
366

2.2881
1.4864

11.9114
3. 5.574
2.0590

12. 10-iS
] . 8434
3. 2 34 J
1.91.54
6. 0030

0. 02460
.01443
. 02101
. 02056
.01416
. 02252
. 01967
.01376
. 01.398
.. 01642

247.5 : 4.6399

.01811

0. 0S044
. 05663
. 44666
. 13589
. 07933
. 43713
.06713
. 1 1 575
. 07010
. 21272

0. 05102
.03315
. 25728
.06688
. 02753
. 21432
. 0.5049
. 04398
. 03371
. 0S292

0. 0008660
.0005498
. 0007877
. 0007855
. 000.5551
. 0007764
.0007142
. 0004!"'27
.0005117
. 0005^12

. 17024

.08613 .0006620

0. 0005486
. 0003218
. 0004538
. 00039.55
.0001912
. G003986
. (X)05370
. 0001871
. 0002460
. 0002266

. 0003506

4 TO 4.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

21812

21813

4.26

4.04-

4.43

4.33

4.21

4.45

2.02
2.14
1.98
2.44
2.21
2.03

983
216
525
207

lis

447

14.8137
4.0258

12. 1819
4. 1281
2. 1571
5.4411

0. 01507
. 01877

0.63107 0.29934 0.0006420
16377 08615 0007582

I
0. 0003044

fll 1114(11 T

21909

34405

.02317
01994

.53889 .29346 .0010265 ; .000.5677

5.5007

76206

Average ..

.01828 .09082 .04767 .0007696 !6()64040
.01217 1 .24213 .11046 .0005417 .0002471

4.29

2.14

416

7.1230 .01790

. 30757 . 15714 , . 0007669

.0004019

MORE THAN 4.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

21206

21210

40205

48406

69805

72607

92306

Average . .

5.23

0.22

149

2. 8564

5.03

1.34

237

3. 9143

4.69

3.07

194

3. 6.302

4.87

2.25

249

3. 2964

5.82

1.94

110

2. 4420

5.59

2.51

188

3. 4442

4.93

4.06

347

6.0091

5.16

2.198

210.6

3. 6561

0.01917
.01.577
.01871
. 01324
. 02220
. 018.32
. 01732

0. 149.39
. 19639
.17026
. 16053
. 14213
. 19253
. 29625

.01782 ' .18685

0.00628 10.0010026
.0.5245 ' .0007934

.11145
. 08168
. 047.38
. 08645
. 24397

. 0008776
. 0006447
. 0012921
. 0010241
. 0008.539

0. 0000422
.0002113
. 0005744
. 0002979
. 0004307
. 0004598
. 0007032

.08995 .0009269 I .000.3885

88

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 20— Summary of analyses, showing relation ofyliadin-plus-glutenin nitrogen to proteid

nitrogen.

Percentage
of-

Range of per-
centage of
proteid nitro-
gen.

lto2

2 to 2 5

2.0 to 3

3 to 3.5

3..5to4

4to4..5

4. 5 and over

Num-
ber of
analy-
ses.

Pro-
teid
nitro-
gen.

GUa-
din-
plus-
glu-
tenin
nitro-
I gen.

Num-
ber of
ker-
nels.

I

3
21
70
26
10

1.89
2.30
2.74
3.16
3.68
4.29
5.16

1.76
1.68
1.73
1.95
1.82
2.22
2.20

512.0
489.6
419.3
299.5
247. 5
416.0
210.6

Weight (in grams) of-

Kemels.

10.4207'
10. 5874
8. 2271
5. 5817
4. 6399
7. 1230
3. 6561

< Gliadin-

Proteid plus-glu-
Average nitrogen tenin
kernel, in ker- nitrogen

0.01978
.02173
.01991
.01817
.01811
.01790
.01782

nels.

0. 19568
. 24272
. 22222
. 17602
. 17024
. 30757
. 18685

in
kernels.

Proteid
nitrogen

in
average
kernel.

0. 18667
. 17872
. 13948
. 10889
.08613
. 15714
.08995

0.0003744
.0004991
.0005468
.0005741
.0006620
.0007669
. 0009269

GUadin-
plus-gli:-
tenin ni-
trogen in
average
kernel.

0.0003518
.0003652
.0003442
.000.3516
. 0003.506
.0004019
. 0003886

The figures in Table 20 sliow that while gliadin-pliis-gliitenin nitro-
gen increases with proteid nitrogen it does not do so in the same ratio,
the increase in proteid nitrogen being due in large measure to an
increase in other proteids.

The same anal.yses are tabulated in Table 21 according to the
increase in ghadin-plus-glutenin nitrogen, and the averages for each
group are stated in Table 22. In the latter table the increase in
proteid nitrogen does not keep pace with the increase in gliadin-plus-
glutenin nitrogen, there being 1.74 per cent other proteid nitrogen in
the first group and 1.25 per cent in the last.

It thus becomes evident that a determination of proteid nitrogen in
the kernel is not an accurate guide to the content of gliadin plus
glutenin, and that a direct determination of these substances is

necessary.

It is, furthermore, apparent that a determination of gliadin-plus-
ghitenin nitrogen will permit of the selection of kernels having a
large percentage of these substances.

Table 21 .—Relation of proteid nitrogen to gliadin-plus-glutenin nitrogen.
GLIADIN-PLUS-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 1 TO 1.5 PER CENT.

Percentage of—

Weight (in grams) of—

Record num-
ber.

Gliadin-
plus-
glute-
nin ni-
trogen.

21210..
2H107..

2720.i..

27509..

37705. .

38005. .

38606..

38609..

39405..

43405. .

44606.,

45005.

55606.

55906.

66006.

Proteid
nitro-
gen.

1.34
1.35
1.46
1.09
1.26
1.23
1.39
1.34
1.44
1.18
1.29
1.36
1.49
1.47
1.38

Num-
ber of '
ker-
nels.

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

Average . .

1.34

5.03
3.92
2.36
2.90
2.64
2.84
2.63
2.74
2. 88
2.92
2.90
3.58
2.58
2.81
3., 54

237
144
777
243
461
139
401
293
447
124
124
235
505
499
366

3.9143
2.0390

19. 1854
5.3615
S.0905
2.5134
8. 4605
6.7665
9.3541
2.8000
2. 5235
3. 2340

11.0930
7.9968
6.0090

0.01575
.01416
. 02469
.02206
.01972
.01808
.02110
.02309
.02093
.02258
.02035
.01376
.02205
.01603
. 01642

Gliadin
plus-glu-
tenin ni-
trogen in

kernels.

3.08

333

6.6228

.01939

0.05245
.02753
. 28010
. 05844
. 10194
.03091
.117(10
.09067
. 13470
.03304
.03255
.04398
. 16529

. .11755
. 08292

.09198

Proteid
nitrogen
m ker-
nels.

Gliadin-
plus-glute-
nin nitro-
gen in aver-
age kernel.

Proteid
nitrogen
in aver-
age ker-
nel.

0. 19689
.07993
.45276
. 1.5549
. 23998
.07138
. 22251
. 18540
. 21399
.08176
.07318
.11.575
. 28580
.22471
. 21272

. 18748

0.0002113
.0001912
.0003605
.0002405
. 0(J024S5
.0002224
. 0002933
.0003094
.0003014
.0002664
.0002625
.0001871
. 0002r.09
. 0002356
.0002266

0. 0007934
.0005551
. fX)05827
. 000ti399
. 0005327
.0(.)05135
. (KKK")549
. 000i;479
.O00(;027
. OOOti.594
. 0005902
. 0004927
. 000.5li90
. 00()4.")03
.000.5812

.0002545 .0005843

SELECTION TO INCREASE PROTEIDS IN ENDOSPERM.

89

Table 21. — Relation of proteid nitrogen to gliadin-plus-glutenin nitrogen-^-Continued.
GLIADIN-PLUS-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 1.5 TO 2 PER CENT.

Percentage of^

Num-
ber of
ker-
nels.

Weight (in

grams) of

—

Record num-
ber.

Gliadin-
plus-
glute-
nin ni-
trogen.

Proteid
nitro-
gen.

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

Gliadin-
plus-glu-
tenin ni-
trogen in
kernels.

Proteid

nitrogen

in kei-

nels.

Gliadin-
plus-glute-
nin nitro-
gen in aver-
age kernel.

Proteid
nitrogen
in aver-
age ker-
nel.

18905

1.54
1.85
1.97
1.96

1.88

1.98

1.97

1.82

1.55

1.69

1.82

1.88

1.90

1.70

1.95

1.73

1.65

1.98

1.55

1.86

1.92

1.77

1.73

1.84

1.80

1.77

1.50

1.76

1.56

1.99

1.75

1.58

1.87

1.97

1..56

i;96

1.96

1.75

1.61

1.96

1.66

1.85

1.95

1.83

1.95

1.86-

1.64

1.55

1.68

1.81

1.95

1.94

1.76

1.96

1.64

3.81

2.77
2.67
2.57
3.82
4.43
2.81
2.77
3.17
3.17
2.71
2.80
2.63
2.41
2.92
2.58
2.12
2.70
2.91
3.02
2.39
3.61
2.82
2.11
2.38
2.87
2.02
3.66
3. 13
3.05
3.16
2.60
2.57
2.48
1.89
3.11
2.64
2.67
2.59
2.42
2.30
2.51
2.42
2.34
2.61
2.62
2.61
2.85
2.41
2.28
2.09
5.82
1.81
1.98
2.41

103

444
312

1,156
173
525
283
169
298
561
228
180
866
891
166
267
539
444
87
68.5
301
.563
158

1,031
608
473
314
137
264
393
451
944
578
167
342
216
.500
331
749
.562
302
333
.509
462
563
762
596
3.59
544
373
583
110
729
465
287

1.4864

9.9070

6.2514

19. 7446

3.5574

12. 1819

2. 6965

3.2787

6.0173

11.5675

4. 2376

2.9999

16.4120

16.4061

3.3266

5.5666

12.0399

10.0005

2.1851

14.4630

7. 0596

12. 1088

3.0228

21.. 5399

11.6655

12.0278

6.4302

1.9154

4.3615

7.9684

7.1852

17.4226

11.3592

2.5160

5. 6864

3. 7407

10.9180

5. 7948

19.3966

12.2210

9.2120

6. .5232

9.3093

10.9073

13. 5720

14.9992

12. 2004

6.9861

9. 8298

7.0051

11.7066

2. 4420

15. 7835

9. 7922

7.3993

0.01443
.02282
.02004
.01708
.02056
.02317
.00953
.01940
.02019
.02062
.0ia59
.01667
.01895
.01841
.02004
.02085
.02183
.02252
.02572
.02111
.02345
.02252
.01913
.02089
.01919
.02.543
.02048
.01398
.01652
.02028
.01593
.01846
.01965
.01507
.01663
.01732
.02184
.01751
.02590
.02175
.030.50
.019.59
.01829
.03361
.02356
.01968
.02047
.01946
.01807
.01878
.02008
.02220-
.02165
.02106
.02578

0.03315

.18328
. 12315
.38700
.06688
.29846
.05312
.05967
.09327
. 19548
.07712
.05640
.31182
. 27890
.06487
.09630
. 19866
.19800
.03887
.26901
. 13554
.21432
.05229
.39635
.20997
.21289
.09645
.03371
.06804
.15857
. 12574
.27528
.21241
.04957
. 08871
.07332
.21400
. 10141
.31229
. 23953
. 15292
.12068
. 18153
.19960
.26465
.27898
.20008
. 10828
. 16514
.12680
.22828
.04738
.27937
. 19193
. 12135

0.05663
.27443
. 16691
.,50744
. 13589
..53889
. 07577
.09082
. 19075
.36671
.11484
.08400
.43164
.39539
.09712
. 14362
. 24942
.27003
.063.59
.43679
. 16872
.43713
.08522
.45435
. 27765
.34.524
. 12989
.07010
. 13652
.24.303
.22705
. 45299
.29079
.06240
. 10747
. 11636
.28823
.15470
.50238
. 29575
.21187
. 16373
.22529
.25522
.34616
.39297
.31842
. 19905
. 23690
. 1,5971
.24468
. 14213
.28569
. 19388
. 17833

0.0003218
.0004222
.0003948 .
.0003348
. 0003955
. 0005677
.0001877
.000.3531
.0003129
. 0003485
. 000.3383
.0003134
. n003e'00
.O(K)3130
. 0003908
. 0003607
.0003602
. 00044,59
.0003894
. 0003926
.0001,502
.0003986
.0003309
.0003844
. 0003454
.0004.501
.000.3072
. 00024^0
. 0002577
.0004036
. 0002788
.0002917
. 0003675
.00029(^9
.0002.599
. 0003395
.0004281
. 0003064
.0004170
. 00042h3
. 000.50r3
. 0003624
.0003566
. 0004321
.0004.594
.0003660
.0003357
.0003016
.0003036
.0003399
.0003916
.0004307
.0003832
.0004128
. 0004228

0.0005498

20707

.0006181

21305

. 0005350

21808

.0004389

21908

. 0007855

21909

.0010265

22205

. 0002677

22207

.000.5376

22'10 . ...

. 0006401

22211

. 0<i06.537

26906

. 0005037

26909

. 0004667

27005

. 0004984

27205

. 0004437

27207

. 0005850

27305

.000.5379

27505

. 0004627

27506

. 0006082

28805 ....

. (XX)7309

2.8S06

. 0006376

33605

. 0005605

38505

. 0007764

3S(:08

. 000.5394

39205 . .

. 0004407

48106

48305

. 0004.567
. 0007299

48409

.0004137

48.505

48705

.0005117
.0005171

5.5005

5.5006

5.5008

.0006185
.0005034
. 0004799

55206

5.5305

55307

55508....^^

55605 . .

.0005031
.0003736
.0003142
.0005386
. 0005765

5.5905

. 0004674

55907

5.5908

55909

.56205

56206

.000;.707
.C(X),52(.2
.0007016
.0004917
.0004426

56207. _

56208

57407

. 0005524
.0006149
.00051.57

57408

.000.5343

57.507

65306

6.5307

65308

69805

80305

81705

81708

. 000,5,545
. 0004355
. 0004282
.0004197
.0002921
.0003919
.0004170
.0006213

Average. .

1.80

2.76

442.5

9.0243

.02016

. 16392

.23801

.0003653

.000.5538

GLIADIN-PLUS-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 2 TO 2 5 PER CENT.

17506.
20706,
20709
20710
20805
21208
21807
21809
21811
21812
21SI3
21905

2.23

3.52

93

2.05

2.78

163

2.31

3.05

258

2.00

2.83

867

2.26

3.32

697

2.15

3.24

287

2.11

2.73

377

2.18

2.73

418

2.16

3.75

567

2.02

4.26

9,8.3

2.14

4.04

216

2.18

2.64

791

2.2881

3. 31.38

5. 3229

17.1115

14.6942

5. 1594

9. 4172

8. 0214

11.9114

14.8139

4, 02,58

14.3111

0.

02460
02033
02063
01974
02157
01798
02498
01919
02101
01.507
01877
01809

. 05102
. 06793
.12296
. 34222
. 33208
. 11093
. 19870
.17487
.25728
.29934
.08615
.31198

0. 0S044
.09212
. 16235
. 48428
. 4S7S4
. 16712
.25709
. 21898
. 44666
. 63107
. 16377
.37781

0. 00054S6
.0004168
. 0004766
. 0003948
. 0004875
.00038<6
.0005271
. 000418:3
. 0004538
.0003044
.0004017
. 0003944

0. 0008660
. 00056.52
.(KK)62r2
. U0055r6
. 0006999
. 000,5824
. 0006664
. 0005238
. 0007.877
.0006420
. 0007.5.S2
.0004^77

90

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 21. — Relation of proteid nitrogen to gliadin-plus-glutenin nitrorien — Continued.
GLIADIN-PLUS-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 2 TO 2.5 PER CENT— Continued.

Record num-
ber.

21906..
21907..
22206. .
22208. .
2680S..
26905..
26908..
27.508..
28206. .
33107..
33305: .
33607..
34405. .
37305. .
37707..
39.506..
40.505..
46107..
4S.306..
48406..
48506..
5.5007..
55,506..
.5.5507..
56105..
.56106..
.56107..
.56209.-
57007..
57406..
57506. .
5750S. .
58207..
58705..
58805..
63106..
66005..
74606..
76206..
81706. .

Percentage of —

Gliadin-
plus-
glute-
nin ni-
trogen.

2.10

2.15

2.11

2.14

2.28

2.09

2.16

2.32

2.42

2.12

2.41

2.45

44

29

10

00

19

2.08

2.13

2.25

2.17

2.21

2.20

2.07

2.12

09

23

21

09

13

34

05

40

47

11

20

IS

05

05

Proteid
nitro-
gen.

3.18
3. 35
3.22
3.10
3.09
2.76
2.96
2.64
3.07
2.35
3.41
3.22
i 33
2.96
2.93
2.93
■1 82
2. .54
3. 29
4.87
3.20
4.21
2.80
2.63
2.73
2.57
2.96

2.03

Average .

2.18

59
65
75
80
21
09

3. 01

74
79
63
•30

4.45
2.71

Num-
ber of
ker-
nels.

408
158
146
118
222
326
192
251
219
318
150
136
207
309
193
67
170
478
157
249
556
118
866
504
336
644
872
950
168
135
180
380
307
235
1,1.5S
165
370
464
447
722

Weight (in grams) of—

Kernels.

3.08 ; 380.1

10. 4800
2. 9248
2. 5712
1.9090
3. 8811

6. 4102
3. 9797
5. 5324
4. 3698
6. 1026
3. 1.346
2. 8902
4.1281
6. 1394
3. 3004
1.9218
4.1546
8. 3935
2. 6571
3. 2964
9. 4585
2. 1571

17. 850G
9. 8228
5. 7431
12.0161
14. 4556
15. 80S6

1. .5364

2. 4923
2. 7616

12.0728
4. 2207

2. 5436
23. 1471

3. .3006

7. 6690
9. 6451
5.4411

15. 3928

Average
kernel.

Gliadin-
plus-ghi-

tenin ni-
trogen in

kernels.

Proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

0. 02563

.01851
.01720
.01619
.01748
. 01966
. 02073
. 02287
. 01996
.01919
. 02090
.02125
. 01994
. 01987
.01710
. 02S69
02444
.017.56
.01692
. 01324
.01701
. 01828
. 02062
. 01949
.01709
.01866
.016.58
.01604
.01746
.01846 i
. 01534
.03177
.01.375
.01082
. 01999
. 02001
. 02073
. 02079
.01217
.021.32

0. 22008
. 06288
. 05425
. 04084
. 08849
. 1.3398
. 08596
. 12S35
. 10575
. 12643
. 07554
. 07081
. 10073
. 14060
.06931
. 03959
. 09099
. 17458
. 05660
.08168
. 20525
. 04767
. 39272
. 20333
. 03.503
. 05~6S
. 10553
. 34937
.03211
. 05309
. 06462
. 247.50
. 10510
. 06283
. 48839
.07261
.16714
. 10772
.11046
. 31248

0. 33403
. 09798
. 08086
. 06071
.11992
. 17692
.11780
. 14608
. 13415
. 14.341
. 10689
. 09307
. 17875
. 18173
. 09670
.0.5631
.11716
. 21319
.08742
. 16053
. 30267
. 09082
. 49995
. 25834
. 1.5679
. 30881
. 42792
. 40945
.04164
. 06854
. 077.33
.26680
. 13042
. 07656
. 63422
. 09208
.20170
.22184
. 24213
.41715

Gliadin- |
pluE-glute-
nin nitro-
gen in aver-
age kernel, j

0.0005382 '
. 0003980
. 000362?)
. 0003465
. 0003085
. 0004109
. 0004478
. 0005306
. 0004830
. 0004163
. 0005037
. 0005206
. 0004865
. 0004.5.50
. 0003591
.000.5910
.00053.52
. 0003652
. 0003604
. 0002979
. 0003691
. 0004040
.00045.36
. 0(X>4034
. 0001042
. 0000896
.0001210
. 0003677
. 0003649
. 0003932
. 0f)03590
. 0006513
. 0003424
. 0002673
.0004218
. 0004402
. 0004519
. 0004262
. 0002471
. 0004328

Proteid
nitrogen
in aver-
age ker-
nel.

O.OOOMOS
.OOOii-.'liI
.oo(i:..">:;n

.0(lll."il44
. 000."i-!02
.0005427
.0006135
. 0006037
.0006126
. 0004510
.0007126
. 0006843
. 0008635
. 000.5881
.000.5010
. 0008404
. 0006892
. 0004460
. 0005568
. 0006447
. 0005444
. 0007696
. 0005773
. 0005126
. 0004667
. 0004795
. 0004907
. 0004310
. 0004731
. 0005077
. 000-1296
. 0007021
. 0004248
. 0003258
. 0005464
. 0005581
. 0005451
. 0004781
. 0005417
. 0005778

7. 2520

. 01935

. 14641

. 215.35

. 0004063

. 000587

GLIADIN-PLUS-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 2.5 TO 3 PER CENT.

42205

2.73

3.63

94

1. 8494

0. 01967

0.0.50049

0. 06713

0. 0005370

0. 000-

"142

57805

2.68

2.87

270

4. 8988

.01814

.13126

.14060

. 0004861

.0011.

.207

57905

2.92

.3.18

221

2. 4731

.01118

.07221

. 07859

. (H)0'264

.000

551)

72607

2. 51

5. .59

188

3. 4442

. 018'2

. 03645

. 19253

. 000 .'508

.00: 0241

81505

2.65

2.94

146

2. 8327

.01940

.7507

.0S328

.0005141

.000.

)704

Average . . .

2.698

3.64

183.8

3. 0696

. 01734

. 08310

. 11243

. 0C04647

. 0006370

GLIADIN-PLU.S-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 3 PER CENT AND OVER.

40205

02306

3.07
4.06

4.69
4.93

194
347

3.6302
6.0091

0.01871 '
.01732

0.11145
.24397 ;

0. 17026 !
. 29625

0. 0005744
. 0007032

0. 0008776
. 0008539

Average

3.56

4.81

270.5

4.8196

..01801

.17771 :

.23.325

i

.0006388

.0008657

IMPROVEMENT IN QUALITY OF GLUTEN.

91

Table 22. — Sinnman/ of analyses, shoicing relation cf proteid nitrogen to gliadin-phs-

ghitenin nitrogen.

Percentage Number
of— of—

Range of
percentage of
gliadin-plus-
glutenin ni-
trogen.

Glia-
din-
plus-
glii-
tenin
nitro-
gen.

^'^°- An-
teid A^,.

nitro- *'^

gen.

ses.

Itol.o 1.34

1.5 to2 1.80

2 to 2.5 2.18

2.5 to3 2.70

3 and over — | 3. 56

3. 08
2.76
3.08
3.64

4.81

Ker-
nels.

15 i 333

55

52

5

2

442.5
3S0. 1
183.8
270.5

■Weight (in grams) of-

Kernels.

6. 6228
9. 0243
7. 2520
3.0696
4. 8196

Average
kernel.

Gliadtn-
J plus-glu-
tenin ni-
trogen
in ker-
nels.

I

0. 019.39
.02016
. 01935
.01734
. 01801

0. 09198
. 16392
. 14641
. 08310
. 17771

Gliadin-

Proteid

plus-glute-

nitrogen

nin nitro-

in ker-

gen m

nels.

average

kernel.

0. 1S74S

0. 0002545

. 23S01

. 00036.53

.21.535

. 0004063

1 . 11243

. 0004647

.23325

.0006388

Proteid
nitrogen
in aver-
age ker-
nel.

0. 0005S43
. 00)5538
.00()5S72
. 0006370
. 0O0S657

IMPROVEMENT IN THE aUALITY OF THE GLUTEN.

It is well known that large differences exist in the bread-making
values of different varieties of wheats even when they have approxi-
mately the same gluten content and are raised in the same locality.
This fact is generally attributed to differences in the c^uahty of the
gluten.

W. Farrar" points out the difference in the bread-making qualities
of two wheats due to the cjuality of the gluten. He compares Saxon
Fife wheat, which had a gluten content of 9.92 per cent, and which
produced 309 pounds of bread from 200 pounds of ffour, with Purple
Straw Tuscan wheat, which had a gluten content of 9.94 per cent, and
which produced only 278 pounds of bread from the same quantity of
flour.

In this case it was not the amount but the quahty of the gluten that
determined the greater excellence of the Saxon Fife wheat.

It has further been stated by Girard,'' Snyder,' and Guthrie'^ that
the ratio in which gliadin and glutenin exist in the gluten determines
its value for bread making.

It was considered desirable to ascertain whether the proportions
of these two constituents remain about the same in wheats of high
and of low content. If the quality of the gluten remains constant as
the quantity increases, the value of the wheat for bread making wiU
improve in about the same ratio. If, on the other hand, there is a
tendency for the quality to deteriorate as the quantity increases,
there would be greater difffculty in effecting improvement.

In Table 23, analyses of the crop of 1903 are arranged in groups
according to their content of gliadin plus glutenin. The first group
comprises all plants having less than 1 per cent, ^ind each succeeding
group increases by 0.25 per cent. It is foUowed by Table 24, which
is a summary of Table 23.

« Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, 9 (1898), pp. 241-2.50.

''Conipt. Rend., 1897, p. 876.

'"Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletins ,54 and 63.

<^ Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, 9 (1898), pp. 363-374.

92

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 23. — Ratio of gliadin to glutenin as the content of their sum increases.
GLIADIN-PLUS-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, BELOW 1 PER CENT.

1 Percentage of—

Proportion of—

Percentage of—

Record number. pUis-
glutenin
nitrogen.

Gliadin
nitrogen.

Glutenin
nitrogen.

Gliadin.

Glutenin.

Protdd Oth|r
nitrogen. J?;«^^|^<i^_

21205 0.216

21206 218

21207 .170

21212 1 .192

21306 975

21307 461

21805 ■ 230

0.114
.142
.099
.109
.505
.2.55
.126
.806
.018
.629
.237

0.102
.076
.071
.083
.470
. 206
.104
. 015
.730
.026
.399

0.528
.651
.582
.567
.518
.447
..548
.982
.024
.960
.372

0.472
.349
.418
.433
.482
.553
.452
.018
.976
.040
.628

3.16
5.23
2.96
2.16
2.90
3.04
2.69
2.. 53
2.70
2.54
2.34

2.944
5.012
2.790
1.968
1.925
2.579
2.460
1.709
1.952
1.885
1.704

27307 .821

48806 748

55308 .655

81707 j .636

Average..! .484

.276

.208

..562

.438

2.93

2.448

GI.IADIN-PLUS-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 1 TO 1.25 PER CENT.

27509

1.087
1.227
1.184

1.072

.593

1.078

0.015
.634
.106

0.986
.483
.910

0.014
.517
.090

2.90
2.84
2.92

1.813
1.613
1.736

38005

43405

Average . .

1.166

.914

.2.52

.793

.207

2.89

1.721

GLIADIN-PLUS-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 1.25 TO 1.50 PER CENT.

26107

1.352
1.465
1.265
1.387
1.336
1.439
1.287
1.361
1.493
1.470

0.108
.815
.715
.725
.586
.818
1.057
1.240
.899
.443

1.244
. 650
.550
.662
.7.50
.621
.230
.121
..594

1.027

0.080
.556
..565
.522
.439
..568 .
.821
.911
.602
..301

0.920
.444
.435
.478
.561

, .432
.179
.089
.398
.699

3.92
2.36
2.64
2.63
2.74
2.88
2.90
3.58
2. .58
2.81

2.568
.895
1.375
1.243
1.404
1.441
1.613
2.219
1.087
1.340

27206 . . .

37705

38606

38609 . ...

39405

44606

45005

55606

55906

Average . .

1.385

...

.645

.536

.463

2.90

1.518

GLIADIN-PLUS-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 1.50 TO 1.75 PER CENT.

189D5

1.537
1.555
1.692
1.700
1.735
1.651
1.555
1.731
1.504
1.563
1..581
1.561
1. 608
1.658
1.639
1.546
1.683
1.641

0.143

.801

1.002

1.073

1.075

1.032

.958

.962

.690

.057

.687

.908

.632

.810

1.177

1.141

.965

1.221

1.394
.754
.690

.627
.660
.619
.597
.769
.814
1.506
.894
.653
.976
.848
.462
.405
.718
.420

0.093
.515
.592
.631
.619
.625
.616
.5.56
.459
.036
.435
..582
.393
.488
.717
.738
.573
.744

0.907
.485
.408
.369
.381
.375
.384
.444
.541
.964
.565
.418
.607
.512
.283
.262
.427
.256

3.81

3.17

3.17

2.41

2.58

2.12

2.91

2.82

2.02

3.13

2.60

1.89

2.59

2.30 •

2.61

2.85

2.41

2.41

2.273

1.615

1.478

.710

.845

.469

1.355

1.089

.516

1.567

1.019

.329

.982

.642

.971

1.304

.727

.769

22210

22211

27205

27305

27.505

28805

38608

48409

48705

55008

5.5307

55907

55909

57408

57507

65306

81708

Average . .

• 1.619

.852

.767

..523

.477

2.65

1.037

[MPROVEMENT IN QUALITY OF GLUTEN.

93

Table 23. — Ratio ofgliadin to glutenin as the content of their sum increases — Continued.
GLIADIN-PLUS-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 1.75 TO 2 PER CENT.

Record nuniljer.

Percentage of—

Gliadin-

plus-
glutenin
nitrogen.

20707.
20710.
2130.i.
21808.
21908.
21909.
2220.5.
26906.
26909.
27005.
27207.
27506.

33605.
38505.
39205.
48106.
48305.
48505.
55005.
55006.
55206.
5.5305.
55508.
55605.
55905.
55908.
.56205.
56206.
56207.
56208.
57407.
65307.
65308.
69805.
80305.
81705.

1.855
1.996
1.969
1.963
1 . 87()
1.976
1 . 969
1.819
1.879
1.904
1.946
1.977
1.864
1.919
1 . 766
1.845
1.805
1.766
1.757
1.987
1.7.54
1.866
1.974
1.959
1.959
1.7.50
1.957
1.850
1.949
1.827
1.946
1.858
1.815
1.946
1.937
1.770
1.956

Gliadin Glutenin
nitrogen, nitrogen.

1.046
1. 125
1.049
1.046
1.015
1.367
1. 185

.988

.996
1.066
1.278
1.147

.902
1. 124

. 862
1.117
1.035

.996

.965
1. 102
1.099

.840
1.042
1.037
1.044

.575
1.075

.883
1.089

.987
1.127

.935
1.052
1.090
1.142
1.159
1.048

0.809
.871
.920
.917
.861
.609
.784
.831
.883
.838
.668
.830
.962
.795
.904
.728
.770
.770
.792
.885
.655

1.026
.932
.922
.915

1. 175
.882
.967
.860
.840
.819
.923
.763
.856
.795
.611
.908

Proportion of — Percentage of —

0.564
.564
..533
.533
.541
.697
.602
.543
.531
.'559
.652
.580
.484
.585
.488
.605
.573
..564
.549
.5.55
.626
.450
.528
.529
.533
.328
..549
.477
.559
.540
.579
.503
.579
.560
.589
.661
.535

Protpid Other
Gliadin. Glutenin. I ^'°^"'J proteid
mnogen. nitrogen.

Average.. 1.889

1.044

.845 !

.552

0.436
.436
.467
.467
.459
.303
.398
.457
.469
.441
.348
.420
.51(1
.415
.512
.395
.427
.436
.451
.445
.374
.5.50
.472
.471
.467
. 672
.451
.523
.441
.460
.421
.497
.421
.440
.411
.339
.465

2.77
2.83
2.67
2.57
3.82

43

81

71

80

63

92

70

3.02

2.39

3.61

2.11

2.38

2.87

.448

.66
.05
.16
.56
.48
.11
2.64
2.67
2.42
2.51
2.42
2.34
2.61
2.62
2.28
2.09
5.82
1.81
1.98

2.82

0.915

.834

.701

.607

1.944

2.4.54

.841

.891

.921

.726

.974

.723

1.156

.471

1.844

.265

.575

1.104

1.903

1.063

1.406

.694

..506

1.151

.681

.920

.463

.660

.471

.513

.664

.762

.465

.144

3.883

.040

.024

.929

GLIADIN-PLU.S-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 2 TO 2.25 PER CENT.

17506
20706
21208
21807
21809
21811
21812
21813
21905
21906
21907
22206
22208
26905
26908
33107
37707
39506
40505
46107
48306
48406
48,506
5.5007
55.506
55507
56105
56106
.56107
5(209

2.226
2.053
2.146
2.110
2.178
2.156
2.023
2.141
2.181
2.096
2.146
2.113
2.142
2.087
2.158
2.123
2.097
2.065
2.189
2.076
2. 135
2.249
2.171
2.211
2. 197
2.070
2.118
2.091
2.234
2.208

1.458
1.089
1.154
1.174
1.183
1.144
1.139
1.045
1.344
1.208
1.187
1.271
1.309
1.197
1.250
1.283
1.044
1.281
1.143
1.164
1.130
1.290
1.104
1.248
1.136
1.079
1.277
1.091
1.033
1.161

0.768
.964
.992
.936
.995

1.012
.884

1.096
.837
.888
.959
.842
.833
.890
.908
.840

1.0.53
.784

1.046
.912

1.005
. 9.59

1.067
.963

1.061
.991
.^1

1.000

1.201

1.047-

0.655
.530
..537
.556
.543
.531
. .563
.488
.616
.576
. 553
.601
.611
.573
..579
.604
.498
.620
..522
.561
.529
.574
..508
.564
.517
.521
.603
. .522
.462
.526

0.345
.470
.463
.444
.457
.469
.437
.512
.384
.424
.447
.399
.389
.427
.421
.396
.502
.380
.478
.439
.471
.426
.492
.436
.483
.479
.397
.478
.538
.474

3.52

2.78

24
73
73
75
26

4.04
2.64
3.18

.35
.22
.18
.76
.96
2.35
2.93
2.93
2.82
2.54
3.29
4.87
3.20
4.21
2.80
2.63
2.73
2.57
2.96
2.59

1.294

.727

1.094

.620

.552

1.594

2.237

1.899

.459

1.084

1.204

1.107

1.038

.673

.802

.227

.833

.865

.631

.464

1. 155

2.621

1.029

1.999

.603

.560

.612

.479

.726

.382

94

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 23. — Ratio of gliadin to gl'itenin as the cintent of their sum increases — C'ontinued,
GLIADIN-PLUS-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 2 TO 2.25 PER CENT— Continued.

Record number.

Percentage of—

Proportion of—

Percentage of—

Gliadin-

plus-
ghitenin
nitrogen.

Gliadin
nitrogen.

Glutenin
nitrogen.

Gliadin.

Glutenin.

Proteid
nitrogen.

Other

proteid

nitrogen.

57007

2.093

1.159

0.934

0.553

0.447

2.65

0.557

57406

2. 134

1.080

1.054

.506

.494

2.75

.616 -

57508

2.053

1.124

.929

.547

.453

2.21

.157

58805

2.112

1.060

1.0.52

.501

.499

2.74

.628

63106

2.199

1.186

1.013

.539

.461

2.79

.591

66005

2.181

1.142

1.039

..528

.472

2.63

.449

74e06

2.046

1.016

1.030

.496

.504

2.30

.254

76206

2.029

1.223

.806

.602

.398

4.45

2.421

81706

Average . .

2.034

1.701

.333

.816

.184

2.71

.676

2.130

1.187

.943

.557

.443

3.05

.921

GLIADIN-PLU.S-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 2.25 TO 2.50 PER CENT.

20709

2.313
2.259
2.281
2.324
2.424
2.407
2.446
2.443
2.293
2.344
2. 492
2.467

1.307
1.215
1.377
1.247
1.366
1.182
1.391
1.230
1.208
1.203
1.313
1.195

1.006
1.044
.904
1.077
1.0.58
1.225
1.0.55
1.213
1.085
1.141
1.179
1.272

0.565
.538
.604
.537
.563
.461
.569
.503
.527
.,511
.526
.484

0.435
.462
.396
.463
.437
.509
.431
.497
.473
.489
.474
.516

3.05
3.32
3.09
2.64
3.07
3.41
3.22
4.33
2.96
2.80
3.09
3.01

0.737

1.061
.809
.316
.646

1.003
.774

1.887
.667
.456
.598
.543

20805

25808

27508

28206

33305

33607

34405 . .

37305

,57.506

58207

58705

Average . .

2.374

1.268

1. 105

.535

.465

3.16

.791

GLIADIN-PLUS-GLUTENIN NITROGEN, 2.50 PER CENT AND OVER.

40205

3.089
2.728
2.684
2.918
2.515
2.6.52
4.033

1.850
1.480
1.303
1..573
1.459
1.066
2.388

1.219
1.248
1.381
1.345
1.056
1.586
1.675

o.eo3

.542
.485
.539
.579
.401
..587

0.397
.458
.515
.461
.421
.599
.413

4.69
3.63
2.87
3.18
5.59
2.94
4.93

1.621
.902
.186
. 2o2

3.075
.288
.867

42205

57805

57905

72607

81505

92306

Average . .

2.947

1.588

1.3.58

.,534

.466

3.98

1.029

Table 24. — Summary of analyses, shoiring the ratio of gliadin to glutenin as the content of

their sum increases.

Percent-
age of

gliadin-
plus-

glutenin

nitrogen.

Number

of
analyses.

Percentage of—

Proport

ion of —

Percentage of—

Range of percentage

of gliac in-plus-
glutenin nitrogen.

Gliadin Glutenin
nitrogen, nitrogen.

Gliadin.

Glutenin.

Proteid
nitrogen.

Other

proteid

nitrogen.

Below 1

1 to 1.25

1 25 to 1..50

1..50 to 1.75

1.75 to 2

0.484
1.166
1..385
1.619
1.889
2. 1.30
2.374
2.947

U
3
10
18
37
39
12
7

0.276

.914

.741

.852

1.044

1. 187

1.268

1.588

0.208
.252
.645
.767
.845

1. 105
1.358

0.562
.793
..536
. ,523
.552
. 557
. 535
.534

0.438
.207
.463
.477
.448
.443
.465
.466

2.93
2.89
2.90
2.65
2.82
3.05
3.16
3.98

2. 448
1.721
1.518
1.0H7
.929

2 to 2 25

.921

2.25 to 2.50

.791

2.50 and over

1.029

It will be seen from Table 24 that the ratio of gliadin to glutenin

remains practically the same as the percentage of their sum increases.

It would therefore be safe to assume that an ii crease in the gluten

BREEDING TO INCREASE PROTEID NITROGEN. 95

content of a given variety of wheat raised in the same region would
carrv with it a corresponding improvement in its value for bread
making, although there might be fluctuations from year to year in
quahty of gluten, as there is in the quantity.

If the quality of gluten is determined by the ratio of gliadin and
glutenin of which it is composed, it is likely that there is some certain
proportion that is most desirable. Unfortunately, the investigators
who have taken up this subject do not by anj^ means agree upon the
proper ratio. Should this be ascertamed there would be ample oppor-
tunity for the selection of individual plants in which the proportion
of gliadin and glutenin would approximate the ideal. There would
thus be possible a much more rapid improvement in the Ciuality of
wheat than can be accomplished by confining selection to an increase
in the gluten.

An obstacle to the usefulness of these determinations in the whole
wheat appears in the announcement by Nasmith, already cited, that
while gliadin occurs in all portions of the endosperm, glutenin does
not appear in the aleurone cells. That being the case, it is difficult to
believe that an^^ given ratio between these constituents in the whole
wheat could be taken as the one most desirable. The ratio in the
gluten alone may, however, have an important influence on its
quality, and a certain definite proportion of each may produce an
ideal gluten.

In the light of the present knowledge on the subject, a mechanical
determmation of gluten would seem to be most useful, if it can be
made with such small quantities of wheat as are obtained from
single plants, while determinations of gliadin and glutenin in the
gluten would afford a means of judging of its cjuality.

SOME RESULTS OF BREEDING TO INCREASE THE CONTENT OF

PROTEID NITROGEN.

Selected plants have been grown on a large scale for two years.
From these results it is verj apparent that a high percentage of
nitrogen and the qualities that go with it are transmissible from one
generation to another.

In Table 25 are analyses of the plants of the crop of 1902, grouped
according to their proteid nitrogen content into classes of from 1 to 2
per cent, 2 to 2.5 per cent, and increasing by 0.5 per cent up to 4.5
per cent and above. Opposite the plant number of each plant of the
crop of 1902 are stated its percentage of proteid nitrogen and weiglit
of proteid nitrogen in kernels. On the same line are the plant
numbers for the entire progeny in 1903, and following these are the
percentage of proteid nitrogen, weight of proteid nitrogen per average
kernel, and average weight of kernel for all of these progeny.

The averages for each group are given in Table 26.

96

IMPKOYING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 25. — Analyses showing transmission o-f nitrogen from one generation to another. c
1 TO 2 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

1902

1903

Record num-
ber.

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Proteid

nitrogen

in average

kernel

(gram).

Weight of

average

kernel

(gram).

Record num-
ber.

Percent-
age of
proteid

nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Proteid

nitrogen

in average

kernel

(gram).

AV eight of

average

kernel

(gram).

32201

1.51
1.99
1.98
1.94
1.97
1.12
1.83
1.33
1.67
1..38
1.63
1.73
1.89
1.99
1.92

32206-7

32605-6 and 8. . .

63.50.5-6

6950.5-6

69705

2.64

2.62

2.17

2.39

2.50

2.586

3.09

2.628

2.814

2.67

2.576

2.27

1.87

2.85

2.498

0.0010055
.0015963
. 0007499
. 0009348
. 0003874
.0016918
.0010830
.0024129
. 0024.540
. 0006790
. 0022132
. 0008092
.0016125
. 0025361
.0026,506

0. 03874

32601

. 07560

6.3.501

. 03.502

69.501

03894

69701 . ...

. 01550

73301

73.306-8

91905-6

92405-9

92905-9

94105

9420.5-9

94406-7

94605-6

94905-9

. 06582

91901

.03513

92401

.09109

92901

.08814

94101

. 02543

94201

. 08738

94401

. 03,538

94601

. 08851

94901

. 08899

95501

95505-10

Average .

.10605

Average. .

1.658

2.587

.0004960

. 019907

1

a In this table the average percentage of proteid nitrogen for all plants raised in 1903, resulting from
plants of 1 to 2 per cent, 2 to 2.5 per cent, etc., in 1902 is determined by adding together analyses of
all plants in that group and dividing by the total number, irrespective of families.

2 TO 2.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

17401

2.45

2.28
2.33

1740[5-6] [8-10] .

i 34205-8

57305-8

2.646

2.857
2.54

0. 002,5803
.002.3077
.0018351

0. 09807

34201

. 08075

57.301

0. 000601

0. 02585

. 07010

Average .

Average. .

2.353

. 000601

.02585

2.68

.00051716

.019146

2.5 TO 3 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

21701

2.50
2.73

21705-11

3,3405-8

Average .

2.78
1.977

0.0042,343
.0014277

0. 15101

33401

.07274

Average. .

2.615

2.487

.0005147

. 02032

3 TO 3.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

17.301

3.04
3.14
3.31
3.22
3.49
3.05
3.10
3.17
3.28
3.24
3.12
3.00
3.31
3.06
3.33
3.22
3.08
3.46
3.18
3.13
3.44
3.21
3.09
3.33
3.31
3.11
3.11

17305-8

1750.5-7

3.207

4.006

3.64

2.86

3. .32

3.015

3.13

3. ,527

2.768

2.63

2.56

2.93

2.96

2.73

3.41

2.606

4.33

3.12

3.88

2.96

2.636

2.48

3. 25

2. ,59

2. 88

4.69

3.11

0.0025519
.0021778
. 0010439
.0034181
.0006999
.0021798
.0054513
.0060008
. 0025943
.0004984
.0016114
. 0022229
. 0013685
.0015199
. 0007126
.0017186
. 00OS635
. 0006904
. 0007295
. 000.5881
. 001,5390
.0009112
.0013476
. 0005148
. 0006027
. 0008776
. 0006255

0.07920

17.501

. 05595

1.S901

18905-6

20705-10

20805

2130,5-8

21805-13

. 02863

20701

. 12074

20801

.02157

21301

. 07278

21801

. 17668

21901

2190[5-9i [11-13]
2690,5-9

.16783

26901

. 09357

27001

27005

.01895

27201

2720,5-7

27305-8

.06314

27301

. 076.54

2§801

28805-6

33105-7

.04623

33101

. 05574

33301

1

33305

3360,5-7

34405

. 02090

3,3601

.06014

34401

0. 000909
. 000948
. 000827
. 000854
. 000085
. 000S31
. 000844
.000693
. 000933
.001017
.000914

0.029.56
. 02749
.02602
.02731
. 01995
.02.599
.027,32
.02081
.02820
.0.3271
.02942

. 01994

34601

34606

. 02213

36901

36905

.01880

37.301

.37305

37705-7

.01987

37701

.05837

37901

3790.5-6

.03641

38,501

3850.5-6,.. =

38706

. 04227

38701

. 01988

39401

,39405

. 02093

40'^01

40205

.01871

40301

40.305

.02011

BREEDING TO INCREASE PROTEID NITROGEN.

97

Table 25. — Analyses shoioing transmission of nitrogen from one generation io another —

Continued.

3 TO 3.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN— Continued.

190

2

1903

Record num-
ber.

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nel.

Proteid

nitrogen

in average

kernel

(gram).

Weight of

average

kernel

(gram).

Record num-
ber.

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
In ker-
nels.

Proteid

nitrogen

in average

kernel

(gram) .

Weight of

average.

kernel

(gram).

AC\XC\\

3.32
3.23
3.46
3. .37
3.24
3.37
3. .33
.3.16
3.49
3.16
3.36
3.43
3.19
3. .36
3.33
3.09
3.45
3. 25
3. 0.5
3.22
3.2fi
3.10
3.35
3.31
3.30
3.15
3.14
3.23
3.05
3. .30
3.14
3.15
3.46
3.12
3.16
3.02
3.22
3.17
3.03
3.31
3.26

3. 13
3.25
3.17
3.06
3. 23

. 3. .36
3.42
3.39
3.10
3.36
3.. 38
3.24

3. 14
3. 48
3.49
3.29

0.001039
.001050
.000972
. 000933
. 000907
.000772
. 000899
. 000853
.001005
.000866
.000820
.000888
. 000791
.000937
. 000789
. 000902
. 000928
. 0008.59
. 0009.30
. 000805
. 000808
.000787
. 000958
.000894
. 000785
.000781
. 0008.32
.000920
. 000723
.000900

0.03136
. 03250
.02813
.02766
. 02800
.02299
.02701 1
.02701
.02882
.02748
. 02445
. 02595
. 02488
. 02797
.02377
. 02928
. 02697
.02661
.03052
. 02507
.0-2185
.02.548
. 02S60
.02941
.02381
. 02485
.02665
.02846
.02379 1
.03000

40405

3.17

2.82

2.54

3.17

2.92

4.13

2.73

2.38

3.08

3.065

3.06

2.70

3.24

3. 17

1..34

3. 255

2.83

2.27

2.558

2.75

2.495

2.706

2.76

2.49

2.60

2.88

2.95

3.01

2.43

2.14

3.25

2.925

3.25

4.42

3.74

2.47

3.155

4.04

2.937

3.01

2.48

1.98

2.78

2.486

3.40

1.81

2.965

2.94

2.48

2.875

2.63

2.595

2.566

2.74

2.67

3.93

2.58

0. 0004352
. 0006892
.0008988
. 0005447
. 0006.594
. 0006423
. 0016171
. 0004567
.0012867
. 0021750
.0010077
. 0004877
. 0006149
. 0010793
. 0002422
. 0023714
. 0010373
.0017313
. 0028162
.0014.369
. 0025326
. 001.3974
. 0002527
.0019.599
.0021279
. 0006767
. 0008052
. 0003258
. 0003292
. 0007684
.00039.38
.0024199
. 0017773
. 0008767
. 0016495
.000.5.531
.0019005
.0021643
. 0026515
. 0005738
. 0003930
.00040.54
.00142.34
. 0013768
. 0009400
. 0003919
. 0010.576
. 0005704
. 000.5067
.0011244
. 00075.56
.0008522
. 0026^32
. 0009933
. 0020214
.0012908
. 0013009

0.01373

40501

40.505

4220.5-6

42905

4.3405

43.505

44605-7

.02444

42201

.03231

42901

.01866

43401

. 02258

43.501

.01.555

44601

48101

. 05890

48106

4830.5-6

48.505-8

4870.5-6

.01919

48301

.01235

48.i01

. 07253

48701

.0.3287

48S01

49501

50701

48806

49505

50705-6

.01798
.01898
. 03329

51001

55001

55201

55.301

55901

56101

56201

57001

51005

.01804

55005-8

. 07295

55205-6

.5.5.30.5-8

.5.590.5-9

56105-7

,5620.5-9

57005-7

.57105

.03688
.07496
.11169
. 05233
. 10169
.05174

57101

57401

. 00916

57405-8

. 07892

.57501 -■...

58201

58501

58701

57506-9

5S206-7

. 08396
.02318

58505

. 02730

.58705

58905

5960.5-6

.01082

589ei

59601

62801

65301

. 01355
.03592

62805

.01212

6530.5-8

.08003

. ...

6600.5-6,8

69305

69805-6

. 05529

69301

.01984

69801

. 04373

71901

71905

7240.5-6

.022.39

. 05892

7''601

7260.5-7

. 05274

72701

7270.5-8

.08981

7'>S01

72806

.01906

7''901

72905

! 74.305

.01.585

74301

. 02047

74.501

74.506-8

. 05084

74601

74605-7

.05562

76''01

7620.5-6

.02912

80301

80305

.02165

81401

8140.5-6

.03,583

81501

81.505

84405

. 01940

84401

. 02043

84901

84905-6

. 03902

8.5201

8.520.5-6

8610.5-6

.02937

86101

. 03244

88601

8860.5-9

.11179

88901

8890.5-6

92205-8

. 03625

92201

. 07575

92301

92305-6

. 03223

95701

95705-7

.0.5017

Average .

3.239

.000875

[

. 02700

Average .

2.932

.00056037

. 019189

3.5 TO 4 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

ISSOI
212(J1
22201
25201
26101
27501

.3.55 1 18805....

3. 50 i 2120.5-12.

3.65 II 2220.5-11.

3.63 I I '■ 2.520.5-6..

3. 76 ' 2610.5-7. .

3.58 1 27,505-9..

2.02
3.567
3. 165
2. 735
3.19
2.688

0. 0003164
. 0054768
. 0037042
.0011.894
. 0015273
.0028791

0.01.567
.1.5672
.11711
. 04347
.05113
. 10761

27889— No. 78—0.5-

98 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 25.— Analyses showing transmission of nitrogen from one generation to another —

Continued.

3.5 TO 4 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN— Continued.

i9oa

1903

Record num-
ber.

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Proteid

nitrogen

in average

kernel

(gram).

Weight of

average

kernel

(gram).

Record num-
ber.

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Proteid

nitrogen

in average

kernel

(gram).

Weight of

average

kernel

(gram).

3.3901

3.59
3.82
3.79
3.98
3.65
3.55
3.63
3.57
3.79
3.87
.3.55
3.87
3. .53
3.61
3.55
.3.79
3.76
.3.80
3.64
3.80
3.53
.3.91
3.78
3.57
3.56

33905-6

2.21

2.84

3. 718

2.11

2.975

2.37

.3.07

2.94

.3.58

2. .365
4.18
I..S4
2.90

3. 62
2.846
2. 555
2.37
2.87
3.18
2.31
1.87
2.82
2.27
3.21
3. .32

0.00089.32
. 0005135
.0016318
. 0004407
.001.3536
.0003177
. 0006927
.0005187
. 0004927
. 0<X)6777
.00071.55
. 0002700
. 0020794
.0010640
.0016285
.0022356
.001.5451
. 0005207
. 0003556
.0009317
.0003180
.0016570
.0031019
.0007197
.0017483

0.04115

38001

0. 0(KJS06
.001046
.0010.39
.001048
. 000927
.001.327
. 000796
.001020
.0012.38
. 000865
.001146
. 000993
. 001043
.001020
.001050
. 001030
.000891
. 000852
. 000904
. 000759

6.62116
.02765 !
.02616
.02877 '
.02619
.02838
.02.531
. 02690
. 03205
. 02435
.02963
.02822
.02898
. 02866
.02775
.02750
.02353
.02348
.02.3,84 I
.02155

38005.

. 01808

38601

38605-9

. 09917

39201

.39205

.39506-7

. 02089

39.501

. 04.568

39601 . ..

.39606

42405

. 01341

42401

. 02251

44-501

44.505

4.5005.

.01764

4.5001

.01376

4.5601

45605-6

. 02995

45701

45705.

.01712

45S01

45805

48405-9

.012.34

48401

.07511

49901

49905

55.506-8

. 029.39

55.501

. 05743

55601

.5.560.5-8

57606-8

. 08822

57601

. 06535

57801

.57805

57905

.01814

57901

.01118

58S01

60601

.5880.5-6

60605

.04048
. 01701

63101

6310.5-7

8170.5-10

91305

92505-7

. 05951

81701

1

. 13635

91.301

.02242

92501

.05312

Average .

Average .

3.68

.000990

.026.50

2.906

. 0005508

. 019204

4 TO 4.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

26801

4.07
4. .30
4.00

26805-8

2.825

0. 0023073

0.08179

28201

28206

.3.07
2.69

.0006126
.0014772

. 01996

46101

0.000988

0. 02472

4610.5-7

.05465

Average .

Average .

4. 123

.000988

.02472

2.806

.000.5496

. 019588

MORE THAN 4.5 PER CENT PROTEID NITROGEN.

50901

4.95

0. 001074

0.02171

50905-6

Average .

3.435

0.0008992

0. 02001

1

3. 435

.0004496

. 010005

Table 26. — -Summary of analyses, showing transmission of nitrogen from one generation to

another.

1903

1903

Range of percentage of
proteid nitrogen.

Percent-
age of
proteid

nitrogen
in ker-
nes.

Num-
ber of
analy-
ses.

Proteid

nitrogen

in average

kernel

(gram).

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram).

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Num-
ber of
analj'-
ses.

Proteid

nitrogen

in average

kernel

(gram) .

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram).

1 to 2

1.66
2. .35
2.61
3.24
.3.68
4.12
4.95

15
3
2

84

31

3

1

2.59
2.68
2.49
2.93
2.91
2.81
3.43

46

13

11

199

79

8

2

0.0004960
.0005172
.0005147
.0005604
.0005508
.000.5496
. 0004496

0.01991

2 to 2.5

0. 000601

0. 02585

.01915

2 5 to 3 ...

. 02032

3 to 3.5

. 000875
. 000990
. 000988
.001074

.02700
. 026,50
.02472
.02171

.01919

3. 5 to 4

. 01920

4 to 4.5

. 01959

4. 5 and over

.01000

BREEDING TO INCREASE PROTEID NITROGEN.

99

In Table 26 the averages for each group are stated. This table is
designed to show whether there has been a tendency for plants of a
certain class to reproduce the qualities pertaining to that class, or
whether these are lost in the offspring.

It is unfortunate that there are not a greater number of analyses of
plants of medium and of low nitrogen content. The plants selected
for reproduction in 1903 were largely those of high nitrogen content,
and, consequently, comparatively few analyses of the low nitrogen
and medium nitrogen plants of 1903 are at hand.

Table 25, shows that in the main there is a tendency for each class
of plants to reproduce in the same relation to the other classes, but
that there is less difference between the extreme classes in the off-
spring than in the parent plants. In other words, while all plants
lend to reproduce their own qualities, those plants varying widely
from the average produce, in general, oft'spring varying from the
average less widely than did the parents. Although this is a rule, its
application to the individual is not universal. Certain plants may be
found whose tendency to variation extends through both generations.
There is also wide variation between certain plants of the same
parent. For instance, the plants numbered from 21205 to 21212, all
of which come from the same parent, vary from 2.16 to 5.23 per cent
in proteid nitrogen content, while plants 69805 and 69806 vary from
5.82 to 1.66 per cent in this constituent.'^'

It would seem, therefore, entirely reasonable to believe that a very
considerable increase in the proteid nitrogen content of wheat may bo
effected by careful and continuous reproduction from plants of high
proteid nitrogen content.

Table 27 contains the analyses of plants raised in 1902 and their
progeny raised in 1 903 , arranged according to the number of grams of
proteid nitrogen contained in the average kernel of the former.

Table 27. — Analyses showing transmission of proteid nitrogen in average kernel.

1903

1903

Range of proteid nitrogen
in average kernel
(gram).

Proteid
nitrogen
in aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram).

Num-
ber of
anal-
yses.

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel

(gram) .

Proteid

nitrogen
in aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram).

Num-
ber of
anal-
yses.

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel

(gram).

O.OOflfiOn to 0.000700

o.(xk:)7(k) to o.(H)osoo

O.fKXNK) to 0.(H)0900

O.(K1O90O toO.OOIOOO

0.001000 and over

0. 000659
. 000776
.000850
. 000938
.001077

3

9

18

18

15

3.03
3.29
3.33
3.37
3.71

0. 02220
. 02405
.02576
.02796
.02880

0. 000496
.000444
. 000544
. 000514
.000593

8
15
38
35

28

2.59
2.68
2.91
2.89
3.06

0.01895
. 01673
.01875
.01784
.01905

« Table 25 represents the properties of each plant grown in 1903 arranged according to
immediate families. For instance, plants numbered 17305-17308 are all the ofl'spring of
the same plant grown in 1902. The parent bears the number 17301. This is the system
of records devised by Prof. W. M. Hays, formerly of the University of Minnesota.

100

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 28. — Analyses showing transmission of kernel weight.

Range of weight of aver-
age kernel (gram) .

Below 0.024...
0.024 to 0.026..
0.026 to 0.028..
0.02.S to 0.030..
0.030 and over,

190^

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel

(gram) .

0. 02253
. 02.515
. 02709
.02878
.03152

Num-
ber of
anal-
yses.

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

12
12
18
16
6

3.61
3.28
3.43
3.41
3.31

Proteid
nitrogen
in. aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram).

1903

0. 00081 1
. 000813
. 000927
.000993
.001044

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram).

Num-
ber of
anal-
yses.

0.01684
.01740
.01947
. 01875
.01869

19
28
38
31
12

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

2.69
2.88
2.91
2.98
2.96

Proteid
nitrogen
in aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram).

0. 0004.50
. 000.503
.000.562
. 000573
. 000548

Table 28 shows the analyses of plants raised in 1902 and their prog-
eny raised in 1903, arranged according to weight of average kernel.
There is more variation in this table than in the preceding one, but
the tendency toward transmission of proteid nitrogen in the average
kernel may be noted. The averages for 1902 are much higher than
for 1903, owing partly to the higher percentage and parth' to greater
kernel weight.

The weight of the average kernel shows some tendency toward
transmission, although there are some variations. It will be noticed
that the kernels average much heavier in 1902 than in 1903, and that
in spite of this the percentage of proteid nitrogen is higher in 1902.
The relation of light kernel and high percentage of nitrogen does not
therefore appear to hold as between crops of different years.

All of the qualities of which determinations have been made in
both years appear to be transmitted. It may be safel}^ assumed that
certain plants will have greater power to transmit these qualities than
will the average plant. Such plants will assert themselves in the
course of three or four generations. From these plants individuals
may be selected that have a combination of the desired qualities.

YIELD OF GRAIN AS AFFECTED BY SUSCEPTIBILITY TO COLD.

As has already been stated, a large number of plants on the breed-
ing plots were killed during the winter of 1902-3. This afforded an
opportunity to ascertain the effect of the severe weather upon the
surviving plants. The question arose whether the surviving plants of
a family of which a large percentage of members were killed yielded
less per plant than the plants of a family of which but a small per-
centage had succumbed. As each spike of the crop of 1902 was
represented by a number of plants, and as records of each plant
were available, there were very extensive data at hand from which
to secure information on the subject.

In Table 29 the surviving plants of each immediate family, or, in
other words, the surviving plants descended from the same plant of
the previous year, are classified according to the percentage of plants
that survived the winter. Thus all plants of which only from 10 to 20

YIELD AS AFFECTED BY SUSCEPTIBILITY TO COLD.

101

per cent survived are grouped together. In the next class are all
plants of which from 20 to 30 per cent survived. The other classes
increase by 10 per cent surviving plants until 70 per cent is reached.
All plants of which more than 70 per cent survived form the last class.

Table 30 gives a summary of Table 29, the averages for each class
being shown. From this table it will be seen that with an increase
in the proportion of surviving plants there is an increase in the
weight of grain per plant and in the number of kernels per plant.
It is therefore to be concluded that decrease in 3'ield from winter-
killing is due not only to the loss of plants that are destroyed, but
also to a decreased yield from most of the surviving plants.

Table 30 also shows that the weight of the average kernel is not
affected by the freezing of a large proportion of the famil}-, the
decreased yield being due, it may be assumed, to the decreased
number of kernels, owing to a decreased ability to tiller.

With an increase in the proportion of surviving plants there is,
perhaps, a slight decrease in the percentage of proteid nitrogen in
the kernels and in the number of grams of proteid nitrogen in the
average kernel, although this is so slight and so irregular that it
would not be safe to draw any conclusions from it. The total pro-
duction of proteid nitrogen per plant naturally increases.

Table 29. — Yields of plants, arranged according to percentage killed in each family.

10 TO 20 PER CENT.

Percent-
age of

Weight

Weight

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-

Proteid

Proteid

Record number

p ants
in 1903

of ker-
nels on

Num-
ber of

of aver-
age

nitrogen
in ker-

nitrogen
in average

for 1902.

surviv-

plant

kernels.

kernel

nels

kernel

ing from

(gram) .

(gram).

(gram).

(gram).

1902.

18801

11.1
10.0
18.2
16.7
16.7
14.3
16.7

2. 1462
14.6942
7.7295
2.9905
6. 1394
2.5134
21.5399

137
697
363
156
309
139
1,031

0.01567
. 02157
.02173
.01858
.01987
.01808
.02089

2.02
3.32
2.73
2.73

2.96
2.84
2.11

0.04335

.48784
. 20732
. 07566
.18173
.07138
. 45435

0.0003164
.0006999
. 0005947
.000.5066
.000,1881
.0005135
. 0004407

20801

25201

33301

37301

38001

39201

39401

16.7

9. 3541

447

.02093

2.88

.21399

.0006027

40201

14.3

3. 6302

194

.01871

4.69

. 17026

.0008776

40401

16.7

.6316

46

.01373

3.17

.02002

. 0004352

42901

U 16.7
16.7

1.2499
2.8000

67
124

.01866
.02258

3.17
2.92

. 036.50
.08176

.000.5447
. 0006594

43401

44501

16.7

5.9990

340

.01764

2.94

. 17637

.0005187

45001

16.7

3. 2340

235

.01376

3.58

.11575

.0004927

4.5701

14.3

. 7532

44

.01712

4.18

.03148

.0007155

45801

16.7

1.5298

124

.01234

1.84

.II2S15

.0002700

49501

14.3
14.3
16.7
16.7
16.7

1.2716

.6760

15. 5835

3. 7263

7.4516

67

23

862

407

273

.01898
.02939
.01804
.00916
.02730

3.24
3.62
1.34

2.76
2.95

.(11120
.(12436
.JdSSl
. 1(12S5
.219S2

.(KK1(U49
.(K)10640
.0(H)2422
, (HK)2527
.(1(K)S052

49901

51001

57101 . .

58501

58701

16.7

2.5436

235

.01082

3.01

. 07ti56

. 0003258

5S901

16.7

2.3031

170

.01355

2.43

. 05596

. (K)03292

fiOHOl

16.7

.5952

35

.01701

1.87

.01113

.0(M)3180

fi2801

16.7

1.3451

111

.01212

3. 25

. 04272

. 0003938

69301

16.7

2. 0430

103

.01984

4.42

. 09030

. (KK)87()7

74301

16.7

4.4222

216

.02047

1.98

. 0875ti

.(H)040.54

84401

lfi.7

8. 7448

428

.02043

2.48

.21687

. (KK),5067

91301

14.3
14.3

3.0940
.5595

1S8

22

.02242
.02543

3.21

2.67

.09932
.01194

.(K)07197
.(MMHi790

94101

Average . .

15.78

4.7098

251.4

.01856

2.91

. 12294

.00051366

102

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 29.— Yields of plants, arranged according to percentage killed in each family — Cont'd.

20 TO 30 PER CENT.

Record number
for 1902.

Percent-
age of
plants
in 1903
surviv-
ing from
1902.

Weight
of ker-
nels on
plant
(gram) .

Num-
ber of
kernels.

Weight
of aver-
age
kernel
(gram).

Percent-
age of
proteid

nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels
(gram).

Proteid

nitrogen

in average

kernel

(gram).

18901

20.0
20.0
28.6
20.0
28.6
, 25.0
20.0
25.0
20.0
25.0
28.6
25.0
20.0
25.0
28.6
20.0
20.0
20.0
22.2
28.6

1.2046
16.4120
6. 1962
5.0200
4. 6383
3.6003
4. 1.546
1.0827
1.4892
1.4464
5.2800
9.8346
4.8988
2.4731
12.5470
28. 2136
1.5.7835
2.8327
3.4961
6.2877

84

866

280

267

346

179

170

59

66

93

321

547

270

221

626

1,260

729

146

199

106

0.01431
.01895
.02213
.01880
.01341
.02011
.02444
.01615
.02251
.01555
.01643
.01798
.01814
.01118
.02024
.02239
.02165
.01940
. 01756
.04425

3.64
2.63
3.12
3.88
2.37
3.11
2.82
2.54
3.07
4.13
3.06
2.70
2.87
3.18
2.31
2.47
1.81
2.94
3.09
1.87

0. 04437

.43164
. 19332
. 19478
. 10967
.11197
.11716
.03.587
. 04572
.05974
. 16124
. 26553
. 14060
.07859
.335-41
. 69688
. 28569
. 08328
. 10771
.11373

0.0005219 -
.0004984
. 0006904
.0007295
.0003177
.0006255
.0006892
. 0004494
. 0006927
. 0006423
. 0005038
. 0004877
.0005207
. 0003556
. 0004658
.0005531
.0003919
. 0005704
.0005415
.0008062

27001

34601

36901

39601

40301

40501 ■..

42201

42401

43501

48701

48801

57801

57901

58801

71901

80301

81.501

91901

94601

Average . .

23.5

6. 84457

341.75

.019779

2.88

.18065

. 0005527

30 TO 40 PER CENT.

26101 . . .

33.3
33.3
33.3
33.3
33.3
37.5
33.3
33.3
33.3
33.3
33.3
33.3
33.3

1.9790
4.3698
8.3240
6. 7169
.5757
5.03306
7.2545
7.3424
2.0631
8. 4456
3. 7810
7.6051
4. 1975

122
219
386
313
28
252
365
315
167
474
244
419
253

0.01704
.01996
.02311
.02057
.01820
.01814
.01988
.02117
.01000
.01796
.01550
.01812
.01611

3.19
3.07
2.96
2.21
2.48
3.25
2. .59
3.08
3.43
2.14
2.50
2.74
3.93

0.06318
. 13415
. 2.5019
. 12186
. . 01447
. 24284
. 18789
.21633
.07041
. 18099
. 09453
. 20632
. 18308

0.0005091
.0006126
. 0006842
. 0004466
. 0004556
. ( 006738
. 0005148
. 0006433
.0004496
.0003842
. 0003874
. 00049K6
. 0006454

28201

28801

33901. . . .

37901

38501

38701

48301

50901

.59601

69701

88901

92301

Average . .

33.6

5. 2065

273. 6

.01813

2.89

. 15125

.0005310

40 TO 50 PER CENT.

17501

21301

42.9
44.4
42.9
42.9
40.0
40.0
40.0
40.0
40.0
40.0
' 40.0
44.4
42.9
42.9

1. 1495
4.6950
2. 9905
1. 8251
.5329
8. 3672
2.0970
2. 6462
6.9409
2. 9064
5. 3261
4. 1705
5. 4034
8.6610

.55
259
156
93
32
321
110
167
472
156
314
238
297
484

D. 01865
.01819
.018.58
.01963
. 01664
. 02946
.01906
. 01585
.01456
.01791
.01622
.01894
.01771
. 01769

4.01
3.01
2.73
2.73
3.17
3.15
3.01
2.48
3.40
2.96
2. .59
2.67
3.32
2.27

0. 04268
. 14144
. 07.566
. 04998
.01712
• .26913
.06312
. 06563
. 22024
.07905
. 14008
.11199
. 16649
.20040

0. 0007259
.000.5449
. 0005066
.0005390
. 00O5396
.0009502
.0005738
. 0003930
.0004700
.0005288
. 0004261
.000.50.53
. 0005828
.0004046

33101

44601

50701 ...

72401

72801

72901

76201

81401

86101

92201

92501

94401

Average

41.7

4. 1223

225.3

.01843

2.96

.11736

. 0005493

YIELD AS AFFECTED BY SUSCEPTIBILITY TO COLD.

103

Table 29. — Yields of plants, arranged according to percentage killed in each family — Cont'd.

50 TO 60 PER CENT.

Record number
for 1902.

Percent-
age of
plants
in 1903
surviv-
ing from
1902.

Weight
of ker-
nels on
plant
(gram).

Num-
ber of
kernels.

Weight
of aver-
age
kernel
(gram).

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

Proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels
(gram).

Proteid

nitrogen

in average

kernel

(gram).

17301

50.0
54.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
57.1
50.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
57.1
50.0
50.0
50.0
57.1

3.0000
11.7777
6. 6626
12.9727
5. 2333
6. 0463
6. 8220
4. 1993
1.9040
2.3719
4.8728
6.0242
9.3804
4. 7193
7. 2278
4.2040
5.6295

156
581
327
611
271
273
328
237
89
140
273
309
435
224
334
295
266

0.01980
.01961
.02012
.02105
.01818
.02205
.02019
.01946
.02284
.01497
.01832
.01844
.02178
.01984
.02181)
.01468
.02236

3.21
2.65
2.85
2.56
1.98
2.61
2.86
2.64
2.97
2.36
2.69
2.83
2.37
2.82
3.74
2.63
2.57

0. 09556
.300.51
. 1.S906
.31.509
. 10621
. 147,59
. 18949
. 12164
. 05663
.048.52
. 13084
. 15608
.18680
. 12281
.17078
.11078
. 14178

0.0006380
.0005161
. C00.5( 97
.000.5371
0003569
. 0(X)5729
. 0005769
.0005130
. 0006768
.0003388
. 0004924
.0005186
.00051,50
.0005.523
. 0008247
. 0(X)3778
.0005366

17401

20701

27201

33401

33H01

34201

37701

39501

45601

46101

55201

57e01

63101

69801

85201

88601

Average

51.5

6.0616

302.9

.01974

2.73

. 15237

.0005361

60 TO 70 PER CENT.

21201

66.7
60.0
66.7
66.7
66.7
66.7
66.7
66.7
60.0
66.7
66.7
66.7
60.0
66.7
60.0
66.7
66.7
60.0
66.7
62.5
60.0

2.5064
5.8304
2.9653

11.6655
6.0446
8.6833
5.4606

10.4714
5.0125
7. 7761
7.6312
8.1116
4. 1723
5.9586
4.6412
9.3629
7.7977
8. 3679
4. 1284
4. 6848
5.4211

137
288
166
608
341
476
280
529
319
443
383
382
229
309
265
396
354
451
209
258
318

0.01956
.01937
.01890
.01919
.01813
.01824
.01874
.01914
.01725
.01752
.01973
.02099
.01791
.01919
.01758
. 02245
.02194
.01854
.01951
.01763
.01672

3.57
2.64
2.62
2.38
3.06
3.25
2.27
2.85
2.71
2.54
2.49
2.60
2.17
3.25
4.04
2.94
2. .59
2.49
2.87
2.81
2.58

0.09431
. 11603
.05309
.27765
. 18124
.25347
. 12536
.29155
. 13688
.20018
. 19910
.20327
.06748
. 17590
. 14328
. 28276
.21.3.34
.20681
. 13763
. 12877
. 14079

0.0006846
.0005027
.0006177
.0004567
.0005437
.000,5928
.0004328
.0005428
.0004658
. 0004588
. 0004900
.0005320
.0003749
.000,5924
.0007214
. 0006629
.000.5639
.0004589
. 0005622
.0004908
.0004336

32201

32601

48101

48501

55001

55301

55501 . . .

57001

57301

57401

57501

63501

66001

72601

72701

73301

74601

84901

92901

95701

Average

64.6

6.5092

340

.01896

2.80

.17280

.0005324

70 PER CENT AND OVER.

21701 . ...

87.5
80.0
88.9
87.5
80.0
71.4
80.0
71.4
71.4
83.3
83.3
83.3
75. 0
83.3
75.0
83.3
100.0
100.0
71.4
83.3
75.0
100.0

9. 75524

11.5721

8.3406

4. 0677

7. 1981

3. 8910

6.6162

6.8618

3.9,532

4.4668

10. 27^5

10. 9242

10. 7383

11.2241

2. 8084

7. 5858

3.4799

12. 7593

4.4131

5. 9603

7.0172

7. 2956

447
622
398
229
329
206
343
310
186
277
435
489
617
563
227
394
191
569
234
■ 339
388
374

0.02157
.01963
.02114
.01674
.02045
.01871
.01913
.02152
.01983
.01502
.02211
.02234
.01744
.02034
.011,59
.02001
.01695
. 0227'2
.01822
.01748
.01780
.01767

2.78
3.13
3. .53
3.16
2.82
2.77
2.93
2.69
3.72
2.90
2.. 55
2.56
2.75
2.49
2.88
2.92
2.78
2.27
2.63
2.58
2. ,S5
2. ,50

0. 30200
. 35575
. 30995
. 12604
. 20306
. 10870
. 18438
. 17267
.11,5.58
. l(K133
. 2900S
. 277SS
. 297N3
. 27997
. 08385
. 18248
.103,55
. 29,500
. 12426
. 16,548
.21294
. 18689

0. 00OP049
. 0006057
.0007501
.0005292
. {KK)5768
.0(X)5189
. 0(K),5447
. 0005758
. 0007264
.IKln41,59
.0110.55,89
.ll(K).5(i32
.()(«! 1790
.(KK),5065
(X)03383
. tX)0(i0.50
. 0004745
.aK)5170
. (K)04,S26
. 0OO442()
.0(K).5072
.0(X)4418

21801

21901 . ..

22201

26801

26901

27301

27,501

38601

48401

55601

55901

56101

56201

58201

65301

74501

81701 . . .

92401

94201

94901

95501

Average

82.4

7.3275

371.2

.01902

2.83

.20357

.0005348

104

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 30.— Summary of yields of plants, arranged according to percentage killed in each family.

Percentage of plants
grouped according
to survivors of 1903
from 1902.

10 to 20

20 to 30

30 to 40

40 to 50

50 to 60

eo to 70

70 and over

Num-
ber of

analy-
ses.

30
20
13
14
17
21
22

Percent-
age of
plants in
1903 sur-
viving
from 1902.

15.8
23.5
33.6
41.7
51.5
64.6
82.4

Weight
of ker-
nels on
plant
(grams) .

4. 7098
6.8446
5.2065
4. 1223
6. 0616
6.5092
7.3275

Num-
ber of
kernels

per
plant.

251
342
274
225
303
340
371

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram)

0.01856
. 01978
.01813
.01843
.01974
. 01896
.01902

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen
in ker-
nels.

2.91
2.88
2.89
2.96
2.73
2.80
2.83

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in—

Kernels.

0. 12294
. 18065
.15125
.11736
. 15237
' .17280
.20357

Average
kernel.

0.0005437
.0005527
. 0005310
.000.5493
.0005361
.0005.S24
.0005348

YIELD AND NITROGEN CONTENT OF GRAIN AS AFFECTED BY
LENGTH OF GROWING PERIOD.

Early-maturing varieties of wheat are, in general, better yielding
sorts in Nebraska than are later maturing ones. There are some
exceptions to this rule, however, Turkish Red yielding better than
any earlier maturing variety. The advantages from early maturity
have usually been ascribed to the cooler weather and greater supply
of moisture that obtain in the early summer. The hot, dry weather
common in July is thought to prevent the filling out of the kernel and
to cause light yield and light volume weight.

Each wheat plant on the breeding plots was harvested separately
in 1903, and a record was kept of the date of harvesting of each of
these plants. These data have been tabulated for the purpose of
showing the relation betw^een the length of the growing season and
the yield of grain from individual plants of the same variety.

Table 31 contains these data, tabulated according to the date of
ripening. Plants ripening between the 7th and 11th of July, 1903,
form the first class, those ripening between July 11 and 15 the second
class, and the succeeding classes increase by four days until July 27, all
ripening after that date constituting the last class. The dates of
ripening thus extend over a period of three weeks.

The season of 1903 was a very wet and cool one. The effect of
this upon the wheat crop is shown by the fact that the crop in the
field was not ready to harvest until July 10, while usually it is har-
vested between the 20th and 30th of June. Even at the close of the
ripening period the weather did not become dry or hot as compared
with the normal season. It will therefore be seen that the ordinary
advantages from early maturity did not obtain, or at least not in the
customary w^ay. It may also be said that some of the later maturing
wheats yielded as well in 1904 as did the Turkish Red.

Table 32 is a summary of Table 31, with a statement of the average
for each class.

Table 33 is a summary of the same plants, tabulated according to
the yield of grain per plant.

YIELD, ETC., AS AFFECTED BY GROWING PERIOD.

105

Table 34 is a summary of the same plants, tabulated according to
the percentage of proteid nitrogen.

It is very evident from these tables that the early-maturing plants
are the most prolific. The weight of the average kernel remains very
uniform, so that the later maturing plants do not appear to have pro-
duced shrunken kernels. Evidently the plants ripening during the
first four days produced the largest amounts of grain, and their ker-
nels were as heavy as those produced later. The smaller productive-
ness of the later maturing plants in the season of 1903 does not appear
to have been due to a shrunken or light kernel.

The percentage of proteid nitrogen appears to be somewhat less in
the grain of the earl3?'-maturing plants. The number of grams of
proteid nitrogen in the average kernel is likewise less in these early-
maturing plants.

The relation of length of growing season to both yield and compo-
sition of grain is contrary to what might have been supposed. A
long growing period without excessively hot or dry w^eather might
naturally be thought to increase the yield and increase the percentage
of carbohydrates in the grain.

The season of 1904 w^as very similar to that of 1903 up to time of
wheat harvest. The data for 1904, when tabulated, will serve as a
check on the results obtained in 1903.

Table 31 . — Yield and nitrogen content of grain, tabulated according to length of growing period.

DATES RIPE: JULY 7 TO 11, 1903.

Record numlier.

Date
ripe.

Yield :

(grams) . :

Percent-
age of
proteid

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram).

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in —

.\verage
kernel.

i

nitrogen.

Kernels.

2180.5

Juh- 10
— do.. .

20. 9290

14.2450

2.69
2.71

0.01699
.02378

0.56299
.38604

0.0004569
. 0006444

2180fi

21807

....do...

9.4172

2.73

.02498

. 25709

. 0006664

21808

....do...

19. 7446

2.57

.01708

.50744

.0004389

21809

....do...

8.0214

2.73

.01919

. 21898

. 0005238

21810

....do...

1.0304

2.69

.019816

.02772

.0005330

21S11

....do...

11.9114

3.75

. 021007

. 44666

. 0007877

21812

....do...

14.8139

4.26

.01507

. 63107

. 0006420

21813

do.. .

4.0258

4.04

.01877

. 16377

. 0007582

55506

Julv 8

17.8506

2.80

. 02062

.49995

. 0005773

.55507

....do...

9.8228

2.63

. 01949

.25834

.0005126

55605

....do...

10.9180

2.64

.02184

. 28823

. 0005765

55606

....do...

11.0930

2.58

.02205

. 28580

.0005690

55607

....do...

2.3931

2.69

.01734

.06437

.0004665

55608

....do...

22. 5848

2.31

. 02699

. 52194

.0006236

55905

....do...

5. 7948

2.67

.01751

. 15470

. 0004674

- 55906

July 7

7. 9968

2.81

.01603

. 22471

. 0004503

55907

July 8

19. 3966

2. .59

. 02590

.50238

. 0006707

55908

....do...

12. 1221

9.2120

12.0161

14.4556

2.42
2.30
2.57
2.96

.02175
.03050
.01866
.01658

.29575
.21187
.30881
.42790

. 00052t)2
. 0007016
. 0004795
. 0(X)4907

5.5909

July 9
July 8
Julv 7

56106

56107

56206

July 8

9.3093

2.42

.01829

.2252<)

. 0004426

56207

....do...

10.9073

2.34

.02361

. 2.5522

. 0005524

56208

....do...

13.5720

2.61

.02356

.34616

.(X)06I40

56209

....do...

15. 8086

2. .59

. 01664

. 40945

.(X)04310

81505

July 10

2. 8327

2.94

.01940

.08328

. (KM)5704

81706

Julv 8

15.3928

2.71

.02132

.41715

. 0005778

81707

....do...

18.3614

2.34

.02336

.42965

. 0005466

81708

....do...

7.3993

2.41

.02578

.17833

. 0001)213

81709

....do...

16.4692

2.28

.02175

. 37548

.0004960

106

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 31. — Yield ami nitrogen content of grain, tabulated according to length of growing

period— -Continued .

DATES RIPl-:: JULY 7 TO 11, 1903— Continued.

Record numlier.

Date
ripe.

Yield
(grams) .

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen.

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram).

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in —

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

81710

July 8
July 10

....do...

....do...

9.1411

1.6362

9.9456

5. 1584

1.53.55

9.8719

12. 1918

2. 3678

3.6977

.3146

11.0548

12.1.592

14.4617

2. 9475

2. 8356

10. 3426

5. 1629

. 7577

1.92
2.80
2. .53
2.61
2.47
2. 42
2.94
1.96
3.60
2.81
2.74
2.59
2. .56
2.48
1.81
2.54
2.73
2.47

0.02308
.02731
. 02068
. 02205
.02075
. 02100
.01948
. 01894
.01696
.00850

' .01852
.02029
. 01954
. 021.36
.01783
. 01626
.01934
.01457

0. 17550
. 04581
.25162
. 13463
. 03793
. 23890
.35844
.04641
. 13312
.00884
.30291
. 31492
.37023
.07310
. 051.32
. 26270
. 14095
. 01872

0. 0004432
. 0007640
.OOO.VJSl
. 00t)5754

. .0005125
.0005082
.0005726
.0003713
.0006106
. 0002389
. 0(X1.5074
.(X)05515
. 000.5003
. 0005297
. 0003228
.0004131
.0005279
. 0003599

88605

88606

88607

88608

88609

....do...
....do...

94907

94908

94909

....do...
....do...
July 9
....do...
....do...

95505

95506

95507

95.508

....do...
....do.. .

95509

95510

....do...
....do...

95705

July 10
do ...

95706

95707

....do...

Average . . .

July 8. 9

9.9067

2.69

.02024

. 26475

. 0005356

DATES RIPE: JULY 11 TO 15, 1903.

21905 1

July 13

14. .3111

2.64

0.01809

0. 37781

0. 0004777

21906

....do...l

10. 4800

3.18

. 02563

..33403

.(H)0S168

21907

....do...!

2. 9248

3. .35

. 01851

. 09798

.0006201

2190S

....do...

3. 5574

3.82

.02056

. 13589

. 0O07S55

21909

....do...

12. 1819

4.43

. 02317

. 53889

. 0010265

21911

....do...

8. 4593

5.48

.02209

. 46356

.0012103

21912

....do...

9. 7236

2.31

.01907

.22461

. 0004404

21913

do

10. 1925
2. 6965

3.01
2.81

.02072
.00953

. 306«0
. 07577

. 0006235
. 0002677

22205

....do...

22210

....do...

6.0173

3.17

. 02019

. 19075

. 0006401

22211

....do...

11.5675

3.17

. 02062

. 36671

. Oa)6537

27005

....do...

16.4120

2.63

.01895

. 43164

. 0004984

27205

....do...

16. 4061

19. 18.54

3. 3266

5. 5666

2.41
2.36
2.92
2.58

.01841
. 02469
.02004
.020S5

. 39539
. 45276
.09712
. 14362

. 0004437
. 0005827
.0005850
. 0005379

27206

....do...

27207

....do...

27305

....do...

27306

....do...

13. .3011

.3.47

.01945

. 32853

. O0n4SO3

27.307

do...

3. 0850
4 5123

2. .53
4.15

.01847
.01777

.07805
. 18726

. 0004674
. 0007373

27.308

....do...

27505 . ..

....do...

12. 0399

10.0005

5. 5S24

3. 2964

2.12
2.70
2.64

4.87

.02183
. 02252

.02287
.01324

.24942
.27003
. 14608
. 16053

. (X)04627
. 0(X)60S2
. 0000037
. 0006447

27506

....do...

27508

....do...

48406

....do...

48407

....do...

11.2890

1.50

.01.572

. 16933

. nO02-'58

48408

do...

. 3485
6. 4302
9. 4585
1.6036
11.2008
9.8346
7.9684

2.81
2.02
.3.20
2.64
2.76
2.70
3.05

.01291
. 02048
.01701
.02296
.01858
.01798
.02028

.00979
. 12989
. 30267
. 04233
. 30986
. 26553
.24303

. 0003627
.0004137
. 0005444
. (K)06062
.0005127
. 0W)4S77
.000(1 1.>-5

48409

....do...

48.506

do...

48507

....do...

48.508

....do...

48806

....do...

55005

....do...

5.5006

....do...

7. 1852

3.16

.01593

.22705

. 000.5034

5.5305

....do...

2.5160

2.48

. 01507

. 06240

. 0003736

55306

....do...

4. 1323

2.18

.01931

. 09008

. 0004210

5.5307

....do...

5.6864

1.89

.01663

. 10747

.(X)03142

55308

....do...

9. 5078
5. 7431

2.54
2.73

. 02395
. 01709

.24150
. 15679

. 0006225
. 0004667

56105

....do..;

56205

....do...

6. 5232

2.51

. 01959

. 16373

.0004917

57005

.. do...

1. 5364
10. ia36

2.71
2.76

.01746
. 01453

.04164
. 28107

. aK)4731
.0004010

57006

....do...

57007

....do...

3. 3176
3. 7263
8. 5777
7. 9772

2.65
2.76
3.19
2.86

. 01975
.00916
. 01666

. 018.38

. 08792
. 10285
. 20188
. 22815

.0005233
. 0002527
. 0005S26
. ai05257

57105

....do...

57305

....do...

57.306

....do...

.57.307

....do...

4.7117

2.43

.01801

.11445

. 00O43S7

57.308

do...

9. a378
. 8328

1.69
1.98

. 01705
.02031

. 16626
.01640

. 0002881
. 0004022

57405

....do...

57406 ...

... do . . .

2. 4923
14.9992

2.75
2.62

-.01846
.01968

. 06854
.39297

. 0005077
.0005157

57407

....do...

YIELD, ETC., AS AFFECTED BY GROWING PERIOD.

107

Table 31.^Yield and nitrogen content of grain, tabulated according to length of growing

period — Continued.

DATES RIPE: JULY 11 TO 15, 1903— Continued.

Record number.

Date
ripe.

Yield
(grams) .

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen.

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram).

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in—

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

57408

July 13
....do...

12. 2004
2. 7616

2.61
2.80

0. 02047
. 01534

0. 31842
. 077.33

0. 0005343
.0004296

57506

57.507

....do...

6. 9861

2.85

. 01946

. 19905

. 0005545

57508

....do...

12. 0728

2.21

.03177

.26680

. 0007021

57.509

....do...

10. 6261

2.54

. 01739

.26990

.0004417

57606

....do...

3. 0790

2.74

.02333

. 08436

. 0006391

57607

....do...

16. 4433

1.73

. 02234

.24847

. 0003865

57608

....do...

8. 6189

2.64

. 01968

. 22756

.0005195

58206

....do...

1..3961

2.67

.00943

.03728

.0002519

.58207

....do...

4.2207

3.09

. 01375

. 13042

. 0004248

6.5.305

....do...

1. 8018

4.92

.02310

.08865

.0011365

65306

....do...

9. 8298

2.41

. 01807

.23690

. 0004355

65307

....do...

7. 0051

2.28

.01878

. 15971

. 0OO42N2

65308

....do...

11. 7006

2.09

.02008

.24468

.0004197

94905

July 11

4. 4423

2.35

. 01553

. 104.39

. 0003050

94906

Average. .

....do...
July 13

12.3862

3.41

.01808

. 42236

.0a)6166

7.6611

2.81

.01887

.20820

. 0005290

DATES RIPE: JULY 15 TO 19, 1903.

18906

July 15
do

0. 9229

19.3318

12.3685

1.8242

4.6045

1.5940

2.9886

.2062

3.2340

.7081

.9701

1.9154

15. 5835
1. 5452
3.3006
6.0090
1.1166
2.0970
7.1181
9. 7922
5.3069
9.9034
3. 4436
3.5486
5.2616
1.1074
3.6926
6.6206
2.38.59
6.0091
8. 2366
.8983
3. 7820
5.7131
3.8709
9.6779
2.7000
2.8816
4. 4673
3.2388

10. 1363

.5595

1.2117

7. 5006

13. 7057
3. 7828

10. 5556

6. 7664

.7319

11.8435

3.48
4.71
2.19
3.02
2.87
3.73
2.13
2.44
3.58
2.82
3.31
3.66
1.34
3.24
2.79
3.54
4.65
3.01
2.60
1.98
2.83
2.65
3.36
2.81
2.74
2.67
2. .55
2.72
2.93
4.93
3.11
1.66
2.97
2.30
4.. 39
2.58
3.50
2.99
2.56
2. .32
2.70
2.67
1.65
2.78
2.86
3.10
2.47
2.07
1.95
1.80

0. 01420
.02390
. 02125
. 01393
.01627
.01968
.01916
.01086
. 01376
.01161
. 01276
. 01398
.01804
.01717
.02001
.01642
.01718
.01906
.01784
.02106
.01811
.01814
. 01739
.01774
.01525
. 02407
. 01767
. 01876
. 01491
.01732
. 02168
.01695
. 01827
.01814
.01690
.01916
.01534
. 01592
.02040
.01732
.01916
.02543
.01893
. 01866
.01909
.01175
. 01923
.01615
. 01307
.07.544

0.03212
.91052
.27086
.05508
. 13215
.05946
.06366
.00503
. 11575
.01997
.03211
.07010
.20881
.05007
.09208
.21272
.05192
.06312
. 18507
.19388
. 1.5019
. 26245
. 11.570
.09972
.14417
.02957
.09416
. 18008
.06991
.29625
.2.5616
.01491
.112.33
. 13140
. 16993
.24969
.09450
. 0S616
. 11436
.07514
.27367
.01494
.01999
.20851
.39199
.11727
.26073
.14007
.01427
.21319

0. 0004941
.0011283
.0004654
.0003662
.0004670
. 0007340
. 0004081
. 0002649
.0004927
.0003273
.0004225
.0005117
.0002422
. 0005563
.000.5.581
.000.5812
.0007988
.00057.38
. 0004638
.0004170
.0005126
. 0004807
. 0005844
. 0004986
.0004179
. 0006428
. 0004505
.0005102
.0004369
. 0008539
.0006741
. 0tX)2814
. 000.5426
.0004171
.0007421
. 0004944
. 0005369
. 0004760
.000.5220
.0004018
.0005173
. 0006790
.0003124
.0005187
. aj05460
. 0003642
. 0004749
. 0003343
. 0002549
.0013.576

21706

21707

....do...

26105

....do...

3.3406

July 18
. . do . . .

34206

34208

....do...

37906 .

July 15
.. .do...

45005

45605

48405

....do...
do

48505

....do...

51005

....do...

63105

July 18
do. . .

63106

66006

72605

....do...
do...

72806

....do...

74605

do

81705

.. do...

88905

July 16
do...

88906

91905

91906

92205

....do...

....do...

. .do...

92206

....do...

92207

92208

....do...
....do...

92305

92306

92406

....do...
....do...
....do...

92407

do

92408

92409 '..

....do...
....do...

92506

.do..

92.507

....do...

92905

do

92906

....do...

92907

92908

....do...
...do...

92909

....do...

94105

July 15
July 16

....do...

....do...

....do...

....do...

....do...

....do...

....do...

94205

94206

94207

94208

94406

94407

94605

94606

Average. .

July 16.2

5. 1354

2.87

.01869

. 14452

.0005222

108

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 31. — Yield and nitrogen content of grain, tabulated according to length of growing

period — Continued.

DATES RIPE: JULY 19 TO 23, 1903.

Record number.

Date
ripe.

Yield
(grams).

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen.

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram) .

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in—

Kernels

Average
kernel.

17409

July 21
July 20
July 21
do. . .

14.8957

.3885

2. 1462

9. 9070

2. 4690

.2806

4. 1516

5. 8080

.8478

17. 1820

.4336

2. 7255

17.2.324
3.8811
4. 2376
1.8276
2. 9999
2.0162
2. .5601

11.1476

2. 2862

8. 4605

.30.37

3.0228

6. 7665

7. 2545

.6316

.3161

1.8246

11.665.5

12. 0278
2.6571
6. 1989
2.1571

17. 4226

11.3.592

23. 1471
9. 7084
9.3120
4. 0230
3. 1555
2. 0430

28. 2136
9. 3629
3. 4442
9. 1522

14. 6802
4. 5806
9. 0386
9. 2130
5.4411
.7130
7. 5438
4.9315
3.4356
3.6006

2.75
4.70
2.02
2.77
2. .58
3.15
2.90
3.45
2.59
2.71
3.84
2.60
2.80
3.09
2.71
2.61
2.80
2.88
2.91
1.61
2.81
2.63
4. 55
2.82
2.74
2.59
3.17
1.46
2.44
2.38
2.87
3.29
3.00
4.21
2.60
2.56
2.74
2.16
2.43
1.90
3.59
4.42
2.47
1.89
5. .59
2.13
3.86
3.49
2.27
3.02
4.45
2.32
3.43
2.66
3.10
2.49

0.01857
.01340
.01567
.02282
.02024
. 02806
.01837
.01641
.01437
.01968
.01399
.01793
.02390
.01748
.018.59
.01792
.01667
. 02145
.01939
. 02194
.01921
.02110
. 01.598
.01913
.02319
. 01988
.01373
. 01264
. 01806
.01919
.02.543
.01692
.01635
.01828
.01846
.01965
.01999
.01712
.02233
.01934
.01814
.01984
.02239
.01724
.01832
.02191
.02484
.02036
. 02270
.01869-
.01217
.01927
. 01975
.01312
.01605
.01895

0.40964
.01826
.04335
. 27443
.06399
.00884
. 12039
. 20038
.02196
. 46563
.01665
. 07086
. 48250
.11992
. 11484
.04995
.08400
. 05807
.074.50
. 17948
. 06424
. 22251
.01.382
.08522
. 18540
. 18789
. 02002
.00462
.044.52
. 27765
..34.524
.08742
. 18596
.09082
.45299
.29079
. 63422
.20970
. 22628
.07644
.11328
. 09030
.69688
. 18538
. 19253
. 19936
. 56666
. 15986
.20518
. 27823
.24213
.01654
. 25873
.13118
. 10650
.08965

0.0005108
. 0006296
.0003164
.0006181
.0005221
. 0008839
. 000.5327
.000.5660
. 0003722
. 0005334
.000.5371
. 0004662
. 0006692
. 0005402
. 000.5037
. 0004677
. 0004667
.0006177
. 000.5644
. 0003533
. 000.5399
. 0005549
.0007273
.0006394
.0006475
.0005148
. 0004352
. 00O1S46
. 0004408
.0004567
. 0007299
. 00055t)8
.0004906
. 0007696
.0004799
.000.5031
. 0005464
. 0003698
.0005426
. 0003674
.0006510
. 0008767
.000.5.531
.0003414
.0010241
. 0004(i68
.0009588
.0007105
.0005154
. 0005644
. 0005417
. 0004471
. 0006773
. 0003332
. 0004977
.0004719

17.505

18805

20707

20708

July 20
July 21
July 20
....do...
July 21

21211

21306

21.308

21710

21711

22209

26806

26807

....do...
July 20
do...

26808

....do...

26906 . . .

July 22
July 20

26907

26909

32606

July 22
July 21
do. . .

33105

33905 . .

33906

....do...

38606

38607

38608

38609

....do...

....do...

....do...

. .do.. .

38706

40405

42206

July 20

July 21

.. .do. . .

44607

July 20
July 21
July 20
do. . .

48106

48305

48306

48706

55007

....do...
....do...

5.5008

July 21
....do...
July 20
do.. .

55206

58805

59606

63107

6.3505

....do...
July 21
July 20

....do...

....do...

66008

69305

71905

72606

72607

....do...
....do...

72705

do . .

72706

....do...

72707

July 21
July 20
July 21
July 20
....do...

72708

74507

76206

84905

84906

85206

....do...

July 21

do

92405

94209 .

do...

Averas^e. .

July 20.1

6.5399

2.93

.01886

. 18064

.0005482

DATES RIPE: JULY 23 TO 27, 1903.

17305

July 23
do.. .

3. 6302

3. 9968

1.2275

2.0907

9. 2038

16.9987

1.8517

3.3138

17.1115

14. 6942

3.03
3.09
3.25
3.29
2.18
2.88
3.09
2.78
2.83
3.32

0.01984
. 01645
.02012
. 01686
. 01852
.02285
.01698
.02033
. 01974
.02157

0. 10999
. 12350
. 0.3994
. 06878
.20065
. 48957
. 05722
.09212
.48428
.48784

0. 0006010
. 0005082
. 0006540
. 0005547
.0004037
. 0006580
.0005249
. 0005652
.0005586
.0006999

17306.

17308

17406

....do...
....do...

17408

....do...

17410

....do...

20705

....do...

20706 . .

. .do...

20710

....do...

20805. . . .

...do...

YIELD, ETC., AS AFFECTED BY GROWING PERIOD.

109

Table 31. — Yield and nitrogen content of grain, tahulated according to length of growing

period — Continued.

DATES RIPE: JULY 23 TO 27, 1903— Continued.

Record number.

Date
ripe.

Yield
(grams).

Percent-
age of
protein
nitrogen.

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram).

Protein nitrogen
(gram) in —

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

21307

July 24

2.5691

3.04

0.01796

0.07810

0. 0005461

21705

July 23

1.5420

2.45

.02C.59

.03778

.0006514

21708

....do...

9.2850

2.33

.02381

.21634

. 0005547

21709

do>. .

7.7296

2.47

.02141

. 19092

. 0005289

22206

....do...

2.5712

3.22

.01720

.08086

. 0005538

22208

....do...

1.9090

3.18

.01619

. 06071

.0(J05144

26905

July 24

6. 4102

2.76

. 01966

.17692

. 0005427

26908

....do...

3.9797

2.96

. 02073

.11780

.0006135

27507

July 23

1.3746

3.08

.018.33

.04234

. 000.5646

27509

....do...

5. 3615

2.90

.02206

. 15549

. 0006399

2NS(I5

....do...

2.1851

2.91

.02512

.043.59

. 0007.309

2SS06

....do...

14. 4630

3.02

.02111

. 43679

. 0006376

33106

....do...

.3089

2.94

.01716

.00908

. 000.5045

33107

....do...

6. 1026

2.35

.01919

. 14341

.0004510

33405

do

8. 1268
9. 1498

2.03
2.73

.01930
.01972

. 16498
.24979

.0003919
.0005383

34205

....do...

34207

....do...

13. 5556

2.84

.02219

. 38505

. 0006273

38506

July 24

1.6799

2.89

.01975

.04855

.000.5712

3SI105

July 23

1.2124

5.85

.01987

. 07093

.0011627

■1112(1."!

....do...

3. 6302

4.69

.01871

.17026

.0008776

40305

....do...

3.6003

3.11

.02011

.11197

. 0006255

42905

....do...

1.2499

3.17

.01866

. 03650

. 000.5447

44.505

do

5.9990
2.5235

2.94
2.90

.01764
.02035

. 17637
.07318

.0(K)5187
. 0005902

44606

....do...

45606

....do...

4.0358

1.91

.01834

.07708

.0003.504

45705

....do...

.7532
1.5298

4.18
1.84

.01712
.01234

.03148
. 02815

.00071,55
. 0002700

45805

....do...

46107

....do...

8.3935

2. .54

.01756

.21319

.0004460

50705

....do...

.5958

3.54

.01986

. 02109

. 0007032

50706

.. do . .

.4701

2.3982

.6893

4. 8988

2.4731

2.80
3.30
3.10

2.87
3.18

.01343
.01085
.01723
.01814
.01118

.01316
.07914
.02137
. 14060
. 07859

.0003761
.0003581
. 0005342
. 0005207
.00035.56

50905

....do...

55205

July 24
do

57805

57905

....do...

58505

July 23
do

7.4516
2. 5436
..5952
1..3451
9. 6451
8. 3406
3.0940
2.6615

2.95
3.01
1.87
3.25
2.30
2. .56
3.21
3.00

.02730
.01082
.01701
.01212
. 02079
.01699
.02242
.01706

.21982
. 07656
.01113
.04272
.22184
. 21352
. 09932
.07985

.00080.52
. 0003258
.0003180
. 0003938
.(l(K)4781
.0004349
.0007197
.0005118

58705

60605

....do...

62805

....do...

74606

. do. .

74607

....do...

91305

JiUy 24

92505

Average..

July 23.2

4.9015

2.93

.01878

. 13654

.0005544

DATES RIPE: JULY 27, 1903, OR LATER.

17307

July 27
do...

3. 14.54

15. 6996

2. 2881

.7720

3.46
2.13
3. .52
3.80

0. 02279
.02127
. 02460
. 01795

0. 10883
. .33441
. 0'044
.02934

0. 0007886
. 0004531
. (HK)S660
.0006822

17405

17506

....do...

17.507

....do...

18905

....do...

1.4864

3.81

.01443

. 0.5663

.IKHr)49S

20709

....do...

5. 3229

3. 05

.02063

. 162.35

.1)006292

21205

do...

2. 3642
2. 8564

3.16
5. 23

.01922
. 01917

. 07471
.14939

. 0I.HJ6074
.0010026

21206

....do...

21207

....do...

2. .3066

2.96

. 019.55

. 06804

. 0005766

21208

....do...

5. 1594

3. 24

.01798

.16712

. 000.5824

21209

....do...

1. 4484

3.61

. 01627

. 05228

. 0005875

21210

....do...

3.9143

5. 03

. 01,577

. 19689

. 0007934

21212

....do...

1. 7216

2.16

. 02049

.0.3718

. (H)04427

21305

....do...

6. 2514

2.67

. 020037

. 16691

. 0005350

22207

....do...

3. 2787

2.77

. 01940

. 09082

. (X)0.>?74

25205

....do...

10. 7836

2.71

. 02066

. 28560

. (MK15.590

25200

....do...

4. 6754
2. 0737

2.76
2.63

.02281
. 02304

. 12904
. 05454

.l)(M)ti295
. 0006060

26106

....do...

26107

....do...

2. 0390

• 3. 92

.01416

. 07993

. 0005551

26805

....do...

4. 9456

2.81

. 02248

. 1.3897

.0006317

28206

....do...

4. 3698

3. 07

. 01996

. 13415

.000()126

32206

,....do...

10. 4036

1.81

. 02052

.18831

.0003714

.32207

l....do...

1. 2573

3.48

. 01.S22

. 04375

. (KK16341

32605

....do...

5. 2268

1.20

. 02.323

. 06272

. (KK)2788

no

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 31. — Yield and nitrogen content of grain, tabulated according to lengtli of growing

period — Continued.

DATES RIPE: JULY 27, 1903, OR LATER— Continued.

Record nunil:ier.

Date
ripe.

Yield
(grams).

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen.

Weight
of aver-
age ker-
nel
(gram) .

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in— -

Kernels.

Average
kernel.

32608

July 27
....do...

1.0183
3. 1346

3.78
3.41

0.01851
.02090

0.03849
. 10689

0. 0006998
.(XH)7126

33305

33407

....do...

7. 0889

1.62

.02271

.11223

.(KH)3679

33408

....do...

1.1132

1.39

.01446

.01.547

.(10(12009

33605

....do...

7. 0.596

2. .39

. 02345

. 16872

.(M)(l5(i05

33606

....do...

8. 1890

2.21

. 02144

. 18098

. 0004738

33607

....do...

2. 8903

3.22

.02125

.09307

. 0006843

34405

....do...

4. 1281

4. .33

. 01994

. 17875

. 00OS<i35

34606

....do...

6. 1962

3.12

. 02213

. 19.332

. 0006904

36905

....do...

5. 0200

6. 1.394

3. 88
2.96

. 01880
. 01987

. 19478
. 18173

. 0007295

. no()5.sNi

37305

....do...

37705

....do...

8. 0905
1.2069

2.64
2. .34

.01972
. 021.55

. 23998
. 02824

, (K:Kl5.-i27
.(KM).5(I.)3

37706

....do...

37707

....do...

3. 3004

2.93

.01710

. 09670

. 000.5010

37905

Aug. 4

. 9452

2. .53

. 02555

.02391

. 0006433

38005

July 27

2. 5134

2.84

.01808

. 071.38

. 0005135

38505

....do...

12. 1088

3.61

. 02252

. 43713

. 0007764

39205

....do...

21. .5.399

2.11

. 02089

. 45435

. 0004407

39405

....do...

9. 3541

2.88

. 02093

. 21.399

. 0006027

39506

Aug. 4

1.9218

2.93

.02869

. 05631

. 0(X)S404

39507

Julv 27

1.8862

3.02

.01699

. 05696

. 0005132

39606

do...

4. 6383
4. 1.546
1.8494

2. .37
2.82
3.63

. 01341
.02444
. 01967

. 10967
.11716
.06713

. 0003177
. 0(XI6892
.0007142

40505

....do...

42205

do...

42405

....do...

1. 4892

3.07

. 02251

. 04572

. 0006927

43405

....do...

2. 80(K)
1. 4464
1.1271
4.6146

2.92
4.13
2.86
3.00

. 02258
. 01.5.55
. 02049
. 01775

.08176
. 0.5974
.0322?
. 13843

. 0006594
. 0006423
. 0(X).5861
. 0(W)5.S24

43505

Aug. 4
July 27

44605 '.

46105

46106

!!!!do!!!

1.6103

2.54

.01964

. 04090

.0004988

4S705

....do...

4. .3615

3. 13

. 01652

. 13652

.0(K)5171

49505

....do...

1.2716

3.24

. 01898

. 04120

.0006149

49905

....do...

.6760

3.62

. 02939

. 02436

.0010640

50906

....do...

1. 7280

.3.57

.01516

. 06169

.0005411

55508

....do...

3. 7407

.3.11

.01732

.11636

. 0005386

58806

....do...

1. 9469

1.88

. 02049

. 0'i660

. 0003853

58905

....do...

2. 3031

2.43

.01355

. 05596

. 0003292

59605

....do...

7. 1828

2.12

.01880

. 15228

. 000.3986

63506

....do...

2. 3986

2.44

.01.568

. 05853

. 0003825

66005

....do...

7. mm

2. 63

. 02073

. 20170

. 0005451

69506

....do...

13. .5696
2. 4420

2. ,50
5.82

. 02047
.02220

. 33923
. 14213

.0005117
.0012921

69805

....do...

69806

....do...

12. 01.36

1.66

. 02153

. 19943

. 0003574

72405

do

8. 4415
8.2929

3. .36
2.95

. 03963
.01929

. 28363
. 24464

. 0013316
. 0005689

72406!.;!!;;;!!!

....do...

72905

....do...

2. 6462

2.48

.01.585

.06563

. 0(^.-1930

73307

....do...

. .5572

2. .39

. 02229

. 01332

. 0005327

73308

....do...

14. 2986

2.92

. 02291

. 41752

. 0006,539

74305

....do...

4. 4222

1.98

. 02047

. 08756

. 0004054

74506.'

....do...

.4096

2.73

.01781

.01118

. 0004862

74508

....do...

.8172

2.60

.01434

. 02125

. 0O0.372S

76205

do

8. 4407
15. 7835

2. 35
1.81

. 01695
. 02165

. 19836
. 28569

. 00039,v2
.0(Ki:.919

80305!.!!..!!!!!

....do...

81405

....do...

4. 5737

2.62

. 01862

.11710

. 0004879

81406

....do...

1.2.391

3.31

.01721

.04101

. 000.5697

84405

....do...

8. 7448

2.48

. 02043

.21687

. 000.5067

85205

....do...

3. 4766

2.60

. 01625

. 09039

. 0004224

86105

....do...

3. 0282

2.56

.01495

. 07964

. (X)0.:923

86106

Average. .

....do...

7. 6241

2.63

. 91749

.200.52

. 0004599

July 27.2

4.6636

2.94

. 01992

. 12854

.0005800

RELATION OF SIZE OF HEAD TO YIELD, ETC.

Ill

Table 32. — Summary of yield and nitrogen content of grain, tabulated according to length of

growing period.

Plants grouped according to
date ripe.

Julv 7 to 11

Julv 11 to 15...
Julv 15 to 19 . . .
Julv 19 to 23...
July 23 to 27 . . .
July 27, or later

Num-
ber of
anal-
yses.

49
65
50
56
52
83

Average
date ripe.

July 8. 9..
July 13...
July 16. 2.
July 20. 1.
July 23. 2.
July 27. 2.

Yield

(grams).

9.9067
7.6611
5. 1354
6.5399
4.9015
4.6636

Percent-
age of
proteid
nitrogen.

2.69

2.81
2.87
2.93
2.93
2.94

Weight
of aver-
age
kernel
(gram).

0. 02024
. 01887
.01869
.01886
.01878
.01992

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in —

Kernels.

0. 26475
. 20820
. 14452
. 18064
. 136.54
. 12854

Average
kernel.

0. 0005356
.0005290
.000.5222
.000.5482
. 0005544
.0005800

Table 33. — Summary of nitrogen content, etc., tabulated according to yield per plant.

Plants grouped according to
yield (in grams).

Below 1

1 to 2.5

2.5 to 5

5 to 10

10 to 15

15 to 20

More than 20

Num-
ber of
anal-
yses.

31
67
88
94
52
20
4

Average
date ripe.

July 20. 2.
July 21. 9.
Julv 20...
Julv 18.3.
July 15. 1.
July 15. 1.
July 14.5.

Yield
(grams).

0.6049

1.7673

3. 5683

7. 6706

12. 2.573

17. 1908

23.7186

Percent-
age of
proteid

nitrogen.

Weight
of aver-
age
kernel

(gram).

Proteid nitrogen
. (gram) in —

Kernels.

2.91 0.01683 0.01731

3.09
3.03

2.68
2.71
2.54
2.55

.01852
.01796
.01997
. 021.68
.02103
.021.59

.0.5456
. 10794
. 20270
. 33433
.43921
. 60401

Average
kernel.

0.0004916
.0005730
. 0005445
.0005351
.0005774
.0005382
.000.54.50

Table 3-4. — Summary of yield, etc., tabulated according to nitrogen content.

Plants grouped according to
percentage of nitrogen.

Below 1.5. . .
1.5 to 2

2 to 2.25

2.25 to 2.5...
2.5 to 2.75...
2.75 to 3

3 to 3.25

3.25 to 3.5...

3.5 to 4

More than 4

Num-
ber of
anal-
yses.

18
47
82
67
47
20
23
25

Average
date ripe.

4 Julv
2.5 Julv

Julv
Julv
July
Julv
July
July
Julv
July

22.5.

18.5.
19.8.

17.3
16.3
19.6
21.2
20.7
21.5
19.5

Yield

(grams).

5.8099
2. 7423
8. 9.542
7.3389
8.0817
5.9093
4.4497
4.67.56
3. 6486
4.. 5431

Percent-

Weight

age of
proteid

of aver-
age

nitrogen.

(gram).

1.35

0.01709

1.80

. 02124

2.12

.02030

2.39

. 02000

2.63

.01938

2. 85

.01910

3.11

.01824

3.37

.01.870

3.68

.01852

4.72

.01819

Proteid nitrogen
(gram) in—

Kernels.

0.07290

.11620
. 19070
.18478
. 21280
. 16609
. 13847
. 15189
. 13513
.21239

Average
kernel.

0. 0002266
.0003867
.0004325
. 0004773
.0005102
.0005454
. 0005667
.0006213
. 0006807
.0008639

RELATION OF SIZE OF HEAD TO YIELD, HEIGHT, AND

TILLERING OF PLANT.

The size of the head has always been considered to be closely con-
nected with the productiveness of wheat. The well-know^n work of
Hallet in increasing the yielding qualities of wheat is perhaps the
best example of wheat improvement by the selection of plants having
large heads. Whether large heads or a large number of medium-
sized heads on a plant are more desirable is still a question.

Table 35 gives the yields, etc., of between 300 and 400 plants, tab-
ulated according to the number of kernels on the head. Table 36
is a summary of these, while Tables 37 and 38 consist of the same
data tabulated according to the yield per plant and yield per head,
respectively.

112

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

It will be seen from Table 36 that the heads of slightly more than
medium size produced the largest yields of grain; that the weight of
the average kernel did not increase with the size of the head, nor did
it decrease except on the very largest heads; that the plants with
somewhat more than average-sized heads were the tallest, and that
the plants with medium-sized heads or slightly less tillered most

largely.

Table 37 shows that with an increased yield per plant there is a
constant increase in the height and tillering of the plant.

Table 38 indicates that the yield per head and yield per plant do
not increase together, but that the largest yielding plants are those of
medium yield per head. The same would seem to be true of the
height and tillering of the plant. The weight of the average kernel
increases quite uniformly with the yield per head.

In considering these results it must be borne in mind that these
plants were grown 6 inches apart each way, and were therefore not
under the conditions that would obtain in a thickly drilled or broad-
casted field, where lack of ability to tiller would be compensated for
by the larger number of plants. However, the variety of wheat
j'ielding best in Nebraska is one having only a medium-sized or
even small head, as compared with most wheats, but it is a strong-
tillering varietv.

Table 35. — Relation of size of head to yield, height, and tillering of plant.
SIZE OF HEAD, BELOW 16 KERNELS.

I

Record num-
ber.

Si/e of
head.

Yield per

plant
(grams).

Yield per
head

(grams).

Weight of '

average

kernel

(grams).

Height
(cm).

Tillering.

17308

15.2

1.2275

0.3069

0.02012

59

5

17406

15.5

2.0907

.2613

.01686

65

11

18805

15.2

2. 1462

.2385

.01567

65

18

20708

13.6
10.0

2. 4690
.2806

.2743
.2806

.02024
.02S06

60
45

11
2

21211

22209

15.5

15.7

.4336
4.9456

.2168
.3533

.01399
.02248

70

68

6
26

26805

32207

13.8

1.2573

.2515

.01822

47

5

37905

12.3

.9452

.3151

.025.55

52

3

39506

11.2

1.9218

.3203

. 02869

48

6

42206

12.5

.3161

.1580

.01264

63

5

44607

12.6

2.5235

.2281

.02035

52

12

48408

13.5

.3485

.1742

.01291

45

3

49905

11.5

.6760

.3380

.02939

49

2

50705

15.0

.5958

.2979

.01986

40

3

73307

12.5

. 5572

.2786

. 02229

46

4

74506

12.5

.4096

.2048

.01781

68

2

94105

Average . .

11.0

. 5595

.2797

.02543

51

1

13.3

1.3169

.2654

.02059

55.2

6.9

SIZE OF HEAD, 16 TO 20 KERNELS.

17410
21205
21305
21,307
21705
21710

19.1

16.9987

0.4358

0.02285

84

46

17.6

2. 3642

.3378

.01922

55

10

16.4

6.2514

.3290

.02004

65

21

17.9

2.5691

.3211

.01796

53

10

19.3

1.5420

.5140

. .-02659

73

3

19.7

.8478

.2826

.01437

59

5

RELATION OF SIZE OF HEAD TO YIELD, ETC. 113

Table 35. — Relation of size of head to yield, height, and tillering of plant — Continued.
SIZE OP HEAD, 16 TO 20 KERNELS— Continued.

Record num-
l.er.

Size of
head.

Yield per

plant
(grams) .

Yield per

head
(grams) .

Weight of
a\erage Height
kernel (cm. ) .
(grams).

1

Tillering.

21807

22207

22208

26906

18.8
18.8
16.8
19.0

9.4172
3.2787
1.9090
4.2376
2. 9999
4.3698

.3089
1.2069

.2063
2. 5134

.3037
3.0228
6. 7665
1.8494
1. 1271
2.5235

.9701

.4701
5. 7948
7.9968
5. 7431
10.9073
4.7117
3. 7810

.8172
7.3993
1.5355
3.6926
2.6615
2. 8356

0. 4709
.3643
.2727
.3531
.3000
.3972
.3089
.4023
.2063
.3591
. 3037
.3359
.4511
.1699
. 3757
. 3605
.2425
. 23.50
.3219
. 3076
.3023
.4195
.2945
.2701
.2724
.4933
.3839
.3357
.2957
.3544

0.02498
.01940
.01619
.01859
.01667
.01996
.01716
.021.55
. 01086
.01808
. 01598
.01913
. 02309
.01967
.02049.
.02035
• .01276
.01343
.01751
. 01603
.01709
. 02361
.01801
.01550
.01434
.02578
.02075
.01767
.01706
.01783

77
65
57
70
50
80
43
42
50
53
56
60
65
68
53
52
55
38
75
85
70
84
67
88
50
86
69
73
68
70

25
16

8
16
10
26

2

4

2

7

2

11

6

6

3

8

5

2

34

40

35

42

17

28

4

20

4

15

12

8

26909

18.0
19.9
18.0
18.7
• 19.0
19.8
19.0
17.6
19.5
18.8
18.3
17.7
19.0
17.5
18.4
19.2
17.7
17.7
16.3
17.4
19.0
19.1
18.5
19.0
17.3
19.9

28206

33106

37706

37906

38005

38607

38608

38609

42205

44605

44606

48405

50706

55905

55906

56105

56207

57307

69705

74.508

8170S

8S60S

92207

92.505

95510

Average . .

18.4

3. 7758

.3383

. 01862 64. 1

1

13.7

17305.
17408.
17.507.
20705.
20706 .
20707.
20709.
21207.
21212.
21306.
21707.
21708.
21809.
21811.
21812.
21907.
22205.
26106.
26806.
26807.
27207.
27307.
27505.
28805.
33105.
33405.
33407.
33906.
38606.
38706 .
40405 .
43505.
45605.
4.5705.
48106.
48305.
48406.
48.507.

SIZE OF HEAD, 20 TO 24 KERNELS.

22.9
23.7
21.5
21.8
23.3
21.1
23.5
23.6
21.0
22.6
23.3
20.5
20.9
21.0
22.9
22.6
23.6
22.5
21.7
21.8
20.7
23.8
21.6
21.7
22.0
23.4
21.8
23.8
22.3
21.5
23.0
23.2
20.3
22.0
21.0
23.6
22.6
23.3

3. 6302
9. 2038
.7720
1.8517
3.3138
9. 9070
5.3229
2. 3066
1.7216
4.1516

12.3685
9. 2850
S. 0214

11.9114

14.8139
2.9248
2. 6965
2.0737
2. 7255

17. 2324
3.3266
3. 0850

12. 0399

2. 1851

2. 5601

8. 1268

7.0889

2. 2862

8.4605

7.2.545

.6316

1.4464

.7081

. 7532

11.6655

12.0278
3.2964
1.6036

0.4538
.4383
. 3860
. 3703
.4734
.4718
.4839
.4613
.4304
.4152
.4947
.4887
.4011
.4412
.3445
.4178
.2247
.5184
.3894
.5222
.4158
.4407
.4815
.5463
.4267
.4515
.5063
.4572
.4700
.4267
.3158
.3616
. 2360
.3766
.4023
.6014
.2997
.5345

0. 01984
.01852
.01795
.01698
. 02033
.02282
. 02063
. 01955
.02049
.01837
. 02125
.02381
.01919
.02101
. 01507
. 01851
. 00953
. 02304
.01793
.02390
.02004
.01847
.02183
.02512
.01939
.01930
.02271
.01921
.02110
.01988
.01373
.01555
.01161
.01712
.01919
.02.543
.01324
.02296

61
73
78
55
61
75
67
60
50
60
90
85
84
87
90
82
80
60
56
76
75
80
84
65
65
68
67
67
71
75
54
45
55
58
79
81
68
63

12

24

4

6

7

22

13

6

5

11

24

26

25

29

54

8

54

9

12

40

9

10

38

6

12

20

18

9

24

30

3

3

6

6

39

28

13

27889— No. 78—05-

114

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 35. — Relation of size of head to yield, height, and tillering of plant— Contmued.
SIZE or HEAD, 20 TO 24 KERNELS— Continued.

Record num-
ber.

Size of
head.

Yield per

plant
(grams).

Yield per

head
(grams).

Weight of

average

kernel

(grams).

Height
(cm.).

Tillering.

48806

21.0

9.8346

0.3782

0.01798

78

12

5.5205

20.0

.6893

.3446

.01723

56

6

55606

22.9

11.0930

.5042

.02205

92

24

55907

21.4

19.3966

.5542

.02590

95

42

55908

23.4

12.2210

.5092

.02175

95

40

55909

21.5

9.2120

.6580

.03050

85

31

56205

23.8

6. 5232

.4659

.01959

82

29

56206

20.4

9.3093

.3724

.01829

86

42

56208

22.5

13. 5720

.5429

.02356

88

51

56209

21.1

15. 8086

.3513

.01664

90

67

67005

22.0

1.5364

.3841

.01746

73

7

57105

23.9

3. 7263

.2192

.00916

85

40

57305

22.8

8.5777

.3899

.01666

78

30

57306

21.7

7.9772

.3989

.01838

80

23

57308

21.4

9.8378

.3644

.01705

80

40

57506

22.5
23.9

2. 7616
6.9861

.3452
.4657

.01534
.01946

72

78

18
26

57507

57508

22.3

12.0728

.7102

. 03177

85

22

63105

22.5

1.5452

.3883

.01717

68

8

63106

23.6

3.3006

.4715

.02001

77

9

63107

21.9

9.3120

.4901

.02233

80

25

72605

21.7

1.1166

.3722

.01718

52

3

72705

21.9

9. 1522

.5384

.02191

68

20

74305

21.6

4.4222

.4422

.02047

60

11

74507

20.5

9.2130

.3839

.01869

70

27

74605

21.0

7. 1181

.3746

.01784

69

27

74606

23.2

9. 6451

.4822

.02079

75

24

76205

21.7

8.4407

.3670

.01695

70

26

81405

21.8

4.5737

.4158

.01862

70

11

81705

21.1

9. 7922

.4451

.02106

82

27

81706

21.2

15. 3928

.4527

.02132

90

40

81707

23.8

18. 3614

. 5564

.02336

96

53

81709

20.5

16.4692

.4451

.02175

90

45

84405

23.8

8.7448

.4858

.02043

75

19

88607

23.4

5. 1.584

.5158

. 02205

73

lo

91905

22.0

3.4436

.3826

.01739

72

12

91906

22.2

3.5486

.3943

. 01774

74

11

92206

' 23.0

1.1074

.5537

.02407

66

3

92305

22.9

2.3859

.3408

.01491

65

11

92306

23.1

6. 0091

.4006

.01732

75

19

92506

22.9

3.8709

.3871

. 01690

II

16

92507

Average.

22.0

9.6779

.4208

.01916

82

29

22.2

6.8466

.4355

.01953

73.8

21.4

SIZE OF HEAD, 24 TO 28 KERNELS.

17306

24.3

3.9968

0.3997

0.01645

66

12

17405

25.1

15. 6996

.5414

.02127

72

34

17409

24.3

• 14.8957

.4514

.01857

85

39

20710

25.5

17.1115

.5032

.01974

77

39

21206

24.8

2. 8564

.4761

.01917

62

6

21308

25.3

5.8080

.4149

. 01641

54

14

21706

26.9

19.3318

.6444

.02390

88

38

21709

25.8

7. 7296

.5521

.02141

85

23

21711

24.2

17. 1820

.4773

.01968

85

51

21806

24.9

14.2450

.5935

.02378

91

32

21808

25.7

19. 7446

.4388

.01708

96

57

21810

26.0

1.0304

. 51.52

.01982

55

4

21913

27.3

10. 1925

.5662

. 02072

84

27

22210

27.1

6.0173

.5470

. 02019

78

31

26808

24.7

3.8811

.4312

. 01748

64

11

26905

25.1

6.4102

.4931

.01966

66

15

26908

24.0

3.9797

.4974

.02073

62

9

27205

26.2

16.4061

.4825

.01841

87

57

27305

24.3

5. 5666

..5061

.02085

80

22

27506

24.7

10.0005

.5556

.02252

85

23

27507

25.0

1.3746

.4582

.01833

50

4

' 27508

27.9
27.5

5. .5324
1.0183

.6137
.5091

.02287
.01851

78
50

19
2

32608

33107

24.5

6. 1026

.4694

.01919

73

29

33305

25.0

3. 1346

.5224

.02090*

53

7

.33406

25.7

4.6045

.4186

.01627

72

16

33408

25.7

1.1132

.3711

• .01446

56

4

RELATION OF SIZE OF HEAD TO YIELD, ETC.

115

Table 35. — Relation of size of head to yield, height, and tillering of plant — Continued.
SIZE OF HEAD, 24 TO 28 KERNELS— Continued.

Record num-
ber.

33605.
33606.
33607 .
33905 .
34207.
37705.
39.507 .
45606 .
48306.
48407 .
48409.
48505.
48508.
55506.
56107 .
57509 .
57606.
57607.
57608 .
58206.
63506 .

65305 .

65306 .
6530S.
66008.
69505.
69805.
69806 .
72606 .
72607.
72905.
74607 .
80305.
81406 .
81710.
84906.
85205 .
86105.
86106.
88606.
88609 .
88905 .
92205.
92405.
92407 . ,
92907 . .
94206 . ,
94208..
94407 . .
94907..
94908..
94909..
95506..
95507..
95508..
95705 . .
95707..

Average .

Size of
head.

27.4
27.3

27.2

26.7

26.6

25.6

27.8

24.4

26.2

26.6

26.2

27.4

27.4

27.1

24.9

27.8

26.4

27.3

24.3

24.7

25.5

26.0

25.9

26.5

24.9

25.5

27.5

27.9

27.1

26. 9

27.8

25.8

25.1

24.0

24.7

25.5

26.7

25.4

27.2

25.3

24.7

26.6

26.5

26.7

26.5

24.3

25.1

24.8

26.2

27.2

25! 0

24.2
25.9
26.0
25.5
26.5
26.0

25.9

Yield per

plant
(grams).

7.0596

8. 1890

2. 8903

11. 1476

13.. 5556

8. 0905

1.8862

4.0358

2. 6571

11.2890

6.4302

1.9154

11.2008

17. 8.506

14.4556

10.6261

3.0790

16.4433

8. 6189

1.3961

2. 3986

1.8018

9. 8298

11.7066

3. 1555

4.7116

2.4420

12.0136

9.3629

3.4442

2.6462

8. 3406

15. 7835

1.2391

9.1411

7.5438

3.4766

3.0282

7. 6241

9.94.56

9. 8719

5. 3069

5.2616

3.4356

.8983

4.4673

7. 5006

3. 7828

6. 7664

12. 1918

2.3678

3. 6977

11.0548

12. 1.592

14.4617

10. 3426

.7577

Yield per

head
(grams).

7. 5207

0.6418
.5489
.5781
.5867
.5894
.4495
.4715
.4484
.4428
.4181
.5358
.3831
..5091
. 5578
.3023
.4830
. G158
.6090
.4788
.2327
.3998
.6006
.4681
. 5321
.4.505
.4712
.6105
.6007
.4681
.4920
.4410
.4390
.5442
.4130
..5713
.5029
. 4386
.3785
.4765
. 5234
.5196
.4824
.4047
.4294
.4491
.4964
.4688
.2909
.4229
.5301
.4736
. 2631
.4806
..5527
.4987
.4309
.3788

.4848

Weight of

average

kernel

(grams).

0. 02345
.02144
.02125
.02194
.02219
.01972
.01699
. 01834
.01692
.01572
.02048
.01398
.01858
. 02062
.01658
.01739
. 02333
. 02234
.01968
.00943
. 01568
.02310
.01807
.02008
.01814
.01847
. 02220
.021.53
.01724
.01832
.01585
.01699
.02165
.01721
. 02308
. 01975
. 01625
.01495
.01749
.02068
.02100
.01811
.01525
.01605
.01695
.02040
.01866
.01175
.01615
.01948
.01894
. 01696
. 01852
.02029
.01954
.01626
.01457

Height
(cm.).

. 01874

65
72
58
77
77
60
59
59
58
82
74
70
80
95
90
84
78
87
83
75
64
65
75
77
76
66
62
75
82
74
59
76
70
55
90
65
65
68
76
85
74
82
72
78
68
84
76
71
82
85
73
72
86
90
97
80
67

73.8

SIZE OF HEAD, 28 TO 32 KERNELS.

Tillering.

14
17

6
23
22
22

4
13

7
53
19

7
36
58
49
37

8
48
38
29

7
10
28
35

8
13

7
28
26

8

5
31
33

3
24
16
11

4
25
23
26
17
IS
10

2

10

19

19

23

23

9

9

25

22

31

31

4

21.2

17505

17506

20805

21208

21209

21210

21805

21905

21906

21908

21909

21911

29.0
31.0
31.7
28.7
29.7
29.6
29.3
28.2
31.4
28.8
30.9
29.5

0.3885

2. 2881

14.6942

5. 1594

1.4484

3.9143

20. 9290

14.3111

10. 4800

3. 5574

12. 1819

8.4593

0.3885

.7627
. 6679
.5159
.4828
.4893
.4983
.5111
.8062
. 5929
.7166
.6597

0.01340
. 02460
.02157
.01798
. 01627
.01577
.01699
.01809
.02563
. 02056
.02317
.02209

46
55
85
63
51
59
91
92
88
92
86
90

7

6

30

11

6

8

48

62

27

9

29

23

116

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 35. — Relation of size of head to yield, height, and tillering of plant — Continued.
SIZE OP HEAD, 28 TO 32 KERNELS— Continued.

Record num-
ber.

22206.
22211 .
26107.
27005.
27206.
27306.
27308.
27509 .
32206 .
32605.
32606.
34205.
34208.
37305 .
38505.
38506 .
38605.
39405.
39606.
40305.
44505.
45005.
45805 .
46107.

50905 .

50906 .
55005.
55006.
55007.
55206 .
55306 .
55307.
55507 .
56106.
57006.
57407.
58207.
58505 .
58806.
59606 .
63505.
65307 .
66005 .
69506 .
71905.
72406.
72706.
72707.
76206.
88906 .
92408.
92908.
94205.
94207.
94209 .
94406.
94605.
94606 .
94905.
94906.
95706.

Size of
head.

29.2

28.0

28.8

28.9

28.8

28.5

31.7

30.4

28.2

28.1

31.3

30.9

31.2

30.9

29.6

28.3

30.5

31.9

31.4

29.8

30.9

29.4

31.0

31.9

31.6

28.5

30.2

30.1

29.5

30.4

30.6

31.1

31.5

28.0

30.5

31.8

30.7

31.1

31.7

29.8

29.7

31.1

30.8

30.1

29.3

30.7

29.5

28.1

29.8

Average.

30,

29,

31

31

29,

31,

28.9

28.0

29.9

31.8

29.8

29.7

30.1

Yield per
plant

(grams).

2.5712

11.5675

2. 0390

16.4120

19. 18.54

13.3011

4.5123

5.3615

10. 4036

5.2268

2.0162

9. 1498

2. 9886

6. 1394

12. 1088

1.6799

1.2124

9. 3.541

4. 6383

3.6003

5. 9990

3. 2340

1.5298

8. 3935

2.3982

1.7280

7.9684

7. 1852

2. 1,571

11.3592

4. 1323

5. 6864

9. 8228

12.0161

10. 1836

14.9992

4. 2207

7.4516

1.9469

9. 7084

4.0230

7.0051

7.6690

13. 5696

28.2136

8. 2929

14. 6802

4. 5806

5.4411

9.9034

3. 7820

3. 2388

1.2117

13. 7057

3. 6006

10. 5556

.7319

11.8435

4. 4423

12.3862

5. 1629

7.4992

Yield per
head

(grams) .

0. 5142

.5784

.4078

.5471

.7106

.5542'

.5640

.6702

.5779

. 6533

.6721

.6100

. .5977

.6139

.6373

. 5600

. 6062

.6681

.4217

.6000

.5453

.4042

. 3824

. 5.595

.3426

.4320

.6129

.4790

.5393

. 5978

. 5903

. 5169

.6139

.5224

.4427

. 62.50

.4221

.6210

.6489

.5109

.5747

. 5838

.6391

.6168

. 6561

..5923

.7340

. 5726

.3627

. 5502

.5403

. 5398

.4039

.5711

.6001

. .5556

.3659

.5383

. 4936

.5385

.5736

.5598

Weight of

average

kernel

(grams).

0.01720
. 02062
.01416
.01895
. 02469
.01945
.01777
. 02206
.020.52
. 02323
.02145
.01972
.01916
.01987
. 02252
.01975
.01987
. 02093
.01341
.02011
.01764
.01376
.01234
.017.56
. 01085
.01516
. 02028
.01.593
. 01828
.01965
.01931
.01663
.01949
.01866
.014.53
.01968
.01375
. 02730
.02049
.01712
.01934
.01878
. 02073
. 02047
. 02239
.01929
. 02484
. 02036
.01217
.01814
. 01827
.01732
.01893
.01909
. 01895
. 01923
.01307
.07544
.01.553
.01808
. 01934

. 01958

Height
(cm.).

70

88

67

77

90

88

88

73

71

71

69

78

66

58

70

54

55

74

64

62

69

66

48

79

68

58

75

80

65

82

77

80

95

90

88

92

75

80

65

80

66

74

75

73

80

70

80

72

73

80

81

76

55

83

75

82

68

84

75

91

82

74.5

Tillering.

9
59

6
40
49
48
11

9
26

9

3
19

5
12
21

3

2
18
18

6
25

9

4
27
10

5
19
19

7
27
17
19
28
33
41
41
18
18

7
37

8
17
22
24
46
15
27

8
30
21

7

7

6
31

7
22

7

23

11

24

9

19.4

RELATION" OF SIZE OF HEAD TO YIELD, ETC.

117

Table 35. — Relation of size of head to yield, height, and tiHering of plant — Continued.

SIZE OF HEAD, 32 TO 36 KERNELS.

(

Record num-
ber. .

Size of
head.

Yield per

plant
(grams).

Yield per

heat,
(grams).

Weight of

average

kernel

(grams) .

Height
(cm.).

Tillering.

17307

34.5

3. 1454 ■

0. 7863

. 0.02279
.01443

70

8

18905

34.3

1.4864

. 49.^5

50

4

26105

32.7

1.8242

.i'M)

.01393

69

13

26907

" 34.0

1.S276

. (:092

.01792

55

8

28806

34.2

14.4630

.7232

.02111

75

30

34405

34.5

4. 1281

.(;88i

.01994

62

8

34606

35.0

6. 1962

. 7745

. 02213

61

13

36905

33.4

5.0200

.6275

.01880

58

7

39205

32.2

21.. 5399

. 6731

.02089

82

40

42405

33.0

1.4S92

. 7446

.02251

60

2

42905

33.5

1.2499

.6249

.01866

68

4

48506

32.7

9.4585

. 5564

.01701

82

30

49505

33.5

1.2716

. 6358

.01898

60

3

51005

34.5

15. .5835

.6233

.01804

75

32

55008

33.7

17.4226

. 6222

.01846

82

30

55305

33.4

2.5160

.50.32

.01507

75

12

55308

33.1

9. .5078

. 7923

.02395

79

28

.55605

33.3

10.9180

. 7279

.02184

89

23

55607

34.5

2.3931

..59.83

.01734

77

/

5560S

33.5
33.6

22. 5848
3.3176

.9034
. 6635

.02699
.01975

95
90

31
9

57007

57406

33.7

2.4923

.6231

.01846

92

14

57408

35.0

12.2004

.7177

.02047

90

26

58805

35.1

23. 1471

.7014

.01999

78

51

60605

35.0

.,5952

. .5952

.01701

57

4

69305

34.3

2.0430

. 6810

.01984

70

7

72405

35.5

8.4415

1.4069

.03963

67

6

72708

.33.2

9.0386

. 7532

.02270

78

12

73308

34.7

14. 2986

.7944

.02291

74

23

85206

34.2

4.9315

.4483

.01312

69

13

88605

34.5

1.6362

.8181

.02731

70

3

91305

34.5

3.0940

. 7735

.02242

76

6

92208

.35.3

6. 6206

.6621

.01876

. 78

17

92406

34.5

8. 2366

.7488

. 02168

81

17

92409

35.0

5.7131

.6348

.01814

81

13

92905

35.2

2. 7000

.5400

.01534

75

6

92909

33.1

10. 1363

. 6335

.01916

86

21

95509

Average.

34.5

2.9475

.7369

.02136

74

4

34.1

7.2530

.6868

.02023

73.9

15.4

SIZE OF HEAD, 36 KERNELS AND OVER.

18906

65.0

0.9229

0.9229

0. 01420

67

5

21813

43.2

4.0258

.8051

.01877

80

21

34206

40.5

1.5940

.7970

.01968

74

5

37707

38.6

3.3004

.6601

.01710

64

5

40205

38.8

3. 6302

.7260

.01871

65

11

40.505

42.5

4. 1.546

1.0386

.02444

60

4

43405

41.3

2.SO0O

.93.33

. 02258

64

3

46105

37.1

4. 6146

.6592

.01775

73

S

48705

44.0

4.3615

.7269

. 01652

80

.7
t

48706

47.4

6. 1986

.7748

.01635

78

12

.5.5508

36.0

3. 7407

. 6222

.01732

73

12

57405

41.0

.8328

.8328

.02031

73

1

57805

38.6

4. 8988

.6998

.01814

76

17

57905

36.8

2.4731

.4122

.01118

74

17

58705

.58.7

2.. 5436

.6359

.01082

68

11

58905

42.5

2. 3031

.5758

.013,55

66

13

59605

38.2

7. 1828

.7183

.01880

77

30

62805

.37.0

1.3451

.4484

.01212

70

14

66006

52.3

6. 0090

.8.584

.01642

73

12

72806

36.7

2.0970

.(i990

.01906

62

5

73306

37.6

8. .5373

.7761

.020(i2

78

20

81505

48.7

2. 8327

.9442

.01940

78

7

84905

37.0

.7130

.7130

. 01927

47

4

92906

36.2

2. 8816

. 5763

. 01.592

75

(

95505

Average.

37.0

.3146

.3146

.008.50

79

3

42.1

3.3723

. 7148

.01710

71.0

10.2

118

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

Table 36. — Summary of relation of size of head to yield, height, and tillering of plant.

Classification according to
number of kernels on
head.

Below 16

16 to 20

20 to 24

24 to 28

28 to 32

32 to 36

More than 36

Average

Number number

of plants, of kernels

on spike.

18

13.3

36

18.4

80

22.2

84

25.9

73

30.1

38

34.1

25

42.1

Yield per

plant
(grams).

Yield per

head
(gram).

Weight of

average

kernel

(gram)

Height

(cm.).

1.3169

0. 26.54

0. 02059

55.2

3. 7758

.3383

.01862

64.1

6. 8466

. 4355

. 01953

73.8

7. 5207

.4848

.01874

73.8

7. 4992

. 5.598

.01958

74.5

7. 2530

.6868

. 02023

73.9

3.3723

.7148

.01710

71.0

Tillering.

6.9

13.7
21.4
21.2
19.4
15.4
10.2

Table 37. — Relation of yield of plant to height and tillering, and to the yield per head.

Classification according to yield per plant, in I Number
grams. of plants.

Below 1

1 to 2.5

2,5 to 5

5tol0

10 to 15

15 to 20

More than 20

31
67
87
93
51
20
5

Yield per

plant
(grams).

0. 6050

1.7673

3. 5526

7. 6485

12. 2862

17.1908

23. 2829

Height

(cm.).

Tillering.

56.5
62.2
69.1
75.4
84.4
84.6
85.2

3.7
7.0
11.6
22.1
32.3
42.9
43.2

Yield per

head
■ (gram).

0. 3553
.■4740
.4917
. 5320
. 5592
. 5310
.6865

Table 38. — Relation of yield per head to yield, height, and tillering of plant, and to weight of

average Tcernel.

Classification according to yield
per head, in grams.

Number
of plants.

Yield per

head
(gram).

Yield per

plant
(grams).

Height

(em.).

Tillering.

Weight of

average

kernel

(gram).

Below 0 300

30

62

98
78
50
25
12

0. 2484
.3567
.4524
.5477
.6372
.7456
.9229

1.6939
3. 7365
6. 7.326
9. 5646
7.6214
4.4.523
5. 7687

60.8

65.6

72.8-

76.6

74.3

75.2

73.7

11.4
15.5
19.9
21.8
17.3
18.6
10.3

0. 01586

0 300 to 0 400

. ()] 737

0 400 to 0 500

.1)1847

0 500 to 0 600

. 02073

0 600 to 0 700

.(r2(l."i6

0 700 to 0 800

.021,9

More than 0 800

.02151

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

As between wheat kernels of the same variety raised under similar
conditions, those kernels having a high percentage of proteid mate-
rial have a lower specific gravity, weigh slightly less, and occupy a
smaller volume than kernels having a smaller percentage of proteids.

As between individual spikes and individual plants, the same rela-
tions obtain.

As between individual plants in different years, these relations do
not hold.

The quahty of high proteid content and its correlated properties
may be due to immaturity in the kernel, or they may belong to the
normal and fully ripened kernel.

As between kernels, spikes, and plants, those kernels of greater
weight contain a larger weight of proteids — this in spite of the fact
that they contain a lower percentage.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. 119

Plants bearing the largest number of kernels have kernels of more
than medium but not the greatest weight, as do also plants producing
the o-reatest weight of kernels. The same is true of plants producing
the greatest weight of proteid matter and gluten.

Heavy seed wheat drilled at the rate of IJ bushels per acre pro-
duced a much larger crop of seed the first year of the separation than
did light seed drilled at the same rate, but by continuing the separa-
tion of the respective crops and selecting heav}^ seed from the crop
grown from heavy seed, and light seed from the crop grown from
light seed, the difference in yield in three or four years was small.

After the first year of separation the light seed produced a greater
amount of proteids per acre than did the heavy seed.

A determination of the total or of the proteid nitrogen content in
the kernels on one row of spikelets of wheat affords a fairly close esti-
mate of the same constituents in the kernels on the other row of
spikelets.

A determination of the total or of the proteid nitrogen content in
the kernels on one-half of the spikes on a wheat plant will give a very
good estimate of the same constituents in the kernels on the other
spikes, provided there are at least an average number of spikes on the
plant.

There may be quite a large variation in the proteid nitrogen con-
tent of different spikes on the same wheat plant.

Determinations of the proteid nitrogen content of 800 spikes of
wheat of the same variety representing different plants showed a
variation of from 1.12 to 4.95 per cent of proteid nitrogen, and 351
plants of the same variety the following year varied from 1.20 to 5.85
per cent.

The proportion of gluten to proteids in kernels of different wheat
plants may vary considerably. A determination of proteid nitrogen
is therefore not always a guide to the gluten content of the wheat.
Selection for improvement should be based on the determination of
gluten.

Wheat plants having kernels high in gluten contain a smaller pro-
portion of other proteids than do plants of medium or low gluten
content.

In wheat of the same variety, raised in the same field in the same
year, the ratio of gliadin to glutenin was practically the same in
plants of low, medium, and high proteid nitrogen content.

It may therefore be assumed that an increase in the gluten con-
tent of a given variety of wheat raised in the same region would carry
with it a corresponding improvement in its value for bread making,
although there might be fluctuations from year to year in the quality
of the gluten.

120 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WHEAT.

The content of protcid nitrogen, the kernel weight, and the total
proteid nitrogen production b}-^ the wheat plant are hereditary quali-
ties.

There is a tendency for ])lants possessing any of these qualities in
an extreme degree to produce progeny in which the same qualities
ap})roach more closely to the average, but certain exceptional plants
may transmit the same or more extreme qualities.

The yield of grain per plant after a sevei^e winter was decreased in
proportion to the suscepti])ility of the plant to cold. The effect of
the cold caused the plant to produce a less number of heads, or, in
other words, to tiller less.

The early-maturing plants yielded the most grain, and those ripen-
ing later produced in each case less when grouped into ripening
periods of four days, extending through more than three weeks' time.

The early-maturing plants produced grain of slightly lower nitro-
gen content than the later maturing plants, and the number of grams
of proteid nitrogen in the average kernel was likewise less in tiie
early-maturing plants.

Plants with heads of slightly more than medium size produced
the largest yields of grain, and were taller than plants wi.h either
larger or smaller heads. Plants with heads of medium size, or slightly
less, tillered most extensivel}^

The weight of the average kernel did not increase with the size of
the head, nor did it decrease, except on the very largest heads.

The largest yielding plants were the tallest and tillered most.

U

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 79.

B. T. GALLOWAY, CMef'oJ Bureau.

THE VARIABILITY OF WHEAT VARIETIES IN
RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

BY

L. L. HARTER,

Scientific Assistant, Laboratory of Plant Breeding.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATIONS.

Issued July 27, 1905.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1 9 0 5 .

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The Bureau of riant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes
Vegetable Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Potanical Investiga-
tions and Exi)crinients, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, Pomological
Investigations, and Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of which were for-
merly separate Divisions, and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution,
the Arlington Experimental Farm, tea Culture Investigations, and Domesti<-
J?ugar Inv<>stigationR.

P.eginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series o'f
Bulletins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published
as one series of the Bureau. -A list of the Bulletins issued in the present series
follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that " the serial, scientific, and technical i)nb-
lications of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general dis-
(rilintion. All copies not required for otticial use are by law turned over to the
Sui)erintendent of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All
applications for such publications should therefore be made to the Superintend-
ent of Documents, Governnjent I'rinting OtRce, Washington, D. C.

No. 1. The Ptelation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10
cents.

2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. I'rice, 20 cents.

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price, 10 cents.
G. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

7. The Algerian Durum AA'heats. 1902. Price, 1.5 cents.

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses

and Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

14. The^Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55

cents.

15. Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin. 1902.

Price, 15 cents.

16. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Cam-

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■ 17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

18. Observation's on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

21. List of American Varieties of Vegetabtes. 1903. Price, 35 cents.

22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents.
2.'>. Borseem. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

24. Unfermented Grai)e Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous Papers: I. The Seeds of Rescue Grass and Chess. II.

Saragolla Wheat. III. Plant Introduction Notes from South Africa.
IV. Congressional Seed and Plant Distribution Circulars. 1903.
Price, 15 cents.
20. Spanish Almonds. 1902, Price, 15 cents.

27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, Spain, and the Orient. 1902.

Price, 15 cents.

28. The Mango in Porto Rico. 190.3. Price, 15 cents.

29. The ICffect of Blade Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

30. Budding the I'ecan. 1902. I'rice, 10 cents.

31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Price 10

cents,

[Continued on ijagc 3 of cover.]

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 79.

B. T. GALLOWAY, ChiiJ of Bureau.

THE VARIABILITY OF WHEAT VARIETIES IN
RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

BY

L. L. HAKTER.
Scientific Assistant, Laboratory of Plant Breeding.

\'EGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATIONS.

Issued July 27, 1905.

WASHINGTON:
government tkinting office.

19 0 5.

BLREAl OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

B. T. (JALLOWAY,

Putholoijist and J'liysiologist, and Chief of Jiincau.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVEST! 3ATIONS.

\LnEKT F Woons, Palhohn/ist and I-hysioln;,ist in Charfjc, Actini, Chief of Bureau in

Absence of Chuf.

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND ENPERIMENTS.

PUEDERICK V. CoviLLE, Botunisl in Charge.

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.

W. J. Spillman, Agrostologist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

(;. B. Bu.vcKETT, Pomologist in Charge.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBTTION.

A. J. PiETERS, Botanist in Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.

L. C. COUBETT, Horticulturist in Charge.

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.

E. M. Byrn'es, Superintendent.

\

J. E. Rockwell, Editor.
.T.\MES E. .Toxes, Chief Clerk.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

Albert F. Woous, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge.

Krwix F Smith, Pathologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Pathology.

Georce f. Moore. Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Physiology.

Hekbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Breeding.

Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Life History.

Newtox B. Pierce, Pathologist in Charge of Pacific Coast Laboratory.

M. B. Waite. Pathologist in Charge of Inrestigations of Diseases of Orchard Fruits.

Mark Alfred Carletox, Cerealist in Charge of Cereal Inrestigations.

IIer.maxx vox ScHitEXK, in Charge of Mississi])pi Valley Laboratory.

P. H. Rolfs, Patholngi.yt in Cliarge of f!uhtropie<il Laboratory.

('. «». Towxsexd, Pathologist in Charge of i^iigar Beet Inrestigations.

r. H. Dorsett," Pathejlogist.

T. 11. Keakxey, Physiologist, Plant Breeding.

CoiiXELUs L. Shear. Palhologist.

William A. Ortox, Palhologist.

W. M. Scott. Pathologist.

.losEPii S. CiiA.MBERLAix,'' Physiological Chemist, Cereal Inresti(/ations.

I\i:xsT A. B::.ssey. Pathologist.

Flora W. Pattersox, Mycologist.

Charles P. Hartley, Assistant in Physiology, Plant Breeding.

Karl F. Kell!;r.max, Assistant in PhysioU.gy.

Deaxe B. Swingle, Assistant in Pathology.

.IrssE P.. Norton, Assistant in Physiology, Plant Breeding.

.Tames B. Rorer, Assistant in Pathology.

Lloyd S. Texny, Assistant in Pathology.

George <;. Hedgcock, .\ssistant in Pathology.

I'EiiLEY Si'AiLDiNG, Scientific .Issistant.

P. .T. O'Gara, Scientific Assistant, Ph.i:t Pathology.

.\. D. SiiAMEL, Scientific Assistant, Plant Breeding.

T. R>.lpii Ror.iNSOx. Assistant in Physiology.

Florexce Hedges, Scientific Assistant, Bacteriology.

CiiARLE.; .T. Brand, .issistant in Physiology, Plant Life History.

IIi:xi;v A. Miller, Scientific Assistant, Cereal Inrestigations.

Erxe'-'T B. Buowx, Sci<ntific Assistant, Plant Breeding.

I.r.sLiE A. Fit/., Scientific .\ssiKiant . Cereal Inrestigations.

LEiiXAltD L. Hartek. Scientific .[ssistant. Plant Breeding.

•Ii'iix (». MEitwix. Scientific .\ssistant. Plant Physiology.

W. W. C'oiiEV, Tobacco E.rpert .

.loHN VAX Leex.hoff, .Tr.. E.rpert.

^. .\RTHi"U Le Clerc,<" Physiological Chemist. Cereal- Inrestigations.

T. I). Beck with, Expert, Plant Physiology.

" Iteliiilod to Seed and Plant Introduction and Disti-ibuliou.
''Detailed to Biii-eau of Cii'm'strv.
■■ l)etailed from Bureau of Cl;emistry.

I.ETn^R OF TRAXSMITTAL.

U. S. Departimext of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,
Wasliiiif/fon, D. T., Man ^« ^^05.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a technical paper
entitled "' The Variability of Wheat Varieties in Resistance to Toxic
Salts,'' and to recommend that it be published as Bulletin Xo. TO of
the series of this Bureau.

This paper was prepared by Mr. L. L. Harter, Scientific Assistant
in the Laboratory of Plant Breeding, Vegetable Pathological and
Physiological Investigations, and was submitted b_v the Pathologist
and Physiologist with a view to publication. The subject-matter of
the !>ulletin will be of interest to experimenters who are working on
tlie problems of securing alkali-resistant strains of agricultural crops.
Respectfully,

B. T. (talloway.
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

i

i

PREFACE.

The main object of the accompanyino- paper is to prove that differ-
ent varieties of a single species behave differently in the presence
of the harmful salts that are present in the so-called alkali soils of
the western United States. The work has been done with varieties
of wheat on account of the great importance of that crop in the
region indicated and because, being grown under a great diversity
of conditions as regards climate and soil, wheat varieties would be
exjoected to differ much among themselves in their power to with-
stand the effect of excessive amounts of salts in the soil, just as they
differ widely in their capability of withstanding drought, cold, and
parasites.

The experiments were made with young seedlings, their roots being
exposed for periods of twenty-four hours to the action of pure solu-
tions of the salts used, the greatest strength of solution in which
the root tips could survive being taken as representing the limit of
endurance of each variety to each salt. The salts used were the car-
l)onate, bicarbonate, sulphate, and ehlorid of sodium, and the sul-
phate and ehlorid of magnesium. These are salts that are generally
present in the largest quantity in alkali soils. Nine varieties of
wheat, both from the Old AVorld and the Xcav, representing widely
different climates and soils, were compared.

It was found that the varieties differed greatly in their ability to
withstand the poisonous action of the salts used. This was more
strikinfflv broui»"ht out in the case of some salts than of others. To
magnesium sulphate, for example, some varieties are three times
as resistant as are others. Tables are given in the following paper
showino- the limit of concentration of each of the nine varieties foi
each of the six salts. It was also clearly demonstrated that the dif-
ferent individuals of each variety differ much in resistance, and the
limits of the varieties as established are only the means of the limits
for all the individuals tested. Analyses of the ash of each lot of seed
used were obtained from the Bureau of Chemistry, but no correla-
tion could be shown between ash composition and resistance to action
of toxic salts. On the other hand, it was clearlv demonstrated that

C PREFACE.

with few exceptions tlie varieties that have orig'inated in arid regions,
Avhere the soils are usually more saline than in humid regions, are
those that are most resistant to pure solutions of sodium and magne-
sium salts. Three varieties of southeastern Eussia, with one excep-
tion, were found to be the most resistant of all those tested.
' It is believed that the laboratory work upon which this paper is
based has a direct practical bearing, as it gives us an indication of
what A'arieties are most likely to succeed in arid regions where the
soils are more or less salty. Furthermore, as some one salt — e. g.,
sodium chlorid — sometimes strongly predominates in the soils of a
particular region, and as these experiments show clearly that, while
one variety may be more resistant than another to sodium chlorid.
the second is often more resistant than the first to sodium carbonate
or to magnesium sulphate, we can thus obtain information as to
which of the many varieties of a great crop can be sown with the
best chance of success upon a given type of alkali soil. In other
words, a few weeks of simi)le lal)oratory experiment may save years
of costly trial in the field, although, of course, the water-culture exper-
iments can not be considered as giving more than an indication of
what we can expect each variety to do. and the final test must be the
growing of the crop upon a practical scale.

The great individual variability in resistance brought oiit in these
experiments shows that not merely have we found a guide as to which
of existing varieties are best adapted to diiferent types of saline
soils, but that there is an excellent opportunity for increasing their
resistance by selecting seed from the most resistant individuals.
The present investigation alfords further evidence that it is practi-
cable to apply plant-breeding methods to the " alkali problem "' and
adapt crops bj^^ selection to the unfavorable conditions presented by
soils that contain excessive amounts of soluble salts.

A. F. AVooDS,
Patholof/ist and Physiologist.

OFriCE OF Vegetable Pathological

AMD PlIYSIOLO<;i(AL INVESTIGATIONS,

Washington, D. 6'., April 26, 1005.

C 0 X r 1: \ T S

Page.

Introduction 9

Salts used 11

A'arieties selected . : 11

Preston 12

Turkey 13

Zimmerman ..- 13

Kharkof 14

Padui -. 14

Chul . 14

Budapest . . 1 o

Kubanka . 15

Maraouani . 16

Methods of experiments ... 16

Method of establishing the toxic limits _ 21

Results of experiments 23

With magnesium sulphate 23

With magnesium chlorid 25

With sodium carbonate 27

With sodium bicarbonate 28

With sodiiim snl])hate _ 30

With sodium chlorid- . .. 32

Summary of tables 34

Comparison of results with different species _ . . 35

Ash analyses . . _ • _ 37-

Individual variability 37

Neutralizing effect of the salts employed upon other toxic substances 39

Dilute solutions as stimulants 42

Practical value of results 44

Summary _ . 45

Bibliography 47

X

i

B. r. I.— 159.

V. p. r. T. — in4.

THE VARIABILITY OF WHEAT VARIETIES IN
RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

INTRODUCTION.

It has been shown quite conchisively in recent years that different
species and genera differ very much in their ability to resist the influ-
ence of toxic salt solutions. Numerous investigations of the action
of acids and salts upon plants have been made, especially during the
last four or five years. In\'estigations of this nature are not only of
great scientific interest, l)ut promise in some cases to be of consider-
able practical importance. One phase of this subject which is espe-
cially interesting from this latter point of view is that of the relation
of plants, particularly cultivated plants, to the components of the
saline or alkaline soils that are so common in the arid part of the
United States and of many other parts of the world.

A preliminary investigation of this phase of the subject was made
by Messrs. Kearney and Cameron," Avho showed by a large number of
experiments on LupiuK^ albus and Medtcago satioa that the death
limit of the root tips was very different for different salts. For
instance, the limit for Liipinus alhiis in sodium chlorid was found to
V)e 0.02 of a normal solution, and in magnesium sulphate 0.00125.
For Medicago sativa, in mixed solutions containing an excess of two
calcium salts, the limit was 0.35 in magnesium sulphate and 0.20 in
sodium chloi'id.''

Much work has been done in comparing different botanical species
as to their resistance to the effect of salt solutions,'' but the compara-

a Report No. 71, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (1902).

^ Messrs. KalilenlKH-g and True, who have done considoraI)le work along this
lino, particailarly with salts and acids, give some very interesting results. They
loiuid (On the Toxic Action of Dissolved Salts and Their Electrolytic Dissocia-
tion. Bot. Gaz., 22:81, 180(5) that Liiphius alhus would just survive in -^^1^^^
gram mol. per liter of copper salts. They found the same limits with ferrous
suli)hate (FeS04). nickel sulphate (NiSOJ, and cohalt sulphate (CoSOJ, but
for mercuric chlorid (HgCU) y^loo, '"^^l mercuric cyanid (HgCn„) only

'■The experiments of Heald (On the Toxic Effect of Dilute Solutions of Acids
and Salts upon Plants, Bot. (Jaz., 22: 12."). 1S'.)(>), and later those of Moore and
Kellerman, are among the most interesting in this connection.

Ileald, in a series of experiments resembling those of Kahlenberg and True,
obtained some valuable results with CuviirhUa pcpo, Zca nicu/s; and Pisuin •sail-
30012— No. 7U— 05 m 2 9

10 WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

tive resistance of tliit'ereiit varieties, or races, of a single species has
received little attention.'^

During the autumn of lOO)), and again in 1004, the writer had occa-
sion to re})eat. at tlie Departiucnt of Agriculture. AVashington, I). C.
the experiments previously conducted b}^ Kearne}^ and Cameron wiOi

nnii. lie foiuid tlie limit of /'ixiiiii .■^ulinnii to be -^jIq-q gram mol. per liter for
copper suli»li!ite (CuSOJ as the strengtli wbit-h will barely ]H'riuit the roots to
Hve, and that for Zca viuiix to be osooo- I^*^' ohtained results with various
salts, but this will sulHce to show the variability between plnuts widely sep-
arated in relationshi]).

Moore and Kellermun (A ]\Iethod of Destroying or Preventing the Growth of
Algte and Certain Pathogenic P>acteria in "Water Sup])lies, lUil. VA. P>ureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, T.Xi-t) say:

In dealing with alga- the toxic concentration varies greatly for different gen-
era, even for different species of the same genus. Niigeli demonstrated the
extreme sensitiveness of iiplroiiijia iiitida and >S. dubiu to the presence of copper
coins ill the water. Oscillatorhi. Chidopliora, (Edogoiinun, and the diatoms
succumb in six hours to a copper-sulphate solution of 1 to 20,000 and in two
days to 1 to 50,000 according to I'okorny. * * ■■' According to Ono, weak
solutions of the salts of most of the metals encourage the growth of alga^ and
fungi. Mercury and copper, however, at O.OOdO.") jier cent and O.OOCOl jier cent,
respectively, distinctly inhibit growth. This was the <-ase with !<li<ir(jcl(iniiiiii,
Chroococciis, and Protorovvn^.

Moore and Kellerman have obtained results with a.lga' which serve very well
to illustrate the variability of these organisms in the presence of the toxic cop-
per sulphate. They found that with tliis salt 1 to 25,000, 1 to 75,000, and 1 to
100,000 were sutHcient to kill RapJiiditim pulj/iiioi-pliKiii in four days. DesjuidinDi
{iirartzii in three days, and Xaricnla sp. in live days, respectively. One part
of salt to .'500,000 of water and 1 to l.OOO.OOO were f.atal to Coiifcrni hoiiihi/ciiium
in three days and »V//;/»r(/ itvcUa in a few minutes. Clostcriinn iiioiiilifo-iini was
killed in four days in a 1 to .500,000 solution, and Aiiulxniu /loK-atjiiir in a 1 to
0,000,000 solution in seventy-two hours. The most sensitive of all was i ioi/Iciki
(unericaiia, practically all of which were killed in a 1 to 10,000,000 solution in
sixteen hours.

o J. F. Breazeale informs the writer that in water-cultui'e ex])erinients in
the laboratory of the I>ure;ui of Soils. United States Department of Agriculture,
he has found a very wide variation in the development of seedlings of different
varieties of wheat when grown in the same artificial nutrient solutions and also
aqueous extracts of soil, and W. II. Ileileman. in the same laboratory, has shown
very similar results to those i)resented in this investigation when using different
varieties of wheat in i)ot cultures of natural and artificial alkali soils. It has
also been shown that the vig(n' and rate of gernunation of seeds of different
varieties are very different when previously soaked in any given solution of an
electrolyte.

Cameron and Breazeale (The Toxic Action of Acids and Salts on Seedlings,
Journal Phys. Chem.. vol. S. No. 1, p. 1, Jan., 1904) have shown ;i wide varia-
tion in the toxic action of different salts and acids on seedlings of plants widely
separated in relationship.

From certain ])oints of view, especially as bearing on current chemical theo-
ries, the paper of Dandeno (American Journal of Science, Vol. XVII, June,
1904) in this field is especially interesting, but a direct comparison of results
in toxic salt solutions can not be made, owing to the fact that seedlings of differ-
ent plants have been used.

VARIETIES SELECTED. 1 1

LupiiiiuH alhu.s. Although the order of toxicity of the various saUs
leninined the same in the three series of experinieuts, quite diill^'ereiit
limits of endurance Avere obtained, those in the first series made l)v
the Avriter being nuich higher than those obtained hy Kearney and
Cameron and by the writer in his second series. The idea Avas at
once suggested by these results that while possibly the second lot of
seed may have dilfered only in bein.g younger or otherwise more
vigorous it was also possible that different varieties or even merely
straius from different sources of the same species might differ con-
siderably in their power to resist toxic salt solutions. It Avas there-
fore-Avitli a vieAv of determining Avhether or not this Avas true that
the series of experiments Avhich forms the subject of this ]-)a]i(>r Avas
undertaken Avith difi'ereut varieties of AA'heat.

Attention should be directed at the outset to an important condi-
tion under which this AAork Avas carried on. Most of the Avork of
this kind has been conducted Avith comparatively few seedlings. But
indi\idual variation in resistance is Avell knoAvn to be exceedinsrlA'
great, and enough seedlings must be tested to eliminate all such differ-
ences. The a\'erage of the resistances of a large luimber of seedlings
nnist be ascertained. The Avriter has in every case used from 50 to
100 seedlings, and more in some cases, the number tested being con-
sidered sufficiently large to eliminate indiAndual variation and give
fairly consistent results. The total number of seeds cxi^erimented
Avith aggregated nearly 5,000.

The Avork, the results of Avhicli are shoAvn in this paper, Avas taken
up at the suggestion of ]Mr. Thomas H. Kearney^ Physiologist, of the
Laboratory of Plant Breeding of the Department of Agriculture.

SALTS USED.

It Avas decided to employ the same salts used by Kearney aud
Cameron in their Avork Avith Lupin.us alhus, i. e., sodium chlorid
(XaCl), sodium sulphate (Xa.SOj), sodium carbonate (Na.COo),
sodium bicarbonate (NallCOa), magnesium sulphate (MgSO^), and
magnesium chlorid (jNIgCL). A basis for direct conq^arison is thus
ol)tained. It Avas thought best to use these salts, also, because of their
counnou occurrence in saline soils, and their tendency, in a greater
or less degree, to inhibit A'egetable groAvth.

VARIETIES SELECTED.

The selection of the A'arieties of Avheat to l)e used in this Avork has
not beeri an easy matter, there being a number of details to consider
in making the choice. To prove Avhether there is a difference in the
])<)\ver of different varieties of the same species to resist the action
of toxic salt solutions it Avas decided to use A'arieties representing A'ery

12 WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

diti'erciit conditions of climate and soil, and selections Avere made,
Avith the aid of Mr. M. A. Carleton, Cerealist of the Bureau of Plant
Indnstrv, with this end in view. All conditions under which Avheat
is grown are not, of course, represented. AVheat is raised in nearly
every portion of the temperate zone and under as diverse conditions
of soil and climate as could well l)e imagined. An attempt has
been made, however, to obtain varieties representative of the regions
presenting the greatest contrast in these respects. Cerealists have
discovered that wheats well adapted to a humid region will not thrive
in an arid or semiarid region, nor will varieties that are best adapted
to the latter conditions thrive in a humid environment. Varieties
representing each of these different climatic types were used in the
experiments. Unquestionably the soils of the various regions from
Avhich the seeds were obtained differed chemically to a great extent,
but in most cases data as to soil composition were not obtainable.
The influence of climatic and soil factors is complicated by the fact
that seeds are often transferred from one region to another. For
example, a certain variety might have been grown for a nimiber of
years in strongh' saline soil to Avhich it has become thoroughly
adapted, and then transferred to a semiarid region and a soil con-
taining less salt. AVere the seed procured from the iicav region
soon after the transfer, while the variety was not yet adapted
to the new conditions, probably it would still show the high degree
of resistance acquired under the former conditions. In some cases
it was possible to learn the exact history, for several generations^ of
the seed used, but in others it Avas impossible to obtain such definite
information. To meet the conditions of the experiments it was
thought advisable to select varieties from regions widely separated
geographically. Therefore, one variety from Africa, two from
Euroi)e, one from Asia, and six from America were obtained. Two
of the varieties are durum wheats and consequently of a different
species ; the rest are soft grained.

The following descriptions of the individual varieties- will render
more intelligible the conditions under which they grew originall}':

PRESTON.

Tlie variety of wheat known as Preston (Tritieum indgarc) is a
hybrid, i:)roduced by Dr. AVilliam Saunders, of the agricultural ex-
periment station at Ottawa, Canada. In the spring of 18S8 Doctor
Saunders crossed the varieties Red Fife and Ladoga, obtaining a new
sort, which was called Preston. Red Fife was taken as the male and
Ladoga as the female jiarent. The progeny, he says, resembles some-
what both parents. The grain is very much like Red Fife. Both the
parent varieties are well established in that ^y^vi of Canada and were

VARIETIES SELECTED. 13

grown there with great success for many years previous to the origin
of this hybrid. Preston has proved to be a better variety than either
of its parents, both in yiekl and in range of adaptability- The region
in Avhich its parent varieties grow is very humid. Doctor Saunders
chiinis that Preston ripens its grain from three to four days earlier
than either of its parents. In view of this fact it is reasonable to con-
clude that it is better adapted to regions having diminished rainfall
during the latter part of the season, and experience has justified the
conclusion. Preston has given the best results of all the spring
wheats introduced into the Northwest. It is to-day grown success-
fully in the southern part of Canada and in a part of the United
States that includes North Dakota, eastern Montana, Minnesota,
South Dakota, and Wisconsin."

TURKEY.

Turkey Avheat {Triticiim vvlgare) is considered the hardiest vari-
ety grown at the present time in the United States. It is a bearded
sort, with white chaff, small head, and red grain. It is especially
Avell adapted to semiarid regions, as is readily seen from the region
in which it is grown. This variety was introduced into Kansas
about twenty-five years ago. For a while it was confined to a small
district of that State, but during the past twelve or fifteen years its
excellent (puility has become generally known, and consequently it
is grown on a much larger area. It came originally from Crimea
and other i)ortions of Taurida, in southern Russia. That country
does not differ greatlv from the section of the United States in which
the variety has given such good results. Though it is not a variety
giving unusually heavy yields, it is well adapted to resist droughts
and may be depended upon for a greater average yield than any other
variety grown in Kansas. It ripens rather early, and thus escapes
the excessive droughts which frequently prevail during the latter
part of the wheat season in that district. It is especially adapted
to the Great Plains region, including, roughly, Kansas, Okhthoma,
southern Nebraska, southern Iowa, northern Texas, and portions of
Missouri and Arkansas.''

ZIMMERMAN.

The variety known as Zimmerman {Triticum indgarc) is grown
to some extent in the same region as the one just described. How-
ever, it has a number of essential points of difference and some char-

n Dr. William Saunders, Cereals and Root Crops, Ottawa, Canada. 1902.

'' Carlcton. M. A.. Basis for the Tniiirovcnient of American Wheats. Bui. 24.
L)ivisi()n of Vegetahle Physiology and I'athology, U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, 1900.

14 WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXTC SALTS.

acteristics that make it preferable for the experiments described here.
As a whole, it is inferior to the Turkey wheat, being less resistant to
drought, and it is grown principality in regions which have a greater
annual rainfall. Zimmerman wheat has two good qualities to rec-
ommend it — it is l)eardless and ripens from four days to a week ear-
lier than other varieties in the same locality. It is a fairly hardy
sort, and is as resistant as the average variety to the cold of severe
winters. It is best adapted for cultivation in southern Kansas,
Oklahoma, northern Texas, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkan-
sas, and farther southw-ard. This region has a much larger annual
rainfall than the one inhal)ited by the Turkey variety, with the
exception of the States in common— Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.

KHARKOr.

The seed used of the Kharkof variety of wheat {Triticvm rnlgare)
w\as obtained by the United States Department of Agriculture from
the Agricultural Society of Kharkof, Russia, in the Starobielsk
district. Kharkof is in the southern part of Russia, about oOO miles
north of the Black Sea and about 350 miles west of the Volga River.
The winters are very dry and at no season of the 3^ear is the rainfall
great. Kharkof is a red-bearded, hardy winter wheat. The seed
was obtained from the crop grown in Russia during the season of
1902.

PADUI.

Seed of the Padui variety {Trit'inim riiJf/are) was obtained from
Saratof, in eastern Russia. Saratof is located on the Volga River,
about 100 miles from its outlet into the Caspian Sea. Padui is a
soft or semihard winter wheat, and is adapted to all northern winter-
wheat States from Xew York to Kansas and southward to the thirty-
fifth parallel. The seed with which these tests have been made was
imported directly from Russia. Padui is very resistant to drought,
the rainfall in the region where it is grown falling as low as 12 to
15 inches per annmn. This variety is cultivated to some extent in
the same region as Kul)anka (descril^ed later), and, therefore, is sul)-
iected to the same climate and probably to the same soil conditions.

CHUL.

Dr. PI A. Bessey describes the conditions under which the Chul
variety {Tritieum vvlgare) is grown in Turkestan and in the south-
ern part of central Asia, about Samarkand. It is found more or
less in this whole steppe region, from which it derives its name,
Chul meaning steppes. It is a hard grain and grows without irri-
gation, vields two harvests, and can be sown as either winter or

VARIETIES SELECTED. 15

spniiii- wheat. The seed for these experiments was obtained by
Doctor liessey for the Department of Agriculture from its native
country, being taken from the crop of 1902.

BUDAPEST.

The variety Ivuown as Budapest {TriticKm imlgare) is one of the
hard winter wheats imported originally from Hungary. It is noAV
grown in Michigan and adjoining States with great success. Of
all the varieties imported from Hungary, Budapest has proved the
best. It is Avell suited for cultivation in the North Central States,
including ^Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, western Xew York,
Kentucky, and perhai)s farther south. It is a bearded wheat, with
white chaff and red, medium hard grain. It is a success only in
regions with a fairly large rainfall.

KUBANKA.

The two varieties of durum wheat {Tritlciim dufui/i), Kubanka
and Maraouani, were selected outside of the species vvlgare in order
to find types grown under extremely arid conditions. The seed of
Kubanka was obtained originally from Russia. The seed used was
of the fourth generation grown in the United States and should
show something of the effect of soil and climatic conditions here,
provided these differ essentiall}^ from those of the country where it
originated. Four years is doubtless sufficient time to acclimatize the
variety fairly well. Kubanka is grown in an extensive area of
eastern Europe and western Asia, especially along the Volga River.
The best Kubanka is found east of the Volga, on the border of the
Kirghiz Steppe. It is about the oi\\y variety found along the Sibe-
rian border, where it is impossible to grow any ordinary sort because
of drought, and is grown extensively by the Turgai and Kirghiz
people. The rainfall over this whole region often does not exceed 10
inches per annum. The Kubanka variety matures veiy quickl}^, an
absolute necessity in a region where the rainfall is very slight and
often confined to a small part of the year. Because it is drought-
resistant and matures early it is now being grown throughout the
Volga territory from Kazan to the Caspian Sea and east to the
Kirghiz Steppe and Turkestan. It is a macaroni wheat, and takes
its name from Kuban territory. In this country it is best adapted
for the northern plains region as far south as Kansas.

There is little doubt that the varieties Kubanka and Padui, in some
regions at least, grow on soil containing considerable salt. Both
varieties have become well adapted to the region just north of the
Caspian Sea along the Volga liiver. Here salt abounds in great
<iuantities. West of the Volga and about 100 miles from tlie Caspian

16 WHEAT KESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

Sea is a great salt marsh covering a considerable area. On the other
side of the river, for a couple of hundred miles along its course, there
are both salt marshes and lakes. The great Khaki salt marsh along
the borders of the Kirghiz Steppe covers several hundred square
miles. Northward and westward from this marsh there is a series
of small salt lakes, the largest of which is Elton Salt Lake. It
would naturally be expected that in a region with such extensive
salt marshes and lakes the arable soil would likewise contain a large
proportion of salt.

MARAOUANI.

The Maraouani variety of durum winter wheat {Tritkuni durmn)
has been grown in northern Africa probably for centuries. As far as
can be ascertained, it originated there and has long been one of the
most valuable sorts of that country. The seed used in these experi-
ments came directly from the Cheliff Valley, an arid region with
very little rainfall, in the western part of Algeria. The wheat land
there is cultivated for the most part Avithout irrigation. The soil is
largely a heavy clay loam, and probably contains in nearly all sec-
tions a more or less excessive amount of readily soluble salts. Mara-
ouani is very hardy, is resistant to rusts, and has the reputation of
being the best of the durum Avheats now grown in that region. In
the Department of Oran it is most successful when sown in Novem-
ber; it then matures about June. It is thought by expert cerealists
that this variety would succeed well in the spring-wheat regions of
the northern United States and as a winter wheat in the Southwest.

METHODS OF EXPERIMENTS.

Wheat seeds are small compared with lui)ines, beans, peas, etc.,
Avith Avhich most of the work of other experimenters has been done.
The rootlets of the Avheat seedlings are so small that at first it was
feared that some difficulty would be experienced in marking off the
rapidly growing zone with india ink, the readiest method for accu-
rate determination of the death point. In view of this difficulty the
work was begun Avithout marking. It required but a fcAV trials, hoAV-
ever, to proA^e that it Avould be practicallv impossible to obtain satis-
factory results in such a Avay. Wheat rootlets have a hard surface
and do not become flaccid in salt solutions unless these are of a con-
centration much beyond the toxic limit, in Avhich case the roots be-
come yelloAV and the cells somcAvhat broken doAvn. HoAvever, one
or two attempts at marking shoAved that Avith a little practice and
care this could be effected Avithout inflicting any injury. By ruptur-
ing the epidermis A^ery slightly a sufficiently conspicuous mark, Avhich
Avill last forty-eight to seventy-two hours, can be made Avithout injury
to the roots.

METHODS OF EXPERIMENTS. l7

The seeds were put in spliagiiiuu moss finely broken up and kept
sufficiently moist to preclude lateral branching or superfluous devel-
opment of root hairs. They germinate readily in about forty-eight
to seventy-two hours at an ordinary room temperature. The rootlets
and leaves make their appearance almost at the same time. The
number of roots varies Avitli the variety, but is usually from three to
seven. Three is the average number, five is rather connnon, and
seven not very rare. Only one root of each seedling was marked.
The initial or central one was always preferred when otherwise fit
for the purjjose. IIoAvever, it was found after a large number of
tests that the central one was most likely to become deformed Avhile
in the sphagnum moss, the tips becoming enlarged and blunt, in which
case the root soon ceases to grow. When this happened side roots
were preferred for marking. Rootlets which are smooth and uniform
in thickness, with a ratlier sharp point, are most vigorous and give
best results. Only experience in this work can teach one which of
several roots is preferable for marking. The seeds Avere taken from
the moss, nuirked, and transferred quickly to the solution. Care was
taken in every way possible to avoid change of conditions during the
process of. making. These details will be discussed more fully in
another part of this paper.

The solutions during the period of experiment were kept in the best
nonsoluble beakers that could be obtained, each being large enough
to hold about 300 c. c. After the solutions had been used once or
twice" the glassware was thoroughly rinsed in distilled water before
being used for the next test. Nearly every other day the beakers were
thoroughly sterilized l)y boiling in distilled water. The beaker
used is about ^ cm. wide at the mouth, and Avas closed by a tight-
fitting cork about 1 cm. in thickness. Each cork Avas perforated,
and into the holes Hxe small glass rods Avere inserted, bent at one
end, and draAvn to a sharp point. The rods Avere inserted with their
hooked points on the inner side of the cork, and upon each a single
seed Avas placed. The rods, as Avell as the corks, fit tightly and thus
prevent any important amount of evaporation from the solution.
They are free enough, hoAVCA^er, to permit of the rods being raised or
lowered in or out of the solution as occasion may demand. Tn no
case were the glass rods alloAved to come in contact Avith the solution.

Normal solutions, made Avith Merck's best chemically pure salts,
Avere prepared under the supervision of Dr. F. K. Cameron, of the
Bureau of Soils of the Department of Agriculture, From the nor-

o Careful titration showed no appreciable change in the concentration of the
solution after several seedlings had been kept in it for twenty-four hours, or
even when the same volume was used during a second period of twenty-four
hours.

30012— No. 79—05 M 3

18 WHEAT EESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

mal solutions stock solutions Avere made up by dilution, and Avere
kept for use as recpiired. T\w solutions actually used in the experi-
ments were made from the stock solutions by diluting Avith distilled
Avater, It might seem at first that two successive dilutions would
permit of an error. This, however, has been avoided in the case
of chlorids and carbonates by titrating each stock solution before
using. The concentration of the solutions of sulphates was fre-
quently verified by analysis in the Bureau of Soils. Sodium car-
bonate and sodium bicarbonate were both titrated against N/20
hydrogen potassium sulphate, using methyl orange as an indicator.
In the case of the bicarbonate solutions it Avas necessary to charge
them Avith an excess of carbon dioxid to preA^ent their becoming
alkaline. The nonalkalinity of the bicarbonate solutions Avas often
tested by the addition of a dro]) of alcoholic phenolphthalein, Avhich
Avould indicate the presence of alkalis by forming the Aveli-knoAvn red
color. Sodium chlorid and magnesium chlorid Avere titrated against
N/10 of sih^er nitrate. WheneA^er, upon titration, any stock solu-
tion Avas found to be either too dilute or too concentrated, it Avas cor-
rected by the addition of more of the normal solution or by further
dilution Avith distilled Avater. The Avater used in these exjDeriments
Avas distilled in the Laboratory of Plant Pathology, and near the
close of the Avork Avas found by analysis in the Bureau of Chemistry
to contain some slight amount of a toxic substance. That this Avas
for all practical purposes neutralized and played no part in the
toxic action of the solutions used is demonstrated in the fuller dis-
cussion of this point on page 39 of this paper.

All seeds for these experiments Avere germinated in sphagnum moss.
After being finely broken uj) the moss was placed in a bucket and
kept sufficiently moist for seed germination. It Avas found that the
seedlings Avere injured if kept too moist, the roots shoAving an en-
largement at the apex, developing into a very blunt tip, and Avhen
aifected in this Avay they usually stopped groAving and ncAv roots Avere
put forth. The initial radicle Avas more easily aifected in this Avay.
Only seedlings having healthy and vigorous rootlets Avere used in the
experiments. The seeds Avere first soaked in hydrant Avater from four
to six hours before being placed in the sphagnum moss. After about
three days in the temperature of an ordinary room they Avere ready
for use. They Avere most easily manipulated when the radicles Avere
from three to four centimeters long. The root itself might Avell be
longer, but the apical bud appears almost at the same time as the root,
and Avhen more than one or tAvo centimeters long interferes with easy
adjustment in the beakers. It was sometimes necessary to pinch off
the ends of the leaA^es, a practice which in ho Avay interfered with the
development of the rootlets. AMien the radicles had reached the
length mentioned aboA^e, the seedlings Avere taken out of the sphag-

METHODS OF EXPERIMENTS. 19

mini ;ind placed in Iseakers containing the solution, the tips of the
roots heiiiii- iinmersed in the liquid. One rootlet of each seedling was
marked with India ink 15 mm. from the apex, Avhich should include
])ractically all of the rapidly growing zone. The amount of elonga-
tion during a given period could thus be determined, and this is the
best means of knowing whether the root has been actually killed.
Unless the concentration of the solution be far above the toxic limit
the root does not become flaccid, as is the case with lupines and some
other seedlings. After the roots were marked with iiidia ink the seeds
were carefully hooked on to the glass rods prepared for that i:)uri)Ose.
As much of the root was immersed in the solution as was possible
Avithout allowing the seeds or rods to come in contact with the liquid.
In all cases the entire length of the marked zone was immersed. The
length of the portion of the root in the solution depended, of course,
upon the total length of the root. It might at first glance seem that a
variation in this respect could alfect the result of the experiment, some
roots having a larger surface exposed to the solution than others ; but
it is believed that the large number of seedlings used in each experi-
ment practically eliminated this source of error.

All cultures were left in the solution twenty-four hours, when they
were taken up and the amount of elongation of the marked portion of
the root was measured and recorded. They were then transferred to
a beaker containing hydrant water and allowed to remain there for
another twenty-four hours, when tlie^y were taken up and the elonga-
tion again measured. The radicles Avhich made an additional growth
the second twentv-four hours in the hvdrant Avater over the growth in
the first twenty-four hours in the salt solution were considered to have
survived in the solution and were thus recorded. Those making no
additional growth the second twenty-four hours were considered dead
and recorded in this way. Coupin and others have intimated that
twenty-four hours is not sufficient to kill the plant. This objection is
set aside by the consideration that only the death of the apex of th(5
root is regarded in these experiments and not the point at which the
whole plant succumbs. The object of this work is merely one of com-
parison of the effect of a solution of given concentration, during a
definite period of time, upon different varieties. Whether this effect
is expressed in the death of the whole plant or only that of a single
organ is immaterial.

Control experiments Avere carried on every day, one in hydrant
water and one in distilled water, both under conditions identical
with those in the salt solutions. The results in hydrant water have
been uniform from day to day and in only a few cases were they
proved unsatisfactory. In such cases the whole series was discarded,
the inference being that some unfavorable condition (of temperature,
for example) had interfered.

20 WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

A word as to the conditions of illumination and temperature during
the experiments will not he out of place at this point. When in
solutions the roots were exposed to the liaht (hu-inu- the day. When
in the salt solutions during the first 24 hours they were kept on a
shelf in the rear of a room with northern exposure only. When in
hydrant Avater during the second 24 hours they were kept on a table
at the window, under a moderately strong light. Preliminary experi-
ments were made when commencing the Avork Avith lupines, which
showed that the strength of the light, at least within the limits in-
voh^ed in these experiments, had no influence on the growth of the
roots. Of three series of cultures, all in a solution of the same salt
at the same concentration, one was placed in total darkness, another
in subdued light, and a third in bright light. Otherwise they were
under the same conditions. The elongation of the roots was meas-
ured at the end of 24 hours and there AAas no appreciable dilferen'ce
in the three sets of cultures.

It was impossible to keep a uniform temperature in the laboratory
during the Avinter months, though this factor did not vary enough
in either direction to cause any injury in germination or to the roots
in the solution. A thermograph Avas kept running in the room, and
a review of the records shoAvs no temperature below 18° or above
30° C. The average temperature during the experiments was about
23° C. When making the experiments Avith illumination referred to
above, similar ones Avere made to determine the influence of tempera-
ture upon the roots. The three different series of cultures (all in
the same salt solution, at the same concentration) Avere exposed for
24 hours to temperatures of 10°, 20°, and 30° C, respectively.
Results shoAved that the roots that had been exposed to a temperature
of 20° and 30° C. shoAved about the same elongation, Avhile the elonga-
tion in a temperature of 10° C. Avas somcAvhat less.

All solutions Avere made Avith water distilled from ordinary hydrant
Avater. The receiver of the still is a porcelain tub and has been used
for several years in the Laboratory of Plant Pathology of the Bureau
of Plant Industry. At times the distilled Avater may have contained
some slight traces of ammonia and doubtless some other imi)urities.
An analysis of the Avater Avas made in the Bureau of Chemistry, and it
was found to contain, in parts per million —

Zinc Ti'ace.

Free ammonia 0. V2o

Albuminoids • ^^^

Nitrates ^one-

Nitrites Faint traces.

Total solids (consisting of calcium, sodium, carbonates,, sul-
phates, and chlorids) '•'•4

A further discussion of the water used will be found on page 39.

ESTABLISHING THE TOXIC LIMITS. 21

METHOD OF ESTABLISHING THE TOXIC LIMITS.

Before going into details of the results obtained in the simple
solutions, the methods of determining- the limits of endurance of each
variety to each salt will be explained. At one time the writer had
thought of fixing the limit of endurance in toxic salt solutions at the
concentration in which none of the marked radicles would survive at
the end of twenty-four hours. A few experiments, however, showed
that this was not the proper method, for occasionally one of the root-
lets would be sound and healthy at the end of twenty-four hours in a
concentration far above that which would permit the roots of a
majority of the plants to survive. In other words, individual varia-
tion plays such an important part that the strength of a solution
which would permit no root tips to survive would be far above that
representing the limit of endurance for the variety as a whole.
Attention is thus once more directed to the fact that results obtained
from a few individuals are as a rule very inaccurate and unreliable.
The characters of a variety (and resistance to toxic effects is one of its
characters) are the mean of those of the whole number of individuals
composing it. Of course all the individuals of a variety can not be
examined, Init the number of seedlings experimented with should
be large enough to overcome the effect of marked individual varia-
tion. It was this consideration that urged the writer to make such
a large number of tests. On the other hand, a concentration Avhich
would just permit all root tips to survive would not represent the
general limit for the variety because of those few individuals Avhich
are far inferior to the average in their ability to resist toxic salt
solutions. The limit of endurance for the mean of the largest pos-
sible number of individuals is the end sought.

After consideration, it seemed that the most perfect idea of the
limit for each variety could be obtained by taking the concentration
in which about half the seeds survived and about half died. For
instance, if 60 seeds were tested in a 0.01 normal solution of magne-
sium sulphate and 30 survived and 30 died, the toxic limit would be
represented by that concentration. Of course it was seldom possible;
to secure such an equal division, but a slight excess one w^ay or the
other would not materialh' alter the results. In practice it was,
furthermore, often found expedient to take the mean of the concen-
trations actually tested as representing the toxic limit.

To illustrate: The roots were often found dead in a 0.01 normal
solution of magnesium chlorid, and alive in a 0.007;') normal. The
aj)proximate toxic limit was fixed at the concentration intermediate
between these two, although no solutions intei-mediate in concentra-
tiou between 0.01 and 0.0075 of a normal solution were actually
made up.

9,^ WTTEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

The writer does not claim that the limits thus fixed are absolute,
but lie believes that further experiments would change them very
little. To obtain absolutely exact results it would be necessary to
employ an indefinite number of solutions of intermediate concentra-
tion, and to make tests with a very large numl)er of seedlings. The
results recorded here, it is safe to assume, will answer all practical
purposes. The different sti'engths of solution of the same salt- dif-
fered from each other by 0.005 of a normal solution for sodium
chlorid, sodium sulphate, and sodium bicarbonate, and by 0.0025 of
a normal solution for sodium carbonate, magnesium sulphate, and
magnesium chlorid. That is to say, experiments were made with
solutions of a concentration of 0.015, 0.01. 0.005, etc., for sodijim
chlorid, sodium sulphate, and sodium bicarbonate, and of a concen-
tration of 0.01, 0.0075, 0.0025, etc., for magnesium chlorid, magne-
sium sulphate, and sodium carbonate, intermediate concentrations
being disregarded in practice.

As mentioned earlier in this paper, the death point was determined
largely by the elongation of the roots beyond the point 15 mm. from
the tip, marked off by india ink. If the roots showed no additional
elongation the second 24 hours in hydrant water, they were considered
dead. In some cases, however, it has been possible to determine this
point by other means.

In the case of the two magnesium salts a solution of a concentra-
tion considerably above the limit lilackens about 1 or 2 millimeters
of the root tip, and often causes the end of the root to bend in the
shape of a hook. An appearance of this kind is conclusive evidence
that the solution is much too concentrated. Both sodium carbonate
and sodium bicarbonate in very strong solution cause a yellowing
of the whole body of the root in the solution, and more or less loss
of turgor, due, doubtless, to plasmolysis. It is very seldom that
rootlets which show that condition at the end of twenty-four hours
in the solution will revive when placed in hydrant Avater.

To make the results herein contained exactly comparable with those
furnished by Kearney and Cameron from their studies on lupines,
the toxic limits are given in this paper both in fractions of a
normal solution and in parts of salt per 100,000 of solution. In
addition, the mean of the limits of all the varieties is given under
each salt, so that a glance will show how much above or below this
point any particular variety may be in regard to each salt used.

The salts have been found harmful in ])ure solutions in about the
order in which they follow each other in the succeeding jiart of this
report — that is. sodium sulphate is less harmful than sodium chlorid
when both aiv in equivalent concentration, and magnesium sulphate
is more harmful than sodium bicarbonate when in the same jiro-

RESULTS 01' EXPERIMEKTS.

23

portion. A concentration of 0.0075 normal magnesium sulphate
usually produces about the same effect as 0.025 sodium bicarbonate.
Therefore one would say that magnesium sulphate is three times as
injurious as sodium bicarbonate when in equivalent concentration.

RESTJLTS OF EXPERIMENTS.
RESULTS WITH MAGNESIUM SULPHATE.

The results obtained for the different varieties with pure solutions
of magnesium sulphate are shown by the following table:

Maximum limit of
endurance.

Name of wheat variety.

Parts per
100,00()uf
solution.

Zimmerman-

Kharkof

Padui -

Kubanka _

Turkey -.

Maraouani - _

Budapest

Preston ._

Chul

Average for all varieties. -

42
25
43
42
56
42
56
28

40

Fractional

part of a

normal

solution.

0.00V5
.00625
.0075
.0075
.01
.0075
.01
.005
.005

.00786

A glance at the aboA^e table is sufficient to show the considerable
difference between the varieties in their ability to resist the toxic
influence of magnesium sulphate. The least resistant of all the
varieties are Chul and Preston, of which about half the seedlings sur-
vived in a 0.005 normal solution. Contrasted to these are the two
most resistant ones, viz, Budapest and Turkey, surviving equally well
in a solution twice as concentrated.

A comparison of these results with wheat with those obtained by
Kearney and Cameron using Lupinus alhus with the same salt will
show the great diversity between these two plants. The toxic limit
for lupines in a })ure solution was found to be 0.00125 of a normal
solution. Accepting the results shown by these figures, magnesium
sulphate is four times as toxic to lupines as it is to the Chul and Pres-
ton wheats, and eight times as toxic as for the Budapest and Turkey
varieties. It may be said in this connection that irom experiments
made by Kearney" with maize there is reason to believe that the
Graminea^ as a family are much less sensitive to the effect of magne-
sium salts than the Leguminosa}. Magnesium sulphate has been
found in the course of these experiments with Avheat to be on an

n Science. X. S., IT : P.SG (100.3).

24 WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

average much the most toxic of the salts used. It was the most injuri-
ous in every case except in two instances, in one of which sodium
carbonate and in the other magnesium clik)rid proved more toxic.
It required a sohition of magnesium sulpliate twice as concentrated
as that of sodium carbonate to be equally toxic to the Budapest
variety, the limits in this case being 0.01 normal magnesium sulphate
and 0.005 normal sodium carbonate. The other instance referred to
is not so marked. Magnesium chlorid is found to be somewhat more
toxic than magnesium sulphate for one variety — Turkey — the limits
being for magnesium chlorid 0.0075 normal and for magnesium
sulpliate 0.01 iu)rmal.

Comparing the average toxic limit for each salt, as stated in the
tables that follow, magnesium sulphate is one and two-sevenths times
!js injurious as magnesium chlorid, one and tliree-sevenths times as
injurious as sodium carbonate, three and hve-sevenths times as inju-
rious as sodimn bicarbonate, little more than six times as toxic as
sodium sulphate, and seven and five-sevenths times as injurious as
sodium chlorid.

Magnesium sulphate in the soil is not considered injurious to am'
appreciable extent, but this is no doubt due to the neutralizing effect
of other salts with which it is associated. Kearney and Cameron,
in their experiments on Lnp/nns alhus nnd Medicago sativa, found
magnesium sulphat(> in pure solutions to be the most toxic of all the
salts. The writer found the same true for the lupines. But when
other salts are added to a solution of magnesium sulphate, toxicity,
both absolute and relative, is altered. Kearney and Cameron " say:

Addition of sodiiuii sulphate, wliifli itself is injurious in pure solution, raises
the limit of nia,i,'nesiuni sulphate three times, while the presence of calcium sul-
l)liate allows a small ])roi)ortion of the roots to barely survive during twenty-
four hours in a solution of magnesium sulphate 480 times as concentrated as
that wliifli in ]>nre solnlions represents the limits of endurance.

To lower classes of plant life magnesium sulphate is apparentW
much less toxic. Dr. B. M. Duggar '' has made some experiments
with marine'alga' to determine the nutrient value of the salts of some
of the alkalis and alkali earths when added to sea water. He found
that after the acids and some of the salts of the heavy metals the
potassium phosphates proved most toxic. The least toxic were the
salts of sodium and magnesium, while the sulphate of magnesium
was the least injurious of all the salts used. The less injurious effect

"Some Mutual Relations I'.ctween Alkali Soils and Vegetation. Ueiuirt No.
71, I'. S. l)ei»artm(M!t of Agriculture (1!!02).

''Tin* Toxic lOffccl of Some Xulrit>n( Salts on Certain .Marine Alga". Science,
N. S., IT: i",'.) (i;)03).

SBSULTS OF EXPERIMENTS.

25

of the magnesium salts is probably due to the presence of neutraliz-
ino- salts in the sea water to which he added the magnesium com-
IDOunds, although we are not yet in a position to say that magnesium
may not be far less toxic to the AlgtB than to the LeguminosiB or
Graminea^.

To show the relative toxic effect of magnesium sulphate to some
of the other salts, Loew " has made some interesting observations, and
-tates that Spirogyra died within four or five days in a 1-per-mille
solution of magnesium suli:>hate, but remained ali\'e for a long time
in corresponding solutions of the sulphates of sodium, potassium, and
calcium. Upon the roots of some higher plants the same investiga-
tor made similar observations, and says that Vicia and Pisum do not
start lateral roots when kept in a solution of 0.5 per cent of mag-
nesium sulphate or nitrate, and the root cap and ei)idermal cells die
after a few days. Seedlings of Phaseolus placed in a solution of 0.1
per cent magnesium sulphate with 0.1 per cent of monopotassium
phosphate showed injury to the roots after five days, and the entire
plant succumbed soon afterw^ards.

Coupin '' found during the course of some experiments with wheat
that magnesium chlorid was more toxic than magnesium sulphate.
He gives the limit for magnesium sulphate at 1 per cent and for mag-
uesium chlorid at O.S per cent.

RESULTS AVITTI jMAGNESIUM CHLORID.

The following table shows the results obtained for the different
varieties with pure solutions of magnesium chlorid :

Name of wheat variety.

Maximum limit of
endurance.

Parts per'Fractional
solution, goi^tion.

ZiTTimemian

72 0. 015
48 . 01
48 .01

Kharkof

Padiii

Tvubaiika

43
36
48
60

.00875
.0075
.01
.0125

Turkey

Maraoujini

Budapest

24 .005

24 .(1)5

Chul

AveruLTc fur all varieties. -

40 .00931

"The Pliysiological Role of Mineral Nutrients in IMants. r.ui. 4.",, llnieau of
n.iiit Industry, U. S. Depai-tniont of A.!?riculture (19U3).

'' Sni- la Toxicite (lu Chlorure de Sodium et de I'Eau de Mer a !'IvL,'ard des
Vegetaux. Uevue GenOrale de Butanique, lU : ISS (IS'JS).

^6 WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

Magnesium clilorid, like the sulphate, seldom occurs alone in nature
in sufficient quantity to be of very gi'eat consequence. It is iiearly,
if not always, associated in the soil with some other salts, such as
those of sodium and calcium, which tend to neutralize its effect upon
plants. In these experiments with wheat, as in those wdth lupines,
it was found to i-ank next to magnesium sulphate as a toxic agent
when in pure solutions.

The average limit of concentration of magnesium chlorid for
wheat seedlings is 0.00931 of a normal solution, as against O.OOTSG
for magnesium sulphate. Again, referring to Kearney and Camer-
on's results wdth the same salts for lupines, we find some variations.
As is easily seen wnth the writer's results with wheat, magnesium sul-
phate is only about one-third more toxic than magnesium chlorid,
while Kearney and Cameron's results show the suli3hate twice as
toxic as the chlorid. The investigators named found the roots of
lupines to barely survive in 0.0025 of a normal solution of mag-
nesium chlorid, while Kearney showed that Zea mays would live in
a solution a little more than thirty times as concentrated. Magne-
sium chlorid is twice as toxic to the wdiite lupine as to the least
resistant variety of wdieat tested, and six times as toxic to the lupine
as to the most resistant variety of wheat. It is a surprising fact that
some varieties of wheat are six times as resistant and that maize is
thirty times as resistant to this salt as Lupinus alhus:

It will be seen that the variation of the wheat varieties among
themselves is more pronounced in the chlorid than in the sulphate.
While the toxic limit for the least resistant of the varieties is the
same (0.005 of a normal solution) for the two salts, that of the most
resistant variety (0.015 normal) is much higher in magnesium chlorid
than in the sulphate. The ratio of variation between the two ex-
tremes of resistance with magnesium sulphate was 2 to 1, as against
3 to 1 with the chlorid.

RESULTS or EXPERIMENTS.

27

RESULTS WITH SODIUM CARBONATE.

The following table gives the results with pure solutions of sodium
carbonate :

Name of wheat variety.

Zimmerman

Kharkof

Padui -

Kubanka

Turkey _ _ -

Maraouani - _-

Budapest

Preston

Chul -_

Average for all varieties

Maximiim limit of
endurance.

Partsper!Ff^^^;°"f

solution.

m

78
52
39
78
41
26
65
65

normal
solution.

0.(1125
.015
.01
.0075
.015
.008
. (H k')
. 0125
.0125

.0109

The results shown by the above table are not materially different
from those with magnesium chlorid. Sodium carbonate in pure
solutions is slightly less harmful, as shown by the comparison of the
average of all the varieties, being in the case of magnesium chlorid
O.OOO:^ and for sodium carbonate 0.0109 of a normal solution. The
extremes in both cases are the same, though there are two varieties
with a resistance of 0.015 for sodium carbonate as against one for
maanesium chlorid. Five varieties in the case of sodium carbonate
have a resistance above the average as against four in the case of
magnesium chlorid. One variety alone, Budapest, has a resistance
of only 0.00.5 as against two for magnesium chlorid.

Of the three salts so far described, sodium carbonate is in the soil
generally the most harmful, (1) because in excessive quantity it is
more widely distributed, and (2) because it is less easily neutralized
by other salts with which it is usually associated.

The opinions of experimenters differ considerably as to the rela-
tive toxic effect of this salt. Kearney and Cameron showed that, in
the case of Lvphius alhus at least, sodium carbonate is but little
more injurious than sodium sulphate, the toxic limit in each case
being 0.005 and 0.0075 of a normal solution, respectively. It will be
seen that the limit for the lui)ine obtained by them with sodium car-
bonate is the same as the resistance for Budapest wheat, but only
one-third of that for the Turkey and Kharkof varieties. The limit
of concentration for the lupine, as shown by their report, is about
equivalent to one-half of the average for the several wheat varieties,
ill the same salt solution. Kearney found Zea mayfi to survive in
the same salt at a concentration three times as great as that repre-

'm

WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS,

Renting the limit for the hipine, and equal to that for the most resist-
ant varieties of wheat.

Coupin <* found the toxic limit of wheat in sodium carbonate to be
about 1.1 per cent. In view of the fact, however, that he noted the
death of the whole plant and not the root tips, the limit of concen-
tration as determined by him would necessarily be much higher.

RESULTS WITH SODIUM BICARBONATE.

The limits in })ure solutions of sodium bicarbonate are shown in
the following table :

Name of wheat variety.

Maximum limit of
endurance.

Partsper
UH),0(IO
of solu-
tion.

Fractional
parts of a
normal so-
lution.

Zimmerman

234

251

2:«

209
230
188
209
209
209

0. 028
.03
.0275
.025
.0:>75
. 0225
.025
.o;i5
.025

Kharkof .. -

Padui -

Kuhanka.

Turkey _

Maraouani _._ _

Budapest

Preston

Chul _..

Average for all varieties. .

219

.026

Of all the salts used sodium bicarlionate seems to bring out the least
variation in resistance so far as these experiments are concerned. The
least resistant variety was Maraouani and the most resistant Kharkof,
which were able to survive in a 0.0225 and 0.03 normal solution,
respectively. These results do not dili'er to an important extent from
those of Kearney and Cameron for Lupinus alhtis, the toxic limit of
which was slightly low^er (0.02) than that for Maraouani wheat.

The writer finds sodium carbonate to be about two and six-tenths
times as injurious to wheat when in equivalent concentration as
sodium bicarbonate. Kearney found the difference to be even greater
in the case of maize, the ratio being about -t to 1. Coupin '' reverses
the relative toxic order of these two salts. This difference in the

o Sur la Toxieite du Chlorure de Sodium et de TEau de Mer a I'Esard des
Vegetaux. Itevue Generale de Botanuiue, 10: 180 (1898).

6 Sur la Toxieitt' des Composes de Potassium et de rAnunonium a FEtxard des
Vegetaux Superieurs. Kevue Geuerale de Botaui.ciue, 12:180 (1900).

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS. 29

criterion of toxic action, i. e., the death of the whole i)hint rather than
of the root tip alone, should not alfect the relative toxic influence of
the two salts. Coupin's results sho\ved that it required a 1.1 per cent
solution of sodium carbonate to kill wheat seedling-s, while only O.C)
per cent Avas necessary to produce the same effect when sodium bicar-
bonate Avas employed.

As to the relative toxic order of the carbonate and bicarbonate, the
results recorded agree quite Avell with those of Sigmund," who found
that Avlieat development Avas retarded and germinating seeds of vetch
and rape Avere killed in a 0.5 per cent solution of sodium carbonate,
while the same concentration of sodium bicarbonate Avas quite harm-
less.

Kearney and Cameron found sodium bicarbonate someAvhat less
toxic than sodium chlorid for the lupine, and, further, that a 0.02
normal solution of sodium bicarbonate permits plants to surviA^^ in
uuich better condition than in the corresponding concentration of the
chlorid. Kearney has also shoAvn by experiments that the bicar-
bonate is less toxic to maize than is sodium chlorid, the death point
for the bicarbonate being established at 0.05 and for the chlorid at
0.04 of a normal solution.

In A^eAV of all these differences it Avill be no easy matter to decide
the relative harmfulness of these sodium salts. Experiments Avill
haA^e to be performed on a large number of plants of Avidely different
relationship before any definite conclusions can be reached. There is
great probability that the order of their toxicity is not the same for
all species of plants. This is A^ery Avell demonstrated by a compari-
son of the Avriter's results Avith those of Kearney and Cameron, Avho
found sodium sulphate more toxic to Lupinus (ilhus than sodium
bicarbonate, Avhile the Avriter found the rcA'erse to be true for Avheat.
There is a tendency among physiological experimenters to draAV gen-
eral conclusions for the Avhole plant kingdom from the results ob-
tained for a fcAv varieties, species, or genera, Avhich is absolutely
unjustifiable. Too much emphasis can not be used in condemning
such inferences. The results here obtained, it is thought, Avill hold
good for these particular varieties of Avheat, but they are not indica-
tiA^e except Avithin rather Avide limits of what others shoAV.'' They

« Ueber die EiiiAvirkung Chemischer Agentien auf die Keimung, Laudw. A'ers.
Stat, 47: 2 (1896).

6 This point is brought out in a most marked wAy by the work of Cameron
find Breazeale upon the effect of acids on wheat, maize, and clover, respectively.
(The Toxic Action of Acids and Salts on Seedlings, Journal Phys. Chem., vol.
S, No. 1, p. 1, Jan., 1904.)

30

WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

will serve for iiiakiiio- comparisons, hut not J'or drawing conclusions
as to the behavior of plants in general.

RESULTS WITH SODIU^M SULPHATE.

The comparative effect of pure solutions of sodium sul2)hate upon
the difi'erent varieties is shown in the table which follows :

Name of wheat variety.

Zimmerman ..

Kharkof

Pacini -

Knbanka .

Tnrkey

Mai-aouani

Budapest

Preston

Chul

Average for all vai'ieties

Maxiranm limit of
endurance.

Parts per
1(X),(KK) of
solution.

Fractional
parts of a
normal so-
lution.

353

m)

818

'.m

300
336
2tj.j
242
283

305

fl. 0.5
.0425
.045
.05
.0425
.0475
.0375
.035
.04

.0433

In sodium suliihate, as in sodium bicarbonate, the toxic limits for
the dilferent varieties show less variation than in the case of other
salts used. The least resistant to this comparatively harmless salt,
as to most of the others used in these experiments, is the Preston
wheat. This variety has been grown for a number of years in a
semihumid region where alkali soils do not occur. In view of these
facts one would expect this variety to be somewhat less resistant
to these salts. Since there is no excess of soluble salts in the soils
of this region, Preston has had no opportunity to develop salt resist-
ance. The varieties most resistant to sodium sulphate are Zimmer-
man and Kubanka, both surviving as well in a 0.05 normal solution
as Preston in 0.035. As to the origin of these varieties, also, it is just
what would be exjjected from their resistance to salts. Both sorts
came from arid or semiarid regions, Avhere saline soils are abundant.
Kubanka is grown in regions containing numerous salt marshes and
lakes, and that it should have acquired ability to resist salts in the
soil is only natural. Zimmerman likewise was obtained from a
region having soils of more or less saline character, and to this
is probably due its power of resistance in salt solutions. It is not
unlikely that the soils from the regions from which the remaining
varieties were obtained contain a less amount of sodium sulphate

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS, 31

prop(n^tionato to their smaller resistance to this salt as shown in
these water cultures. This can not definitely be known until experi-
ments have been made correlating- the amount of the ditlerent salts
in the soil upon Avhicli the dilt'erent varieties grew, Avith their resist-
ance in pure solutions.

Some interestino- diti'erences can 1)e noted here between the resist-
ance of wheat and of lupines to sodium sulphate. The Preston vari-
ety is -ij times as resistant, and Zimmerman and Kubanka Of times
as resistant, as Lupiims cdbus, the toxic limit of the latter having
been established by Kearney and Cameron at 0.0075. They found
sodium sulphate more toxic to Lupinus than sodium bicarbonate,
while for every variety of wheat in these experiments the reverse
is true. AVith maize Kearney showed that the seedling would sur-
vive equally w^ell in both salts, and established the limit at 0.05 of
a normal solution.

Hilgard states that few plants can bear as much as 0.1 per cent in
the soil of sodium carbonate, or about 3,500 pounds per acre to the
depth of 1 foot. For sodium chlorid the limit in the soil is about
0.25 per cent. In the case of sodium sulphate, most plants can grow
in the presence of 0.45 to 0.50 per cent in the soil. In view of this
fact sodium chlorid under soil conditions would seem to be more
toxic to most plants than the sulphate.

Stewart " has made a number of interesting tests on the power of
seeds to germinate in the presence of sodium carbonate, sodium sul-
phate, and sodium chlorid. He found the carbonate and the chlorid
to be more injurious than the sulphate. With one exception (rye
seeds in the presence of the chlorid), 0.50 per cent of either carbonate
or chlorid j^roved fatal to germination. Stewart showed that sodium
sulphate is far less injurious than either of the other salts. The
character of his experiments indicates, however, that they are not
directly comparable with such as are here described. His seeds were
l^laced for germination in sand on tin plates and watered, the nature
of the water used not being stated. Kearney and Cameron have
shown that these salts are decidedly different in the degree to which
their toxic effect can be neutralized by the addition of other salts,
such as the chlorid or sulphate of calcium. It is possible that the
sand ol- the water, or both, used by Stewart contained more or less
calcium salts. The results of Kearney and Cameron, above referred
to, show that the toxic effect of sodium carbonate, and next to it that
of sodium chlorid, are neutralized far less effectively by calcium sul-

" Effect of Alkali on Seed termination. Ninth Annual Report, Utah Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, p. 2(3 (1898).

32

WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

phate than is scKliuiii siil])hat('. They foiiiul dial tlio resistance of
sodium siilj)hate was raised (U) times by adding calcium sul])hate.
In the light of these facts it is easy to accept Stewart's residts. In
tact. Kearney and Cameron showed that when other saHs were added
the limit for Liiptmi.^ allnix in sodium sulphate could be raised to
().;^0 of a nornuil solution, and that for sodium chloi-id only to 0.>J(),
while in pure solutions the limit for sodium sulphate was a concentra-
tion of 0.0075 and for sodium cldorid 0.02. This also explains Hil-
gard's results as to the comparatixe harmlessness of sodium sulphate
in the soil where other salts are always present.

RESULTS WITH SODIIM CirLOKU).

The results obtained by the writer Avitli pure solutions of sodium
chlorid are shown in the folloAvinc table:

Maximum limit of
eudurance.

Name of wlieat variety.

Zimmerman

Kliarlcof

Padui _

Kubanka

Turkey

Maraouani _

Budapest _

Preston ,.

Chul

Average for all varieties _.

Parts per Fractional

100,000
of solu-
tion.

part of a

noi'iiial

solution.

377
319
333
333
290
319
275
319
261

314

0.065
.055
. 0575
.0575
.05
. 055
. 0475
.055
.045

. 0542

That sodium chlorid is the least toxic to wheat of all the salts
used is evinced by the table above. Next to it, of course, is sodium
sulphate. Comparing the results with those obtained by Kearney
and Cameron for lupines, the ^varieties of Avlieat are two and one-half
to three times as resistant. Coupin " also found wheat more resist-
ant to sodium chlorid than the white lupines. He has experimented
Avith several species of plants and found the whole plant to be killed
in the following concentrations: Wheat, 1.8 per cent: peas, 1.'2 per

a Sur la Toxicite clu Clilorure Sodium et tie I'Eau de Mer a I'Egard Aei
Vegetaux. Revue Geuerale de Botanique, 10:178 (1898).

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS. 33

cent; vetch, 1.1 ]ier cent: maize, 1.4 per cent, and white hipine, 1.2
per cent."

"Guthrie, F. B., and Holmes, R. (Roy. Soe. New South Wales, Oct. 8, 19(t2),

conducted some experiments on wheats in two kinds of soils. To one of the

soils was added a fertilizer consisting of a mixture of 15 grams of sulphate

of amiuonia, G grams of superphosphate, 4 grams of sulphate of i>otash, and

varying quantities of other substances. The composition of the first soil was

as follows :

Per ceut.

Moisture 3. 83

Organie matter 13. 75

Nitrogen • -08

Soluble in hydrochloric acid :

Lime • 1<j5

Potash -. .005

Phosi)horic acid • 1"7

Magnesia 072

The soil was found to contain (».(tl(l iier cent of sodium chlorid in addition
to the substances ('numerated aliovc.

The composition of the second soil was as follows:

Per cent.

Moisture - 2.91

Organic matter 8. 33

Nitrogen • 070

Solui)le in hydrochloric acid :

Lime .440

Potash -077

Phosphoric acid = • HO

No fertilizer was added and the soil was originally free from chlorids. It
was found that in the first soil the seeds gernunated and grew well when enough
sodium chlorid was added to the soil to give it a content of O.OGG per cent of
that salt. Further, that in the second soil, to which no fertilizer was added, in
tlie presence of 0.05 per cent of sodium chlorid. germination was slightly
retarded, but the plants finally recovered and grew well. As to the re.sults,
these anthoi's say :

From 0.01 to 0.02 per cent of sodium chlorid is without effect on the wheat
])lant. tlie grain gei-niinating well and the plant growing vigorously. With 0.05
to 0.10 iier cent of sodium chlorid the gernnnation is somewhat retarded, the
]ilants are less vigorous, but recover and grow well. With 0.15 the germination
is still more affected and the ])lants would probably not recover under less fa-
vorable conditions than those of the experiment. Two-tenths per cent of sodium
chlorid in the soil is fatal to the growth of wheat.

An experiment performed by Messrs. E. CMiarabot and A. Hebert (Compt.
Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 134: 181, 1902), which shows the chemical influence of
sodium chlorid upon more mature plants, is a very interesting one. These inves-
tigators found that l)y adding sodium chlorid some chemical properties are
decreased.

The writer finds that a 2 per cent solution of sodium chlorid saturated with
calcium sulphate is sufficient to kill moss growing on the soil in two weeks'
time. .W the end of one week no change is noticeable, excei)t that growth is
retarded. One week longer, however, suffices to kill the moss completely and
turn it a brownish color. The solution was added to the pots on which the moss
grew in the laboratory every other day for about that length of time.

34

WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

SUMMARY OF TABLES.

In order to make more easily comparable the differences of resist-
ance of the several varieties to the various salts, the results as a whole
have been brought together in the following table. At the bottom of
the columns is given the average, for each salt, of the toxic limits of
all the varieties; so it requires only a glance to see which varieties
are aboxo or below the average in their resistance to the toxic effect
of each salt.

Name of Wheat variety.

Magne-
sium sul-
phate.

Magne-
sium
chlorid.

Sodium
carbon-
ate.

Sodium

liicar-

bonate.

Sodiiim

sul-
phate.

Sodium
chlorid.

0.0075
.00625
.0075
.0075
.01
.(X)75
.01
.005
.005

0.015
.01
.01

.00875

.1)075

.01

.0125

.005

.(J05

0.0125
.015
.01
.IKI75
.015
.(1(18
.005
.0125
.0125

0.028
.03
.0275
.025
.0275
.0225
. 025'
.025
.025

o.a5

.0425

.045

.05

.0425

.0475

.0375

.0:J5

.04

0.065

Kharkof

.055

Padui

.0575

Kubanka -

Turkey

Maraonani

Budapest

.0575

.a5

.055
.0475

Preston

.055

Cbul -

.045

Avei'age - --

.00736

.(H193

. 0109

. 026

.M-.a

.0542

A glance at the above table shows that the Zimmerman variety is
much the most resistant. This, however, does not necessarily mean that
it is most resistant to every salt. On the contrary, Zimmerman is
Jess resistant to magnesium sulphate than Budapest and Turkey, less
resistant to sodium carbonate than Turkey and Kharkof, and less
resistant to sodium bicarbonate than Kharkof. This same variety,
however, is very resistant to the influence of sodium chlorid, sodium
sulphate, and sodium carbonate, which brings uj) its average to a
considerable extent. The least resistant variety is Chul, which runs
low for all salts except sodium carbonate, in which its resistance is
slightly above the average of the varieties with which experiments
were made. The low resistance of this variety was unexpected, in
view^' of the character of the country from which it came.

A further consideration of this table show^s how nearly equal the
Padiii and Kubanka varieties are in their resistance. A comparison
of the two varieties for the same salts shows but a slight variation.
Taking into consideration the original habitat of the two varieties,
we would expect very little difference. Both are Russian varieties
and subjected to very similar climatic and soil conditions. Both
varieties are ver}^ resistant to salt solutions, and in view of the fact
that they both come from regions containing much saline soil their
similarity in this respect is not surprising.

Good examples for contrast to Padui and Kubanka are furnished
in Budapest and Preston, Budaf)est is a naturalized Michigan vari-

COMPARISON OF RESULTS.

35

ety and Preston a variety from Canada. The soil and climatic condi-
tions are very similar. Both regions are comparatively humid, Avith
little or no saline soil. Both of these varieties are low in resistance to
salt solutions, just as would be expected.

A comparison of the resistance Of the different varieties wi(h the
reo-ion from which thev came in resi:)ect to soil and climatic coudi-
tions shows that their resistance to saline solutions can probably be
correlated Avith the natural habitat of the varieties; that is, the
results herein obtained indicate that a variety grown in a locality
having little or no excess of salts in the soil has a comparatively low
resistance in saline water cultures. It further shows that varieties
«-rown in resfions havin"' more saline soils have a much greater resist-
ance in saline water cultures.

COMPARISON OF RESULTS WITH DIFFERENT SPECIES.

The results obtained for the lupines by Kearney and Cameron
and those for maize by Kearney have frefiuently been referred to in
the foregoing images. It has been possible to compare them to the
Avriter's results 'with Avheat only in a fragmentary way. Since there
are some very surprising differences in the toxicity of the same salts
to the three plants, the results have been brought together in one
table for comparison. Kearney and Cameron used but one variety
of the lupine and of maize, their results being shown in the follow-
ing table. The Avriter in his experiments on wheat has used nine
different varieties, but in the following table only the mean resistance
of all the varieties has l)een taken.

The limit of concentration of the salts which can be endured by
wheat, lupine, and maize is as follows, the results being stated both in
fractions of a normal solution and in parts of salt per 100,000 of
solution :

Salt.

Parts of
a normal
.soluti(_)n.

Magnesium sulphate
Magnesium chlorid . .
Sodium carbonate _..
S xlium biearb< mate .

Sodium sulphate

Sodium chlorid

Degree of concentration.

Wheat.

0.007
.009
.01
.026
.043
.054

Parts per
100,(X)0 of
solution.

Parts of
a normal
solution.

39
108

52
217
302
313

Lupine.

0.00125
.0025
.005
.02
. 0075
.02

Pai'ts per

KHMIOOof
sohition.

Parts of iPartsper
a normal! I ()(),{ KK) of
solution, solution.

12
2(5

167
53

116

Maize.

0.25
.08
.015
.05
.05
.04

1,400
384
78
417
353
232

It is remarkable that while magnesium sulphate is the most toxic
to the wheat and the lupine of all the salts used it is the least injuri-
ous to maize, being thirty-five times and two hundred times, respec-
tively, more toxic to wheat or lupine than to maize.

36 WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

Magnesium sulphate aud mao-uesiuni elilorid (litter l)ut little in the
concentration necessary to kill the root tips of wheat seedlings, while
a solution of the former only half as strong as the latter is sufficient
to kill the lupines in the same length of time. In contrast to this, a
solution of magnesium chlorid only about one-third as concentrated as
the critical solution of magnesium sulphate is the strongest that can
be endured by the root tips of maize, the order of toxicity of the two
salts being reversed. The root tips of the lupines have been killed
by every salt used, at a less concentration than that which can be
endured by wheat and maize, a solution of sodium carbonate one-half
and one-third as concentrated as that necessary to kill wheat and
maize, respectively, being fatal to the lupine. It will be noticed,
however, that the least amount of diversity is evinced by the three
plants in the presence of sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate.

Wheat and maize show very little ditference in resistance to sodium
sulphate, but a solution about one-sixth as concentrated as that neces-
sary to kill maize is toxic to the lupine.

It is a very surprising fact that the variation between the three
plants is so great. The salts of magnesium wdiich are the most toxic
to wheat and lupines are the least toxic to maize, the ditference being
as is 200 to 1. Maize is on the whole much more resistant to pure salt
solutions than is wheat or the white lupine, while the root tips of the
lupines are killed by each of the salts at a much less concentration
than that necessary to destroy the root tips of wheat seedlings.

Especially interesting results in this connection have been brought
out by Cameron and Breazeale " with some experiments concerning
the action of acids and salts upon maize, wheat, and clover. The
salts employed were not the same as those used by the writer, but the
results for both the acids and salts are sufficient to show the dilTci-ence
in resistance betAveen dilferent species and also the different action of
ditferent salts and acids on the same species.

Cameron and Breazeale found that N/850 and N/GOO solutions of
acetic and succinic acids, respectively, were the toxic limit for seed-
lings of maize, but wheat and clover in the same acids would endure
only N/20000. They found the variations in salt solutions to be
equally as great, but in some ways reversed. In potassium chlorid the
toxic limit for wdieat and clover is the same, each having a greater con-
centration than that necessary to kill seedlings of maize. In potassium
oxalate, wheat was found to endure a concentration six times as great
as that for clover. It is interesting to note here that the more toxic
the acids the more uniform are the results, while for the salt solutions
the reverse is true. The writer obtained similar results for the salts
used in the experiments described in this paper.

a The Toxic Action of Acids and Salts on Seedlings, Journal Phys. Chem., vol.
8, No. 1, p. 1 (January, 1904).

INDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY.

3T

ASH ANALYSES.

To determine -whether or not the amount or the composition of the
ash in the seed could be correhited with the resistance of the seedlings
to saline solutions, analyses of seeds of each variety used and of the
same origin as those used in the culture experiments were obtained
through the Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture.
The results fail to show any correlation between the ash constituents
of the seeds and the resistance of the seedlings in water cultures. As
llie absence of such correlation is important, the table of analyses is
inserted. It is a surprising fact that some of the ash constituents
run very low for varieties such as Padui and Kharkof, in which one
would expect them to be high.

Table of analyses of the ash constituents of wheat seedlings.

Variety.

HoO.

Crude
ash.

COo.

MgO.

K2O.

NazO.

P2O5.

SO3.

CI.

7i i iTi TTifti'iiian

8.34
8.25
8.72
7.68
7.54
9.70
8.38
8.48
7.78

1.72
l.a5
1.40
1.93
1.73
1.66
1.91

i.a5

1.98

0.080
.066
.048
.064
.064
.038
.048
.040
.088

0.22
.18
.18
.23
.20
.15
.21
.23
.28

0.45
.41
.43
.53
.51
.51
.53
.47
.50

0.a50
.050
.053
.056
.046

.042
.045

0.85
.56
.57
.93
.78
.70
.94
.97
.78

0.037
.040
.040
.043
.041
.043
.040
.0.57
.042

0.054

Kharkof

.054

Padui --

.042

TCultanka

.054

Turkey - - -

.054
.054

Budaoest

.054

Preston

.054

Chul

.054

INDIVIDUAL. VARIABILITY.

Individual variation within the different varieties is a subject
deserving some attention in this connection. Some very striking
instances have been noted during the course of these experiments.
Since it has been demonstrated beyond dispute that the varieties
differ one from another in resistance to toxic salts, it is only natural
to suppose that the individuals of the same variety would show
diversity in this respect. It is the existence of this individual varia-
bility that has made it impossible to obtain reliable results without
testing a large number of seedlings. As soon as this factor was
eliminated it became comparatively easy to estal)lish the toxic limit.
In some instances it was more difficult than in others, and some varie-
ties were especially troublesome in this respect. The reasons for this
are difficult to determine.

No experiments have been conducted for the exclusive purpose of
demonstrating the range of individual variation, and only results
are here recorded which have been l)rought out incidentally during
the tests for varietal variation. The writer does not doubt that
experiments with this end in view would l)ring out instances of indi-
vidual variability much more striking than any so far obtained.
Nearly all varieties, however, have shown exceeding diversity in the

38 WHEAT EESTSTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

resistance of imlividiial plants, and it. will be interesting to mention
a few of tlieni. In the experiments to determine the toxic limits for
the different varieties the resnlts were based on averages, e. g., in a
solution of sodium carbonate of a concentration that was taken to
represent the toxic limit 23 seeds Avere alive in a 0.01 solution and 27
dead. It is not known how many of those seedlings which were alive
miirht have survived in a solution still more concentrated, ]xn-haps of
twice the strength, nor is it knoAvn how many of those that were
killed would have been killed in a solution only half as concentrated."

Instead of making tables to show the individual variation, as was
first suggested, only striking instances will be referred to under the
names of the dift'erent varieties. A series of tables would require
more space than can here be given to the subject.

P> It (la pest. — In connection with the experiments wdth the Budapest
variety two striking instances have been noted, one with sodium
bicarbonate and the other with magnesium sulphate. The toxic
limits for these two salts are 0.025 and 0.01 of a normal solution,
resi)ectively. In one experiment, out of a number of seedlings in
0.015 normal sodium bicarbonate two died. In the case of magne-
sium sulphate, in one experiment all the rootlets were dead in 0.015
normal except one, which survived. Here are Iavo instances with
remarkable extremes. In the former case the two seeds w^ere of
exceedingly low vitality, while in the latter instance one seed had
remarkably great vitality.

CJ,yl.—ko very marked individual variations presented them-
selves during the experiments with the Chul variety.

Turl-ey. — Few remarkable variations were observed with the Tur-
key variety. But one instance deserves special attention. The aver-
age toxic limit in magnesium sulphate is 0.01 normal, but in a num-
ber of tests a few seedlings were readily killed in a solution only
half as concentrated as the solution in wdiich one-half of the total
number of individuals exposed to it survived.

Preston. — The experiments with magnesium salts brought out two
interesting cases w'ith the Preston variety. The toxic limit for this

a Moore and Kellenuan (Bui. 64, Bureau of Plant Industry. IT. S. Dept. of
Agriculture) have given some excellent instances of individual variability with
respect to resistance to toxic agents. They have made numerous experiments
with copper sulphate upon different alg;e which are found in water supplies.
They found that 1 part of copper sulphate to 2,000 of water was sullicient to
kill one-half of the individuals of Clilaiiiydomoiias pirifonitis exposed to it in
two days, while the same concentration was sufficient to kill only one-tenth of
the same form in three following days, and in three other days only one-fourth.
With DesmuHum swartzii 1 pa t of copper to 100,000 was sufficient to destroy
one-liajf nnd three-fourths, respectively, of the individuals involved in two
different sets of experiments. Numerous other instances might he cited, but
tliese will suffice to show that individual variation in this resi)ect is not c<.n-
tined to wheat alone.

ISIEUTKALIZING EFFECT OE SALTS EMPLOYED. 31>

variety Avitli both the chlorid iukI the sulphate of inagiiesium is
O.OOa iiorinal. In both salts, however, rootlets of some of the plants
survived in solutions twice as concentrated. In the case of magne-
siuui chlorid, 8 out of 25 survived, while with the sulphate only 2
out of the same number survived.

Kharkof. — In solutions of sodium chloi-id and sodium sulphate of
a concentration of 0.045 and 0.085 normal, respectively, one seedling
of the Kharkof variety was dead in each, the limits fixed for these
two salts being 0.055 and 0.0425. The root tips of two seedlings were
killed in 0.02 normal of sodium bicarbonate, for which the average
toxic limit is 0.03.

Z'nnmeA^man. — The Zimmerman variety, while the most resistant of
all, shows some very marked individual variation. A striking in-
stance occurred with magnesium chlorid, the average toxic limit of
which is 0.015 normal. In a solution one-third as concentrated (0.005
normal) 2 seedlings out of 20 could not survive. The limit of con-
centration for this variety in sodium chlorid is 0.0(')5 normal, but the
rootlets of one seedling could not survive in 0.015. Similar to this
are the results with sodium sulphate, the toxic limit being 0.05, but
the root tips of two individuals did not survive in 0.035 normal
solution.

Padui. — No variation of any importance.

Afaraouaiii — The rootlets of two seedlings of the Maraouani vari-
ety Avere killed in 0.005 normal magnesium sulphate, while ?> out of 20
iudividuals survived in 0.015. The average toxic limit for this salt
is 0.0075 of a normal solution.

Knhanl-a. — No important variations.

NEUTRALIZING EFFECT OF THE SALTS EMPLOYED UPON OTHER

TOXIC SUBSTANCES.

Because of a discovery which was made when these experiments
were almost completed it is necessary, to add a few remarks upon the
neutralizing effect upon other toxic substances of the salts of sodium
and magnesium. During the whole course of the experiments the
writer was unable to get seedlings to grow or even to live for
twenty-four hours in the distilled water used. This seemed unac-
countable, as it quite disagreed with the results of other experi-
menters. Coupin found the roots of wheat seedlings to thrive
well in perfectly distilled water, and Deherain and Demonssy «
showed absolutely pure water to be perfectly harmless to root
growth. Numerous experiments have been made to determine this
point, with more or less varying results. Certain experimenters
have held that distilled Avater was not conducive to good growth.

" Sin- lii Germination dans I'Eau DistillO, Coiupt. Rend., Paris, 132 : 523
(1901).

40 WHEAT EESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

This is probal)ly an error so far as young seedlings are concerned.
The seed contains everything necessary for the early grovrth of
the plant, and the absence of all minerals or other nutrient com-
pounds in the surrounding solution should produce no bad effect
during the earliest stages of growth. Those who claim that dis-
tilled water is injurious will probably find, upon closer observa-
tion, that it is some injurious substance in the water which is really
toxic to the roots. In the case of many plants one of the most toxic
substances known is copper, and it is more than likely that it is
present in much of the water which experimenters have found to be
injurious. Coupin states that one part of copper to 700,000,000 of
-water is sufficient to retard the root growth of wheat seedlings. A
mere trace of copper is sufficient to retard growth in many cases.

As a result of an analysis made in the Bureau of Chemistr}^ of the
Department of Agriculture of the distilled water used in these
experiments, it Avas found to contain a considerable quantity of zinc,
but no trace of copper. The harmful effect probably should be
attril)uted to zinc alone. The water used in these experiments was
distilled but once, and was collected in a porcelain tub as a receiver.

It was thought while the work with wdieat seedlings was in prog-
ress that copper or zinc might be the cause of the injurious effects,
but the writer used the water from the same still for all experiments
with Lupinus albus, and no toxic effect of the distilled water was
noticeable. Control checks with lupines were carried in both dis-
tilled and hydrant Avater, and no difference was found in the rate of
growth. It was this observation which at the outset of the work with
wheat gave the writer confidence in the quality of the distilled Avater.
This is apparently another indication that different species of plants
vary greatly in their ability to resist the influence of toxic salts.
Wheats are apparently much more sensitive than lupines to pure
solutions of zinc salts, although nuich less sensitive to pure solutions
of sodium and magnesium salts.

At first thought one would conclude that since the distilled Avater
used contained harmful substances the experiments aboA'e described
are practically Avithout A'alue; but such is not the case, as aaIII be
seen before this discussion is completed. In order to compare closely
the Avater used during most of the experiments Avith absolutely pure
water, some exi^eriments Avere made. To secure absolute purity in
the water a ncAv still was made of the best nonsoluble glassware, hav-
ing no metal in any of its parts. The same AA'ater that had been
previously used Avas redistilled for the purpose. The Avheat seedlings
AA'ere treated in CA'ery AAay as before. A control Avas also carried in
Potomac Eiver Avater for comparison, and each lot of seed was taken
up each day and the elongation of the roots measured and recorded
for four consecutiA'e daA^s. In the tAvice-distilled Avatcr they grew

NEUTRALIZING EFFECT OF SALTS EMPLOYED.

41

about as well as in hydrant water. In order to show to what extent
the impurity of the water used Avould affect former experiments, salt
solutions of a dilution far below the toxic limits, as already estab-
lished, were made, using the water which was but once distilled. The
results showed that the toxic element in the water was effectively
neutralized by the addition of even minute quantities of any one of
the salts used in the experiments. For compai:ison equal numbers of
seeds were tested at the same time in the water distilled twice, in that
distilled but once (that used throughout the above-described experi-
ments), and in dilute salt solutions made up with the once-distilled
Avater.

The following table embodies the results obtained with very dilute
solutions of the salts, with distilled water, and with hydrant water :

Water or solution.

Water distilled once

Water distilled twice

Magnesium sulphate lO.dill normal I'l .
Magnesium chlorid {U.Wl normal )«._.

Sodium carbonate (0.001 normal)"

Sodium bicarbonate (0.0(C5normal)n .

Sodium sulphate (0.015 normal)"

Sodium chlorid (0.015 normal)"

Hydrant water

Elongation of roots at the end of a
given time.

First
day.

mm.

2.2
11.1
10.6
16.8
11.3
10.6

8.5

r.8

9.4

Second
day.

mm.
2.
26.
21.
30.
14.
£4
22
15
23.

Third
day.

mm.
2.
33.
27
37.
16.
31
31.
19
37.

Fourth
day.

2.2
36.3
27.6
38.2
17.8
32.4
34.8
22
46

« The mean toxic limit of all varieties of wheat tested in the presence of the salts here

employed is shown as follows :

Parts of nor-
mal solution.

Magnesium sulphate 0. (KI736

Magnesium chlorid • 00931

Sodium carbonate • 0109

Sodium bicarbonate . 026

Sodium sulphate .0432

Sodium chlorid . 0542

A comparison of these figures with the table above shows that from one-third to one-
tenth the concentrations of the solutions which represent the limit of endurance of the
wheat varieties is sufficient to neutralize the harmful efCect of the zinc present in the
distilled water.

The above table shows that after an elongation of '2.2 mm. during
the first day in 'the water distilled once no further growth toolv place.
A comparison of that with absolutely pure water (in this case redis-
tilled) shoMS that there was some element in the first water which
hindered growth and which was not found in the second. This, as
the chemical analysis above referred to showed, is probably zinc.

The results in the dilute salt solutions which were made up with the
injurious once-distilled water showed that there Avas no material dif-
ference in the elongation made in them and in the checks in redis-
tilled and hydrant water. It is not assumed that these dilute solu-

42 WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

tions were in the exact proportion that wouhl have permitted tlie
greatest ek)neation. The ol>iect Avas merely to show that at the con-
centrations used in these experiments the salts of magnesium and
of sodium effectively neutralize the injurious element present in the
once-distilled water. The only noticeable difference Avas in the case
of sodium carbonate and sodium chlorid. in which the elongation was
somewhat below the average in the pure-water check and in the solu-
tions of other salts. The use of a more dilute or a more concentrated
solution would doubtless have removed this difference. On the other
hand, a 0.001 normal magnesium chlorid was conducive to better
development than any of the others. Avitli the single exception of
hydrant water. It Avill be noticed that at the end of the third day
there was even a slight advantage in favor of magnesium chlorid
over river water.

The elongation the fourth day Avas but a slight increase over that
•a{ the end of the third. Avith the one exception of the seeds in the
hydrant Avater. This is just Avhat Avas to be expected. During these
four days the seeds Avere compelled to Hac on the nutriment stored up
in the endosperm. This had been jDractically all used up at the end
of the third day ; hence the cessation of grov.th. With hydrant Avater
the conditions Avere different. Certain nutritive substances are con-
tained in this Avater upon Avhich the roots can draAv Avhen those con-
tained in the endosperm have been exhausted.

InvicAv of the experiments, small quantities of these sodium and
magnesium salts, instead of being injurious Avhen present in the
soil, might be actually beneficial in case the soil contains very toxic
substances, e. g., zinc or copper. In fact, these salts are injurious
only Avhen present in excessiA^e quantities, as in the so-called " alkali
soils "" of the West.

DILUTE SOLUTIONS AS STIMULANTS.

Incidentally, throughout these experiments, eA'idences of stimula-
tion in dilute solutions Avere obtained. This has been shown to
occur by many iuA'estigators Avith other salts and Avith some acids."

Kearney and Cameron. Avho made similar observations Avhen ex-
perimenting Avith Lupinus alb us, say :

In the f-ase of certain salts, when plants are exposed to pure sol-itions wliich
are nuu-h too dilute to produce any toxic effect, there occurred .i decidedly

n Some fungi have heen known to he stimulated ))y the presence of small
quantities of poisons. Th^ germination of sjiores has likewise heen hastened
when in tlie presence of acids or salts. Townsend (Bot. Gaz.. 27 : J.lS—tOG, 1800)
found that the germination of various seeds and spores has heen stimvdated hy
the ])resence of traces of ether, and (Bot. Gaz.. .31: 241-2(!4, 1001) that the
presence <if hydrocyanic acid for a hrief period of time accelerates germination
and suhsequeut growth.

DILUTE SOLUTIOIS^S AS STIMULANTS. 43

sthnulating effect upon growth, as compared with that hi the rtistillecl
water control during a corresponding period. This was shown to be tlie case
for salts of calcium, both the chlorid and the sulphate acting as stimuli.

These investigators found decisive evidence of such stimuhitin<i-
action with both the carbonate and the bicarbonate of sodium.
Sodium sulphate and sodium chlorid gave purely negative results.
Verv marked results of this kind were observed by Cameron and
Breazeale when working with acids. Hydrochloric, sulphuric, and
nitric acids in concentrations but little beloAv the toxic limit produced
enormous stimulation, especially with Avheat.

Copeland" shows that zinc and copper in water cultures accelerate
<:-r(jwth when the solutions are not nnich more dilute than those that
are distinctly toxic. Similar observations have been made by many
earlier investigators.

In the experiments with wheat all the salts were found to stimu-
late growth except sodium chlorid and sodium carbonate, which were
indifferent at the lowest concentration used. It is not unlikely,
however, that if the proper dilution of the carbonate were employed
it would be found to act as a stimulus with wheats just as it did with
lupines. In fact, it was found that the same concentration of certain
salts which was decidedly toxic for some varieties of wheat will
act as a stimulant to another variety. Especially is this true of the
chlorid and sulphate of magnesium. In a 0.005 solution of each of
these salts the elongation of the roots of Turkey Avheat was equal to
that in the control of hydrant water during the period of twenty-
four hours. The toxic limits for this variety are 0.0075 normal for
the chlorid and 0.01 normal for the sulphate. As will be seen, two-
thirds and one-half the concentration of the toxic limit, respectively,
not only were not toxic but actually acted as a stimulating influence.
There is a possibility, in view of these results, that dilutions not very
much below the toxic limit are more likely to have a stimidating
effect than are much more dilute solutions. This, however, is not
a question to be settled at this time. l)ut will require to determine it
a series of special experiments.

A 0.015 normal solution of sodium sulphate caused an elongation
about one and one-half times as great as that in hydrant water. The
same dilution of sodium chlorid gave results somewhat less striking,
but the elongation was well above the average of that in the hydrant-
water checks.

As before stated, it would seem that instead of being injurious,
dilute solutions of these salts might be decidedly advantageous, yet
if they cause an unnatural growth their presence must be considered
as detrimental rather than beneficial. Copeland calls attention to

n Chemical Stimulation and the Evolution of Carbon- Dioxide. Bot. Gaz.,

35: 81 -as (UK):;).

44 WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS,

this fact, and is oi the opinion that substances acting as stinuihmts
are in the long run injurious.

It is of course an established fact that certain of these salts are
beneficial and even necessary in particular cases. It has been claimed
that chlorids are indispensable to buckAvheat. The i^lant thrives
Avell until it has passed the blooming stage, at a period Avhen potas-
sium chlorid seems necessary to complete the fruiting stage. This
fact has apparently been demonstrated by experiment. Loew '^
says that fungi grown in culture solutions containing only traces of
magnesia form no spores, but by increasing the amount of lethicin
and thus adding more magnesium to the culture solution spores will
be formed. ^lagnesium salts are as indispensable to fungi as to
high(>r plants, but an exceedingly small amount is sufficient when the
solution has an acid reaction.

Plants are often benefited by sodium salts.'' AVhile three of these
salts — the chlorid, bicarbonate, and carbonate — are not indispensable
to the plant, they accelerate ripening in some of the cereals.

Loew asserts that sodium, manganese, and silicon are often bene-
ficial but not indisj^ensable to phanerogams. Sodium salts are not
essential in the iDliysiological processes of plants, but are indispen-
sable to animals.

PRACTICAL VALUE OF RESTJLTS.

There is certainly a very practical lesson to be drawn from the
results described in this paper. It has of course long been known
that plants of difl'erent genera and species show very difterent

a The Physioloarical Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plants. Bui. 45, Bureau of
riant Industry. V. S. Dept. of Airriculfnro (10(t:^).

^ Chittenden and Waehsnian are of the opinion that the conversion of starch
into dextrin and sugar (diastase) is more vigorous in the presence of small
(quantities of sodium chlorid (0.24 per cent). Several investigators, prominent
among whom are Sprengel andT,iebig, have shown that various crops, and more
especially beans, are nmeh benefited by the application of small quantities of
common salt.

Pethybredge ( P.ot. ("entralbl.. No. :',?>, 1001) is authority for the statement
that the color of wheat leaves is intensified when sodium chlorid is applied.

S. .Suzuki (Bui. Coll. Agric. Tokyo, 5: No. 2. p. 10!)) showed that potassium
iodid, even in very high dilutions, exerted a stimulating action on the growth
of the ]>ea: and (ibid.. No. 4. p. 473) that dilute (piantities of potassium iodid
stimulated oats. In o]»[)osition to these stimulating effects the same investiga-
tor has found (ibid.. No. 4, p. 513) that vanadin sulphate, even in very dilute
quantities, produced little or no stinuilating action on barley, though he
states that a very weak stimulating action on the roots seemed to have taken
jlace in a 0.01 per mille of vanadin sulphate, lie. further shows (ibid.. No. 2)
that potassium ferrocyanid acts .-is a poison on jilants in water cultures even in
^ery high dilutions.

SUMMARY. 45

behaA'ior Avheii brought into relation with saline or alkaline soils.
But the species itself may include a great number of ditt'erent varie-
ties or races, as in the case of wheat. It is not enough to know that
wheat in general is better adapted to a certain region because of soil or
climatic conditions than is Indian corn or cotton, but in addition it is
necessary to know Avhioh of the many varieties of wheat is best suited
to that region. wSnch knowledge might save many years of constant
selection with a view to acclimatization.

Soils are often known to contain sodinm chlorid or magnesium
sulphate or some other salt in such quantity as to be fatal to some
varieties, while permitting others to flourish. Now, it has been pos-
sible by these experiments to determine that some varieties of wheat
are much more resistant to a particular salt than others, and they are
the ones which would be expected a priori to thrive best in a region
where that salt predominates, other conditions being equal. By some
of the experiments it was found that some varieties would thrive
equally well in three times the concentration of sodium carbonate as
others. A simple deduction from such results would be that for a
region containing large quantities of " black alkali '' the variety
shown to have the greatest resisting power should be selected.

A knowedge of the limits of individual variation within each
variety is likewise very essential. Often the most resistant varieties
are not always the most desirable in other respects and a sort which
is less resistant would be preferable. In case such a sort has a great
individual variation in resistance to salts it should be compara-
tively easy to introduce it by gradual selection of the most resistant
individuals, though a little more time would naturally be required
than in introducing a variety that is already more resistant, as a
smaller percentage of the plants would survive to furnish seed for the
next crop.

It is believed, therefore, that the results of these exiieriments afford
additional j)roof that the adaptation of useful cultivated plants to
saline or alkaline soil conditions is one of the most promising of
plant-breeding problems.

SUMMARY.

(1) The salts with which the experiments were made are injurious
to wheat seedlings in the following order: ^Slagnesium sulphate,
magnesium chlorid, sodium carl)onate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium
sulphate, and sodium chlorid. This is asserted as true only of wheat,
and a quite (liferent order might possibly be established for other
plants.

(•2) The results obtained from a few individual seedlings are inac-
curate and unreliable. A large number nuist be tested in order that

46 AVHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

individual variation may be eliminated. Usually about ten days
of experiment and from GO to 100 seedlings were employed to estab-
lish the toxic limit for each variety in each salt.

(3) Wheat is one and a half to six times as resistant as white
lupines, according to the salt used. In sodium bicarbonate the least
and in magnesium sulphate and sodium carbonate the greatest differ-
ence in resistance between these two plants is shown. •

(4) Different varieties, representing the two extremes, vary in the
ratio of 1 to o in their resistance to the toxic effect of different
salts. This is especially true for sodium carbonate and magnesium
chlorid. In magnesium sulphate they vary in the ratio of 1 to 2.

(5) The variety most resistant as a whole is not necessarily the most
resistant to every salt. The variety that averages least in resistance
may be twice as resistant to some one particular salt as that which
averages highest. In this fact may be found the secret of selecting a
variety for a locality where the soil contains an excess of some one
salt.

(G) The least resistant variety is not always the least resistant for
every salt used. It may be exceedingly resistant to one or more salts
and yet have a very low sum total resistance.

(7) It is not possible from the results with a few varieties to draw
general conclusions for all sorts of wheat. Each will have to l)e,
worked out for itself.

(8) Varieties which come from localities where saline salts abound
are the most resistant in water cultures to these toxic salts. Varie-
ties from humid regions are less resistant.

(9) In general, the more toxic the salt the greater is the ratio of
resistance of one variety to another. The less toxic the salt the
smaller is the ratio. For sodium carbonate and magnesium chlorid
the ratio of resistance is greatest, being as 1 to 3. For the remaining
salts it is smaller.

(TO) Individual variation is more prevalent and makes the estab-
lishment of the toxic limit much more difficult in some varieties than
in others.

(11) All the salts used act as stimulants in dilute solutions except
sodium carbonate and sodium chlorid. which were neutral even in
very dilute solutions. In some cases the elongation in dilute solutions
was nearly twice that occurring in the controls of hydrant water.

(12) Absolutely pure distilled water does not hinder development,
but traces of zinc are sufficient to kill the root tips in twenty-four

hours.

(13) The economic importance of these results is based upon the
fact that water-culture experiments may be a means for saving seA'eral
vears of selection bv indicatina- whether a certain variety is adapted
to soil conditions in a particular region.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Camerox. F. K., and P.reazeale. J. F. The toxic action of acids and salts <;;i

seedlings. Journnl Phys. Cliem., vol. 8, No. 1, p. 1 (Jan.. 1004).
Carleton. M. a. Basis for the iniprovenient of American wheats. Bnl. -4,

Div. Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. U. S. Dept. of Agricnltnre (I'.MXt).
Charabot. F.. and Hehert. A. Contribution a I'etnde des modifications cheiu-

iqnes chez la plante sonnuse a rinHuence dn chlorure de sodium. Compt.

Rend.. Paris, 1S4: 181 (1902).
Copelam). K. V>. Chemical stiuuilation and the evolution of carbon dioxido.

Bot. (Jaz.. nr, : 81-98 (1903).
Coupi.N. IIenhi. Sur la sensihilite des vcgi'taux superieurs a des doses tr, '•.

faibles de substances tiixi(iues. Compt. Bend.. Paris. 132 : 64.5 (1901).
Sur la toxicite du chlorure de s :diuui et de I'eau de mer. a regard dt^s

vegetaux. Revue Generale de- Botanhiue. lo: 188 (1898).

Sur la toxicite des composes de sodium, de potassium, et de Tannno-

nium a I'egard des vegetaux superieurs. Revue Gencrale de Botanique,

12: ISO (1900).
Daxdexo, .J. P.. The relation of mass action and physical allinity to toxicity.

with incidental discussion as to how far electrolytic dissociatinn may be

involved. Amer. .Tournal of Science, vol. 17 (.Tune, 1904).
Deheraix and Demoussy. Sur la germination dans I'eau distillr. Cnm])!.

Rend., Paris, 1.32:523 (1900).
KroGAi!. B. M. The toxic effect of some nutrient salts on certain marine alga\

Science. 4.".9 (1903).
Fsche.xhagen. Ueber den einfluss von l()sungen verschiedener concentration

auf den wachstum der schimmelpilze. Stolp (1889).
CrxHRiE and Helms. Pot experiments to determine the limits of endurance of

different farm crops f(n- certain injurious substances. Roy. Soc, New South

Wales. 30: V.tl (1902).
IIeald. F. I>. On the toxic effect c.i dilute solutions of acids and salts up.on

plants. Bot. Gasz., 22:12.") (1890).
Kaiilexiuko and True. On the toxic action of dissolved salts and their elec-
trolytic-dissociation. Bot. Gaz., 22 : 81 (1890).
Kearney and Cameron. Some nuitual relations between alkali soils and vege-
tation. Hept. No. 71, r. S. Dei)t. of Agriculture (1902).
Loew. Oscar. The physiological role of mineral nutrients in plants. Bui. 4.'i.

Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (1903).
'Moore and Kellerman. A method of destroying or preventing the growth of

alg;e and certain pathogenic bacteria in water supplies. Bui. 64, Bureau of

Plant Industry, V. S. Dept. of Agriculture (1904).
Pethyiiredoe. Beitriige zur kenntniss der einwirkung der anorganischen salze

auf die entwickelung und den ban der i)tianzen. Bot. Central!)., 87:2,3.5,

No. 33 (1901).

47

48

WHEAT RESISTANCE TO TOXIC SALTS.

Raulin. J. Etudes chimiques siir la vegetation. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Botanique,

5e Ser., 11 : 93.
Saunders, Wiixiam. Cereals and root eroi)S (1902).
SiGMUNU, W. Ueber die einwirknng cbeniiscber agentien auf keimung. Landw.

Vers. Stat.. 47:2 (189G).
Stewart. John. Etfect of alkali upon seed germination. Nintb Ann. Rei).,

Utab Agric. Exp. Sta. (ISOS).
Suzuki. S. On tbe action of bigbly diluted liotassium iodide on agi-irnltural

plants. Bui. Coll. Agric. Tokyo. 5: No. 2. p. 19!) (19(i2).

On tbe inlluence of potassium iodide on oats. Ibid. No. 4. p. 4T:J (1903 i,

_.^ On tbe action of vanadin compounds on plants. Ibid. No. 4. p. 513

(1903).
On tbe poisonous action of potassium ferrocyanide on plants. Ibid,

5: No. 2, p. 213 (1902).
TowNSEND, C. O. Tbe efftct of etber upon tbe germination of seeds and spores.

Bot. Gaz.. 27:458-460 (1899).
. Tbe effect of bydrocyanic acid gas upon grains and otber seeds. Bot.

Gaz., 31:241-2()4 (1901).

o

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY^BULLETIN NO. 80.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Ckkf of Bureau.

IGRICULTURIL EXPLORATIONS IN ILGERIA

BY

THOMAS H. KEARNEY,

I'hiislologist, Vegetable Pathological and Physiological Investigations,
Bureau of 'Plant Industry,

AND

THOMAS H. MEANS,

formerly uf the Bureau of Soils.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.

Issued August 19, 1905.

WASHINGTON :

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1905.

BTTIiliETINS OF THE BUREATJ OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The Bureau of Plant Industry, wliich was organized July 1, 1901, includes Vege-
table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investigations and
Experiments, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, Pomological Investigations, and
Exi^erimental Gardens and Grounds, all of which were formerly separate Divisions,
and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, the Arlington Experimental
Farm, Tea Culture Investigations, and Domestic Sugar Investigations.

Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of Bulle-
tins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published as one
series of the Bureau. A list of the Bulletins issued in the present series follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that "the serial, scientific, and technical publica-
tions of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general distribution;.
All copies not required for official use are by law turned over to the Superintendent
of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All applications for such
pul)lications should, therefore, be made to the Superintendent of Documents, (iov-
ernment I'rinting Office, Washington, D. C.

No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10 cents*
2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents,
o. Macaroni Wlieats. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price, 10 cents,
ti. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. ]902. Price, 10 cents.

7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses and

Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

18. Experiments in RangelmprovementinCentral Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

14. The Decay of Tind^er and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents.

15. Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price,

15 cents.

16. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Campes-

tris and Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

21. Listof American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. Price, 35 cents.

22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

23. Berseem. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous Papers: I. The Seeds of Rescue Grass and Chess. II. Saragolla

Wheat. III.. Plant Introduction Notes from South Africa. IV. Congres-
sional Seed and Plant Distribution Circulars, 1902-1903. 1903. Price, 15
cents. = ■

26. Spanish Almonds. 1902. Price, . 15 cents.

27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, Spain, and 'the Orient. 1902.

Price, 15 cents.

28. The Mango in Porto Rico. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

29. The Effect of Black Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

[Continued on page 3 of cover.]

Bui. 80, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 80.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

BY

THOMAS H. KEARNEY,

Physiologist, Vegetable I'atlwlogical and PJii/siologicul Incestigatioiis,
Bureau of Plant Industry,

AND

THOMAS H. MEANS,

Formerly of the Bureau of Soils.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.

Issued August 19, 1905.

WASHINGTON :

GOVEENMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

19 0 5.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

B. T. GALLOWAY,

Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau.

\^EGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and PJn/siologist in Charge,

Acting Chief of Bnreau in Absence of Chief.

BOTANICAL INVESTK^ATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS,

Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Cltarge.

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.
W. J. Spillman, Agricidturist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

G. B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.
A. J. PiETERS, Botanist i)t Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.

L. C. CoRBETT, Horticulturist in Charge.

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.
E. M. Byrnes, Superintendent.

J. E. Rockwell, Editor.
James E. Jones, Chief Clerk.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.

SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

A. J. PiETERs, Botanist in Chargr.

W. W. Tracy, sr.. Superintendent of Testing Gardens.

S. A. Knapp, Special Agent.

David Fairchild, Agricultural E.vplorer.

John E. W. Tracy, Assistaid Superintendent of Testing Gardens.

George W. Oliver, Expert.

W. W. Tracy, jr., Assistant Botanist.

LETTHR OF TRANSMITTAL

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,
WcushimjUm, D. C, April 3 J^, 1905.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for
pul)lication a,s Bulletin No. 80 of the series of this Bureau, the accom-
panyino- manuscript entitled ''Agricultural Explorations in Algeria."
This paper was prepared hy Thomas II. Kearney, Physiologist, Vege-
table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Bureau of Plant
Industry, and Thomas II. Means, at that time in charge of Soil Survey,
Bureau of Soils, and has been su])mitted by the Botanist in Charge
of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distril)ution, under whose direction
the explorations described were conducted, with a view to its publication.
The four half-tone plates are necessary to a complete understanding
of the text of this bulletin.

Respectfully, B. T. Galloway,

Ch ief of Bureau.
lion. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture,

PREFACE

While the af^rieultural explorers sent out l\y this Office are, as a
rule, sent for the purpose of securing- some special seeds or plants
desired for introduction into the United States, they are also expected
to make themselves as familiar as possible with the agricultural prac-
tices of the countries they visit and with the crops that succeed under
the conditions described. That some of the practices observed may
be profitably followed in those parts of the United States having simi-
lar soil and climatic conditions is more than probable, and that certain
of these crops will prove useful has alreadj" been demonstrated.

The American farmer of to-da}' wants to know what is being done
elsewhere, and he is especially interested in hearing how other people
meet difficulties similar to those with which he has to contend. The
reports of our agricultural explorers, we believe, will therefore fill
a distinct place in agricultural literature. This report points out
clearl}^ the close similarity in climate existing between certain portions
of the Southwestern States and Algeria, making it plain that we must
look to that country for the introduction of many useful plants into
our arid and semiarid districts.

We have, indeed, already availed ourselves of the opportunities thus
offered. The date palms so far secured have come largely from Alge-
ria; certain grains from that country, now being tested, give promise
of unusual value; and the writers of this report brought back a quan-
tity of alfalfa seed from salt-resistant plants, which has already l)een
tested and gives promise of decided usefulness in Arizona and Cali-
fornia.

To throw as much light as possible upon the conditions under which
crops are grown in Algeria, chapters upon the topography, climate,
irrigation, and soils are included. These, together with the brief his-
torical and political sketch, have been prepared by Thomas H. Means.
The remainder of the report was written ))y Thomas II. Kearne3^

The writers wish to acknowledge the services cordially rendered
them b}' the following-named gentlemen in the prosecution of their
Avork: Mr. Henri Vignaud, of the United States embassy in Paris;
the Governor-Cjeneral of Algeria, and the French Resident tit Tunis;
Dr. L. Trabut, of the botanical service of the government of Algeria;

5

6 PREFACE.

the Commandant, of the Bureau des Affaires Indigenes at Algiers; the
commandants of the military circles of Biskra and Tougourt; Lieu-
tenant Bereaud, Chef du Bureau Arabe at the latter place; M.
Colombo, of the Compagnie de TOued Rirh at Biskra; Mr. Daniel Kid-
der, United States consul at Algiers; M. Vilmorin, of the seed tirm of
Vihnorin-Andrieux & Co., and M. Emerich, agent of that tirm for
America.

A. J. PiKTERS,

Botanist in Charge.
Office of Seed and Plant

Introduction and Distribution,

W(/s/i/'v(/fo», D. C., J^rhrut/ri/ 17, 1905.

CONTEXTS

Page.

Introduction 11

Topography 12

Coast region 14

Higli plateau or steppe region 15

Desert region 16

Climate - 18

Coast region 19

Temperature. .■ 19

Humidity 22

Precipitation 22

Wind 24

High plateau region - 25

Desert region 26

Temperature 26

Humidity 27

Precipitation 28

Irrigation ^ 29

Coast regii m 31

High plateau region 36

Desert region 36

Soils ' 38

Coast region 39

Littoral zone 39

Valley and plain zone 39

Mountain zone - 40

High plateau region 41

Desert region 41

Saline soils 42

Coast region 43

Desert region 45

Soil management 46

Rotations 46

Fertilizers 4 /

Preparation of the land 48

Clearing and leveling 48

Plowing 48

General economic conditions 49

Historical and political 49

Land values 50

Farm labor 50

Agriculture of the native population 52

Among the Arabs 52

Among the Kabyles 52

Among the Saharans - 54

Crops of the colony 55

Geographii-al distribution 56

Coast region 56

Littoral zone 57

Valley and plain zone 57

Mountain zone 58

High plateau region 59

Desert region 59

7

8 CONTENTS.

Crops of the colony — Continued. Page.

Principal crops in detail 60

Fruit crops 60

Grapes 60

Wine grapes 60

Table grapes - 64

Olives 64

Figs 67

Citrus fruits 68

Dates 69

Less im])ortant orchard crops , 70

Truck crops 71

Cereals 73

Winter cereals 74

Wheat 74

Barley 75

Oats 76

Summer cereals 76

Sorghum 76

Indian corn 77

Forage crops 77

Wild forage 77

Fallow-land forage 77

Forage of natural meadows and jjrairies 77

Cultivated forage 79

Leguminous crops 79

A Ifalfa, or lucern 79

Horse beans 83

Sulla 83

Fenugreek 83

Berseem 83

Vetches 83

Tree crops as foi-age 84

Carob, or St. John's bread 84

Indian fig 85

]\Iiscellaneous crops , 85

Tobacco 85

Fiber plants 86

Perfume j^huits 86

Live stock 87

Cattle 88

Horses 88

Donkeys 89

Mules 89

Camels 89

Sheep 89

Goats 90

Forestry - 90

General conditions - 90

Forest products 93

Fuel - 93

Timber 93

Cork : 94

Tan bark 95

Alfa 95

Dwarf palm 98

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page.

Plate I. Oasis of Biskra, Algeria, showing date palms Frontispiece.

II. Fig. 1. — Salt land near Relizane, in the coast region of Algeria.
Fig. 2. — Vineyard of wine grapes, in the Mitidja plain, near
Algiers 98

III. Fig. 1. — Garden of the kai'd, at Tougourt, showing cabbage, pep-

pers, and other vegeta])les grown in the shade of the palms. Fig.
2. — Date palms planted in very salty land by a French company
at Onrlana, in the Sahara 98

IV. Fig. 1. — Valley of the Habra, lielow the reservoir dam, near Per-

regaux, showing width of flood plain and small size of the stream
in summer. A typical landscape in the coast region of western
Algeria. Fig. 2. — Alkali-resistant alfalfa near Temacin, Algerian

Sahara 98

9

B. P. I.-ICO. ' S. P. I. D.-49.

AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN

ALGERIA.

INTRODUCTION.

The principal object of the writers' visit to Algeria was to secure for
trial in the '' alkali " lands of the western United States seed of such
of the important field crops as might show indication of an unusual
desfree of resistance to salt in the soil. There was reason to believe
that in northern Africa, if anj^where in the world, useful plants would
be found to have developed such resistance through long cultivation in
saline soils under a dry, hot climate.

Agriculture is too new in the arid part of America to make it likel}"
that races in which the quality of resistance to "alkali" has become
fixed should as yet have arisen there without direct eli'orts to breed
them. But in the Sahara Desert, and in adjacent regions, all the con-
ditions are favorable to the production of such races through natural
selection. There we find the greatest continuous body of desert land
in the world. The cultivated soils and the water used in irrigation
often contain an excess of soluble salts. Finally, agriculture has been
practiced there for thousands of years, and well-marked varieties of
various cultivated plants have been developed.

As a matter of fact, it is already known to the Department of Agri-
culture that such salt-resistant races exist in northern Africa. Sev-
eral of the agricultural explorers sent out by the Department have
reported this to be true of Algerian wheats and ))arle3's. Mr. W. T.
Swino-le brouoht back with him from the oases of the Sahara seed of
alfalfa that was growing in soils containing a high percentage of salt.
It was desirable, however, to determine just how resistant this Alge-
rian alfalfa is and to obtain a larger quantity of the seed, in order that
it could be fairl}- tested in the southwestern United States.

It is believed that this oI)ject was accomplished. The fact that
alfalfa in the oases withstands a greater amount of soluble salts in the
soil than ordinary American alfalfa was established beyond reasonalde
question. A suflicient quantity of seed was obtained to insure a
thorough trial of it in parts of our countr}- where a similar climate

11

12 AGRTCULTUKAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

prevails. At the .same time a careful search was made in various
parts of Algeria for such other cultivated plants as might prove
useful for salt soils. Incidentall}^ the writers procured all possible
information as to the character of the saline soils of Algeria, the way
in which the}^ are handled, and such attempts as have been made to
reclaim them.

The coast region of Algeria strikingl}' resembles the corresponding
part of California in climate, in ph3-siography, and in the crops grown.
The interior of California, and of the extreme southwestern United
States generally, corresponds in many ways to the steppe and the desert
regions of northern Africa. It is true that in some respects agricul-
ture has reached a more advanced stage of development in California
than in Algeria; yet there are prol)ably some matters in which the
French colony can give lessons to the American State. For this reason
itseems advisable to present a sketch of Algerian agriculture as a whole,
in addition to a more detailed account of the special subjects which the
writers were sent out to investigate. The writers' stay in Algeria was
limited to one month, from July 20 to August 20, 1902. It is fully
realized that this length of time was entirely inadequate for anything
like a thorough study of agriculture in the colony, especially as the
mild winter permits crops to be grown at all seasons of the year. The
date of the writers' visit to Algeria was determined partly by the
necessity of reaching Egypt in time to study cotton at the height of
its development, and partly ])y their desire to visit the oases of the
Sahara at the season when the seed crop of alfalfa is being made.
The information they could obtain by direct observation was neces-
sarily fragmentary in the extreme. To supplement this, recourse has
been had to the rather extensive literature of Algerian agriculture.
In the preparation of this report the excellent work of Battandier
andTrabut, entitled "L'Algerie'' (Paris, 1898), has been freely con-
sulted. Much information has also been drawn from papers upon
special subjects by Doctor Tral)ut and others, « from the important
"Manuel Pratique de I'Agriculteur Algerien " (Paris, 1900) of Riviere
and Lecq, and from various other sources.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The French colony of Algeria is situated in northern Africa, between
Morocco on the west and Tunis on the east. In general outline it is
a rectangle, of which the greatest length— that from east to west— is
about 6.50 miles. The area of Algeria is about 230,000 square miles, of
which approximately 20,000,000 acres are under cultivation. The
Mediterranean forms the northern boundary, while on the south the

o Published chief! v in the "Bulletin Agricole de I'Algerie et de la Tiuiiyie."

TOPOGRAPHY. 13

frontier extends well into the great desert of Sahara, the present
outposts being- from 300 to 500 miles from the coast.

The vast desert to the southward cuts off Algeria ph^^sically as well
as politically from tropical Africa. The influence of the sea upon its
climate and the fact that almost unbroken overland communication
with Europe b}'^ way of Morocco and Gibraltar has alwa3's been easy
make Algeria rather an outpost of Europe than an integral part of
Africa. In climate, ph3'siography, flora, and agriculture Algeria is
closelj'^ related to the countries that border the northern shore of the
Mediterranean — Spain, southern France, and southern Ital3^ Indeed,
geologists tell us that northern Africa was separated from southern
Europe at only a comparatively recent period.

The part of the United States which Algeria most nearly resembles
is California. The climate, agriculture, and state of development of
the two countries are remarkabl}' similar. In their general aspects
thev are much alike. In both, the coast region, being limited to a
narrow strip b}' a range of mountains that parallels the seashore, has
a comparatively mild, e({uable climate. In both countries this zone is
preeminentl}" adapted to fruit growing. Citrus fruits, olives, figs, and
vines flourish there. A striking analogy exists between the great
plain-like valleys of Algeria, occupied largely by vine3'ards and fields
of cereals, and the San .loaquin and Sacramento valleys of California.
Finally, the conditions obtaining in the Desert of Sahara are in great
part reproduced in the Colorado and Mohave deserts. But to the
steppe or high plateau region that occupies the central part of Algeria
it would be more difficult to find a counterpart in California, portions
of Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico presenting a closer resemblance.

If we take into consideration biological — including agricultural —
conditions, as well as the topographical features of the country, there
are three principal regions into which Algeria can be divided for con-
venience of description. These are (1) the coast region, extending to
the crests of the series of mountain ranges which follow the coast,
(2) the high plateau or steppe region, occupying the central portion of
the colony between the two great mountain systems and comprising the
southern slope of the northern ranges and the northern slope of the
southern chains, and (3) the desert region, comprising the Algerian
Sahara and the southern slopes of the mountain s^'stem which forms
the northern boundary of the Sahara.

The second and third regions are, on the whole, more homogeneous
than the first, or, at any rate, their agricultural importance is too
small to make it desirable to subdivide them. Three subdivisions of
the coast region are, however, to be recognized, (1) the littoral zone,
comprising the immediate coast and the lower slopes of the hills and
mountains which border it, (2) the vallej^ and plain zone, comprising

14 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

the larger, often plaiji-like, valleys of the coast region which lie inside
the line of hills that follows the seashore, and (3) the mountain zone,
including- the higher elevations of the coast region southward to the
crest of the ranges that form the northern boundary of the high
plateau region.

COAST REGION.

The "Tell," as the coast region is known among the Arabs, is, from
an agricultural point of view, the most important part of Algeria.
A great proportion of it is capable of cultivation. It has been esti-
mated that a population of 12,000,000 could be supported in this
region alone. It strikingly reseml)les the Mediterranean coast of
Europe, and is no less close in its likeness to the coast region of Cali-
fornia, so that a description of one will answer in many respects for
both. The immediate seashore is bordered b}^ hills and mountains,
such as the Sahel of Algiers, the lower slopes of which are occupied
largely 1)}^ orchards and vine3"ards. In the higher elevations in the
mountains agriculture is more difficult. Here there are extensive
areas of grass land, grazed by flocks and herds, and important forests.
Opening back from the coast and mainly parallel to it are a number of
large valleys. Some of these, like the Mitidja, near Algiers, and the
Chelifl', in the western part of the colony, are so extensive and so level
of surface as to be practically plains with great areas of cereals and
vineyards. The San Joaquin and Sacramento valley's in California
are remarkably like these great valleys of Algeria. Smaller valleys,
like the Mina and the Habra, where the bordering ranges of hills and
mountains are not so far apart and there is less level surface, may be
compared to the Santa Clara, Pajaro, and Salinas valleys in California.

These valleys and the lower slopes of the hills and mountains are
the most highly cultivated part of the country, and support the densest
population.

The more distinctiveh^ mountainous regions are naturally less
adapted to agriculture; 3^et in the country known as Great Kabylia,
the "Switzerland of Algeria," which contains the highest mountains
of the colon}', there is a very large population, the greater part of
which is devoted to farming. This district lies to the east of Algiers.
It forms an arc, of which the Djurdjura range of mountains is the
chord and the seacoast is the circumference. For a long distance the
crest of the Djurdjura range does not fall below 1,000 feet, while
there are several peaks that exceed 7,000 feet in elevation. Leila
Khedidja, the highest summit, has an altitude of 7,611 feet. Between
this great chain and the coast there is a succession of high ridges sep-
arated by deep, narrow valleys and gorges. Anyone who has seen
both regions will be struck by the resemblance between Great Kabyha

TOPOGRAPHY. 15

and the Santa Lucia ^Mountains district of the western part of Monterej^
Count}', in California.

Numerous streams arise in the mountains of the coast region, trav-
erse the Tell, and empt}" into the sea. Most of these are torrents,
discharging large volumes of water in winter, but in summer dwin-
dling to mere rivulets. Not infrequent!}' no water is to be seen in the
channel, but in that case it is generally to be found under the bed of
the stream. Owing to their relatively great fall, and the denuded
condition of much of the soil, the amoimt of erosion accomplished by
Algerian water courses is disproportionately large. These character-
istics are especially marked in western Algeria. In the eastern part
of the colony, where the rainfall is better distributed and more of the
surface of the country is forested, the How of the streams is more
regular. The small importance of Algerian water courses is doubtless
to be accounted for by the fact that most of the precipitation occurs
on or near the coast, while the interior of the country is extremely
arid.

Only one I'iver of the Tell region also traverses the high plateau
region. That is the Cheliff, the most important water course in Alge-
ria, which rises in the mountains that border the Sahara on the north.
It has a total length of about 330 miles, draining an area of about
7,500,000 acres. Its flow in summer is only 100 to 175 cubic feet per
second, although in winter from 500 to 2,000 cubic feet are discharged.
It is obvious that only a small portion of the valley of the Chelifi' can
be irrigated throughout the year. Not even this stream is navigable,
except, near its mouth, for small boats.

HIGH PLATEAU OR STEPPE REGION.

Between the two chief mountain systems of Algeria extends a vast
region of elevated plains, with an average elevation of a little more
than 3,000 feet above sea level. The greatest width of the high pla-
teau in Oran Department is about 125 miles, whence it diminishes grad-
ually toward the east until on the frontier of Tunis a narrow river valley
is all that remains. In topography, and to some extent in vegetation,
this region greatly resembles parts of Nevada and New Mexico. In
its widest part it consists of a gently rolling expanse, sometimes with-
out a hill to break the monotonous horizon. In other places isolated
mountain groups rise like islands out of the sea. Near its northern
and southern borders spurs from the mountain chains that bound it
extend into the plain. Toward the east the mountains are higher and
approach nearer together. In the Department of Constantine the dis-
tinctive character of the high plateau is lost, and it breaks up into a
series of valleys a few miles wide, with gently sloping sides, separated
by high hills and mountains. The great masses of the Aures and

16 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

Babors groups, which border this part of the region, reach altitudes
of 7,000 feet.

A marked feature of the steppe region is the frequently occurring
•*da3'as" and "chotts" — salt ponds or lakes without outlet — which
receive the drainag'e from the southern slopes of the coast mountains
and the northern declivities of the Saharan range. They occupy basin-
like depressions, and are often dry or merel}^ marshy in summer, their
beds being then covered with a shining crust of salt. The "bolson"
plains of the Sonoran region in North America have a similar hydrog-
raphy.

There is very little water in the high plateau region suitable for
drinking or for the irrigation of crops. Occasional wells occur, and
here and there are small pools where sheep and cattle drink. As a
rule, however, travelers in this region must carr}' with them their sup-
ply of drinking water. Attempts to find artesian water have generally
been unsuccessful.

In places the topograph}" of the steppe region becomes almost iden-
tical Avith that of the desert — notably where areas of sand dunes occur
and the vegetation is very scanty. Such localities difl'er from the
desert proper only in their greater elevation and more severe winter
climate.

DESERT REGION.

A considerable portion of the largest desert in the world, the Sahara,
lies within the boundaries of Algeria. Contrary to the general notion,
the mean elevation of this desert above sea level is considerable, being
placed by some authorities as high as 1,540 feet. Broadl}^ speaking,
the surface of the desert is convex, the central portion being generall}^
higher than the borders. The desert is conmionly pictured as a vast
billowy expanse of sand blown about b}^ the sirocco and dotted with
oases. This conception is only partly true. As a matter of fact, the
topography of the Sahara is as diversified as that of most areas of equal
extent in other parts of the world. In this respect it is to be com-
pared with the desert regions of the southwestern part of the United
States. The Sahara contains mountains nearly 7,000 feet high, upon
whose sunmiits snow remains throughout the winter. Other parts are
consideraV)ly below sea level. Much of its surface is broken by ranges
of sand dunes and of rocky hills, between which lie narrow ravines or
wide valle3's. In other quarters extensive plateaus occur. The courses
of streams that must once have carried a considerable volume of water
can be traced in many places. The infrequent rains that fall in the
Sahara sometimes fill the bottoms of these channels with water for a
few brief hours. But even such transient torrents can effect a tre-
mendous amount of erosion in the loose soils of the desert, there being
little vegetation to hold them in place. Lakes and ponds are iiumer-

TOPOGRAPHY. 17

ous in the lower portion. Here and there, but forming onh' a small
fraction of the entire area, are oases, watered b}^ springs and wells,
where groves of date palms flourish.
Schirmer'^' gives a graphic description of the Sahara. He writes:

The desert, more than any other part of the surface of the globe, has the appear-
ance of immobihty. The iuijjlacable climate has depopulated the land. The great
I)lains have an aspect of absolute emptiness. The mountains are like skeletons from
M-liich the sun has devoured the flesh. The dunes look like solidified waves of dull
gold. The absence of sound is such that, as one traveler has put it, "One hears the
silence." Everything appears unchangeably fixed in the intense light.

Pomel estimates that only about one-ninth of the total area of the
Sahara is covered with sand dunes. The higher dunes occur in more
or less regular chains, which have often been likened to the waves of the
sea, caught and petrilied. These sand hills sometimes reach a height
of 1,000 feet. Smaller dunes, very regular in their rounded outline,
often cover extensive areas, as, for example, between Biskra and the
Melrirh Chott. Dunes of this character are generally formed by vari-
ous desert shrubs and her))s that are able to send up new shoots
through the sand which drifts over them from time to time, thus con-
tinuall}^ raising the height of the dune. The largest sand hills are
often formed about rocks and clitl's, which arrest the driftino- ,sand.
The soil of the dunes is a fine and remarkabl}' homogeneous sand.

Contrary to the general notion, the larger dunes are not continually
shifting their position, but are suiBcientl}^ permanent features of the
landscape to have received in many cases names that are handed down
by the Arabs from generation to generation. For this reason, and
because drinkable water and vegetation are more apt to occur near the
dunes than elsewhere, the caravan routes in the Sahara follow the
dunes wherever possible.

In western Algeria the desert is high. Hills and mountains of sun-
scorched rock, with smooth surfaces and sharp, unworn edges, rise out
of stony plains. Jagged cliffs, often of the most fantastic form, stand
sentinel over the deep canyons and gorges that have been cut out by
occasional torrents. Oases are few and far between. This is, indeed,
the most barren and inhospitable part of the desert.

Toward the east the altitude of the desert decreases until, near the
frontier of Tunis, a region of chotts, or salt lakes, lying below sea
level, is reached. During most of the year the bottoms of these basins
are dry or, at most, muddy beneath a crust of glittering white salt,
which gives rise to remarkable displays of mirage. But during the
wintei; they are partly tilled by streams that descend from the moun-
tains on the west and north. The eastern part of the Sahara in Alge-
ria is mainly flat or gently rolling. Its surface is covered with sand.

«Schirmer, Le Sahara, p. 139 (1893).
28932— No. 80—05 2

1

18 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

often collected into dunes of g-reater or less size (erg). There arc
also extensive areas where the nearly- plane surface is composed of
smooth rock or hardened alluvial clay (hamada).

A great valley, some 60 miles long and about 12 miles wide, known
as the "Oued Rirh,'' forms the most valuable portion of the Sahara of
Algeria. It is realh' the bed of an extinct river. It is largeh' below
or only slightly above sea level, the maximum depression — the exten-
sive salt lake known as "Chott Melrirh'' — being 1(>7 feet below sea
level. Subterranean streams of considerable volume underlie the
surface in this region. These are doubtless fed b}' water which flows
down from the mountains and sinks through the desert sands until it
meets an impermeal)le layer of clay or of rock, over which it flows.
The Oued Rirh Vallev has been described as a ''small Egypt with a
subterranean Nile." B}^ means of w'ells this water has been utilised ^
in the creation of oases, where hundreds of thousands of date palms
flourish. M

The idea, once generalh' held, that the entire Sahara is the bed of "
an ancient sea has been abandoned. Only for the part known as the
Oued Rirh, a small fraction of the whole desert, is this theory still
entertained by some authorities. Here there is a series of large salt
lakes, some of them below the level of the sea, which extends across
Tunis almost to the Gulf of Gabes.

CLIMATE.

The greater part of Algeria has a warm, temperate climate, very
similar to that of California. The climates of both countries are
determined in large measure bv the combined influence of three fac-
tors — the ocean, the mountains, and the desert. In Algeria, as in i
California, most of the rainfall occurs during the mild winter, while
the long summer is almost perfectly dr}'. Furthermore, the direction
of the prevailing winds at different seasons is in both countries largelv j
efl'ective in regulating conditions of temperature and of rainfall. The "
lower part of the coast region has a wet and a dry rathei' than a warm
and a cold season. The higher mountains, however, and the high
plateau are characterized bv a decidedl}- cold winter. Algeria would
be wholly a desert were it not for the northwest winds, charged with
humidity, which blow from the sea, especially during the winter and
spring. Their influence is, of course, most marked in the coast
region, which has, in consequence, the heaviest rainfall, the most
humid atmosphere, and the most luxuriant vegetation of any of the
three zones.

The mountain chains which follow the coast line intercept a large
part of the moisture carried by the sea winds, so that, while their
northern, seaward slope has a comparativelv heavy rainfall, their

CLIMATE. 19

southern slopes and the high plateau region beyond are quite arid.
What moisture passes across the mountains of the first system is
largely withdrawn from the atmosphere when it reaches the second,
which bounds the steppe region on the south. Consequently, the
desert beyond receives an insigniticant share of atmospheric moisture
from the Mediterranean.

Winds that come from the opposite direction — out of the Great
Sahara — are, of course, at all seasons extremely dry. It is in late
summer — especially in September^that the dreaded sirocco, the hot,
sand-laden wind of the desert, is strongest and most frequent. Then
it blows for days at a time over the high plateau and the two moun-
tain ranges that form its boundaries, into the Tell, and even across the
Mediterranean into southern Europe.

The three principal physiographical regions coincide with the most
important climatic regions of the colony. For a further examination
of this subject it will therefore be advisable to take up each in its turn,
beginning with the coast region, or Tell.

In the tables given below, climatic data from Algerian localities are
copied from Thevenet's ''•Essai de Climatologie Algerienne."" For
comparison, data from various places in the western United States
where similar conditions obtain are also included. These are taken
from publications of the United States Weather Bureau. Much infor-
mation regarding the climate of Algeria has also been drawn from the
excellent little work of Battandier and Trabut, previously mentioned.
Owing to the paucity of accurate records and the small agricultural
importance of the high plateau region, no tables are given for that part
of the colon}". It should be remarked, however, that Setif, which has
an elevation of 3,560 feet, although here included in the tables for the
coast region, is sometimes considered as belonging to the high phiteau,
and the climatic data from this point are doubtless fairly applicable to
the uncharacteristic eastern portion of that region. Again, Bou
Saada, figures from which localit}^ are given in the tables of climate
of the desert region, really belongs to the extremely desert-like portion
of the high plateau.

COAST REGION.

TEMPERATURE.

The littoral zone of the coast region has a mihl winter, resembling
that of the California coast. Temperatures at noon of 70^ to 75- ¥.
for fifteen days or a month at a time are not of rare occurrence in
winter. The temperature never descends much below freezing, and
does not remain at that point for an}' length of time. Still, tempera-
tures of 23^ F. , such as are sometimes recorded by thermometers placed
4 inches above the surface of the ground, can do considerable damage

20 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

to the winter crops of garden vegetables, although the soil itself is
never frozen to any considerable depth. The cold often seems more
intense than is actually the case, because of the humidity of the
atmosphere and the lack of facilities for heating the liouses. A tem-
perature of 45"^ F. is considered very disagreeal)lo. A few miles back
from the shore line, ))ehind the tirst i-ange of hills, for example, in the
Mitidja plain, near Algiers, light frosts are frequent and have been
known to occur as late as May. Snow, which has never remained on the
ground for an entire day at Algiers, has lain for three days to a depth
of 7.5 inches in the countr}- only a few miles back from the coast.

In summer, except during the sirocco, the shade temperature of the
littoral zone rarely exceeds S6-' F., ])ut sometimes rises to 10.5° F.
when the Avind from the desert is blowing. At such times the nights
are often as hot as the days. The moderate summer temperatures are
largely due to the sea breeze, which rises every morning at about 10
o'clock. As far iidand as the influence of this wind is felt compara-
tively mild summer temperatures prevail.

The climate of the littoral zone is much like that of the coast of
southern Europe; but fall-sown crops mature even earlier than there,
by reason of the milder winter and the higher tempei'atures in spring.
Hay is harvested in May and cereals in June in this zone.

The valley and plain zone of the coast region has a more extreme]
climate than the littoral zone. This difference has already been indi-
cated in comparing the Mitidja Valley with Algiers, on the neighbor-
ing coast. The great Chelitt' Valley, farther west, presents a still
more marked contrast. Here, owing to the greater dryness of the I
atmosphere, frosts are more frequent and more severe in winter and
spring than along the coast. On the other hand, in sunnuer the hills
which ))ound these valleys on the north shut off the sea ))reeze, and
the heat is consequently moi'e intense. Sunstroke and prostration
from heat are by no means unknown in the Chelifl' Valley. The sirocco, i
also, is more severel}^ felt than in the littoral zone, which is partly
protected against this south wind by the rampart of hills that risesj
a short distance back from the shore. More elevated places, like]
Setif, have even severer winters, resem])ling those of the high plateau!
region. Sharp frosts are frequent as late as A[)ril and May. The]
summer temperatures are often very high in the daytime, but the air
is fresher than in the valleys and the nights are nearly always cool.

The mountain zone of the coast region is not dissimilar in climatej
to mountainous regions of southern Europe. The winter, especially
at the higher altitudes, is much moi'e severe than in the littoral zone.]
On the crest of the Djurdjura range, at 7,000 feet elevation, snowl
often reaches a depth of 3^ feet and remains on the ground until the!
latter part of July. The summer temperatures are almost invariably]
moderate in the mountain region, except when the sirocco is blowing.

CLIMATE.

21

The smaller relative hiiniidit}^ also contributes toward making the
summer climate an agreeable one. Springs with a mean annual
temperature of 45^ or 50^ F. are not infrequent at high elevations in
the Djurdjura range.

Table l.—i]fean temperatures (in degrees Fahrenheit) of localities in the coast region
of Algeria, as compared with the California coast.

Algeria

.

California.

Month.

Oran.

Or-
leans-
ville.

Algiers.

Fort
Nation-
al.

Setif.

Los
Ange-
les.

San

Lui.s

Obispo.

San
Fran-
cisco.

Fresno.

Sacra-
mento.

Col-
fax.

January

February

March

April

50.9
51.8
55. 4
69.2
64.0
69.4
74.1
75.4
71.1
63.7
57. 2
51.6

45.8
47.7
53.1
55.8
63.5
71.6
80.1
79.7
72.3
61.0
53. 2
46.8

54.0
54.0
56.5
59.5
64.6
70.0
75.4
76.1
72.9
65.8
60.4
54.0

41.2
42.2
46.8
50.2
55.9
66.6
74.7
75.4
67.3
5671
48.9
42.2

39.0
40.4
46.0
49.8
56.7
66.7
74.8
73.4
66.5
53.6
45.2
39.6

53.0
64.4
56.4
60.0
62. 0
6.5.9
70.8
72.0
68.5
64.0
60.0
56.4

51.2
55.3
52.2
56.0
57.6
62.9
66.2
65.0
65.4
62.0
57.8
52.6

50.1
52.2
53.6
55.0
57.0
59.0
58.8
59.3
60.9
59.9
56.4
51.6

4.5.2
51.5
54.0
60.9
67.3
74.6
82.1
81.4
74.2
63.4
54.7
46.3

45.2
49.6
54.3
59.0
64.5
70.0
73.6
70.6
70.0
60.0
53.4
47.2

44.3

45.8
49.1
54.2

May

61.7

June

71.4

July

76.1

August

September

October

November

December

77.0
69.7
69.8
51.4
46.3

Year

62.0

60.9

63.6

55.6

54.2

62.0

58.7

56.2

63.0

59.7

58.8

A comparison of the temperatures of localities in Algeria and in
California, as given in Table 1, is instructive. Of the Algerian
stations, Oran and Algiers are situated on the seaboard, the tirst in
western, the second in central Algeria. Data from these localities
should be representative of conditions along the coast, except in the
extreme eastern part of the colony. With them are to be compared
San Francisco, San Luis Obispo, and Los Angeles, representing the
coast of California. Orleansville is the metropolis of the great valle}^
or rather plain, of the Chelitf, the most important of the large inland
valleys of the coast region in Algeria. Setif, as has already been
remarked, lies south of the mountain chain that bounds the coast
region, and has an elevation of over 8,000 feet. Topographically,
and in some of its climatic peculiarities, it belongs rather to the high
plateau than to the coast region, although agriculturally it is more
nearly related to the latter. Fresno and Sacramento are representa-
tive points in the two great interior valleys of California — the San
Joaquin and the Sacramento. They should afford an interesting com-
parison, especially with Orleansville. Fort National, at an elevation
of over 3.000 feet, in the heart of the most mountainous region of
Algeria, is to be compared with Colfax, in the foothills of the Sierra
Nevada, north of the center of California.

Oran has the same mean yearly temperature as Los Angeles, but
has higher mean temperatures for the summer and lower for the win-
ter months, so that Los Angeles has the more equable climate. At
Algiers the yearly mean temperature is not very different from that
at Oran, but the mean temperatures for the winter months are gen-
(>rally higher. San Francisco and San Luis Obispo fall considerably

22 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

below the Alg-eriaii coast towns in yearly mean temperature. The
mean temperatures for the suumier months also are decidedly lower
at the California localities. The mean temperatures in winter cor-
respond more closely.

Orleansville shows a remarkable resem})lance in distribution of tem-
peratures to the similarly situated town of Fresno, in California, and
in this repect somewhat less to Sacramento. In yearly mean tempera-
ture, however, Orleansville is nearer Sacramento. Setif, as would be
expected, differs considerably from Orleansville, Fresno, and Sacra-
mento in yearly and monthly means of temperature. Its resemblance
to the high plateau is expressed in the fact that the nights are always
cool in summer and the winter temperatures are low, falling at times
to 12° F. The mountain stations. Fort National and Colfax, show a
close approximation in monthly and yearly mean temperatures.

HUMIDITY.

The relative atmospheric humidity in the littoral zone is fairly
uniform throughout the year. Owing to the proximity of the sea it
is at all seasons considerable, the average for the year being 73 per
cent. This condition of humidity is interrupted only when, generally
in late summer and in early autumn, the sirocco blows for a day or
more at a time. The humidity is far greater in the eastern than in
the western part of the colony. The large percentage of moisture in
the atmosphere causes the discomfort from cold in winter, and from
heat in summer, to be out of all proportion to the actual temperature.

The dry season, so far as the littoral zone is concerned,. owes its
character to the lack of actual precipitation rather than to the absence
of humiditv in the air. Night fogs are frequent when east or northeast
winds are blowing, and in August it is often t) o'clock in the morning
before they disappear. Dew is also copious at this season.

Atmospheric humidity, like precipitation, decreases as one goes far-
ther from the coast. It is already perceptil)ly less in the mountainsj
and in the great valleys of the coast region than along the seaboard.

PRECIPITATION.

In Algeria precipitation is almost synonymous with rainfall, except f
in the higher mountains, for elsewhere the amount of precipitation in
the form of snow is unimportant. Hailstorms are fairly frequent,
occurring, on an average, seven times a year. Market gardens of the
littoral zone sometimes suffer severely from spring hailstorms, and, in
exceptional localities, vineyards and orchards are occasionally dam-
aged. Hail is more important for this reason than as contributing
much to the total precipitation.

In the coast region of Algeria, as in many warm tempci-ate and
tropical countries, the distribution of the rainfall is more important

CLIMATE. 23

than that of heat in determining- the characteristics of the principal
seasons of the year. Its distribution is largely controlled by the
direction of the prevailing winds. In winter strong northwest winds,
blowing from the Mediterranean, are of frequent occurrence and bring
most of the rainstorms. They begin in the autumn, sometimes as
early as the first of September, and usually cease in May or June.
Even in midwinter, however, a clear sky for fifteen or thirty days at
a time is not a rare event. During the summer there is a light sea
breeze during the day, but winds of greater violence come almost
wholly from the south, and are dry and hot.

More rain falls annually on the coast of Algeria, especially on the
eastern coast l)etween Algiers and Tunis, than in a great part of
Europe. Notwithstanding this, Algeria has a decidedly more arid
sunmier than any part of Europe, except, perhaps, extreme southern
Italy and portions of Spain. This is due to the uneciual distrilnition
of the rain among the different seasons.

In the littoral zone winter is a wet rather than a cold season. It is
then that most of the native vegetation, as well as crops that are not
irrigated, must make their growth. The dry season is a period of
rest for soils that are not artiticially watered. Light showers of brief
duration, such as occasionally fall during the summer, are of small
importance in their effect upon the climate and vegetation. In the
large inland valleys of the coast region the summer drought is still
more pronounced than on the coast.

In the mountain zone, particularly at the higher elevations, rain is
more evenly distributed, and the seasons are more like those of middle
Europe. The rainfall in March and April is particularly heavy. In
Great Kabylia thunderstorms and hail, which in the littoral zone
occur only in winter, are not infrequent throughout the summer.
This, with the partial protection from the sirocco afforded by the
higher ranges, makes the summer drought less pronounced than in the
littoral zone and in the valley and plain zone. But the total amount
of precipitation in sununer is, after all, comparatively insignificant.
Even in the mountains, sunmier retains its characteristics as the dry
season of the year. In winter the rainfall is quite considerable. The
northern slopes of the Djurdjura range receive the heaviest precipita-
tion occurring in the countrv— over 40 inches a year. These high
mountains form a barrier which intercepts most of the cloud-laden
winds from the sea, so that the country immediately to the south of
them is extremely arid.

Rainfall is very unevenly distributed in different parts of the coast
region and even of the littoral zone proper. One reason for this is
the great difference in latitude— about two degrees— between the east-
enmiost and the westernmost point of the Algerian coast. Whil<> tiie
total annual precipitation on the coast near the Tunisian border

24

AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

amounts to nearly 40 inches, on the frontier of Morocco it is less than
16 inches. From year to year, also, the total amount and the dis-
tril)ution vary enormously.

Table 2.— Rainfall {in inches) of localities in the coaxt region of Algeria, as compared

ivith the California, coast.

Algeria.

California.

Month.

Oran.

Or-

l^ans-
ville.

Algiers.

Fort
Na-
tional.

S6tif.

Los An-
geles.

San

Luis

Obispo.

San
Fran-
cisco.

Fresno.

Sacra-
mento.

Col-
fax.

January

February

Marcli

April

3.05

2.64

2.42

1.67

1.42

.29

.07

.08

.65

i.ei

2.38
2.90

1.73

1.85

2.28

2.15

1.38

.55

.06

.08

.76

1.78

2.29

2.48

4.35

3.68

3.42

2.36

1.40

.57

.06

.28

1.12

3.11

4.37

5.49

5.58
3.49
6.24
5.20
2.99
1.13
.22
.28
1.75
4.51
4.99
7.30

1.62
1.68
2.34
2.a5
1.82
1.08
.28
.79
1,17
1.44
1.52
2.05

2.93

3.27

2.98

1.36

.43

.10

.02

.03

.08

.74

1.38

3.98

5.69

1.55

3.46

.93

.35

.19

.01

.03

.36

1.62

1.16

3.08

4.92

3.49

3.22

1.84

.73

.14

.02

.02

.22

1.02

2. 72

4.99

1.53

1.33

1.74

1.11

.50

.18

Trace.

.01

.26

.67

1.15

1.78

3.82

2.80

2.86

2.13

1.01

.17

.02

.01

.32

1.11

2. 20

3.69

8.81
6.89
6.78
4.48

Mav

2.36

June

.62

July

.03

August

September

October

November

December —

..01
.53
1.95
4.40
8.70

Year

19.18

17.39

30.21

43.68

17.84

17.30

18.43

33.33

10.27

20.14

45.56

When we compare Algeria with California as to rainfall, we find
that the annual total precipitation at the two coast towns, Oran and
San Luis Obispo, is very nearly the same. At Los Angeles it is some-
what less. January is the month of greatest rainfall at Oran and San
Luis Oliispo, February at Los Angeles. July is the month when the
least rain falls at all three points. The precipitation is much heavier,
and nearly the same in total amount at Algiers and at San Francisco.
There is also considerable similarity in the distribution during the
year of the rainfall at these two places.

The rainfall at Orleansville greatly exceeds that at Fresno, but is
somewhat less than that at Sacramento. Setif agrees closely with
Orleansville in yearly total and in distribution of the precipitation.
As for the mountainous districts of the two countries, as represented
by Fort National and Colfax, there is a very close correspondence in
yearly totals, but in respect to distribution the resemblance is less
striking. The rainfall in summer at Fort National is greater and that
in winter less than at Colfax.

WIND.

Winds from every point of the compass occur at different seasons in
the coast region. As has already been mentioned, the characteristic
winter wind is from the northwest, off the Mediterranean. This often
rises to the height of a gale, and is of sufficient importance to decide
the direction in which trees along the seashore are bent. West w inds
are also common in winter. In summer, the most violent wind is the
occa.sional sirocco, from the Desert of Sahara, an extremely hot, dry
wind, which sometimes blows day and night for several days at a time,

CLIMATE. 25

tilling the air with the fine dust it carries. It often does great harm to
crops, vineyards and ripening grain being particularly liable to injury.
The sirocco also blows in winter, but its violence is less at that season
and it is cooler and moister. The regular summer wind is, however,
the sea breeze from the northeast, which springs up every morning
and is of great importance in moderating the temperature. East
winds are also frequent in summer. At night, on the other hand, the
prevailing wind is from the south. Absolute calm is not infrequent.
In proportion as we travel farther from the coast, the effect of winds
from the sea becomes less perceptible and that of the desert winds
more pronounced. This difference becomes strongly marked after the
northern mountain system is crossed.

The sirocco is the most striking climatic feature in which Algeria
differs from California. In southern California a wind from the des-
ert, known as the ''Santa Ana" wind, blows occasionally, but induration
and severity it is not to be compared w4th the Algerian sirocco.

HIGH PLATEAU REGION.

The small agricultural importance of the high plateau region makes
it unnecessary to discuss its climate at any great length. Owing to
its greater elevation and distance from the sea, conditions are more
extreme than in the coast region. The winters are colder and the
summers hotter. Winter temperatures as low as 7" F. have been
known, while in summer a temperature of 105*^ F. is often experi-
enced. Daily variations amounting to 85 degrees have been recorded.
In its severe winters the high plateau region resembles the highest alti-
tudes of the mountain zone of the coast region, but differs in its hotter
temperatures in the daytime in summer. In the latter respect it
resembles the desert region, but there the nights are warmer in sum-
mer and the winter is much milder. Battandier and Trabut« mention
one point in the high plateau region, at an elevation of about 4,700
feet, where the mean temperature for ten years was about 44.-5^ F. in
winter, 55.5 F. in spring, 79- F. in summer, and 62 ^ F. in autumn.
The yearly mean temperature was 62^ F.

The rainfall is much less than in the coast region, but no exact data
on this point are available. Rain falls usually in sudden and violent
showers. Storms are more frequent during the summer than is the
case along the coast. The amount of precipitation is trivial, although
sometimes sufficient to moisten the ground. Durmg the winter the
soil, especially in depressions, contams enough water in occasional
years to bring a crop of barley without irrigation. The atmospheric
huraidit}^ is almost always very small.

aL'Algerie, [k lis.

26

AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

DESERT REGION.

TEMPERATURE.

If we had no other data concerning the climate of the Sahara than
the mean annual temperature, we should .suppose it to be a very mild
one. The variations from the yearly, monthly, and daily mean.s are,
however, enormous. Winter temperatures of 18 F. and summer
temperatures of 112° F. are by no means uncommon. The daily
range sometimes exceeds S6 degrees. The unshaded soil — sandy or
rocky— becomes heated up to 160'^ F. At Biskra, which is by no
means extreme in its summer climate, it is said to be possible some-
times to cook an egg in the sand. In the Oued Rirh region, on the
other hand, ice sometimes forms in winter in the irrigation ditches.
Evaporation is imdoubtedly very great, but no accurate records of this
phenomenon havQ been kept in the Sahara.

Table 3. — ifean temperatures (in degrees Fahrenlieil) of localities in the desert region
of Algeria, as compared with similar localities in the southwestern United States.

Algeria.

United States.

Month.

Tou-
gourt.

Biskra.

0uar,<la.

Bou
Saada.

Yuma,
Ariz.

Phoenix,
Ariz.

Tucson,
Ariz.

Volcano

Springs,

Cal.

January

47.3

49.8
.54.9
64.0
74.8
86.0
92. 1
85 1
83.7
68.4
58. 5
48.9

,50.5
53.2

.58.3
63.1
71.8
80.6
^7.1
.S5. 8
7.S. 8
67. 6
.57. 2
51.3

46.8
51.8
.59. 9
66.4
73.6
82.4
90.7
86.0
78,1
63. 6
52.9
45.0

44.4
45.8
51.1
.56.8
65.1
7.5.0
83.1
82.8
73.0
60.3
.50.0
44.0

.54.1
58. 6
63. 9
69.9
76.9
84.4
91.2
90.4
84.3
72.4
62. 3
5.5.9

49.8
54.3
,53. 9
67.0
74.4
83.9
90.2
88.2
81.4
(i9. 3
58.5
52.3

49. 6
53. 6
59.4
6.5.6
74.5
84.0
87.7
85.9
80.8
70.4
.58. 5
51.6

55.9

Febniary

60.5

Maroli

68.4

April

79.7

May

87.5

jun<?

96.6

July

101.3

August

99.7

Septt?iubt?r

89.5

October

7.S.4

November

67. 0

December

57.4

' Year

67.8

67.1

66.4

60.9

72.0

68.6

68.5

78.5

Of the stations in the Algerian desert comprised in the accompanying
table of temperatures, Bou Saada, at an elevation of 2,194 feet, l)elongs
rather to the high plateau region, lying north of the mountain chain
which forms the boundary of the Sahara. It is in a region, however,
where the conditions are entirely desert-like, closely resembling those
of the higher western part of the Sahara. The other three stations
are in the low eastern part of the Sahara proper. Biskra can hardly
be regarded as a typical locality, being just within the limits of the
desert, only a few miles south of the mountains which form the north-
ern boundary of the Sahara. Biskra is 407 feet above sea level.
Tougourt, 120 miles farther south, in the Oued Rirh country, is the
center of some 40 oases, where hundreds of thousands of date palms
are orown. Its altitude above mean .sea level is 22(5 feet. Ouargla, well
into the Sahai-a, 120 miles still farther south, has the .same elevation.

CLIMATE.

27

Among- the localities in the extreme .southwestern United States
selected for comparison, Tucson, Ariz., with an elevation of 2,387
feet, resembles in situation Bou Saada. Phoenix (altitude, 1,100 feet)
may be compared with Biskra, At Yuma (altitude, 137 feet), and
still more at Volcano Springs (228 feet above sea level), conditions
would be expected to resemble in many respects those prevailing at
Tougourt and at Ouargla. A comparison of the figures in these ta))les
shows that the Colorado Desert in southern California is warmer than
the Sahara in Algeria. Volcano Springs has an annual mean tempera-
ture 10.7'^ F. higher than Tougourt, and in summer the maxima are
higher. The extreme minimum temperatures in Arizona and Cali-
fornia are lower than those in the Sahara. For example, the lowest
recorded temperature at Biskra is 20.7- F., while at Phoenix, Ariz.,
the minimum frequently falls to 25^ F., and has been as low as 12"" F.«

HUMIDITY.

While the actual amount of water vapor in the air is sometimes
quite appreciable in the Sahara, the relative humidity is always low,
because of the high temperatures. In summer the average relative
humidity is only 28 per cent, and for this reason the excessive heat is
less uncomfortable than would otherwise be the case. So extreme is
the dryness of the atmosphere that one's skin is seldom wet with per-
spiration, even on the hottest days. Dew is rarely precipitated, and
although freezing temperatures are by no means unknown in winter,
white frost is not common. The sky over the Sahara is generally
cloudless and very clear, particularly in the night time.

Table 4. — Mean relative luunid'dy {in percent((</es) af Io(y:tlities in the desert region of

Algeria, as coitipaved ivitlt Yuma, Ariz.

Month.

Algeria.

Biskra.

January fil.6

February 55.3

March.." 52.0

April 48.2

May 42.9

June 36.4

July 32.6

Ouar-
gla.

60.1
67.5
.55.0
47.0
37.3
35.6
29.4

Bou
Saada.

65.5
60.7
50.7
46.9
42.0
34.1
25.4

United
States.

Yuma.

45.4
43.8
43.0
35.1
36.7
34.7
42.8

Month.

August

September
October . . .
November
December.

Year .

Biskra.

Algeria.

Ouar-
gla.

35.6
44.1
.51. 2
58.5
62. 5

48.4

25.3
28.6
52.0
62. 1
66.4

47.2

Bou

Saada.

26.4
39.1
47.6

57.8
64.8

United
States.

Y'uma.

47.7
44.7
46.2
43.3
51.4

46.8

42.9

The three stations in the Algerian Sahara where records of relative
atmospheric humidity have been kept all show an annual mean higher

"For a detailed comparison of the climate of the Aljj;erian Sahara with that of the
extreme Southwestern States, see Bulletin No. 5.'^ of the Bureau of IMaut Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, The Date Palm and Its Utilization in the South-
western States, by Walter T. Swingle, 1904, pp. 52-70.

28 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

than that of Yuuia, the only locality in the desert region of the south-
western United States where accurate records have l)een kept. But,
while in winter the humidit}' is greater in the Algerian Sahara than
in southwestern Arizona, in summer the reverse is true.

PRECIPITATION.

A widel}' received explanation of the peculiar conditions of the
Sahara, as regards atmospheric water, is as follows: The central por-
tion of the desert is sufficienth' elevated to he consideral>ly colder in
winter than the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Mediterranean Sea
northward. Consequently, the general direction of winds in winter is
from the center toward the edge of the desert, which precludes the
possibilit}^ of much rainfall at that season. In summer, on the other
hand, the normal winds blow toward the highly heated center of the
desert, although there are occasional siroccos in the contrary direction.
These normal summer winds from the Atlantic and Mediterranean
would cause rainfall in summer were it not that physiographical con-
ditions intervene to prevent this. Winds from the west encounter a
cold current that follows the Atlantic coast of northern Africa, and
the greater part of the moisture they carry is condensed before they
reach the mainland. The high summits of the coastal mountain sys-
tem of Algeria intercept and condense most of the water vapor that is
brought in by winds from the Mediterranean, What little moisture
escapes this barrier and crosses the high plateau is mostly given up
when the mountains along the northern border of the Sahara are
encountered. Furthermore, in the desert itself there are few moun-
tains of sufficient elevation to condense what water vapor passes the
second barrier.

Notwithstanding these conditions, rain is b}" no means unknown in
the Sahara. Heavy precipitation sometimes occurs, ))ut its distribution
is ver}' irregular, both in point of time and of place. Localities in the
desert are known which have received no appreciable amount of rain
for ten years or more. At other times a cyclone may cause a sudden
heavy downpour. Violent torrents are formed and a great amount of
erosion is accomplished in a few hours. The higher elevations of the
isolated mountain masses of the Sahara have a somewhat more regular
rainfall, but it is believed that, on the whole, evaporation exceeds pre-
cipitation in the Sahara, and that its aridity is steadily, although
imperceptibly, increasing.

IRRIGATION.

29

Tablk 5. — Rainfall (in iiiclics) of loralitirs in tlw deserf region of Algeria, as compared
with si))til<ir localities of the soiUhii'eMerji United States.

I

Month.

,lniiii!iry. ..
Februarv .
Mtucli ."..-

April

May

June

July

August

September
October . . .
November
December.

Year

Algeria.

Tougoun,

0.61
.54
.80
.44
.39
.04
.03
.02
.31
.43
.54
.88

5.01

Biskra.

0.67
.68
.69
.83
.72
.31
.12
.14
.80
.59
.42
.74

6.73

Ouargla.

0. .50
.30
.88
.36
.13
.11
.00
.00
.00
.22
.50
.6H

3.61

Bou
Saada.

0.79

.79

1.32

1.56

1.55

.67

.32

.31

.91

.87

.64

.88

10.61

United States.

Yuma,
Ariz.

0.48
.41
.27
.08
.03
.00
.13
.33
.15
.23
.26
.46

2.83

Phoenix,
Ariz.

0.80
.70
..58
.30
.13
10
03
88
64
37
54
86

1

6.93

Tucson,
Ariz.

0.79

.90

.77

.27

.14

.26

2.40

2.60

1.16

.64

.81

1.00

11.74

Volcano

Springs,

Cal.

0.25
.39
.07

Trace.

Trace.
.00
.12
.09
.00
.12
.07
.52

1.64

i

I

A comparison of precipitation in the Algerian desert and that of the
southwestern ITnited States is instructive antl interesting-. Bou Saada
has approximately the same annual total as Tucson, which it resembles
in situation and elevation, but there is the .same difference in distribu-
tion as was noted in the case of atmospheric humidity. More rain
falls in winter and less in summer at the Algerian than at the Arizona
locality. At Biskra and Phoenix very nearly the .same total amount
of rain falls during the year, and the disti"ibiition at the two points
corresponds more closely than as between Bou Saada and Tucson; At
Ouargla and at Tougourt the rainfall is considerabh' greater in yearly
total tlian at Yuma and at Volcano Springs. In distribution, however,
these four stations resemble each other to a considerable degree. On
the whole, if we consider only localities which repre.sent the mo.st
extreme conditions in both great arid regions, it would appear that the
desert country of the southwe.stern United States is decidedly drier
than the Sahara of Algeria.

IRRIGATION.

Algeria i.s less fortunately endowed than Egypt as regards water
supply. She has no large river like the Nile, containing even at its
lowest stage a very considerable volume of water for irrigating pur-
poses. On the contrai\v, the water courses of the French colony are
of a torrential character, running high after lieav}' rains but dwin-
dling to mere rivulets in summer. Most of them are short, rising in
the mountain ranges of the coast region, and thus not draining a suf-
ficiently large area to gather a great volume of water. Their fall is
heavy, and they accomplish a vast amount of erosion, so that when
high their waters carry a large amount of silt. P^ven the Cheliti',
which has its source in the mountains that form the northern boundar}'
of the Sahara and traverses the entire width of the high plateau, is

30 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

but an insignificant stream in summer. Rainfall is too scanty, even
at a short distance from the coast, to feed large rivers. For this
reason irrigation in Algeria nmst necessarily be on a more modest
scale than in P^gypt. As a matter of fact, the area under irrigation
at present is only a small fi-action of the total area of the colony.

The littoral zone of the coast region, particularly in the eastern part
of the colony, receives quite enough precipitation in winter for the
growing of most crops. In summer, however, there are very few
parts of Algeria where field crops can be grown without irrigation,
at least without a radical change in the methods of cultivation gener-
ally followed in the colony. Orchards and vineyards, however, can
be made to pay in some places without artificial watering. This is
notal)ly the case in the mountain zone, where steep slopes, ill adapted
to irrigation, are covered with fruit trees. In the valley and plain
zone of the coast region irrigation is almost indispensable in summer,
and even the winter cereal and forage crops are greatly benefited by
an occasional watering. In the high plateau region nothing can be
grown in summer without irrigation, and in winter it is only in an
occasional depression that the natural moisture is sufficient to bring a
crop. In the desert region artificial watering is at all times necessary
for small crops, although sometimes it is of the simplest character.
Thus, at the base of the mountains scanty crops of grains can be pro-
duced by throwing up a series of ridges to retain the sheets of flood
water that in winter occasionally sweep down over the land.

There is no reason to believe that in ancient times, when north-
ern Africa was the granary of the civilized world, conditions as to
water supply were essentially diflerent from those now prevailing,
although there is evidence that, in eastern Algeria at least, crops were
much more extensivel}^ grown without irrigation than is now the case.
Under the Carthaginian regime, and later under the Roman rule, irri-
gation works abounded in the country that is now Algeria and Tunis.
The remains of such structures, sometimes utilized as foundations for
modern works, are numerous, particularly in the Depailment of Con-
stantine and in Tunis. Indeed, more than one region that is now a
barren desert must have been well populated and in a high state of
cultivation two thousand years ago.

The works built at that period were generally of the simplest and
rudest construction. Often merely a mass of earth or broken stone,
held in place by a row of stakes, served to dam a small brook. For
the most part these structures wei-e evidently the work of the colo-
nists who tilled the land under them, rather than of trained engineers.
The}^ were built sometimes by individuals, sometimes by associations.
The plan usually followed was to dam up a mountain torrent near the
point where it debouches upon the plain. In narrow ravines a succes-
sion of rough dams was often constructed, thus allowing the stream

lERIGATIOlSr. 31

to drop from terrace to terrace, leaving- a tiny reservoir at each stage,
from which water could be taken at need for irrigating small gf^rdens
and orchards. At the mouth of the ravine was a larger distributing
reservoir, with a dam of stone and masonr}^ for diverting- water into
the irrigation canals, which branched out over the lower lands beyond.
The safet}" of the larger dam was assured b}^ the presence of these
smaller reservoirs farther up the stream. By this method not onl}-
Avas water secured for irrigation, but the force of the current in times
of tlood was eftectually cliecked. For a roaring, nmdd}^ torrent,
sweeping all before it and carrj'ing awa}' great masses of the soil,
was substituted a gentle stream of clear water, incapable of destructive
erosion.

Durinp- the long centuries of Arab domination most of these irriga-
tion works fell into ruin. Some, however, were patched up from
time to time, and were used by the Arabs to irrigate their small fields
and gardens. Soon after the French conquest the all-importance of
some provision for the artificial watering of the land was perceived,
and the construction of large storage and diversion reservoirs along
Algerian streams was begun. At first this work was done by the
engineer service of the French armv.

COAST REGION.

Irrigation in Algeria to-dav reaches its maximum development in
the larger vallevs and plains of the coast region. A number of
important irrigation districts have been established, and reservoirs and
canals have been constructed. At ]Marengo, on the Meurad, the first
storaee reservoir constructed bv the French was finished in 1857.
The. dam, built of earth, is 266 feet long and 90 feet high. The bar-
rage of the Cheurfas is built across the Sig, a short distance south of
St. Denis du Sig. It took the place of a Turkish dam which was
washed out in 1858. The present reservoir stores 2,100 acre-feet and
supplies water for the irrigation of 5,000 acres in winter and 2,000
acres in summer. A larger dam, 6 miles farther upstream, was com-
pleted in 1881. This dam was of masonrj', 98.4 feet high, 62.2 feet
thick at the base, and 13.1 feet thick at the top. The capacity. of the
reservoir was calculated at 11.600 acre-feet. On February 8, 1885,
the dam broke, carrying with it also that farther downstream. This
break is said to have been caused by the infiltration of water through
the rock around the dam. The foundation was of soft sandstone, in
many places hardly sufficiently indurated to warrant its being called
rock. The dam which was then built on the site of the older one is
on the same general plan as its predecessor, but instead of being built
on a straight line, the new portion is at an angle of 128 degrees with
the old work, the angle pointing downstream. The object of con-
structino- the daui in this w^av was to obtain a better foundation. It

32 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

is reported that seepage around and under the walls of the structure
still causes trouble, and some engineers question the permanent safety
of the work.

The largest storage dam in Algeria is that across the Habra River,
7 miles south of the town of Perregaux. This structure, also, has been
the scene of a catastrophe, and a much more serious one than that
which occurred at St. Denis du Sig. The original dam, 1,506 feet long,
was built in two sections at an angle of 30 degrees, with the angle
pointing downstream. It was partly carried away on December 15,
1881, by excessive floods which overtopped the entire dam. This
disaster is generally attributed to the giving way of the soft founda-
tion material, and to water cutting around the east end through the
soft material. As a result of the break in the eastern end of the dam
400 persons were drowned and immense damage was done to property.

The work of reconstruction was finished in 1886. The dam, as it
now exists, is essentialh' in three parts. The spillway on the west
end has a length of about 410 feet. The center of the dam crosses an
island which divides the stream into two channels. The portion of the
dam across the east channel is 13 feet higher than that over the west
channel. The reconstructed dam has a height of 131 feet, is 1,443 feet
long, 131 feet thick at the base, and 14.7 feet thick at the top. The
highest part of the dam, in the eastern section, consists of a wall 7.9
feet high and 4.9 feet thick, resting upon the top of the dam proper.
This was added to prevent overflow of the adjacent land by floods.
The event has shown the wisdom of this precaution, for in 1900 water
rose to within 2 feet of the top of the highest wall, and was 6 feet
higher than the crest of the spillwa^^ The total cost of the Habra
dam, from the inception of the enterprise, has been about $1,080,000.

The reservoir formed b}' this structure has a capacity of 30,800 acre-
feet, and is intended to provide for the irrigation of about 100,000
acres, although so large an area has never been taken up under it.
The water from the reservoir is taken out at the base of the high or
eastern portion of the dam. A complicated apparatus has been devised
by which water passing through the sluice furnishes power to pump
water into a tank, which is situated upon a hill about 100 feet high at
the east end of the dam. The water thus elevated furnishes stored
power for the operation of the sluice gate. The gate is supposed to
be automatically raised and lowered as the water rises and falls in the
reservoir, but the mechanism has never proved altogether satisfactory.

The Habra, with its tributaries, has a flow in summer of 18 second-
feet, but during unusual floods the discharge has been known to exceed
25,000 cubic feet per second. Although the drainage basin above the
Habra dam covers 3,859 square miles, the mean annual discharge of the
stream is estimated to amount to only about three and one-half times
the capacity of the reservoir. During the flood which occasioned the

IRRIGATION, 33

breaking of the dam, caused ])y a 6i-incli rain over a great part of the
watershed, the run-oti' in one night was more than three times the
capacity of the reservoir.

Near the town of Kelizane a small masonry dam has been ))uilt
across the Mina River. This dam has a height of 45 feet above the
the bottom of the rocky gorge in which it is built. It was originally
planned to hold up a small storage reservoir, but this has become tilled
with sediment, and now the dam serves only for the direct diversion
of the water of the stream. The discharge of the Mina is small.
Though the canal system fed by this barrage covers an area of 20,000
acres, the land actually irrigated is not of large extent. The water of
this stream, when examined toward the end of July, 1902, was found
to carry 123 parts of soluble matter per 100,0»)0 parts of water. Of
this, 26 parts were ])icarbonates, 1 part carbonate, 60 parts chlorids,
and 36 parts sulphates.

Another masonry work of importance is that across the Djidiouia
River near St. Aime, in western Algeria. It is 164 feet long, 55.8
feet high above the foundation, and 91.9 feet high, foundation included.
The base has a thickness of 36.1 feet, and the top 13.1 feet. The
reservoir has a capacity of 2,000 acre-feet, and is intended to irrigate
from 7,500 to 10,000 acres.

Since it was built this reservoir has become almost completely tilled
with silt. In all reservoirs in Algeria the accunndation of silt has
given trouble, but only at St. Aime have attempts been made to
remedy the evil. M. Jaudin, a hydraulic engineer, has invented a
machine for stirring up and removing the silt. His apparatus consists
of a metal tu))e or conduit 20 inches in diameter, the lower end of
which penetrates the dam near its bottom. The free portion is kept
afloat ])y buoys and is attached by flexible joints to a floating scow.
The connections are made so as to allow the scow to float from side to
side of the reservoir, and the end of the pipe can be raised and low-
ered as desired. The diti'erence in level between the end of the
pipe projecting through the dam and that attached to the scow pro-
duces a strong current through the pipe. As the pipe is moved along
the mud is sucked into it and is carried below the dam. The clay
drawn into the pipe is found to be so well packed and so stitf that it
has to be cut out by a special cutting apparatus built like a steam screw.
In spite of the cutting apparatus, the water thus removed carried only
from 4 to 5 per cent of silt. The inventor claims that under favorable
conditions he can remove water containing 16 per cent of silt. The
expense of operating the apparatus is estimated at $35,000 a year, and
the cost of installation for a fairly large dam would be $540,000. The
inventor was under contract to remove the silt from this reservoir at
20 cents per cul)ic meter (15.4 cents per cubic yard).

28932— No. 80—05 3

34 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

Til the Mitidja Valley, near Algiers, there is a reservoir which is
(•a[)al)le of holdiiio- about 11,340 acre-feet of water. This is sufficient
to irrigate 75,000 acres, but the area actually under irrigation is only
one-third as large.

The irrigation works just described are more or less typical. At a
number of other places dams are either in actual use or are under con-
struction. Algeria has been unfortunate in regard to disasters to her
irrioation works. This has tended to create distrust of them among
farmers who practice irrigation. There were lean years for ])eople
who tried to farm below the canals while new works were building, and
the memory of those trying times is still vivid. It seems that in the
early days of colonization too nmch land was covered by the irrigation
works. Consequently, there are now large uncultivated areas across
which the canals and laterals have to be extended in order to reach
land that is in crops.

There is reason to believe, as an eminent authority upon agriculture
in Algeria has remarked, that more good might result from the con-
struction of series of irrigation works on a small scale, after the fash-
ion of the Carthaginian and Roman colonists, than from the building
of elaborate engineering works such as have just been described. The
peculiar torrential character of Algerian streams and the great quan-
tity of silt they carry make them ill adapted to large structures of
this kind; but small diversion reservoirs, that atford water only in
winter, are a valuable supplement to the natural rainfall, particularly
in the drier western part of the coast region. There it is found that
one or two irrigations during the winter will very materially increase
the yields of cereals and forage crops. Handled thus, with two irriga-
tions in winter, an acre of wheat in the Chelitf Valley can sometimes
be made to yield 44 bushels.

The most important direct diversion of water from a stream in
Algeria is that on the Chelitf, 15 miles above Orleansville, where
the irrig-ating water is taken from the west bank of the river by means
of a canal with a capacity of about 50 cubic feet per second. One
branch of this canal is carried across the river by a siphon to irrigate
the right bank. On the left bank 0,000 acres, and 19,000 acres on
the right bank, are irrigated by this canal. The entire system cost
about $480,000. Those who use the water are required to construct
the secondary canals, pay a rental to the government, and keep the
works in repair. Of the 50 cul)ic feet of water per second availalde
under this system, 13 only have been subscribed for, on account of
the excessively high water rent asked. Similar difficulty in inducing
farmers to subscri})e to water at the rates demanded has been encoun-
tered elsewhere in the colony.

In the mountain zone, notably in Great Kabylia, there are many
small diversion dams, cheaply constructed in narrow ravines out of

IRRIGATION. 35

such materials as are ready to hand. By means of these, streams that
in summer appear to be dry, but really carry subterranean water, are
made to serve for irrigation at that season. The bed is dug out until
i-ock bottom is reached. A dam is then roughly fashioned out of
stones. The trunk of a tree is laid across the top, which is slightly
hiffher than the oeneral level of the stream bed, and clav and stones
are piled up ])ehind the dike; or, sometimes, a mere double row of
stakes., filled in with clav iind stones, is made to answer the purpose.

Various devices are in use in Algeria for preventing water that falls
upon cultivated hillsides from running off too rapidly. Particular
attention has been paid to this ([uestion in vineyards. Sometimes
shallow basins are dug in tiie center of each quadrangle formed by
four vines. Another practice, which is also followed by the Kal)yles
in their orchards, is to run horizontal furrows or trenches across the
hillside at regular intervals, throwing out the soil on the downhill
side. It has ))een estimated that, at a cost of about $8, from 9, ()()(» to
10,000 cu))ic feet of water, enough to cover the land to a depth of from
2 to 4 inches, can thus be saved annually in each acre of vineyard. In
olive orchards, which cover steep hillsides in some parts of the colony,
V-shaped trenches, pointing downhill, are dug so that the point of a
trench is situated neai' the base of each tree. The soil around the
tree is kept loose in order to facilitate absorption of the water thus
carried to it.

The market gardens of the littoral zoiu> are generally irrigated by
means of the " noria,*" a water-lifting machine that has been in use
for ages in the Mediterranean region. It consists of a vertical wheel,
to the rim of which buckets are attached, and which turns by inter-
locking its cogs with those of a horizontal wheel. To the latter an
animal, usually a horse or a donkey, is hitched, and is driven around
in a circle. A second animal is kept to relieve the first, generally
ever}' two hours. By means of the noria one horse can raise 150
gallons of water 11 feet in a minute, which is equivalent to 0.33 second-
foot. The water is collected in a basin that generally holds from
1,000 to 1,800 cubic feet.. Even field crops and vineyards can be
profitably irrigated with the noria if the water supply is ample and the
lift does not exceed 40 feet. But its greatest usefulness is in connec-
tion with the intensively cultivated and very remunerative truck crops.
The noria is said to be more economical for raising water than any
hydraulic machine, only one-fifth of the total power expended being
lost. Near Algiers, where the irrigation of gardens is most expensive,
the annual cost of watering 1 acre with the noria is placed at $65.

The water used for irrigation in the coast region, except in some of
the valleys of western Algiera, is generally ver}- good, rarely contain-
ing a harmful (Quantity of salts. However, no attention has been given
to the matter of drainage of irrigated lands. Particularly in western

36 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

Algeria, large areas of once fertile .soil have in consequence become
subirrigated and salty. In many cases considerable tracts have had
to be abandoned for this reason. ^

HIGH PLATEAU REGION.

A very insignificant area is irrigated in the high plateau reg'ion.
There are almost no running streams, except after an occasional heavy
rain in winter. The water of the chotts or lakes that fill the depres-
sions is far too salty to be used for irrigating purposes. Here and
there a small patch of grain, forage plants, or garden vegeta))les is
watered from a well, but artesian water seems to be generally lacking.

DESERT REGION.

Oases of greater or less extent occur in all parts of the Sahara. They
are particularly numerous, however, in the lower eastern portion. In
the region known as the Oued Rirh, a larger percentage of the total
area is occupied by cultures than anywhere else in the desert. The oases
(see PI. I), almost without exception, are probably of artificial origin.
The date palm, to which they owe their life, is believed to have been
introduced into Algeria by man. In some places near the base of the
mountains, as in the region of the Zibans, there is flowing water on
the surface of the ground which can be diverted directly into canals.
At most, a few rude dams arc needed to raise its level a few inches.
Elsewhere wells must be dug and the water nuist generally be raised
by hand or by the noria in order to water the crops. The source of the
water thus utilized is to be looked for in the high mountains adjacent to
the Sahara, where the rainfall is much heavier than in the desert itself.
This water fiows down to the lower levels, at first over the surface of
the frround, then beneath it. Subterranean streams of considera])le

volume nuist occur in the eastern part of the Sahara. There is no
foundation for the idea sometimes entertained that the oases are nat-
ural subirrigated spots in the desert. Most of the desert soils are too
saline to permit of subirrigation without injury to the crops. As a
matter of fact, agriculture would be almost impossible in the Sahara
were not careful provision made for drainage.

From very ancient times irrigation has )»een practiced in the desert.
When the Romans governed northern Africa the area under cultiva-
tion in the Sahara was much larger than it is to-day. By many centu-
ries of practice the natives of the Sahara have acquired great skill in
procuring and managing water for irrigation. The art of well boring,
as originally practiced in the Oued Rirh, is a dangerous one. The
work is begun by scooping out a hole in the sand, the sides of which
are incased with wood as fast tis the digging proceeds. Finally, a
layer of rock or of stiff clay, overlying the sheet of water, is reached.

IRRIGATION.

37

This is hiokcii through with a few strokes of the pick, and if the water
ascends with considerable force, as is sometimes the case, the well
dig-ger runs considerable risk of being drowned. In the more accessi-
l)le parts of the Sahara, modern well-boring machinei-y has largel}^
replaced the ancient method.

The natives are very jealous of the water that is obtained with so
nmch difficulty, and numerous quarrels arise over its distribution.
In the Zibans oases, where a system of canals exists, the water is con-
trolled by an association which decides in what <[uantity and upon
what days it shall be allotted to each person. It is measured by lay-
ing the trunk of a date palm across the top of an earthen dam in the
canal. Notches, corresponding to the width of the hand with the
thumb closed, are cut into this trunk at intervals. The amount which
passes each of these notches represents one share of water.

In the Oued Rirh region, since the French occupation, a great many
artesian wells have been bored, under the direction of M. Jus, who
became famous through his connection with this work. The first was
sunk in 1856. In 1898 there were 120 metal-cased artesian wells from
160 to 330 feet deep, in addition to .500 wells dug by natives. The
total discharge of all these wells was about UO cubic feet per second,
yet so far the water supply has sufl'ered no perceptible diminution.
With the water thus obtained the area in date palms has been greatly
extended during the past thirty years. It is estimated that during
the last three decades the population of the Oued Rirh has doubled,
and the wealth of the region has been increased tenfold. There are
probably few other parts of the Sahara where such development is

possible.

Unlike the irrigating water of the coast region, that used in the
desert region generally carries a high percentage of salts in solution.
In fact, the water with which various crops are grown in the Algei'ian
Sahara appears to be saltier than that used for this purpose anywhere
else in the world. So far as is known, 500 parts of salts per 100,000
parts of water is the maximum concentration of water which is used
with success in the United States, and, under ordinary circumstances,
300 parts is the limit for successful crop production. In the Sahara,
however, water containing as much as 800 parts of salts {half of the
total amount being sodium chlorid) per 100,000 parts of water is
applied to soils that are themselves highly saline. A variety of culti-
vated plants —various fruit trees, garden vegetables, and alfalfa-
thrive under these conditions.

It seems a fair inference that the maxinumi amount of soluble matter
which can safely be allowed in irrigation water has been under-
estimated by American writers. Where the soil is light and under-
drainage is provided for, as is the case in the Algerian oases, it is

38

AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

probable that many waters that ha\e heretofore been condemned as
too saline could safely be used in irrigating crops.

The date palm is the most salt-resistant cultivated plant of the Sahai'a,
so far as is known. The maxjnuim amount of salt in the irrigating
water which this tree can endure without detriment to the crop has not
been ascertained. It would appear, howev^er, to be something less than
1,000 parts per 100,000, for water of a pond containing 1,044: parts per
100,000 of soluble salts, of which 1,036 parts was sodium chlorid,
had been found to be too salty for irrigating a young date orchard.

A number of samples of artesian water used in irrigating the oases
near Tongourt, in the Oued Rirh region, were taken by the writers
and were analyzed in the laboratory of the Bureau of Soils of the
Department of Agriculture. The results are stated in the following
table:

Table 6. — fhemlt-al miahisett of nrtes^ian irater used in irrigating gardens in Snliarnn oases,

Algeria.

Coiistiluent.

Ions:

Calcium (Ca)

Magnesium ( Mg)

Sodium (Na)

Potassium ( K )

Sulpiiuric acid (SO4)

Chlorin (CI)

Bicarbonic acid ( HCO:i)

Conventional combinations:

Calcium sulphate (CaS04)

Magnesium sulphate (MgSO^)..

Magnesium chlorid ( MgCl2)

Potassium chlorid (KCl) .'.

Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCOa) .

Sodium chlorid (NaCl)

Total solids in 100,000 parts water .

Well at

Well at

Wellatgar-

( )asis Ta-

Oasis Kudi

den of Ben

bes-bes.

Asli.

Hadriah.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

9.92

4.19

9.86

4.52

6.02

4.26

14.03

20. 48

14.18

4.27

2.35

2. 72

34.38

29. 43

17.59

28.06

36. 21

27. 05

5. 02

1.32

24.34

33.04

14.23

24.90

13.63

24. 29

7.04

7.23

4.41

16.72

8.12

4.48

5.19

6.92

1.81

33. 54

31.06

50. 78

-- _.■ - ■ ■ --

12. 61

601.50

408. 10

571.90

These are fair average samples of the irrigation waters in use, and
do not represent b}' any means the maximum of salinity. Field tests
showed as high as 816 parts to 10<y,000 in water in actual use on soils
where garden vegetables were growing, while French authorities report
the use of waters carrying 812 parts per 100,000.

SOILS.

The soils of Algeria are of many varieties and t3'pes, varying from
the coarsest sands to heavy clays. The differences are due chicHy t >
two causes — the nature of the underlying I'ocks and the climatic c> n
ditions under which the soil was formed. Ditferent cla.sses of soils m ■
found in each ph^^siographic region and there are few types wh.ica
are common to all three regions. In the littoral zone of the coast
region much of the soil is of the adobe type, containing a considerable
(juantity of claj'. In the alluvial bottoms, however, we rind extensive
areas of other kinds of soil. In the mountain zone the soils are not

I

SOILS. 39

for the most part adobe-like. On the high phiteau the soils are
largelv colluvial. In the desert we encounter vast areas of liuht,
sandy soils, l)ut there are also extensive tracts of marls, clays, and
alluvial soils.

Very few samples of soil were collected, as no general investigation
of the various types was attempted by the writers. It was observed,
however, that in Algeria there appear to l)e no important soils which
are not represented in California and Arizona by very similar types.
Obseivations were largely directed toward the comparison of Algerian
soils and their productivity with corresponding soils in America under
similar climatic ccHiditions.

COAST REGION.
LITTORAL ZONE.

An important and characteristic soil of the littoral zone is a bright-
red "adobe,"''' very conmion in the vicinity of Algiers, near Oran, and
elsewhere along the coast. It is sticky when wet and forms very hard
clods when dry, cracking to a depth of from 12 to 24 inches. This
soil is often naturally poor in phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and lime, l)ut
responds readily to treatment. Its potash content is generally ade-
quate. It is an excellent soil for vineyards, except in cases where a
lime "hardpan" occurs too near the surface. Some of the best wines
of Algeria ai'e produced on soil of this t^^pe. The American soils
which most nearl}' resemble it are the San Joaquin red adobe, as it
occurs in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys, and the Fullerton
sandy adobe of the coast region of southern California.

A mechanical anah'sis of one specimen of this soil is given on page
40, under No. 7663. This sample was collected a few miles south of
Oran, and represents the heaviest phase of this red soil. We have
not found in America a type of red adobe in which the average clay
content is so high. The black adobes of the United States are some-
times verv claye}', but most American adobes contain more silt than
clay. The same soil type was also observed at Arzeu, in western
Algeria, at various localities near Algiers, and, to a less extent, around
Tizi Ouzou, in Great Kabjdia.

River bottoms in the littoral zone are characterized l\v soils that are
(luite diflerent from the red, clayey type just described; and are, in
fact, mere continuations of the soils of the next zone. They are
usually alluvial deposits, clayey or marly in texture, and are quite
feitile. They contain an al)undance of potash, though they are some-
times deficient in phosphoric acid.

VALLEY AND PLAIN ZONE.

The large vallevs, which in .some ca.ses are so extensive as to be
virtually plains, contain a great variet}' of soils. The plains of the

40

AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

Mitidja, Chelitf, Mina, Habra, and Macta are typical of many other
valleys and plains in Algeria. As before mentioned, they are similar
in many ways to the interior valleys of California. The soils are
mainly alluvial and are generally heavy. Around Kelizane and Per-
reo-aux, where the writers made most of their studies, the soil is
similar to the San Joaquin lilack adobe. In the Mitidja the heavier
soils are well supplied with potash and are fairly well provided with
nitrogen and phosphoric acid. In the Cheliti' Valley these elements
are less abundant.

Sample No. 7658, in the table given below,, shows the results of a
mechanical analysis of the heaviest of the valley adobes. This sample
was collected from a tield which was very fertile twenty yearsr ago,
but which has since been ruined by the rise of salts, and is to-day
valueless. This soil, before it had become saline, had exhibited great
fertility during a long series of years. In former years it yielded
grain of a superior grade and good crops of cotton. Sample No. 7660
represents a type of this adobe soil of medium heaviness. Soil of this
kind is often planted to vines, fruits, and olives. The sample was
collected near Perregaux, at La Ferme Blanche, headquarters of one
of the largest vineyards in Algeria. A still lighter type, one closely
approaching a sandy loam, is represented by sample No. 7»)61. This
type is usually found in the higher portions of the valleys, and is
planted to vines and alfalfa.

MOUNTAIN ZONE.

The soils of the mountain zone of the coast region can be divided
into (1) valley soils and (2) soils of the hills and mountain slopes. The
hills and mountains are covered with either residual or coUuvial soils.
As a rule, these soils are more or less gravelly or stony, and are light
and well drained. The lower slopes frequently have heavier adobe
soils, similar in character to the adobes of the lower slopes of the
Sierra Nevada and the coast range in California.

The soils of valleys in the mountain zone are generally alluvial,
being composed of the waste from adjoining hills and mountains. The
smaller valleys have light, usually well-drained, soils containing some

gra\el.

Tahle 7. — Mechanical analyses of coaM regiun soils.

No.

7068
7060

7661
7603

768S

Locality.

Rellzane

La Ferme Blanche, near Per-
regaux

Debrousseville

2 miles south of Misserghin.
1.5 miles east of Batnu

.3

0-24

0-24
0-12
0-lS

o

0.01

.22
1.34
1.41

s

0.16
.12
.32

^ I
O

o

0.08

.OK

1.08

.58

.28

OS rt

oj a

0.12

.10
3. 00
1.94

.34

■o a

C

0.66

2. 00

2!S. 00

6.00

1.74

sa

>»f-i

fc.O

2.00

20.14

30. 02

0. 36

6.04

°a
°a

40. 22

M.OO
20. 40
3.5. 70
45. .5B

o a

.56. 92

2'2. 94
16. OS
48.64
45.48

SOILS. 41

HIGH PLATEAU REGION.

The soils of this region, derived larg-ely from cretaceous and ter-
tiary rocks, are in great part alhiviai deposits washed down from the
neighboring mountains. Particularly in eastern Algeria, soils very
rich in phosphates occur. These would be extremely fertile if water
wherewith to irrigate them were available. Calcareous hardpan undei'-
lies a great deal of the surface of the high plateau. Where this
impervious layer is quite near the surface the vegetation is sparse and
woody plants are absent.

The high plateau soils grade from stony soils on the lower slopes of
the mountains, through sandy loams and loams, to heavy clay loams
and clays in the bottoms of the depressions. These depressions, known
among the Arabs as "" chotts," are a conspicuous feature of the steppes.
AVhile occasionally liUed with water, the bottom is commonly dry and
covered with a layer of salt. The chotts greatly resemble the "" playa "
lakes of the (xreat Basin region in Utah and Nevada and of the " bol-
son" plains of the southwestern United States and Mexi(;o. The soil
in the bottom of the chotts is always heavy and impervious.

DESERT REGION.

The soils of the western part of the Algerian Sahara — which is of
very little agricultural importance — more or less resemble those of
the very arid parts of the high plateau. In the eastern part of the
desert, where numerous oases occur, the character of the soil becomes
a matter of greater practical interest. The combined area of all the
oases amounts to but a small fraction of 1 per cent of the total surface
of the desert. The limited localities where oases occur are determined
by the presence of water rather than ])y an}^ exceptional fertility of
the soil. As a matter of fact, there are vast tracts in the Sahara which
are, probably, naturally more fertile than the oases and require only
water to make them extremeh' productive.

The field observations made by the writers were confined to a num-
ber of typical areas in the Oued Kirh country. There are found the
most important oases that are easily accessible from the Mediterranean
coast. They are situated in what is prol)al)ly the hottest part of the
desert and their elevation above sea level is only a few feet. In fact,
several of the oases occur in a part of the basin that is below sea level.

As a rule the soils of the oases in the eastern Sahara are light in
texture. Sandy loams and sands predominate, though here and there
are found soils heavy enough to be classed as true loams. Gypsum is
an important. constituent of nearly all the soils examined, in some
cases the subsoil being pi'acticall}' pure gypsum. This often acts as a
cementing material, uniting the tiner soil grains into aggregates which
give the soil a much more sand}' appearance than would be suspected

42

AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

from the re.siilts of mechanical aiuiljse.s. The chita afforded by a num-
ber of analyses are given })elow.

The natural fertility of these sandy soils is not great. They are
almost devoid of oroanic matter and after a few vears of cultivation
need fertilizing". This is suppliinl hy the Aral)s in the form of manure
from donkeys, sheep, and camels. The soils of the date orchards that
have l)een planted by the two French companies are also fertilized.

The followino- table gives the results of mechanical analvses of a
mim)»er of samples of soil collected in the Oued liirh region of the
eastern Sahara. Chemical analyses have not been carried further than
a determination of the water-soluble material.

Table S. — Mecliunicul (imtliixetf of soils from Ihe Oued Rirli region 'm tlii' Snliara Desert.

p.

a

o
■A

7686
76S7
7U83
7684
7685
7665
7666
7667
7668
7669
7670
7671
7672
7673
7674
7676
7677
7678
7679
7680
7681
7682

Looality.

Oiirir. Hard orust among palms. .

Subsoil of 76.S6

Ourlana palm orchard

Subsoil of 7683

do ,

Ourlana among 13-year-old palms.

Subsoil of 7665

Tougourt amid good alfalfa

Subsoil of 7667

Tougourt amid alfalfa

Suljsoil of 7669

Tougdurt amid alfalfa

Subsoil of 7671

Ta-bes-bes Oasis

Subsoil of 7673

Kuda Asli Oasis

Subsoil of 7676

Dune sand, border of Djadjat'holt

Oasis of Zoia de Temaein

Subsoil of 7679

Oasis of Zoia de Temacin

Subsoil of 7681

Q

0)

■a

a

C

%

o

a
a

c'l

>
t

c

^a

o

0-12

0.76

0.52

1.76

12-26

.34

.20

1.88

0-12

.50

.54

.90

12-36

.08

.48

1.64

36-54

.04

. 8t!

2. .50

0-12

.14

2.46

3.96

12-36

.04

1.10

4.46

0-12

1.10

.20

1.32

12-24

.59

.16

1.30.

0-12

.73

.15

1.93

12-24

.62

.73

2. 51

0-12

1.47

.26

2.01

12-24

1.35

.12

1.41

0-12

.41

1..56

2.03

12-24

.16

.35

1.27

0-12

.66

1.12

4.76

12-24

.35

1.39

3.27

.47

.00

5.08

0-12

6. 30

.86

4.00

12-24

.27

1..50

.5.14

0-12

.44

1..54

6. 16

12-24

.21

. m

4. .54

=*a

So

ca
osa

I

3.74
1.84
1.14
3.70
2.84
8.06
5.74
3.98
3.06
4.63
5.37
4.98
4.07
1.72
1.33
6.75
4.39
12. 80
4.66
.5.90
4.24
2.60

21.02
29. .52
17.46
36.84
18.74
32. 52
31.70
34.44
28. 58
27. 71
32. 12
28. 22
28. 33
20. 24
25.94
28. 58
20. 38
51.54
22. 50
19.60
22. 70
19. 12

C A

"a

18.98
21. 42
49.80
29.30
36.40
33. 56
40.94
37.98
45. 92
33. .59
33. 27
30.91
29. 82
32.53
34.40
32. 60
26. 42
18.40
17. 48
20. 24
39.10
30.94

i

o
o

a
a

4_.

.— .

'r-t

OS

21.

98

1.5.48 1

11.64 1

7.

64

19.40

5.42

4.

.52

9.

.52

8.

72

7.

98

5.

85

11

21

7

54

6.37 1

6

r>7

7.97 1

16

76

1

22

26

90

25

88

14

,50

20

78

sa

31.26

2 i. 40

9.16

9.92

9.14

14.02

11.54

12.56

12. 12

24.01

20. 15

22.41

28. 71

35. 55

30.14

18.22

28.39

7.62

9.04

8.82

5.76

10.60

SALINE SOILS.

As in all arid countries, particularly where irrigation is practiced,
saline .soils are an important factor in the agriculture of Algeria.
Extensive areas of the most fertile land of the colony have been
injured by an excess of salts, and the alkali problem is to-day one of
the most serious which confronts the Algerian farmer. Drainage is
not generally practiced b}^ the colonists in their large irrigation dis-
tricts, and the lack of it has been the cause of a great deal of damage.
On the other hand, the natives of the Sahara show the utmost inge-
nuity and skill in managing salty soils and in irrigating w4th saline
waters. There is much in the methods practiced l)y these people that
should interest the American farmer and that could be imitated by
him with profit.

SALINE SOILS. 43

COAST REGION.

The littoral zone of tlic coast region comprises very little alkali oi-
saline land. A few areas of salt marsh occur along the shore, but not
much has been done toward their reclamation.

The most extensive areas of salt soil in the coast region are those
found in the great valle3\s and plains. Certain of these areas have
existed for a long time. Others, inchiding some of the most serious,
have been developed luider irrigation within the last fifty years. The
most important tracts of salt land seen by the writers were near tiie
towns of Kelizane and Perregaux, in the Department of Oran.

At Relizane the area covered b}' the irrigation systems amounts to
about 20,000 acres. As the water supply very frequently falls far
short of the amount necessary for the irrigation of this large area, part
of the land is ordinarily lying idle. The irrigation of surrounding
fields, together with seepage from the canals and laterals, has so raised
the water tat)Ie in this uncultivated land as to permit a constant upward
movement of the water ))y capillary force. The result has l)een that
salts which were formerly confined largely to the subsoil, or which
have been carried into tlie soil by subirrigation, have risen to the sur-
face and have accumulated there. The same process of accumulation of
salts in the upper layers of the soil has caused serious damage in many
parts of western North America. Around Relizane the old story has
been retold that land once fertile and producing luxuriant crops is
to-day bare of everything but a few stunted salt-loving weeds. Th(>
remains of irrigating laterals, fences, and houses alone show that the
land has ever been farmed.

At Perregaux a simihir state of afi'airs prevails, but a nuu*h larger
area is affected. The salt land covers ati extensi\ e tract in the lower
part of the valley and includes fields that a few years ago were higiily
productive. A few attempts at reclamation have been made, and
some excellent fields were seen which were said to h;ive been l)adly
saline at one time; but no large areas have been impr()\ ed.

The soil and other conditions of saline areas in the irrigated districts
of Algeria have no important peculiarities which distinguish them fioni
similar localities in Amei'ica. The salts are generally " white alkali.""
i. e., salts of sodium (other than the cai'bonate), magnesium, and lime.
. Chemical analyses of samples of these soils taken by the writers are
given on page 46. The predominant salts are of the "' white alkali "'
type, common salt (sodium chlorid) being tlie most abundant. Very
little ''black alkali"" (sodium carbonate) has been found in the coast
region of Algeria.

The question of salt land in Algeria has been discussed in a recent
publication by Dugast. who devotes particular attention to the damage
that has been wrought in the vin»\vards of western Algeria by the rise

44 AGRICULTUEAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

of salts in the soil. We nia}' be excused for (luotiiig at some length
from this author."

It is sea salt — that is, true salt — that is generally found in Algeria, but magnesium
salts have also been found in several vineyards. As for the alkali salts, or "black
alkali," we have not yet come across them. They probably appear, however, when
circumstances favoral)le to their formation exist. * * * But if their existence is
transient, if washing does not take place to separate them from the other salts, it is
difficult to determine their presence.

In 1876 Pichard called attention to the presence of carbonate of sodium in several
waters in Oran Department, accompanied by sulphates of sodium and calcium and
chlorids of calcium and magnesium, sometimes by small quantities of alkali nitrates
and traces of ammonium salts. These waters give an alkaline reaction and contain
from 0.2 gram to 20 grams of sodium carbonate per liter.

While the salt is directly harmful, it is also indirectly injurious ))y hindering the
nitrification of the nitrogenous matter existing in the soil or added to it by manure.
Hence it interferes with the alimentation of plants.

In vineyards salt manifests itself in spots which differ in aspect according as they
are old or new. When the salt is in small quantities in the soil, or, rather, when
the soil still contains a considerable proportion of water, or when, again, the salt
reaches only a part of the zone of soil occupied by the roots, the spots are charac-
terized by a simple wilting of the vegetation.

At other times the damage caused by the salt is sudden and nmch more pro-
nounced. The places attacked then take the form of circular spots. The branches
of the vines that bear grapes lose their leaves and dry up, and the grapes do not
reach complete maturity.

In 1898 and in 1899, at the time of our visit [to the vineyards of Oran Department],
we saw numerous spots presenting these characteristics. Such spots were occupied
by vines loaded with grapes, but the branches had completely lost their leaves. All
around them the vines were green and were well loaded with a good crop of grapes.

In the older spots, which are sometimes very extensive, most of the vines are
dead. We find, however, here and there, some vines that have resisted the salt and
have been able to put out badly developed branches bearing a few grapes of poor
quality. These old spots, although due to salt, much resemble those caused by
phylloxera.

The reclaiming of salt land is difficult to accomplish in Algeria. The rainfall is
always insufficient to bring about reclamation, and the supply of irrigation water is
also scanty.

For the present we must try to get along with the salt, doing our best to prevent
its becoming too injurious. This can be done by working the soil to a depth of 20
inches, so that the rain water can be stored in that depth of the soil. In this way
the fresh water can be prevented from penetrating sufficiently deep to dissolve the
salt and by its pre.sence it restrains the salt from rising. It is necessary, of course,
by superficial cultivation to break up the capillarity of the soil, so as to reduce evap-
oration to a mininuun.

Drainage ditches can also be used in certain lands for carrying off tlie salty water
of the lower depths of the soil. Ditches can also be used in certain cases to prevent
the invasion of new land by the sheet of salt water.

Saline soils of purely natural orioin are found in and near the chotts
which occupy depressions and receive the drainage of the surrounding
land. In such places salt has been accumulating through long ages.

« Agrologie de 1' Algeria, 1900, pp. 66, 58, 59, 71, 72, 77, 78, 80, 81,-89, 90.

\

SALINE SOILS. 45

In the dry season the bottom of the basin is covered with a crust of
suit, in some cases of suificient thickness to make its exploitation profit-
able. In the wet season this gives place to a shallow lake of salt water.
A number of such chotts occur near the coast in western Algeria.
The writers visited one large salt lake near Arzeu and another near
Oran. At the Salines d' Arzeu great ([uantities of commercial salt are
prepared. These chotts correspond to similar salt, soda, and ""playa"
lakes of Utah, Nevada, and other western States.

Many salt lakes also occur in the high plateau region. In the eastern
part of the Sahara the chotts cover extensive areas south of Tunis and
of the Department of Constantine. There they are below sea level,
and the country around them is ver}- hot and dry.

DESERT REGION.

The saline soils of the Oued Rirh region in the Sahara, so far as they
were examined by the writers, generally contain a large amount of
gypsum, (.'■'ee p. 46. ) Sodium chlorid and sodium sulphate are the next
most abundant salts, while magnesium salts are present only in small
quantities. The Saharan soils ai'e usualh' of xeyy light texture, and
their proper irrigation demands large quantities of water. The water
used contains a high percentage of soluble matter. Consequently,
where proper drainage facilities have not been provided, the salt has
[accumulated in the soil to an injurious degree. Yet, by digging open
drains 8 feet deep at frequent intervals and irrigating once a week
or oftener, the natives of the Sahara are able to maintain gardens con-
taining a variety of plants not particularly resistant to salts in "the soil.

More than this, using strongly saline water (see p. 38) the>^ are
able to reclaim land that contains an excessive amount of salts. The
writers visited a garden which had been established on the slope of
the bed of a salt lake, in which alfalfa, various garden vegetables, and
a variety of .young fruit trees were flourishing. The reclamation of
this piece of land had l)een accomplished in three years by irrigating
twice a week during that period.

46 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

Table 9. — ('Jifinicnl (HKih/xrx of Kidinc or "«//.-a/(" fioilxfroiu Algirm.

a
1

o
6

Locality.

^1

0)""

i !

.1
o

'it,

S3
S

Potassium

(K).

a

o

«3

sec

Six
a—

03 oi

5

a

5

c ■

eg

oo

AX
u —

7658

Rpli7rtn(^ 3 niilps NW

0-24

0-1

0-12
12-36

0-12
12-24

0-12
12-24

0-12
12-24

0-12

12-24

Crust.

0-12
12-24

0-12
12-24

0-12
12-24

0-12
12-36
36-54

0-12
12-26

7.28
2.41
23.27
23.46
23. 81
25. 23
23. 90
24.71
23. 72
24.67
20. 27
19.11
.56
16. 03
19.75

22.83
24.00

22. 72
24.01
23. 38
26. 08
23.06
16.73
23.84

4.53

12. 15

.91

.49

.89

.66

.88

.58

1.13

.68

1.61

1.63

.66

3.27

1.96

1.21
1.05

.97
1.17
1.04
.98
.99
4.11
1.20

3.08
1.10
1.92
2. 24
1.82
1.51
1.82
1.76
1.68
1.93
2.10
1.94
.29
4.47
2.49

; 1.56

1 -76

1.94

1.48

.92

.85

.99

1.77

1.16

18.48
15. 83
4.77
4.33
3. 52
2.63
3.28
2.84
3.90
2.86
1.34
7.84
37.08
6.86
6.03

4.51
3.92

4.90
3.33
5.15
2.15
4.92
10.89
3.90

27.31
9.70
59. 13
65. 30
66. 22
6.5.%
66.49
66.69
61.35
66. 28
61.38
61.13
3.82
56.18
61.83

63.90
65. 30

61.66
64.79
59.47
64.97
63.74
24.13
62. 10

34.22
56.86
8.35
2.09
1.87
1.87
1.24
1.26
6.46
1.76
4.96
5.27
56.99
7.96
4.79

4.02
2.95

5.08
3.60
8.54
2. 82
3.71
41.35
5.81

5.10

7659

do

1.95

7665
7666
7667
7668

Ourlana, among 13-vear-old palms

do

Tongourt Oasis, amid good alfalfa

do

1.65
2.09

1.87
2.14

7669
7670

Tougourt Oasis, amid poor alfalfa

2. 39
2.16

7671
7672

Tougourt Oasis, amid yellowing alfalfa,
do

1.76
1.82

7673
7674

Ta-bes-bes Oasis, amid alfalfa

do

3.34
3.18

7675
7676

Kuda Oasis

Knda Asli Oasis, amidgood alfalfa

do

.65
5.23
3.15

7679

Zoia de Temacin Oasis, amid good
alfalfa

1.97

7680

do

2. 02

7681

76S2
7683
7684
7685

Zoia de Tcmacin Oasis, amid yellow-
ing alfalfa

do

do

do

2.73
1.62
1.50
2.15
2. .59

7686

1.02

7687

1 . 99

T.\Bi,E 10. — Conrciitioiial i-oinliimdhivst of fhe data in T(d>le 9.

No. of
'sample.

7658
7659
7665
7666
7667
7668
7669
7670
7671
7672
7673
7674
7675
7676
7677
7679
7680
7681
7682
7683
7684
7685
7686
7687

Percent
soluble
matter.

2.47
6.14
4.36
4.02
4.49
4.48
4.50
4.43
4.76
4.62
3. 25
3.39
92.93
1.83
3. (15
4.,S7
4.72
3. .50
4.44
4.77
4.46
4.63
6.99
4.82

Calcium
sulphate

(CaSO,).

24. 78
8.17
79.23
79.69
80. 88
85.69
81.24
84.39
80.61
S3. 75
68.89
64.97
1.91
54.42
67. 01
76.64
81.65
77.01
81.64
79.48
87.17
78. 37
34. 20
80.99

Magne-
sium sul-
phate

{MgS04).

12.31
4.91
4.03
2.44
4.42
3.30
4.39
2.89
5. 58
3.42
7.93
7. 55
3.07

16.03
9.64
6.03
5.19
4.79
5. ,54
4.19
4.87
4.92

Magne-
sium
chlorid

(MgCU).

7.93

43. 78
.18

.16

.79

Potas-
sium
chlorid

(KCl).

16. 13

5.93

5.99
2.11
3.67
4. 23
3. .56
2.90
2. 57
2.66
3.19
3.70
4.03
3.71
.55
8. .50
4.72
2. 95
1.43
3.71
2.83
1.76
1.61
1.90
3.37
2. 20

Sodium
chlorid
(NaCl).

41.95

38. 36

10.65

.15

.32

.80

8.19

5.03
5. 72

93. 42
6.43
4.20
4.35
3.76
5.48
3.60

11.73
3.40
4.62

26.55
7.85

Sodium
bicarbij-

uate
(NaHCOa).

7.04
2.67
2.24
2^88
2. .58
2.94
2. 17
2. 21
2.43
2.50
4.58
4.36
.89
7.19
4.33
2.71
2.78
3.76
2. 20
2. 05

2. 95

3. .54
1.40
2.74

Sodium \ Other
sulphate constitu-
(Na.:S04). ents.

10.61

8.24
4.37
8.35
6.95

6. 63

9.54

13.69

7.43
10.10
6. 32
5.19
5. 25
4.10

a 1.28
n;90

6.65

hl8. 35

.29 ..

aPotassium bicarbonate (KHCO.i).

^Calcivun chlorid (CaCU).

SOIL MANAGEMENT.
ROTATIONS,

111 the grain-producing- districts of Algeriii the rotation — if it can be
called such -commonly followed consists of a yvwv (winter) in a cereal
crop followed bv a year of fallow. In other words, the land lies idle

I

SOIL MANAGEMENT. 47

for sixteen or eighteen nionthn out of twenty-four. This sj'stem was
followed by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and is still in vogue
among their descendants in the Mediterranean region. It is to be
recommended only for countries where the rainfall and the supply of
irrigating Avater are too scanty to permit rotation with a soil-restoring
crop and where manure can not be had in any considerable quantity.
Such is the case in the most important cereal-growing districts of
Algeria. A larger net profit is often ol)tained from 2 acres of grain
managed in this way than from 1 acre that is heavil}^ manured. If
deep and thorough plowing is included in this method of handling the
soil, the benefit to the land that would accrue from the use of another
crop in rotation can be partly compensated for.

No leguminous crop has yet been found Avhich can be profitalil}^
grown on a large scale in Algeria in rotation with wheat and barley.
The scarcity of irrigating water is chiefly responsible for this condi-
tion, and wherever water is abundant the question of rotation ceases to
be a troublesome one. In that case a crop of horse beans or vetch —
or, if manure is obtainable, of beets, potatoes, or tobacco — followed
by two crops of grain is found to make a satisfactory rotation.

FERTILIZERS.

Whatever may have been their natural condition, the cropping of
Algerian soils for thousands of years, often without intelligent efi'ort
to conserve their fertility, has resulted in greatly impoverishing them.
In large areas the soil is low in phosphates and, to a greater or lesser
extent, in nitrogen. Potash, on the other hand, is generall}^ suffi-
fcientlv al)undant. In the coast region much of the soil can be bene-
fited by liming.

During the first few years after the French conquest no particular
[attention was paid to questions of fertilizers and of rotation. Soon,
ihowever, under the infiuence of the more intensive farming practiced
by Europeans, the yield of crops began to diminish, and it became
necessary to look for a remedy. In the littoral zone of the coast
region, where there is intensive cultivation of market gardens, orchards,
and vineyards, the use of farm manure and of commercial fertilizers
has become general. In 1808 the uimual consumption of Algerian
phosphates alone in the colony had reached 8,000 tons. In 1900 the
total quantity of mineral fertilizers applied yearly to the soils of
Algeria was estimated at 15,000 tons. The use of mineral fertilizers
is limited almost entirely to the littoral zone.

In the lai'ge valleys of the coast region, where vineyards and fields
of grain co\'er extensive areas, it is estimati'd that not one-twentieth
of the total amount of cultivated land is given any fei'tilizer whatever.
The supply of farm manure is exceedingly scanty, as the absence of
cultivated forage crops prevents the raising of many cattle. Where

48 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

farm manure is obtainable it is thought to be more beneficial than any
commercial fertilizer, since Algerian soils are often deficient in organic
matter and manure has a very beneficial physical effect upon them.
It is considered good practice to apply manure in the autunm, after a
year of fallow, thus obtaining an abundant crop of wild forage the
following winter. Grain is then grown during the second and third
winters after the application of manure,

PREPARATION OF THE I,AND.
CLEARING AND LEVELING.

In the coast region some of the best land is still covered with a dense
growth of brush, comprising lentisk, jujube, heath, broom, and other
characteristic shrubs of the Mediterranean region. This shrubby
vegetation is luxuriant in proportion to the depth and fertility of the
soil. Its remov^al generally costs about IK) an acre. In the neighbor-
hood of cities this expense can partly be met l)y the sale of the wood
removed and of charcoal made from it. It costs still more, from $20
to 124 an acre, to clear land which bears a heavy growth of dwarf
palm, a deep-rooted plant that still covers extensive areas in Algeria.
The roots of the palms can be loosened by means of a steam plow, and
then removed with a pick. In the work of clearing land, Spanish,
Moroccan, and Kabyle laborers are most expert.

Leveling is done with scrapers, which are generally drawn by horses.
The average expense of leveling an acre, if two men and three animals
are employed, is about $8.

PLOWING.

The Arab plow, generally used in Algeria, has the forward part
supported directly by the yoke or harness of the animal which draws
it, while the working part is limited practically to the share. The
Kab34e plow consists of two pieces of wood (often the forked branch of
a tree) meeting at nearly a right angle, the upright piece being shaped
so as to serve as a handle, while to the horizontal piece the iron share
is fastened. Two wooden projections at the end of the horizontal
piece, just above the share, serve to widen the furrow that is made.
The beam is fastened, by means of a peg, into the angle made by the
two pieces. One end of the beam is fastened by a strap directly to the
wooden yoke of the animal wliich draws the plow. One man works
the plow, driving the animal with one hand and holding the handle
with the other. The instruments used ))y the natives break up the
soil only to a very small depth. Among the European colonists
improved modern plows are now coming into use. On the largest
farms steam plows, operated by two 16-horsepower engines, are some-
times used. In some of the larger towns steam plows can bo hired.

GENERAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS. 49

For culti\atiiii;' \ ineyards, .Vniericaii ^^'dn<^ plows arc preferred. The
use of the disk harrow is widespread.

In preparing for a crop of cereals the land is oeneralh" not plowed
until fall. This is, however, a bad practice, for if there are heavy
rains early in the autumn the land is sometimes too wet to permit
of plowing before the first of the year. If, on the contrary, the
rains are unusually late, the soil may be too dry and hard to make
early plowino- possil^le. In consequence, the crop is sown late and is
often dried up by the hot winds of late spring and earl}^ summer.
S[)ring plowing- in preparation for a winter crop is therefore highly
recommended by the best authorities. It is pointed out that as a
result of this practice the soil loses less moisture during the sunuuer
fallow, besides being in excellent condition to absorb the iirst rain
that falls upon it in the autumn. It is, indeed, advisable to keep the
surface of the soil in a well-pulverized condition at all times when
there is no crop in the land.

Deep plowing is found to have, up to a certain point, the same
effect as rotation and the use of fertilizers. Beyond that point, how-
ever, the yield of crops will diminish, no matter how thoroughly the
land is plowed, unless some other means is taken to restore the fertility
of the soil. At Setif good cultivation is made to take the place of
irrigation, and. excellent crops of cereals and of leguminous food and
forage plants are produced without artiticial watering.

In i)reparing land that is comparatively flat, in order to establish
market gardens, vineyards, and orchards, it has been found that a
steam plow, turning the soil to a depth of from 20 to 24 inches, can be
used to advantage. In lieu of this an ordinary plow, followed by a
subsoiler, will answer the purpose. On hillsides that are too steep for
the plow the soil is loosened with picks, usually to a depth of from
24 to 28 inches. The expense of preparing an acre in this way averages
a))()ut $50. Sometimes the pick is also used for loosening the soil in
orchards where the trees are set ver}^ close together and in market
gardens. The plow used in market gardens is generally a very light one.

GENERAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS.
HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL.

According to the census of 189*!, the jxjpulation of Algeria, exclud-
ing the army, was 4,o<)<>,0()(), of which SO per cent was Mohammedan.
The great importance of agriculture^ is shown b}^ the fact that four-
Hfths of the inhabitants live by farming or l)y raising animals, almost
the whole of the native population being thus employed. The total
area now under French dominion is about 150,000 sijuarc miles, but a
large propoi'tion of this ai'ca is a l)arren desert, without water for

28932— Nu. 80— U5 -i

50 ACxRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

irrigation. An area of 3,460,000 acres, including- most of the best
arable land, is held by European colonists, while about 17,290,000
acres is still the property of natives. The remainder, including large
forested areas and vast tracts of steppe covered with alfa grass, is
government land. There is one inhabitant to every 17i acres of land
belonging' to Europeans, and one inhabitant to every 5 acres held b}'
natives.

California, with an area slightly exceeding that of Algei'ia (15<>,000
square miles), has a population of about 1,500,000. The combined
populations of Arizona, California, Colorado, Montana, Nevada, New
Mexico, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming
about equal that of Algeria. The traveler in vVlgeria does not, how-
ever, get the impression that the colony is well populated. On the
contrary, it seems a new country, and capable of far greater agricul-
tural development than has yet been attained.

LAND VALUES.

In a country like Algeria, where climate, soils, and crops, not to
speak of means of comnuinication and nearness to large coinmercial
centers, vary so much in diti'erent regions, it is extremel}' difficult to
generalize as to the value of the land. Within 20 miles of large towns,
where there are good facilities for transportation by road or b}' rail-
way, the best land is worth from $25 to $7o an acre. In proportion
as remoteness from important centers and difficulties of communication
increase, the value diminishes to $10 or less.

An acre in vines near Algiers, a region unaffected by phylloxera,
is worth from $80 to $23(». Orchard and truck land well supplied with
artesian water sells for from $S() to $100, and the best market-garden
land near Algiers at very nnich higher prices, sometimes as much as
$230. Orange groves in full bearing are worth from $480 to $640 per
acre. Olive orchards, in land of good ([uality but not capable of irri-
gation, range in value from $80 to $240 per acre. An acre of tig trees
is valued at $115 to $230. Facilities for irrigation, of course, enhance
these values.

FARM LABOR.

The great bulk of the farm work in Algeria is done by the native
population — Arabs and Kabyles — either in the eini)loy of European
colonists or working for themselves on land they own or rent. The
Kabyles, among whom the native agriculture of Algeria has reached
its highest development, are generally more industrious and more
skillful laborers than the Arabs.

Particularly in the littoral zone of the coast region, where the Euro-

GENERAL ECONOMK^ OONDITIONS. 51

pean population is donsost, imu-h of tho labor iu vineyards, orchards,
and market gardens is performed by immiui-ants from southern France,
Spain, Italy, the Balearic Islands, and Malta. In all those countries
agricultural conditions resemble to a greater or less extent those prcv
vailing along the African shore of the Mediterranean.

The wages paid iiatixe laborers vary according to the locality, the
season, and the nature of the crop grown. Wages to natives are
liio-hest along the coast, where a day's labor in summer commands
from 28 to 3S cents. Farther inland the wage varies between 24 and
2S cents. Harvest lal)or performed in the usual fashion, with a sickle,
is paid at the rate of about -io cents a day. When the scythe is used
from 65 to 75 cents a day is earned. Laborers are sometimes employed
by the month, receiving, without board, $6.50 to $7.50. If somewhat
more skilled than the average the}^ are paid as much as $9.50 a month,
oi- a smaller wage is given, together with a ration of about 2 pounds
of bread daily, and each month 2 quarts of olive oil and a few pounds
of dried tigs and semolina. For tending small flocks owned by Euro-
peans the native receives from $1.50 to $2.75 per month with food, or
$2.75 to $4.75 without food. The employer always retains half of the
wage agreed upon until the expiration of his contract with the shep-
herd, as security for the proper care of his flock. Men whose families
live in the neighborhood are found to be the most trustworthy laborers
among the natives.

European workmen are more intelligent and consequently better paid
than natives. Their wages are higher in eastern Algeria and in the
interior, where the conditions are less attractive to Europeans than in
western Algeria. The heavier kinds of farm lal)or, if done bv inuni-
grants, fall to the share .of Spaniards and Italians. French lal)orers
are generally engaged in such work about the orchards and vineyards
as requires more intelligence, and as overseers and foremen. The
market gardens of the littoral zone, where large quantities of vege-
tables are grown not only for consumption in Algeria but for expoi't
to Europe, are rented and farmed for the most part by Mahonnais
(natives of the Balearic Islands) and by Maltese.

Unskilled Spanish and Italian laliorers, working by the day and
flnding their own provisions, earn from 45 to 55 cents a day in winter
and as much as 75 cents a day iu sununer. The day's work in winter
lasts nine or ten hours, with an hour's rest at noon. In summer the
workday is twelve or thirteen hours, but with two hours' intermission
at noon and 'a quarter of an hour for rest in the middle of the morning
and again in the middle of the afternoon. The same kind of lal)or,
if employed ))y the month, commands from $5.50 to $11.50, board
included. The more intelligent French laborers naturally receive
nuich higher wages.

52 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALUERL\.

AGRICULTURE OF THE NATIVE POPULATION.

AMONG THE ARABS.

The Arab, as a rule, is lazy and shows little skill and initiative in
his farming. He works only to keep from starving-, his and)ition
beino- .satisfied as soon as he has enough to keep body and soul together.
The Arabs of the coast region are ehieHy tillers of tlie soil, living in
rude huts or "gourbis," while those of the high plateau and desert
regions are for the most part nomadic shepherds, dwelling in tents;
but both pursuits — agriculture and stock raising — are often combined
in the same family.

Agriculture, as practiced l)y the Arab who has not been influenced
b}' European methods, is of the simplest description. His plow is
made with a few strokes of a hatchet from the branch of a tree, and
usuall}' has no metal about it. Hitching to this rude instrument a
hoi'se, a camel, or, perchance, his wife, he merely scratches the soil in
the autumn and scatters his wheat or barley seed. He then goes over
the held a second time Avith a plow, covering the grain to a depth of
3 or 4 inches. After that is done he folds his hands and waits for the
crop which may or ma}' not come, satisfied that he can do no more
and that the result is in the hands of Allah, in the spring, before
the ground has dried out, he puts in sorghum or Indian corn in a simi-
lar fashion. The yields of grain thus obtained are naturally scanty
at l)est, while in dr}' years the cro])s sometimes fail entirely and
there is much suti'ering among the Aral* popidation.

In better soils, especiall}' where a little water can ])e had without
nuich labor, beans, chick-peas, and melons are grown. Near streams
the Arab often has a small orchard of Hgs, pomegranates, oranges, and
apricots, or a vegetable garden. None of these crops receive any
particular attention, and the j-ield and (juality of the product are gen-
erally far inferior to those obtained b}' skillful European farmers.

AMONG THE KABYLES.

The Kabyles belong to the ancient Berber race that inhabited north-
ern Africa before it was conquered by the Arabs — before even the
Cai'thaginians and the Komans occupied the country. Nowadays the}^
are confined chiefly to the mountainous districts. Their principal
territory is the region known as Great Kabylia, lying between the
Djurdjura range of mountains and the sea. Here a dense population is
crowded into a comparative!}^ small area, much of which is so mountain-
ous and rugged that even these dauntless farmers can not make crops
gi'ow upon it. Since the French occupation of Algeria, however,
large numbers of Kabyles have left their mountain fastnesses, seeking
work as farm laborers in the valleys and plains, or as porters in cities.

GENERAL ECONOMIC CONDTTTONS. 53

Many of these eniigrants, however, spend only a part of the year in
the lowlands, returning home with their savings and putting in the
rest of their time cultivating their own land. Unlike the Arab, the
Kabyle is a patient and persistent workman. He is a true mountain-
eer— frugal, temperate, and hardy.

It is astonishing with how little the Kabyle can sustain life. He
often inherits the merest patch of land, or only a single tree— some-
times oidy a branch of an olive tree that has its roots in another man's
land. With this slender patrimony and what he can make by hiring
his labor to others, he supports himself and his family. Now that
Kabylia is thoroughly pacified and the tribal wars that formerly
waged between almost every two neighboring villages have ceased,
there is a much larger acreage available for cultivation than was form-
erly the case. Every inch of arable land is -put into crops. Grain
and forage plants are grown in the river valleys and lower slopes, figs
and olives on the steeper hillsides.

It is in horticulture, especially, that the Kabyles excel, the country
they inhal)it being better adapted to orchard than to field crops. They
are expert in grafting and other horticultural processes. Olive culture
is a specialty of these mountaineers. Every year they graft large
numbers of scions of improved varieties upon wild trees, and thus con-
stantly extend the area of their olive orchards. Fig trees are also
planted yearly in large numbers. They are handled with great skill,
capi'ification l)eing carefully attended to. Of olive and fig trees, as
well as of grapes and other kinds of fruit, there are a number of
varieties that are more or less peculiar to Kabylia. The dried leaves
of the fig and the twigs of the olive that are removed in pruning, as
well as the leaves of the ash and the elm, are utilized by the Kabyles
as foraoe for their domestic animals. It is said that two-thirds of the
population of these mountains depend absolutely upon the olive and
the fig for subsistence. Where these trees are present there are three
or four inhabitants to every 5 acres, while in parts of Kabylia where
they are wanting, from 5 to T acres of land are required to support
each person.

The Kabyles do not raise cereals in quantity suflScient to supply their
own wants, and they nnist draw^ upon other parts of the colony for
grain. Flour is made into semolina or baked in an earthenware tray
into a sort of unleavened bread. Flour made from beans, nuts, Indian
corn, and sorghum is mixed by the poorer classes with barley flour.
Often wheat, barley, beans, and other plants are grown together in
the same field. Fruits, excepting olives, figs, and grapes, are gener-
ally of poor quality, although apricots, pomegranates, peaches, pears,
apples, and, in some sheltered valle3^s, oranges are grown.

Wheat, barley, and beans are sown in the autumn, sorghum and
Indian corn in the spring. Otherwise, all these crops are handled in

54 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

;il)()iit the same way. Plowing is done with oxen, hitehed to a rude,
homemade plow of veiy ancient pattern, which turns up the soil to a
depth of about 5 inches. The yoke is so adjusted that the steepest
slopes and even the soil about the roots of a tree can l)e plowed. A
man follows the plow, breaking up the clods with a pick. Sowing is
done by hand. The fields are kept very clean, the weeds that_ are
removed being used as forage. Harvesting is done with the sickle or
even by hand. Grain is thrashed by treading out beneath the hoofs
of oxen on a floor of hardened clay. It is winnowed by tossing into
the air, the wind carrying away the chafl".

The valley lands are irrigated from the numerous streams that run
bank full in the spring. The tiny garden, which every fairly well-
to-do Kabyle possesses, is watered and manured with great care, and
difterent vegetables follow^ one another in constant succession through-
out the year. A plot of ground 40 by 80 feet is thus made to produce
all the vegetables needed by a large family.

Ovving to the small area of land in the mountains that can l)e spared
for forage crops, the Kal)yles purchase in the lowlands most of the
animals they use in their farm work, fattening and reselling them
when the spring plowing is over. Donkeys are generally used for
carrying loads, and mules for riding. The Kabyle, unlike the Arab,
takes the greatest care of his animals, stabling them at night in
his own house and doing his best at all seasons to provide them with
sufficient food.

AMONG THE SAHARANS.

The population of the oases in the eastern part of the Algerian
Sahara, the only part of the desert that is of much agricultural inter-
est, is of mixed origin. It combines strains of Berber, Sudanese,
and Arab blood. In winter great numbers of nomadic Arabs descend
into the Sahara with their flocks and herds, which range during the
summer over the plains of the high plateau region. But there is also
a resident population, which su])sists entirely upon the products of
the date palm and the various cultures that are grown in its shade.
These, the true Saharans, are very skillful gardeners, understanding
thoroughly tha highly specialized culture of the date palm. They are
adepts in the management of soils and irrigating waters that contain
excessive amounts of salt. Despite these disadvantages, which are
combined with the most unfavorable climatic conditions, they succeed
in growing in the oases a variety of fruit trees, garden vegetables,
forage plants, and cereals. Not only in their own gardens, but in
the plantations of palms recently established by French capital, the
labor is performed entirely by natives. The climatic conditions,
together with the large quantity of more or less stagnant water that
is always present, make the oasis environment, at least in "summer,

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 55

entiiel}' unfit for European labor. Indeed, the Arabs of the coast
and hio-h plateau regions are hardly better inured to the summer con-
ditions, which only the thoroughly acclimated natives of the Sahara
can endure witht)ut suffering-.

CROPS OF THE COLONY.

The greatest wealth-producing crop of Algeria is the vine. The
climate and soils of a great part of Algeria, as of California, are
perfectly adapted to viticulture. The French colonists have put l)y
far the greater share of their energy and capital into the growing of
wine grapes. In 1S98 the average annual value of the j)roduct of
Algerian vineyards was estimated at $5.i )00,0( »U. The red and the white
table wines of the colon}' are steadily improving in quality and are
coming more and more into favor among foreign consumers. There
is also a consideral)le production of earl}^ table grapes for the markets
of Europe.

Various orchard crops are likewise a source of revenue. First and
foremost stands the olive. Algeria is extending year l)y year the
area planted to olives, a product for which northern Africa has alwavs
been famous. As the inability of Italy and Spain to supply the
world's demand becomes more and more evident, the export of olive
oil from Algeria and Tunis will doubtless steadilv increase. Citrus
fruits,^ particularl}' mandarin and other oranges, are exported in con-
siderable quantities. In this industry, however, Algeria finds herself
in competition with Spain, Sicily, and other countries which have the
advantage of a larger or at least a better distributed rainfall. Figs are
grown in most parts of the colony. In Kabylia they are dried and
prepared for export, although the finest sorts of tigs for drying are
not grown in Algeria.

A considerable variety of other fruits is grown, chiefly for domestic
consumption, among which may be mentioned pomegranates, apricots,
almonds, peaches, cherries, plums, apples, and pears. Tropical fruits,
such as the banana, pineapple, guava, and avocado, can be produced
in the open only in a very few localities along the coast, and can never
become crops of the first rank. The kaki and the loquat are more
promising.

A restricted yet important industry in Algeria is the production of
dates. Especiall}' in the Sahara, dates form a staple food of the inhab-
itants, who eat great quantities of the ordinaiy sorts. The finer
varieties are now being grown in some quantity for export to Europe,
and a considerable amount of French capital has been invested in this
enterprise.

Market gardens occupy a consideral)le area near the sea. Large
(juantifies of vegetables are grown, not only for the use of the home

50 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

population l)iit lor shipment to Kurope to supply tho winter and
early spi'ing markets. Of those which are exported, artichokes, pota-
toes, beans, and peas are the most important. The consumption of
melons and watermelons in Algeria is very large during the summer.

The principal iield crops of the colon}^ are cereals. \\'heat and l)ar-
ley occupy about 7,<»()0,00() acres annually and supply a large export
trade. Indian corn and sorghum are extimsively grown by the
natives. Cotton and sugar cane, crops to ^^ Inch Egypt owes so nnich
of her wealth, are of small importance in Algeria. The only valuable
"industrial'"' crops are tobacco and certain plants used in the manu-
facture of perfumery. The cork oak and the grass known as alfa,
which contribute largely to the prosperity of the colony, are never
artificially' planted and hence are not, strictly speaking, agricultural
products.

The acreage in forage crops is limited, particular!}- in summer, by
the scanty water supply. Alfalfa is grown generally in small patches,
although on the larger estates good-sized fields are sometimes put into
this crop. Sulla has l)eeu fi'cquently reconnnended but has not come
into general use. The pods of the carob tree, or St. John's bread, are
used for feeding stock. They are consumed in consideral)le quantities
in the colon}' and are also exported. Sorghum is also grown exten-
sively and affords a valuable supply of summer forag(\ In the
autumn, in some localities, vetches are sown with oats or barley and
are harvested in the spring. This mixture, either green or cured, is
an excellent food for cattle. Oats are grown for export only, barley
being the grain commonly fed to horses.

The greater munl)er of the cattle and sheep of Algeria are raised
upon the wild forage which covers the uncleared portion of the hills
and plains or springs up in the cultivated fields after the crop of grain
has l>een taken oti'. The supply of green pasturage is abundant dur-
ing the winter and spring, but the hot, dry sununer soon burns it dry.
As cultivated forage is scarce in summer animals often have great
ditiiculty in ol)taining feed at tliat season.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
COAST REGION.

The great diversity which the coast region exhi])its in respeci. to
climate, topography, and soils is paralleled by the great diversity of
its agricultural conditions. A far greater variety of crops is grown
there than in either of the other regions. The three zones — littoral,
valley and plain, and mountain — are distinguished one from another
by agricultural as well as by topographical and climatic peculiarities,
so that it will be advisable to give a sketch of each in turn. Roughly
speaking, the first is a zone of orchards and market gardens, the second

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 57

of grain fields and A'ine^^ards, and the third of tree crops at lower ele-
vations, giving place to pasturage on the higher slopes and crests of
the mountains. But this generalization must not be carried too far.
The lines that separate the three zones are vague at best, and the indus-
tries especially characteristic of each are shared to some extent by all.

LITTORAL ZONE.

Along the shore of the Mediterranean is practiced the most intensive
agriculture of the colony, if we except the oases of the eastern Sahara.
The alluvial soils of the valleys, which usually expand into small deltas
as they approach the sea, are largel}- occupied, especially in the neigh-
Itorhood of the principal cities, by highly cultivated market gardens.

The lower slopes of the hills and mountains that border the sea are
()ccui)ied b}^ orchards and vineyards. At slight elevations we find a
great variety of fruits, every sort, in fact, that is commonly grown in
warm temperate countries. In addition to the great vineyards of wine
grapes, excellent table grapes are grown for European as well as for
Algerian markets. Oranges of several kinds are produced in consid-
erable (piantity. Lemons, apricots, nectarines, and almonds thrive.
The Japanese persimmon, the loquat, the pecan, and other tree crops
n(jt yet widely cultivated in that part of the world, promise to become
a source of wealth. A few peculiarly favored situations, well sheltered
from cold winds in winter and from the sirocco in sunmier, are adapted
to fruits of a distinctl}^ tropical character, such as bananas, guavas, and
avocados. Attempts are being made to produce some of these fruits
under glass in marketable quantit}'.

It must not be supposed, however, that the littoral zone is devoted
wholly to growing fruits and garden vegetables. Where sufficiently
extensive areas of alluvial soil occur, cereals are grown, giving larger
yields than elsewhere because of the abundant supply of water. For
the same reason cultivated forage plants do better in this zone than
in the others. Alfalfa is the most important perennial forage crop,
while, for winter forage, barley, often sown with vetches, is nuich
used. As is also the case to some extent in the other zones of the
coast region, natural meadows, furnishing green pasturage all the year
round, occupy marshy places. Where such meadows occur, live stock
can be kept in good condition throughout the summer, which is seldom
possible in the high plateau region.

An industry of secondarv importance, 3^et bringing a considerable
yearly revenue into the colony, is that of growing plants used in the
niaiuifacture of perfumery, notaldy the rose geranium.

VALLEY AND PLAIN ZONE.

The large valleys of the coast region, especially in the western part
of the colony, of which the Cheliti' ma^' be taken as a type, are given

58 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

up in great part to g-rain prodiu'tion. Of the 12,500,000 acres in
Algeria which bear a cereal crop every one or two years, bj' far the
largest part is situated in this zone. Wheat, barley, and oats are
grown, the last in much smaller quantity than the others and solely
for export. The bulk of the Avheat is of the hard or durum type,
although soft wheats are also produced.

Where water for iri'igation is to be had in summer — and this is the
case in only a small fraction of the whole area — alfalfa, sorghum, and
other forage plants, as well as tobacco, melons, etc., are grown. Cot-
ton was extensively planted in some of the valleys of western Algeria
during the civil war in the ITnited States, and proved very I'emunera-
tive for a while. Under present market conditions, however, it can
not be grown with'protit in the colony.

The wild forage that springs up on the extensive areas of grain laiid
lying fallow every year is an important resource to the farmer, enaliling
him to keep his cattle in good condition during the winter. In sum-
mer, however, unless a forage crop is grown under irrigation, the
conditions for animals in this zone are unfavorable.

MOUNTAIN ZONE.

The oidy extensive district of high mountains in Algeria where
agriculture is highly developed is Kal)ylia. In discussing the agricul-
ture of the "mountain zone" we are therefore, as a matter of fact,
describing that district.

The lower elevations and the valleys of the larger streams present
conditions not unlike those of the littoral zone. Even oranges can be
grown in sheltered situations at low altitudes. On the higher slopes
and the crests of the ridges, however, this is impossible. The iratun
of the surface is not adapted to large vineyards and grain fields; hence^
aoriculture becomes reduced to horticulture. Oi'chards of tigs an(
olives cover the middle elevations, often on the steepest hillsides,]
Olive oil is produced in large quantities in the eastern part of this
mountain region. It is extensively used b\" the inhabitants and i.«|
also an important article of export from Bougie, the principal seaporl
of the district. Other agricultural products of the mountain regioi
which contribute to the export trade of the colony are dried tigs, th(
pods of the carob, or St. eJohn's l)read, and capers. The last are not
cultivated, but are gathered l)y women and children from the wil(
plants, the young flower buds being the part used in conuuerce. About
450,000 pounds of capers were export(»d in iSOil. The mountaineer!
raise in small gardens such cereals, yegetal)les, and forage plants as
they require for their own use. These gardens are generally situatedl
at the bottoms of valle3's and i-avines, where some alluvial soil hasj
collected.

I

I

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 59

The hig-he.st elevations of the mountain zone are not suitable for any
sort of ag-riculture, l)ut are laroely covered with g-rass, which atiords
abundant pasturage to flocks of sheep and g"oats.

HIGH PLATEAU REGION.

In the typical steppe region of central Algei-ia agriculture is limited
to occasional low places where, by means of- the natural moisture of
the ground or by irrigation with the water of a well, a crop of barley
can bo made in winter. If conditions are exceptionally favoral)le, a
small garden can sometimes be established. At sudi points as Sctif
and Batna, in the eastern part of the colony, there are extensive areas
in winter cereals, where crops are produced without irrigation. But,
as we have alivady seen, these places are not to be regarded as typical
of the high plateau region. Agriculturally, they belong rather to the
vallev and plain zone of the coast region.

The two great industries of the hig"h plateau region are grazing and
the collection of alfa. Vast numbers of sheep and goats, as well as
horses and camels, are pastured, especially in sunnner, on these ele-
vated grassy plains. It is estimated that from (j to 10 million head of
sheep and 3,500,000 g'oats range the high plateau. These animals
are almost without exception the property of Arabs. Many of them
are wintered in the Sahara, and in spring are driven by their owners
up to the high plateau, where pasturage is more a)>undant and the
heat less intense. The hides, meat, wool, and other products of these
animals are ii very material source of wealth to the colony. Cattle are
not raised in any considerable numl)er.

Alfa, or esparto, covers vast areas of this region, often to the almost
complete exclusion of other vegetation. The tough leaves of this
grass form one of the most valuable exports of the colony, amounting'
amuially to about $2,000,000. They are used in the manufacture of
high grades of paper, basket ware, matting, hats, and cordage. The
harvest takes place in the spring. Persistent exploitation is resulting
in the rapid extermination of alfa grass, the more so because attempts
to establish artiticial plantations have so far been wholly unsuccessful.

DESERT REGION.

The oases of the Sahara, and particularly those of the depression
known as the Oued Rirh, in the eastern part, are the only portion of the
•desert that is of much agricultural importance. There the presence
of subterranean stieanis, carrying a considerable volume of water, has
made it possible to plant thousands of date palms m groves of greater
or less size.

Within the last three decades the sinking of a number of artesian
wells m the Oued Kirh region has much increased the su})pl3' of water

60 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

for iirigatincr purposes. Consequently, it has been possible to create
new oases and to extend greatly the area in date palms. Two French
companies have set out many thousands of palms of the best varieties,
especiall}' the celebrated Deglet Noor, and have introduced improved
methods of cultivation and management. Dates have always been an
important article of export from the Sahara to other parts of Africa.
Recently a large export trade with P^urope has been developed.

A considerable variety of fruits, vegetables, cereals, and forage
crops is grown among the date palms in the oases. These, however,
do not afford products for export to foreign countries, but serve
merel}" to suppl}' the wants of the local population. The area avail-
able is too small to allow these subordinate cultures to attain any
considerable magnitude, even cereals and forage plants ])eing grown in
gardens rather than in tields.

Oranges are grown in the oases at the foot of the mountains that
})order the desert, but do not succeed farther south l)ecause of the occa-
sionally severe winter frosts. Olives for oil and the large sorts used
for pickling, almonds, several kinds of figs and grapes, pomegranates,
apricots, and other fruits are produced. The apricots grown are of a
native t>'pe and are remarkable for the large size the trees sometimes
attain. The different kinds of fruit trees are not set out in separate
orchards, but are mingled together. The same system, or lack of
system, is observed in the wa}^ garden vegetables are grown. Of these
the more common are onions, broad beans, carrots, cab))age, tomatoes,
okra, eggplant, |)umpkins, cucumbers, melons, and poppers. Alfalfa
is grown in small, carefully tended patches, and is cut many times
during the 3'ear. The cereals chieti}" grown are wheat and barle}' in
winter, and sorghum and Indian corn \n summer. On the northern
edge of the Sahara, where the slope is considerable and occasional
heavy rains in winter cause a sheet of Hood water to sweep down over
the land, this is taken advantage of in producing crops of grain in the
open desert l)ordering the oases. Ridges of mud are thrown up at
intervals, and are arranged so as to catch and retain for a while the
flood water.

PRINCIPAL CROPS IN DETAIL.

FRUIT CROPS.
GRAPES.

Wijie gTapei<. — Grapes have long been an important product of
Algeria, for even ])efore the French occupation about fifty \ arieties
were known to the natives. In Kal^ylia particular!}-, well-defined local
varieties had been developed. Some of these are grown only in that
country, apparently, while others occur under different names in other
parts of the Mediterranean region. Until within the -last three

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 61

decades, umpe.s were orowii chietly fi)r eating' purposes, as the Moliain-
inedau law forl)ids the use of wine. Since then, however, the pUmting
of vineyards has made rapid progress among* the colonists, and in 1900
nearly 3.50,000 acres, about one-tenth of the land owned by Europeans,
was in vines. The estimated total value of Algerian vineyards is
$ll-t,000,OoO. Wine is now the most valuable product of the colony,
the export amounting in 1899 to over 120,000,000 gallons. Most of
the skill, energy, and capital of the French population is concentrated
upon this crop. It has l)een computed that $6,(350,000 is paid out
annuall}^ in wages to the laborers in Algerian vineyards.

Fine wines and dessert wines form but a small part of the total yield,
the Algerian product consisting chiefly of heav3'-bodied and, in the
case of red wines, deeph' colored wines for blending purposes. These
are being constantly improved in quality, and Algerian wines are now
widely and favorably known in Europe — France, England, and (Jer-
many, especially, importing large quantities.

The varieties of wine grapes chiefly grown by P^uropean colonists
are those of southern France. Carignane, from which red wine is
made, is at present the favorite, and is being planted more extensively
than any other variet3^ Other highly esteemed varieties that furnish
red wine are Mourvedre, Morastel, Aramon, Cinsault, and Uliiade
(Oeillade). Carignane is notaV)le for the rapidit}' with which it comes
into bearing and for its large yields. At the satne time it reipiires
more care than some other varieties, and is subject to fungous diseases.
Mourvedre and Morastel, hardier varieties, but slower in developing
and somewhat irregular in yield, are not as extensivelj^ planted as
formerly. Cinsault and Uliiade are hardy varieties, and endure the
trying conditions that prevail when the sirocco is l)lowing. The
former, especially, is nuich grown. The latter is said to be very
irregular in its yields. The variety known as ''Petit Bouschet'" is
used for giving a deeper color to certain French wines made from
other varieties.

White wines are made from the Clairette, Ugni Blanc, Semillon, and
other varieties, while a native varietv known as Feranah is highlv
esteemed \}y some vineyardists. All these, however, give rather light
yields, so that the making of white wines from grapes having a color-
less juice is now much practiced, the skins being removed before fer-
mentation begins. Cinsault, Aramon, and Mourvedre are especiall}^
used for this purpose. Excellent dessert wines are occasionally made
from such varieties as Alicante and Muscat.

Vines are grown in nearly' all })arts of the colony, even in the
extremely moimtainous districts and in the oases of the Sahara; but
the most extensive vineyards have been established in the great plains
and valleys of the coast region, where the largest protits from the

62 AGRTCUI/rURAL EXPLORATIONS TN ALGERIA.

growing- of wine orapos havo })ecn realized. Deep alluvial soils, con-
taining a considerable amount of clay and of organic matter, are found
to give the largest yields. These soils retain enough moisture during
the sunnner to prevent much harm to the vines from the sirocco. The
better qualities of wine are, however, commonly produced on hillside
vineyards, at altitudes not exceeding 3,000 feet. Some districts that
are otherwise perfect I3' adapted to vine3'ards suffer so heavilv ironi
hailstorms in spring as to make them unprofitable for grape culture.

The vines are planted to best advantage in squares or in a quincunx,
i. e. , in s(}uares with one vineat each corner and one in the center. It is
verj' important to arrange the vines so that the vineyard can be plowed
in both (lii-ections. It is considered advisable, under Algerian condi-
tions, when })lanting in scjuares, to set the vines 5, or, for some varie-
ties, 0 feet apart each way. The vines are set out during the months
of January, February, and Ahirch. Pruning is generally done in the
latter part of the winter. The varieties most conunonl}- grown by
the colonists, such as Carignane, arc trin)med back close to the stump,
leaving a circle of 5 to 8 spurs. When trinmied long, the canes are
trained on wire or are supported by forked sticks. Among the
Kabyles, the vines are generally allowed to grow on trees. Close
trimming is said to increase the ability of the vines to resist drought,
wdiich is an important matter in Algeria. Grafting is resorted toi
w^hen it is desired to replace the varieties in a vineyard with better^
varieties, and to render it more productive, March and April being
the best months for this operation. In Algeria vines generally begin
to bear in their fourth year, although a full crop is not obtained until
the sixth or seventh 3' ear.

Late in the winter, after trinuning is completed and ])efore the buds
have begun to start, the vinevards are plowed, usually to a depth
of 6 inches. This shoidd be done when the soil is fairh' dry. Occa-
sionally the plow is followed l)v a subsoiler. Vines send their roots
deep into the soil in Algeria, so that there is little danger of injuring
them bv this treatment. A hoe or ])ick is used to loosen the soil
around the roots of the vines. In some vineyards, in order to cover
the roots, a cross plowing is then given which, like all subsequent
plowings, is shallower than the first. During the summer the vine-
3'ard is given as many cultivations with the hoe or the scarifier as are
necessary to I'id it of weeds and to preserve a loose mulch on the sur-
face of the soil that will keep down evaporation. Bermuda grass is
often a serious pest in Algerian vineyards.

Although in vineyards careful cultivation will partly take the place
of irrigation, the yield can almost always be increased l)y the judicious
application of water. Irrigation in winter, so as to stoi'c up water
in the soil, is recommended for such regions as the Chelift Vallej'',

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 63

where the rainfall is siiiali. The Hrst irrigation in .summer generally
takes place when the grapes ])egin to color, and the second about two
weeks before the vintage. About '2 acre-inches of water is used in
flood irrigation, but only about li acre-inches in furrow irriga-
tion. It is desirable to follow each irrigation by a cultivation, in
order to keep down weeds and prevent the surface of the soil from
baking.

Nitrogenous fertilizers are needed in maintaining the wood growth
of Algerian vineyards, and phosphoric acid is also often required to
promote productiveness. Farm manure is nuich used and is applied
at the rate of 12 to 18 tons per acre.

When wine making first began in the colony great difticulty Avas
experienced in completing fermentation, and the (jualit}^ of the wine
was nmch impaired by the presence of unfermented sugar. This
was due to the high sugar content of the Algerian grapes and to
the high temperatures prevailing during fermentation. These diffi-
culties have been largely overcome, however, by observing certain
precautions. If the weather during the vintage is very hot, the grapes
are gathered and put into the vats in the early morning while they
are cool, and the temperature of the vats is kept down by causing
cool water to circulate on the outside of them.

The fungous diseases, such as anthracnose, oidium, and mildew, which
attack vines in Algeria, have been more or less successfully kept in
check by spraying. Not so, however, with phylloxera, which has
wrought terrible havoc in the vineyards of Oran and Constantine
departments since its first appearance in the colony in 1883. A very
rigid inspection law has failed to put a complete stop to its ravages.
The practice of flooding infected vineyards, which has given such
happ3' results in southern France, can not be generall}^ adopted in
Algeria because of the scarcity of irrigating water. So far the vine-
yai'ds of the central department, that of Algiers, have escaped damage
from this destructive insect.

In the vineyards of western Algeria consideral)le losses have been
sustained through the rise of salts in the soil. The effect of salt in
the soil upon Algerian vineyards has been discussed by Dugast (see
p. 4-1 of this report), who calls attention to the existence of occasional
more resistant plants. In some districts the vines have been killed,
while in less extreme cases the quality of the wine has been much
impaired by taking up more or less of the salt contained in the soil.
A French law forbids the sale of wme containing more than one part
per thousand of sodium chlorid, but in some of the wine produced in
Oran Department thi> percentage has been exceeded. It is considered
safe to plant vines in any soil that is not too salty to permit a good
growth of flgs, pomegranates, alfalfa, or artichokes.

64 AGRICULTURAL, EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

Tdhle grape)^. — Excclleiit tabic grape.s arc grown, some of whicli —
the CHiisault, for cxani})le — arc valuable also as wine grapes, while
others, like the Golden Chasselas, are grown ehieU}' for the table.
The latter is ])y far the most popular variety. It is an excellent
grape, bearing shipment well. Grapes mature earl}' enough for profit-
able exportation in the littoral zone of the coast region onl}'. Near
Algiers the Chasselas ripens in the first part of July and reachcnS the
French markets in advance of home-grown grapes. Vines of this
variety generall}' begin to 3'ield frcel}' in their fifth year. Reeds
are usually planted as a wind-l)reak, the same as in market gardens.
An average crop from an acre is 3 tons of fruit. The first Algerian
grapes that reach the Paris markets are said to bring as nuich as $'26
per 100 pounds.

Table grapes grown elsewhere than along the coast ripen too late for
export, but often find a good sale in local markets. The varieties
peculiar to the colony are generally of inferior quality, although some
of them are not without value. Those grown in Kal^ylia are nearly
all pruned to long canes, and often ascend to the tops of tall trees.
It is difficult to gather the grapes from such vines or to spray them
when infected with fungous diseases.

Raisins are dried in small ((uantities b}' the Kabyles. Otherwise
this industry has not developed in Algeria, although the climatic con-
ditions would seem to be peculiarly favorable to raisin making.

OLIVES.

From the earliest times of whicli we have record the olive has been
one of the most important products of northern Africa. The same
varieties yield a higher percentage of oil in Algeria and Tunis than in
southern Europe. The oil content varies greatly in different parts
of the colony, l)ut as high as 34 per cent has been obtained from olive.'
grown m the oases of the Sahara. African oils have a higher mar-
garin content and are more easily fixed at a temperature of 40'^ F.
than oil made from European olives. The annual production of oil
in Algeria is estimated at 13,2()(),000 gallons, the bulk of which is con-
sumed in the colony. The export trade is as yet comparatively insig-
nificant, amounting annually to only about $200,000. In fact, Algeria
does not produce enough for home consumption, importing annually
from 2,500,000 to 3,000,000 gallons of edible oils. The number of
grafted olive trees in the colony is estimated at 4,500,000, the greater
part of them being in Kabylia. Tunis, the olive-growing country par
excellence of northern Africa, is said to contain some 15,000,(100
grafted trees, covering about 500,000 acres. The olive is thoroughly
at home in Algeria, especially in the Kat)yle mountain district, where
several local varieties exist, some of which are of considerable value.

:S

I

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 65

Like some of the vines, some of the olive varieties are found only in
the colony, wliile others, >vhieh huxe received local names in Alyeriu,
are wideh^ distri))uted in ^Mediterranean countries.

The olive grov/s wild in almost every part of Algeria, here and
there forming- actual forests, some of which were formerly of nuich
greater extent than they are to-day. Tiie fruits of these wild trees
are worthless, but the stocks are much used for grafting with improved
varieties. In Ka1)ylia especially, the area in olive orchards is being
ra})idly extended by grafting wild trees.

The olive flourishes in a great variety of soils and is less sensitive
than citrus fruits to cold and drought. Yet it has limitations, which
nuist be considered when a new orchard is to be established. Well-
drained soils, having a consideral)le slope, give the best results. The
maximum oil production is said to be obtained from soils rich in lime.
Sunny situations are to be preferred, although in districts subject to
frosts in spring it is desirable that the trees should not lie in a position
where the tirst rays of the sun can strike them in the morning. A
paying crop can not be expected in districts where temperatures as
low as 25 ' F. or exceeding 105"^ F. are fre([uent.

In respect to elevation, olives will not thrive in Algeria at an alti-
tude of much more than 3,000 feet, and appear to do best ))etween
1,()()() and 2,000 feet above sea level. In the immediate neighborhood
of the sea the orchards suiter most from the ravages of certain insect
enemies and of a bacterial disease. Olive orchards are particularly
protital)le in districts like the Chelitf Valley, where they can be irri-
gated three or four times during the winter. If irrigation in summer
is also possilile, the 3'ield can often be doubled. At each wateiing,
from 1..5 to 2 acre-feet is applied.

AVhere an orchard is to be started with ,young trees, these are set
out in most parts of Algeria to best advantage at intervals of 30 feet,
in rows 50 feet apart. Sometimes the quincunx plan is adopted. On
irrigated land, about 40 trees to the acre is the proper number.
Planting is done during the winter, preferably in December or January.
After six or eight years an orchard started with trees 5 feet high and
2 or 3 inches in diameter will generally i)ay expenses, and in tifteen
years it will be in full bearing.

Other cultures are not permitted in the orchard, unless the water
supply is ample and the soil is either naturally very fertile or is well
manured. Cereals are often grown among the trees, but this tends to
diminish the yield of fruit, and is generally discontinued after the
trees begin to bear. On the other hand, where water is plentiful, the
growing of broad beans and similar leguminous crops in olive orchards
is a good practice.

28932— No. 80— 05 d

66 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

Fertilizers, applied in alternate years when the trees are not bear-
ing, largely increase the yields. A good tree, if furnished about 500
pounds of farm manure every other year, will yield 550 to 650 pounds
of fruit eveiy two years. The average j'ield from a tree 20 years old
appears to be about 175 pounds, from 12 to 15 per cent of the weight
being oil. The best method of keeping the soil of an olive orchard in
lirst-class condition is to give it a good plowing as soon as the harvest
is over. During the summer two or three cultivations are given, in
order to keep the surface well nudched and thus reduce evaporation.
The harvest begins in October, green olives, for pickling, being the
first that are gathered.

By fai" the greater part of the oil crop of the colony is obtained
from fruit grown ))y the natives, who themselves manufacture two-
thirds of the oil produced and also supply with fruit the oil mills that
are operated by Europeans. European colonists have not, so far, ^
devoted as much attention to olive growing as the importance of the "
crop would warrant. In western Algeria, however, in districts
infected with ph3dloxera, olives are often planted in vine3'ards, so as
to take the place of the vines in case the latter should be destroyed.

Olive growing is the principal industr}^ of Kab3dia. Very little
care is there given to the cultivation of orchards, this being generally
limited to a single plowing in spring. The furrows are run horizon-
tally along the hillside, so that as much rain water as possible can be
retained in the soil. The trees are pruned with a hatchet while the
fruit is being gathered. The whole family — men, women, and chil-
dren— take part in the harvest, which is a sort of festival, like the
vintage in European countries. Hired pickers are paid with a certain
proportion of the fruit they gather. A woman can earn, during the
two months of the picking season, olives enough to yield about 15 gal-
lons of oil, worth perhaps |6.

Europeans who manufacture olive oil purchase the fresh fruit from
native growers, paying from -tO cents to $1 per 100 pounds. The
fruit is })rought to the mills in baskets made of reeds or of olive
twigs. In every Kabyle village there is a small oil mill, the miller
being paid for his work with the product of the second pressing. The
strong flavor of the oil made l)y the natives, which is very unpalatable
to Europeans, is due to the fact that the fruit is not pressed while
fresh, but is spread out for several months after gathering on a surface
of hardened cla}", where it is exposed to the sun and Aveather. The
Kabyles use oil almost wholly in place of butter and lard, frying food
in it and eating it on bread and '' couscous."

Olives for pickling are grown in Algeria onl}^ in a small Avay, gen-
erally in the gardens of natives.

1
1

I

I

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 67

FIGS.

The fig ranks next to the olive in importance among- the orchard
crops of Algeria. Like the olive, it is most extensivcl}' grown in the
mountain zone of the coast region, although common in every part of
the colon3\ In Ivabylia no less than two dozen varieties, some of
them of excellent quality, are known. Figs, both fresh and dried,
form a large part of the food of the Kabyles, who also export to
Europe a considerable (|uantity of the dried product. The finest
varieties foi- drying, such as are grown near Smyrna, are not, however,
grown in Algeria, except in an experimental way. Figs are cultivated
in the shade of date palms in the oases of the Sahara; but neither in
yield nor in quality do the desert-grown figs compare with those of
the mountains. Fig trees do not endure well the severe climate of the
high plateau.

In the larger valleys of the coast region heavy yields can be obtained

under irrigation. Some varieties grown in Algeria bear two crops a

year; others, only one. In establishing a fig orchard, either nursery

stock, budded from 2-year-okUwood, or root shoots from good trees

are used. Budding is generally done in February or March. Growth

is rapid, amounting often to 5 feet during the first summer. The

trees, when old enough for the orchard, are set out in winter, generally

about 30 feet apart. The only pruning done consists in removing the

dead wood and the shoots at the base of the trunk. The orchard is

occasionally given a shallow plowing or cultivation. In most Algerian

soils it is found that fertilizers containing phosphoric acid and potash,

if applied in late winter, materialh^ increase the yield of fig orchards.

In Kabjdia, where the acreage in figs is constantly being increased,

this tree bears well up to an altitude of 4,000 feet. More care is given

by the Kabyles to fig than to olive orchards. The trees are sometimes

jjeproduced by cuttings, l)ut preferably by root shoots. Pruning is

Idone during the winter. In rianuary or February the first plowing is

i^iven, and is followed by several others during the spring. Several

Ivarieties grown in that district require to be caprified. In other words,

[in order to set fruit, their flowers mu^t receive pollen from those of

(the wild fig, and this is carried to them ])y a small insect (Blastophaga)

[which Jays its eggs in the young flower clusters of the wild fig, or

[caprifig. The first capritication usually takes place in June, and the

operation is sometimes repeated three or four times during the sum-

Imer. The method of the Kabyles is to thread together a few of the

"male" figs or caprifigs and hang the chaplets thus made over the

branches of the trees, the flowers of which are to be pollinated. Capri-

[figs sometimes sell for (> cents a dozen among the natives. In fig

orchards managed by Europeans the expense of capritication is esti-

I mated at about $5 per hundred trees.

(i8 AG-aiCULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

Ill the niouiitiiiiis the harvest of %s for drying, although at its
height in S('[)tenil)er, covers a period of ahout three months, as the
fruit does not all ripen at once. As fast as the fruit matures it is
gathered and placed in shallow trays. These are spread out on the
ground when the sun is shining, hut are piled together in the evening
and placed under shelter when it rains. Tiie fruit is turned over from
time to time until it is dry. Figs that arc kept for home use or foi-
shipment to other parts of the colony are split down the middle and
pressed in a mortar into a compact mass. Those intended for export
are packed at the seaports into crates holding TU or 80 pounds, made
of leafstalks of the dwarf palm.

CITRUS FRUITS.

Only a comparatively small portion of the total area of Algeria is
suitable for citrus fruits. Even oranges can be grown successfully
only in the coast region, up to an elevation of 1,7U0 feet or there-
abouts, and in the northern oases of the eastern part of the Sahara,
nota])ly at Biskra. In the oases, however, they are not very satisfac-
tory in yield or quality. The best orange-growing district is that
around Blida, in the Mitidja Valley at the base of the Atlas Range.
Here has been developed an excellent type of early-ripening, sweet
orange, known as the '' Blida," the harvesting of which begins in
October. The Malta blood orange thrives both in the coast region
and in the oases. Brazil, Portugal, Jatia, and other races are also
grown in the colony. The natives grow oranges mostly from seeds,
so that the quality of the fruit they produce is generally very infe-
rior; yet some of the native varieties, notably in Ka))ylia and in the
mountain ravines near Blida, are said to possess considerable merit.

The expense of starting an orange grove in Algeria is sometimes
lessened by growing truck crops in the young orchard for the tirst
six years. This practice, however, is not recommended by the best
authorities. A row of cypress trees is connnonly planted as a wind-
break around orange groves. The average profit from an acre of
oranges is said to be only about $45 annually. The ])itter orange
(bigarade) is very hardy in the colony and is much used as a stock upon
which to graft less resistant varieties. From its llowers perfumery
is manufactured.

Mandarins, which are extensively planted in Algeria, generally pay
better than ordinary oranges. One authority estimates that an acre of
these fruits gives an average net profit of $()») to $90. The harvest of
mandarins at Blida begins in November. Lemons are less extensively
planted, although they are quite hardy and yield well in the littoral

zone.

For the irrigation of citrus fruits in the manner usually practiced in
Algeria — by means of shallow basins around the base of each tree —

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 69

from 1.5 to -2 :u-re-inches of water is used at an application. If the
soil is vcrv permeable, as is the case in the Blida region, the orchard
must l)e watered every week. Otherwise, an irrigation every two
weeks suffices. As to cultivation, a plowing in March to a depth of
1 foot, a second plowing in May, and a cultivation in August are rec-
ommended.

DATES."

Except in a single locality, where peculiar conditions exist, the date
palm does not i-ipen its fruit freely in the coast region. Nor is the
high plateau, with its cold winters, adapted to this tree. The true
home of the palm is the desert region, particularly the low, eastern
part. (See Pis. 1 and III.) In the oases of the Oued Rirh district the
finest varieties of dates— notably the celebrated Deglet Noor— reach
the acme of their development.

The environment in which the date flourishes is a peculiar one. It
I can not grow in the dry desert if the ground water is l)eyond the reach
of its roots unless it is copiously irrigated. To ripen the fruit of the
best varieties, frequent sunmier temperatures of 105° to 110° F.,
together with a very dry atmosphere and a very small rainfall, espe-
cially in the autumn, appear to be necessary. It is obvious that this
combination of conditions is not to be met with everywhere. The
area which possesses the needed climatic requirements is almost limit-
less, but an abundant supply of water for natural or artificial irriga-
tion is of rare occurrence in the desert.

There are a o-i eat number of varieties of the date palm in the oases of
Algeria— probalily at least 15(). These are usually easily distinguished
by the character of the fruit, whether long or short, thick or thin,
light or dark, with a large or small stone, etc. One of the couunonest
types is Khars, an early-ripening- soft, sweet date not suita])le for
exportation, but very popular among the inhal)itants of the Sahara.
Dates of this kind are either eaten fresh or, pressed into a compact
mass, are stored and carried from place to place, usually in leather
bags. The Deglet Noor is the date which is most extensively grown
for the European trade. Put up in small wooden boxes, with the
dates attached to the branch upon which they grew, this fruit bears
shipment admirably, retaining without difficulty its shape and firm
texture. It is one of the finest of table dates, not only because of its
flavor but for the reason that it is clean and easily handled. The fine
color and the transparency of the flesh add further to its attractive-
ness. During the last two decades the two French companies that are

a For a full discussion of this interesting sul)ject by Mr. W. T. Swingle, see the
Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1900, p. 453, and
Bulletin No. 53 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, 1904.

70 AGRICUETUEAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

engaged in date growing in tlie Algerian Sahara have set out thou-
sands of Deglet Noor trees. The natives also have planted them in
large numbers. Of still another type are the dry dates which fur-
nish a large part of the food of the population of the desert and are
transported by caravans to every part of northern Africa. They
are not sirupy like the Rhars type nor richly flavored like the Deglet
Noor, but are a wholesome food and can be kept for indetinite periods.
The best sorts are eaten either fresh or dry, while from the starchy
flesh of inferior kinds flour is made and baked into a sort of bread.
In addition to dates, the natives of the Sahara obtain various other
useful products from the palms. Trees of inferior value are made to
yield "lagmi,'' or palm wine, a sweet juice which is o])tained in a1)un-
dance by cutting the bud at the summit of the stem. The wood of the
palm is used for building houses, bridges, and dams, as well as for
fuel. The leaves serve for thatching roofs, while from their flber
matting, baskets, hats, fans, and other articles are manufactured.

LESS IMPORTANT ORCHARD CROPS.

A great variety of other fruits characteristic of warm temperate and
subtropical countries are grown with more or less success in Algeria,
but their importance is not sutiicient to warrant much more than an
enumeration.

The peach is most at home in sheltered ravines of the mountain
zone, where it makes a i-apid growth and yields well. It is grafted
upon Prumts mirobdan in deep, rich soils, and upon the almond in i
thinner, limy soils. The fruit is often of line appearance, but gener-
ally lacks flavor.

The apricot is also grown most successfully in ravines and on shel-
tered slopes at low elevations in the mountain zone. In the oases of
the northern part of the Sahara it becomes a large tree and yields
heavily, but the fruit is poor in size and quality. Nevertheless, dried
apricots are much in demand in the markets of the Sahara. The apricot
in the coast region is sometimes grafted on the plum.

The almond is one of the fruit trees that is best adapted to the drier
parts of Algeria. Two principal types are cultivated— the thin-shelled
Princesse, which is exported in some quantity as an early fruit, and
varieties with harder shell, which are generally dried.

The cherry is most at home in the mountain zone, doing well on a
variety of soils. There are cherry orchards of considerable value in
some parts of Algeria.

The plum thrives in rather deep soils, especially in the mountainous
parts of the colony. The Reine Claude gives excellent results under
irrigation at moderate elevations in eastern Algeria. The growing of
prunes has not become an industry in the colony.

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 71

The pear grows vigorously in I'avines and on shaded slopes in the
mountain zone, especiall}^ in deep loamy and clayey soils. There are
a numl)er of native varieties of small value. Improved European
varieties rarely give satisfactory results.

The apple is even less successful in Algeria, save in a few excep-
tional localities.

Among fruits characteristic of warmer parts of the world, the
pomegranate should be mentioned. It is very hardy as to climate,
but needs a moist soil in order to give the best results. Under irriga-
tion good yields can be ol)tained. A number of types are grown in
Algeria, the l)est sweet fruit being exported and bringing a good
price. The l)etter sorts are propagated by cuttings. The spiny,
unimproved type of pomegranate is nuich us(k1 as a hedge plant.

The Indian fig, or prickly pear, is al)undant in the coast region,
where it is almost perfectly naturalized. It also occurs in some of
the oases, but the high plateau region is generally too cold for it.
There are several ditierent races, some with yellow, some with red
fruit. A white-fruited variety, of ver}^ limited cultivation, is said to
[be the finest of all. Indian tigs are highly esteemed by the natives and
bv Spanish and Italian immigrants, but are rai'ely eaten by the French.

Japanese (kaki) persimmons do well in most parts of the coast region
and promise to become one of the iniportant fruit crops of the colon}-.
The hxpuit is more sensitive to cold, but thrives in the littoral zone.
In a few sheltered places along the coast l)ananas can be successfulh'
grown, the ""tig banana" being the t3q3e that yields best in Algeria.
There is onh' a small area where the cultivation of such tropical fruits
as the guava, avocado, cherimoya, and pineapple is possible.

In the Aures Mountains walnuts flourish. Phmtations of chestnuts,
established some years ago by the forestry service, are now bearing
al)undant crops. The acclimatization of the pecan is being attempted
b}^ the botanical service of the colony.

TRUCK CROPS.

A great many garden vegetables are grown in Algeria, among which
may be enumerated artichokes, asparagus, beans (broad, kidney, and
string), beets, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cardoon, carrots, cauliflower,
celer}, chick-peas, chicory, cucumbers, eggplant, garlic, lentils, let-
tuce, melons, onions, peas, peppers, sorrel, spinach, squash, straw-
berries, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, turnips, and watermelons. Most of
these are grown chiefly for the local mai'kets. In the littoral zone,
however, the production in winter of early vegetables for export to
Europe is an industry of considerable importance, some 20,000 tons
being shipped out of the country every year. Artichokes, potatoes,
peas, and string beans are the most important of these. The growing
of early tomatoes for export is also becoming a profitable industr3^

72 AGRTCULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

Near Algiers especially, market gardens abuumi. There the indus-
try is chiefly in the hands of natives of the Balearic Islands, while in
western Algeria the gardeners are generally Spanish, and in the eastern
part of the colony Italians and Maltese. Neither the natives nor the
French colonists have gone into the Imsiness of growing truck crops
for export, although Arab and Kaliyle families usually have small ^-ar-
dens in which they raise vegetal)les for their own use.

There are a number of factors whicli combine to limit gardens as a
connnercial enterprise to the neighborhood of the seashore. Nowhere
else, except in the Sahara, are the winters sufKciently warm to allow
Algerian vegetables to be put upon the markets of P^urope early enougl)
to insure a remunerative price. As it is, the (M)mpetition of the Riviera,
and other parts of the northern shore of the Mediterranean, has in
recent years cut down by 40 or 50 per cent the prices formerly obtained.
Facilities for rapid transportation by water, such as are ol)tainal)le
near the coast, are essential to the success of this industry. An abun-
dant supply of water for irrigation is indispensable. Finally, the
laige (luantities of manure, sewage, etc., that are applied to the gar-
dens can only be had in the large cities of the seaboaid. At Tunis,
Archimedean screws placed in the drains are said to be used for lifting-
sewage on to the tields.

Mai-ket gardens are generally irrigated by means of the noria. For
the first irrigation of the season about 2 acre-inches of water arc
applied, while in each subseciuent irrigation about 1.5 acre inches ai-e
used. Fxcept in the case of artichokes, which will stand heavy flood-
ing, the irrigation of truck ci-ops demands consideral)le skill. The
flow of the water should be gentle, and it should be allowed to stand
at only a small depth on tlu^ Hclds.

Bv abundant watering and heavy manuring and fertilizing, crop is
made to follow crop with ha:dly any int(M-mission. From gardens
thus managed the proflts are very large. A higii rent— often |75 or
more an acre — is demanded for the best market-garden land in the
vicinity of large cities. The gardener who leases the land usually lives
upon it with his family. Fach small plat into which the garden is
divided is usually surrounded by a wind-break of reeds, either the liv-
ing plants l)eing set closely together to form a hedge or a fence l)eing
made of the dead stalks. Sorghum and Indian corn are also used for
wind-))reaks.

Globe artichokes are the truck crop that is most largely grown for
export. ''Grosvert de Lraon" (Large Green of Laon) and '' Violet
precoce de Provence," or ''V^iolet hatif" (Early Violet of Provence),
are the most popular varieties for this ]Mirpose. Artichokes are har-
vested throughout the winter, from Octolx'r until April, the same
plant yielding several heads in succession. The average yield from an
established lield is al)out ;^0,000 marketable heads to the acre.

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 73

The consumption of potatoes in the colon}^ l^eing- laroer than the
quantity produced, there is a considerable importation of this vegetable.
Yet the production of early potatoes, especially of the Holland or
Koval Kidney variety, for export to European markets, is an important
phase of Algerian truck growing. The largest tubers are shipped to
England, while the Paris markets prefer tho.se of medium size. The
best prices are obtained for potatoes marketed during Lent, especially
just before Easter, when from ^2 to $3.50 per 100 pounds is paid in
J\iris for Algerian potatoes.

Potatoes grown for consumption in the colony are sown in seed ]hk\h
in January and February, and are set out about the end of April.
Yields of 9,000 to 1T,5(»»> pounds per acre are obtained. The prices
[laid in Algerian markets for spring potatoes range from 50 to 85 cents
per 1(H) pounds.

CEREALS.

The principal cereals of Algeria are wheat, barley, and oats, which

are grown only as winter crops, and soighum and Indian corn, which

occupy the land in sununer. Of these, wheat and barley are by far

the most important. Algeria raises most of the grain needed for

home consumption, importing only a relatively small (piantity of soft

wheat, used in bread making. The colony exports large quantities of

.wheat, barley, and oats. The area each year in cereal crops is esti-

lated at T,ouo,ooO acres, which is about one-third of the entire culti-

mted area; hence much more land is in cereals than in all other crops

:;ombined. The mean annual production in the years 1890-1895 was

)4:,331,000 bushels, ^nd the total value of the annual product of cereals

'averages $45,000,000.

While more or less grain is produced in every part of Algeria, the
lai'gest pro]X)rtion is raised in the valleys of the coast region, notabi}'
in that of the Cheliti'. Owing to the generall^^ poor preparation of the
land for cereals, the exhausted condition of much of the soil, and the
fact that neither manuring nor rotation is generally practiced, the
average yields are too low to make these crops as effective as the}^
should be in contributing to the wealth of the colony. Much the
greater part of the grain is grown by natives and gives yields aver-
aging 30 per cent lower than those obtained by European colonists.
In districts where improved methods of cultivation, notably in respect
to deeper plowing, have been introduced by the colonists, yields much
higher than the average are obtained. The country around 8idi l)el
Abbes, in extreme western* Algeria, and Setif, on the edge of the high
plateau in the eastern part of the colony, is especially notable in this
respect. The acreage in cereals that is in the hands of the natives,
who depend for their crops entirely upon the rainfall and take no steps
to conserve soil moisture, naturally varies much more from year to
3^ear than that farmed by Europeans.

74 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

WINTER CEREALS. ,

Wheat. — The average area in wheat during the ten years ended in
1893 was over 8,OiH>,00() acres. Of this about three-fourths was
owned and farmed by natives. The area in wheats of the hard or
durum type, as compared with that in soft wheats, was as five to
one. Less than 7 per cent of the area in wheat that is farmed by
natives is devoted to soft wheats, whiU> the European colonists grow
hard and soft varieties in about equal proportion.

Algeria possesses excellent races of durum wheat, for which this
part of Africa was famous even in Roman times." Often several
varieties are mixed together in one field, although the Arabs are
generally acute in distinguishing the diti'erent types. Some of the
most widel}' grown Algerian hard wheats have long, bhu-k l)eards.
Some have short, others long heads. In some varieties the grain is
short and thick, in others it is long and narrow. Types in which the
grain is clear and amber colored are particularly valuable for making
macaroni and semolina, considerable quantities of which are manu-
factured in the colony. Semolina forms the basis of "couscous," the
national dish of the Arabs. Large (piantities of Algerian hard wheats
are also used at Marseille in the manufacture of macaroni and similar
products, for which the}" are considered nearly, if not quite, equal to
any in the world.

Authorities agree that the types of hard wheat already existing in
the colony answer all requirements, and that it remains only to prac-
tice careful seed selection in order to improve the yield and to secure
pure strains.

Several native races of soft wheats are also grown, including both
bearded and l)eardless types. Soft wheats introduced from Europe
have not, as a rule, proved a success. When grown near the coast
they often fall a prey to rust, and are also lial)le to dr>' up without
ripening when the hot weather begins in the spring. Recent experi-
ments with the Richelle varieties, however, have indicated that this
type is well adapted to Algerian conditions, giving good yields at
several points.

Wheat, which is commonly broadcasted, is always sown in the fall,
generall}' in November, after the rains have begun. In very dry years
the soil is sometimes not in a condition for plowing in preparation for
a crop of grain until well into the winter. This entails late sowing,
which often greatly diminishes the yield obtained.

The harvest takes place in May or June, according to altitude, there
being about four weeks' difference in time between the earliest and
the latest localities in the colonv. A native takes from three to five

«For descriptions and illustrations of the varieties of Algerian wheats, see C. S.
Scofield, Bulletin No. 7, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
1902.

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 75

days to harvest an acre of wheat with a sickle, the implement that is
still used in the greater part of Aloeria. Recently, however, the com-
bined reaper and binder has come into use in some places. Thrashing-
is done as soon as possible after the harvest and in a very primitive
way. The sheaves are spread out on a Hoor of hardened clay, which
is unsheltered from the air and sunshine. They are placed in concen-
ti'ic circles, with the heads turned inward. Horses, nuiles, or some-
times oxen, are then driven around on the floor, again and again, until
the grain is l)eaten out. Sometimes the animals are hitched to a stone
roller. Two nuMi with three horses can thus thrash out 4(> l)ushels of
wheat a day, or if a roller is used. To bushels. Al)out 5 cents a bushel
is paid for thrashing- wheat. The modern thrashing- machines that are
used in a few localities handle as much as 750 bushels in a day.

On the large estates wheat is cleaned by means of fans. Generally,
however, a method is used which has been practiced for ages in the
Mediterranean countries — that of pitching into the air the mixture of
grain and chafl', the wind carr3dng- away most of the latter. This can
be done to advantage only on days when the wind is favorable. The
straw is carefully saved and stacked, to be used as fodder, the stack
l)eing usually protected by a covering of dried nuid mixed with short
straw.

An ingenious contrivance for storing- grain is in use among the
Arabs. A piece of high ground having been selected, a hole 10 to IS
feet deep and G to 10 feet wide is dug, with a narrower opening. The
interior is thoroughly dried by burning in it straw or brush, and is
then lined with a layer of matting and straw about 6 inches deep. The
carefully dried grain is packed closely into this cellar, the mouth of
which is then covered with straw, matting, and finally with clay.
Earth is then shoveled over the top to hide the whereabouts of the
store. Grain can be kept for long periods without deterioration in
this uni(iue sort of granary. The Kabyles generally use earthenware
jars for storing grain.

The average yield of wheat obtained by European colonists is about
15 bushels per acre, although under the most favorable conditions
very much higher yields are sometimes had. The natives, on the other
hand, are v;e\\ satisfied with a yield of 8 or 9 bushels.

Wheat receives irrigation in only a few districts, notably in some of
the large valleys of western Algeria. A marked increase in yield is
the result. An irrigation in the early autunui at the rate of 3 or 4
acre-inches puts the land into good shape for plowing and sowing. The
distribution of rainfall during the winter regulates subsequent irriga-
tion, which does not exceed 2.5 acre-inches at each application.

Barlci/.— The area in barley averaged during the ten years ended
in 1898 over 8,500,000 acres, 98 per cent of which was owned and cid-
tivated by natives. Barley is even better adapted than wheat to native

76 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

agriculture, beinj>- more drouj^bt resistaut and requiring less prepara-
tion of the soil. The average yield for the entire colony is about 25
bushels per acre, but European colonists sometimes ol)tain 40 or 50
bushels. Barley forms a large part of the food of the native popula-
tion and is also invaluable as forage, being almost the only grain that
is fed to animals. Of the annual product of nearly 30,000,000 bushels,
about one-eighth is exported. Much of this goes to northern France
and to England, in which countries it is used in brewing. Algerian
barleys are in high favor with European brewers, rather because of
their cheapness than their quality. Improved races, like Chevalier,
do not generallv succeed in Algeria, being too liable to shatter; yet in
some localities certain of the two-rowed European brewing barle3^s
have given good yields. Naked varieties having an easily shelled
grain are those generall}- grown bv the natives to serve as food.
They are very early and yield heavil}^

OdU. — Compared with wheat and barley, oats are an unimportant
crop in Algeria. The average annual acreage from 1884 to 1893 was
only 114,000; i. e., less than 4 per cent of the area that was in wheat
and less than 3 per cent of that in barle}'. Oats are grown almost
exclusively by P^uropean colonists for expoi't to Europe. Before the
French conquest this cereal was practically unknown in Algeria. It is
there considered by some authorities to be moi'e resistant to drought
and to salt in the soil than is either wheat or ))arley. It also requires
less preparation of the soil and gives larger 3Melds on newly cleai'ed
and poorly prepared land, being less likely to l)e choked by weeds. "It
can be sown up to the end of January — much later than wheat. The
harvest tak(vs place about the middle of May, and the aveiage 3'ield is
45 to 55 bushels per acre. Oats are said to l)e very susceptible in
Algeria to the attacks of ergot and of rust, and for this reason the
common winter oat is the onl^' varietv that can usuall,y be grown at a
proHt.

SUMMER CEREALS.

Sorghum. — Two varieties of sorghum are grown, chiefly by the
natives. These are white sorghum, the "l)echna'' of the Aral)s, which
is much used by the better class of Kabyles as a substitute for wheat
flour in making "couscous" and bread; and black sorghum, or ""dra,"
from the seeds of which the thread of the poorer natives is made.
Black sorghum is also fed to animals; the leaves and stalks are a
valuable resource at a season when green forage is scarce in Algeria.

If there is plenty of rain in April and May, and occasional showers
in June, a good crop of sorghum can be made without irrigation.
The heaviei- alluvial soils of the valley bottoms aiv considered best
adapted to this crop, which is most grown in the mountain zone of
the coast region. Sorghum is sown in April and ripens in August.

CROPS OK THE COLONY. 77

In oood vears IS to 26 bushels of j>Tain are obtained from an acre.
During the ten years ended in 185)3 the average area in sorghuni was
75,000 acres.

Indian corn.—\x\ the irrigated soils of the large valleys Indian corn
is the most profitable summer cereal, but without a good water supply
it is rarely a paying crop. For this reason, and because of the scarcity
of manure, comparatively little is grown. The average area grown by
natives during the ten years ended in 1S1>8 was 20,000 acres. The
varietv known as '" Quarantaiir' is esteemed for its earliness; " Cara-
gua'' for its large yields. Yields of 22 to 30 bushels per acre are
obtained under irrigation, and the grain sells for about $1 per bushel.
Algeria exports an insignificant quantity of this grain. Among the
natives, especially in the Kabyle mountain districts, the roasted ears
of maize are much esteemed as food, l)ut with European colonists it is
not in favor as a table vegetable.

FORAGE CROPS.

WILD FORAGE.

Two sorts of wild forage are to l)e distinguished -that of fallow
fields and that of natural meadows.

F(d1ou--Jand forage.— MteA- the removal of the winter crop of cereals
wild plants of various sorts, including a great variety of Leguminostv,
spring up amid the stubble, especially when the autumn rains begin.
This wild forage is generally most luxuriant during the first winter
following the crop of grain. If the land is then left fallow for several
years in succession a gradual deterioration of the wild forage, l)oth in
quality and in quantity, is ot)servable. This can be prevented in large
measure by occasional plowing. An application of farm man n re at the
rate of about 10 tons per acre will cause large yields of natural forage
to be produced for two or three years, besides putting the land into
excellent shai)e for two successive crops of cereals at the end of that
period. Forage of this kind is generally pastured. If made into hay,
it is usually fed on the farm, not being of a sort that is well adapted
for baling and shipment.

In the oases of the Sahara, Bermuda grass, which the natives esteem
as a forage plant, abounds. Almost every roadside and ditch bank is
occupied by this grass. It is either grazed or is cut and fed green.

Forage of mdural meadoirs and prairie.^.— The slopes of the hills
and mountains of the coast region and the steppes of the high plateau,
like the great plains of the Western States, are still covered in great
part with a growth of grasses and other native plants, the value of
which is enhanced by the presence of numerous species of vetch,
clover, ])ur clover, and other Leguminoste. In the high plateau region
large flocks of sheep and goats are pastured upon the natural herbage
of the range, generally obtaining no other food.

78 AGRICULTUKAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

Two sorts of n;itui:il inoiidow iire to be distinguished — sucxi its occu-
pies land that is dry during- the summer and such as is moist through-
out the year. The first type covers hy far the greater area. As in
California and in countries where most of the rain falls during the
winter months, the herbage is parched and brown in summer. With
the first autumn rains, however, a sudden transformation takes place.
The grass turns green as if liy magic, and innumerable flowering-
plants spring- up to l)eautify the land.

During October, November, and December, in the coast region,
cattle and other stock are turned out to graze upon this tender young
growth. At its best, 5 acres will support B head of cattle. Dur-
ing the latter part of the winter and in the spring it is more profit-
able to keep animals oft' the natural meadows, allowing a hay crop to
be made. The greater part of the hay of the cohmy is produced by
the dry meadows of the coast region. This is the hay that is pur-
chased for the cavalry service of the army, and it is exported in con-
siderable quantity to France in years when the crop of that country is
short.

Artificial treatment of these natural meadows is rarely attempted,
yet in many cases occasional irrigations, plowings, and mannrings
would verv largely increase the yields obtained. In some places it
might be advantageous to seed to wild grasses and forage plants of
better (juality than those now occupying- the land. Without treat-
ment of any kind, however, natural meadows will last a long time in
good soil — sometimes twenty years without serious deterioration. -

Meadows that are moist and green throughout the year produce
more abundant but coarser forage. A cutting of hay is sometimes
taken in spring from such meadows, but during- the rest of the year
they are used as pastures. They are a valuable resource in summer,
when most of the grass land is scorched and dry.

In the coast region, hay is cut between the middle of April and tlie
middle of May, the date of harvest varying considerubly in different
years and at difterent altitudes. The scythe is generally used, a native
workman receiving from 05 to 75 cents for cutting an aci'e. There
are some localities, like the Mitidja Valley, near Algiers, where the
nature of the ground permits the use of a mowing machine, which
reduces the cost to about 30 cents an acre. The average yield of hay
from an acre of natural meadow is a little more than 1 ton.

In the drier valleys, like the Chelift, the hay can be gathered into
dou])le swaths by the horserake the day after it is cut. Two or three
days later it can be stacked in ricks. The rick ordinarily contains from
2 to 2i tons, and is generally covered over .with a thatch composed of
the coarse grass known as ''dyss'' (Ampelodesmos). In case it is not
convenient to place the rick on high ground, care is taken to surround
it with a trench to carr}^ off the rain water. One end of the rick

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 79

always faces the west, tlie direction from which come the heaviest
rainstorms. Hay is taken out as required at the other end^. In favor-
able seasons 2^ tons of hay can be cut, cured, and stacked at an expense
of less than $5. Hay is usually baled at a cost of about 5 cents per
bale of 110 pounds. Near the larger cities it is hauled at the rate of
about 30 cents a mile for an ordinary wagonload.

The prices paid for oreen forage and for hay in Algeria are based
upon those offered by the government, which purchases large supplies
for the cavali-y service of the army. Various stipulations are made as
to the quality of the forage to be delivered, and as these rules are also
followed by most private buyers it will be interesting to enumerate
some of them. Hay is rejected if it consists of but one valuable spe-
cies, if it has been mixed after cutting, and if it contains various coarse
w^eeds, notably thistles and j)lants of the parsnip family, poisonous
plants, grasses like foxtail with sharp-pointed beards that injure the
mouths of animals, various salt-loving weeds, and coarse marsh plants.
The hay must, of course, be well cured, perfectly dry, and reasonably
free from dust. A veterinary surgeon is detailed to inspect the hay
before it is purchased.

CULTIVATED FORAGE.

The area which is adapted to the cultivation of forage plants in
Algeria in suiimier is limited by the scantiness of the water supply at
that season. Onlv in the valleys of the coast region, where irrigation
is practiced, can such crops be grown on an important scale. Hence,
in the total production of forage in the colony, cultivated plants play
a much less important part than wild vegetation.

LEGUMINOUS CROPS.

AlfciJfa, or luceryi. — In Algeria, as in the arid part of the United
States, alfalfa is the most valuable cultivated forage plant for peren-
nial meadows. It is grow^i extensively in the irrigated valleys of the
coast region. In the high plateau region little alfalfa is cultivated,
but in some of the oases of the desert region it is the most important
forage crop. Often in the coast region and always in the Sahara,
alfalfa is grown in small, carefully tended patches. (PI. V, tig. 2.)
Fall sowing is generally practiced, although in elevated regions like
that around Setif, where early frosts are likely to occur, it is some-
times advisable to sow in the spring. In that case, however, the seed
must be put in as early as possible, as otherwise the young plants
suffer from the dry, hot weather of the later spring months.

The seed is often put in in rows, thus permitting the frequent culti-
vation and weeding of the tields. Otherwise, weeds, especially Ber-
nuida grass and chicory, choke out the alfalfa. If sown broadcast an

80 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

occasional harrowing is necessary to keep down the weeds. In case
the fields are infested with dodder, the worst enemy of alfalfa in
Algeria, these methods are not efficacious and other means must he
taken to get rid of the pest. When the drill is used, about 18 pounds
of seed to the acre are sown, but if broadcasted, about 22 pounds.
Occasionally alfalfa is put in — preferabh^ in January or February —
with oats or barley, the latter ser\'ing as a cover crop for the young
alfalfa; but this practice is condemned b}- the best authorities. Well-
kept alfalfa meadows last twelve years or longer in Algeria.

Alfalfa is generally cut with a scythe. A nati\'e laborer can cut a
little more than an acre a day, and receives about 45 cents an acre for
the work. When a mowing machine is used the cost of cutting an
acre is about 25 cents. In the oases of the Sahara a sort of sickle,
with a nearly straight blade having a serrated edge, is used in cutting-
alfalfa.

The alfalfa crop is irrigated in Algeria both by flooding and by
the furrow method. The latter requires less water, but gives the best
results onl}' in rather light soils. Flooding is the preferable method
if the irrigating water is decidedly saline. From 8 to 4 acre-feet are
put on at each irrigation.

Under irrigation, with a watering given every week or so through-
out the summer, seven or eight cuttings can be taken, A'ielding a total
of 7 or 8 tons of hay per acre. In soils of the littoral zone that retain
a fair amount of natural moisture throughout the sunnner, alfalfa can
sometimes be grown without irrigation. Three cuttings, aggregating
3 or 4 tons of hay, besides a considerable amount of pasturage, can be
ol)tained under such conditions.

Most of the alfalfa in the coast region of Algeria is derived from
the "Lucerne de Provence," a race that is grown in southeastern
France. This showed itself from its first introduction to be perfectly
adapted to conditions in that part of the colony. On the other hand,
seed of alfalfa brought from Poitou, in western France, consid<}rably
north of Provence, does not succeed nearl}' so well in Algeria. A
native drought-resistant strain is grown without iri'igation in the
neighborhood of Setif, in the eastern part of the high plateau region.
This variety may prove valuable in parts of the Western States where
water for irrigating is not availalde. Turkestan alfalfa is being tested
in Algeria and gives indication of being well adapted to the drier
parts of the colony, particularly where the soils are somewhat saline.
A fair stand has been obtained near Alg^iers without irrigation. The
alfalfa that is grown in the oases of the Sahara appears to l)e decidedly
resistant to the presence in the soil and irrigating water of large amounts
of salt. (PI. IV, fig. 2.) At Kouil)a, near Algiers, the writers saw-
trial patches of alfalfa grown from seed obtained from the United
States, from Tougourt in the Algerian Sahara, and from -Turkestan

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 81

all grown .without irrigation. That from the Sahara seemed to thrive
better at Rouil)a than the American sort. The leaflets are shorter,
broader, and hairier tlian those of the American plants." The Tur-
kestan alfalfa seemed to ])e earlier in maturing- its seed than either of
the other sorts. Doctor Trabut, the Government Botanist, thinks it
will grow with less water than other kinds of alfalfa, and that it may
consequently prove valuable for the steppe or high plateau region of
central Algeria. Although the stand grown from Turkestan seed was
less than one yeav old and had received no irrigation whatever, it was
in fairly good condition. It is, however, very liable to infection with
a rust {l\eudo2)eziza tr If olio). Doctor Trabut tinds this very fre-
quently the case with plants brought from extremely arid regions into
the more humid climate of the coast region in Algeria.

At Tougourt, in the Algerian Sahara, alfalfa is grown in most of
the gardens, generally in the shade of date palms, in small patches
from which other plants are excluded. It is usually grown in plats
about 20 feet long and 6 feet wide, with a low ridge of bare soil 4 feet
or so wide between each plat. The top of the ridge is usually white
with an elflorescence of salts. The seed is sown in the autumn in rows
a foot or so apart, barley being generally sown with the alfalfa and har-
vested the following spring. Thenceforward the alfalfa grows alone,
and the stand is usuall}' allowed to occupy the ground -i or 5 3^ears.
It is then plowed under, and other cultures — generall}^ garden vege-
tables— take its place. By this system the roots of the alfalfa plants
probably do not have time to grow down into those depths of the
subsoil which are saturated with water from the almost constant irri-
gation given in these gardens.

Every week during the summer one or two irrigations are given the
alfalfa, which is tended as carefully as any garden vegetable. With
such frequent irrigation a great number of cuttings is possible, espe-
cially as the stems are cut whenever the}^ reach a height of about 2 feet.
One native grower stated to the writers that he o))tained as many as
24 cuttings during the year, but this was doubtless an exaggeration.
The stems are cut off very close to the ground by means of a curved
iron knife with serrated edge. They are tied in small bunches, 7 or S
inches in diameter, the ends of which are placed in running water to
keep the alfalfa fresh and attractive looking until it is ready to be
sold. In the market at Tougourt such a bunch sells for 1 cent. So
far as we could learn, alfalfa is always fed green in these oases, and is

«At Yuma, Ariz., during the last two years, alfalfa from Turkestan, from tlie
Algerian oases, and from Utah was grown side by side. No constant differences as to
hairiness could be detected, but the leaflets of the Algerian seem to be generally
broader than those of the Turkestan and Utah sorts. The Algerian sort seems also
to grow faster and to promise larger yields than the others.

28932— No. 80—05 6

82 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

never made into hay. As it grows more or less throughout the win-
ter, a sufficient suppl}' of green forage can generally be obtained at
all seasons.

The alfalfa grown at Tougourt is of fine quality, succulent, thin
stemmed, almost perfectly smooth, and having large, thin leaves.
These qualities are dou))tless mainly due to its ))eing more or less
shaded by the date palms and to the frequent watering it receives;
for, at the experiment station at Rouiba, alfalfa from Tougourt had
wiry stems and was hairier even than the American alfalfa grown
beside it.

The crust of salt that often covers the ditch banks and strips of bare
soil between the plats of alfalfa is sufficient evidence that the soil of
the oases is very saline. The water used in irrigating likewise has a
high salt content. Yet there are reasons for believing that the amount
of salt to which the plants are actually exposed during gei'mination and
while still very young is not so great as would at first appear to ])e the
case. The soil is light and loam}-, and hence easily drained. Especial
attention is given to this matter by the Arabs, drainage ditches being
dug in the gardens at frequent intervals. These end blindlv, as
there is no natural outlet for them. Nevertheless, they must have
a considera))le degree of efficienc}^, for the alfalfa that is nearest the
ditches is always in decidedl}^ better condition than that which is far-
ther away. With this provision for drainage and the very frequent
irrigations given, it is probable that a very considerable amount of
salt is leached out of the uppermost layers of the readily permeabje
soil. The date palms that shade the ground do their part by keeping
down evaporation and thus retarding the return of the salts to the
surface. Finally, the oasis soils are very rich in gypsum (calcium
sulphate). This, as is well known, neutralizes to a considerable degree
the harmful effect of other salts in the soil.

At the small oasis of Kuda-Asli, a few miles from Tougourt, alfalfa
was found growing in the open, unshaded 1)}' palms or other trees.
Examination of the soil showed that the plants were making a fairl}^
good growth, although the stand was thin, in the presence of 1.36 per
cent of salts in the first foot of soil. A good growth occurred in the
presence of 0.9 per cent in the first and 0.5 per cent in the second foot.
Finally, an excellent stand had been obtained in soil that contained
from 0.4 to 0.6 per cent of salts in the first and second feet. The
water used for irrigating this field contained 4G0 parts of salt per
100,000. The soil is a sand}^ loam, and is so full of gypsum that at a
depth of about 2 feet a veritable hardpan of this substance is encoun-
tered. The presence of this dense stratum would be expected to
interfere seriously with drainage, to which the texture of the soil is
otherwise well adapted. Consequently, notwithstanding the condi-
tions mentioned in the preceding paragraph as tending to counteract

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 83

to some extent the eti'ect of the salt, it would seem to be Bej'ond
question thiit this alfalfa is a distinctly resistant race, and is able to
endure more salt in the soil than the alfalfa ordinarily grown in the
United States. A small quantity of seed, reported to have been har-
vested last year from this patch, was secured for trial in this country.

Horse heanx {Vic! a f aha). — The horse bean is a form of the broad
bean, having more numerous and smaller pods. It requires deep,
strong soils, containing a considerable amount of lime. When grown
as a forage crop it is sown, sometimes mixed with barley oi- oats and
sometimes alone, in rows about 2 feet apart. When the pods begin
to turn brown the beans are harvested, spread upon the ground to dry,
and then thrashed. The coarse, black straw, mixed with other forage,
is fed to animals. The seeds are a valuable feed for milch cows, but
discretion nuist be used in feeding them. Horse beans 3'ield about 10
tons of green forage and 22 to 28 bushels of seed per acre.

Sulla {Ilt'dysarum coronarlum). — This leguminous plant has ))een
highly recommended for Algeria, but is generally found difficult to
grow and uncertain in yield. It is a deep rooting plant with erect
stems 2 or 3 feet high. In the green state it is said not to be relished
by animals; but if cut before flowering and made into haj or ensilage
it constitutes an excellent forage. It is, however, very difficult to
cure without losing the leaves. A further objection is that, while
occupying the land two years, only one cutting can be taken. A
good stand is nevertheless very productive, the average yield being,
according to one authority, 5^ tons of hay to the acre.

Fenugreek {Tr'ujonella fmixmi-gr cecum). — This plant is very useful
as a green manure crop, especially on tobacco laud, for which purpose
it is recommended to be sown with horse beans. The forage is nuich
relished by cattle, but is said to give a disagreeable flavor to beef. The
aromatic seeds are considered stimulating and fattening when added to
other forage.

Berseem {Trifolium ale.vandrintmi). — Berseem promises to be a valu-
able forage crop under irrigation in parts of Algeria where the win-
ters are mild. It is most likely to succeed near the coast and in the
oases of the Sahara, especially as a green manure crop for orchards.
A good stand has been obtained near Algiers by sowing as early as
July, four cuttings having been taken before the end of May.

Vetches. — Vetches are sometimes grown alone, but their trailing
habit makes them difficult to cut. They are best handled when sown
with barley or oats, this mixture forming one of the most valuable
winter forage crops of the colon}-. Winter vetch ( V/'cki sativa) is the
species most used, the hairy vetch ( T'. villosa) not having proved a suc-
cess. The seed is sown in October and November at the rate of 70
pounds of vetch and 25 to 35 pounds of oats or barley' to the acre.
Vetch seed is rather scarce and high priced. The crop is harvested

84 AGRICULTUKAL EXPLOEATIONS IN ALGERIA.

in April or early in Ma}^, when the vetch is in blossom and the cereal
in milk. It is ordinarily fed green, although this can be done with
perfect safety only after allowing it to wilt for a few hours. The
mixed hay furnished by vetch with barley or oats is far superior to
that of the natural meadows. In seasons when the rainfall has been
plentiful, yields amounting to 1^ or 2 tons per acre are obtained.
The largest 3nelds are given by land that has previously been maiuired
at the rate of about 1,000 cubic feet of farm manure to the acre. In
very wet springs hay of this kind is difficult to cure, the vetch having
a tendency to rot and drop its leaves. This crop leaves the land in
excellent shape to be put into grain the following winter.

The botanical service of the Algerian government lias been experi-
menting for several years with a variety of leguminous plants that
promise to be more or less useful as forage and green manure crops.
For the latter purpose, especially in vineyards, lupines, horse beans,
fenugreek, vetches, peas, and lentils are recommended.

TKEE CROPS AS FORAGE.

In the coast region, especially in the mountain zone, a number of
trees contribute to the supply of forage. The Kabyles, having little
room for field crops, feed the leaves of various trees to their animals.
The leafy twigs of the olive, removed in pruning, and the leaves of
the elm are thus utilized. Dried tig leaves serve in winter as a sub- 4
stitute for hay. In the handsome ash of his mountains the Kabyle
has a veritable overhead meadow, which yields him a constant supply m
of green forage. The most important of arboreal forage plants is, "
however, the carob.

Caroh, or St. John's hread. — The pods of this small tree, which
resemble those of the American honey locust in having their seeds
surrounded by a sweetish pulp, arc highly esteemed throughout the
Mediterranean region as food for cattle. There are also improved
varieties, which are used in some countries as human food. The
carob flourishes throughout the coast region of Algeria. European
colonists have not given it nuich attention, but, especially in moun-
tainous districts, it is much valued by the natives, who not only plant
orchards of carobs, but, with a little care, succeed in obtaining good
yields from wild trees. From Bougie, the seaport of Kabylia, consid-
erable quantities of the pods are exported to Europe.

The best results are obtained by top-grafting scions of improved
races upon seedling trees. The pollen is borne upon separate indi-
viduals, so that care must be taken to have male trees in every plan-
tation. The largest yields are obtained by following the Spanish
practice of grafting a branch from a male tree upon the base of the
trunk of a fruiting individual. The establishment of a plantation of
carobs is therefore a somewhat troublesome undertaking. After six

CROPS OF THE COLONY. 85

3'ears the trees, as a rule, beo-in to bear fairly well. In fifteen or
twenty 3^ears they are in full production, single trees of that age
sometimes yielding 650 pounds of pods. In some races the pods are
10 inches long, their sugar content sometimes reaching 44 per cent.

The harvest takes place at the beginning of autumn. Poles are used
to knock down the pods, which are spread out to dry in the shade.
When thoroughly cured they are collected into stacks, which must be
opened from time to time to prevent fermentation. Carobs after
being crushed and mixed with coarser fodder constitute a ver}^ pala-
table and nourishing ration for live stock, especially for work animals.

Indian fig. — The Indian tig, or prickly pear, {Opuntia fidis-indica
and O. tuna) is thoroughly at home in the co^st region of Algeria,
where it frequentl}" attains the size of a small tree. Spineless varie-
ties are a valuable resource for feeding live stock in simimer, when
green forage is generally scarce.

The Indian fig will grow in the stoniest, most sterile soils, and
under such conditions will produce from 9 to 11 tons of green forage
every two 3^ears. In good land still larger yields are obtained. This
plant responds well to manuring and to a moderate amount of irriga-
tion.

The feeding value of the large fiattened joints of the stem is not
great, about 65 per cent of their weight being water. For this ver}^
reason, however, the}" form an excellent ration, especially for milch
cows, when mixed with dry feed, such as chopped straw, bran, oil
cake, and the pods of the carob tree. A little salt is often added to
the mixture. Grandeau, the well-known agronomist, speaks of the
Indian fio; as the "forage beet of warm regions." It is estimated that
75 pounds of the stems, together with an equal weight of straw, are
equivalent in feeding value to 100 pounds of good hay. Hogs are
extremely fond of the fruits.

MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
TOBACCO.

Tobacco has long been cultivated in Algeria, where oriental types
were grown by the natives before the French occupation. The first
colonists introduced a considerable number of varieties, but only one
of these, believed to be derived from Paragua}' tobacco, is now exten-
sively grown. The area annually planted to tobacco amounts at
present to only 12,000 to 15,000 acres, most of which is in the Depart-
ment of Algiers. The colony is said to produce each year from 11 to
13 million pounds of tobacco. This would mean an average yield per
acre of SS8 pounds, which is much higher than the average in most
tobacco-growing countries. The 3neld from irrigated is said to be
about double that from unirrigated land.

1

8() AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

The quality of the product depends largely upon the locality. Some
of the l)e.st Alo-crian tobaci'O is orown in the Kabyle mountain dis-
trict, where the soils seem to be peculiarly well adapted to thi.s crop.
Much of the product of western Algeria is defective in combustibility,
being grown in saline land, where it absorbs considerable salt. Soils
containing more than 1 part per 1,000 of sodium chlorid are considered
unsuitable for tobacco. P^xcessive irrigation also injures the quality,
although increasing the yield, of much of the tobacco grown in that
part of the colony. The finest tobacco is generall}' grown without
irrioation. In the oases of the Sahara, snuti' tobacco is cultivated by
the natives.

The type of tobacco ordinarilj^ grown in the colon}^ has a wide, very
compact flower cluster and crowded narrow leaves. Plants of this
type are thought to sutler less from wind than Ijroader leaved forms.
For several j^ears the l)otanical service of the colony has been carrying
on experiments in crossing various high-grade foreign tobaccos with
this Algerian type. It has been found that while most of the uncrossed
foreign varieties are not well adapted to Algerian conditions, the
crosses seem almost as much at home as the Algerian parent, and
often retain the desiral)le qualities of the imported variety.

The l)est Algerian tobacco has an agreeable, sweet aroma, suggest-
ing that of some Turkish varieties. It is especially suitable for cig-
arettes and smoking tobacco, very little being used in the manufacture

The production of vegetable fibers on a commercial scale is now
limited to alfa grass and the dwarf palm, the latter yielding "vege-
table horse hair.'' As neither of these plants is cultivated, they are
discussed in this report under the head of " Forest products."

Flax, jute, hemp, sisal hemp, manila hemp, and ramie have all been
tried from time to time, but the cultivation of none of these fiber plants
has passed the experimental stage. The scarcity of water in sunmier
is generally the most serious obstacle, but there are also other practical
difficulties. The Algerian government is now offering a bounty to
growers of flax and hemp. Cotton growing was an important industry
durinsT the American civil war. but has since been abandoned.

PERFUME PLANTS.

In the coast region, particularly in the littoral zone, the growing of
plants used in the manufacture of perfumery is one of the most impor-
tant of the minor agricultural industries.

The principal perfume plant of the colony is the rose geraniuuL
It is propagated by cuttings, which are set out in December or Janu-
ary. Plantations, once established, continue to yield profitable crops
for from four to eight years, those in heavier soils being the morelast-

of cigars

FIBER PLANTS.

LIVE STOCK. 87

ing. Under irrigation three crops can be obtained each j^ear, and the
averaofe total yield from an acre is said to be about 12 tons of leaves
annually. The oil produced in one year by an acre of rose geranium
is estimated to average about 25 pounds, but in rare cases is as high as
50 pounds. Some Algerian distilleries have an annual output of 2
tons of oil of geranium. In recent years the fall in price of this per-
fume has caused the acreage in rose geranium to be greatly reduced.'
Among plants grown for the perfume obtained from their flowers
are Acac/'a farnesiana and the bitter orange "(higarade). The latter
yields oranse-flower water and " Essence de Neroli." The leaves of
Eucalyptus globulus are also used to some extent in making perfumery.

LIVE STOCK.

The live-stock industry is -very largely in the hands of the Arabs.
They raise practically all the sheep, goats, camels, horses, and donkeys,
and much the greater number of the cattle of Algeria. The colonists
usually buy from the natives the beef cattle which the}^ fatten, and
also their work animals. The natural forage of the country is, as has
been previousl}^ stated, the principal resource of the raiser of live
stock, cultivated forage plants playing an important part only in irri-
gated districts of the coast region. There the business of fattening
cattle that have been raised on the wild forage of the hillsides and
steppes has attained some importance.

The high plateau region, like many districts in the western part of
the United States, is for the most part a *' range," where animals are
driven from place ta place and pastured upon the natural herbage.
Sheep and goats in vast numbers — about three-fifths of the total num-
ber in the colony — graze on the elevated plains. Cattle, however, are
few. The flocks are the propert}^ of nomadic Ara))s, Europeans hay-
ing taken no part in the pastoral system of the steppe region, except
in so far as to purchase the product. The conditions as to climate and
food supply are often severe. In summer the herbage, except in moist
depressions, is parched and brown, and w^ater is very scarce, while the
winters are rigorous. As yet, little has been done in the way of pro-
yiding shelter and artificial sources of water for animals pastured on
the high plateau.

Sheep and goats furnish the inhal)itants of the high plateau region
with almost everything they use, aflording skins for their tents and
vessels for holding water, wool and leather for their clothing, and meat
and milk for their food. Goats are raised chiefl}' to supply the neces-
sities of the natives, although their skins are exported in considerable
quantity. Sheep, on the other hand, furnish a very important export
trade in meat, hides, and wool. It is estimated that between (> and
10 million sheep and 3^ million goats are annually pastured upon the
elevated plains of Algeria.

88 AGRICULTURAI. EXPLORATiONS IN ALGERIA.

CATTLE.

The greater number of the cattle raised in Algeria belong to a well-
niarkecl North African type — perhaps a subt} peof the Spanish cattle —
of which various races are distinguished. The best defined of these
are the Guelnia and the Moroccan races. The}'^ are rather small in
size and of good shape, with rather long l)ody, full flanks, large, well-
formed chest, rather small l)el]y, and erect, curved horns. In color
they are usually dark, having black head and legs and dark gray,
fawn-colored, or red back and flanks. They are hardy animals, habit-
uated to the severe conditions under which they ordinarily live.
Owing to the small amount of food obtainable during the long, dry
summer they ai'e small and slow in maturing, requiring usually six
years to reach full development. In spring, when the natural pastur-
age is abundant, and at other seasons, if su})plie(l with cultivated
forage, they fatten rapidly. If given plenty of green forage and a
small amount of grain, a steer can usually put on 400 pounds of meat
without difliculty. When well treated, Algerian cattle make excellent
work animals, but the cows are generally poor milkers.

Cattle are purchased from the Arabs for fattening, usually in the
late summer or earl}^ autunni, and at a price of $1> to $13 per head.
They are pastured during late autumn and winter on uncleared land or
fallow gi-ain flelds. At the b(\ginningof spring they are usually very
thin, but fatten rapidly from that time on. After three months of
spring pasturage they often weigh enough to be sent to the butcher.
A large number go to the markets of the colony, but there is also a
considerable export of live cattle. At Marseille, Algerian cattle sell
on the hoof at the rate of $9.50 to $10.50 per 100 pounds. At this
price there is a good proflt in cattle fattened in the pasture, but not
when fattened in the stable.

^ Improved European races of cattle are not generally adapted to the
trying climatic conditions of Algeria; nor can they, like the native
cattle, endure well the periods of scanty food supply that these condi-
tions impose. Onl}' in the restricted areas, where irrigation allows of
the constant production of forage of good qualit}' , is anything to l)e
expected from the introduction of foreign breeds. In such localities
crossing high-])red races with the hardy Algerian cattle may prove
advantageous in increasing- the milk and beef producing capabilities
of the latter.

HORSES.

It is estimated that there are 210,000 horses in Algeria, four-fifths
of which are the propert}' of natives. Algerian horses belong to the
African type, with an admixture of Arabian blood. In its most
typical form the horse of Algei-ia is rather small and light, but is very

LIVE STOCK. 89

luirdv and capable of much work. The Arabs generally use horses to
draw their plows.

The eastern part of the high plateau region is the center of horse
breedinp- in Algeria. The Arabs of the Sahara obtain almost all their
horses from that district. The industry of raising horses is, however,
on the decline, the prices brought by good animals having fallen 100
' per cent or more in the past ten or fifteen years. A mare of good
pedigree and known for the excellence of her progeny can now be
bought for about $150. The increasing popularity of the mule as a
work animal, both among natives and Europeans, is partly responsible
for this state of affairs.

DONKEYS.

There are some 275,000 donkeys in Algeria, almost all of which
are the property of natives. In the coast region they have largely
I'eplaced the camel as a beast of burden, although the latter still
retains its usefulness in the high plateau and desert regions. Wher-
ever the use of wagons for transportation is precluded by the lack of
good roads the donkey is employed.

MULES.

Of the 150,000 mules that existed in Algeria in 1900, less than one-
tifth belonged to Europeans. The high plateau region, around Setif
and Constantine, produces the best nudes of the colony. ]\lules are
used by European farmers to draw their wagons and plows, and by
the natives for riding and for carrying loads. A hardier and more
robust animal is obtained if the donkey parent is of Algerian rather
than of European origin.

CAMELS.

It is the one-humped Arabian camel, or dromedary, that is conunon
in Algeria. The INIehari race of the dromedary is especially adapted
to travel in the Sahara, making, without difficulty, marches of 70
miles a day for several successive days. Camels are, of course, well
known for their endurance, getting along for considerable periods
without food or water. They^ can carry for long distances loads
weighing 300 pounds and more. Camels are raised and are used only
b}^ the Arabs. A good animal will sometimes bring $60.' In agricul-
tural work the camel is of practically no importance, except as a means
of transportation.

SHEEP.

In is estimated that in ordinary years the flocks of the colony repre-
sent a total value of $28,500,000, which is almost wholly the property
of natives.

*.)() AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

Three principul nices of native sheep are distinguished in Algeria —
the Kabyle, or Ber))er, which is peculiar to the mountain region; the
Barbar3',a large-tailed race, which is most common in eastei'n Algeria;
and, best of the three, the Arab, which is rapidly supplanting the
others. The Arab race is that which is usually found in the large val-
leys and plains of the coast region and also in the high plateau region.
The small, slender tail is a distinguishing mark of this race. The head
is sometimes brown or black and sometimes white, the white-headed
type being the finest of Algerian sheep. The short, dense, more or
less curly, rather line fleece of the Arab sheep is in marked contrast to
the long, straight, coarse wool, resembling goat hair, with which the
Kabyle sheep is covered. The best quality of wool is produced in the
larger valleys of the coast region.

The colonists formerly purchased from the natives nearly all the
sheep they fattened. There is a growing tendency, however, to raise
sheep on the farms of the coast region. Sheep that are bred where
they are fattened are found to give when onl}' 14 months old from 6^
to 9 pounds more meat than !2i-3"ear-old sheep that have been pur-
chased from native shepherds.

The white-headed Arab type of Algerian sheep shows an approach
to the Merino. Crossing with the latter race is found to give a supe-
rior animal, which produces not only more meat, but wool that is bet-
ter in quality and about 50 per cent greater in quantity. Careful
selection among the mixed native races can also be counted upon to
enhance greatly the value of the meat and wool produced b}^ Algerian
flocks.

GOATS.

The natives usually pasture goats together with sheep and cattle?
but this is .from every point of view a bad practice. Except for their
large milk production, goats are not held in much esteem among the
European colonists. To the natives, however, their skins, hair, and
meat are invaluable. The fact that they can pick up a living in places
where cattle or even sheep can not obtain sufficient food is a strong point
in their favor. Two races occur in Algeria — the Kabyle goat, with
long hair and horns, and the hornless Arab race, which gives more
milk.

FORESTRY.
GENERAL CONDITIONS.

According to official estimates there are about 8,000,000 acres of
forest land in Algeria, of which about 60 percent belongs to the coast
region, or Tell. The term "forest land" is used, however, in its
widest sense, land bearing a shrubby growth of lentisk, dwarf oak,
olive, myrtle, dwarf palm, etc., such as occupies vast expanses in the
coast region, being included. The steppes of the high plateau region,

FORESTRY. 91

which are covered with coarse grasses and herbs, possess no forest in
the strict sense of the word. Oul}^ here and there, in depressions,
straggling- shrubs and small trees of betoom {Plstacia atlantica) and of
juniper are found. Yet considerable areas of this character are offi-
cially designated as ""forest." In the desert region, except on the
highest mountains, nothing resembling a forest occurs, the native
vegetation being limited to scattered shrubs and coarse grasses, with
an ephemeral growth of small herbs that spring up after the infre-
(juent showers. The true natural forest is contined almost wholh^ to
the mountains, especially those of the coast region and of the eastern
pai't of the high plateau.

The forests of the colony are of various types, which owe their char-
acteristics not only to natural conditions of climate and of soil, but
also to the direct or indirect agency of man. In many localities only
scattered old trees remain, the intervening spaces being occupied by
brush or by a caj'pet of grass. Sometimes there is almost no vegeta-
tion except an occasional tree, and in such land active erosion takes
place. This condition has probably been brought about for the most
part by reckless exploitation or by fires which are often kindled by
the natives in order to provide their flocks with the more abundant
pasturage that springs up afterwards. The admission of flocks into
I ho public forest reserves is frequently a cause of the rapid disappear-
ance of the young trees, especially when goats are pastured among
them. On the other hand, particularly at high elevations in the moun-
tains, there are dense forests where the trees reproduce themselves
freely; but this type is the exception rathei" than the rule.

The forests also differ in the diversity of species composing them.
Sometimes large areas, especially at the higher elevations, are occu-
pied almost solely by a single species. Sometimes while one kind
of tree predominates, others are present in smaller numbers. Less
often several species are mingled together in nearly equal proportion,
forests of this type being most frequent in the littoral zone.

The composition of Algerian forests as to species depends upon
climatic and soil conditions, and upon the altitude. Well-defined
zones, each characterized by some one predominant species, succeed
each other at different elevations in the mountains. From sea level
up to about 2,500 feet, cork oak, olive, and Aleppo pine are the prin-
cipal elements, the last being the most widely distributed tree in the
colony. Here the forest is most apt to be mixed with a shrubby
growth, made up of various species characteristic of the so-called
"maquis" of the Mediterranean region.

From 2,500 to 4,000 feet, Quereus hallota, a kind of live oak, often
predominates. The sweet acorns of this tree are much relished by
the Kab3ies, who make a practice of selecting and preserving such
individual trees as bear the best nuts.

92 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

Between 3,500 and 6,000 feet, the liandsome Zen oak {Quercus
lusitanica var.) forms heavy forests of good-sized trees, usually 50 to
70 feet high. In one looalit}' Zen oak covers an area of 103,000
acres.

Finally, at elevations of 4,000 to 6,000 feet, occur magnificent for-
ests of Atlas cedar, a short-leaved variety of the cedar of Lebanon.
The total area occupied by this tree approximates 90,000 acres. It
usually forms an open forest, the trees being separated b}^ expanses
of gj'ass land and low brush. Unfortunately, this superli tree shows
ver}' little tendency to reproduce itself. The Atlas cedar lives to a
very great age. Individual trees of unusual size, distinguished, like
some of the "big trees" of the Sierra Nevada, b}^ particular names,
are made the goals of pilgrimages by tourists.

Besides the species already enumerated, the following are note-
worthy, either for their abundance or their economic value: Ash*
{Fraxinus Txcihylica)^ arbor vitfe {CaUitris quadrivalms)^ juniper
{Juniperus oxycedrux and -/. pho'ntcea)^ and fir {Ahles nuiiiidlai).
The chestnut, almond, cherr}', fig, and caroh are all represented in
the mountains of Algeria by wild forms.

P^specially in the large valleys of the coast region, such as the Habra.
Chelifi', and Mitidja, the planting of trees to furnish timber for con-
struction and firewood, as well as for shade and protection against
winds, has been extensively practiced. Species of Eucalyptus, nota-
bly E. gJolndm (blue gum) and E. rostrata (red gum), ai'e most used.
The latter has proved to be the better adapted to Algerian conditions,
and is now rapidly replacing the blue gum. Eamhiptus rohustus and,
to a lesser degree, E. occidtntalis are said to be the species that suc-
ceed best in saline soils. The colonists began in 1860 to plant Euca-
lyptus in large numbei's, but when it became apparent that the value
of the wood for building purposes had been overestimated, these trees
somewhat declined in favor. Nowadays, however, their utility in
other respects is generally appreciated.

A large part of the forest land of Algeria, including vast areas cov-
ered with brush and grasses, as well as much true forest, is owned by
the government. A code of forest laws modeled upon those of France
governs their administration. The penalties against starting forest
fires are very severe, but are difhcult to enforce, because of the moun-
tainous character of much of the country, the frequent absence of
facilities for travel, and the active or passive opposition of the Arab
population, which is largely devoted to raising live stock. It has been
necessary to open much of the public domain to flocks owned by the
natives. Although regulations have been established which, if strictly
enforced, would prevent serious damage from this cause, as a matter of
fact the forests often suflier severelv. But in some areas, where it has

FORESTRY. 93

been possible to prevent grazing- during longer or shorter periods,
considerable reforestation has taken place.

Forest land belonging to the government, particularly such as bears
a growth of cork oak or of alfa, is often leased for a nominal rental to
companies or to individuals who exploit these products. Some of
the most valuable forested areas are the private property either of
Europeans or of natives.

FOREST PRODUCTS.

Following the loose application of the term "forest" that prevails
in Algeria, there will be discussed under this head commercial products
that are furnished not only by trees, but also by the grass known as alfa,
and b}' the dwarf palm. As a justitication for this arrangement, it
should be stated that both of these plants occupy extensive areas which
are officially designated as forest land, and that neither of them is ever
cultivated.

FUEL.

Most of the trees — and man\' of the shrubs — native in Algeria
supply the inha))itants with firewood and with charcoal, which, as in
all Mediterranean countries, is nuich used for fuel. The expense of
clearing land is often partly met by the sale of the firewood and
charcoal obtained in the process. In some of the large valleys of the
coast region, where there is little natural tree growth, plantations of
eucalj^ptus are useful as a source of fuel.

TIMBER.

Most of the wood for construction used in Algeria is imported from
northern Europe and from Austria, the natural resources of the colony
in this respect having been little developed. Probably- this is partly
due to the scarcit}' of w^ater and the consequent absence of large perennial
streams, which render difficult and expensive the transportation of
logs from the mountains. Artificial plantations have been of little
value as a source of building timber, eucalyptus wood particulai'ly
being deficient in durabilitv.

Some of the native timber trees promise well, and may some day
come into extensive use. Live oak {Quercus haUota) and Zen oak {Q.
lusitanlca)i\xvms\\?ix\ exceedingly hardwood that is somewhat difficult
to work. Wood of the Zen oak is particularly valuable for making
brandy casks. The extremely durable wood of the Atlas cedar is
excellent for railway ties, and is sometimes used in cabinetmaking,
its pleasant odor enhancing its value for the latter purpose. Long
immersion in water renders it almost indestructible. Arbor vita^ has
a beautifully colored wood, variegated with numerous knots, and is
highl}' esteemed b}' cabinetmakers.

94 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

CORK.

. The total area occupied by the cork oak in Algeria is estimated at
1,025,000 acres, of which 725,000 acres are being- exploited at the
present time. About 60 per cent of the entire area belongs to the
public domain. The total production of cork in 181>9 amounted to
15,900 tons. It is estimated that if all the cork oak of the colony
were in a productive state an aniuial revenue of from $2,000,000 to
$4,000,000 could be derived from this source.

The cork oak ranges from sea level up to about 4,500 feet, the largest
forests being found in the mountains of the coast region in north-
eastern Algeria, the western part of the colony l)eing generally too dry
for this tree. It avoids limestone, attaining its highest development
on soils derived from the Numidian sandstone, where these soils are
underlain by a subsoil heavy enough to retain considerable water.

The tree is usual 1}^ of medium height and size, but its trunk some-
times reaches a circumference of more than 30 feet. The largest
individuals'are invariably hollow. The crooked truidt and irregular
branching give this tree an unkempt, straggling appearance. The
evergreen foliage resembles that of the live oak of the Southern
States. The wood is of little value, the important products of this
tree being cork and tan bark.

Well-managed forests of cork oak are kept free from undergrowth,
thus diminishing the likelihood of loss from fire, to which they are
peculiarly liable. The danger is greatest in September, when the
sirocco is blowing. Fires are often wantonly kindled in the oak for-
ests by malcontent natives and spread with terrible rapidity, fre-
quently devastating vast areas. Only natural forests are exploited in
Algeria, no attempt ever having been made to establish artiticial
plantations.

In bringing a forest of cork oak into condition for exploitation the
tirst step is to remove the layer of old or "male" cork which forms
under natural conditions. This operation, which requires considerable
skill, is performed in the spring when the sap is beginning to rise.
The subsequent yield depends largely upon the way in which this work
of ' ' demasclage " is done. It is advisable to put back into place the
layer thus removed, fastening it around the trunk by means of wire
and leaving it there for about two years; otherwise the trees are
very liable to injury from dry, hot winds and from tire. Wrapping
the trees in this way also prevents a second development of the worth-
less male cork.

The new cork which now begins to form is alone of commercial
value. It is deposited at the rate of from 0.04 to 0.12 inch annually,
and the first harvest is taken when the layer of cork has reached a
thickness of about 1 inch. Thereafter the cork is removed every

1

FORESTRY. 95

eight or ten years, the later crops yielding- a better product than the
earlier ones. The expense of each harvest from a single tree is about
2 cents.

Individual trees differ greatly in the rate at which cork is formed.
As a rule, the best product is that which develops most slowly. Rap-
idl}^ growing cork is more abundantly veined with loose tissue, which
diminishes its value. The cork is sometimes seriously injured on the
tree by the ravages of ants, which build galleries in it. The tree has
also other insect enemies.

The cork, when cut, rolls up into tubes of the size of the trunk from
which it was taken. It is first pressed out into sheets, then l)oiled,
and finally the crust of bark is removed by scraping. Boiling increases
the bulk by about one-tifth and renders the cork more elastic.

An acre of cork oak in full production jaelds a net annual revenue of
about $2. The product from a single tree is worth from 4 to 10 cents
a year after all expenses are deducted. Algerian cork sells at from 3i
to 10 cents per pound,

TAN BARK.

The forests of Algeria furnish a large amount of bark for tanning.
The annual export of tan bark, chiefly to Great Britain and Itah',
amounts to about $200,000. A considerable quantity is also consunied
in the colony itself, the manufacture of leather being an important
industry among the natives.

Most of this bark is furnished by several species of oak. The Ker-
mes oak {Qnercus coccifera) ranks first in production, the bark of the
root being used. The forests of cork oak, especially those belonging to
natives, also furnish a large quantity. The collection of the bark is
generally done in such a way as to kill the tree, although if proper
precautions were observed the forests could be exploited for tan bark
without diminishing their production of cork. The bark of this oak
yields about 19 per cent of tannin, A single tree will furnish several
hundred pounds of bark, a ton of which sells for from $22.50 to 137.50.

Various tannin-producing plants, such as Australian species of acacia,
which furnish the wattle bark of commerce, canaigre, and the Valonia
oak, have been recommended for cultivation in Algeria, but none of
these has yet become of practical importance. In Tunis experiments
are being made by the government in the cultivation of the Sicilian
sumac {Rhus co7'ia?'ia), the powdered leaves of which are a valuable
material for tanning.

ALFA.

The Arabs use the word "half a" in much the same way as the term
"bunch grass" is used in the western United States to designate any
coarse, rush-like grass that grows in tufts. The "alfa" of the French

96 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA,

colonists signifies, liowcver, onl}' the species known in Spain as
"esparto" {Stipa tenachsima). The tough, fibrous leaves of this grass
are used in manufacturing paper, basket ware, hats, cordage, etc. It
is a long-lived plant, having strong, much branched rootstocks, which
give it a good hold upon the soil. The young plant forms a dense
tuft, which later takes the form of a hollow circle, as the stems in the
center die out. This in turn becomes broken up into separate tufts,
each of which is the starting point of a new circle. The leaves are
like those of many other so-called "steppe" grasses, being flat and
green during the rainy period, but turning yellowish white and rolling
up into quills when the dry season sets in. They average from 20 to
30 inches in length, and end in long, sharp points. The leaves last
about two 3'ears. The older ones are often infested with fungi, which
usually attack first the point of the leaf.

Alfa grass covers large areas in S^Tain and in northern Africa. In
Algeria it is most characteristic of the high plateau region, where it
often occupies, almost alone, enormous expanses of the undulating
plains, forming the so-called "sea of alfa." It is not, however, con-
fined to the high plateau, and even reaches the seashore in extreme
western Algeria. It ascends in the mountains to a maximum eleva-
tion of 6,000 feet. Where the average annual rainfall exceeds 2()
inches a year alfa does not flourish. It prefers a dry, sandy soil, and
will not endure the presence of any considerable amount of salt. In
moist depressions, where the soil is clayey, other species take its place.

It is difficult to obtain an accurate estimate of the total area occupied
in Algeria by this grass. Some authorities give 12,500,000 acres in
the high plateau region alone, but this is doubtless an exaggeration.
The alfa land of the colony belongs partly to the government and
partl}^ to individuals or private companies. The government concedes
the right of exploitation for the modest sum of about 1 cent per acre.
The holders of concessions, in their turn, usually sublet their rights to
a contractor.

A stand of alfa in its natural condition is less valuable than one
from which the leaves are regularl}^ harvested. In the former case
there are many more or less worthless old leaves mixed with the
young leaves. When the exploitation of a stand is begun it is cus-
tomary to burn it over so as to destroy the coarse old leaves. There-
after, if the crop is harvested every season, only small, flue leaves,
much stronger and more uniform in length than the older ones, are
obtained. By firing a tract repeatedly for several successive years
"white alfa," with extremely fine, flexible, light-colored leaves, is
produced. Long-continued exploitation of a stand, without allowing
it an}' rest, greatly weakens the plants. In fact, alfa has in this way
been virtuall}- exterminated in some of the more accessible areas.

FORESTRY.

97

As attempts to form artiticial plantations of alfa have not so far
[)rored successfur. there is dano-er of the total annihihitionof this indus-
try, which, after stock raising-, is the mainstay of the population of
the high plateau region. To prevent this consummation, a closed
season of four months has ])een established by law. Alfa can not V)e
legally harvested or purchased from gatherers in the high plateau,
region during the months of Marcli, April. JNlay. and June. In the
coast region the closed season extends from the middle of January to
the middle of jVIay.

The contractor who undertakes to harvest alfa puts up a barn on
the tract and secures Spanish or Arab laborers, whom he provides
with f(X)d and watei', to gather the leaves. Alfa harvesters sometimes
come long distances with their families, attracted l)y the high prices
paid for this work. A good laborer can gather, in a day, 650 to 900
pounds of green leaves, for which he is paid nowadays at the rate of
about 18 cents per 100 pounds.

The oathering of alfa is still done exact] v as classical writers described
the process in the times of the Romans. The harvester starts out early
in the morning and selects a spot where there is plenty of the grass.
Fastened to his left hand by a leather thong is a stick about 16 inches
long. AVith hrs right hand he seizes a cluster of the tough leaves,
rolls them obliquely around the stick, and gives a strong' pull with both
hands. This breaks ofl' most of the blades at the point where the}^ join
the sheaths, although some of the sheaths generally come up with the
blades and must be broken off by a second pull. The leaves are packed
as fast as they are gathered into baskets, which are then carried to the
barn. The green alfa sent in by each harvester is weighed and is then
stacked in ricks. When dry it is sorted to remove any sheaths and
branches that may still be attached to the leaves. It is baled under a
hydraulic press and the bales are secured with hoops. The pi'oduct is
then ready for transportation to the nearest seaport.

Algeria now exports annually nearly 80,000 tons of alfa, which is
approximately 35 per cent of the entire output of alfa-producing coun-
tries. The total value of the export from Algeria is nearly Si, 500,000
a year. England is the largest purchaser, taking, indeed, nearly 90
per cent of the entire world's supply of alfa. France and Belgium
also import considerable quantities.

INIore than 9t» per cent of the total amount of alfa produced is used
in the manufacture of superior grades of paper. Paper made from
the leaves of alfa is strong, transparent, of a silky texture, and very
light in proportion to its thickness. It is preferred to any other for
printing costly books and engravings.

The best grades of alfa. however, are used in making basket ware,
hats, and matting, Ininging a price almost twice as great as is paid for

28y;32— No. 80—05 7

98 AGRICULTURAL EXPLORATIONS IN ALGERIA.

that used in paper manufacture. The finest Ixiskets are made from
the "white alfa."' Rope, brooms, and other articles are also manu-
factured from the leaves of this grass.

DWARF PALM.

The leaves of the dwarf palm {Chama^rojjs h>/strix) are much used
by the Arabs for thatching- their huts, making crates in which fruit is
packed, etc. ; but the only product of this plant which enters largely
into commerce is the tiber, which constitutes about 40 per cent of the
weight of the fresh leaves. Under the name of *' vegetable hair" this
tiber is exported in considerable quantity. It is used for stuffing
mattresses and upholstered furniture. A cheap grade of rope, selling
for about SO cents per 100 pounds, is also made from it. The dwarf
palm, like alfa, is never cultivated, only the natural growth being-
exploited. While alfa is preeminently a plant of the high plateau
the dwarf palm belongs to the coast region, where it formerly covered
vast expanses. Although still abundant, this plant is rapidly disap-
pearing as more and more land is brought into cultivation. Conuner-
cial exploitation has helped to accelerate its destruction, there being
numerous factories in Algeria for separating the tiber.

o

Bui. 80, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Fig. 1 .— Salt Land, near Relizane, in the Coast Region of Algeria.
Thi.s land, formerly cultivated, i.s now covered with a growtli of salt-loving weeds.

Fig. 2.— Vineyard of Wine Grapes in the Mitidja Plain, near Algiers-

3^'. S; 3^-i-^ "' P.aTTt Ir^js-.-j U. 5. Lepz. tjf Ag-icjl-:u'€.

P_A-E III.

Fig. 1.— Garden df t-

VE3E

Ka'D at TOUGOURT, ShCa ',3 C- = Ei3£. ^ =

iE_E5 Grown in ~-e S--:e :- ~-E =-_v3

i-sD Other

Fig. 2.— Di-E Pa^vs Pi_ANTED m Very Salty Land by a Fren:- C;v=a.NY at

OURLANA. ;N --E ?A-iRA.

Bui. 80, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IV.

Fig. 1.— Valley of the Habra Below the Reservoir Dam, near Perregaux,
Showing Width of Flood Plain and Small Size of the Stream in Summer.

,«-,..:.>..•.,;.►>>).; . .^»,i

Fig. 2.— Alkali-Resistant Alfalfa, near Temacin, Algerian Sahara.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 81.

B. T. GALLOWAY Chief of Bureau.

EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURES.

BY

O. F. COOK AND WALTER T. SWINGLE.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL

INVESTIGATIONS.

Issued August 4, 1905.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1905.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes A^ege-
table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investigations and
Experiments, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, Pomological Investigations, and
Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of which were formerly separate Divisions,
and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, the Arlington Experimental
Farm, Tea Culture Investigations, and Domestic Sugar Investigations.

Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of Bulle-
tins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published as one
series of the Bureau. A list of the Bulletins issued in the present series follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that "the serial, scientific, and technical publica-
tions of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general distribution.
All copies not required for official use -are by law turned over to the Superintendent
of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All applications for such
puV^lications should, therefore, be made to the Superintendent of Documents, Gov-
ernment Printing Oflice, Washington, D. C.

No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. . Price, 10 cents.

2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

10. Records of Seed Distributior and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses and

Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

13. Experiments in Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10

cents.

14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents.

15. Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price,

15 cents.

16. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Campes-

tris and Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

18. Observations on the Mo.saic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. Price, 35 cents.

22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

23. Berseem. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous Papers: I. The Seeds of Rescue Grass and Chess. II. Saragolla

Wheat. III. Plant Introduction Notes from South Africa. IV. Congres-
sional Seed and Plant Distribution Circulars, 1902-1903. 1903. Price, 15
cents.

26. Spanish Almonds. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, Spain, and the Orient. 1902.

Price, 15 cents.

28. The Mango in Porto Rico. .1903. Price, 15 cents.

29. The Effect of Black Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

[Continued on page 3 of cover.]

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY- BULLETIN NO. 81.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chirf of Bureau.

EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURES.

BY

O. F. COOK AND WALTER T. SWINGLE.

VEGETABLK PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATIONS.

Issued August 4, 1905.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1905.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

B. T. GALLOWAY,

Pathologid and PhysinlogM, and ChirJ of Bureau.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Albert F. Woods, PathologiM and Physiologist in Charge, Acting Chief of Bureau in Absence of Chief .

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS.

Frederick V. Coville; Botanist in Charge.

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.
W. J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
G. B. Brackett, Pomologi.it in Charge.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.
A. J. Pieters, Botanist in Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.
L. C. CORBETT, Horticulturist in Charge.

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.
E. M. BvRNES, Superintendent.

J. E. Rockwell, Editor.
James E. Jones, Chief Clerk.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge.

Erwin F. Smith, Pathologiitt in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Pathology.

George T. Moore, Physiologist in Charge of Labordtory of Plant Physiology.

Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Breeding.

Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Life History.

Newton B. Pierce, Pathologist in. Charge of Pacific Coast Laboratory.

M. B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge of Investigations of Diseases of Orchard Fruits.

Mark Alfred Carleton, Cercalist in Charge of Cereal Investigations.

Hermann von Schrenk, iti Charge of Mississippi Valley Laboratory.

P. H. Rolfs, Pathologist in Charge of Subtropical Laboratory.

C. O. Townsend, Pathologist in Charge of Sugar Beet Investigations.

P. H. DoRSETT.a Pathologist.

T. H. Kearney, Physiologist, Plant Breeding.

Cornelius L. Shear, Pathologist.

William A. Orton, Pathologist.

W. M. Scott, Pathologist.

Joseph S. Chamberlain,'' Physiological Chemist, Cereal Investigations.

Ernst A. Bessey, Pathologist.

Flora W. Patterson, Mycologist.

Charles P. Hartley, Assistant in Physiology, Plant Breeding.

Karl F. Kellerman, Assistant m. Physiology.

Deane B. Swingle, Assistant in Pathology.

Jesse B. Norton, Assista7it in Physiology, Plant Breeding.

James B. Rorer, Assistant in Pathology.

Lloyd S. Tenny, Assistant in. Pathology.

George G. Hedgcock, Assistant in Pathology.

Perley Spaulding, Scientific Assistant.

P. J. O'Gara, Scientific Assistant, Plant Pathology.

A. D. Shamel, Scientific A.^sistant, Plant Breeding.

T. Ralph Robinson, Assistant in Physiology.

Florence Hedges, Scieiitific Assistant, Bacteriology.

Charles J. Brand, Assistant in Physiology, Plant Life History.

Henry A. Miller, Scientific As.siManf, Cereal Investigations.

Ernest B. Brown, Scientific Assi.-<tant. Plant Breeding.

Leslie A. Fitz, Scientific Assi.^itant, Cereal Investigations.

Leonard L. Harter, Scientific As.nstant, Plant Breeding.

John O. Merwin, Scie7itific Assistant.

W. W. CoBEY', Tobacco Expert.

John van Leenhoff, Jr., E.rpert.

J. Arthur Le Clerc.c Physiological Chemist, Cereal Investigations.

T. D. Beckwith, Expert, Plant Physiology.

"Detailed to Seed and Plant Introdnction and Distribution,
b Detailed to Bureau of Chemistry.
c Detailed from Bureau of Chemistry.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agricut>ture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,

Washmgtov, I). C, 3Iay SI, 1905.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for
pubHcation as Bulletin No. 81 of the series of this Bureau, the accom-
panying technical paper entitled '"•Evolution of Cellular Structures."
This paper was prepared by Messrs. O. F. Cook and Walter T.
Swingle, and has been sul)mitted by the Pathologist and Physiologist
with a view to its publication.

The accompanying plate is necessary to a complete understanding
of the text of this bulletin.

Respectfully, B. T. Galloway,

Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,

8e(yretary of Agriculture.

3

PREFACE.

Ever since the epoch-making- discoveiy of Charles Darwin there has
been a steadily increasing- influence of the theory of evolution on the
scientific study and practical utilization of the plants and animals on
which agriculture is based. The present paper marks a step in
the further working out of the doctrine of descent, inasmuch as it
embodies results of an association of the data won in two ver}^ different
fields of investigation; one making the cell its object of study, the
other occupied with the species. The results herewith presented open
new views as to the nature of higher animals and plants which can
not fail to stimulate research and which promise to have great
economic significance in the determination of the actual and latent
capacities of the organisms utilized by man.

A. F. Woods,
Pathologist and PJiysiologist.

Office of Vegetable Pathological

AND Physiological Investic^ations,

Washinyton, D. 6'., May 8, 1905.

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction 9

The elimination of the simple-celled phase 12

Alternation of structural types 13

Sexuality a mechanism of evolution 15

Two types of double-celled structures 16

Heredity in reticular descent 20

Summary 22

Explanation of plate 26

7
29810— No. 81—05 2

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE.

y-Age
Plate I. Diagram illnstratiiig the network of descent, succession of genera-
tions, alternating piiases, and expansion of the fertihzed egg 26

TEXT FKiURES.

Fi(i. 1. Diagram showing the different types of cell structures and their posi-
tion in the life history of organisms 18

2. Diagram showing the relative importance of the paragamic, ai)aylo-
ganiic, and haplogamic phases in the life history of various groups
of organisms 18

8

H- I'- I.-IW. V. P. V. I.— 135.

EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURES.

INTRODUCTION.

The value of a new point of view lies in the fact that it permits new
relations to be perceived. By means of the kinetic theory of evolution
it has become possible to understand that organic development has
been carried forward through gradual improvement of the methods of
descent rather than by environmental causes. Instead of there beino-
a law of heredity which tends to keep the individuals of a species
uniform, or exactly alike, the tendency, especially among higher
plants and animals, is to maintain, inside the species, a diversity of
form and structure, most conspicuously manifested in the phenome-
non of sex.

This intraspecitic diversit}^ is neither accidental nor incidental, but
of great physiological and evolutionary importance. The interweav-
ing of distinct lines of descent is necessary to sustain the strength and
vital efficienc}^ of the individual organisms, and to continue the evo-
lutionary progress by which the species adapts itself to changing
environments or enters new ones. Interbreeding is as indispensable
for the species as for the individual, or even more so, for seedless
plants continue their individual existences after the coherence of the
specific group has been lost.

Normal and long-sustained evolutionary progress is not accomplished
on single or narrow lines of descent, but is possible only for large
companies of interbreeding individuals; that is to say, for species. It
is thus no mere accident, but a fundamental necessitv, which brines
about the association of organic individuals into species and determines
what might be called the specific constitution of living matter.
Species are sexual phenomena; they ha^e come where they are only
through symbasis; that is, as groups of interbreeding individuals,
traveling together along the evohitionary pathway.

This interpretation of familiar l)iological facts i,s supplemented and
confirmed by the study t)f the processes of cell conjugation, which are
the means of sym basic interbreeding. Among simple organisms con-
jugation is a periodical incident in the multiplication of equal and
independent cells. Higher stages of organization were reached by
the production within the same species of many kinds of cells and the
building of these into large colonies or compound individuals. There
was, however, a very earh^ limit to the structures which could be

9

10 EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURES.

built of the primitive, .simple t3'pe of cells, as illustrated by the fila-
ment of the lower alga, the vegetative mycelium of the fungus, and
the thallus of the liverwort. The plant series would have culminated,
apparently, with the leafy axis of the moss if the basis of organiza-
tion had not l)een changed from the primary or simple type of cells to
the double or sexual tj^pe.

In undifferentiated unicellular or equal-celled (isocytic) organisms
the successive generations of cells may be thought of as joined into a
network by an occasional conjugation. The cells at the knots of the
network are, as we know, double, being formed from the association
of two nuclei and the accompanying protoplasms. They are often
strikingly different from the remainder of the cellular fabric of
descent, and have been given special names, such as oospore, zygo-
spore, and resting spore. In the first or lowest category of sexual
organisms only one cell in each generation is double; there is only one
large bead at each node of the genealogical network. (See PI. I.)
A second type of organic structure was initiated when an organism
attained the art of forming two or more of these double cells by divi-
sion.'^* It is of such double cells that all the higher plants and animals
are built. The new type of organization was not merely supplemen-
tary to the old; it was a new biological invention, giving rise to a new
category of vitality, which not only outstripped the old type of struc-
tural organization, but even caused it to be abandoned and eliminated
as a worse than useless impediment.

Organisms which were farthest ahead on the primitive basis have
fallen far behind since the new course of development was opened.
In such groups as the liverworts, mosses, and ferns the diversity of
the two types of organic structure is strikingly obvious, and has
received extensive study for years past under the name of " alterna-
tion of generations." Ample homologies have been found in the
highest groups of plants to show that the so-called alteration of gen-
erations was everywhere in ancestral condition, and that all have
followed essentially the same histor}'^ in having abandoned the simple
type of cell for the double as the basis of structural development.

« The terminology followed in this paper presupposes for convenience the exist-
ence of the cellular type of organization common to most animals and plants. The
conclusions here reached apply with equal force, however, to organisms such as the
Infusoria among the protozoa, the Siphonocladiacepe among the algte, and the
Saprolegniales and Mucorales among the fungi, in all of which groups considera-
ble structural differentiation is attained without any division of the organism into
cells. Such forms as Caulerpa and Aceta1)ularia among the Siphonocladiacea^ reach
a considerable size and even show a well-marked differentiation into the analogue
of stem and leaf, rhizome and root, without the enormously expanded thallus being
divided up into cells at all, although very.numerous nuclei arise by subdivision and
are scattered througliout tlie cytoplasm. These nuclei could l)e double, in which
case such plants would be directly homologous to the double-celled organisms
described in the following pages.

INTRODUCTrON. H

That these convei-ginu- (hita pointed to something- of fundamental
evolutionary .si^'iiiMeance has ))eenc'onhdentl3' believed since the publi-
cation a decade aoo of Strasburg-er's epoch-making essay entitled '' The
Periodic Reduction of the Number of the Chromosomes in the Life-
History of Living- Organisms/'" but a new evolutionary standpoint
•was required before the larger import of the facts could be perceived.
The reduction of chromosomes is indeed a striking and unique phe-
nomenon in the life history of organisms, and it naturally became the
focus of interest in the rapidly developing science of cytology, A
new point of view was the more necessary, however, because of an
unfortunate choice of terms which has undoubtedly tended to prevent
the perception of the true relations of the facts, as it now interferes
with a correct description of them. We refer to the characterization
of thehig-her, double-celled, spore-bearing- " generation " as "asexual,"
Appreciating the primitive character of such structures as the pro-
thallus in ferns, Strasburger asserted that a new "asexual generation"
had been intercalated into the life history of organisms. It is now
perceived that for cytological purposes this is not the whole truth,
and that for evolutionary purposes it is not true at all. The new
" generation" was not merely intercalated into the life history of the
organism; it was intercalated into \hQ sex aal process . It is, therefore,
not asexual, but sexual, and in a higher degree than the so-called sex-
ual generation. The latter bears, it is true, the cells which conjugate,
but the former is produced during the actual process of conjugation.
Organic perfection has been attained, not through the development of
an "asexual generation," but by the lengthening out of the sexual
process itself; not by abandoning or avoiding sexuality, but directlv
by means of it.

Among the lower plants the single cell formed by conjugation accom-
plishes in a brief space of time all the cytological processes which in
the higher plants come l)etween fertilization and chromosome reduc-
tion. Sexual fusion is immediate and complete, and takes place during
a brief period of interruption of the growth and su])divisi()n of vegeta-
tive cells. If the vegetative fern prothallus is to be termed sexual
because it produces antheridia and archegonia, the sporophyte is sex-
ual to the second degree, for it is built of conjugating cells, contain-
ing, until synapsis and the subsequent reducing- divisions, a doul)le
number of chromosomes, the parental chromatin elements being still
unfused. However important chromosome reduction may be, it is,
after all, only a corollary or sequel of the douhliiuj conjugation. It
was not the reducing division, ])ut tJie long postponement of the reduc-
tion division ^\\\\K'\\ permitted higher t^'pesof organisms to be developed
by means of double, sexual cells.

A special evolutionary significance was ascribed to the chromosome

•' Strasbiirjrcr, Ivlw aid, \nii:.is,.l I'.dtiuiv, 1S94, S: 2S1--.S1(>.

12 EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURES.

reduction ))ecause c3'tology was approached from the standpoint of the
somatic tissues of the higher plants and animals. This current inter-
pretation reverses, however, the historical course of events. The
reducing division was not an expedient incidental to the adoption of a
process of sexual reproduction by organisms previously sexless. It
VMS not the redaction to fewer chromosomes^ hut the retention of the
douhle numher, that constituted the important step in sexual rejyroducti on
and made j^ossihle the evolution of comjilex hiijlter organisms. It is,
therefore, not the reducing division, hut the doii})ling conjugation,
which should constitute the datum point or base line for tracing cyto-
logical homologies.

THE ELIMINATION OF THE SIMPLE-CELLED PHASE.

Chromosome reduction brought about b}" synapsis, or the fusion of
the chromatin elements, followed by two special nuclear divisions, is
not, historically speaking, the beginning- of the sexual process, but
the end of it. Chromosome reduction stands in no special causal rela-
tion to the subsequent conjugation. The number of cell generations
formed between synapsis and conjugation differs greatly in the various
natural groups, and merely shows how far the organism still adheres
to its old simple-celled life history. Fecundation and synapsis, as the
beginning and the end of the sexual process, would seem to ))e directly
comparable in all organisms which have developed a double-celled
sexual phase.

From the physiological standpoint, it may be an advantage to dis-
pense with the simple-celled phase and thus shorten the period between
the chromosome reduction which marks the end of one conjugation
and the cell fusion which begins another. S3niapsis relieves organic
fatigue bv means of new nuclear configurations, and has been thought
of as a stimulant of vital activity" or eiKU'gy of growth, the benetit of
which can be secured for the new double-celled structure by ver}'
prompt conjugation, as occurs in all the higher plants and animals.
This consideration would help to explain the organic inferiority of such
a group as the ferns, which, although they have developed a double-
celled phase, continue to waste the energy derived from S3'napsis on a
worse than useless simple-celled structui'c.

In all animals above protozoa this rechiction of the simple-celled
phase has gone so far as to result in its complete elimination, for the
two peculiar nuclear divisions which occur in rapid succession innne-
diately after s3'napsis constitute an essential part of chromatin reduc-
tion. That these phenomena noted are indissociablv comiected stages
in the process of chromosome reduction has been emphasized recentl3'
b3^ Farmer and Moore," who propose the convenient term maiosis to

« Farmer, J. B., and Moore, J. E. S. On the Maiotic Pha.se (Reduction' Divif^ions)
in Animals and Plants, in Quarterly Journal ol Microscoi^ical Science, n. 8., No. 192
(vol. 48, No. 4), Feb., 1905, pp. 489-5,57, 7->l. SJ '

ALTERNATION OF STRUCTURAL TYPES. 13

include synapsis and the subsequent heterot3'pe and homotj'pe nuclear
divisions."

ALTERNATION OF STRUCTURAL, TYPES.

"Alternation of generations" is an expression borrowed from zool-
ogy; its application to the archegoniate plants has introduced endless
complexities, and can be justified, after all, only by false analogies.
Alternation of generations was discovered b\^ Chamisso in a species of
Salpa, a marine animal belonging to the Tunicates; but here, as well
as in the ti-aditional zoological example of the Aphides, or plant lice,
the phenomena have entirely different evolutionary significance from
the so-called antithe'tic alternation of generations in the archeo-oniate.
Generations or individual life cycles of Salpa and of plant lice, which
were original!}' alike, have become different, so that now partheno-
genetic generations alternate with sexual generations. To make the
archegoniate plants a jmrallel instance, it would be necessary to assume
that what is now called the sporophyte was originally another thallus,
or something that corresponded to one, which later on became modified
into the sporophytic "generation." To state the case in this way may
seem quite su]3erfluous, since nobody has made such a suggestion.
Stras])urger and others have repeatedly declared that the so-called
asexual generation had been intercalated — that is, added anew — and
not substituted for something else. This, however, makes it only the
more obvious that the sporophyte is a generation onh' in a very loose
and inaccurate sense, and not because it corresponds to or takes the
place of any other generation. The simple fact is that, instead of form-
ing merely one oospore as the result of fertilization, the archegoniates
have come to form a whole sporophyte or double-celled structure by
the multiplication and progressive sterilization of potentially sporoge-
nous tissue, as Bower has shown. '^

Bower's generalization is, however, only a half truth, since the sterili-
zation, or, better, the arrest of spore formation of some of the cells, is
conditioned on the possibility of continued subdivision and growth of
the fertilized egg, and this can occur only when there is a definite

«To recognize, liowever, as Farmer and Moore do, these two cell generations as a
distinct "maiotic pliase" in the life history of Metaphyta and Metazoa does not
seem warranted, since chromosome reduction is apparently a mechanical necessity
resulting from sexual conjugation and is consequently brought about in a practically
identical manner in all symbasic organisms, from the lowest to the highest. Maiosis
is rather a connecting link at the node in the network of descent than a distinct
phase subject to expansion or contraction as organisms mount in the scale of evolu-
tionary progress. On the other hand it is clear that the two peculiar cell generations
occurring during maiosis can not proi)erly be clas.sed with the double-celled pha^^e
that usually precedes or with the simple-celled phase that usually follows, but con-
stitute a transition stage marking the end of one generation and the beginning of
another.

''Bower, F. O. A Theory of the Strobilus in Archegoniate Plants. Annals of
Botany, 8:343-365. 1894.

14 EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURES.

postponement of some stage of sexual fusion, for if the final stage
is once reached and the chromatin fuses, no further growth is possible,
and a new veneration is inaugurated automatically. When .sexual
fusion is immediate and complete, i. e., when nuclear fusion follows
close on cell conjugation and is in turn at once succeeded by chromatic
fusion, no development of the oospore can occur; it simply breaks up
into four spores. Such was once the fate of the eggs of all organisms,
and such is still their fate in the lower plants. All development of the
fertilized egg other than a simple splitting into four spores is due
to an arrest of the process of sexual fusion which permits its expansion
into a mass of dou])le cells, such as constitute the bodies of higher
animals and plants. " It is, however, clear that the effect of such an
arrest in the process of sexual conjugation and consequent intercala-
tion of a double-celled phase in the life history of the organism is to
lengthen the life cycle; it lessens the number of generations instead
of making more of them.

Notwithstanding half a century of endeavor, l)otanists and zoolo-
gists have not yet found in the higher animals an}^ definite homologue
of the so-called antithetic alternation of generations discovered by
Hofmeister^ in the archegoniate plants. The whole idea of alternat-
ing generations must, however, be abandoned and emphasis placed
instead on the expansion of the oospore or fecundated egg into a
double-celled phase that comes to occupy a larger and larger part of
the life cycle as organisms mount higher in the scale of evolutionary
progress. It then becomes evident that in higher animals (Metazoa)'
the expansion of this phase has gone so far that the simple-celled stage
has been completely suppressed, and in consequence their life history
is as free from alternating phases as that of the lower plants, though
for a very different reason. The lower groups show no expansion of
the fertilized egg. The higher animals consist of nothing else.*"

« It is clear that the expansion of the fertiHzed egg could occur in siphonaceous
algfe and fungi without any cross walls forming between the nuclei as they arise by
sul)division. The mature thallus of an Acetabularia is obviously the enormously
expanded syngamete and may or may not contain double nuclei. On the other hand,
the Infusoria may be found to consist of one double cell, the successive cell genera-
tions not adhering to form a tissue.

^Hofmeister, W., Vergleichende Untersuchungen der Keimung, Entfaltung und
Fruchtbildung hoherer Kryptogamen und der Samenbildung der Coniferen. Leip-
zig. 185L

•^This fact is obscured, but not negated, by the splitting uj) during chromosome
reduction of the egg and sperm mother cells of animals into four gametes, which are
simple cells, but which are no longer capable of further development unless they
conjugate. As previously noted (p. 1.3, footnote (i), these two cell generations occur-
ring during chromosome reduction constitute a transition stage between the old and
the new generations and can not properly be classed with the simple-celled phase.

The occurrence of alternating i)hases in the life history of an organism indicates
that it is in an unstable evolutionary condition, since it has not yet attained the

SEXUALITY A MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION. 15

That there are two unicelhilar stages in the life history of an orpmisni
should not l)e allowed to introduce any confusing- technicalities. For
genealogical pur})oses the spore is quite as nuich the descendant of the
antherozoid and the egg cell as it would be if the other tissues of the
sporoph^'te had not been intercalated. From chromosome redu(^tion
to chromosome reduction, from spore to spore, or from egg to egg is
one generation, and not two. The prothallus is no more m3^sterious
than an}'- other piece of ancient history. The ferns were originally
liverworts, the capsules of which had the good fortune to get roots
into the ground and keep on growing, but they have not yet learned
to dispense with their tirst vain attempt. at building a structure on a
simple-celled basis.

SEXUALITY A MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION.

Stress has also been laid upon this supposed alternation of "sexual"
and " asexual" generations in the belief that a clew was here to be
gained regarding the natiu'e of sex and of attendant "mechanisms of
heredity." But since only one generation is really involved instead of
two, and since the phase of existence which has been termed asexual
is in realit}^ the more strongly sexual, it is not surprising that these
expectations have not been realized. Sexuality facilitates interbreed-
ing and makes it the more effective by distributing new variations
throughout the species; it is, in short, a mechanism of diversification and
of evolution, a fundamental and universal fact which stands squarely
in the way of the alleged law of heredity under which organisms would
breed true and be exactl}^ alike. This notion of a uniform and Tuichang-
ing heredity," or of any natural tendency to such a condition of organic

most effective type of organization. The persistence of a clearly two-phased condi-
tion in the vascnlar cryptogams and of a reduced alternation of phases, even in the
highest algae and flowering plants, is a proof of the extreme slowness of the evolu-
tionary i)rogress of the plant kingdom. Animals seem to have passed through the
dipliase period of their existence before the dawn of geologic history, and appear in
the oldest fossil-bearing strata, not only as completely double-celled organisms but
highly differentiated ones at that. Not only are there no traces of the two-phased
progenitors which must have gone before the lowest known fossil organisms, but up to
now zoologists have not realized the need of postulating such forms at all, and have
been content to derive the higher animals from merely simpler but always com-
pletely double-celled ancestors, which, of course, are not primitive. It seems not
improbable that the completely double-celled condition has been reached inile-
pendently by different groups of higher animals, just as it has been approximated,
though not attained, ]>y the Fucacese and the phanerogams among plants. The
animal kingdom does not contain, so far as is now known, a single species that
shows alternating phases in its life history; it has no counterparts of all that wealth
of forms ^-hich in the plant kingdom bridge the interval from the protophytes to
the flowering plants.

«" The modifications introduced into palingenesis by kenogenesis are vitiations,
strange, meaningless additions to the original, true course of evolution." — Haeckrl,
Evolution of Man, vol. 11, p. 460, note 9.

16 EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURES.

stagnation, can well be relegated to the liinl)o of h^'potheses which
have not proved useful. Heredity is not a mechanism or a force; it
is merely another name for the property of organic continuity or suc-
cession. There is no more heredity in an organism at one stage of its
life history than at another.

Sexual and other diversities inside specific lines are not useless
morphological complexities or mere failures in the execution of a
fundamental plan of complete uniformity. Diversity, interbreeding,
and evolution are physiological factors of the highest importance in
maintaining vital efficiency.

Morphologically speaking, sexuality is a specialization of the inter-
nal diversity of the species, and among plants, at least, it has been
attained independently in a large num))er of unrelated natural groups.
There are grades of sexual difierentiation just as there are of organic
structures. Moss plants and fern prothalli may be sexually ditieren-,
tiated and the diti'erentiation may occur farther back in the spore
itself, or even in the sporophyte or double-celled phase, as in the
flowering plants and the higher animals. Thus in the same species
there may be two sexualities, one in the simphvcelled stage and
another in the double, and these may have no homology or causal con-
nection, except as they both serve the same purpose of promoting
more efficient symbasis. Indeed, the sexuality of the highest types of
organization is not merely double, but threefold; the individual has
sex, as a whole; the double cells of which the body is composed are a
part of a sexual process, and the simple cells which it produces for the
initiation of a new generation are sexually difi'erentiated.

TWO TYPES OF DOUBLE-CELLED STRUCTURES.

That organisms are everywhere associated in species is not because
of some undiscovered principle or mechanism of heredity; it is simply
because the interweaving of the lines of individual descent is being
maintained, without which the specific association would be dissolved
into indefinite radial divergence and degeneration, as among the varie-
ties of bananas and other plants long propagated from cuttings. Many
explanations have been conjectured for the supposed absence of sexual
reproduction among the higher groups of fungi. From the standpoint
of a symbasic evolution, however, it becomes evident that the exist-
ence of true, coherent species among these fungi is a sufficient evidence
of interbreeding, and hence of sexuality. There is in many groups a
deficiency of specialized sexual organs, but these are rendered unneces
sary by abundant opportunities for direct conjugation among the
mycelial filaments.

That the cells of the more complex reproductive tissues of the higher
fungi are known to have two nuclei, while in the younger mycelium

»

TWO TYPES OF DOUBLPJ-CELLED STRUCTURES. l7

there is only one, might ulso have been accepted as proving that con-
jugation had tal^en phice. This does not mean, of course, that cross-
fertilization is indispensable for spore production among the fungi,
but their habits of growth certainly give many opportunities for con-
jugations between m3^celia of different descent, by which the existence
of compact and well-defined species can be maintained, although the
peculiar structure of fungous tissues permits extreme variability of
the size and external form of the fruiting bodies.

In structural complexity, size, longevity, and other measures of
organic efficiency the biiuicleate fungi have an intermediate position
in the plant series. Their wide distribution and extensive ditieren-
tiation into species, families, and orders are evidences of ample oppor-
tunities in time and environment, so that it is not unfair to explain
their evolutionary limitations by reference to their peculiar type of
organic structure.

Sexual reproduction is accomplished through conjugation or fusion
of cells, a process which may be divided into three stages: (1) Plas-
mapsis, the fusion of the cytoplasm or unsppcialized protoplasm;
(2) karvapsis,'' the fusion of the nuclei or nuclear protoplasm; (3)
synapsis, the fusion of the chromatin. The binucleate cells of the
fungi may be said to have passed the stage of plasmapsis, but kary-
apsis, or true fecundation, like that of the higher plants and animals,
has not taken place.

For the form of sexuality which produces the binucleate cell struc-
tures of the higher fungi the nsune aj)(fi//oga7)iy \h proposed, in allusion
to the fact that the two nuclei have not yet associated. The higher
stage, where the nuclei fuse but the chromosomes remain apart, may
be c'd\\edj)<fra(/ami/^ which implies that the union is still incomplete,
but that a more intimate relation has been established. These two
double-celled conditions may be further contrasted with haplogamy^
the primitive method of undef erred combination of the sexual cells,
nuclei, and chromatin.

To the ''asexual generation," which is not asexual and not a gener-
ation, the term paragamic phase may be applied among the higher
plants and animals, the tissues of which are composed of cells with a

" The etymology of these terms will be obvious to all students of biology, plumia
and A;aryon being the familiar Greek renderings of protoplasm and nucleus, respec-
tively. The other element, cxi^i'i, signifies a binding or tying together and also a
mesh or network, a meaning especially appropriate in view of the reticular struc-
ture of living matter.

The series might be completed more logically by using the distinctive word
mitapsis as a substitute for synapsis, which in its etymology is scarcely more than a
Greek ecjuivalent for the general term conjugation. Mitapsis is derived from /liroi,
a thread, and alludes to the threadlike condition assumed by the chromatin during
the process of chromatic fusion.

18

EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURES.

PARAGAMIC phase:

KARY APSIS

APAYLOGAMIC PHASE

SYNAPSIS

HAPUOGAMIC PHASE

double nnm})er of cliromosomes. The binucleate structures of the
fung-i may })e referred to as the <q>t(ijl(Hiaiiiic j^hme. The so-called
"sexual generation" ma}- ))e called the haploganuc pltme in both
cases. These new terms might not be necessary if words were used

for descriptive pur-
poses only, but in
the present instance
they have general
implications too im-
portant to be disre-
garded.

H a p 1 o g a m i c
structures are built
between sy napsis"
and plasmapsis,
apaylogamic b e -
PLASMAPSIS tween plasmapsis

Fig. 1.— Diagram showing tlie dilYerenl types of cell structures aud and karvapsis, par-
their position in the life history of organisms. a g a m i' C l>et WCCn

karvapsis and sj^napsis. Between the three critical points of cyto-
logical activity there are three intervals, in which the organism can
pause to gain additional size or numbers Ijy vegetative division of
cells. The relations between the cell structures and the nuclear
processes are illustrated by the accompanying diagram (lig. 1).

No organisms
have, however,
structures built in
all the three phases.
The relative impor-
tance of each phase
in the life histories
of the different
natural groups can
also be illustrated
by simple diagrams,
as shown in figure 2.

The relative im-
portance of the dif-
ferent phases in the
life historv of the

ljower groups

Kt 7S

HIGHER FUNGI
Kt 7S

MOSSES

-e-

FERNS

FLOWERING PLANTS

Fig. 2.— Diagram showing the relative importance of the paragamio,
apaylogamic, and haplogamic phases in the life history of various
groups of organisms.

various groups of organisms can be represented in another way, as
is shown on Plate I. The diagrams on thifi plate show in addition
a network of descent in its simplest form, composed of successive
generations linked together at the first stage of conjugation. The
generations themselves are seen to be composed of alternating

TWO TYPES OF DOUBLE-CELLED STRUCTURES. 19

simple and double celled phases in or^^anisms of intermediate evolu-
tionary rank, and tinall\' the double-celled phase is shown to ])e an
expansion of the fertilized egg, which constitutes an increasingly
large part of the life history as organisms mount higher in the scale
of evolutionary progress.

It is- thus eas}^ to understand why the two t^^pes of double-celled
structures have ver}' unequal possibilities of organization. Two nuclei
are evidently better than one, but their association is too slight, appar-
ently, to gain much of the vital stimulus consequent upon the more
effective method of conjugation followed b}' the higher plants, where
the chromosomes of two fused nuclei lie in juxtaposition in the new
nucleus. The higher organisms have not merel}^ double cells, but,
what seems to be vasth^ more important, compound nuclei, a more
advanced and energized stage of the sexual process, which enables them
to maintain for exceedingly long periods of time the power of growth
and subdivision."

The intercalation of the double-celled structure does not chansfe the
order of nuclear events in cross-fertilization, but it may be said to
change fundamentally their chronological and ph3^sio]ogical relations.
The true historical sequence of conjugation is plasmapsis, karyapsis,
and synapsis, but the apparent and practical sequence in the higher
plants and animals becomes synapsis, plasmapsis, and karyapsis, the
synapsis which ends one conjugation being followed closely by the
plasmapsis which begins another. The suspension of nuclear changes
for vegetative growth no longer occurs between S3^napsis and plas-
mapsis, but between karyapsis and synapsis, the double-celled, para-
gamic structure being ])uilt, as already stated, on a new and highly
sexual plane, that is, out of cells in a state of prolonged sexual union.

If, as ma}^ be supposed, the benefit of synapsis lies in the making of
new associations of the ancestral chromatin elements, it is obvious that
the bringing of two such newly energized nuclei together would pro-
duce a condition which, for want of other words, might be called a
multiple vital tension. The double-celled type of structure involves,
therefore, not merel}' a transfer of emphasis to a new part of the life-
cycle, but a new and improved sexual process, which raises the bio-
logical equation to a higher power. From this standpoint it is ol)vi-
ous that the morphological diversities of sex have a fundamentally
important and truly ph3'siological function in building up and main-
taining the efficiency of the complex organization of the higher plants
and animals. It is as illogical to ascribe the internal diversit}' of

«As noted before, some organisms, such as Caulerpa and Acetabularia, show a con-
siderable degree of evolutionary progress, and have not as a matter of fact attained
the cellular type of organization at all; they may, however, be found to have double
nuclei and to be very striking examples of the expansion of the fertilized egg.

20 EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURES.

species to external environmental causes as to arbitrary mechanisms

of heredity.

The extent to which the static concept of a normally unchanging
heredity has obscured evolutionary thought and investigation could not
be better shown, perhaps, than by the fact that, notwithstanding the
great multiplicity of terms which have been proposed for all the
imagined kinds of variations, no name has been suggested for this nor-
mal and necessary intraspecitic diversity. The deficiency may be made
good by the use of the word heterism for the whole group of phenomena,
ranging from mere individual diversity to the highest specializations
of heterism, exemplitied by sexes, castes, and polymorphic conditions.
It is true that the members of a species look alike Avhen compared with
those of other species, and there may be no harm in ascribing this
likeness to heredity, but there is nothing to show that this heredity of
general resemblance has anything to do with evolution except as an
incidental result. Evolution does not take place between species, but
inside of them; it is not an //^fenspecific phenomenon, but /^^i^mspecific.
Its principal factors are heterism and symbasis, not heredity and envi-
ronment, as believed by the selectionists, nor heredity and segrega-
tion, as supposed by the nmtationists.

HEREDITY IN RETICULAR DESCENT.

The greater efficiency of the double nuclei is, however, only one
more evidence of the importance of sex as a means of diversity and of
bringing diverse protoplasms together. The nuclear network of
chromatin which controls the activities of the cell corresponds to the
network of descent through which the cell has come into existence.
Symbasis, or diversity of descent with normal interbreeding, is the
foundation of the strength and \'itality of the organism, because it
increases the efficiency of the luiclei of the component cells.

Inbreeding or defective fertilization, on the other hand, would cause
nuclear deterioration, as so strikingly shown by Maupas in the so-called
senile degeneration of ciliate Infusoria induced by keeping them too
long without cross-fertilization. This phenomenon is, indeed, closely
parallel to senile degeneration, but there is, nevertheless, an important
difference. In true senile degeneration the vigor of the cells is declin-
ing because of the absence or long postponement of conjugation. In
monobasic degeneration, conjugation may take place, but is not effective
because of insufficient diversity of descent. Monobasis is the antithesis
of symbasis; it means descent without cross-fertilization, on single or
very narrow lines. The inevitable result is degeneration, with a
rapidity proportional to the closeness of the inbreeding and the com-
plexity of the organisms.

This intimate relation between organic descent and organic structure
enables us to understand the phenomena of organic succession without

HEREDITY IN RETICULAR DESCENT. 21

resorting to abstract principles or to hypothetical mechanisms of hered-
it3\ The network of descent is, as it Avei'c, a mapshowing- the alternative
routes of the developing- organism, and permitting normally any combi-
nation of ancestral characters, as may well result from the endlessly
varying arrangements into which the ancestral chromatin elements may
fall at the time of synapsis or chromatic fusion. Twins developed from
the same ovum would have the same arrangement of chromatin, which
accords with their close similarity of form, but otherwise there is
unlimited diversity, even among the sinuiltaneous offspring of the
same parents. It would seem, therefore, that instead of a mechanism
of heredity inside the reproductive cells there is an automatic device
for insuring diversity. The higher the organization the more com-
plex the descent, and the greater the variet}^ of nuclear configurations
and the resulting individual diversit3\

Nevertheless, inheritance is not governed merely by chance, nor
limited even to the intinity of nuclear networks to be made by the
combinations possible among the ancestral chromatin elements. With
the greater vitality of interbred organisms is associated also a stronger
heredity or ])repotency of the wild or more ])roadly symbasic types
when such are crossed with inbred domesticated varieties. New varia-
tions, too, appear to have the same effect as diversity of descent in
lending greater vigor and prepotency. Even mutations, or degener-
ative variations induced by inbreeding, are prepotent on their own
plane of symbasis — that is, when crossed onl}^ with their own inbred
relatives — though they are promptly obliterated or " swamped"
when brought into contact with the broadly symbasic wild type, the
prepotency of the diverse descent being far greater than that attach-
ing to the inbred variation. It is the prepotency of variations which
renders evolution truly kinetic; for the methods of organic descent
are such as to bring about a spontaneous change of type. The envi-
ronment often influences the direction of this vital motion, but is in no
proper sense an actuating cause. '"

Cells are the units of organization, but species, as groups of inter-
breeding individuals, are the units of evolution. The causes of evolu-
tion are not revealed by h^^pothetical subdivisions of cells into char-
acter units or detei'minate elements, but by ascertaining the methods
of descent through which interbreeding maintains organic strength
and evolutionary progress. Cells divide themselves, as we know, into
other cells, and species into other species, but it is only as cells and as
species that their vital, organic, evolutionary activities are accom-
plished. Individuals vary and mutate, but only species evolve. To
classify the various stages and functions of organisms under general
and abstract terms may be desirable, but for evolutionary purposes it

« Cook, 0. F. Natural Selection in Kinetic Evolution, Science, n. s., 19: 549. 1904.

22 EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURES.

is the network of descent which represents the concrete, significant
fact, and it is this which can be resolved, if necessar^^, into its compo-
nent lines, pol} g'ons, or nodes, to furnish units for the calculation of
(juantitative effects of inheritance, as in Galton's Law of Ancestral
Resemblances and Filial Regression, under conditions of normal sym-
basic descent, or in Mendel's Laws of Disjunction, in hybrids of
abnormally inbred varieties.

The recognition of the double character of the cells of the higher
plants and animals permits many other phenomena of inheritance to be
understood, though it seems to take us farther than ever from the hope
of a merely mechanical explanation of the nature of heredity itself.
If conjugation were concluded immediately, the well-known phenom-
ena of sterile hybrids would be impossible, the sterility which puts an
end to their existence being due, as now known, to the failure to
perform synapsis or chromatin fusion. On the other hand, it may be
that crosses between narrowly inbred varieties sometimes have the
power of passing by the period of synapsis without a true fusion of
the parental chromatin, perhaps in a manner corresponding to that in
which Thalictrum produces seeds parthenogenetically, by avoiding
chromosome reduction. The germ-cells might have a preponderance
of chromatin from one parent or the other, or might even be quite
unmixed, as claimed for Mendelian hybrids. It is obvious, however,
that to explain Mendelism in this manner is to admit the essential
abnormality of the phenomenon.

SUMMARY.

It has been held self-evident that there can be nothing in evolution
except heredity and environment, and it was a simple deduction from
such an aphorism that differences must all be due to environment, since
" heredity would, if nothing interfered, keep the descendants perfectly
true to the physical characters of their progenitors.'"' Such heredit}^,
however, is a pure figment of the scientific imagination; it is a
hypothesis which lends us no aid in understanding the facts of
organic succession. A stereotyped heredity could make nothing new;
the interbreeding of diverse individuals and the prepotency' of new
variations are the constructive factors, not heredity and enviromnent.

Symbasis is the method, interbreeding the means, and sexuality the
mechanism whereby organic evolution has been accomplished; these
are the concrete and efficient causes of the vital motion of species.
The association of organisms into species of similar individuals is not
brought about by a predetermining hereditary mechanism, but })y
S3^m basic interbreeding. The highest organization has not l)een
attained in "asexual generations," but in structures completely and
essentially sexual, built wholly of conjugating cells. Therehas been

SUMMARY. 23

no evolution away from sexuality. Long-continued violations of the
law of synibasi.s l)rino- onl}' dooeneration.

This intei[)retation of evolutionary facts opens the wav to an ade-
quate physiological explanation of tiie significance of sex, and atiords
also a working- theory of the chief cytological complications that have
arisen as a consequence of sex — complications that have hitherto
rendered obscure the nature of the cell-bodies of higher animals and
plants.

The external diversity of organic nature and the internal diversity
of cells and of reproductive processes take on new and unexpected
significance. Both are shown to be consequences of sexual specializa-
tion, without which no evolutionary advance beyond simple-cell colo-
nies has been possible, ^lore .than this, gradations in the perfections
of the higher double-celled structure are correlated with definite stao-es
of evolutionary progress, so that from the structure of an org'anism
its kind of sexuality can be deduced. Evolution becomes, in the new
view, a physiological rather than a morphological process, since the
methods of descent afiect the quality and efficiency of the organism
even more promptly and fundamentally than they do its external
form.

PLATE.

25

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

The circles (O), eights (8), and thetas {S) represent in each ease the nucleus or
nuclei belonging to a cell, and the succession of cell generations is shown by a
string of nuclei either simple, in pairs (apaylogamic douV)le cells), or fused (para-
gamic double cells). The half circles (C^^) and (puidrants ( 03 d ) represent the two
cell generations formed during chromosome reduction. The l)rackets [ ] represent
a cell at tlie period or periods when the organism is reduced to a unicellular condi-
tion. All the sighs for nuclei could he supposed to be inclosed by a cell wall, which
has been omitted for the sake of clearness. For the same reason only the cell lineage
leading directly up to the formation of the gametes has been shown, and no account
has been taken of the enormous multiplication of cells which occurs not only to build
up the bodies of animals and plants but also to form many gametes. Only a few of
the numerous cell generations which make u}) the organisms in question are shown.

EXPLANATION OF SIGNS.

p Plasmapsis — fusion of the cytoplasm, or unspecialized protoplasm.

K Karyapsis — fusion of the nuclei, or nuclear protoplasm.

(§) Synapsis — fusion of the chromatin elements.

Heterotypic and homotypic divisions following synapsis.

Nuclei of haplogamic phase — structures composed of simple cells having
OOOO nuclei and chromatin elements completely fused.

QQQQ Nuclei of apaylogamic phase — structures composed of double cells, each

0000 having two unfused nuclei.

Nuclei of paragamic ])hase— structures composed of double cells having
wc3© single nuclei containing unfused chromosomes.

[ ] Cell, at periods where the organism is reduced to a single cell.

1 I The expanded egg.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Fig. 1. — Lower organism, such as 8ph;eroplea, having only simple-celled (haplo-
gamic) tissues. The fertilized egg undergoes no development beyond merely splitting
up into four spores when it germinates.

Fig. 2. — Higher fungus, such as Agarieus or Puccinia, showing alternation of simple-
celled and double-celled phases, the latter apaylogamic, i. e., with two unfused
parental nuclei in each cell. The fertilized egg has expanded into a mass of apay-
logamic tissue.

Fig. 3. — Moss, showing alternation of a long simple-celled and a short double-celled
phase, the latter paragamic, i. e., with parental nuclei fused but with their chro-
mosomes still distinct and unfused. The fertilized egg has expanded slightly into a
mass of paragamic tissue.

Fig. 4. — Fern, showing alternating phases as in moss (figure 3), but with a short
simple-celled phase and a long double-celled phase, the paragamic phase having
developed at the expense of the Viaplogamic. The fertilized egg has expanded very
much into a mass of paragamic tissue.

Fk;. 5. — Flowering plant (phanerogam), showingalternationof a very short simple-
celled phase with a very long double-celled phase, the paragamic phase having
developed greatly at the e^cpense of the haplogamic. The egg mother-cell develops
only one cell (macrospore). The fertilized egg expands into a large mass of para-
gamic tissue in which the greatly reduced haplogamic phase develops in a semipara-
sitic manner, it having no free existence.

Fig. 6. — Higher animal, having only double-celled tissues, the haplogamic phase
having been completely suppressed by the greatly expanded paragamic phase. The
egg mother-cell develops only one egg. The fertilized egg has expanded into a large
mass of tissue.

o

26

Bui. 81, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

FIG.I.- LOWER ORGANISM.

^Kleeeefi^

F1G.2. HIGHER FUNGUS.

^'

\eeeeWt

FIG.3.-MOSS.

Jpi^eeeeeeeeeeeeeee[(i^

Meeeeeeeeeeeeeeefi^

^■^b^-

<^oL_^.?©?2§eeeGeeee s

FIG.4.-FERN.

PKloooooooooooooooeeeeeeeeeeeoeligfe

JpuJeeeeeeooooooooooeoooooooooeeE
Neeeeeeeeecx3oooooooooooooeeeete^ 7pk

nCP ' tft, _ _ 0=^

^K]9eee6o(yooo66oooooooo66oo"o6o^^
Weeeeoooooooooooeeeeeeeeeeeee^^ %k

FIG. 5-FLOWERING PLANT.

PKleeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeH^

f-KleeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeH:}:

fl^e^eeeeeeeeeeee^eeeeee¥eeeeGei(|^
Heeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeefi;^ [pk

F1G.6.-HIGHER ANIMAL.

Diagram Illustrating the Network of Descent, Succession of Generations,

Alternating Phases, and Expansion of the Fertilized Egg.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 82.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

mi LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

BY

C. V. PIPER,
Agrostologist in Charge of Forage Plant Introduction.

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.

Issued August 22, 1905.

WASHINGTON:

GOYERNMENT PRINTING OFFTOE.

1905.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1. 1901, includes
Vegetable Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investiga-
tions and Experiments. Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, Pomological
Investigations, and Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of which were for-
merly separate Divisions, and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribu-
tion, the Arlington Experimental Far;u, Tea Culture Investigations, and Domestic
Sugar Investigations.

Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of
bulletins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published
as one series of the Bureau. A list of the bulletins, issued in the present series
follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that " the serial, scientific, and technical
publications of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general
distribution. All copies not required for official use are by law turned over to
the Superintendent of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All
applications for such publications should, therefore, be made to the Superin-
tendent of Documents, Government Printing OfBce, Washington, D. C.

No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10
cents.'

2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price, 10 cents.
G. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses

and Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55

cents.

15. Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin. 1902.

Price. 15 cents.
IG. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Cam-
pestris and Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

20. jNIanufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. Price, 35 cents.

22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination.. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

23. Berseem. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous Papers : I. The Seeds of Rescue Grass and Chess. II.

Saragolla Wheat. III. Plant Introduction Notes from South Africa.
IV. Congressional Seed and Plant Distribution Circulars. 1903. Price,
15 cents.
2G. Spanish Almonds. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, Spain, and the Orient. 1902.

Price, 15 cents.

28. The Mango in Porto Rico. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

29. The Effect of Black Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

30. Budding the Pecan. 1902. Price. 10 cents.

31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Price, 10

cents.
.32. A Disease of the White Ash. 190.3. Price. 10 cents.
33. North American Species of Leptochloa. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

[Continued on page 3 of cover.]

Bui. 82, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 82.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief oj Bureau.

mi LINDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

BY

C. V. PIPER,

Agrostologist in Charge of Forage Plant Introduction.

ORASS AND FORAGE PLANT I N VKSTIG ATIONS.

Issued August 22, 1905.

WASHINGTON:
government printing office.

1905.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

B. T. GALLOWAY,
Patlwlotjist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Albert F. Woods, Patholot/ixt and Physiologist in Charge.
Acting Chief of Bureau in Absence of Chief.

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS.
Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge.

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.
W. J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

G. B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.
A. J. PiETERS, Botanist in Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.
L. C. CoRBETT, Horticulturist in Charge.

EXPERIMENTAL (JARDENS AND GROUNDS.
E. M. Byrnes, Superintendent.

.J. E. Rockwell, Editor.
James E. Jones, Chief Clerk.

A

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.

SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

W. J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

A. S. Hitchcock, Systematic Agrostologist in Charge of Ilerhariuni.
C. V. Piper, Agrostologist in Charge of Forage Plant Introduction.
David Griffiths, Assistant Agrostologist in Charge of Range and Cactus
Investigations.

C. R. Ball, Assistant Agrostologist in Charge of Work on Arlington Farm.
S. M. Tracy, Special Agent in Charge of Gulf Coast Investigations.

D. A. Brodie, Assistant Agrostologist in Charge of Cooperative Work.
Harmon Benton, Assistant Agriculturist.

I*. L. Ricker, Assistant In Herbarium.

J. M. Westgate, Assistant in Charge of Alfalfa and Clover Investigations.

Byron Hunter, A.ssislant in Charge of Pacific Coast Investigations.

R. A. Oakley, Assistant in Domestication of Wild Grasses.

C. W. Warburton, Assistant in Fodder Plant and Millet Investigations.

M. A. Crosby, Assistant in Southern Forage Plant Investigations.

J. S. Cotton, Assistant in Ra)igc Inrestigations. ■

Harold T. Nielsen, Edward J. Troy, Lyman E. Cakbieb, Leroy' C. Wilson,

Lawrence G. Dodge, Assistants in Agronomy.
Agnes Chase, Agrostological Artist.

i

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

U. S. Depart:ment of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,
Washington, D. C; May 19, 1905.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled " Grass
Lands of tlie South Ahiska Coast," and to reconnnend that it be pub-
lished as Bulletin No. 82 of the series of this Bureau.

This paper was prepared by ]Mr. C. V. Piper, Agrostologist in
Charge of Introduction of Grasses and Forage Plants, Grass and
Forage Plant Investigations, and has been submitted by the Agrostol-
ogist with a view to publication.

The four plates accompanying the paper are necessary to a proper
understanding of the text.

Respectfully, B. T. Galloway,

Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

3

PREFACE.

Since the discovery of gold in Alaska in 1897 continuous calls for
information concerning the agricultural possibilities of the Alaska
Peninsida have come to the Department of Agriculture. Much valu-
nh\e information on this topic has been secured by the Office of Ex-
periment Stations largely through the Alaska experiment stations
at Sitka, Kenai, and Copper Center in charge of Prof. C. C. George-
son, but as the work of these experiment stations was necessarily
largely local in character, and as it Avas highly desirable to study con-
ditions in sections remote from the stations, the Office of Experiment
Stations requested the Bureau of Plant Industry to send some one to
explore as large an area of the Alaskan country as might be feasible.
Accordingly Prof. C. V. Piper, of the Office of Grass and Forage
l^lant Investigations, w^as detailed to make this exploration under
the joint auspices of the Office of Experiment Stations and the
Bureau of Plant Industry. The summer of 1904 was spent in this
work. The area explored is shown in black on the map constituting
Plate I. Many interesting facts relating to agricultural possibilities
in the region covered were recorded, and Professor Piper discusses
them in the following pages in detail.

For further information concerning the results of this exploration
the reader is referred to the Annual Report of the Office of Experi-
ment Stations for the year 1904.

W. J. Spili.man, Agrostologist.

Office of Grass and Forage Plant Investigations,

Washhujtoii, I). 6'., Aynl H^ 190o.

CONTENTS

Page.

Introdnction 9

The location of the grass lands 11

Kadiak Island 11

Alaska Peninsula and adjacent islands 12

Unalaska and the neighboring islands 12

Kenai Peninsula 13

The Yakutat plains _ . 14

Important factors relating to the agricultural value of the grass lands. 16

The abundance and permanence of native fodder plants . . - 16

Bluetop -. 16

Beach rye 16

Bluegrass 1

■"»

Silver-top 17

Siberian fescue _ . 17

Sedges 17

Alaska lupine 17

Fireweed 18

Food value of native Alaskan grasses 18

Cultivable forage crops 19

Silage alone as a ration for milch cows 20

Alaskan experience in stock raising 21

Hogs 21

Goats _.. 21

Sheep husbandry 22

Cattle 23

Population and available markets 25

Freights and transportation 26

Desirability of south Alaska as a home 26

Climate 26

Garden products 27

Fuel 28

Choice of a location 28

Land laws applying to Alaska . . 29

Homesteads 30

Application for a homestead for surveyed land 31

Inceiitive rights of homestead settlers 31

Homestead settlers on unsurveyed lands 32

Cultivation in grazing districts ^ 32

Homestead claims not liable for debt and not salable 33

Soldiers and sailors' homestead rights - - - 32

Soldiers* additional homestead entry 33

Description of plates 38

7

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Papc.

Plate I. Map of Alaska Frontispiece.

II. Fig. 1. — A view of the fiat lands lying at the head of Woman's
Bay, Kadiak Island, Alaska. Fig. 2. — Mowing beach rye on
Kadiak Island, Alaska H8

III. Blnetop (Calaviagrostis langsdorfii), 6 feet high, on Kadiak

Island, Alaska, July, 1904 ;J8

IV. Fig. 1.— A view of Kadiak, Alaska, November 7, 1903. Fig. 2.—

A different view of Kadiak. March 26, 1904 38

8

B. r. I.— 164. - G. F. P. I.— 113.

GRASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

INTRODUCTION.

- A glance at the accompanying- map of Alaska (PI. I) will show
that the coast line beginning at Dixon Entrance, in longitude 132°,
latitude 54° 30', and extending to Unalaska, in longitude 166° and
latitude 54°, is nearly in the form of a semicircle, or, rather, of a half
ellipse, the east and west diameter of which would be about 2,000
miles and the north and south diameter about half this distance.
Xear the northernmost part of this coast line are two large inlets, the
eastern one Prince William Sound, the western one Cook Inlet. It
will be further noticed that islands are very numerous on the coast
and that the coast line is much indented by narrow inlets or fiords, a
fact better shown on larger maps. The principal places mentioned in
this paper are likewise indicated on the majD. Officially, the region
from Mount Saint Elias eastward is known as southeastern Alaska,
that west of this peak as southwestern. Alaska. From an agricultural
standpoint, however, there is a much better and very marked divid-
ing line. From Cook Inlet eastward practically all of the lands lying
near the coast are densely timbered up to an altitude of 2,000 to 3,000
feet. From Cook Inlet westward, excepting Afognak Island and a
small portion of Kadiak Island, the lands are devoid of timber, and
are for the most part grass covered.

The total area of the coast grass lands is about 10,000 square miles,
nearly all of which lies between Cook Inlet and Unalaska, a distance
of about 700 miles. At least one-half of this land would seem capa-
ble, in time at least, of profitable utilization. From various causes it
has remained until now practically unused.

South Alaska is a mountainous country, a great range of snow-
capped peaks on the mainland paralleling the entire coast. Eastward
from Cook Inlet great numbers of glaciers arise in the higher moun-
tains, and many of these rivers of ice extend downward to the sea.
Westward from Cook Inlet no glaciers reach the sea, although nuuiy
of the mountain peaks are from 5,000 to 8,000 feet high. This strik-
ing difference apparently depends on a much smaller annual rainfall
and snowfall.

9

29975— No. 82—05 M 2

10 GKASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

In general the lands are hilly, sometimes rising abruptly from the
seashore, but seldom too steep to afford a luxuriant grass covering.
More often, however, the hills near the coast are Ioav and rounded,
Avith intervening valleys. In places there are wide areas contiguous
to the coast of from 100 to 1,000 feet elevation and comparatively
level. Most of the smaller islands, too, have comparatively gentle
slopes, and either are under 1,000 feet elevation or have but few hills
reaching: above that height. The coast line evervwhere is indented
by numerous bays or inlets, into many of Avhich rivers flow. At the
heads of these bays there are, as a rule, considerable areas of flat or
nearly flat lands. Such locations naturally afford the most advanta-
geous sites for agricultural settlements, especially as these flat lands
are exceedingly well grassed, and Avith little preliminary labor can be
prepared for mowing.

^\liere the land is level it is very likely to be wet and covered with
a groAvth of peat moss. Under such circumstances it supports but a
scanty A^egetation. Even on the hillsides this peat moss may become
established, and Avhere it does so the grasses quickly become less lux-
uriant. The decay of this moss and of other A^egetation results in the
formation of a humous soil, A^ery retentiA^e of moisture. So deep
does this humus become that the real soil is often entirely concealed.
Where it is possible to destroy this moss by burning, the result is
ahvays a heavy crop of grass or other plants. Most of the land that
lies at less than 1,000 feet eleA-ation is covered by a most luxuriant
growth of natiA'e grasses. OA^er large areas these grasses are fre-
quently 6 feet high, thus furnishing a large quantity of fodder. On
the remaining areas, lying at higher elevations or on exposed slopes,
the grasses are too short to cut for hay, but furnish splendid grazing.

That grass in Alaska is exceedingly^ abundant and fairly nutritious
and that cattle Avill thrive upon it are facts beyond question. But
these facts in themseh'es are not sufficient to enable a prospective
settler thinking of engaging in stock raising to determine whether
or not such a A^enture Avould be likely to prove profitable. The mere
abundance of grass of fair quality is not sufficient to insure success
in stock raising in an isolated region like that under consideration.

The following statements regarding the Alaska grass lands and
the factors that haA^e a bearing on their profitable utilization are
based on as complete a survey as one season's Avork Avould permit,
together Avith the facts preAdously recorded by reliable authorities.
A detailed report of the conditions actually obser\'ed will appear in
the Annual Report of the Office of Experiment Stations for 1904.
The present bulletin designs rather to cite these facts in their bearing
upon the south Alaska grass lands as a desirable field for stock
raising.

LOCATION OF THE GEASS LANDS. 11

THE LOCATION OF THE GRASS LANDS,

The accompanying map (PI. I) indicates the general location of
the southern Alaska areas which are covered with grasses. These
areas diUer considerably in detail and are here discussed separately.

KADIAK ISLAND.

Kadiak Island, which lies off the mouth of Cook Inlet, is about 100
miles long by 50 miles wide. It is mountainous in character, the hills
rising more or less gently from near the seashore to heights of 1,000
to 3,000 feet. At the end of July, 1901, there was still considerable
snow at 2,000 feet (PI. IV) , but this is said to be quite unusual. This
island, like most of the Alaska coast, is much cut into by long, narrow
bays, into most of which flow streams. The flat lands lying at the
deltas of these streams are, as a rule, very heavily covered with
grasses (PI. II). The slopes also, up to an altitude of 1,500 feet,
are Avell grassed, except where there are thickets of alder or willow ;
but these slopes are usually too steep to utilize otherwise than by
grazing. The total area of these hillside lands is much greater than
that of the approximately level stretches, in the proportion of at least
20 to 1.

On the hillsides the principal grass is bluetop {Calamagrostis
langsdorfii), which often covers large areas in a pure growth. This
Avas exceedingly fine on hillsides burned over in March, l)y which
means the old straw and moss were destroyed, thus permitting bet-
ter drainage and making the soil warmer. In such places this grass
is often 6 feet high. On the contrary, if the hills are burned over
in June the fire is likely to kill the grass roots as well as the moss,
with the result that fireweed usually takes possession of the ground.

Other grasses than Ijluetop on the hillsides are relatively unimpor-
tant, though sometimes considerable areas of Siberian fescue occur,
and on the higher slopes are a number of low grasses of forage value.

On the flat lands before mentioned the tall beach sedge {Carex
eryptocarpd) forms a broad fringe along the shores of the bays and
sloughs, especially on lands which are occasionally covered by tide
water. Back of this sedge, beach rye {Ehjmus mollis) forms a more
or less broad zone, often mixed Avith patches of a coarse bluegrass
{Poa glumark). In the still drier portions bluetop occupies the
ground almost exclusively. The three plants mentioned furnish the
great bulk of forage on Kadiak Island, and indeed on most parts of
the Alaskan coast, but the bluetop is more abundant than all of the
other grasses combined.

Bluetop has slender stems and thin leaves, thus curing very readily
and making a sweet and palatable hay. Beach rye, on the contrary,

12 GRASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

has thick stems and thick leaves, in consequence of which it cures
slowly. Beach sedge has a three-sided, solid, pithy stem, and is
therefore very difficult to dry. All three of these plants grow so
luxuriantly that they often yield 3 tons of hay or more per acre.

Of forage plants other than grasses the lupine and fireweed, here-
after described, are both abundant. In a green state they are readily
eaten by sheep, but cattle prefer the grasses.

In portions of the island which have been more or less closely
grazed for some years it was noticeable that the taller wild grasses
had largely disappeared, being replaced principally by bluegrass
{Poa 2)ratensis) and wild barley {Hordeum horeale). Cattle seem
to be much more fond of the former than of the latter grass, although
in parts of northern Euroj^e the Avild barley is considered a most,
excellent grass.

All of Kadiak Island, except a small portion in the extreme north-
east, is practically timberless, as are most of the adjacent islands.
In the valleys, however, there is usually a small number of cotton-
woods and willows, and on wet slopes scrub willows and alders form
dense thickets. Afognak Island, however, which lies northeast of
Kadiak, is quite densely covered with spruce.

ALASKA PENINSULA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS.

The whole region to the west of Kadiak Island might briefly be
described as similar to that island, but entirely deviod of timber, the
shrubs being more scrubby and the grasses less luxuriant. The
peninsula itself is very mountainous, and for considerable stretches
along the coast the hills rise abruptly from the water's edge. In the
bays and inlets, however, there are frequently considerable areas of
comparatively IcA^el lands well grassed, though seldom as luxuriantly
covered as those before mentioned. The islands lying off the coast
are comparatively low, and some of them are said to be exceedingly
Avell adapted to stock raising. Such areas as were examined indicate
that in general there is a greater variety of forage grasses than to
the eastward, but most of them are smaller in size.

At the present time there is a mail steamer plying once a month
betw^een Valclez and Unalaska. This boat carries the mail, and stops
at such points as business demands. The population of this entire
region is exceedingly sparse, and many of the outlying islands would
probably have to be reached by means of sailing craft.

UNALASKA AND THE NEIGHBORING ISLANDS.

Unalaska and the neighboring islands difl'er on the whole-compara-
tively little from Kadiak Island, though the vegetation as a rule is

LOCATION OF THE GRASS LANDS. 13

decidedly less luxuriant. The grasses are much the same in kind,
although differing in their relative abundance. Some difficulty
would he experienced on these islands in finding sufficient tall grass
to furnish winter fodder in case large quantities were necessary,
though in some of the more sheltered valleys small areas were olb-
served where the grasses were very tall. There is quite a herd of
cattle at Unalaska which, according to local reports, receive but very
flight attention during the wnnter, only a small quantity of feed
being cut for them. The principal advantage of Unalaska and the
neighboring islands would seem to lie in the fact that they are on
the line of travel of the vessels going to the Yukon and to Nome. If
sufficient numbers of cattle were raised on these islands, doubtless
little difficulty would be experienced in finding a market for them at
the above-mentioned points. Indeed, a Seattle company, Avhich pur-
poses, among other things, to engage in cattle raising primarily for
these northern markets, has already begun operations on Akun
Island.

KENAI PENINSULA.

Kenai is the name given to the large peninsula lying between Cook
Inlet and the Gulf of Alaska. That portion of it on the east side of
Cook Inlet and north of Kachemak Bay, comprising an area 100
miles long by 20 to ;]0 miles wide, is an extensive plateau. Its south-
ern portion, on Kachemak Bay, lies 500 to 1,000 feet or more above
the sea level. It slopes mainly to the westward, so that that part
from Anchor Point northward is but 100 to 200 feet above the sea
level. Most of this land is timbered with spruce, but there are con-
siderable areas of grass near Anchor Point, near Homer, and on the
north side of Kachemak Bay.

At Homer there is an extensive sand spit, about 4 miles in length
and from one-fourth to 1 mile across, which supports a good growth
of several grasses and sedges. Beach rye is the most important and
most abundant, but red fescue, bluegrass, and seashore grass furnish
considerable grazing. At the base of the spit the land rises grad-
ually to the high plateau above, the scattered timber giving the ap-
pearance of mountain parks. The open portions of this land support
a luxuriant growth of bluetop, often 6 feet tall. At a rough estimate
the open grass lands in this vicinity comprise about 2,000 acres.

The site of a proposed Finnish colony is on the north side of Kache-
mak Bay, not far from its head. From the colony site to the head of
the bay are extensive tide flats, which are mainly covered with
sedges about 2 feet high. The marshy nature of these lands, together
with the coarse nature of the forage, makes them of but limited value.
Undoubtedly they can be much improved by diking.

14 GRASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

The grass lands of the colony site proper consist of about 500 acres
of excellent land, covered with a luxuriant growth of bluetop.
These lands lie close to the seashore and less than 100 feet above it.
Back of these lands are hills 500 to 1,500 feet high, the plateau on the
top of which consists in part of extensive grass areas. Much of this
grass is bluetop, often G feet high. Other areas are pure grow^ths
of Siberian fescue. Interspersed with these are several other
good grasses, but none of them in great quantitv. These j^lateau
grass lands are apparently very extensive. To render them accessible
will, however, require the building of roads or trails up to the easiest
slopes. At Anchor Point there is but little grass land near the sea-
shore, but on the plateau behind are considerable areas much like
those just described. The plateau at this point is, however, much-
lower.

An important circumstance in relation to all of the grass lands of
this region lies in the fact that they are underlaid with coal, which is
exposed for miles in the bluffs along the coast. In view of this fact
it is doubtful if title to the land can be gained by homesteading it.

At Kenai there are no naturally grassed lands, except the sand
dunes along the beach and the marshes lying inside of them. The
dunes are covered principally with beach rye and bighead sedge
{Carex macrocephala) . In the brackish marshes red fescue and sea-
shore grass are plentiful. Here also is found poison parsnip {Cicuta
douglasii) in small marshes, and there is a record of some native cows
having been killed by it several years ago.

THE YAKUTAT PLAINS.

The only extensive areas of grass lands known in southeastern
Alaska are those lying in the river valleys near the coast south of
Yakutat. Inasmuch as these lands have been several times referred
to in reports, and as they are now in part accessible owing to the
building of the Yakutat and Southern Railway, a careful examina-
tion was made of them. The above-mentioned railway has been built
primarily to reach the several rich salmon streams flowing into the
ocean south of Yakutat, it being impracticable to fish them by ap-
proach from the ocean. This railway is projected to be built to the
Alsek River, a distance of 45 miles. At present it is built only to
the Setuck River, 10 miles from Yakutat.

Practically the whole of this region is an old glacial moraine, com-
posed of fine gravel, which slopes very gently to the seashore. The
land close to the seashore is somewdiat higher than that lying l^ehind,
and is heavily timbered. Owing to this strip of higher land most
of the streams flow parallel to the coast for some distance near their
debouchments. It is along the valleys of these streams that the grass

LOCATION OF THE GEASS LANDS. 15

lands lie, but owing to the flatness of the land and the slight eleva-
tion above the sea level they are very ill-drained, notwithstanding
the gravelly nature of the soil.

I Traveling along these rivers in a canoe one receives the impression
that the grass is tall and rank on these flat lands. This, in fact, is
the case on a very narrow strip just along the river banks, where there
is a fine growth of bluetop {Calamagrostis langsdorfii) and sedge
[Garex sitchensis Presc). This strip of tall grass is, however,
nearly always confined to the immediate banks of the rivers. The
great mass of the land is covered with a thin layer of bog moss, which
supports but a scant vegetation of grass and sedges less than a foot
high.

i It is a conservative statement to say that fully 80 per cent of these
Yakutat grass lands are thus scantily grassed. Apart from tlids
scant amount of grass, which j^ractically precludes the cutting of
winter forage, another serious difficulty presents itself in the fact
that poison parsnip {Cicuta douglasii) occurs quite plentifully over
all the land that is the least boggy, which, as before stated, is 80 per
cent of the area. Thus, even if these meadows were used only for
grazing, great care would need to be exercised in the spring, when
grass is scanty and the sweet but very jDoisonous tubers of this plant
are frequently forced to the surface by the frost.

While the above statements are true concerning the Yakutat
meadows as a whole, there are small areas which are exceptional.
For example, along the lower Ankow River occurs a narrow strip
of several hundred acres Avell grassed with silver-top {Deschamiyi^ia
caespitosa) and beach rye {Elymus mollis) and free from Cicuta.
Care would need to be exercised in utilizing even this, as the sur-
rounding l)oggy lands bear an abundance of poison parsnip.

Again, the strip of land lying just within the ocean dunes is often
well grassed with beach rye and red fescue {Fesfnea rubra).

A particularly good area of arable land lies along the railway
where it reaches the Setuck River. This consists of 3 or 4- square
miles of gravelly, well-drained, level land, at present looking much
like a worn-out meadow. It is apparently very well adapted to such
cultivated grasses as smooth brome-grass and tall meadow oat-grass.
It will undoubtedly grow all sorts of hardy vegetables. The present
grass covering is rather scanty, but it is probable that this can be
greatly increased by cultivation. This particular piece of land is
well worthy of the attention of homesteaders.

It is within the bounds of j)ossibility that the larger part of the
Yakutat \)\',\m can be drained and made into fine meadow lands. In
its present state, however, this land is not adapted to stock raising,
with the exception of such small areas as above noted.

16 GKASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

IMPORTANT FACTORS RELATING TO THE AGRICULTURAL
VALUE OF THE .GRASS LANDS.

In determining whether or not the grass hinds previousl}' described
offer a desirable fiekl for settlement, a number of factors that bear
more or less directly upon the problem need consideration. These
factors may be discussed in the following sequence:

(1) The abundance and permanence of the feeds available.

(2) The possibility of raising forage on cidtivated lands.

(3) The known facts in regard to live-stock raising.

(4) The aA'ailable markets.

(.5) Trans])ortation facilities and freight rates.
(6) The desirability of south Alaska as a home.
(T) The choice of a location

THE ABUNDANCE AND PERMANENCE OF NATIVE FODDER PLANTS.

Live-stock husbandry in Alaska will have to depend primarily
upon the native plants, supplemented in time, perhaps, by such
additional ones as experiments shall indicate may compete with the
native plants, or which upon cultivated land will yield heavily
enough to be profitable. The most important and abundant of the
native forage plants are as follows:

Bluet op. — Bluetop {Calamagrostis langsdor-fii) is by far the most
plentiful tall grass in Alaska, growing along the whole coast. On
Kadiak Island and the Kenai Peninsula it is especially abundant,
often being 6 feet high and very dense (PI. III). It grows with
special luxuriance on hillsides that have been burned over earl}' in
the spring. This burning destroys the moss, and thus makes the soil
better drained and warmer. Bluetop also flourishes on the level
boggy lands, l)ut prefers a well-drained soil. Owing to its thin
stems and leaves it cures very readily, and is therefore the usual hay
grass of Alaska. It is often called redtop, but this name should be
restricted to the true redtop, a very different grass.

There are no accurate data bearing on the point as to how well
this grass will withstand continued cutting, but the general belief is
that it rapidly becomes thinner in stand. It is noticeable about
villages where cows are kept that the bluetop is scarce, being replaced
by other grasses, especiall}^ bluegrass and wild barley. The area of
bluetop is so great, however, that in many places it would be quite
practical)le to manage so as not to cut the same plats two years in
succession, which practice would probably- maintain the density of
the stand.

Beach rye. — Along all the quiet shores and inlets of Alaska,
wherever there is low land near the beach, there is a strip of beach
rye {Elymiis mollh) occurring just above high-tide level. Some-

NATIVE FODDER PLANTS. 17

times this strip is only a few feet wide, but on the low level lands
near the heads of fiords there are often large areas of it :3 to 5 feet
high (PL II, fig. 2). One patch of it examined had been cut the
year previous, and on this the stand was scarcely half as dense as on
neighboring pieces Avhich had not been cut. This observation ac-
cords with the experience of others.

Where sand dunes occur on the coast, as at Kenai and near Yakutat,
beach rye is an important sand binder. In such locations it is often
very dilferent in appearance from that found in other situations,
the heads being short and thick. This is the result of infestation by
a parasitic worm.

BJuegrass. — The true Kentucky- bluegrass {Poa pratensis) is com-
mon all along the Alaska coast, where it thrives to perfection. It
shows a tendency to occupy the ground where closely grazed, and
cattle exhibit a marked preference for it. Several closely allied
species also occur, and it is an important fact that they persist and
increase where other grasses disappear, which seems to insure the
permanence of pasturage of a high quality.

Silver-top. — The very nutritious grasses known as silver-top
{Deschampsia cwspitosa and D. hottnica) occur in some abundance,
especially in gravelly soils, whether on the hillsides or near the sea-
shore. Owing to their stems being nearly leafless they yield but
little hay, but the numerous fine basal leaves furnish most excellent
forage.

Siberian fescue. — Siberian fescue {Festuca altaiea) makes Large
tussocks, especially in gravelly soil and in open timber up to 1,000
feet elevation. In such locations it often makes a nearly pure growtli
It seems to be fully as nutritious as the well-known sheep fescue,
but is a much larger grass.

Sedges.— Two tall species of sedge, Carex enjptocarpa and C.
sitchensis, in places make dense stands 3 feet high or more, especially
in wet soil; in the case of the former, more especially in tidal
marshes. Considerable quantities of this sedge were cut for hay
near Kadiak, and it is said to furnish excellent feed. These sedges
are both quite smooth and soft, unlike most others.

Alaska lupine. — The blue-flowered plant known as Alaska lupine
(Lupimis unalaschensis) is quite tall, often 3 feet high, and some-
times occupies large areas almost to the exclusion of other plants.
It is thick leaved and rather fleshy, and is the only leguminous plant
that is really abundant in Alaska. Sheep eat it readily. Should
it prove palatable as well as nutritious to cattle the problem of a good
wniter ration for milch cows would be considerably simplified. Ex-
periments with it as silage, both pure and mixed with grass, are much
to be desired.

29975— No. 82—0.5 m 3

18 GRASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

With the exception of this phmt the only legumes of forage value
in the grass regions are two species of wild pea, both of which,
unfortunately, are rather scarce.

Fireweed. — The well-known plant called fireweed {E pilohium an-
gustifolium) often occupies the ground to the exclusion of others,
especially where the land has been burned over in summer and the
grass roots thus destroyed. Sheep seem fond of it. It is possible
that this plant may prove profitable as silage, at least wdien mixed
with grasses, but no tests with this end in view seem to have been
made. Its great abundance at times makes such a test desirable.

There are three possible ways of preserving the above-mentioned
plants for winter feed. The more easily dried — as bluetop and blue-
grass — may be made into hay. Continued sunshiny w^eather on the
Alaska coast is not to be depended upon, so that haymaking is
accomplished only with much uncertainty. "Where one needs but a
small amount of fodder, little difficulty is experienced in select-
ing the few necessary sunshiny daj's. Where, on the contrar3% one
needs great quantities of winter feed, haymaking is impracticable.
Resort in such cases must be had either to brown hay or to silage.
Brown hay is simply half-cured hay, made by stacking the grass
green or half dry — really a compromise between hay and silage.
Sometimes salt is scattered over the layers while it is being stacked.
It is more or less used in all countries where haymaking is difficult.
While analyses show it to contain practically as^ much nutriment aB
hay or silage, cattle are not eager for it, and it can be considered
onlv fin emergencv feed.

Unquestionably when large quantities of "winter forage are needed
for stock, silage must be depended upon, and undoubtedly, all things
considered, it will be the most satisfactory feed. Practically the only
Alaska forage plant thus far used as silage is beach rye, and the
experiences with this plant of Prof. C. C Georgeson, special agent
in charge of the Alaska Agricultural Experiment Stations, and of
others who have grown it, show it to be both palatable and nutri-
tious. In all probability other Alaskan grasses, and perhaps other
plants, wnll be found to be quite as satisfactory.

Where timber is available silos may be constructed of logs, like
the one at the Sitka Experiment Station. This silo has the advantage
of enal^ling a man to utilize his own labor. On the other hand, the
material for stave silos can be secured at very reasonable prices, and '
this doubtless is the best silo to use in the timberless regions.

FOOD VALUE OF NATIVE ALASKAN GRASSES.

Chemical analyses have been made of the i)rincipal Alaskan grasses,
and while these can be properly interpreted only in connection with jj

CULTIVABL,E FORAGE CROPS.

19

digestion experiments, their comi^arison with the analyses of stand-
ard grasses furnishes some measure of their vahie.

Analyses of Alaskan grasses (air-dried sa))ii)Jes taken irhen in flower).

Species

Ciihiiiiacirnxfis langsdorfii (Bluetop) ...

Care.r cryptoiarpa (S^dge)

Elt/mus mollis (Beach rye)

Phleiim pratense (Timothy)

Piia pratensis (Bhiegrass)

Desrhampsia bottnica (Silver-top)

Calamagrostis aleuticu

"Water.

Protein.

Fat.

Nitro-
gen-free
extract.

Crude
fiber.

Percent.

Percent.

Percent.

Percent.

Per cent.

7.18

4.58

1.03

40. 37

42.94

5.8.5

10.32

2.12

45.34

25. 72

11.92

12.71

2.26

35.39

30. 31

8. .59

8.94

2.14

45.69

30.06

8.11

8.94

2.04

41. 45

:i4.24

8.75

7.44

2.07

47.05

31.. 54

8.33

10.00

1.37

37.89

■a.m

Ash.

Per cent.
3.90
10.65
7. .51
4. .58
5.22
4.15
4.52

Analyses of standard grasses for comparison.

Species.

Port pratensis (Bluegrass)

A<jrostis alba (Redtop)

Phh'iun pratense (Timothy)

Dacti/lis glomerata (Orchard grass)
Deschampsia cwspitosa (Silver-top).
Calamagrostis canadensis (Bluejoint) .

Water.

Protein.

Fat.

Nitro-
gen-free
extract.

Crude
fiber.

Per cent.

Percent.

Percent.

Per cent.

Percent.

17.44

10.80

3.45

46. 10

22.09

14.30

8.48

2.84

46.77

21.71

1.5. 01

6.01

3.01

41.90

29. .59

14.30

7.34

2.28

47.08

23. 58

14.30

9.04

1.06

37.20

29.03

6.87

11.19

3.45

35.82

37.18

Ash.

Per cent.
7.35
5.90
4.48
5.42
9.37
5.49

The anal3'ses of the Ahiskan grasses were all made by the Bureau
of Chemistry of the Department of Argiculture, and with the excep-
tion of the first three, from material collected in 1904, were originally
published in Bulletin No. 48, Office of Experiment Stations. The
other analyses have been compiled from various authorities.

CULTIVABLE FORAGE CROPS.

The experiences of a number of individual investigators, as well as
the tests made at the Sitka and Kenai experiment stations, throw a
good deal of light on the possibility of growing fodder plants and
forage crops on cultivated land. Much more testing is necessary,
however, before some of the conclusions which at present seem prob-
able can be considered demonstrated.

In the way of grasses the tests made at Sitka by Professor George-
son on muck soils showed tall meadow oat-grass to be the most prom-
ising. Tall fescue, bluegrass, meadow foxtail, and redtop did fairly
well, wdiile orchard grass, timothy, and Italian rye-grass were not
promising. From observations on a number of these and other
grasses introduced by chance, some rather definite conclusions may
be drawn. Timothy is more or less abundantly introduced at various
places on the coast, but does not as a rule thrive very well, being often
inferior in size to the native mountain timothv. It is altogether

20

GRASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

l^robable, however, that a variety of timothy suited to the conditions
might readily be secured by selection, as chance specimens of the
plant seen Avere very fine. The success of such a selection, however,
will largely depend on the jjossibility of growing seed in Alaska.

Among other useful grasses that have become accidentally intro-
duced and show marked adaptability to the conditions are redtop,
rough-stalk meadow grass, bluegrass, and fowl meadow grass.

AVhite clover thrives everywhere along the coast and is an aggres-
sive plant. Red clover and alsike are not promising and alfalfa
does not thrive.

In the way of cereals, the earliest varieties of oats and barley will
mature for two or possibly three out of five seasons. Of course, such
a crop is not entirely lost if the grain fails to mature, as it can be
utilized as hay or silage. On this account it will probably be w'isest
to grow the crop mixed with field peas, as such a mixture will make
excellent silage, whereas oats alone could only be preserved as hay, a
difficult thing to do so late in the season. It is to be clearly under-
stood that under j^resent conditions it is unnecessary to plant any
cultivated ground in such crops as grass, or perhaps even legumes.
The above facts are of value simply as indicating what well-known
forage plants will thrive, thus to some extent showing the future
agricultural possibilities of Alaska.

SILAGE ALONE AS A RATION FOR MILCH COWS.

The writer has been unable to find any published data on results
obtained by feeding milch cows nothing but grass silage. Presuma-
bly the best of results would not thus be obtained.

In order to obtain some light on the subject. Dr. James Withy-
combe, director of the Oregon Exjjeriment Station, Avas requested to
conduct such a test. The results of his experiment are reported as
follows :

The silage test was made on a nonbreeding Jersey cow which fi-eshened in
February, 1902. In January, 1904, this cow Avas fed largely on silage, with a
moderate amount of mill feed and light ration of hay as a preliminary prepara-
tion. From February 1 to April 30 she was fed wholly on corn silage and a light
ration of ground oats daily. She consumed during the ninety days' feeding
3,78.5 pounds of corn silage and 270 pounds of the oat chop. The following table
shows variation in weight and her production :

Date.

December 1.

January 1

February 1 .

Aver-

Weight.

Milk.

age

test.

Fat.

Lbs.

Lbs.

P.ct.

Lbs.

955

196

5.8

11.36

945

199

5.9

11.74

905

178

5.7

10.15

Date.

Weight.

March 1
April 1.
April ,30

Lbs.
925

890
860

Milk.

Lbs.
195
221

Aver-
age

test.

P. ft.
5.8
5.5

Fat.

Lbs.
11.31
12.15

ALASKAN EXPERIENCE IN STOCK RAISING. 21

The cow was in good condition at tlie close of the experiment, which indicates
that silage may with safety constitute a large portion of the ration of a dairy
cow.

This experiment was undertaken at the suggestion of the Government agros-
tologist to determine in a measure if it were practicable to winter cattle in
Alaska on grass silage.

The :'. i»ounds of ground oats were fed daily for the purpose of bringing the
corn silage up to a protein standard equaling that of mixed-grass silage.

Protein prrcoitar/r of feed coiisiniied.

Ground oats il. 56

Corn silage 1 58

Protein percentage of grass silage (approximately) 2.72

Average amount of total protein consumed daily in 42 pounds of corn silage
and 3 pounds of ground oats, l.(tl pounds. Approximate amount of protein con-
tained in 40 pounds of grass silage, 1.08 i)Ounds.

It will thus be seen that this test indicates that cattle can be successfully
wintered on grass silage and that dairy cows may be expected to yield a reason-
able amount of milk when fed exclusively on this feed.

ALASKAN EXPERIENCE IN STOCK RAISING.

Hof/s. — A few hogs were seen at various Alaska villages. They
are fed refuse, and graze on various succulent plants when obtain-
able. They are very fond of wild rice, the bulb of a lilylike plant
{Fritillaria kamtschatica), which, however, is not very abundant.
Unfortunately these animals are prone to feed on fish ofl'al and other
sea refuse, and as a consequence their flesh has a disagreeable flavor.
Unquestionably there is too little fieed adapted to hogs to make their
raising profitable in Alaska.

Goats. — Angora goats have l)een tested by the Alaska Commercial
Company at Kadiak and by Rev. C. P. Coe at Wood Island.
According to Mr. Washburn, formerly resident superintendent of the
Alaska Commercial Company at Kadiak, the company had a few^
years ago about 50 head of these animals on Ukamak Island, near
Kadiak, which were entirely self-sustaining, increasing about 60 per
cent each year. The mohair is said to have been good, both in quan-
tity and quality.

Rev. C. P. Coe, of Wood Island, has several head of Angora ffoats
which have passed the last two winters Avith but little care. This
year his herd has shown very satisfactory increase, and no difficulty is
anticipated in wintering the kids. A large part of their feed is
derived from willows and other browse, and where this is abundant
the animals need but little feed in winter. Owing to their tracta-
bility and the ease wdth which they are kept, especially where browse
is abundant. Angora goats should prove most useful animals both
for the natives and for whites.

22 GEASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

Sheep hushancb'y. — Two definite attempts have been made to
establish sheep raising in south Ahiska, though small numbers have
been kept at various points for short periods. The first attempt was
made by the Alaska Commercial Company, which in 1883 imported
a band of about 300 sheep from California. Unfortunately no accu-
rate record of this experiment is available, and the accounts of
A^arious persons differ considerably. Many of the sheep died the
first winter, according to some reports from lack of shelter, according
to others from scab. The remainder were kept on a small island
near Kadiak, where the only shelter was a small grove of sjiruce, but
in winter they were usually transferred to new grazing grounds
where thej^ could feed on the tall, dry grass. In very severe weather
they were sometimes sheltered and fed hay. These sheep are said
to have yielded about 5 pounds of excellent wool per head each year,
and the annual increase is reported to have l:)een about 60 per cent of
the adult animals. No particular care was given them, and the last
were slaughtered about six years ago. The venture, even excluding
the loss of the first winter, seems not to have been profitable.

The only sheep now in Alaska are on the ranch of the Frye-Bruhn
Company, near Kadiak, who have about 80 head. These sheep are the
remnant of 9,000 which were shipped in from Oregon in 190'2 and
1903, the remainder having perished. At first sight it would seem
that this appalling loss of more than 98 per cent was conclusive evi-
dence that sheep raising in Alaska is not likely to prove profitable.
Inquiry into the causes of the mortality do not bear out this conclu-
sion necessarily. About 500 of the sheep were drowned in ]March,
1903, by being caught at the head of a narroAv cove by the incoming
tide. One hundred and fifty head were lost by becoming frightened
and jumping over cliffs. The rest of those that died succumbed to
scab, Avhich broke out in January, 1903. Owing to lack of shelter it
was then impossible to treat them by dipping, as that would practi-
cally have been equivalent to killing them. The result was that all
but 80 died of the disease. Thus all the mortality was due to causes
entirely preventable. It was interesting to learn that several head of
these sheep which ran w41d survived the Avinter without care, and the
writer was informed by trustAVorthy Avitnesses of other cases of this
kind. In the light of present knoAvledge it is difficult to say Avhether
sheep can be profitably raised in southwestern Alaska.

In regard to the Iavo attempts which haA^e been made, it is
noteAvorthy that in both instances the animals Avere shipped from a
comparatively Avarm and dry climate to one cool and notably Avet;
furthermore, that none of them perished from any cause directly
comiected Avith the Alaska conditions.

There are, however, some further difficulties in connection Avith

ALASKAN EXPEEIENCE IN STOCK EAISING. 23

sheep raising in Alaska which need careful consideration. It is the
general opinion in Kadiak that in an ordinary winter sheep can not
safely be left without care after the beginning of January. Indeed,
many would place the time a month or six weeks earlier. New grass
never appears before May 15, and often not until June 1. Therefore,
under the best of conditions, sheep will need four and a half months
of feeding and shelter. The superintendent of the Frye-Bruhn ranch,
after one winter's experience, thinks that feed and shelter should be
given for a longer period than that mentioned.

Another serious difficulty lies in the lateness of the lambing season.
It is generally agreed that lambing should not take place before
June 1. The lambs will need shelter and feed by December 1 or
earlier, unless one takes serious chances of losing many.

Whether sheep raising could be made profitable at present under
such conditions remains to be demonstrated. The mere fact that
sheep in small numbers have wintered without care is no proof that
successful sheep husbandry can thus be carried on, nor even that one
or two months' feeding will suffice. The risks involved in such a
procedure are too great to warrant a careful stock raiser in taking
any chances.

Destructive wild animals are no menace to sheep raising on the
islands. Eagles may destroy a few lambs, but these birds are easily
exterminated. Kadiak bears are too scarce and too easily destroyed
to merit consideration. On the mainland, however, both wolves and
brown bears may prove troublesome.

In the light of present knowledge one is safe in saying that sheep
can be raised on the Alaska coast if adults are given five months' feed
and shelter and the lambs a month more — this with the ordinary
sheep of the western ranges. AVith more hardy breeds better adapted
to the conditions the outlook for success Avould be better. It need
hardly be said that extreme caution should be taken to import only
perfectly healthy aninuils. ^The great mortality caused by scab and
the great danger of such a disease as foot-rot in a damp climate de-
mand that extreme care be taken not to introduce these diseases.

Cattle.— C'dttle have been raised at nearly all the Alaskan coast
settlements ever since the Russian occupation. Some of the original
stock, according to local tradition, is still represented in the band of
cattle at Nannilchuck. These are small animals, but said to be very
hardy. Nearly all of the cattle kept near the villages are milch cows,
mostly grades, but a number of Holsteins and Jerseys were seen.
When owned by Avhites the animals are given shelter and feed for
about five months. When they belong to the natives they are forced
to exist through the winter with little or no care, eking out an exist-
ence by feeding on browse and seaweeds. No accurate data could be

24 GRASS LANDS OF TPIE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

gathered concerning the amount and character of the milk yield, but
it was universally said that the milk is most excellent in summer, and
good in winter Avhen the animals are properly fed. It is unfortunate
that no accurate records could be obtained as to the winter yield of
cows fed only on native hay or silage.

Several herds of beef cattle have been successfully maintained in
the neighborhood of Kadiak. The experience of the Alaska Com-
mercial Company is thus sunnnarized by Mr. Washburn, the former
superintendent at Kadiak :

We b;ive bred stock on the islands of Kadiak, Ukaniak, and on Long Island.
On Long Island we have about 40 bead of cattle. Tbese cattle are fed from two
to six weeks each winter. The remainder of the time they have been able to
get their own subsistence. During oeeasional winters we have carried our stock
through with no feeding. We have had very good increase from them, and
should say that the percentage of calves raised from the breeding cows is about
75. The cattle on this island have not been housed except during the short
period when we were obliged to feed them'

On Ukamak Island we have a herd of about 20 head, which are entirely self-
sustaining. We have not found it necessary either to feed or shelter these cat-
tle during the winter season, and the increase has been fully as good as that of
the herd on Long Island.

On Kadiak Island we have not kei)t any stock cattle, but only a herd of dairy
cows and some working horses. These we have, of course, fed regularly during
the winter season for about five months. We are able to cure sufHcient hay on a
lot we have leveled, and we have used the only mowing machine in western
Alaska. We have obtained very good results from feeding the Alaska hay to
both cows and horses, and find that they require no more grain when fed this
hay than when we feed hay imported from California.

The P'rye-Bruhn Company, of Seattle, began operations near
Kadiak in July, 1903, importing about 200 head of beef cattle, mostly
Herefords. Owing to unpreparedness and inexperience, about 140
head of this number were lost during the first year. Most of these
were killed by falling over cliffs. Owing to the fact that the earliest
grass appears on the steep southerly slopes, the cattle crowded in such
places ; in some instances the sod, loosened by the frost, gave way and
precipitated them over the cliffs. In other cases the cattle used their
horns when crowded, the Avounded ones losing their foothold in
endeavoring to escape. As-precautions. more care is taken in select-
ing the early feeding grounds and the cattle have been dehorned.

The common experience of cattle owners in Alaska has been that
the animals fatten readily on the grass in the spring, and remain
in good condition without care until late in the- autumn. Some
Herefords slaughtered at Kadiak in July furnished beef of remark-
ably fine quality.

From the experience had at the Kenai Experiment Station, oxen
keep in good working condition all winter on no other feed than
native grass hay and silage, and the limited experience of others

POPULATION AND AVAILABLE MARKETS. 25

lias given similar results. It is not probable, however, that animals
will remain fat on such feeds alone.

Nothing has been clone np to the present time in the way of intro-
ducing breeds that are likely to be especially adapted to the peculiar
conditions. It is highly probable, as has been pointed out by Pro-
fessor Georgeson, that long-haired hardy breeds like the Galloway
or the West Highland cattle will prove much more successful than
breeds adapted primarily to a drier and warmer climate.

POPULATION AND AVAILABLE aiARKETS.

No very accurate data are available as to the present population of
the Alaska coast towns and villages, Avhich furnish the only markets
close to the grass lands. The population of the principal towns
along the coast is approximately as follows: Sitka, 1,500; Valdez,
1,000; Seward, 500; Kadiak, 50; Unalaska and Dutch Harbor,
600. The total population from Valdez to Unalaska, inclusive, is
about 8,000, of whom less than one-half are whites. From Valdez
to Sitka, excluding the former, the population is perhaps 4,000, about
half of them white. Thus the coast of Alaska from Sitka to Una-
laska provides a market population at present of not more than
(),000 people, as no nuirket for meat or dairy products can be expected
so far as the natives are concerned.

No account is here taken of the towns lying along the interior
channels in southeastern Alaska, whose populations aggregate per-
haps 8,000 whites, though a portion of this market could perhaps be
reached.

Skagway and Valdez are the principal south Alaskan points which
supply the interior, and consequently are of especial importance in
considering markets.

A considerable market for 1)eef and dairy products could perhaps
be established by shipping from Unalaska to the population of the
Nome district and the lower Yukon. Unalaska is on the line of
transportation from Puget Sound to Nome and the Yukon River,
though at present few of the vessels stop there.

Thus the present available markets in Alaska for live-stock
l)roducts are very limited. The supply for these markets at the
present time is shipped from Puget Sound.

It is evident, however, that it is possible to raise in Alaska far more
produce of this kind than the local markets can consume. The only
other markets that can possibly be reached are those furnished by the
cities of British Columbia and of the State of Washington. Fn-ight
rates are at present, and perhai)s will be for some time to come, such
that dairy products and wool are the only articles that could profit-
ably be shipped to such distant i)orts.

26

GRASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

No i:)redictions can here be ventured concerning the future devel-
opment of south Alaska. The j^i'e^ent resources are mainly furs,
fisheries, and mines. The fur industry is becoming less and less
important. The fisheries are alreadj^ highly developed, but are
capable of considerable increase. The mines undoubtedly will bo-
come more and more important. It is probable, too, that the exten-
sive explorations now carried on in prospecting for oil will result
in the development of another important industry.

FREIGHTS AND TRANSPORTATION.

At the present time both freight and passenger rates to and be-
tween Alaskan ports may be considered moderate. The great bulk
of the freight traffic is northward, a condition that is not unlikely
to continue. Any permanent increase in the traffic to and from
Alaskan ports will naturally be accompanied by a corresponding
lowering of rates. The transportation companies doing business in
south Alaska seem to be quite as liberal as conditions will permit,
and so far as expressed sentiment goes their general policy will be
the wise one of encouraging as far as possible an}^ industry that
promises to add to the sum total of the traffic.

DESIRABILITY OF SOUTH ALASKA AS A HOME.

Climate. — The south Alaska coast lies in the same latitude as
northern Labrador, the north of Scotland, and the south of Sweden,
but none of these regions is very similar to it. In fact, south Alaska
has several peculiarities which render close comparison with any
other region difficult. In general, the climate is a moist one, accom-
panied by no great extremes in temperature. The thermometer very
seldom reaches zero in winter, nor does it exceed 75° F. in summer.

The following tables give the more important meteorological data
as compiled from various published reports, localities in Sweden,
Canada, and the State of Washington being included for comparison :

Monthly diul (innucil mean temperatures at points in Alaska and esleicJicre.

Station.

Sitka«

Sitka'' .--

Kadiak-.

Unalaska"

Unalaska'' _

Port Angeles

Wash

Ottawa. Canada .
Stockbolm, Swe

den

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

o p

Dec.

An-
nual.

o jp

0 p

o p

o Jp

o p

o p

o p

° jr

o p

o p

o p

31.4

.32.9

a5.6

40.8

47.0

52.4

.55. 4

5.5.9

51.5

44.9

38.1

33. 3

43.3

34.2

m.o

37.2

41.9

46. 9

51.6

54.4

56.6

52.3

45. 7

39.8

36.0

44.5

30.0

28.2

32. 6

36.3

43. 2

49.5

.54.7

55.2

50.0

42. 3

34.7

30. 5

40.6

30.0

31.9

30.4

Sj.e

40.9

46. 3

.50.6

51.9

4.5.5

37.6

33.6

»).l

38. 7

33.5

30.5

32.6

35.2

40.4

45.9

49.6

50.3

46.0

40.4

34.6

32.8

39.3

34.7

36.7

41.7

45.6

50.6

54.0

56.6

56.8

.52.7

47.7

42.4

38.2

46.1

11.9

12.2

17.6

41.5

63.6

66.9

70.4

68.7

.57.7

43.1

34.5

17.8

42.1

33.5

29.5

33.8

39.5

52.5

57.0

59.1

59.3

53.6

40.6

as. 6

27.3

43.4

" From records kept by the Russian Government.
'' From records of the United States Signal Service

DESIEABILTTY OF SOUTH ALASKA AS A HOME.
Averagje precipitation at points in Alaska.

27

station.

a

.a

1

•rH

P.
<

>>

►-5

P

ID

B

a

P.

m

%

u
O

Ai.
12.96

8.09
11.98

1

a
>

o

a
p

1

Eh

Total precipi-
tation, May 1
to Sept. 30.

Sitka

Kadiak ,._

In.
7.95
6.5ti
13.81

hi.

8.02
3.70
7.68

In.

7.78
4.86
6.48

In.
5.03
4.01
7.51

In.

3.89
5 92

In.
3.87

^ Q1

7n.
4.14

3.38

2.78

/n.
6.67
4.97
3.40

In.

10.94
7.26
8.64

7ii.
10. 77
6. .56
9.30

In.

8. .52

7 01

In.

90. .54

In.
29.51
26.44
23.57

Unalaska .

1 4.Q A Oli

1101 no 1 J

In comparing the data for Sitka, Kadialv, and Unalaska it will be
noted that the average mean temperature of Sitka is a little higher
than that of Kadiak, which in turn is higher than that of Unalaska.
It w^ill also be noted that Sitka and Unalaska have about the same
rainfall — considerably greater than that of Kadiak.

A matter of more practical consequence than either the copious
rainfall or the comparatively high mean temperature is the rather
low total of effective temperatures during the months from May to
September, inclusive. By effective temperature is meant that above
43° F., at which plant growth practically begins. These totals, as
compiled by Evans," are as follows :

Sitka 1,479. ]

Kadiak 1^ 152. i

k Unalaska 024. 5
Port Angeles. Wash 1,671.0
Ottawa, Canada 3, 424. 7

Scotland 1, 692. 7

Stockholm. Sweden 2, 704. 0

The difference in totals betw^een Sitka and Kadialc is very striking,
but not so much as that between Kadiak and Unalaska. Undoubt-
edly this effective temperature factor is the principal cause of the
sharp demarcation between the timbered and the timberless regions
on the Alaska coast.

Garden products. — This same factor — the low^ total of effective tem-
peratures— limits also the variety of garden products that can be
grown, but along the whole coast a considerable variety of vegeta-
bles is successfully raised, such as potatoes, turnips, cabbage, cauli-
flower, Brussels sprouts, kale, lettuce, peas, radishes, and rhubarb.
Red currants and red raspberries grow wild on Cook Inlet, and these
hardy varieties will thrive at most places along the coast — at Sitka
even the ordinary garden varieties ripening. In southeastern Alaska
salmon berries, cranberries, and huckleberries grow wild in abun-
dance.

"Bulletin No. 4.S, UUiee of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture.

28 GRASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

Fuel. — In the timbered region a supply of fuel is easily obtainable,
Avliile in the tiniberless country a rather scant quantit}^ is secured
from scrubby willoAvs and alders and from beach drift. Coal of an
inferior quality, but still fairly satisfactory for domestic use, is
abundant along Cook Inlet. At present none of this is mined, but
considerable quantities are gathered from exposed ledges, or from
drift on the beaches. Most of the coal used along the Alaska Penin-
sida, however, is at present shipped from Puget Sound. In some
localities the paraffin residue from oil seepage is utilized as fuel.

CHOICE or A LOCATION.

In general, Kadiak and the neighobring islands and the Cook Inlet
country are the most favorable jjlaces for live-stock raising on
account of a great luxuriance of grasses and contiguity to timber.
The Cook Inlet region enjoys the reputation of being the garden spot
of the Alaska coast, apiDarently producing finer vegetables than else-
where, though lying farther north than the Alaska Peninsula and
most of the territory described in these pages. The accessible grass
lands here are, however, comparatively limited.

On the other hand, Unalaska and the neighboring islands, Avhile
possessing less abundant grass and perhaps a less faA'orable climate,
can perhaps reach markets in the Nome region and on the lower
Yukon. At Yakutat, while the grass is not overabundant, the loca-
tion is more favorable for shipments southward.

The prime requisite of any Alaska location is a sufficiently large
available supply of winter forage. Of summer range there is an
abundance nearly everywhere, but the utilization of , this is definitely
limited bv the number of cattle one can safelv winter. The all-
important point is therefore to have a sufficient acreage of land from
which hay or silage can be secured. By selecting locations on the
fiat lands that so commonly occur at the heads of the narrow fiords
one can easily control for all practical pur2)oses great areas of grazing
lands.

The writer can not refrain from quoting here the following opinion
of a widely traveled man from California, who for three years has
been engaged in placer mining on the beach on the west side of Kadiak
Island and who is seriously considering taking up a homestead and
bringing his fainily to Alaska :

III all my travels I have never found a place where one can live so well or
so cheaply as 1 have done for the past three, years. 1 can raise all sorts of
hardy vegetables and berries, besides the wild ones, and have unlimited g:rass
to keep cattle and slice]). Fish of the choicest sorts — salmon, halibut, cod, and
many others — are very almiidant, and the stream tlowiii.tc by my- cabin donr'
swarms with trout. In the way of big game there are bears. Of small game

LAND LAWS APPLYING TO ALASKA. 29

ducks and geese are plentiful in the spring and fall, and fresh gull eggs may be
had for the gathering. To add to all this, if ready money is not available, I
can always make good wages at least by washing out gold on the beach.

Surely there is here a combination of resources that makes failure
well-nigh impossible.

LAND LAWS APPLYING TO ALASKA.

The following report regarding the methods by which title may be
secured to agricultural laiids in Alaska was prepared in the office
of the Commissioner of the General Land Office, through the cour-
tesy of the Secretary of the Interior. It refers solely to acquiring
title to agricultural lands and not to the town-site or mineral laws, or
to mission claims under section 27 of the act of June 6, 1900 (31 Stat.
L., 330) :

Section 1 of the act of Congress approved May 14, 1S98 (30 Stat. L., 409),
extending the homestead laws to Alaska, may be summarized as follows :

F'irst. Extending the homestead laws and the rights incident thereto to the
district of Alaska.

Second. Extending to such district the right to enter surveyed lands under
provisions of law relating to the acquisition of title through soldiers' addi-
tional homestead rights.

Third. Granting the right to enter unsurveyed lands in said district under
provisions of law relating to the acquisition of title through soldiers' additional
homestead rights.

Fourtli. Prohibiting the location in said district of any indemnity, deficiency,
or lieu lands pertaining to any land grant whatsoever orginating outside of said
district.

Fifth. Limiting each entry under this section to SO rods along the shore of
any navigable water, and reserving along such shore a space at least 80 rods-
between all such claims, and prohibiting the entry or disposal of the shore
(meaning land lying between high and low water mark) of any navigable waters
within said district.

Hixth. Limiting each homestead in said district, whether soldiers' additional
or otherwise, to 80 acres in extent.

This section was amended by the act of March 3, 1903 (32 Stat. L., 1028), the
provisions of which may be stated as follows :

The amendatory act does not specifically reenact that portion of the act of
1898 which granted the right to enter imsurvcyed lands in the district of Alaska
under the jirovisions of law relating to the acquisition of title through soldiei's'
additional riglits. but it is provided thereby "that no more than- one hundred
and sixty acres shall be entered in any single body by such scrip, lieu selection,
(v soldiers' additional homestead right," which seems to negative any intention
to modify or ri'i)eal the existing law with regard to the exercise of such rights
in the district of Alaska further than to limit the amount which may be entered
in a single body to KJO acres. Further, that portion of the amendatory act
which provides that " no indemnity, deficiency, or lien-land selections pertaining
to any land grant outside of the district of Alaf;l<a shall be made, and no land
scrip or land wai'rant of any kind whatsoever shall be located within or exer-
cised upon any lands in said district, except as now provided by law," seems to

30 GRASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

recognize that there are such outstanding riglits ; but, unless soldiers' additional
lioniestead rights are thereby considered as scrip rights, this Dejiartnient is not
advised as to any other law i)eruiittlng the exercise of any such rights in the
district of Alaska. Soldiers' additional homestead applications, under sections
2306 and 2307, Revised Statutes, are received as heretofore, but not more than
160 acres can be taken in a single body.

The act of 1898 is amended so as to increase the amount of land which may
be entered as a homestead in the district of Alaska to 320 acres, and in providing
therefor grants such rights to "any person who is qualified under existing laws
to make homestead entry of the public lands of the United States who has
settled upon, or who shall hereafter settle vipon, any of the public lands of the
United States situated in the district of Alaska, whether surveyed or unsur-
veyed." If a person he qualified, therefore, to make homestead entry under
existing laws, he may enter not to exceed 320 acres, upon which he may have
settled, in the district of Alaska, and without regard to the amount he might be
authorized to make homestead entry of elsewhere ; but the right to locate • a
soldier's additional homestead right in the district of Alaska, without settle-
ment, is not thereby changed. Only 100 acres or less may be comnuited.

No entry of any kind in the district of Alaska can, however, be allowed for
land extending more than 160 rods along the shore of any navigable water,
which is twice the extent originally perniitted by the act of 1808, and along
such shore a space of at least 80 rods is reserved between all claims, being the
same as originally provided in the act of 1898.

HOMESTEADS.

The homestead laws secure to qualified persons the right to settle upon,
enter, and acquire title to not exceeding 320 acres of public land, by establishing
and maintaining residence thereon and improving and cultivating the land for
the continuous period of five years.

A homestead entryman must be the head of a family or a person who has
arrived at the age of 21 years, and a citizen of the United States, or one who
has filed his declaration of intention to become such, as required by the nat-
uralization laws, to which section 5 of the act of March 3, 1891 (26 Stat. L.,
1095), attaches the conditions that he must not be the proprietor of more than
160 acres of land in any State or Territory, and that since August 30, 1890,
he has not acquired title to, nor is now claiming under any of the agricultural
public-land laws, an amount of land which, together with the land now applied
for, will exceed in the aggregate 320 acres.

Where a wife has been divorced from her husband or deserted, so that she
is dependent upon her own resources for support, she can make homestead
entry as the head of a family or as a femme sole.

Where an unmarried w^onian settles upon a tract of public land, improves
the same, establishes and maintains a i)ona fide residence thereon with the
intention of appropriating the same for a home under the homestead law, and
thereafter marries before making entry of said land, or before making appli-
cation to enter said land, she does not, on account of her marriage, forfeit her
right to make entry and receive patent for the land : Provided, That she does
not abandon her residence on said land and is otherwise qualified to make
homestead entry: And provided fitrtlier, That the man whom she marries is
not, at the time of their marriage, claiming a separate tract of land under the
homestead law. (Act June 6, 1900, 31 Stat. L., 683.)

LAND LAWS APPLYING TO ALASKA. 31

APPLICATION FOR A HOMESTEAD FOR SURVEYED LAND.

To obtain a homestead the party should select and personally examine the
land and be satislied of its cliaracter and true description.

He must file an api)liration, stating his true name, residence, and post-oftice
address, and describing the land he desires to enter, and make affidavit that he
is not the proprietor of more than 160 acres of land in any State or Teri'itory ;
that he is a citizen of the United States, or that he has filed his declaration of
intention to become such, and that he is the head of a fannly, or over 21 years
of age, as the case may be ; that his application is honestly and in good faith
made for the purpose of actual settlement and cultivation, and not for the bene-
fit of any other person, persons, or corporation, and that he will faithfully and
honestly endeavor to comply with all the requirements of law as to settlement,
residence, and cultivation necessary to acquire title to the land applied for ;
that he is not acting as agent of any person, corporation, or syndicate in making
such entry, nor in collusion with any person, corporation, or syndicate to give
them the benefit of the land entered, or any part thereof, or the timber thereon ;
that he does not apply to enter the same for the purpose of speculation, but in
good faith to obtain a home for himself, and tliat he has not, directly or in-
directly, made, and will not make, any agreement or contract in any manner
with any person or persons, corporation, or syndicate whatsoever, by which
the title which he might acquire from the Government of the United States
should inure, in whole or in part, to the benefit of any person except himself;
and, further, that since August 30, 1890, he has not acquired title to nor is he
claiming under any of the agricultural public-land laws an amount of land
which, together with tlie land lie is seeking to enter, will exceed in the aggre-
gate 320 acres, and that he has not theretofore had the benefit of the home-
stead laws, and must pay the legal fee and that part of the commissions which
is payable when entry is made, and furnish the usual nonmineral affidavit.

On compliance by the party with the foregoing requirements the receiver will
issue his receipt for the fee and that part of the commissions paid, a duplicate
of which he will deliver to the party. The matter will then be entered in the
records of the district office and reported to the General Land Office.

The applicant must in every case state in his application his place of actual
residence and his post-office address, in order that notices of proceedings rela-
tive to his entry may be sent him. The register and receiver will note the post-
office address on theiK tract books.

INCEPTIVE RIGHTS OF HOMESTEAD SETTLERS.

An inceptive right is vested in the settler by the proceedings hereinbefore
described. Fie must, within six months after making his entry, establish his
actual residence in a house upon the land, and must reside upon and cultivate
the land continuously in accordance with law for the term of five years. Occa-
sional visits to the land once in six months or oftener do not constitute resi-
dence. The homestead party must actually inhabit the land and make it the
home of himself and family, as well as improve and cultivate it.

At the expiration of five years, or within two years thereafter, he may make
proof of his compliance with law by residence, improvement, and cultivation for
the full period required, and must show that the land has not been alienated
except as provided in section 2288, Revised Statutes (sec. 2291, Rev. Stat.), as
amended by section 3 of the act of March 3, 1891 (26 Stat, L., 1095),

32 GRASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

The period- of continuous residence and cultivation bef,nns to run at the date
of actual settlement in case the entry at the district land office is made within
the prescribed period (three months) thereafter or before the intervention of a,
valid adverse claim. If the settlement is on unsurveyed land, the latter period
runs from the filing of plat in the district land office. (Act May 14, 1880, 21
Stat. L., 140.)

HOMESTEAD SETTLERS ON UNSURVEYED LANDS.

A homestead settler on unsurveyed public land not yet open to entry must
make entry within three months after the filing of the township plat of survey
in the district land office. (Act May 14, 1880, 21 Stat. L., 140.)

CULTIVATION IN GRAZING DISTRICTS.

In grazing districts stock raising and dairy i^roduction are so nearly akin to
agricultural imrsuits as to justify the issue of patent upon proof of permanent
settlement and the use of the land for such purposes.

Proofs can only lie made by the homestead claimant in person, and can not be
made by an agent, attorney, assignee, or other person, except that in case of the
death of the entryman proof can be made by the statutory successor to the home-
stead right in the manner provided by law.

Sections 2201 and 2202, Revised Statutes, provide for obtaining title to lands
entered by a homestead settler Iiy his heirs. The act of June 8, 1880 (21 Stat.
L., 1G6), provides for homestead claimants who become insane.

HOMESTEAD CLAIMS NOT LIABLE FOR DEBT AND NOT SALABLE.

No lands acquired under the provisions of the homestead laws are liable for
the satisfaction of any del)t contracted prior to the issue of the patent. (Sec.
220(), Hev. Stat.)

The sale of a homestead claim by the settler to another party l)efore becoming
entitled to a patent vests no title or equities in the purchaser as against the
United States. In making final proof the settler is by law required to swear that
no part of the land has been alienated except for church, cemetery, or school
purposes or the right of way for railroads, canals, or ditches for irrigation or
drainage across it. (Sec. 2288, Rev. Stat., as amended by sec. 3 of the act of
March 3, 1891. 2G Stat. L., 1095.)

SOLDIERS AND SAILORS' HOMESTEAD BIGHTS.

Any officer, soldier; seaman, or marine who served for not less tlian ninety
days in the Army or Navy of the United States during the rebellion, and who
was honorably discharged and has remained loyal to tlie (iovernnieiit. and who
makes a homestead entry of 320 acres or less on any land subject to such entry,
is entitled under section 2305 of the Revised Statutes to have the term of his
service in the Army or Navy, not exceeding four years, deducted from the period
of five years' residence required under the homestead laws.

If the party was discharged from service on account of wounds or disabilities
incurred in the line of duty the whole term of enlistment, not exceeding four
years, is to be dediicted from the homestead period of five years; but no ]»atent
can issue to any lioniestejid settler who has not resided upon, inqiroved, and cul-
tivated his homestead for a period of at least one year after he commenced his
improvements. (Sec. 2305, Rev. Stat.)

LAND LAWS APPLYING TO ALASKA. 33

SimiLar provisions are made in the acts of June IG. 1808 (30 Stat. L., 473), and
March 1, 1901 (31 Stat. L., 847), for the benefit of like persons who served in
the kite war with Spain or during the suppression of the insurrection in the
Philippines.

A party applying to make entry under the provisions of section 2304 must file
with the register and receiver a certified copy of his certificate of discharge,
showing when he enlisted and when he was discharged; or the affidavit of two
respectable, disinterested witnesses corroborative of the allegations contained in
the prescribed affidavit (Form 4-0G5) on these points, or, if neither can be pro-
cured, his own affidavit to that effect.

The widow or. in case of her death or remarriage, the guardian of minor chil-
dren may complete a filing made by the soldier or sailor as above, and patent
will issue accordingly.

soldiers' additionax homestead entry.

Any officer, soldier, sailor, or marine who served for not less than ninety days
in the Army or Navy of the United States during said wars, who had, prior to
June 22, 1874. the date of the ai)proval of the Revised Statutes, made a home-
stead entry of less than 100 acres, may enter an additional quantity of land,
adjacent to his former entry or elsewhere, sufficient to make, with the previous
entry, 100 acres. (Rev. Stat, 2306.) This right was extended by section 2.307,
Revised Statutes, to the widow, if unmarried; otherwise to the minor orphan
children by proper guardian. If there l)e no widow, unmarried, and no minor
orphan children, the right is held to be an asset of the soldier-entryman's estate,
to be disposed of by his personal representative as other personal property. (20
L. D., 510 and 058.) An assignment by the heirs will be accepted if accompanied
by a certificate of the proper court showing that no administration has ever been
had on the soldier's estate and that they are all the heirs entitled to the right
The right was formerly regarded as a personal one and not transferable, but
under authority of the decision of the Supreme Court of the United States in the
case of Webster v. Luther (103 U. S., 331), it is now held to be assignable with-
out restriction, and residence and cultivation are not required in its exercise,
either by the original beneficiary or by his assignee, whether the original entry
was perfected or abandoned (24 L. D., 502).

It was formerly the practice, on proof of military service and original enti-y,
under section 2300, Revised Statutes, to issue a certificate in the name of the
soldier-entryman, showing his additional right and its area, but the practice
was discontinued by circular of February 13, 1883 (1 L. D., 654), and it is
held that there is no statutory authority for the same and that the soldier can
obtain the right for himself and sell it to another without certification (23 L. D.,
152).

By the act of March 3, 1893 (27 Stat L., 593), provision is made that where
soldiers' additional homestead entries have been made or initiated upon a cer-
tificate of the Commissioner of the General Land Office of the right to make
such entry, and the certificate of right is found to be erroneous or invalid for
any cause, the party in interest thereunder on making proof of his purchase
may, if there is no adverse claimant, perfect his title by payment of the Gov-
ernment price for the land, but no person may acquire more than 1(50 acres
through the location of any such certificate.

By the act of August 18, 1894 (28 Stat L., 397), all certificates regularly
issued are declared to be valid, notwithstanding any attempted sale or transfer,
and holders thereof desiring to exercise a right of entry in their own names

34 GRASS LANDS OF THE SOUTH ALASKA COAST.

must file such certificates in the General Land Office, together with satisfactory
proof of ownership and of bona fide purchase for value. If, upon examination,
the proof so filed is satisfactory, an additional certificate will be attached to
the original authorizing the location thereof, or entry of land therewith, in
the name of the assignee or his assigns. (Circular of October 10, 1894; 19 L. D.,
302. )

Existing homestead laws, while recognizing settlement upon unsurveyed pub-
lic lands, do not authorize the entry or the patenting thereof until the public
surveys have been regularly extended over them. This section as amended,
however, in terms authorizes the entry of unsurveyed lauds in Alaska, and makes
provision for a private survey for the purpose of patenting the claim, if the
public sui'veys have not been extended thereto at the time it is desired to sub-
mit proof, as is hereinafter referred to.

In executing surveys for homestead applications the instructions now pre-
vailing will be followed, and the limit of 160 rods as to frontage will be meas-
ured along the meandered line of said frontage.

The form of the tract sought to be entered, if upon unsurveyed land, is pre-
scribed in the act as follows :

If any of the land * * * is luisurveyed, then the land * * * must be
in rectangular form, not more than a mile in length, and located upon the north
and south lines run according to the true mei-idian.

That is. the boundary lines of each entry must be run in cardinal directions,
true north-and-south and east-and-west lines by reference to a true meridian (not
magnetic), with the exception of the meander lines on meanderable streams
and navigable waters forming a part of the boundary lines of the entry. Thus
a frontage meander line, and other meander lines which form part of the bound-
ary of a claim, will be run according to the directions in the Manual of Sur-
veying Instructions issued by this Office, but other boundaiy lines will be run
in true east-and-west and north-and-south directions, thus forming rectangles,
except at intersections with meander lines.

In other respects the rules i)reviously adopted to govern surveys of claims
under the act of May 14, 1898, will continue to be followed, of course taking
into consideration the limitations as to area of claims.

Every person who is qualified under existing laws to make a homestead entry
of the public lands of the United States who settles or has settled upon any of
the unsurveyed public lands of the United States in the district of Alaska with
the intention of taking the same under the homestead law shall, within ninety
days from date of settlement or prior to the intervention of an adverse claim,
file the record of his location for record in the recording district in which the
land is situated, as provided by sections 13 to 10 of the act of June 0, 1900 (31
Stat. L., 326 to 328).

Said record shall contain the name of the settler, the date of settlement, and
.<uch description of the land settled on. by reference to some natural object or
permanent monument as will identify the same.

If at the expiration of the time required under sections 2291 and 2292, Re-
vised Statutes, and as modified by section 2305, Revised Statutes, or at such
date as the settler desires to commute under section 2301, Revised Statutes, the
public surveys have not been extended over the land located, the locator may
secure a patent for the land located by procuring,' at his own expense, a survey
of the land, which must be made by a deputy surveyor who has been duly ap-
pointed by the surveyor-genei'al, in accordance with section 10 of the act of
May 14, 1898 (30 Stat L., 409), and the provisions of the act of March 3, 1903, as
herein set forth.

LAND LAWS APPLYING TO ALASKA. 35

When the survey, either pul)Iio or private, as herein provided for is approved
by the surveyor-general under authority of this Office, the same i-ules should be
follovped as heretofore established governing the location of soldiers' additional
homestead rights, in addition to which the settler must furnish the requlreil
proof of residence and cultivation.

The office of the surveyor-general of Alaska is located at Sitka.
Section 10 of said act of May 14, 1898, also provides that all affidavits,
testimony, proofs, and other papers provided for by this act and by said act of
March 3, 1891, or by any departmental or Executive regulation thereunder, by
depositions or otherwise, under commission from the register and receiver of
the land office, which may have been or may hereafter be taken and sworn
to anywhere in the United States, before any court, judge, or other officer
authorized by law to administer an oath, shall be admitted in evidence as if
taken before the register and receiver of the proper local land office. And
thereafter such pvoot, together with a certified copy of the field notes and plat
of the survey of the claim, shall be filed in the office of the surveyor-general
, of the district of Alaska, and if such survey and plat shall be approved by
him, certified copies thereof, together with the claimant's application, shall be
filed in the United States land office in the land district in which the claim is
situated, whereupon, at the expense of claimant, the register of such land
office shall cause notice of such application to be published for at least sixty
days In a newspaper of general circulation publshed nearest the claim within
the district of Alaska, and the applicant shall at the time of filing such field
notes, plat, and application to purchase in the land office aforesaid, cause a
"opy of such plat, together with the application to purchase, to be posted upon
the claim, and such plat and application shall be kept posted in a conspicuous
place on such claim continuously for at least sixty days, and during such pei-iod
of posting and publication, or within thirty days thereafter, any person, cor-
poration, or association having or asserting any adverse interest in, or claim to.
the tract of land or any part thereof sought to be purchased, may file in the
land office where such application Is pending, under oath, an adverse claim
setting forth the nature and extent thereof, and such adverse claimant shall,
within sixty days after the filing of such adverse claim, begin action to quiet
title in a court of competent jurisdiction within the district of Alaska, and
Thereafter no patent shall issue for such claim until the final adjudication of
the rights of the parties, and such patent shall then be Issued in conformity
with the final decree of the court.

When a settler desires to commute, the survey and homestead application
must cover his entire claim, l)ut only 160 acres, or less, thereof may be coni-
nuitetl. in which event the entry will stand intact as to the portion not
comnmted. subject to future compliance with the retiuirements of law within
the statutory period of seven years.

Entrymen who commute will be required to pay, in addition to the price of
$1.25 per acre, the same fees and commissions as in final homesteads.

Whenever a settler or other claimant desires to make entry or submit final
proof, he should address the register and receiver of the United States land
office at Juneau. Alaska.

I

PLATES.

37

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I. Map of Alaska, showing the approximate location of the grass-land

areas in black.
Plate II. Fig. 1. — View of the level lands at the head of Womans Bay, Kadiak

Island. Similar areas occur at the heads of most of the inlets. Fig. 2.—

Mowing beach rye on the Frye-Bruhn ranch.
Plate III. Bluetop {CaJamugrostis lant/sdorfli) on Kadiak Island, 6 feet high,

.July, 1904. The hillsides in the background were burned over during the

preceding spring, and are covered with an equally luxuriant stand of the

same grass.
Plate IV. Fig. 1. — A view of Kadiak, November 7, 1903. A light fall of new

snow covers the low mountains in the background. Fig. 2. — Another view

of Kadiak, starch 2(), 1904. The small snowfall of this region is made very

clear by these two pictures.

38

O

Bui. 82, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Fig. 1.— a View of the Flat Lands Lying at the Head of Woman's Bay, Kadiak

Island, Alaska.

I

Fig. 2.— Mowing Beach Rye on Kadiak Island, Alaska.

Bui. 82, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate III.

Bluetop (Calamagrostis langsdorfii) Six Feet High, on Kadiak Island, Alaska

July, 1904.

Tlie grass on the hilLside in the backgrounil was just as liixuri

lant.

Bui. 82. Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept- of Agriculture.

Plate IV,

Fig. 1 .— a View of Kadiak, Alaska, November 7, 1903.

Fig. 2.— a Different View of Kadiak, March 26, 1904.
The -small snowtall of this region is made very clear by the.se two i>ictures.

I

.s

-^'■'

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 83.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Cfyief of Bureau.

T II e:

UTILITY OF BURIED SEEDS,

BY

J. W. T. DUVEL,

Assistant in the Seed Laboratory.

Issued August 4, 1905.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTINO OFFICE.

190 5.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes Vege-
table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investigations and
Experiments, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, Pomological Investigations, and
Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of which were formerly separate Divisions,
and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, the Arlington Experimental
Farm, Tea Culture Investigations, and Domestic Sugar Investigations.

Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of Bulle-
tins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published as one
series of the Bureau. A list of the Bulletins issued in the present series follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that "the serial, scientific, and technical publica-
tions of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general distribution.
All copies not required for oflficial use are by law turned over to the Superintendent
of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All applications for such
publications should, therefore, be made to the Superintendent of Documents, Gov-
ernment Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10 cents.

2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents. ^

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, '10 cents: ' ^.' ■

7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses and

Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 ceiits.

13. Experiments in Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10

cents.

14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents.

15. Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price,

15 cents.

16. A Preliminary Study of the Germination.of the Spores of Agaricus Campes-

tris and Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. Price, 35 cents.

22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

23. Berseeiji. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

24. ITnfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous Papers: I. The Seeds of Rescue Grass and Chess. II. Saragolla

Wheat. III. Plant Introduction Notes from South Africa. IV. Congres-
sional Seed and Plant Distribution Circulars. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

26. Spanish Almonds. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, Spain, arid the Orient. 1902.

Price, 15 cents.

28. The Mango in Porto Rico. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

29. The Effect of Black Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

30. Budding the Pecan. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

32. A Disease of the White/Ash. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

fContimied on page 3 of cover.]

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BDREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 83.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bunau.

THE

VITALITY OF BURIED SEEDS.

BY

J. W. T. DUVEL, .
Assistant in the Seed Laboratory,

Issued Augtst 4, 1905.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PllINTINO OFFICE

li)05.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

B. T. GALLOWAY,
Pathologist and Physiologist, and Clrief of Bureau.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge, Acting Chief of

Bureau in Absence of Chief.

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS.
Frederick V. Coville, Botam.st in Charge.

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.
W. J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVP:STIGATIONS.
G. B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.
A. J. PiETERS, Botanist in Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.
L. C. CoRBETT, Horticulturist in Charge.

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.
E. M. Byrnes, Superintendent.

J. E. Rockwell, Editor.
James E. Jones, Chief Clerk.

SEED LABORATORY.

Scientific Staff.

Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge.
F. H. HiLLMAN, Assistant Botanist. J. W. T. Dl'vel, Assistant.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

»

lO.

U.*S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,
Washington, I). C, May 29, 1905

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for
publication as Bulletin No. 83 of the series of this Bureau, the accom-
panying technical paper entitled "The Vitality of Buried Seeds."

The experiments discussed were undertaken in order to determine
the leng-th of time that seeds of different species of plants will retain
their vitality when buried at various depths. Seeds of both cultivated
and wild plants were used, but special attention was given to weed
seeds in order to ascertain what weeds can be eradicated by deep plow-
ing and how long the soil must remain undisturbed before the vitality
of the seeds will be entirely destroyed. The results of the first year's
experiments show that the noxious character of weeds is closely
associated with the length of time the seeds will remain viable in the
soil, and that many weeds can be eradicated by plowing. Much
additional information is given, showing the relative resistance of the
seeds of cultivated plants and of those commonly designated as weeds,
and the inlluence upon the preservation of vitality of the depth of
burial, of hard seed coats, and of hulled as compared with unhuUed
seed.

This paper was prepared by J. W. T. Duvel, Assistant in the Seed
Laboratory, and has been submitted with a view to publication.

The accompanying illustrations are necessary for a complete under-
standing of the paper.

Respectfully,

B. T. Galloway,

Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,

^Secretary of Agriculture.

3

CONTENTS

Pajre.

Introduction 7

Kinds of seeds buried 7

How the seeds were buried 9

Germination tests 11

Relation of depth of burial to vitality 17

Hard seeds 18

Seeds of cultivated versus wild plants 19

Summary 19

Description of plates 22

5

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

Page.
Pl.\te I. Fig. 1. — BroniHS raa^mosu-^ Pinooth brome-grass. Fig. 2.—Broi)uis

secalinuft, cheat, or chess --

II. Fig. l.—Alsive media, common chickweed. Fig. 2.^Rumex crispiis,

curled dock. Fig. 3. — Batimt iatula, iim.>^ou weed - - 22

III. Fig. \.—EUjmm canademls, nodding wild rye. Fig. 2. — Frcu:inus .

americana, white ash. Fig. 3.— Phytolacca aniericana, poke 22

TEXT FUirUE.

Fig. 1 . Diagram showing .order in which seeds were buried 10

6

B. P. I.— 165.

THE VITALITY OF BURIED SEEDS.

INTRODUCTION.

The preservation of the vitality of seeds when buried in the soil
and the awakening of metabolic activit}^ in such seeds on being-
exposed to conditions favorable to their germination are equally as
important to the practical farmer as to the scientist. The intelligent
farmer in order to combat noxious plants successfully should know
how much time must elapse after heavy crops of weeds of various
sorts are turned under before the ground can be plowed again with
safety. He should also know what plants he can hope to eradicate in
this way, for with many of our worst weeds this method would result
only in failure. In fact, the reason why the majority of our most
persistent weeds are so difficult to eradicate is because their seeds are
capable of retaining their vitality for a number of yeai'S when buried
in the soil. It thus becomes important to know how different species
of seeds behave when buried under similar conditions, and how seeds
of the same species behave when buried under different conditions.

KINDS OF SEEDS BURIED.

So much has already been written on the germination of seeds that
have remained dormant in the soil for a number of 3^ears, in some
cases even for centuries, that it seemed desirable to determine with
some degree of accuracy the length of time that certain seeds will
retain their vitality when buried in the soil under known conditions.
Accordingly, in the autumn of 1902, 112 different samples of seeds
were selected for these experiments, as follows:

Table I. — List uf seetU selected fur the experiments.

Labora-
tory
test
num-
ber.

16173
16171
16175
16176
16177
16178
16179
16180
16181
16182
161.S3
16184

Kind of seed.

Poaceee (grass family):

Agropyron rcpens (L.) Beauv. (couch grass)

Avtna Jatua L. (wild oat)

Avenn sat/ra L. (oats)

Bromus i<ccalinus L. (cheat, chess)

Bromus racemostis L. (upright chess, smooth brome-grass)

Chaftochlna verticillata (L.) Scribn. (foxtail)

Chatftochlna (ilaiica (L.) Scribn. (yellow foxtail)

Chaetorhlon viridh [h.) Scribn. (green foxtail)

Elfusineindira (L.) Gaertn. (wire-grass, crab-grass)

E/i/mus virgininis L. ( Virginia wild rye)

Eh/miix rmiadensis L. (no(iding wild rye)

Elymus trilkoides Buckl. (wild wheat)

Burial

Sample
number.

nuiiibor

as given

on

diagram.

100

31

71

9

24

8

34

36

33

37

108

66

46

33

5

67

36

72

77

15

74

13

09

14

8

VITALITY OF BUKIED SEEDS.

Table I. — i/.s/ of xecds i>elected for tlie experiments — Continued.

Labora
torv
test
nuni-
bor.

]6187
16188
16189
16190
36191
16192
16193.
16194
16195
16196
16197

16198

16199

16200

16201

16202

16203
16204
16205
16206
16207
16208
16209

16210
16211
16212
16213

16214

10215

10216

10217
16218
16219

16220
16221
16222
16223
16224
16225
16226
16227

16228

16229

16230
16231
16232
16233
16234
16235
16236
16237
16238
16239
16240

16241

16242

16243
16244
16245

Kind (if seed.

Poaeese (gras.s family) — Continued.

Festuca elatior L. ( meadow fescue)

Hordeum sativum Jessen. (barley)

Panicinnvirgatum L. (tall, smooth panicum)

Phataris aruiKlinacea L. ( reed canary grass)

Phleum pralense L. (timothy)

Poa prateni<is L. ( Kentucky bluegrass )

Secale cercale h. { rye)

Sporobolus airoides Torr. ( hair-grass drop-seed )

Sporobopis cryptnndrus (Torr.) A.Gray (sand drop-seed)

^Sporuboluscry])tdTidri(s{TorT.) A. Gra)-(sand drop-seed — hulled seed).

TiUicum aestirnm L. ( wheat) ."

Zea inai/s L. (corn^Boone County white)

Zea mays L. (sweet corn — early Concord)

Cyperacea? (sedge family):

Cyperus esculentus L. ( yellow nut-grass)

Liliacese (lily family):

Allium cepa L. (onion)

Convallariacese (lily-of-the-valley family):

Asparagus officinalis L. (asparagus)

Moracese (mulberry family) :

Caniuilns sativa L. (hemp)

Urticacese (nettle family):

Boehmeria nivea Gaud. ( ramie)

Polygonacefe (buckwheat family):

Fagopyrumfagopyrum (L.) Karst. (buckwheat)

Polygonum pennsylvanicum L. ( Pennsylvania persicaria, smartweed) .

Polygonum jKrsicaria L. (lady'.s-thumb, smartweed)

Polyionum scandens L. (climbing false buckwheat)

Humex salici/filius Weinin. (willow-leaved dock)

Rumex crispus L. (curled dock), not cleaned

Rumex oblusi/olius h. (broad-leaved dock, bitter dock)

Chenopodiaccse (goosefoot family):

Axyris amaranthoides L. ( Russian pigweed )

Beta VHlgnri.i h. (sugar beet)

Chenopodiirm album L,. (lamb's quarters, white goosefoot)

Chaiopodinm hybridvm L. (maple-leaved goosefoot)

Amaranthacea? (amaranth family):

A maravlh us rdroflexus ( rough pigweed)

Phytolaccacea; (pokeweed family):

Phytolacca americana L. (poke, pigeon berry)

Portulacaceae (purslane family):

Portulaca oleracea L. (purslane, pussley)

Silenaceee (pink family):

Agrostemma gitliago L. (corn cockle)

Alsine media L. ([common chickweed )

Vaccaria vaccnria (L.) Britton (cowherb)

Brassicacefe (mustard family):

Brassira nigra ( L. ) Koch (black mustard)

Brassica oleracea L. (caVjbage )

Brassica campestris L. ( turnip)

Bursa bnrsa-pastoris (L.) Britton (shepherd'.s pur.se)

Erysim urn cfieirantlioides L. ( wormseed , treacle mustard )

Neslia paniculata ( L. ) Desv. (ball mustard ) ,

Sisymbriuvi allissimum L. (tall sisymbrium)

Thlaspi arceiise L. (field penny cress)

Rosacese (rose family):

Potentitla monspeliensis L. ( rough cinquefoil )

Caesalpiniacea; (senna family):

Cassia marylandica L. (wild senna, American senna)

Fabacese (pea family):

Lesijedezafrulescens ( L. ) Britton ( wand-like bush clover)

Medicago saliva L. (alfalfa, lucern)

Pfiaseolus vulgaris L. ( bean )

Pisu m salii'um, L. ( pea )

Etibinia pseutlacacia L. (locust tree, false acacia)

Trifoliuui. hybridum L. (alsike clover)

Trifolium pratetise L. (red clover)

- Trifolium pratense L. (red clover) harvest of 1900

Trifoliu m pratense L. ( red clover) hard .seed from No. 16237

Trijolium repens L. (white clover)

Vigna catjang Walp. (Iron eowpea) , . .-.

Linaceae (fla.v family):

Linum usitaUssimum L. (flax, linseed)

.Vnacardiaceie (sumac family):

Rhus glabra L. (scarlet sumac)

Malvaceaj (mallow family):

Abntilon ahutilon ( L. ) Rusby. (velvet leaf)

(lossyj)ium liirsiduin L. (cotton )

Jlibisc^cs militaris Cav. (halberd-leaved rose mallow)

Sample
number.

Burial
number
as given

on
diagram.

38
23
70
93
112
75
25
12
63
13
22
14
15

7
27
32

4

21

9

10

11

107

103

102

1

72
96
62

83

104

86

16

110

55

67
17

40
3

58
85
78
60

73

52

43
59
20
19
37
50
49
54
68
41
42

30

47

111
18
31

HOW THE SEEDS WERE BURIED.

9

Table I. — L'n't of xeeds selected for Hie experiments — Continued.

La bora
torv
test
num-
ber.

16246

16247

16248
16249

16250

16251
16252

16253
16254

16255
16256

16257
16258
16259
16260
16261

16262

16263
16264
16265

16266
16267
16268

16269
16270
16271

16272
16273
16274

16275
16276
16277
16278
16279
16280
16281
16282
16283

162S4

Kind of seed.

Hypericacefe (St. John's wort family):

Asci/niiii liiipei ic(jiiirs L. ( St. Andrew's cross)

Onagrace* (eveninjf primrose family):

Onagra bieimis ( L.) Scop, (common evening primrose)

Apiaeea' (carrot family i:

Apiiim grartokiii! L. ( celery )

PasUndca satira L. (parsnip, wild )

Oleaceffi (olive family):

Fra.rinus americuiiu L. ( white ash)

Convolvulacece (morning-glory family i:

Convolruliis sipiiii}! L. ( hedge bindweed, great bindweed )

Ipomiiea Uicuiid.m L. (small-flowered white morning-glory)

CuscutaceEe-(dodder family) :

Ciisriitti polyooiioriim Engelm. (smartweed dodder)

Ciisciitd epi/itiiiiii Wei he. (flax dodder)

VerbenaeeEe (vervain family):

]'irhnia liastala L. ( blue vervain)

Vrrbina Krlici/olia L. (white vervain, nettle-leaved vervain'

Solanaeete (pfita to family i:

Oip.-'icum iniiiiiiuii L. ( red pepper)

I>aliir(i tatiila L. (purple stramonium, jimson weed)

LjIcopcrsicDit li/copersicon (L. ) Karst. (tomato)

Airoliatia labacum L. (tobacco)

!>olanum nigrum L. (black nightshade, garden nightshade)

Scrophulariacefe (figwort family):

Verbascum thapsiis L. ( great mullen )

Plantaginacefe (plantain family):

Plantago lancailata L. ( ribwort, ribgra.ss, buckhorn )

PUintago majar L. (common plantain i

Plnnlago riigdii Dec. (Rugel's plantain, broad plantain )

Cucurbitacese (gourd family):

Citrulliis citrulhis (L. ) Karst. (watermelon)

Cacumis nicio L. (muskmelon )

Cucumis salivug L. (cucumber i

Cichoriacefe (chicory family):

Lactui'a srariola L. (prickly lettuce)

Lactuca satira L. (lettuce i

Tara:eacu)n crgllirospcnnum Andrz. (red-seeded dandelion)

Ambrosiacese (ragweed family):

Ambrosia arlem(!<iarfolia L. ( ragweed)

Ambrosia Irifida L. ( great ragweed )

Xanihiam pi nnsglvanicum Wallr. ( Pennsylvania clotbur, cocklebur).
Asteracea- (aster family):

Arrtiiiin lappa L. (burdock, clotbur)

P.iilrn^ frond ona L. (black beggar ticks)

Curd II IIS arniisis ( L.) Roljs. (Canada thistle)

Chriisiiidliiiniiiii It iirniitheiiniiri L. (whiteweed, oxeye daisy)

Griiiddia si/iiarrosa (Pursli.) Dunal. ( broad-lea ve(i gum plant)

Jleliiuithiis unninis L. (common sunflower, wild)

lidiaiilhiis anniius L. (common sunflower, cultivated)

Oiiopordoii aranl/iiiiiii L. ( cotton thistle, scotch thistle)

Riidhirkin liirta L. ( black-eyed Susan)

Piniice* ( fiine family) :

J'iiiiis rirgiiiiana Mill, (scrub pine, Jersey pine)

Sample
number.

44

8

94
95

105

56
81

63

82

66
79

39
106
45
99
61

76

91
65

6
26
48

28
90

87
53
51

101
84
80
92
89
97
29

109
57

36

Burial
number
as given

on
diagram.

95

96

57
56

23
22

98
97

100
99

59
61
60
101
58

102

105
103
104

26
25
24

107

62

106

63

28

27

112

64

111

110

108

29

7

65

109

HOW THE SEEDS WERE BURIED.

The foregoing- H.st repre.sent.s 109 species, 8-i genera, and 34 families
of plants. • Carefully counted seeds of these samples were mixed with
dry clay soil and packed in well-baked earthen pots (the common
flowerpot used in greenhou.ses). The tilled pots were covered with
inverted clay saucers in order to prevent the seeds from being
destroved or becoming mixed with other seeds which mioht have been
in the soil with ^vhich the pots were covered. By buiwing the seeds
mixed with earth in porous clav pots of this character they were sub-
jected to conditions almost identical with tho.-se which would exist if
the seeds were buried either accidentally or by natural causes. The
porous clay pots admitted of the free circulation of air and water. .
80350— yo. 8.8—05 2

10

VITALITY OF BURIED SEEDS.

The pots containing- these seeds were buried at three different depths.
Eight complete sets were buried from 6 to 8 inches below the surface,
being covered upproximatel}^ the same as would result from deep
plowing. Twelve complete sets were covered to a depth var3ing from
18 to 22 inches, sufficiently deep in this latitude to be reasonably'
secure from the action of frost. TAvelve more complete sets were
buried at a depth var^'ing from 36 to 42 inches where the conditions
were nearly uniform, so far as the three factors which I'egulate the
germination of seeds are concerned, namely, heat, moisture, and air
(oxygen). Figure 1 shows the arrangement of the pots, which were
of 6-inch, 4-inch, and 2-inch sizes, to accommodate the different kinds
of seed.

00^

i@@@(g)(g)(g)@(S)(g)@

Fig. 1. — Diagram showing order in which seeds were buried.

These seeds were buried December 19 to 23, 1902, in a heavy clay
soil on the Arlington Experimental Farm of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture. With the exception of two of the duplicate
samples of red clover, the seeds were of the harvest of 1902.

In each case a definite number of seeds was taken. Of the larger
kinds, such as beans, peas, corn, etc., 100 seeds were used, but for the
majority of the samples 200 seeds were taken. The seeds selected
were for the most part of plants with which the greater number of
the farmers throughout the United States are more or less familiar,
either as plants of economic importance or as weeds.

In all 32 complete sets, representing 8,584 pots, were buried. One
set from each of the three different depths is to ))e taken up as the
conditions warrant and will be tested for vitalit}'. The -results of
these tests are to be compared with the germination of seeds from the
original bulk samples designated throughout this report as ''controls."

GERMINATION TESTS. 11

The control samples are being- stored in cloth bag-s in a dry room on
the second floor of the Seed Laborator3\ The tirst complete series of
three sets was taken up in November, 1903, eleven months after they
had been buried. The results of the tirst year's experiment are given
in the following- pages.

GERMINATION TESTS.

In making- the germination tests of the buried seeds the contents of
the pots, the mixture of seed and soil, were spread on sand in ordinary
greenhouse flats. Along with these, in the same flats, were control
samples taken from the original bulk lot of seeds, as previously men-
tioned. In addition, another complete set of control samples was
tested in the germinating chambers of the Seed Laboratory. The tem-
peratures given in the tables are those best suited for the germination
of the different seeds.

For convenience the results of the germination tests have been
divided into three groups, as follows:

A. Seeds in which the control samples, as well as those that were
buried, gave only negative results when tested in the greenhouse.

B. Seeds which had either deca3'ed or germinated and afterwards
decayed while the}' were buried.

C. Seeds which had not completely lost their vitality while buried.
The first group, i. e., those in which both the control samples and

those which had been buried failed to germinate when planted in flats
in the greenhouse, consists of the following species:

1. A.ryris amaranthoides L. (Russian pigweed).

2. Boehmeria nivea Guad. (ramie).

3. Bursa bursa-pastor is (L. ) Britton (shepherd's purse).

4. Cannabis saliva L,. (hemp).

5. ChaetocJdoa viridis (L. ) Scribn. (green foxtail).

6. Citrullus cifridhis (L. ) Karst. (watermelon).

7. Cy})erus escidentus h. (yellow nut-grass).

8. Onagra biennis (L. ) Scop, (evening primrose).

9. Polygonum pennsylvanicum L. (Pennsylvania smartweed, persicaria).

10. Pol ygotmm persicaria L,. (lady's-thumb, smartweed).

11. Polygounm scandens L. (climbing false buckwheat).

12. Sporobolus airoidesTorr. (hair-grass drop-seed).

13. Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr. ) A. Gray (sand drop-seed — hulled seed).

In this series the hemp should be discarded, as repeated tests failed
to show any seeds from the bulk samples capable of germination. The
control samples of the other seeds when tested in the germinating-
chambers germinated nearh- as well and in some cases even better than
the chamber tests which were made at the time the seeds were l)uried.
Undoubtedly some of these seeds had decayed while buried in the soil;
in fact, the watermelon seeds, Axyi'is amaranthoides^ and Sporohohis
airoides -weve marked '"mostly decayed " when taken up. Generally
speaking, the results show that the failure to germinate was not in the

12

VITALITY OB' BURIED SEEDS.

seeds, but that the conditions in the greenhouse were at fault, and
until other tests are made these results can not be discussed with any
decree of satisfaction. On the other hand, it is certain that some of
the smaller seeds failed to germinate because they were covered too
deeph' when sown in the flats in the greenhouse.

Polygonum scandens possibly should be classified in Table III, inas-
much as some of the seeds which were buried at depths of from 18 to
22 inches and from 36 to 12 inches showed a few sprouts at the time
the seeds were taken up, but after being transferred to the greenhouse
no seedlings were developed. However, the failure in the germina-
tion of the control sample of Pohjgonxm scandens throws it into the
first group (A) with the other two species of the same genus, i. e.,
Polygoniiiii pennsylvanicuDi and P. jyerslcarla.

The result of the tests of the buried seed of Sporoholu;^ cryptandrus^
as given in this group, should be compared with the germination of
the unhulled seed as given in Table 111, No. 61. The control sam-
ples of both the hulled and the unhulled seed which were sown in the
greenhouse failed to germinate, but all three samples of the unhulled
seed that had been buried gave some germination when tested in the
greenhouse.

Table II. — Results of tests of seeds wJiieli had either dercujed or germiiiuted and aftericards

derailed irliile buried.

a

Labora
torv
test
num-
ber.

I

14 , 16196

15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37

16197
16217
16221
16244
16233
16232
16203
16195
16186
16175
16191
16267
16199
16270
16281
16241
16245
16200
16177
16176
161S1
16284
16234

Kind of seed.

Chamber tests.

Greenhouse tests in sand.

Tem- : Origi-
pera- j nal
ture. sample.

Zeamays(BooneCount.v white !

corn ) 1

Zea mays (sweet corn) i

Agrostemnia githago

Brassica oleracea

Gossypium hirsutum

Pisuin sativum

Phaseolus vulgaris

Fagopyrum fagopy rum

Triticum aestivum

Hordeum sativum

Avena sati va

Secale cereale

Cucumis melo

Allium cepa

Lactuoa sativa

Helianthus annuus (cult.)..

Linum usitatissimura

Hibiscus militaris

Asparagus ofiicinalis

Bromus racemosus

Bromus sccalinus

Eleusineindica

Pinus virginiana

Robinia pseudacacia

Con- 1 Con-
trol. ] trol.

° C.

20-30
20-30 I
20-30 '

20
20-30
20-30
20-30
20-30

20

20
20-30

20
20-30
20-30
20-30
20-30
20-30
20-30
20-30
20-30
20-30

35
20-30
20-30

Per ct. Per ct. \ Per ct. Per cl.

Depth of burial.

6-8 1 18-22 36-42
inches, inches, inches.

99.
98.
99

85.

77.

99

97.
100

99
100

70.
100

96.

94.
100

97

93.

98.

80
100

88.

7.S.

l.N

14

90
98.
98.
82
72
98
98.
98.
96.
98
91.
9S,
97
88
98.
96.
95
92
em
9S.
77
91.
6.

on.

Per ct. Prr cl.

....

(")

9.5.5
88
88
70.5
91
43

83.5
94
74

92. 5
95. 5
75
43.5
3.5

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.fO
"0
0
0
0
0

(<■)
■(■'')'

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

/o

0
0
0
0
0

i'l)

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

/o

"0
0
0
0
0

(I Many had germinated and afterwards decayed.

i) .Appro.xinialcly 10 piT cent had germinated; the remainder hud decayed.
<• An Dccasioniil old sprout was loiuid.

t' Apriroximaiely all liad germinated and afterwards decayed.
* Clipped, .S7 per cent; not cli)iped. 51 per cent.

/Practicariy all had .sprouted; the sprouts from seeds buried at the 36-42-inch depth were found
matted in the bottom of the pot.
a Clipped.

GERMINATION TESTS. 13

The corn, sweet corn, corn cockle, cabbage, cotton, peas, beans,
buckwheat, wheat, and l)arley— the lirst ten samples given in the fore-
going table — were all so unmistakably decayed when the seeds were
taken up that the contents of the pots were thrown away, no green-
house tests being made. The tirst six of these samples showed no
trace of any remains of old si)routs; apparently all of the seeds had
decayed before germination had taken place. If germination took
place it must have been comparatively soon after Inirial, thus giving
ample time for all of the old sprouts to decay beyond identitication.
This, however, seems hardly i)roV)able. considering that the seeds
were buried during the latter part of December, 1902; moreover, the
beans, l)uckwheat, and barley from some or all of the different depths
showed clearly the remains of well-developed radicles.

The beans which were Ijuried at depths of from 0 to 8 and from 18 to
22 inches had decayed, while many of those buried at a depth of from
36 to 42 inches had germinated and afterwards decayed. The buck-
wheat from the 6 to 8 inch depth showed that approximately 10 per
cent had germinated, while at is to 22 inches there were only the
remains of an occasional old sprout, and at 36 to -42 inches all of the
seed had decayed. In the wheat the greater number of the grains
that were buried from 6 to 8 and from 36 to 42 inches had germinated
and then decayed, while those which were buried at a depth of from
18 to 22 inches showed only decayed seed. Approximately all of the
barley at the three diflerent depths had germinated and afterwards
decayed.

The last fourteen species given in this table were marked ''decayed"
when the seeds were taken up. but as the conditions were not so clearly
indicated as in those first mentioned, germination tests were made in
the greenhouse.

The results of the germination tests show that none of the pots con-
tained any viable seeds. Of this latter group only the pots containing
the Asjxtmgns ()jfichudi.sii\\(\ Bromus racemosas (Nos. 32 and 33) showed
remains of old sprouts. The seeds in the other pots apparently had
all decayed without any germination during the time they were buried.
The germination of the asparagus seed had been almost perfect. The
pot buried at the greatest depth contained only a mass of sprouts,
many of which were still partially alive. The Bromus racnno.sm
showed that germination had taken place only in the pots buried at
6 to 8 and 36 to 42 inches, while those buried at the depth of 18 to 22
inches had all decaved before oerminatino-.

It is interesting to note in this connection the behavior of the two
species of l^ronms—B/'onitis se<:aUn'i.'< {v\\Q'Ai or chess) and /?. race-
iiiosHs (upright chess). The seeds of both of these species had com-
pletely lost their vitality within the eleven months in the soil, while
the control samples gave a germination of !>.5..j and 'J-J.o per cent.

14 VITALITY OF BURIED SEEDS.

respectively. These differences arc more clearly shown in Plate I, A
and B.

The results above stated, while perhaps not altogether conclusive,
inasmuch as they represent only single tests of 2(J0 seeds in each case,
show that seeds of these two plants will not remain vial^le for long-
periods when buried in the soil.

This is particularly interesting in the case of the common cheat or
chess, which is frequently a pernicious weed in the grain fields of the
United States. The generally accepted opinion is that the grains of
cheat will live in the soil for a number of years, the seeds germinating
when conditions are most favorable, the resulting plants then crowd-
ing out the wheat. Some people even hold that in "off' seasons"
wheat turns to cheat, but fortunately such erroneous ideas are fast
disappearing.

The results of these experiments show that cheat, whenever found
growing in grain fields or elsewhere, has come from seed recently
sown and has not been lying dormant in the soil. With but few
exceptions the unexpected appearance of cheat comes either from
seeds that have been sown unintentionally mixed with wheat or other
grains so that they passed unobserved, or from seeds that have been
scattered with stable manure.

Dr. Beal^' has also shown that buried seeds of Bromus secalinus do
not retain their vitality for a long period of years. In BeaFs experi-
ments the first test was at the expiration of five years, but not a single
grain of cheat responded to the germination test at that time.

Table II includes the majority of our more commonly cultivated
plants of the field or garden, all of which failed to show any seeds
capable of germination after having been buried in the soil for
approximately one year. This statement will hold good for the major-
ity of our cultivated plants. There are, however, a number of excep-
tions. Many of these will l)e found in Table III, some showing that
vitality was remarkably well preserved. Of these celery, parsnip, and
tobacco (numbers 94, 95, and 99, respectively) should be mentioned in
particular. The highest germination in each case was 64 per cent for
the celery from the 18 to 22 inch depth, 63 per cent for the parsnip
from the 36 to 42 inch depth, and 70 per cent for the tobacco from
the 18 to 22 inch depth.

" Bulletin No. 5, Michigan Agricultural College, 1884.

GERMINATIOISr TESTS.

15

Table III. — Results of tests of seeds tliat had not comjjletebj lost their ritaliti/ trjiile

buried.

rt

Labora-

^u

tory

a;5

test

P.—

num-

a

ber.

^

3.S

16185

39

16257

40

16222

41

16239

42

16240

43

16230

44

16246

45

16259

46

16179

47

16242

48

16268

49

16236

50

16235

51

16274

52

16229

53

16273

64

16237

55

16219

56

16251

57

16283

58

16224

59

16231

60

16227

61

16261

62

16213

63

16253

61

16193

65

16265

66

16255

67

16220

68

16238

69

16184

70

16187

71

16174

72

16211

73

16228

74

16183

/o

16190

76

16262

77

16182

78

16226

79

16256

80

16277

»1

16252

82

16254

«3

16214

84

16276

85

16225

86

16216

87

16272

88

16263

89

16279

90

16271

91

16264

92

16278

93

16188

94

16248

95

16249

96

16212

97

16280

98

16269

99

16260

100

16173

101

16275

102

16209

103

16208

104

16215

105

16250

106

16258

107

16207

108

16178

109

16282

Kind of seed.

Festnca elatior

Cap.sicum annuum

Brassiea campestris

Tritolium repens

Vigna catjang

Lespedeza fruteseens

Ascyrum hypericoides

Lycopersicon lyoopersieon

Chaetochloa glauca

Rhus glabra

(Uicuniis sativa

Trifolium pratense

Trifolium hybridum

Xaiithium pennsylvanicum ..

Cassia niary landiea

Ambrosia tritida

Trifolium pratense (10964)

Vaccaria vaccaria

Convolvulus sepium

Rudbeckia hirta

Erysimum cheiranthoides

Medieago sativa

Thlaspi arvense

Solanum nigrum

Chenopodium hybridum

Cuscuta polygonorum

Sporobolus cryptandrus

Plantago rugelii

Verbena hastata

Brassiea nigra

Trifolium pratense (hard)

Elymus triticoides

Panicum virgatum

Avena fatua

Beta vulgaris

Potentilla monspeliensis

Elymus canadensis

Poa pratensis

Verbascum thapsus

Elymus virginicus

Sisymbrium altissimum

Verbena urticifolia

Carduus arvensis

Ipomoea lacunosa

Cuscuta epilinum

Amaranthus retroflexus

Bidens frondosa

Neslia paniculata

Portulaca oleracea

Ambrosia artemisiaefolia

Plantagd lanceolata

Grindelia squarrosa

Taraxacum erythrospermum .

Plantago major

Chrysanthemum leucanthe-

mum

Phalaris arundinacea

Apium graveolens

Pastinaca sativa

Chenopodium album

Helianthus aniiuus (wild)

Lactuca scariola

Nicotiana tabacum

Agropyron repens

Arctium lappa

Kumex obtusifolius

Rumex crispus

Phytolacca americana

Fraxinus americanus

Datura tatula

Rume.x salicifolius

Chaetochloa verticillata

Onopordon acanthium

Chamber tests.

Greenhouse tests in sand.

Tem-

Origi-

Con-
trol.

Con-
trol.

Depth of burial.

pera-
ture.

nal-
sample.

6-8
inches.

18-22
inches.

36-42
inches.

° C.

Per ct.

Per ct.

Per ct.

Per ct.

Per ct.

Per ct.

20-30

97

83

86

0.5

0.0

oO.O

20-30

96

97

80

.0

.0

.5

20

90. 25

86

18.5

.0

.0

• 6.5

lO

84.75

42.75

86

.0

61

.0

20-30

82.5

59.5

70

.0

1

.0

20

15

cl

2.5

.0

.0

1

30

1.5

.0

.0

1

.0

.5

20-30

99.25

72.5

88

.0

1

.5

20-30

55. 75

37.5

18

1

1

1

20-35

.0

.0

.0

.0

.0

2

20-30

100

98.5

62

.0

1

3

20

89.75

73

85. 5

'>

4

4

20

91.75

84

73

2

4

4.5

30

50

.0

.0

.0

.5

30

14.5

rf98

20

3

3

5

20-30

29

52.5

48

.0

62

6

20

67.75

70

4.5

65

6

20-35

e6.o

88

68

.0

64

t

20-30

4

2

24

2

4

7

30

65.5

78.5

74.5

6.5

6.5

1

20-35

52.5

42

14.5

2

65

68

20

84.5

64.5

97

''2

69

69

20-30

57.25

54.5

.5

611

8

11.5

20-30

97. 75

91

12

9.5

10.5

12.5

20-30

61

18.5

10.5

7. 5

9.5

13

20-30

12

8.5

55.5

11.5

10.5

13

30

2.25

8

.0

. ;i

1.5

13.5

20-30

3.75

5.5

67.5

12

12

13.5

20-30

9

.5

11.5

13

14

20

1.5

13.25

34

10

614

614

20

13.75

9.25

18

610.5

15. 5

14.5

20-30

84

75

85

1.5

6 3.5

615.5

20-30

30.5

36.5

22

7

17

16

20-30

70.5

91.5

93.5

69

68

18

20-30

153

90.5

7

19. 5

20

20-30

41

83

73.5

69.5

16

21.5

20-30

93.5

95.5

81

.0

67

622

20-30

90.75

87

59

16

22

24.5

20-30

82. 5

98

72.5

7

7.5

25.5

20-35

65. 25

44

83

a'2

613.5

625.5

20

88. 25

86.25

76

610.5

17.5

26

30

1.5

.0

56.5

23.5

24.5

26.5

20-30

.56. 75

68

0

21

22. 5

28.5

20-35

98.5

/88

88

20

25

- 33

20-30

.0

.0

.5

15.5

23.5

34

20-30

94.75

91

61

18

22

35

20-30

75

52.5

25

29

33

36

20-35

90

97

68

23

24.5

38.6

35

S3. 75

91.5

16

39

38.5

30.5

20-30

58.5

42.5

30.5

32

37

41

30

82.5

78

67.5

41

41

41

20-30

25. 75

41

87.5

30.5

36

42

20-30

85.75

87.5

85.5

35.5

41.5

45.5

20-30

24

78

.0

39.5

■ 43.5

46.5

20-30

96. 25

91

85.75

621

633

649.5

20-35

69.25

8

78

45

46.5

56.5

20-30

88

83.5

72.5

48.5

64

60

20-30

55.5

67

78.5

29

51

63

20-30

67.25

58

33.5

32

63.5

64.5

20-30

100

97

86

43.5

64

66. 5

20

.25

11.5

83

63.5

69

69. 5

20-30

89. 25

84.25

89.25

46.5

70

55

20-30

80. 24

84

23.5

20.5

6 73

66. 5

20-30

99. 75

96

88.5

42.5

63.5

73

20-30

97.5

9.5.5

80

73

72.6

79.5

20-30

80. 75

83. 5

91

67.5

79.5

79

20-30

40.5

d88.5

84.5

7.5

66.5

80.5

20-30

49.5

2

26

.0

.0

84

20-30

99

d54

88

6 86

84

86.5

20-30

98.25

96.5

2.5

88.5

8.5.5

70.5

20-30

92. 75

94.5

88.5

6.58

71

90

20-30

95. 5

31

.0

86

93

90.5

16

VITALITY OF BURIED SEEDS.

Table III. — Efsults of tests of seeds that IkhJ not completehi lost their litutitu vJ-'de

' buried — Continued.

s

Labora-

c .

tory

a-^

test
inim-

1

ber.

Kind uf seed.

Chamber tests.

Tern- I Origi-
pera- nal
ture. sample.

110 I 16218 I Alsine media

nig 16243 i Abutilon abutilon.
1129 16189 Phleum pratense . .

Average percentage of
germination

° C. Pn- ct.
20-30 97

Con-
trol.

Per ct.

Greenhouse tests in sand.

Con-
trol. •

Per ct.

98. 5 1 93

Depth of burial.

6-8 18-22 36-42
inches, inches, inches.

Per ct.
90.5

Per ct. i JPer ct.
96.5 I 92.5

63. 2 57. 5

53.2

20.5

26.5 , 31

o Man V had germinated and afterwards decayed.

(,Fre*h sprouts found when samples were taken up. These sprouted seeds were not thrown away,
but were transplanted with the remainder of the sample and tested in sand in greenhouse, conse-
quently tho.se which prodiu^ed seedlings are included in the percentages of germination given in the
table. "These fresh sprouts were found as follows:

Sam-

Sam-'

Sam-

Sam-
ple
num-

ple
num-

Depth.

Sprouts.

pie
num-

Depth.

Sprouts.

ple
num-

Depth.

Sprouts.

Depth.

Sprout*.

ber.

ber.

ber.

ber.

Indies.

■ -j

'

Incites.

Incfres.

Indies.

39

36-42

1

59

36-42

1-

71

18-22

Many.

92

18-22

Manv.

53

18-22

3

60

6- 8

1

73

6- 8

4

92

36-42

Many.

54

18-22

1

67

18-22

2

74

18-22

Few.

100

18-22

1

55

18-22

1 :

67

36-42

2

74

36-42

Manv.

106

6- 8

58

18-22

10

68

6- 8

1

(/

18-22

10

108

6- 8

Many.

58

36-42

5 i

69

18-22

Few.

77

36-42

.1

59

6- 8

4 I

69

36-42

Many.

78

6- 8

1

59

18-22

2

71

6- 8

Many.

92

6- 8

Many.

oClipped seed germinated, 59 per cent. , "

^Clipped.

<■ Germinated. 84 per cent at 20° C.

/Clipped seed germinated, 100 per cent.

{/Tests interrupted.

In Table 111 the names of the seeds are arranged in the order of
their vitality as determined by the germination tests made in the
greenhouse. The list of seeds tested begins with Fedaca elatior
(meadow fescue), which showed only one viable seed, that being from
the 18 to 22 inch depth, and ends with Alshie media (common chick-
weed), in which nearly all of the seeds retained their power of germi-
nation throughout the entire period that they remained in the soil.
The germination of the latter, when sown in the greenhouse, was
ahnost perfect. (See PI. II, fig. 1.)

In many instances some of the seeds had germinated while they were
buried. In most cases the seeds which had germinated afterwards
decayed. In the larger seeds this could usually be determined with-
out much difficulty, but with many of the smaller seeds no such obser-
vations could be made. However, it is more than prol)a])le that many
of the smaller seeds which showed a low' germination when traii.^-
planted in the greenhouse had germinated and afterwards decayed
before being dug up, but this could not l)e .satisfactorily determined
bv a hurried field examination. Many of the pots also contained U-qAx

EELATION OF DEPTH OF BUEIAL TO VITALITY. 17

sprouts at the time the seeds were taken up. The number of fresh
sprouts in each case is indicated in a footnote to Table 111.

Unlike Table II, Table 111 includes names of but very few of our
cultivated plants. The majority belong to that class of plants com-
monl}' known as weeds. These results show that but a limited num-
ber of our cultivated plants produce seeds which can retain their
vitalit}^ for any length of time when buried in soil. On the other
hand, the seeds of the plants which are commonl}^ known as weeds are
of strong" vitalit}', and many of them deteriorated but very little with
the treatment given. This, of course, is what we would expect. By
natural selection the wild plants which survive are just those from
seeds which are capable of living in the soil for a period of time more
or less extended, and ultimately this factor becomes hereditary. With
most of the cultivated plants the seeds are gathered and carefully
saved from year to year, resulting in the loss of these inherited
characteristics.

The mere fact that certain seeds retain their power of germination
for a period of years when buried in the soil brands the plants which
they produce as weeds. The length of time that such seeds can remain
in the soil and still retain their power of germination largely deter-
mines their noxiousness. In other words, it mav well be said that the
pernicious character of weeds is directly proportional to the length of
time the seeds will remain viable when buried in the soil. For this
reason bad weeds are difficult to eradicate once the seeds are allowed
to mature. (See PI. II.)

RELATION OF DEPTH OF BURIAL TO VITALITY.

Table III shows that many of the seeds were better preserved the
deeper they were buried. This is probably best explained b}' the
difference in the three factors which govern germination, viz, heat.,
moisture, and oxygen. At the greatest depth the amount of moisture
is always more uniform, the supply of air is greatl}^ lowered, and the
temperature is much reduced. The temperature decreases very rapidly
as we go below the surface of the soil, and at 3i feet is comparatively
uniform throughout the year. Experiments conducted at McGill
College, Montreal, Canada, by C. H. McLeod show that at a depth of
40 inches below the surface of the soil the minimum and maximum
temperatures through the year were approximatel}' 35^ and 60^ F.,
respectively.^'

The greater number of seeds germinate best when subjected to daily
alternations in temperature. These alternations do not take place at a
depth of 3 feet below the surface; consequently there is a better

"Trans. Roy. Soc, Canada, Ser. 2, Vol. 7, Sec. Ill, pp. 13-16, 1901.

18 VITALITY OF BURIED SEEDS.

preservation of vitality at that depth as a result of the more dormant
condition of the seeds. (See PI. Ill and the diagram below.)

As was anticipated, most of the seeds which were stored in the Seed
Laboratory preserved their vitality much better than those that were
buried. But there are a number of cases in which the seeds were
preserved practical!}' as well in the soil as in the laboratory, the deteri-
oration being ver}" small in either case. However, with but few
exceptions, an ample number of seeds remained germinable at the ter-
mination of the tirst year to produce plants in sufficient number to keep
the up-to-date farmer busy for a good share of the summer in sup-
pressing them. The average percentages of germination of all samples,
including the original test and both controls, are best shown in the
following diagram:

Average germination of controls and buried seeds.
Original tests, 60. 2 per cent.

Controls (chamber), 57.5 percent.

(Amtrrds ( <rrfenliuuse ), 5.">.2 ]ier ivnt.

Buried 6-8 inches, 20.5 per cent.

Buried 18-22 inches, 2t).5 per cent.
Buried 36-42 inches, 31 per cent.

HARD SEEDS.

An interesting point in these first results is in the behavior of the
Trifoliums and closely related genera, including Lespedeza and Medi-
cago. Generally speaking, these seeds are considered to be able to
withstand very critical treatment, but the results of the first 3^ear-s
experiments show that the seeds of all of these deteriorated very greatl}^
while in the soil.

The white clover. No. 41, germinated only 1 per cent, and showed
one fresh sprout when taken up from the 18 to 22 inch depth and
nothing from the shallower or deeper trenches. The red clover did
but little better; No. li), a sample of the harvest of 1902, germinated
2, 4, and 1 per cent for the three different depths of 6 to 8, 18 to 22,
and 36 to 12 inches, respectively. Another sample of red clover. No.
51, germinated 4.5, 5, and 6 per cent, respectively, for the three
different depths. A third sample of red clover, No. 68, germinated
10.5, 15.5, and 14.5 per cent, respectively, from the three depths. The
last two samples were of Oregon-grown seed of the harvest of 1900.
The original sample of this seed. No. 54, contained 51.5 per cent of

I

SUMMAKY. 19

hard seed. No. 68 includes onl}- the hard seed selected from the
Oregon clover by soaking- in water for 18 and then for 20 hours a
portion of the original bulk sample, using only the remaining hard
seed.

These results, while unsatisfactory, show clearly that it is the hard
seeds in the clovers which remain over in the soil for some considerable
time. The alsike clover, No. 50, behaved practically the same as the
sample of red clover first mentioned. The Lespedeza, or bush clov^er.
No. 43, gave results very similar to the white clover. The alfalfa, No.
59, gave a germination of only 2, 9, and 9 per cent, respectivel}-, for
the three different depths. But in all cases a few fresh sprouts were
present when the seeds were taken up, showing that the seeds were
germinating and afterwards decaying.

SEEDS OF CULTIVATED VERSUS WILD PLANTS.

A number of interesting cases showing the greater hardiness of the
seeds of wild plants over those of like or closely related cultivated
forms were recorded. In Ilelianthiis ammus (Nos. 6 and 97) the seeds
from the cultivated plant — our common sunflower of the garden — all
deca3'ed, while the seeds of the wild sunflower retained their vitalit}" and
germinated 43.5, 64, and 66.5 per cent, respectively, for the three dif-
ferent depths. Similarh' with Lactuca sativa and Lactuca scariola^ Nos.
5 and 98, respectivel}^, the common garden lettuce seed had all decayed,
while the seed of the prickly lettuce, possibly the parent of our cos
varieties, germinated 63.5, 69, and 69.5 per cent, respectively, for the
three different depths. Another striking example is in Avena sativa^
No. 1, and Avena fatua, No. 71, the latter germinating 9, 8, and 18
per cent, respectively, for the three different depths, besides showing-
many fresh sprouts in the two shallower depths at the time the seeds
were taken up.

Furthermore, it is not uncommon to find wide variations in different
species of the same genus, even where all forms are wild, e. g., Elymus,
Chaetochloa, Chenopodium, Cuscuta, Plantago, etc. But in the cases
above mentioned of the cultiv^ated and the closel}' related wild forms
the ability of the seeds to withstand such treatment as being buried in
the soil has l)een lost by long cultivation of the plants and the careful
preservation of the seeds under artificial conditions or storage, while
seeds from the wild forms can survive when buried in the soil, for it
is the plants from just such seeds that have survived.

SUMMARY.

The length of time that seeds will retain their vitality when buried
in the soil is of much importance in the extermination of weeds.

The seeds of many of our pernicious weeds can be destroyed bj^
deep plowing, if the soil is left undisturbed for some time.

20 VITALITY OF BURIED SEEDS.

Seeds of tlie cultivated plants, with but few exceptions, lose their
vitality when buried in the soil.

Seeds of the plants conimonl}^ designated as weeds retain their vital-
it}^ remarkably well when buried in the soil.

In general, the pernicious character of weeds is directly proportional
to the lentrth of time the seeds will remain viable when buried in the
soil.

The deeper seeds are buried, the better is vitality preserved.

Hard seeds of the same species retain their vitality much better
than those with softer seed coats.

Unhulled seed, especially of the grasses, is more resistant than hulled
seed, and the vitalit}' is always better preserved.

Seeds of plants from the same genus often retain their vitality in a
ver}" different degree.

Vitality is best preserved, even in weed seeds, when the seeds are
carefull}^ harvested and stored in a dry and comparatively cool place.

i

i

I

PLATES.

21

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I. Fig. 1. — Bromus rnceniosua, smooth hrome grass. Fig. 2. — Bromus secalinus,
cheat or chess. The two divisions at the right of each figure show the vigorous
growth made ])y the clieck samples. In the three divisions at the left, A, B, and
C, were planted the seeds which had heen buried at depths of 6 to 8 inches," 18
to 22 inches, and 36 to 42 inches, respectively. The vitality of the seeds of these
two species, which are considered as noxious weeds in the grain fields of the
United States, was destroyed at the expiration of eleven months.

Plate II. Fig. 1. — Alsine media, common chickweed. Fig. 2. — Rume.i: crispiis, curled
dock. Fig. 3. — Datura tatula, jimson weed. Seedlings from weed seeds which
did not lose their vitality by Inirial for eleven months, as shown in the three
divisions at the left of each flat, the germination being practically the same as
in the case of the two check samples shown at the right of each flat.

Plate III. Fig. l.—Elymus canadensis, nodding wild rye. A, buried 6 to 8 inches —
all killed; B, buried 18 to 22 inches — only one seedling shows in the figure, but
the total germination was 7 per cent, as given in the table; C, buried 36 to 42
inches— germinated 22 per cent; the two check samples at the right made vigor-
ous growth, germinating 81 percent. Fig. 2. — Fraxinus ameriadius, white ash.
A, buried 6 to 8 inches, and B, buried 18 to 22 inches — all killed; C, buried
36 to 42 inches — germinated 84 per cent; the check samples germinated 26 per
cent, but the seedlings had "damped off" before the photograph was taken.
Fig. 3.^F]iytoIacca americana, poke. A, buried 6 to 8 inchea — germinated 7.5
percent; B, buried 18 to 22 inches — germinated 60.5 per cent; C, l)uried 36 to
42 inches — germinated 80.5 per cent; the two check samples germinated 84.5 per
cent.

The illustrations show that in many cases the vitality of seeds is better preserved
at a depth of 36 to 42 inches than at shallower depths.
22

o

Bui. 83, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

Fig. 1.— Bromus Racemosus (Smooth Brome-Grass).

Fig. 2.— BHuMUb Secalinus > Cheat, ur Chess).

Bui. 83, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate

Fig. 1.— Alsine Media (Common Chickweed).

Fig. 2.— Rumex Crispus (Curled Dock).

Fig. 3.— Datura Tatula iJimson Weed).

Bui. 83, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate III.

Fig. 1.— Elymus Canadensis (Nodding Wild Rye).

Fig. 2.— Fraxinus Americana (White Ash).

Fig. 3.— Phytolacca Americana (Poke)

"«'

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 84.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

I. THE GERMINATION, GROWING, HANDLING, AND ADULTERATION

OF BLUEGRASS SEEDS.

By Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge of Seed Laboratory.

II. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SEEDS OF THE COMMERCIAL BLUEGRASSES

AND THEIR IMPURITIES.
By F. H. HiLLMAN, Assistant Botanist, Seed Laboratory.

Issued November 14, 1905.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,

1905.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes Vege-
table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investigations, Farm
IManagement (including Grass and Forage Plant Investigations), Pomological Inves-
tigations, and Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of which were formerly sepa-
rate Divisions; and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution; the Arlington
Experimental Farm; Investigations in the Agricultural Economy of Tropical and
Subtropical Plants; Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigations; Tea Culture Investi-
gations; the Seed Laboratory; and Dry Land Agriculture and Western Agricultural
Extension.

Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of Bulle-
tins of the various Dix-isions were discontinued, and all are now published as one
series of the Bureau. A list of the Bulletins issued in the present series follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that "the serial, scientific, and technical publica^
tions of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general distribution.
All copies not required for official use are by law turned over to the Superintendent
of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All applications for such' .
publications should, therefore, be made to the Superintendent of Documents, Gov-
ernment Printing Office, AVashington, D. C.

No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10 cents.

2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents. '

9. The North American Species of Simrtina. 1902. Price, 10 cents.
10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses and

Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

1% Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents.

15. Forage Conditions on the Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

16. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Campes-

tris and Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents. ,m

17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents. '^

18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. Price, 35 cents.

22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

23. Berseem. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous Papers: I. The Seeds of Rescue Grass and Chess. II. Saragolla

Wheat. III. Plant Introduction Notes from South Africa. IV. Congres-
sional Seed and Plant Distril)ution Circulars. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

26. Spanish Almonds. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, etc. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

28. The Mango in Porto Rico. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

29. The Effect of Black Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

30. Budding the Pecan. 1902. Price, 10 cents'. *

31. Cultivafed Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

32. A Disease of the White Ash. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

[Contiuued on page 3 of cover.]

1

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 84.

B. T. GALLOWAY, ChkJ of Bureau.

THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

I THE GERMINATION, GROWING, HANDLING, AND ADULTERATION

OF BLUEGRASS SEEDS.

By Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge of Seed Laboratory.

II DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SEEDS OF THE COMMERCIAL BLUEGRASSES

AND THEIR IMPURITIES.

By F. H. HiLLMAN, Assistant Botanist, Seed Laboratory.

Issued November 14, 1905.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

GARDEN.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,

1905.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

B. T. GALLOWAY,

Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge, Acting Chief of

Bureau in Absence of Chief.

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Fbedekick v. Coville, Botanist in Charge.

FARM MANAGEMENT.
W. J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

G. B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.
A. J. PiETERS, Botanist in Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.

L. C. CoRBETT, Horticulturist in Charge. j

INVESTIGATIONS IN THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY OF TROPICAL AND

SUBTROPICAL PLANTS. ,

O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge. . *

DRUG AND POISONOUS PLANT INVESTIGATIONS, AND TEA CULTURE

INVESTIGATIONS.
Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge.

DRY LAND AGRICULTURE AND WESTERN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.
Carl S. Scofield, Agriculturist in Charge.

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.
E. M. Byrnes, Superintendent.

SEED LABORATORY.
Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge.

J. E. Rockwell, Editor.
James E. Jones, Chief Clerk.

1

SEED LABORATORY.

scientific staff.

Edgar Brown, Botanist in CJtarge.

F. H. Hillman, Assistant Botanist. J. W. T. Duvel, Assistant.

2

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,

Washington^ D. C.^ July 15^ 1905.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for
publication as Bulletin No. 84 of the series of this Bureau the accom-
panying technical paper entitled "The Seeds of the Bluegrasses."

This paper was prepared b}^ Mr. Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge
of the Seed Laboratory, and Mr. F. H. Hillman, Assistant Botanist,
Seed Laboratory, and has been submitted with a view to publication.

The bluegrasses are among the most important forage plants in
many sections of the United States and Europe, and large quantities
of seed are harvested annually for use in this country and for expor-
tation.

The process of cleaning the seed of the bluegrasses for market is
such that many of the distinguishing characters are lost, and separate
descriptions are necessary for the hand-picked and commercial seed of
the same species.

The seeds of the different commercial species are so nearly alike in
general appearance that at present none but the trained observer can
distinguish between them. This similarity of appearance has encour-
aged the use of the cheaper and less desirable species, especially
Canada bluegrass, for the adulteration of or substitution for the more
expensive species.

The descriptions and illustrations herewith given of the bluegrasses
and of their impurities will be of great value in furnishing seedsmen
the necessary information to enable them to distinguish the different
species.

The accompanying illustrations are necessary for a complete under-
standing of the text.

Respectfully, B. T. Galloway,

Chief of Bureau.

Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

3

i

I

CONTENTS

Page.

I. The Germination, Growing, Handling, and Adulteration of Blue-

GKASS Seeds. By Edgar Brown 9

Description of commercial and hand-gathered seeds 9

Grades and quahty of commercial seeds 10

Adulteration 10

Weight per bushel 11

Germination 12

Growing and handling 12

Pta pratensis ( Kentucky bluegrass) 12

Poa compressa (Canada bluegrass) 13

Poa trivialis (rough-stalked meadow grass) 13

Poa nemoralis ( wood meadow grass) 13

Poa triflora (fowl meadow grass) 13

Poa arachnifera ( Texas bluegrass ) 14

Poa annua (annual bluegrass) 14

Poa alpina (alpine meadow grass) 14

Poa sndetica 14

II. Descriptions of the Seeds of the Commercial Bluegrasses a^t> Their

Impurities. By F. H. Hillman 15

The bluegrasses 15

Key to the seeds of the more common species of Poa as found

on herbarium specimens 18

Key to commercial bluegrass seeds after preparation for market. . 19
Comparison of the principal distinguishing characters of blue-
grass seeds 20

Descriptions of species 22

Poa pratensis L., Kentucky bluegrass, June grass 22

Poa compressa L., Canada bluegrass, flat-stemmed bluegrass. . 24

Poa trivialis L. , rough-stalked meadow grass 24

Port nemoralis L. , wood meadow grass 26

Poa triflora Ehrh. (P. flava L., P. serotina VAivh.), fowl

meadow grass, false redtop 27

Poa arachnifera Torr. , Texas bluegrass 28

Poa annua L. , annual meadow grass 29

Poa alpina L. , aljiine meadow grass 29

Poa sudetica Haenke 30

Panicularia spp 31

Panicularia nervata ( Willd. ) Kuntze, nerved manna grass,

sometimes called fowl meadow grass 31

Panicularia americana (Torr. ) MacM. , reed meadow grass,

water meadow grass, tall manna grass 31

5

6 CONTENTS.

II. Descriptions of the Seeds of the Commercial Bluegrasses and Their

Impurities — Continued. Page.

Weed seeds commonly found with commercial bluegrass seeds 32

Bursa hnrsa-pastoris (L. ) Britton, shepherd' s-purse 32

Lepidium virginicum. L. , peppergrass 32

Cerastium vulgatum L. , mouse-ear chickweed 32

Alsine media L. , colnmon chickweed 32

Alsine graminea (L. ) Britton 33

Carduus arvensis (L. ) Robs., Canada thistle 33

Taraxacum taraxacum ( L. ) Karst. , dandelion 34

Matricaria inodora L., scentless camomile 34

Hierac'mni sp. , hawk weed - 34

Anthemis rotula L. , dog fennel, mayweed 35

Chenopodium album L., lamb' s-quarters, pigweed 35

Plantago lanceolata L., rib-grass, buckhorn, English i)lantain 35

Rumex crispus L. , curled dock 36

Rumex acetosella L., sheep's sorrel, sorrel 36

Veronica arvensis L. , corn speedwell 36

Juncus tenuis Willd., slender rush 37

Juncoides campestre ( L. ) Kuntze, field rush 37

Juncoidcs albida DC. , wood rush 37

Carex cephalophora Muhl. , oval-headed sedge 37

Ergot occasionally found in commercial bluegrass seed 38

Claviceps purpurea (Fr. ) Tul. , ergot 38

ILLUSTRATIONS.

TEXT FIGURES.

Page.

Fig. 1. A spikelet of Poa 15

2. Unrubbed Kentucky Vjluegrass seed {Poa pratensw) 17

3. Seeds of Kentucky bluegrass {Poa pratensis) 18

4. Different forms of commercial seeds of Kentucky bluegrass {Poa

pratensis) 22

5. Commercial seeds of Canada bluegrass {Poa compressa) 24

6. Seeds of rough-stalked meadow grass {Poa trivialis) 25

7. Seeds of wood meadow grass {Poa nemoralis) 26

8. Seeds of fowl meadow grass {Poa trlflora) 27

9. Seeds of Texas bluegrass {Poa araehnifera) , 28

10. A cluster of Texas bluegrass seeds matted by the webby fibers 29

11. Seeds of annual meadow grass {Poa annua) 29

12. Seeds of alpine meadow grass {Poa alpina) 30

13. Seeds of Poa sudetica 30

14. Seeds of nerved manna grass {Panicularia nervata) 31

15. Seeds of water meadow grass {Panicularia americana) 31

16. Seeds of shepherd' s-purse ( Bursa bursa-pastoris) 32

1 7. Seeds of peppergrass ( Lepidium virginicum ) 32

18. Seeds of mouse-ear chickweed ( Ceraslium ndgatum) 32

19. Seeds of chickweeds {Alsine media and A. graminea) 33

20. Seeds of Canada thistle ( Carduus arvensis) 33

21. Prickles often found with bluegrass seed 33

22. Seeds of dandelion ( Taraxacum taraxacum ) 34

23. Seeds of scentless camomile ( Matricaria inodora) .34

24. Seeds of hawkweed {Hieracium sp. ) ,. 34

25. Seeds of dog fennel ( Anthemis cotula) 35

26. Seeds of lamb's-quarters ( Chenopodium album ) 35

27. Seeds of rib-grass {Plantago lanceolata) 35

28. Seeds of curled dock ( Rumex crispus) 36

29. Seeds of sorrel { Rumex acetosella) 36

30. Seeds of corn speedwell ( Veronica aj-vensis) 36

31. Seeds of slender rush {Juncus tenuis) 37

32. Seeds of field rush {Juncoides campestre) 37

33. Seeds of wood rush {Juncoides albida) 37

34. Seeds of sedge ( Carex cephalophora) 38

35. Ergot { Claviceps purpurea) of Kentucky bluegrass 38

7

B. P. I.— 176.

THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

I. THE GERMINATION, GROWING, HANDLING, AND
ADULTERATION OF BLUEGRASS SEEDS.

By Edgar Brown,
Botanist in Charge of Seed Laboratory.

DESCRIPTION OF COMMERCIAL AND HAND-GATHERED SEEDS.

Great difficulty is experienced in distinguishing- the seeds of the
species of Poa. It is especially important to be able to recognize
them, as the species vary greatly in value and the seed of one species
is frequently substituted for that of another.

The descriptions of the seeds of Poa already published have been
largely those of complete or hand-gathered specimens. But the seeds
of some kinds as they appear on the market are more or less broken
and have lost man}^ of their distinguishing characters. The process
of cleaning often rubs oil' the web at the base of the seed and the
hairs along the sides and breaks the tip. On this account descriptions
based on specimens of perfect seeds are not to be relied upon in
identifying certain commercial Poas.

The mutilation of seeds during the process of cleaning is especially
marked in home-grown seed of Kentucky bluegrass {Poa pratensis).
Even the hand-gathered seed of rough-stalked meadow grass {Poa
trivialis) is frequently so much injured about the slender apex as to
increase greatly the difficulty of distinguishing it from that of Ken-
tucky bluegrass. On the other hand, the commercial seeds of wood
meadow grass {Poa netnoralis) and fowl meadow grass {Poa trifloi'd)
retain much of the pubescence on the glume, often the web, and are
usually not broken on the tip.

It is important that descriptions and illustrations to be used in prac-
tical seed testing be taken from the commercial as well as hand-
gathered seed and be comparative in character. Those given in this
paper have been prepared from ])oth hand-gathered and commercial
seed. The term seed is here used in its popular sense.

5813— No. 84—05 2 9

10 THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

GRADES AND QUALITY OF COMMERCIAL SEEDS.

The seeds of all species except Kentucky bluegrass are known to the
American trade in only one grade. This is the so-called "fancy"
grade, which is based on relative cleanness and on the ])right appear-
ance of the seed. The quality of different samples passing under this
grade name is not necessarily uniform, but among the more careful
dealers a purity standard of from 8U to 90 per cent is usually maintained.

The seeds of Kentucky bluegrass and of Canada bluegrass raised in
this country are usually nmch cleaner and freer from foreign seeds
than the European-grown seeds of rough-stalked meadow grass, wood
meadow grass, and fowl meadow grass.

Kentucky bluegrass seed is commonly offered in two grades^
"fancy," and " extra-clean " or "extra-cleaned." The latter names are
a survival of the time when the seed was hand cleaned and the "extra-
clean " was the best seed on the market. With the advent of improved
machinery the "fancy" grade was established and it is now the only
grade generally accepted by the intelligent purchaser. The "extra-
clean" still on the market belies its name, since it consists of the chaff
or cleanings from the fancy seed, and consequently contains onlj' light
seed. Samplesof "extra-cleaned" as offered usually contain less than
10 per cent of seed.

In some cases the growers tind a sale for the rough or uncleaned
seed after it has been passed through a feed cutter. In this condition
it has very much the appearance of fine-cut straw with a large per-
centage of chaff, and can be scattered over pastures and other areas,
seeding them as effectually as could be done by the use of fancy
recleaned seed. If well cured, the germinating quality of such seed
is excellent, and the mass contains from 60 to 70 per cent of pure seed.
Except for foreign trade the percentage of germination has little to do
with the price and grade of bluegrass seed.

Aside from adulterated samples the purity of "fancy" seed of all
species of bluegrass is usuall}^ good. Of the 2,887 samples of Ken-
tucky bluegrass tested by the Zurich Seed Control Station from 1876
to 1903 the average purity was 86.3 per cent. Of the 69 samples
tested in the Seed Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture
during the past year the average purity was 75.02 per cent.

ADULTERATION.

The seed of Canada bluegrass {Poa compressa) is the only kind
used as an adulterant of Kentucky bluegrass in this country. During
the year 1904 619,451 pounds of Canada bluegrass seed were imported
from Canada, practically none of which is being sold under its true
name. Among the samples of seed sold for Kentucln' l)lue"grass and
sent to the Seed Laboratory for examination a large number have

WEIGHT PER BUSHEL. 11

contained from 30 to 50 per cent of Canada bluegrass seed and several
have been entirely composed of the Canada seed.

It is significant in this connection that the price of Canada blnegrass
seed varies with that of Kentucky l>luegrass seed, being usiially about
one-half that of the latter. This adulteration is not merely a simple
fraud by which the farmer pays for what he does not get, but the
difference in the resulting pasture or hay crop is very important.
Canada bluegrass, while having many good qualities in common with
other species of Poa, is by no means a pasture grass, for which purpose
Kentucky bluegrass is unexcelled.

The seed of wood meadow grass {Poa nemoralis) is sometimes adul-
terated with other species of Poa, and samples have been offered under
this name that contain no wood meadow grass seed. One sample tested
in the Seed Laboratory contained 59,4 per cent of Poa prat etwk and
23 per cent of Poa compressa^ the remainder being chaff and dirt.
Samples of fowl meadow grass {Poa trifloi^a) have been examined
which consisted largely of various common grass and clover seeds
combined with an abundance of weed seeds. These samples contained
small quantities of Kentucky and Canada bluegrass seeds, much chaff
and dirt, and some of them no seeds of fowl meadow grass.

The seed of Kentucky bluegrass is used to adulterate that of the
higher priced Poa trivialh^ pure seed of the latter species usually
being hard to obtain. Some of the German authorities say that it is
necessary for every farmer to save his own seed of this grass in order
to be sure that it is pure. Hunter" says:

Previously to 1883 good and genuine seed of this species {Poa trmalis) could not
be obtained in this country [England]. Seed of the Poa pratensis was commonly
supplied for it. It is now less difficult to procure genuine seed, but large quantities
of seed of Poa pratensis (which usually costs about one-third the price) are prepared
to resemble and are sold for Poa tricialis, and it is only by careful microscopic exam-
ination that the nature of the seed can be determined

WEIGHT PER BUSHEL.

The standard weight of a bushel of bluegrass seed of any grade is 14
pounds. The actual weight, however, varies from 6 to 8 pounds in the
case of ''extra cleaned" to 27 pounds or more for especially good sam-
ples of fancy recleaned seed. In the bluegrass region of Kentuck}^ it is
the usual practice to sell the seed fresh from the strippers or cured in
the chaff by the bushel of 11 pounds, but it is always weighed, not
measured. The cleaned seed is always sold by the pound. As the
weight per bushel of bluegrass seed depends directly on its purit}' ,
it is customary in quoting the price of ' ' fancy " seed to accompan}^ it
with a statement as to the weight per bushel.

"Treatise on Permanent Pasture Grasses, James Hunter. Chester, England, 1901.

12 THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

The foreign trade is much more critical than the domestic trade, and
the seed exported usuall}^ weighs from 22 to Si pounds per bushel,
while the domestic trade is content with seed weighing from 18 to 20
pounds. The heavier seed costs more per pound than the lighter seed,
since there is more labor in its preparation, but it is cheaper for the
purchaser.

GERMINATION.

The germination of commercial l)luegrass seed is often poor. At
the Zurich Seed Control Station the average percentage from 3,069
samples of Kentucky bluegrass seed tested from 1876 to 1901: was 65
per cent, while 908 samples of Poa trivialis tested showed an average
of 72 per cent. The qualit}^ of Kentucky bluegrass seed as respects
germination appears, however, to be improving. Last year's tests at
the Zurich station gave an average of 68 per cent, while a few years
ago 50 per cent was considered fair or satisfactor3\ Only the best
seed goes to Europe, and consequently the percentage of germination
of that offered in this country is low. As carefully cured seed will
germinate from 80 to 90 per cent, the cause for the poor quality of
commercial seed is doubtless to be found in the way it is harvested and
cured. ^' The usual process is to pile the freshly stripped seed in ricks,
either outdoors or in barns. This mass heats quickly if not stirred
often during the first few days. One pile left without stirring reached
a temperature of 110'-' F. in sixteen hours, killing all the seed.

GROWING AND HANDLING.

With the exception of our native western species, more or less seed
of all the commercial Poas is gathered in Europe, where they are
found wild. The harvesting is done by hand from the natural mead-
ows, woods, or other uncultivated areas. The seed is cleaned by hand
and carried to market in small quantities and collected by dealers who
supply the trade. The United States furnishes Europe with Kentucky
bluegrass seed, and Europe furnishes the seed of rough-stalked meadow
grass and wood meadow grass, as well as of the other commercial
species of Poa used in this countr}".

Poa j}ratensis (Kentucky bluegrass). — The blilk of the Kentucky
bluegrass seed comes from a limited area known as the bluegrass
region of Kentuck}'. The counties of Bourbon, Scott, Fayette, Clark,
and Woodford furnish most of it, although there is a small quantity
saved in Shelby Count3^ Some is harvested in southwestern Illinois,
and there is another area on the border between Missouri and Iowa
where a considerable amount of seed is saved. The seed is gathered
from the natural woodland pastures as well as from those where it has

«See Bulletin No. 19, Bureau of Plant Industry, "Kentucky Bluegrass Seed: Har-
vesting, Curing, and Cleaning."

GROWING AND HANDLING. 13

been sown. It is customary to graze cattle on it nearly the entire
year, as thoy do not materially injure the crop of seed if they are kept
out for two or three weeks immediately before gathering. The seed
is harvested by pulling the heads off with a stripper, the grass not
being* cut for hay. The cleaning is a rather difficult process, as it is
necessary to rub the heads thoroughly in order to separate the seed
from the web at the base. The last of the chaff and dirt which is
blown out during the cleaning process is sold as "extra-cleaned"" seed.

Poa compressa (Canada ])luegrass). — ^The seed of Canada bluegrass
is mostly produced in the Province of Ontario, along the north shore
of the eastern half of Lake Erie. The soil is a heav}^ clay on lime-
stone. In this section Canada bluegrass is not sown, but appears as a
volunteer in any fields that are not kept under cultivation, making a
thick growth and crowding out other grasses and weeds. It is nearly
always found in wheat fields when the wheat crop is a partial failure.
In this case the seed, ripening as it does at the same time as the
wheat, is thrashed with it and screened out in cleaning. Where the
seed is harvested alone the grass is cut with a mowing machine and
cured the same as ordinary hay, and afterwards thrashed with a
clover huller or grain separator. The ha}' is bright green, even when
not cut until after the seed is ripe, and is well liked by some farmers
as feed, while it is considered hard and of little value by others. A
good crop is from 200 to 300 pounds of clean seed per acre. There
has been some demand for this seed in the Southeastern States under
the name of Virginia bluegrass. The seed is easily cleaned, as it is
comparatively free from wool at the base and does not require rub-
bing, as does Kentuck}' bluegrass seed. No special machinery is used
except rather long sieves to insure sufficient screening.

Poa trivial! s (rough-stalked meadow grass). — The wholesale trade
in the seed of rough-stalked meadow grass is largely confined to the
city of Hamburg, Germany. The seed is collected in the neighbor-
hood of that city and in the marshes of the Elbe. Seed of good
quality is also supplied from Denmark, where in one locality this
grass is grown especially for seed, and it is said to yield as much as
400 pounds to the acre. The seed is stripped or the grass is cut and
the seed allowed to after-ripen, when it is cleaned by hand.

Poa neiiioralls (wood meadow grass). — The seed of wood meadow
gmss is gathered by hand in the woods of Germany, and cleaned in
the same manner as is the seed of Poa trivlalis.

Poa trijlora (fowl meadow grass). — Though widely distributed
throughout the noi'thern portion of the United States, this species is
chiefly a natural meadow grass of lowlands, and is usually so mixed
with sedges and other grasses that seed collection on a commercial
scale has not thus far been undertaken in this country. The seed of
this species on the market comes from Europe and is very poor.

14 THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGKASSES.

Prof. L. R. Jones, of the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station,
reports the seed production from a nearly pure stand of this grass as
amounting- to 6 bushels of 19 pounds each per acre. A small plat
yielded seed at the rate of over 7 bushels per acre. The seed is pro-
duced abundantly and ripens evenly. In Vermont it is harvested in
the latter part of July. The name fowl meadow grass is often applied
to another lowdand grass, Panleularia nervata.

Poa arachmfera (Texas bluegrass). — The seed of Texas bluegrass is
gathered by hand in northern Texas. It is cleaned by rubbing
between the hands, and, owing to the long, woolly hairs at the base of
the seed, it is never " fancy clean." The best seed is produced on
rich, black, waxy soil, and is ripe about Maj?^ 1 to 15. Onl}' a small
quantity is gathered each j^ear, and consequently it is high priced and
can not be considered as a commercial seed at the present time.

Poa annua (annual bluegrass). — The seed of the annual bluegrass is
not on the market '\\\ this country, though the plant is common about
dwellings, especially in the South and East, and ripens its seed
throughout the summer. The seeds do not ripen evenly, the upper
ones falling before the lower flowers have opened. The seed is
gathered and used to some extent in Europe.

Poa alpina (alpine meadow grass). — Alpine meadow grass is best
known in Switzerland, where the seed ripens from the end of June to
the middle of July. The viviparous form can be propagated by scat-
tering the buds during the hot weather.

Poa sudetica. — The seed of Poa sudetlca^ which is a European grass,
is rare in the market, but is occasionally quoted by French and by
German firms. It is sometimes mixed to some extent with the seeds
of the meadow grasses, particularl}^ water meadow grass {Panicularia
americana).

In addition to the foregoing, other species of Poa occur in the
western and northwestern United States, where they contribute to
the native forage of the stock ranges. The seeds of these species,
however, are not found in commerce.

II. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SEEDS OF THE COMMER-
CIAL BLUEGRASSES AND THEIR IMPURITIES.

By F. H. HiLLMAN,

Assistant Botanist, Seed Laboratory.

THE BLUEGRASSES.

The "seeds" of the species of Poa, or the bhiegrasses, are the
ripened florets or individual parts o'f the smaller clusters, or spikelets,
of the general floral system of the plant. The number of florets in
each spikelet varies from two to nine in the different kinds of Poa
commonly found in commerce. There is some variation in the num-
ber of florets in the spikelets of each species. The florets separate
readily at maturity, and well-cleaned samples of seed contain few
whole or partial spikelets.

A complete, mature spikelet embraces, besides its several florets, a
pair of chafl'y scales, termed empty glumes, between which the florets,
or at least the lower ones, rest. The empty glumes, while somewhat

Fig. 1.— I.— A spikelet of Poa: a, stem of spikelet: 6, empty glumes: c, florets, or "seeds." II.— FiTv'i
floret, back view: a, callus; 6, keel; o, intermediate veins; d, marginal veins; c, hyaline pori;. u : i
glume. III. — Single floret, side view: a, callus; 6, rachilla segment; c, keel; d, intermediate veil.;
e, marginal vein: /, margin of glume. IV. — Single floret, front view: <(. rachilla segmeut: b, mar-
ginal fold; c, palea: r/, keels of palea. V. — Terminal floret, front view: o, rachilla segment: /;, aborted
floret; c, palea. VI. — Caryopsis, or grain: «, location of embryo: b, keeled face; c, grooved face.

dissimilar, are keeled, acute, and one or three veined. The keel of

each is usually hispid-ciliate above the middle. A portion of the stem

of the spikelet often remains attached to the base of the empty glumes

when these are found in connnercial samples.

Each mature, well-developed floret or seed consists of a caryopsis,

commonly called grain, two inclosing scales which, together with

the empty glumes, constitute the chart', and a slender appendage,

the rachilla segment. (Fig. 1.)

15

16 THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

The caryopsis corresponds to an individual grain in wheat, rye, and
barley, and consists almost entirely of the seed proper, to which is
added onl}- the thin wall of the seed vessel. This is intimately blended
with the seed coat, the two forming the covering- of the true seed.
The caryopsis is spindle-shaped and often broadest between the middle
and the base. It is often bluntly keeled along one face and more or
less evidently grooved along the opposite face. In the commercial
bluegrass seeds the grain is amber-colored or dull wine-colored and
semitranslucent. The surface is finely granular and dull. The kernel
of the seed forms that part of the grain within the seed and seed-
vessel walls. It consists of the embryo and endosperm, the latter
forming the greater part. The embr3^o is situated at the basal
extremity of the grain and is evidejit externally as a small ridge, often
within a slight depression, on the keeled face. The grain adheres
along its grooved face to the palea in some species in which free grains
are not common in well -cleaned commercial seed.

The two chaffy scales of the floret differ chiefly in size, form, rela-
tive position, venation, and texture. The larger one, called the flower-
ing glume or simph" the glume, incloses the edges of the other, termed
palea. The grain rests between the glume and palea, its keeled face
13'ing against the glume. The rachilla segment is at the base of the
palea and opposite the glume. It is one of the articulating sections of
the rachilla, or axis of the spikelet.

The characters by which the different kinds of bluegrass seeds are
distinguished one from another are afforded by the glume, palea, and
rachilla segment, and involve size, form, color, veins of the glume,
form and texture of the apex of the glume, and the pubescence.

The glume is stiffish and more or less pointed at the ends. Its base
is marked by the presence of a small, somewhat knob-like appendage,
the callus. The latter bears the scar of attachment of the floret and,
in certain species, a more or less pronounced tuft of webb}" hairs.
The back of the glume is more or less keeled along its longitudinal
center. Besides the fold forming the keel, the edges of the glume are
infolded along the marginal veins. The marginal folds often are most
pronounced within and sometimes are contined to the lower half of the
glume, in which event the upper margins usually diverge and become
spreading or flaring at the apex. The keel is strongly arched length-
wise in some species and in others is nearly straight. Five veins
traverse the glume longitudinally; one occupies the keel, two are at
the marginal folds and are termed the marginal veins, while the other
two are situated midway between the keel and marginal veins and are
called intermediate or, l)y some authors, lateral veins. The interme-
diate veins exhibit considerable variation in distinctness in the differ-
ent species. The vei^i occupying the keel extends to the apex. The
apex and often the upper part of the lateral margins of the glume in

THE BLUEGRASSES. 17

most species are thin and translucent, or hyaline. The extent of the
hj^aline portion of the apex has much to do with the form of the latter
and is variable in the different species.

The palea is commonly more delicate in texture than the glume,
being- partially hyaline. It usually is shorter than the glume, but in
some species equals or exceeds it in length. The difference in length
usually is most evident in the lower florets of the spikelet. Two veins
traverse the palea lengthwise and nearly meet at its apex. The -mar-
gins of the palea are more or less acutely infolded along these veins,
which are called the keels of the palea. The keels are mostly covered
by the glume in some species, while in others they are almost wholly
exposed. There is some variation in this respect, however, among
seeds of the same species. The apex of the palea is often notched.

The rachilla segment is nearly cylindrical and usually somewhat
curved. It is slightly expanded at the apex, which is obliquely trun-
cate, its terminal surface constituting the scar of at-
tachment to the succeeding floret. Diflerent florets in
the same spikelet in certain species exhibit a marked
variation in the length of the rachilla segment, which
is shortest in the lower florets and conspicuously
longer in the terminal one, where it usuallv bears an
aborted floret as a small, pointed appendage.

The surface of the florets of dift^'erent species of Poa
is subject to considerable variation. Some florets are
smooth, or glabrous; others bear numerous minute,
stiffish hairs, rendering the surface rough, or scabrous; "^KentuTk? bre*^
and some have a tine, appressed pubescence covering grass seed {Poa
a part of the surface. Most of the species have a f «'™^'')^ «■ ^^^b;

^ _ i &, pubescence of

more or less silky pubescence on the keel and mar- marginal vein; c,
ginal veins below the middle or somewhat higher on pu^t>escenee of
the keel. The intermediate veins are more rarely
pubescent. The keels of the palea are usually fringed with minute
hairs, or are hispid-ciliate, but in some species they are silky pubes-
cent. The basal web is wholly wanting in some species and in others
varies from a few fibers to a copious tuft. It readily separates from
the floret in most species. The rachilhx segment is usually smooth,
but in some species it is appressed pubescent. The presence of the
hairs on the marginal veins often necessitates that care be used in
examining the rachilla segment Avith respect to pubescence. (Fig. 2.)
The color of mature seeds varies from verv light brown to dark
brown. Sterile seeds are usually lighter or straw colored. Immature
seeds are more or less tinged with green; some are purplish. Jn cer-
tain species the glume is tinged with golden yellow near the apex.
The al)orted terminal floret and all the hairs are white. The rachilla
segment is lighter colored than the glume or palea.
5813— No. 84—05 3

18 THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

Poor!}' cleaned samples are apt to contain man}' sterile florets.
These are slender, sometimes shrunken, and usually lighter colored
than the grain-bearing- florets, which are comparatively plump and

often dark colored, owing to the color of
the grain appearing through the thin palea.
(Fig. 3.) _ ^

The recognition of the several species of Poa,
when the identit}^ is questionable, requires the
use of a good lens and a knowledge of the
principal distinguishing characters. A sample
FIG. 3.-sLds of Mcky ""^er examination should be spread thinly on
biuegmss (Poa pratensis): a. a slicet of paper, or, better still, on a black sur-

grain bearing; 6, .sterile. ^.^^^_ ^y-^.^^ ^ ^^^^ jjg.j^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^. ^^^^.^^

ing the seeds over while under the lens, they can easily be examined
with reference to size, color, distinctness of veins, character of pubes-
cence, the condition of the margins of the glume, etc. Exposing the
difl'erent sides of the florets to the light while under examination is
often absolutely essential in determining the nature of the veins and
pubescence. .

KEY TO THE SEEDS OF THE MORE COMMON SPECIES OF POA AS FOUND

ON HERBARIUM SPECIMENS.
Basal web present.

Web very persistent and conspicuous _ P. urachnijera.

Web easily removed, small; keel of the glume pubescent.
Intermediate veins distinct.
Intermediate veins sharply defined as narrow ridges; glume margins narrow,
not easily seen from the side; marginal veins usually smooth. P. trivialis.
Intermediate veins usually not sharply defined; glume margins broader, easily
seen from the side in fertile florets; marginal veins pubescent. P. 2iratensis.
Intermediate veins indistinct.
Eachilla segment smooth or nearly so; florets 2-2j mm. long.

Florets usually broader ab"ove than below the middle; apex usually flaring;

rachilla segment smooth P. ccnnpressa.

Florets not evidently broader above than below the middle; apex usually

golden yellow; rachilla segment sometimes rough P. triflora.

Rachilla segment usually pubescent.

Florets 25-8 mm. long, usually not yellow at the apex P. nemoralis.

Basal web not present.
Florets strongly pubescent.

Intermediate veins distinct; palea keels prominent, often arched forward.

P. a)inua.

Intermediate veins indistinct; palea keels not arched P. alpina.

Florets not pubescent J', sudetiat.

KEY TO COMMEKCIAL SEEDS. 19

KEY TO COMMERCIAL BLUEGRAS8 SEEDS AFTER PREPARATION FOR

MARKET.

Seeds 4-(3 »""• long; web longer than glume, forming a woolly tuft and causing the

seeds to cling in bunches in the sample P. arachnifera.

Seeds 2-2| mm. long, usually rubbed free from hairs and disconnected in the sample,
often tnore or less torn at the apex; commonest commercial kinds.
Intermediate veins distinct; seeds contracted at the apex and not wider (dxnr than
below the middle; hyaline margin of apex seldom present in rubbed seed.

P. pratensis.
Intermediate veins very indistinct; seeds broader above than below the middle; hyaline

margin of apex usually evident and faring P. compressa.

Seeds 2-3 mm. long, chiefly unrubbed; disconnected or clinging somewhat in the

sample; usually not torn at the apex; smooth or the pubescence on the veins

and the web more or less evident.

Intermediate veins indistinct.

Rachilla segment usualli/ pubescent; long, sterile rachilla segments conspicuously

common; intermediate veins scarcely evident; keel and marginal veins pubescent;

apex of seed often flaring; seed 2^-3 mm. long P. neinoralis.

Rachilla segnient smootit; intermediate veins but slightly evident; keel and marginal

veins pubescent; apex of seed sometimes flaring; seed 2-2\ mm. long. P.trijlora.

Intermediate veins very distinct.

Rachilla segment smooth and slender; keel pubescent, marginal veins usually

smooth; apex of seed acute and compressed; seeds often distinctly curved as

viewed from the side , p. trivialis.

20

THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

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21

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22

THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES.

Poa pratensis L.

KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS, JUNE GRASS.

Spikelets 3-5 flowered; florets 2-2| mm., rarely 3 mm., long, lanceolate or fnsiforni
as viewed from the back, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate as viewed from the side,
mostly acute or the terminal floret sometimes acuminate at the apex, glabrous
between the veins, varying from light lirown to dark brown, sometimes tinged with
purple, sterile florets lighter; glume usually sharj^ly keeled quite to the apex and
often strongly arched, particularly at the base; its marginal folds comparatively
broad, extending from the base nearly or quite to the apex, becoming hyaline-edged
above the middle in the lower florets, usually not expanded or flaring at the apex,
the edges nearly meeting in sterile florets, separated and usually distended forward
in fertile lower florets, often scarcely covering the palea keels of fertile terminal
florets, the hyaline edge more or less torn away and the margins jagged at the apex
in rubbed commercial seed; intermediate veins distinct and glabrous; keel and mar-
ginal veins silky pubescent below the middle or somewhat higher on the keel; basal
web well developed; pubescence and web wanting, except occasional traces of the
former, in well-rubbed commercial seed; palea nearly or quite as long as the glume,
its keels finely hispid-ciliate and usually covered for the greater part of their length
by the nuargins of the glume; rachilla segment slender, glabrous, varying from about
one-sixth of the length of the glume in the lower florets to one-half its length in the
terminal one; aborted floret of the. sterile rachilla segment minute; grain H mm.
long, somewhat keeled and grooved, often broadest below the middle, reddish brown
or darker about the embry(j, and semitranslucent. '^Fig. 4.)

Fig. 4. — Different forms of commercial seeds of Kentucky bluegrass {Poa i>ratensis): a and b, back
views; c-/, side views; g-j, front views; j. a terminal floret.

Commercial Kentucky bluegrass seed is mostly free from the silky
and webb}^ hairs present in hand-gathered samples, owing to the rub})ing
process to which it is subjected before being marketed. The severe
rubbing results in more or less injury to the thin margins of the
glume, particularly at the apex, which i.s usually found to be more or
less torn when examined with a lens. Seeds of a well-rubbed sample
do not tend to cling in small bunches as do those which are unrubbed
or hand-gathered. Well-developed seeds are rather robust and have
the glume margins well separated and evidentl}^ distended forward.
Sterile seeds, or such as have the grain wanting, or poorly developed,
are generally lighter colored, slenderer, and more compressed, while
the glume margins more nearl}- meet and are but slightly or scarcely
distended. Such are much lighter in weight than well-developed
seeds and consequentl}' are mostly blown out with other chaff in well-
cleaned seed.

DESCEIPTIONS OF SPECIES. 23

Kentucky bluegrass seed is most readily confounded with that of
Canada hluegrass {^Poa covipressa) and rough-stalked meadow grass
{Poa trivial is). Owing to the difference in cost, Poa compr'essa is
sometimes mixed with or substituted for Kentucky bluegrass, while
the latter is sometimes similarlj^ emploj^ed with respect to Poa
trivial is.

The characteristic differences between Kentucky blueg-rass seed and
that of Canada blueg-rass, as exhibited by the bulk samples and b}"
individual seeds under the lens, may be compared as follows:

Kentucky bluegrass {Poa pratensis) . Canada bluegrass (Poa compressa).

The usual, well-cleaned bulk samples are Average samples lighter colored than
brown in color. those of Kentucky bluegrass.

Individual, well-matured seeds exhibit The lighter color of individual seeds af-
the same brown color of the bulk sam- fords the principal character for the
pie. preliminary recognition of these seeds

in mixtures.

Nearly all the seeds taper from the cen- Most of the seeds are broader at the apex

ter to both ends and are not broader at than at the base, often distinctly broader

the apex than at the base. at the apex than at the middle.

The apex of commercial seeds is usually Apex of commercial seeds often torn,

torn, olitusely pointed, keeled, and mostly expanded or flaring, often but

scarcely hyaline. slightly keeled.

The intermediate veins are almost in- The intermediate veins are very indis-

variably distinct. tinct or apparently wanting.

A number of the sam^^les of Kentucky bluegrass seed examined con-
tained seed of the Canada bluegrass. As the latter seed found in com-
merce usually contains the prickles or even the seeds of Canada thistle
( Carduus arvensis), these are often found in samples of Kentucky blue-
grass seed containing the Canada bluegrass seed. Their presence indi-
cates the admixture, since the Canada thistle does not grow in the
seed-producing- localities of Kentuck v, while it is abundant in Canada,
where the Canada bluegrass is produced. Samples of pure Kentuck}^-
bluegrass seed are apt to contain the prickles of horse nettle (Solan um
carol inense), sometimes wrongly called bull thistle, a prickly plant
common in the bluegrass region of Kentucky. These prickles are
similar to those of the Canada thistle, but ma}" be distinguished, as
shown hereafter in this paper in describing- the impurities of the blue-
g-rass seeds. The fact that Canada bluegrass onl}' begins to flower at
the time Kentucky bluegrass is ripe precludes the possibility of the
mixture of the two kinds of seed owing to the fact of growth together.
Such mixture can occur only after the seed is gathered, through acci-
dent or intent.

24

THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

Poa compressa L.

CANADA BLUEGRASS, FLAT-STEMMED BLUEGRASS.

Spikelets 3-9 flowered; florets 2-2J mm. long, oblong-obovate or the terminal one
lanceolate as viewed from the back, somewhat narrowly oblong as viewed from the
side, obtuse or the terminal one acute, smooth between the veins, straw colored or
light brown; glume somewhat arched, especially at the base, and strongly keeled at
the back, the keel often less pronounced at the apex than at the base; margins
infolded from the base for about three-fourths the length of the floret in the lower
florets and nearly to the apex in the upper ones, hyaline-edged above the middle,
often broadly so at the apex, which is more or less flaring in the lower florets, the
thai apex often torn and jagged in commercial seed; intermediate veins very indis-
tinct or not evident, glabrous; keel and marginal veins silky pubescent below the mid-
dle; basal web present, slight; palea nearly or quite equaling the glume, finely hispid-
ciliate on the keels, which are usually more or less exposed above the middle, sometimes
from the base; rachilla segment glabrous, varying from about one-fifth the length

of the glume in the
lower florets to one-
half its length in the
terminal one; aborted
floret of the sterile
rachilla segment min-
ute; grain 1-1 J mm.
long, keeled and
slightly grooved,
semitranslucent.
(Fie

Fig. 5.— Commercial seeds of Canada bluegrass (Poa compressa) : a and b,
back views; c-e, side views; /-(', front views of florets; i, a terminal floret.

o.

The .seed of Canada l)lueoTass is the cheapest of the l)IuegTass seeds,
and is therefore not adulterated with other Poas. although it is itself'
used as an adulterant to a considera))le extent.

Pure samples of Canada bluegrass seed almost always contain the
prickles and sometimes the seeds of Canada thistle {Carduus arvensis);
therefore, the occurrence of these prickles with other kinds indicates
the use of this species as an adulterant. Their occurrence with seed
of Poa trwicdh without evidence of the presence of Canada bluegrass
seed is noted under the discussion of 1\ trivialis.

Poa trivialis L.

ROUGH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS.

Spikelets 2 or 3 flowered; florets 2-2J mm., rarely 3 mm., long, narrowly lanceolate
or the fertile terminal one ovate-lanceolate as viewed from the back, usually lanceolate
and curved as viewed from the side, laterally compressed as compared with other spe-
cies, straw colored or light brown and sometimes purplish, sharply keeled, the keel
somewhat arched; margins of the glume scarcely or but slightly distended, narrowly
and rather sharply infolded nearly or quite to the apex, which is hyaline-edged, very
acute and rarely expanded; intermediate veins very di.'^tinct as narrow and sharply
defined ridges; keel slightly pubescent below the middle, or rarely smooth; marginal
veins smooth or sometimes pubescent, basal Aveb present; palea nearly equal to the
glume, its keels smooth or finely hispid-cdiate near the apex and mostly covered by
the margms of the glume except in the larger termmal florets; rachilla segment very
slender, glabrous, varying from one-fourth to one-halt the length of the glume;
gram 1-1^ mm. long, keeled and grooved, semitranslucent, reddish brown. (Fig. 6.)

DESCEIPTIONS OF SPECIES.

25

Rough-stalked meadow grass is chiefly hand gathered; consequently
the commercial seed is apt to bear more or less of the web as well as
the silky pubescence on the keel. In many samples, however, both
are rubbed away.

This seed resem-
bles that of Poa
pratensis and that
of Poa covipressa
so closely that both
are employed as

adulterants, the fig. e.— seeds of rough-stalked meadow grass (Poa tririalis): a and b,

forniPr iniTirentlv back views; c-e, side views; /and g. front views; g, a terminal floret.

to considerable extent, since it has frequently been found to constitute
a considerable part of samples of so-called rough-stalked meadow
grass. One sample examined marked ''^ Poa trivial is''' from Europe
consisted almost wholly of Poa compressa. Several samples from
Europe contained prickles of Canada thistle, but no seeds of Canada
bluegrass were found.

The principal distinguishing characters of the three species may be
compared as follows:

Rough-stalked meadow geass
{Poa trivialis).

Commercial seeds are usu-
ally pubescent on the
keel vein, usually smooth
on the marginal veins
and bear more or less of
the webby hairs, conse-
quently cling together in
masses.

As viewed from the side,
the seeds are somewhat
curved, much narrower
than the others, the
glume margins usually
only slightly evident.

Apex of the glume usually
uninjured, strongly
keeled, acute, slightly
hyaline-margined, often
curved.

Intermediate veins sharply
defined as narrow ridges.

Rachilla segment very slen-
der and less variable in
length than in F. pra-
tensis or P. cornpressa.

Kentucky bluegrass
(Poa})ratensis).

Canada bluegrass
{Poa cornpressa).

Commercial seeds rarely pubescent on the veins and
the webby hairs wanting; consequently mobile in bulk,
not clinging in masses; unrubbed seed pubescent on
the marginal and keel veins.

Seeds mostly straight as
viewed from the side,
glume margins often
strongly distended.

Seeds straight, the glume
margins somewhat evi-
dent from the side.

Apex of the glume often
torn, otherwise some-
what keeled, obtusely
pointed, broader than the
base, hyaline-edged.

Apex of the glume more or
less torn in commercial
seed; keeled, sharply
pointed, hyaline-edged
and not curved in un-
rubbed seed.

Intermediate veins dis- Intermediate veins indis-
tinct as rather coarse tinct or apparently want-
ridges, ing.

Rachilla segment coarser than in I', trivialis and often
very short.

20

THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

Poa nemoralis L.

WOOD MEADOW GRASS.

Spikelets 2 or 3 flowered; florets 22-3 mm. long, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate,
mostly acute at the apex, light brown, sometimes yellowish tinged near the apex;
glume rather broadly keeled and somewhat arched at the back; margins of the
glume narrowly infolded quite to the apex or hyaline-edged and often flaring above
the middle; intermediate veins very indistinct;" keel and marginal veins silky
pubescent below the middle; basal web slight; surface between the veins glabrous;
palea nearly equal to the glume, evidently shorter in florets having a flaring apex,
its keels hispid-ciliate and usually covered by the margins of the glume; rachilla
segment varying from one-fourth to three-fourths of the length of the glume, the
sterile rachilla segment very uniformly much longer than the others, more or less
appressed pubescent, the pubescence somewhat variable and sometimes nearly want-
ing; aborted floret of the sterile rachilla segment often one-half as long as the seg-
ment; grain Ij mm. long, rather slender, semitranslucent. (Fig. 7.)

7 3

% i

Fig. 7.— .Seeds of wood meadow grass {Poa nemoralis): a-c, back views; d and e, side
views; /-/, front views; j, a terminal floret.

Commercial wood meadow grass seed is not rubbed in preparation
for market, and therefore possesses much of its rather persistent and
prominent silky pubescence, and the thin tips of the florets are mostly
uninjured. The pubescence of the rachilla segment is persistent and
present in most of the seeds of all pure samples of this species. It
afl'ords the most marked characteristic by which the seeds of P. nemo-
ralls may be distinguished from those of other commercial species of
Poa. The conspicuously longer rachilla segments of the terminal
florets are noticeably abundant in samples of this species, since these
florets constitute from one-third to one-half of all the seed. The
abundance of the long rachilla segments is helpful in distinguishing
these seeds from those of other Poas.

Commercial seed of P. nemoralis is apt to be very much adulterated
with other species of Poa. Of a number of samples examined less
than half were true to name. One was nearly pure Canada bluegrass
seed, and the rest consisted in part of one or all of the following
species: P. j^ratensis, P. compressa, and P. trivially.

The following comparison of characters should render it compara-
tively easj'^ to distinguish the seeds of P. nemoralh from those of the
other .species.

BESCEIPTIONS OF SPECIES.

2f

Wood meadow grass
(Poa nemoralis).

Silky pubescence of the
veins mostly present and
prominent.

Apex of the glume slen-
derly pointed or nar-
rowly flaring.

Intermediate veins indis-
tinct.

Rachilla segment pubes-
cent, often more than
half the length of the
glume.

Kentucky bluegrass (Poa
pratensis); Rough-stalked
MEADOW GRASS {Poa trivi-

alis).

Canada bluegrass
(Poo compressa) .

Silky pubescence of the veins wanting or but slight.

Apex of the glume acute. Apex of the glume broadly

flaring.

Intermediate veins dis- Intermediate veins indis-
tinct, tinct.

Rachilla segment smooth, not exceeding half the length
of the glume.

Poa triflora Ehrh. (P. flava L., P. serotina Ehrh.).

FOWL MEADOW (iKASS, FALSE REDTOI'.

Spikelets 2-4 flowered; florets 2-2^ mm. long, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate as
viewed from the back, broadly keeled and strongly arched at the back, light brown
and usually strongly tinged witli yellow above the middle, sometimes purplish,
margins of the glume narrowly infolded below the middle or quite to the apex,
which IS hyaline-edged, expanded but scarcely flaring; intermediate veins indis-
tinct; keel and marginal
veins silky pubescent below
the middle; basal web
slight; palea nearly or quite
equal to the glume, finely
hispid-ciliate on the keels,
which are mainly covered
Ijy the glume margins in the
lower florets; rachilla seg-
ment slender, glabrous or
sometimes slightly scabrous, from one-fourth to one-half or two-thirds the length of
the glume; aborted floret of the sterile rachilla segment often prominent and nearly
as long as the rachilla segment; grain 1 mm. long, comparatively robust and smooth,
scarcely keeled or grooved, semitranslucent. (Fig. 8.)

Most, if not all, of the seed of F. triflora on the market appears to
be of foreign production. The samples examined have proved to be
the worst found among the bluegrasses. It is prol)able that a better
grade of seed could be secured from the natural meadows in this coun-
try where this species often constitutes the principal grass. The
seeds of P. triflora are very similar to those of Canada bluegrass and
wood meadow grass.

Fig. 8. — Seeds of fowl meadow grass (Poa triflora): a-c, back
views; d and c, side views; /-/(, front views; h, a terminal floret.

28

THK SEEDS OF THE BLUEGEASSEB.

The principal distinguishing characters of the three kinds are as
follows:

Fowl meadow grass
{Poa trifloi'a).

Seeds 2-2J mm. long.

Seeds mostly narrower at
the apex than at the cen-
ter.

Seeds usually yellowish at
the apex.

Intermediate veins usually
evident but indistinct.

Pubescence of the veins
and the web often pres-
ent in commercial seed.

Rachilla segment mostly
smooth, sometimes slight-
ly rough, often two-
thirds tlie length of the
glume.

Canada bluegrass
(Poo compressa).

Seeds 2-2^ mm. long.

Seeds mostly broader at the
apex than at the center
or base.

Seeds not yellowish at the
apex.

Intermediate veins indis-
tinct or more commonly
not evident.

Pubescence of the veins and
the web mostly absent in
commercial seed.

Rachilla segment smooth,
not exceeding one-half of
the length of the glume.

Wood meadow grass
{ Poa nernor alls).

Seeds 2^-3 mm. long.

Seeds narrower or not
broader at the apex than
at the center.

Seeds sometimes yellowish
at the apex.

Intermediate veins indis-
tinct. ,

Pubescence of the veins
usually present in com-
mercial seed.

Rachilla segment pubes-
cent or sometimes only
rough , of ten three-fourths
the length of the glume.

The name fowl meadow grass is often applied, both by seedsmen
and by writers upon grasses, to Panicularia nervata.

Poa araclinifera Torr.

TEXAS BLUEGRASS.

Spikelets 4 or 5 flowered; florets 4-6 mm. long, narrowly lanceolate, acuminate,
straw colored or light brown; glume strongly keeled cjuite to the apex and somewhat
arched; margins narrowly infolded below and becoming broadly hyaline above the
middle, not widely flaring at the apex; marginal and keel veins strongly pubes-

\m

Fig. 9.— Seeds of Texas bluegrass {Poa aracJnu'fera): a anrl h, back views, seeds showing the long
hairs of the web; c and d, side views; e-g, front views; g, a terminal floret.

cent with long, silky hairs; basal web copious, often twice as long as the floret,
very persistent; surface between the veins glabrous, the keel hispid-ciliate above the
middle; palea from three-fourths to four-fifths the length of the glume, its keels
more or less exposed, silky pubescent to the middle and hispid-ciliate at the apex;
rachilla segment varying from about one-sixth to one-third the length of" the glume,
glabrous; aborted floret of the sterile rachilla segment minute; grain slender, ].}-H
mm. long, oblong-fusiform, nearly opaque, distinctly grooved and keeled. (Fig. 9.)

DESCEIPTIONS OF SPECIES.

29

Texas bluegrass seed in commerce is unrubbed, and as the silky
pubescence and web are very persistent they are always present. The
hairs are so long and copious that the seeds cling in loosely matted,
woolly bunches, and thus are easily distinguished
from all the other commercial Poas. (Fig. 10.)

Poa annua L.

ANNUAL MEADOW GRASS.

Spikelets 3-5 flowered; florets l|-3 mm. long, ovate or
ovate-lanceolate and relatively robust, strongly keeled and
arched at the back, more or less densely pubescent, light
brown or dark brown and often purplish or yellowish;
margins of the glume very narrowly infolded below the
middle, thin and broadly hyaline above the middle in the
lower florets, flaring, gaping, or infolded at the apex ; inter-
mediate veins usually distinct as narrow ridges extending
from the base to the margin of the apex, glabrous or jDubescent; marginal vems
and keel densely soft-pubescent below the middle; surface between the veins some-
times more or less pubescent at the base; web wanting; palea somewhat shorter than
the glume, except in the terminal floret; keels of the palea coarse and prominent,
mostly exposed, usually arched forward and exposed to side view in florets having a
well-developed grain, often contracted toward the rachilla segment at the base, silky
pubescent from near the base nearly to the apex; rachilla segment glabrous, from
one-fourth to one-third the length of the glume, aborted floret of the sterile rachilla
segment minute; grain 1-1^ mm. long, robust, distinctly granular, keeled and grooved,
slightly translucent. (Fig. 11.)

The seed of Poa annua is not in the trade and is not apt to become
mixed with the commercial bluegrass seeds. It may be readily distin-
guished from the common commercial species of Poa by its abundant

Fig. 10.— a cluster of Texas
bluegrass seeds matted by
the webbv fibers.

Fig. 11.— Seeds of annual meadow grass {Foa annua): a and b, back views; c-e, side views; f-i, front

views; i, a terminal floret.

pubescence, arched and silk}- pubescent keels of the palea, and robust
form. The seed most closely resembles that of Poa alpma, from which
it is distinguished in individual seeds by its distinct intermediate veins
and prominent, arched, and silky pubescent but not hispid-ciliate palea
keels.

Poa alpina L.

ALPINE MEADOW GRASS.

Spikelets 3-6 flowered; florets 2J-3J mm. long, ovate-lanceolate or obovate, the
uppermost lanceolate, broadly keeled, arched, acute, or obtuse, light brown, some-
times purplish, and often yellowish tinged at the apex; margins narrowly infolded
below the middle and becoming broadly hyaline at the apex; intermediate veins

30

THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

inflistinct or evident only below the middle; keel and marginal veins silky pubescent
below the middle or higher on the keel, which is hispid at the apex; surface between
the marginal veins and keel appressed pubescent at the base; web wanting; palea
nearly or quite equal to the glume, its keels not arched as in Poa annua, slightly
silky pubescent below the middle and hispid-ciliate above; rachilla segment glabrous,
varying from no longer than wide to one-third the length of the glume; aborted
floret of the sterile rachilla segment minute; grain 1^ mm. long, keeled and grooved,
semitranslucent, dark reddish brown, granular. (Fig. 12.)

/ y

Fig. 12. — Seeds f>f alpine meadow grass (Poa alpina): a and b, back views; r-e, side views; /-/(, front

views; h, a terminal floret.

The seed of Poa alpina is not on the market and is not likel}^ to be
found in commercial seeds. Individual seeds of I\ aljjina closely
resemble those of P. annua^ but are.to be distinguished b}^ the indis-
tinct intermediate veins of the olume, the variable rachilla segment,
and especially by the keels of the palea, which are slenderer, not
arched, less pubescent, and strictly hispid-ciliate above. The plant is
alpine and occurs in the northern part of the United States as far
west as Colorado, in Canada and Alaska, and in Europe and Asia.

Poa sudetica Haenke.

Spikelets 2 or 3 flowered; florets 3—4 mm. long, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate;
apex acute or acuminate; glume somewhat arched and strongly keeled at the back,
light brown or dark brown, sometimes tinged with purple; margins of the glume
narrowly infolded below the middle, narrowly hyaline-edged above the middle and
not flaring at the apex; all the veins distinct, never silky pubescent, usually hispid;

Fig. 13. — Seedsof Poa sudetica: a and 6, back views; c-e, side views; /and ci. front views: a, a. terminal

floret.

general surface scabrous or sometimes glabrous; web not present; palea equaling or
somewhat exceeding the glume and often separated from it at the apex in florets
having a well-developed grain; keels of the palea hispid-ciliate, mostly exposed and
more or less evident from the side; rachilla segment varying from one-fifth to one-
third or even one-half the length of the glume, glabrous or scabrous, sterile rachilla

DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES.

31

c ^•

segment tapering to the apex, the aborted floret usually minute, but sometimes con-
spicuous and nearly equal to the rachilla segment; grain about 2 mm. long, robust,
light brown, slightly keeled and grooved, semitranslucent. (Fig. 13.)

This is a European species not found in the American market.

Panicularia spp.

Ov/ing- to the fact that Panicularia nervata is sometimes sold as fowl
meadow grass, a description of its seed is presented. A description
of the closely allied P. amerlcana^ which is often associated with
1*. nervata^ is added as an aid in comparing the two species.

Panicularia nervata (Willd.) Kuntze.

NERVED MANN.A. GRASS, SOMETIMES CALLED FOWL MEADOW GRASS.

Florets 1-1 i mm. long, robust, ovate (obovate with reference to the plant), light
brown, purplish and sometimes greenish when immature; glume rounded at the
back, prominently seven-veined, its margins
somewhat infolded at the base and not flaring at
the apex, which is sometimes narrow!}^ hyaline;
surface smootli, except the veins, which are
sometimes scabrous; palea equal to or sometimes
longer than the glume, broad, the keels exposed,
prominent and nearly meeting at the rounded

and sometimes slightlv notched apex, usually F'^. 14.— Seeds of nerved manna grass
scabrous above the middle; rachilla segment one- (P^^nicnlaria ncrvaiay. aand 6, back and
fifth to one-fourth the length of the glume, sub-
cylindrical and scarcely expanded at the apex, the terminal one somewhat longer
, than the others and tipped by a minute, al)orted floret; grain loosely held by the
stiffish glume and palea, obovate, slightly flattened, f-1 mm. long, smooth, some-
what polished, very dark brown or black, sometimes slightly translucent. (Fig. 14. )

Panicularia americaiui (Torr. ) MacM.

REED MEADOW GRASS, WATER MEADOW GRASS, TALL MANNA GRASS.

Florets S-Si mm. long, elliptical-oblong as viewed from the front or back, some-
what spindle-shaped as viewed from the side, obtuse at the apex, brown, or purplish

before complete maturi-
ty; glume rounded at the
back, distinctly seven-
veined, its margins nar-
rowly infolded at the
base and not flaring at
the apex ; surface smooth
between the scabrous
veins; palea equal to the
glume, concave, its keels
exposed, nearly meeting
at the apex, very finely
hispid-ciliate; rachilla
segment one-fifth to one-fourth the length of the glume, subcylindrical, somewhat
expanded at the apex, that of the terminal floret slightly longer and tipped by a
minute, aborted floret; grain broadly oblong, U-2 mm. long, somewhat flattened,
very dark brown, slightly translucent, smooth, and somewhat polished when fully
developed. (Fig. 15.)

Fig. 15. — Seeds of water meadow grass {Panicularia americana): a, b.
and c, back, side, and front views of seeds: d, grain.

32

THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

WEED SEEDS COMMONLY FOUND WITH COMMERCIAL BLTJE-

GBASS SEEDS.

The following weed seeds are those most frequently found with the
various kinds of bluegrass seed.

Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) Britton.
shepherd's-purse.

Seeds f-1 mm. long, oval-oblong, one extremity of ten pointed by the whitish tissue
of the scar, flattened with rounded edges; faces similar and usually presenting two shal-
low grooves; color yellowish orreddish brown,
usually darker near the scar; surface nearly
smooth; endosperm absent; embryo curved
upon itself, the cotyledons incumbent; seeds
developing a coat of transparent mucilage
when placed in water. (Fig. 16.)

Seldom found abundantly, but occurring
frequently in all of the commercial bluegrasa
seeds.

Fig. 16.— Seeds of shepherd's-purse (Bursa
bursa-pastoris): a, side view; b, edge view;
c, natural size of seeds.

L

■Seeds of peppergrass
(Lepidium virijinicum): a, side
view; b, edge view; c, natural
size of seeds.

a

Fig. 1'

Lepidium virginicum L.

PEPPERGRASS.

Seeds 1 J mm. long, much flattened, ovate with one edge straight and thicker than
the other, the curved edge narrowly margined, the mar-
gin usually hyaline and broadest at the broad end of the
seed; faces similar, each nearly crossed lengthwise by a
curved groove; scar at the small extremity, marked by
a small, whitish tissue; surface smooth, dull, and red-
dish yellow; endosperm wanting; embryo curved upon
itself, the cotyledons accumbent; seeds developing a
copious coat of transparent mucilage when placed in
water. (Fig. 17.)

Frequently found in home-grown seed and sometimes very abundant, especially in

poorly cleaned seed.

Cerastium vulg-atum L.

MOUSE-EAR CHICKWEED.

Seeds about \ mm. long, flattened but not thin, rounded or triangular, the broad
edge rounded, the narrow edge notched; surface roughened by small tubercles

or very short ridges, dull, and reddish-
brown; embryo cylindrical, curved about
the endosperm, its extremities nearly
meeting at the notch in ttie seed coat.
(Fig. 18.)

Found frequently; sometimes abundant in
poorly cleaned seed.

-TA/y.

a

Fig. 18. — Seeds of mouse-ear chickweed ( Ce-
rastium vulgatum): a, side views; b, natural
size of seeds.

Alsine media L.

COMMON CHICKWEED.

Seeds circular-ovate, about 1 mm. in diameter with little variation in size, flattened
with plane faces and flattened edges; scar in a small notch in the edge; surface dull,
slightly tubercled, the tubercles in rows on the edges and '\^ rftprei or less evidently

WEED SEEDS FOUND WITH BLITEGRASS SEEDS.

33

concentric rows on the similar faces; color brown, or reddish in immature seeds:
embryo cyhndrical, curved about the endosperm, its extremities nearly meeting at
the scar. (Fig. 19, a.)

Alsine media is very common in the United States, but is so low-growing that the
American method of seed stripping prevents the occurrence of its seeds in abundance
in commercial bluegrass seeds. Its seeds
are common in European bluegrass seeds,
particularly those of rough-stalked meadow
grass.

Alsine graminea ( L. ) Britton.

a b c

Fig. 19.— Seeds of chickweeds: o, Alsine me-
dia; b, A. graminea; c, natural size of seeds.

Seeds similar to those of Alsine media, ex-
cept in form and surface markings; usually

circular or oval; faces and edges somewhat rounded, finely roughened by short, inter-
lacing ridges which are arranged more or less concentrically on the faces and
parallel on the edges; surface dull; color grayish-brown, immature seeds reddish.
(Fig. 19, h.)

Not found in American seed; frequent, although not abundant, in European seed.

a

6

Carduus arvensis (L. ) Eobs.

CANADA THISTLE.

Fig. 20.— Seeds of Canada thistle ( Carduus arvensis) : a, well-
matiired seeds; 6, natural size of seeds; c, a shriveled seed.

Seeds (akenes) 2-3 mm. long,
oblong-lanceolate, flattened with
obtuse edges, slightly ridged along
each face, straight or curved edge-
wise, sometimes face wise; apex
truncate, often obliquely so, con-
cave with a ring-like border; corolla scar represented by a central, conical projection;
surface dull and mostly smooth, sometimes with several narrow, longitudinal grooves;
color brown, the apical margin usually lighter
and sometimes yellowish. (Fig. 20.)

Prickles of Canada thistle and horse nettle
{Solanum carolinense) often occur in certain
bluegrass seeds. While the presence of the
former is significant with respect to adultera-
tion, the two kinds are apt to be confounded.
The prickles of Canada thistle are 2-6 mm.
long, veryslender, yellowish, usually expanded
and laterally flattened at the base, which con-
sists of a portion of the leaf tissue and is darker
colored than the rest of the prickle, somewhat
rounded or angular in form and jagged-edged.
(Fig. 21, cand d).

The prickles of horse nettle {Solanum caro-
linense) are coarser, 4-8 mm. in length, light
yellow in color, u.^ually not darker at the base.
They are produced on the stems and the coarse
midribs of the leaves, and on breaking off have
a transversely flattened scar. They occur fre-
quently in samples of Kentucky-grown Poa pratensis and are easily mistaken for
those of Canada thistle. (Fig. 21, a and b. )

Matured seeds, shriveled seeds, and prickles from the leaves and stems of Canada
thistle are frequently found in Canada bluegrass seed. The presence of the prickles

C ^^Z

Fig. 21.— Prickles often found with blue-
grass seed: a and b, horse nettle (Hola-
num carolinense) enlarged and natural
size; c and d, Canada thistle (Cardans
or)'e?isis) enlarged and natural size; 1 and
2, characteristic forms of the bases of
the two kinds of prickles.

34

THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSE8.

in the more expensive kinds of bluegrass seed indicates the probable use of Canada
bluegrass seed as an adulterant. These prickles have been found, however, in rough-
stalked meadow grass seed in which no trace of Canada bluegrass seed appeared.
Owing to the troublesome nature of Canada thistle, care should be taken not to
introduce its seeds with those of the bluegrasses.

Taraxacum taraxacum (L. ) Karst.

DANDELION.

Seeds (akenes) 3-4 mm. long, including the per-
sistent base of the beak, which forms the pointed
apex of the seed, lance -shaped or broadly so,
straight or curved, flattened or slightly four-
angled with similar faces, barbed in the upper,
broader half; teeth directed toward the apex,
prominent on the edges and arranged in about
five rows on each face, which has two slender
grooves with three rows of teeth between them; surface dull; color light brown or
dark brown. (Fig. 22.)

Occurring occasionally in both American and European seed, these seeds have
appeared most frequently in Kentucky bluegrass and rough-stalked meadow grass
seeds.

Matricaria inodora L.

Fig. 22.— Seeds of dandelion ( Taraxa
cum taraxacum): a, side views; b, nat
ural size of seeds.

SCENTLESS CAMOMILE.

%
^

H

h

Seeds (akenes) 1^-2 mm. long, slender or
robust, oblong with obtuse extremities, taper-
ing somewhat from the truncate apex to the
base, slightly flattened; faces dissimilar, one
having three prominent, longitudinal ribs
joined at the apex, the lateral ribs and a partial
one joined to them at the apex appearing on
the opposite face, which also presents two small cavities separated by the partial
ridge; surface between the ridges transversely roughened, dark brown or black and
darker than the brown or yellowish ridges. (Fig. 23. )

Found only in foreign-grown seed, chiefly in rough-
stalked meadow grass and wood meadow grass seeds.

Fig. 23.— Seeds of sfentless camomile
{Matricaria inodora): a, back, front, and
edge views; b, natural size of seeds.

F

1

Hieracium sp.

HAWKWEED.

Seeds (akenes) 1-3 mm. long, cylindrical, pointed at
the base; apex truncate, bearing a small tuft of short,
whitish, marginal bristles (the remnants of the pappus
bristles); surface lightly ten-ridged lengthwise; color
brown or black, reddish in immature seeds. (Fig. 24. )
Found most frequently in wood meadow grass seed.
The seeds of several species of hawkweed, occurring in both America and Europe,
are practically indistinguishable. Specific determinations can not be made by exam-
ination with a lens. The troublesome character of rrrange hawkweed {Hieracium
aurantiacum), whose seeds are IJ-lf mm. long, justifies care in the use of seed
containing seeds of any species of hawkweed.

Fig. 24. — Seeds of hawkweed
{Hieraciumsp.): a, side views;
b, natural size of seeds.

WEED SEEDS FOUND WITH BLUEGRASS SEEDS.

35

Anthemis cotula L.

DOG FENNEL, MAYWEED.

Seeds (akenes) cylindrical, broadly club-shaped, 1^2 mm. long, straight or
curved; surface dull and usually roughened by
many small tubercles more or less distinctly
arranged in ten rows, indistinctly few-tubercled
or nearly smooth, but commonly more or less
evidently ten-ribbed; base tipped by the rounded,
whitish scar; apex rounded or slightly pointed;
color varying from light to dark brown. ( Fig. 25. )

Found occasionally, but never abundantly, in
both American and European bluegrass seed.

If 5
4

b

Fig. 25. — Seeds of dog ienneli Anthemis
eoUda): a, side views; 6, natural size
of seeds.

Chenopodium album L.

lamb's-quarters, pigweed.

Seeds nearly circular, lens-shaped, with blunt edges, 1-1^ mm. in diameter, occur-
ring in commercial seeds as free seeds or as fruits, the seeds proper being invested by

the thin pericarp; free seeds jet black, smooth
or nearly so, and highly polished; scar occu-
pying a curved groove extending from the cen-
ter to the edge of one face and usually evident
as a light-colored line; fruits only slightly
larger than the seeds, mostly gray or black and
dull; pericarp wall often broken away, expos-
ing theshining black surfaceoftheseed; again,
this wall and the seed coat are often broken,
exposing the yellowish or whitish embryo and
endosperm; embryo cylindrical, occupying
the border of the seed and surrounding the endosperm, its extremities almost meet-
ing, the tip of the caulicle occupying an extension of the seed coat at the edge beside
the scar. (Fig. 26.)

Found chiefly in Kentucky bluegrass and Canada
bluegrass seeds, but not frequently and never abun-
dantly.

Plantago lanceolata L.

Fig. 26.— Seeds of lamb's-quarters (Chenopo-
dium album): o, various forms of seeds; 6,
natural size of seeds.

b

%

Fig. 27. — Seeds of rib-grass {Plan-
tago lanceolata): a, front and back
views of seeds; b, natural size of
seeds.

RIB-GRASS, BUCKHORN, ENGLISH PLANTAIN.

Seeds oval-oblong, lf-3 mm. long, flattened, one
face convex, the other having a deep groove and
rounded, infolded edges which scarcely meet at one
end; surface smooth or slightly uneven, shining in
fresh seed, brown or somewhat amber-colored; scar
situated at the center of the grooved face; embryo straight, in the center of the
endosperm, usually evident through the somewhat transparent endosperm and seed
coat. When placed in water the seeds develop a coat of transparent mucilage.
(Fig. 27.)

Small seeds are found to some extent in both American and European seed; more
commonly in Kentucky bluegrass than in Canada bluegrass seed.

36

THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGKASSES.

Rumex crispus L.

CURLED DOCK.

Seeds (akenes) I5-2I mm. long, triangular with equal faces and broadly ovate-
lanceolate; color dark reddish brown; surface smooth, polished; apex acute; base
obtuse, contracted, and narrowly truncate at the scar; edges narrowly margined;

faces longitudinally concave in poorly developed
seeds; true seed coat thin; embryo cylindrical, rest-
ing in the center of one face of the endosperm;
caulicle pointing to the base of the akene. (Fig. 28. )
Found occasionally, especially in Kentucky blue-
grass and in Canada bluegrass seeds; small, imper-
fectly developed seed more commonly found than
large, heavy seed. Their sharply three-angled,
beechnut-like form distinguishes them from other
impurities, except one or two other kinds of dock. The docks are destructive weeds,
and care should be taken to prevent the sowing of their seeds.

Rumex acetosella L.
sheep's sorrel, sorrel.

Fig. 28.— Seeds of curled dock (Kh-
mex crispus): a. broad and narrow
forms; h, natural .size of seeds.

Fig. 29.— Seeds of sorrel (Rumex acetosella): a, b, and c,
seed enveloped by the perianth; d, seed with perianth
removed; e, natural size of seeds.

Seeds (fruits) acutely oval, three-angled, with equal faces, 1-lj mm. long; repre-
sented in commercial seed by the seed-like akene only or by the akene covered by
the thin, closely fitting perianth segments, which are six in number, three broad
ones covering the sides of the

akene and three small ones cover- ^^^ v^Jk /^fe. .^tk. •

ing the angles at the base; covered
by the perianth, the seeds are
finely roughened, dull, and red-
dish brown ; venation of the three
broad segments evident; small
segments at the basal angles often
broken away; akenes but slightly
smaller than when covered by the perianth, bluntly three-angled; surface smooth,
somewhat polished, reddish brown or wine colored, often semitranslucent; angles
dark at the apex; internal structure essentially the same as in Mnmex crispus.

(Fig. 29.)

One of the commonest impurities in commercial
seed, found in all seed of the cultivated bluegrasses.

Veronica arvensis L.

CORN SPEEDWELL.

Seeds 5-f mm. long, flattened and thin, more or
less regularly oval, jjlane or sometimes curved face-
wise; center of the inner face marked by the relatively
large, raised chalaza, which is united by a narrow
ridge (the raphe) to the scar on the edge of the
smaller extremity of the seed; external face slightly ridged longitudinally, indicat-
ing the position of the embryo, which is surrounded by the endosperm; surface dull,
finely roughened by somewhat radially-disposed ridges, and reddish yellow. (Fig.
30.)

Fig. 30. — Seeds of corn speedwell
( Veronica arvensis): a and 6, front
views, c, back view; d, natural
size of seeds.

WEED SEEDS FOUND WITH BLUEGRASS SEEDS.

37

Found in bluegrass seed of various species, especially common in seed of Kentucky
bluegrass. The relatively prominent chalaza and the radially uneven surface dis-
tinguish them from the seed of the closely allied Veronica
peregrina, which sometimes occurs in commercial seed.

Juncus tenuis Willd.

SLENDER RUSH.

Seeds very minute, about | mm. long, broadly spindle-
shaped, the extremities usually slightly curved; surface
(as seen under a lens) nearly smooth; color reddish
yellow, darker at the extremities, which sometimes bear
a small white tissue. (Fig. .31.)

Often quite abundant in poorly cleaned Kentucky bluegrass seed, sometimes cling
ing in bunches of several seeds each.

Juncoides campestre (L.) Kuntze.

Fiii. 31. — Seeds of slender rush
{Junciiste^mis): a, seeds en-
larged; 6, natural size of
seeds.

0

9

FIELD RUSH.

i

Fig. 32. — Seeds of field rush {Jun-
coides campestre): a, different
views; b, natural size of seeds.

Seeds Ij-li mm. long, oval, not flattened, the ex-
tremities unequally pointed, the l;)asal extremity turned
slightly to one side and consisting of soft white or
yellowish tissue; a narrow and often indistinctly de-
fined whitish ridge extends from the base to the apex;
body of the seed wine-colored and semitranslucent or
grayish. (Fig. 32.)

Found frequently in the seed of wood meadow
grass and of the Poa sudetica of European origin.

Juncoides albida DC

WOOD RUSH.

Seeds 1-1 J nim. long, narrowly oval, not flattened; base without an appendage of
soft tissue; apex more acutely pointed than the l)ase;
a distinct brown or reddish brown ridge joins the base
and apex; body of the seed reddish brown or wine-
colored, often semitranslucent. ( Fig. 33. )

Found in various species of European-grown blue-
grass seed. The usually smaller size, absence of the
basal appendage, and more distinct and constant re<l-
dish-brown lateral ridge serve to distinguish these
from the seeds of Juncoides campestre.

h

Fig. 33. — Seeds of wood rush (Jun-
coides albida) : n, different views;
b, natural size of seeds.

Carex cephalophora Muhl.

OVAL-HEADED SEDGE.

Seeds (akenes) I2-2 mm. long, lens-shaped and broadly ovate, contracted at the
base and tipped at the apex by a conical appendage (the liase of the style); surface
smooth and dull; color varying from light to dark brown; apical appendage often
broken away in seeds found in commercial samples; perigynium broadly ovate-
lanceolate, plano-convex, the tapering extremity usually rough-edged and notched at

38

THE SEEDS OF THE BLUEGRASSES.

the apex: surface sometimes slightly grooved or ridged lengthwise, otherwise smooth;
color varying from hght brown to greenish or dark brown. (Fig. 34.)

Seeds of sedge (Carex) are found in
both American and European bluegrass
seed. Owing to the wide area of their
I production, the seeds of various species
of Carex occur in commercial blue-
grass seed. The seeds of Carex are
fruits (akenes) and occur free or in-
closed within a sac-like covering (the
perigynium). Carex cephalophora is
FIG. 34.-Seeds of sedge ( Carex c^pftaZoMom): a, seeds ^^^ .^^ ^^^^ commonly found in

inclosed by the perigynium; h and c, .seeds with f i ki A

perigynium removed; d, natural size of seeds. Kentucky bluegrass seed.

ERGOT OCCASIONALLY FOUND IN COMMERCIAL
BLUEGRASS SEED.

Claviceps purpurea (Fr. ) Tul.

ERGOT.

This is a fungus growth affecting the grain (caryopsis) of
many grasses. It is very common in the seed of redtop and
other species of Agrostis, and occasionally occurs in bluegrass
seed. The grain of the seed becomes elongated, extending
beyond the glume and palea, attains about twice the length of
the glume, and is club-shaped, straight, or, more commonly,
somewhat curved. It is black, dull, and somewhat grooved
lengthwise. (Fig. 35.) "

a

Fig. 35.— Ergot (Clavi-
ceps purpurea) of Ken-
tucky bluegrass: a, en-
larged; 6, natural size.

i

o

w

V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 85.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Claie/ of Bureau.

THE PRINCIPLES OF MUSHROOM GROOVING
AND MUSHROOM SPAWN MAKING.

BY

m

B. M. DUGGAR,
Peofessor OF Botany in the University of Missouri, and
Collaborator of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATIONS.

Issued November 15, 1905.

WASHINGTON:

government printing office.

1905.

BUIiLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes
Vegetable Pathological and Physiological Investigations; Botanical Investiga-
tions ; Farm Management, including Grass and Forage Plant Investigations :
Pomological Investigations, and Experimeutal Gardens and Grounds, all of
which were formerly conducted as separate divisions ; and also Seed and Plant
Introduction and Distribution; the Arlington Experimental Farm; Investiga-
tions in the Agricultural Economy of Tropical and Subtropical Plants; Drug
and Poisonous Plant Investigations; Tea Culture Investigations; the Seed
Laboratory, and Western Agricultural Extension.

Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of
Bulletins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published
as one series of the Bureau. A list of the Bulletins issued in the present series
follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that "the serial, scientific, and technical publi-
cations of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general dis-
tribution. All copies not required for official use are by law turned over to the
Superintendent of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All
applications for such publications should, therefore, be made to the Superin-
tendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

No. 1. The Relation of Lime and jNIagnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10
cents.

2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price. 10 cents.

6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents. "

10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses-

and Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55

cents.

15. Forage Conditions on the Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price, 15

cents.
10. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Cam-
pestris and Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price. 10 cents.

18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

20. Manufacture of Semolina and IMacaroni: 1902. Price, 15 cents.

21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. Price, 35 cents.

22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

23. Berseem. " 1902. Price, 15 cents.

24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous Papers : I. The Seeds of Rescue Grass and Chess. II.

Saragolla Wheat. III. Plant Introduction Notes from South Africa.
IV. Congi'essional Seed and Plant Distribution Circulars. 1903. Price,
15 cents.

26. Spanish Almonds. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, etc. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

28. The Mango in Porto Rico. 1903. Price. 15 cents.

29. The Effect of Black Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

30. Budding the Pecan. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Price, 10

cents.

32. A Disease of the White Ash. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

[Continued on page 3 of cover.]

Bui, 85, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 85.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE PRI^TTPLES OF MUSHROOM GROWING
AND MUSHROOM SPAWN MAKING.

BY

B. M. DUGGAR,
Professor of Botany in the University of Missouri, and
Collaborator of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

VEGKTABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATIONS.

Issued November 15, 1905.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK

BOTANICAL
GAf?DE^,

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1905.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

B. T. GALLOWAY,
Pathologist niul I'luisiolooist, and Chief of Bureau.

VEGETABLE I'ATHOLOGICAL AND I'HYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Albert F. Wood^jj Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge, Acting Chief of fiurcau in

Absence of Chief.

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Fkederick v. Coville. Botanist in Charge.

FARM MANAGEMENT.
W. J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
G. B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge.

SEED AND TLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.
A. J. PieterSj Botanist in Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.
L. C. CoRBETT, Horticulturist in Charge.

INVESTIGATIONS IN THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY OF TROPICAL AND SUB-
TROPICAL PLANTS.

O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge.

DRUG AND POISONOUS PLANT INVESTIGATIONS AND TEA CULTURE

INVESTIGATIONS.

Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge.

WESTERN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.

Carl S. Scofield, Agriculturist in Charge. '

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.
E. M. Byrnes, Superintendent.

SEED LABORATORY.
Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge.

J. E. Rockwell, Editor.
James E. Jones, Chief Clerk.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge.

Erwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge of Lahoratory of Plant Pathology.

Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Breeding.

Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Life History.

Newton B. Pierce, Pathologist in Charge of Pacific Coast Laboratory.

M. B. Waitk, Pathologist in Charge of Inrcstigations of Diseases of Orchard Fruits.

Mark Alfred Carleton, Cerealisi in Charge of Cereal Laboratory.

Hermann von Schrenk. in Charge of Mississippi Valley Laboratory.

P. H. Rolfs, Pathologist in Charge of Subtropical Laboratory.

C. O. Townsend, Pathologist in Charge of Sugar Beet Investigations.

T. H. Kearney, A. D. Shamel, Physiologists, Plant Breeding.

v. H. Dorsett," Cornelius L. Shear. William A. Orton, W. M. Scott, Ernst A.

Bessey, E. M. Freeman. Pathologists.
E. C. Chilcott, Expert in Cultirating Methods, Cereal Laboratory.
C. R. Ball, Assistant Aqrostoloqist, Cereal Laboratory.
.Joseph B. Chamberlain,'' J. Arthi'r Le Clerc,p Physiological Chemists.
Flora W. Patterson. Miieoloqist.
Charles P. Hartley, K.\rl F. Kellerman, Jesse B. Norton, Charles J. Brand,

T. Ralph Robinson, Assistants in Physiology.
Deane B. Swingle, George G. Hedgcock, Assistants in Pathology.
Perley Spauldinc;. P. J. O'Gara, Florence Hedges. Henry A. Miller, Ernest B.

Brown, Leslie A. Fitz, Leonard L. Harter, .Iohn O. Merwin, A. II. Leidigh, H. B.

Blanchard. Scientific Assistants.
W. W. Cobey, Tobacco E.rpert.
John van Leenhoff, Jr., T. I). Beckwith, Experts.

" Detailed to Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution.
"Detailed to Bureau of Chemistry.
" Detailed from Bureau of Cliemistry.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

9

f

r

I

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Indl stry.

Office of the Chief,
Washington^ D. C.^ August '21^ 1905.
Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled " The
Principles of Mushroom Growing and Mushroom Spawn Making,"
and to recommend that it be published as Bulletin No. 85 of the series
of this Bureau.

This paper was prepared by Dr. B. M. Duggar, Professor of
Botany in the University of Missouri and Collaborator with the
^ Office of Vegetable Pathological and Physiological Investigations of
~ this Bureau. Under the direction of the Pathologist and Physiolo-
gist, Doctor Duggar has been engaged for several years in the inves-
tigation of nnishroom culture in all of its phases, and great advances
have been made, especially in the production of purer and better
spawns.

The accompanying illustrations are necessary to a complete under-
standing of the text of this bulletin.

Respectfully, B. T. Galloway,

Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agnculture.

3

PREFACE.

The bulletin submitted herewith presents the results of the work
up to the present time on the problems of mushroom culture and
spawn making. The first publication on the subject from tlie stand-
point of pure culture was Bulletin Xo. IG of the Bureau of Plant
Industry. This was followed by a Farmers' Bulletin (Xo. 201) on
mushroom culture, presenting the results of our work for the use of
the practical grower. As an outcome of the work Doctor Duggar
has already accomplished, spawn of pure-culture origin is now being
produced on a very large scale by several growers and is giving excel-
lent results. This method enables the grower to improve and main-
tain the most desirable varieties of mushrooms in the same manner as
is possible with other plants jDropagated from cuttings or buds.
Information which would enable a grower to accomplish this has not
been up to this time available. The general method of securing pure
cultures as here described will enable the experimenter to cultivate
spawn of other edible species of mushrooms in case it should be found
desirable to cultivate them. The methods described differ radically
from any hitherto used. They are of more general application and
give far better results.

For the past three years this work has been carried on in coopera-
tion with the University of Missouri, Doctor Duggar having left the
Department to accept the professorship of botany in that institution.
We wish to express our appreciation of the facilities furnished by
the university for continuing this work.

Albert F. Woods,
Pathologist and Physiologist.

Office of Vegetable Pathological
AND Physiological Investigations,

Washington., D, C.^ June 16., 1906.

5

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction 9

General considerations 10

Market conditions 11

Germination studies 12

Review of earlier work _ _ 12

Experimental work 14

Tissue cultures 18

Nutrition 23

Growth on manure and other complex media 23

Growth on chemically known media 26

Tabulation of special results ' 26

Acid and alkaline media 30

Temperature and moisture 31

Preparation of the compost 33

Installation of beds 37

Spawning and casing the beds 38

Mushroom growing _. 39

Experiments at Columbia, Mo 39

Variability in mushrooms grown under different conditions 45

The cultivation of various species of mushrooms. . . 46

Cooperative experiments . 47

Cave facilities in the United States 48

Open-air culture 49

Mushroom spawn making 52

A ' ' chance ' ' method . 53

A ■ ' selective ' ' method 53

Pure-ciilture precautions 53

The tissue- culture method 54

The commercial process 55

The vitality of mushroom spawn 58

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.
Plate I. A fine bed of mnshrooms grown from spawn of pure-culture

origin Frontispiece

II. Fig. 1. — A fine cluster of Agaric iis camj)estris, the horticultiiral
variety Columbia. Fig. 2. — Morels (MorclieUa esculenta) , one
of the finest edible fungi 60

III. Fig. 1. — Agaricus fabaceiis, the almond-favored mushroom. Fig.

2. — Agaricus villaticKs, a promising species, fleshy and prolific. 60

IV. Fig. 1.— A young specimen of the common puff ball (C'alvatia

craniiformis) . Fig. 3. — The oyster mushroom {Pleurotus os- .

treatus) , growing on decayed willow log 60

V. Fig. 1. — A mushroom house provided with gas-piping framework

for shelf beds. Fig. 2. — The preparation of compost 60

VI. Fig. 1. — A large mushroom establishment — a common form of
mushroom house. Fig. 2. — The method of making pure cul-
tures, showing the apparatus and materials 60

VII. Fig. 1. — Mushrooms prepared for the American market. Fig.

3. — Good ( " ' well-run * ' ) mushroom spavm. brick form 60

8

B. P. I. — 182. V. P. P. I. — 142.

THE PRINCIPLES OF MUSHROOM GROWING AND
MUSHROOM SPAWN MAKING

INTRODUCTION.

For a number of years there has been an increasing demand in the
United States for information concerning- mushroom growing. In
the horticultural and agricultural press mau}^ individual practices
have been presented; but in order to give rational encouragement to
mushroom growing in favorable sections of this country it was recog-
nized at the outset of the investigations undertaken by the writer that
much experimental work would be required. Bearing upon the cul-
ture of Agaricus campestris " a number of physiological questions
were demanding attention, for it was desirable to ascertain (1) the
conditions of spore germination, in order that " virgin " spawn might
be propagated and the principle of selection attempted; (2) the
relation of this fungus to nutrients, or a determination of the sub-
stances or compounds which might best serve as food materials ; and
(3) the relation of the growing mycelium and of mushroom jjroduc-
tion to temperature, moisture, and other conditions of the environ-
ment. In the next place it would be necessary to determine the
application of any physiological principles established to the practice
of mushroom growing and mushroom spawn making.

In connection with a presentation of the results of the experimental
work '' it seems desirable to include also a more or less comj^rehensive
account of the present status of mushroom growing at home and
abroad.

« Throughout this puper the writer has employed the generic name Agaricus
in the sense in which it is usually understood hy those interested in the praetical
side of the worl<.

6 During 1903-4 the writer was assisted in the experimental work by Mr. A.
M. Ferguson, instructor in botany in the University of Texas, at that time special
agent of the Department of Agriculture, and during 1904-5 similar assistance
has been rendered by Mr. L. F. Childers, student assistant. Through the assist-
ance thus given it has been possible to complete an unusual amount of
experimental work, only a portion of which can be described in detail, although
it has all been taken into consideration in the conclusions drawn.

9

10 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

It is not possible at this time to give more than a few brief sugges-
tions concerning the possibility of cultivating other edible species
than Agarieus campestris. The determination of the fundamental
needs of diverse species will require study during a term of years.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

The propagation of Agarieus campestris does not seem to have been
undertaken to any extent by the ancient Greeks or Romans. The
occasional references to mushrooms in the classics are very general,
as a rule, and do not suggest that artificial propagation was attempted.
In the vicinity of Paris Agarieus earnpestris has been cultivated for
several centuries, and the plants have certainly been sold on the open
market quite as long." It has not been possible to ascertain whether
the methods now in vogue are essentially the same as those employed
a few centuries ago. It is very probable, however, that the methods
have been gradually improved. It would appear that the cultivation
in caves is comparatively recent. The earliest records obtainable
concerning the cultivation of mushrooms in the underground quarries
indicate that this practice was not common previous to the nineteenth
century.

Mushrooms are to-day extensively grown in England and France,
and to a limited extent in Belgium, in Germany, and in many other
countries. Paris remains, however, the center of commercial pro-
duction. In the vicinity of that city the culture of mushrooms is now
almost entirely confined to the undergTouncl limestone quarries or
cement mines. The caves used for this purpose are termed " carrieres ''
or " champignonieres." These caves may consist of a labyrinth of gal-
leries, or halls, ranging from 5 to 50 feet in width and from 5 to 30
feet in height. In some regions the earth is practically honey-
combed by them, and the extent of the cave space used by the larger
growers may be measured by miles. For the most part the ventila-
ting system is j^erfect, every cave system j)ossessing numerous air
shafts, protected at the surface by wooden towers. Artificial parti-
tions in the caves themselves enable the operator to control the venti-
lation. Until recent times the cultural methods have been more or
less sacredly guarded by the growers, and even to-day it is not easy
to get permission to make a casual visit to the champignonieres. In
many cases the work has been followed from generation to generation
within the same family. There are at present, however, large corpo-
rations in control of some of the most famous caves.

a In a painting of the early seventeenth century (that of a Fishmonger's and
Poulterer's Shop, by Jordaeus and Van Utrecht, in the Gallery of Old Pictures.
Brussels) Agarieus campestris and Boletus are shown on sale as a conspicuous
part of a market scene.

MARKET CONDITIONS. 11

In the United States fresh mushrooms have only recently been of
any importance commercially, although florists and gardeners of
English and French training have long been successful growers on
a small scale, Nevertheless, during the past decade or so, the record
of failures has been most conspicuous, and it is certain that of the
many who attempted this work onlj?^ a few, relatively, were uniformly
successfid.

The conditions under which mushrooms may be successfully grown
are limited, and intelligent attention is therefore essential. It must
be said, moreover, that the majority of failures may be directly
traced to erroneous ideas as to the cultural requisites, or to a reckless
disregard of conditions. The essential conditions will be subse-
quently defined in detail, but it may be stated here that failures are
usually due to one or more of the following causes: (1) Poor spawn;
(2) very poor manure; (3) unfavorable temperature; and (4) heavy
watering during the early stages of growth.

Under suitable conditions mushrooms may be grown with assur-
ance of success. Ordinarily they are grown only where the condi-
tions may be controlled, and success should therefore be invariable.

MARKET CONDITIONS.

In the vicinity of Paris the mushroom industry has been remark-
ably developed during the past eight or ten years. The total product
sold through the central market of Paris in 1898 was nearly 4,000,000
pounds; the quantity for 1900 is given as approximately 8,500,000
pounds, and for 1901 nearly 10,000,000 pounds. These figures show
most convincingly the present status of the mushroom industry in
France. It may be safely assumed that more than one-third of this
quantity is consumed in a fresh state in and about the city. The
growth of the canning industry during this period has also been
remarkable. In 1898 about 1,800,000 pounds were preserved, while in
1901 the canned product amounted to nearly 6,200,000 pounds. Dur-
ing 1901 the approximate monthly production of mushrooms ranged
from 651,000 pounds to 985,000 pounds, from which it is evident that
these caves yield heavily throughout the year. In some instances
growers are able to get a crop every four or five months.

It is extremely difficult to estimate the quantity of mushrooms
grown in the United States, It is certain, however, that the produc-
tion has increased very greatly, and i)articularly within the last four
or five years. In the vicinity of several of our larger cities there are
to-day individual growers who produce more than the total commer-
cial output in the neighborhood of those cities ten years ago.

There is now a very good open market for fresh mushrooms in a
few of the larger cities, although many large growers continue to

12 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

sell entirely by contract or by special orders to hotels and restaurants.
With such an enormous comj^arative consumi^tion of the canned
product, there is every reason to believe that fresh mushrooms can
be sold in much greater quantity as soon as this product becomes a
certain factor in the market. With canning factories to take the
surplus product, growers could afford to accept a smaller margin of
profit, and this would place mushrooms within reach of many who
may not be able to purchase them at present average prices. Agaricus
campestris and its varieties and allied species are perhaps the only
fresh mushrooms commonly salable in the markets of American
cities. Throughout practically the whole of Europe several other
species are legitimate market products. The more delicate or fleshy
forms of the latter are sold as fresh mushrooms; others are dried,
and some of these, being tougher, are used only for soups, sauces, and
gravies. Besides the various species of truffle and morel, any special
mention of which will be omitted here, the French market to-day
legalizes the sale of five or six other species of mushrooms.

GERMINATION STUDIES.

Review of earlier work. — In a small way the germination of the
spores of Basidiomycetes has received attention from the earliest
times. A complete historical review of the literature dealing with
spore germination will be found in Bulletin No. IG of the Bureau of
Plant Industry. It will be seen that most of the early work fur-
nishes only incidental references to spore germination. By far the
most important contributions made by early workers to this particu-
lar subject were several papers by Hoffmann." It is not to be expected
that the method employed by him would yield accurate results.
Nevertheless, the work of Hoffmann is comprehensive for that time.
Brefeld,'' in his extensive reports upon the Basidiomycetes, gives the
results of germination studies with a large number of the fleshy fungi.
More than 200 species were used in his various experiments, and suc-
cessful germination is recorded for about 160 species.

In 1898 the writer became interested in some attempts to germinate
the spores of certain Basidiomycetes. Subsequently the problem
received incidental attention in connection with some general studies
on the physiology of spore germination.'^ The work progressed only

o Hoffmann, H. Ueber Pilzkeimungen. Botan. Zeitg., 19 : 209-214, 217-219.
1859. Beitriige zur Entwickelungsgescliichte mid Anatomie der Agaricineen.
Botan. Zeitg., 18 : .S89-.395, 397-404. ISGO. Untersuclumgen iiber die Keimung
der Pilzsporen. .Talirb. f. wiss. Bqtanik, 2 : 207-337. 1860.

6 Brefeld, O. Botanische Untersucbungen iiber Scbimnioliiilze. Basidiomy-
ceten, I, Bd. I. II. 3. 1877. Untersucli. a. d. Gesammtgebiete der Mykologie.
Basidioniyceten. II, II. 7; III, II. 8. 1888-89.

f" Duggar, B. M. Physiological Studies witb Reference to the Germination of
Certain Fungous Spores. Bot. Gaz., 31 : 38-60.

GEEMINATION STUDIES. 13

far enough to suggest that an investigation of the factors influencing
germination might yiekl studies of special interest. During 1900-
1901 Dr. Margaret C. Ferguson undertook a systematic investiga-
tion of the relation of stimuli to germination in certain species.
The results " have made it evident that the problems involved are
not the well-known simple nutrient or physical factors. Miss Fer-
guson spent much time in experimenting with a great variety of
nutrient media and special stimuli. Several thousand cultures were
made. In the majority of these cultures Agaricus campestris was
used, and it is shown that from the known ecological relationships
of this fungus one could not possibly predicate the probable stimulus
for germination. In fact, with no known nutrient medium or special
chemical stimulus employed, was there anything more than erratic
germination. Nevertheless, the work was finally very successful
in the discovery that almost a perfect percentage of germination
could be secured by the influence of the living hvpha:> of Agaricus
campestris upon the spores, as announced in the statement that " if
a few spores are able to germinate under the cultural conditions,
or if a bit of the mycelium of Agaricus campestris be introduced into
the culture, the growth resulting will in either case cause or make
possible the germination of nearly all the spores of the culture, pro-
vided, of course, that the other conditions are not such as to inhibit
germination."

The stimulus would seem to be of enzymatic nature. No other
mycelium tested produced a similar effect. This was a distinct
advance in our knowledge of factors influencing germination. The
stimulus, however, could only be looked upon as perhaps a substitu-
tion stimulus. It did not seem possible that it could obtain in nature,
nor could it be looked upon as wholly satisfactory from a practical
point of view.

Miss Ferguson's results offered encouragement; but, nevertheless,
the problems with Agaricus campestris and related species were left
open for further investigation. It should, perhaps, be emphasized
that prior to 1902 no method had been published, so far as can be
learned, whereby one might be able to obtain with uniformity the
germination of Agaricus campestris. It is quite certain that Chev-
reul and others obtained at best only erratic results. Nevertheless,
as early as 1893 Costantin and Matruchot ^ annomiced that a method
had been developed bj^ them whereby they were able to germinate the

a Ferguson, M. C. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of
Agaricus Campestris and Other Basidiomyce^ jUS Fungi. Bulletin No. 16, Bu-
reau of Plant Industry, V. S. Dept. Agriculture, pp. 1-4.*^. 1002.

& Costantin and Matruchot. Nouveau i)roci'd(' de culture du champignon de
couche. Compt. Rend, de I'Acad. des Sci., 117 (2) : 70-72. (Compare, also.
Bui. Soc. de Biol., 2 December, 1893.)

14 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

spores and to grow in pure culture the mycelium of Ar/ariru.<^ earn-
pestris. Information concerning the details of the method emploj^ed
Avas avoided in the reports of this announcement and in subsequent
references to the process.** In the first announcement the method is
stated as follows :

Method followed. — The spores are collected free from contaminations, arid
in order to preserve them in that condition are sown on a certain sterilized
nutritive medium. We obtain in this manner a twisted mycelium which con-
stitutes pure spawn. By repeated -cultures on an identical substratum the
spawn can be multiplied indefinitely, and is transferred at a proper time to
sterilized manui'e, where it develops abundantly in several weeks. At that
stage it possesses the characteristic appearance and odor of natural spawn.
It can then be sown in a bed of ordinary manure, to which it adheres and where
it grows and fruits normally.

In the later paper cited, writing of the recent improvements in
mushroom culture, Costantin expresses himself as follows:

We have succeeded in manufacturing an artificial spawai obtained from the
spore germinated on a medium free from contamination. It is then pure
spawm. We can state further that it is virgin spawn.

In 1897 Eepin ^ claimed to have independently arrived at results
similar to those obtained by Costantin and Matruchot. Concerning
his germination studies he says :

It is only recently that the study of this question has been renewed, inde-
pendently and simultaneously by Costantin and Matruchot.

There is nothing unusual in the germination of the spores of Agaricus.
Spores can be germinated on media such as used in bacteriology, on wet sand,
or in moist air as well as on manure. Without doubt, germination is not pro-
duced with the same spontaneity and rapidity as in the case of the si)ores of
lower fungi, which fact makes it necessary to promote the process by some
artifices, but they are only sleight-of-hand tricks, variable according to the
operators, and which are acquired after some unsuccessful attempts. The
spores which should germinate (and these are always in the minority) begin
by swelling. This very simple method makes it possible to obtain virgin
spawn at pleasure. It is ai)plied industrially in the manufacture of spawn of
Agaricus from cultures which I have made.

So far as the writer has been able to ascertain, therefore, no descrip-
tion of the method employed by the above writers is to be found. The
report of Miss Ferguson's work is accordingly the only available
scientific record defining the conditions under which germination
had been constantly obtained up to this time.

Experimental work. — The writer has been able to confirm Miss Fer-
guson's work repeatedly, and at the same time numerous series of
experiments have been made to test further the possibility of influenc-

o Constantin. ,1. La culture du champignon de couche et ses recent perfection-
nements. Extrait du Revue Scientifique. April, 1894.

6 Repin. C. Le blanc vierge de semis pour la culture du champignon de
couche. Revue Uencrale des Sciences. (September 15, 1897.)

GERMINATION STUDIES.

15

inof sfermination bv chemical stimuli. In distilled water, on the one
hand, and in plant decoctions (such as decoctions of beans, sugar
beets, mushrooms, potatoes, etc.) and in bouillon, on the other hand,
there have been tested a large number of inorganic and organic salts,
carbohydrates, nitrogenous compounds, and active enzymes.

The results of one series of experiments are tabulated in detail.
In g(nieral, it has been found that dulcite, monobasic magnesium
phosphate, magnesium phosphite, magnesium potassium ammonium
phosphate, ammonium molybdate, magnesium lactophosphate, dibasic
calcium phosphate, and other salts, especially phosphates, have in one
medium or another been more or less effective as stimuli for germina-
tion. Unfortunately, none of the substances mentioned, apparently,
are very strong stimuli ; they are unable to cause invariable germina-
tion in all nutrient media. Moreover, in subsequent series, where the
conditions have been the same, within experimental possibilities,
wholly analogous results have not always been obtained. No account
lias been taken, however, of the particular variety of Agaricus cam-
pestris from which the spores were obtained, and it may be that this
will influence the results.

It is to be noted from the following table that Miss Ferguson's
method of employing living bits of mycelium was modified by the use
of small pieces of the inner tissue of a young mushroom taken under
sterile conditions. It was found that often a new growth of mycelium
was developed from this tissue. Whenever this growth appeared,
the influence upon spores in the drop culture was, as might be
expected, the same as had been demonstrated for the living mycelium.
Frequently a few spores germinated within from three to five days.
The most interesting conclusion, however, which could be draAvn from
the cultures in which small bits of tissue were used was the following:
Under favorable conditions a small piece of the inner growing tissue
of a mushroom is capable of producing a mycelium with great readi-
ness. This fact has been utilized, as shown in detail later, in the
development of a new and effective method of securing pure cultures
of fleshy fungi in general.

Table I. — Extent of germination.

No.

Media.

After 8 days.

After 5 days.

Distilled water

(a — .5 spores

As before.

1

V' — None

Bouillon

Do.

2

None

None

3

i per cent KH0PO4

. do

Do

4

i per cent KH0PO4 in bouillon . . .

do

Do.

5

J per cent K0HPO4

do..

Do.

6

i per cent K0HPO4 in bouillon . . .

do

Do.

7

i per cent NaoHP04

do

Do.

8

i per cent NaoHP04 in bouillon. .

do

Do.

9

i per cent (NH4)oHP04

do

Do.

10

i per cent (NH4)2HPOi in bou-
illon.

do

Do.

6329— No. 85—05 m-

16

MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.
Table I. — Extent of germination — Continued.

No.

11
12

13
14

15

16

17
18

19
20

21

22

33
24
25
26

27
28

29

30

31

32

33

34
35

36

37

38

39

40

41
42

43

Media.

i per cent MgH4(P04)o

i per cent MgH4(P04)2 with bou-
illon.

f per cent MgHP04.

i per cent MgHP04 in bouillon .

Iper centMg(NH4)P04

I per cent Mg(NH4)P04 in bou-
illon.

I per cent MgK{NH4)P04---.

Iper cent MgK(NH4)H2(P04)
bouillon.

lain

I per cent (NH4)oC4H40o

I per cent (NH4)2C4H40,i in bou-
illon.

I per cent magnesium lactophos-
phate.

i per cent magnesium lactophos-
phate in bouillon.

iper cent Ca2Ho(P04)2

i per cent Ca..H.r(P04 )•> in bouillon

i per cent KCHOo ...'. __..

I per cent MgHPOij

\ per cent MgHPOs in bouillon, _

iper cent MgK(NH4)H2(P04)2
in mushroom decoction.

i per cent KH2PO4 in mushroom
decoction.

J per cent K0HPO4 in mushroom
decoction.

J per cent NaoHP04 in mush-
room decoction.

I per cent ( NH4)2HP04 in mush-
room decoction.

i per cent MgHP04 in mush-
room decoction.

do_

i per cent Mg(NH4)P04 in mush-
room decoction.

i^ per cent (NH4)2C4H40oinmush-
room decoction.

i per cent magnesium lactophos-
phate in mushroom decoction.

i per cent Ca2H2(P04)2 in mush-
room decoction.

i per cent KCHOo in mushroom
decoction.

i per cent MgHPOa in mush-
room decoction.

Decoction of mushrooms . . _

After 3 days

Living tissue of mushroom in
mushroom decoction.

....do

10 spores

fa— 1 spore . . .
[6— None

None

a — 10 spores .

None

2 spores .

Few spores
do

fa — None .

\6— None..

10 spores

do....

do....

None

10 spores .

None

10 spores .

do....

do....

None.

.do.

Few spores .
1 or 2 spores
Few spores .

10-50 per cent .
Few spores

2 per cent . . .

10 spores

5-8 per cent .
2-3 per cent .

^1-2 per cent

f o — 2 per cent

{b — Very few spores

a — Few spores «

6— None'' _..

(o— Few spores"

16— None!*

After 5 days.

.50 per cent.
3 per cent.
None.
(Do.
1 1 per cent.
Germinated spores badly

injured.
None.
As before; injured.

5 per cent.
Do.

Few spores.

10 per cent.

As before; injured.

5-10 per cent.

2-5 per cent.

1-2 per cent.
Injured.
1-2 per cent.
10-50 per cent.
1 per cent.
1-2 per cent.

None.

Do.

Injured.

Few spores.

2-5 per cent.

10-20 per cent.
Contaminated.

Contaminated; 5 0 per

cent, but injured.
3-5 per cent; injured.

10 per cent.

10-20 per cent.

0—5 per cent.
6— Contaminated
2 per cent.
1-2 per cent.
12 spores.

As before.
None.

{1

" In this cell the tissue developed a new growth.
'' No growth from tissue introduced.

On account of the fact that magnesium phosphite and magnesium
potassium ammonium phosphate had in most cases proved to be
stimuli for germination, experiments were next made to determine
the efficiency of these salts on various media, as indicated in the
table on the following page.

GERMINATION STUDIES.
Table II. — Efflciencij of salts on various media.

17

Nature of compost.

Appearance after 25 days.

Nature of compost.

Appearance aftei

25 days.

Well-rotted stable
manure."
Do. b ... .

No growth.

Fine growth.

One, fair growth: one,

good growth.
No growth.

One, good growth; one,

slight growth.
One, good growth; one,

fine growth.
One, good growth; one,

slight growth.

Well-rotted cow ma-
nure. f>

Peatymold"

Do.6

Maryland peatn

Do.&

Well-rotted Ginkgo
leaf mold."
Do.&

Good growth.

No growth.

Do!
Do.
Do.

Do.
One, no growth;

growth.
Fine growth.

Half-rotted stable
manure. «
Do-f*

Fresh stable manure o

Do.6

Well-rotted cow ma-
nure. "

Cotton-seed motes «.
Do.6-

one, fine

" Watered with concentrated solution of magnesium phosphite.

' Watered with strong solution of magnesium potassium ammonium phosphate.

Large test tubes were used in these experiments, and duplicate
cultures were made in every instance. From these and from numer-
ous other cultures it was ascertained that germination could not be
obtained invariably, even on favorable media and under pure-culture
conditions, by the use of these partial stimuli. Nevertheless, the
percentage of failures has usually been small. By means of the
stimulus given by magnesium phosphite it has also been possible to
get growth from the spores in test-tube cultures with gray filter
paper as the solid substratum and various plant decoctions and cul-
ture solutions as the nutrients. Details of these results, however,
may be omitted.

In many cases it has been possible to obtain growth from the
spores by the use of the stimulating salts Avhich have been mentioned
in connection with the germination studies. Where it is desired to
make experiments along this line the writer has found it more
practicable to use spores from a mushroom as young as possible.
If one takes a mushroom just at the time that the veil is breaking,
inoculations may be readily made from the spores and few contami-
nations will result. In this case, by means of a sterile needle, or
scalpel, a few spores may be removed from the spore-bearing, or
gill, surface and these may be transferred to the tubes in the same
way as Avere bits of the fresh tissue. It is also possible to secure a
spore print from a mushroom the gill surface of which has not been
exposed to germs of the atmosphere. In the latter case it is desir-
able to remove stem and partial veil, peel off the incurved edges of
the cap which have been in contact with the soil, and place the cap,
gill surface downward, in a sterilized dish or on sterile paper. If
this is then kept free from dust, a spore print may be obtained, which
should not be contaminated by foreign germs. This print may then
be used in making a large number of spore cultures.

Experiments were also made in which pots of unsterile composts
and manures were inoculated, on the one hand, with spores, and, on

18

MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

the other hand, for control purposes, with spawn from pure cultures.
The duration of the experiments was two months. Some of these
pots were watered with a mineral nutrient solution including as one
constituent magnesium phosphite, designated A', others with the same
solution to which was also added a small quantity of dried blood,
designated Y, and the remainder with pure water. The results are
tabulated as follows:

Table III. — Extent of growth of spores and spaxcn in pots.

Spores
Spores
Spawn
Spawn
Spawn

Cattle ma- Fresla stable: g.^^j^ OW^^\-ble ! qj^ ^^^^^
nure,old. ^^|°,^^|. j manure. ^^|^^^^|. , manure.

fa — Good ... None ! Slight None ' None.

lb— None do do ' do do.

fa— Good ... Very good. do I do do..

\h— Do. do do ' do do..

/a— Slight .. Slight i None I do do.

\6— Do. .....do Slight... .'_-.. do do..

fa— None... None Good ' do ' do..

-..-do Slight----'.--. do do.-

Slight do. --.'---. do ----do--

do I None L.. do do..

b— Do.
a— None
6— Do.

I

Fertilizer.

Y.
Y.
X.
X.
Y.
Y.
X.
X.

None.
Do.

TISSUE CULTURES.

The suggestion which had presented itself of using bits of living
tissue from a sporophore instead of spores seemed also, from general
observations, to be of sufficient importance to Avarrant a thorough
trial. During moist weather, or in a moist cellar where mushrooms
are being grown, one will frequently find that an injury in a young
mushroom is rapidl.y healed by a growth of hyphse from the edges
of the injured area. The same thing had been noted in the open in
the case of putt'balls. In many instances, moreover, pure cultures
of fungi in other groups have been obtained by the use of small bits
of a sclerotial mass of tissue. Accordingly, a young sporophore of
Agaricus campestris was obtained, and after breaking it open longi-
tudinally a number of pieces of tissue from Avithin were carefully
removed with a sterile scalpel to a sterile Petri dish. A number of
cultures were then made by this tissue-culture method on a variety
of nutrient media, such as bean pods, manure, leaf mold, etc. From
this and from numerous other similar tests it was ascertained that
when the mushrooms, from which the nocules of tissue are taken,
are young and healthy, there is seldom an instance in which growth
does not result. It was easily shown that failure to grow was gen-
erally due to the advanced age of the mushroom used, to an unfavor-
able medium, or to bacterial contamination.

The first successful pure cultures were made by this method during
the early spring of 1902 from mushrooms grown indoc^rs. During

TISSUE CULTURES.

19

the following summer, or as other fleshy fungi appeared in the open,
cultures were made from other forms in order to determine the
general ai^plicability of the method. The experiments were success-
ful in most cases, although it was found almost impossible to obtain
certain species of fungi in a condition young enough to be free from
bacterial infestation. In general, the method seemed to commend
itself strongly as a means of procuring pure cultures of desirable
edible species, particularly of those species the spores of which could
not be obtained pure or which could not be readily germinated.

During the two subsequent seasons this method lias been employed
with a great variety of fungi representing many natural orders. No
systematic endeavor has been made to determine the limitations of
the tissue-culture method as applied to Basidiomycetes, but, inci-
dental to the general studies, cultures have been made from forms
differing very widely, not only in relationship but also in texture and
in habitat.

In all there is a record of 69 species having been tested upon one
or another u)edium. In a few cases the cultures have invariably been
contaminated, and it is to be supposed, perhaps, that the plants were
collected in a condition too old for the purpose in hand. In only
about ten forms has it seemed that there is no evident reason for the
failure to develop mycelium. Of the remainder fully 40 have grown
promptly on the media employed. The table following indicates the
names of the species employed and the results obtained. It must be
said, however, that cultures of a number of species were made of
which no record was kept; among these, also, some grew and some
failed.

Table IV. — Results obtained from different si)ecies.

Fungus.

Num-
ber of

cul-
tures.a

Substratum.

Result.

Agar icus ar vensis

Few.

1
oc

oc
oc

1

Few.

1

2

3
cc
2
2
1

Beans, manure, leaves, etc

Beans

Rapid growth.

Agaricus augustus

Agaricus campesti-is (various

varieties).
Agaricus f abaceus

Beans, manure, leaves, etc

do

Rapid growth.
Do

Agaricus f abaceus var

do

Do

Agaricus placomyces

Beans

Some growth.
Rapid growth.

Agaricus villaticus _

Manure, leaves, etc

Amanita frostiana

Leaves

Amanita muscaria

Beans .

Do

Amanita verna

.... do

Do

Amanitopsis vaginata _.

do _..

Do

Armillaria mellea .

Beans, leaves, dead wood, etc...
Beans

Rapid growth.
Slow growth.
No growth.

Boletinus porosus __

Boletus felleus

do

Boletus miniato-violaceus _ . .

do

Boletus i)eckii

2

Few.
Few.

do-

Bovistella ohiensis

Beans, leaves, etc

do

Rapid growth.
Do.

Calvatia craniif ormis

Calvatia c vathif orme

oc
Few.

1
1

Beans, leaves, soil, etc

Do

Calvatia rubro-flava. _ _

Beans, leaves, etc..

Do

Cantharellus cibarius

Beans

do

No growth.

Clavaria formosa

n oc indicates an indefinite nuTiber.

20

MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

Table IV. — Results obtained from Oiffereut species — Continued.

Fungus.

Num-
ber of
cul-
tures.

Substratum.

Result.

Clitocy be illudens

Clitocybe sp.?

Clitopiliis pruuulus

Colly l)ia platyphylla

Colly bia raclicata

CoUy bia velutipes

Copinnus atramentarius . .

Coprinus comatus —

Copriuus flmetarius

Coprinus micaceus.-

Cortinar ius armillatus

Cortinarius castaneus

Cortinarius sp. y

Daedalia quercina

Hydnum caput medusae. .

Hydnum coralloides-

Hydnum erinaceum

Laotarius corr ugis (?)

Lactarius piperatus

Lactarius volemus

Do -

Lepiota americana

Lepiota morgan!

Lepiota procera

Lepiota rhacodes -

Lycoperdon gemmatum .

Lycoperdon wrightii

Morcuella esculenta

Gluteus cervinus . _

Pleurotus ostreatus

Pleurotus ixlmarius

Pholiota adiposa

Polyporus betulinus

Polyporus intybaceus

Polyporus sulphureus

Polystictus cinnabarinus

Riissula adusta

Russula emetica

Russula sp

Russula sordida

Russula virescens

Seeotium acuminatum

Strobilomyces strobilaceus .

Stropharia sp

Ti-emella mycetophila

Tricholoma personatum

Tricholoma russula

2

2

Pew.

1

Pew.

oc

oc

Few.

oc

1
1

Few.

Few.
1
2

2

Few.

oc

1
oc

1

2

cc

Few.

2

1

2

Few.

- oc

1
1
1
1

2

2

1

oc

Pew.

Few.
2
1
1
1
1
2

Beans

....do

Beans, manure, etc

Beans

.__.do

....do... _

Beans, leaves, manure, etc.
Beans, manure, leaves, etc.

Beans, leaves ___

Beans, leaves, manure, etc .

Beans

do _

Beans, leaves, manure

Beans, leaves, manure, etc.

Beans

do

do -

Beans and leaves

do. _

Acid beans

Beans

do

do

Beans, leaves, etc

do

Beans

Sod

Beans and leaves

do

Beans, leaves, manure, etc.

Beans

Beans and leaves

Beans

do

Beans and leaves

do

Beans

Beans, etc

Beans .
do.

do

do.

do

do..

do....

Beans and manure
Beans and leaves . .

Some growth.
Rapid growth.
Some gi-ew well.
No growth.
Good growth.

Do.
Rapid growth.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Contaminated.

Do.
Good growth.
Rapid growth.
Good growth.

Do.

Do.
Slight growth, one.
No growth.
Some growth.
No growth.

Some growth.
Rapid gi'owth.

Do.
Good growth.

Do.

Do.
Some growth.
Rapid growth.

Do.
No growth.
Slow growth.

Do.
Rapid growth.
Good growth.
No growth.
Often contaminated

but some grew.
No growth.

Do.

Do.
Slow growth.
No growth.
Conta minated .
No growth.
Good growth.

Do.

It is not to be understood that the faihires recorded in the forego-
ing table indicate that these species will not grow. The evidence is
that they did not grow upon the media used, and it is very probable
that most of these could be propagated in culture by this method if
a systematic attempt were made to determine what substrata are
desirable. The writer believes that this statement holds true particu-
larly in the case of certain species of Boletus. No attempt was
macle to cultivate Boleti in any other way than upon bean pods. A
few mycelial threads Avere developed in such cases, but these failed
to grow upon the bean, apparently dying before even the nutrients
in the fragment of tissue were exhausted. -

It is interesting to note that many of the fungi which have given
good growth have not hitherto been grown in pure culture. Accord-

oCostantin et Matruohot. Sur la production du mycelium des champignon
sui)erieurs. Extrait Compt. Rend. d. Seances de la Soc. de Biologic. January.

TISSUE CULTURES. 21

ing to Costantin and Matriichot," Van Tiegheiii (1876) produced the
mycelium of Coprinus in pure culture. Later, Brgfeld " accom-
plished the same result with many species of Coprinus. and also with
Armillaria meUea. Costantin has also published a number of brief
papers, or announcements, of successful cultures upon artificial media
of the mycelium of several fleshy fimgi. ^osidefi Agm^icus campestris^
he has grown the mycelium of Amanita rubescens, Armillaria mellea^
Gollyhia velutipes^ Lepiota procera^ Marasmius oreades, Trieholoma
nudum^ Pleurotus ostreatus^ Pholiota aegerita^ Coprinus comatus,
Polyporus tnheraster^ P. frondosus^ Hydnum coralloides^ Morchella
esculentu, and perhaps a few others. He has also grown to maturity
sporojDhores of Agarlcus campestris^ Coprinus comatus^ and Tri-
choloma nudum. Unfortunately, Costantin seldom indicates the
substratum upon which his cultures were made. Falck ^ reports
having produced in culture the sporophores of CoUyhia velutipes,
Phlehia ?nerismoides, Hypholoma fa^scicidare., Chalymotta campanu-
lata., and Coprinus ephemerus in his studies upon the connection of
oidial stages with perfect forms of the Basidiomycetes. In the work
of the writer so far no special attempt has been made to obtain the
sporophores of the fungi cultivated except in the case of Agaricus
campestris. Nevertheless, the following species have fruited in pure
culture upon the media indicated :

Medium.

Agaricus campestris Manure.

Agaricus fabaceus Manure.

Agaricus amygdalinus Manure.

Armillaria mellea Beans.

Bovistella ohiensis Soil.

Calvatia cyathiforme Soil.

Calvatia rubro-flava Soil.

Cortinarius sp Soil.

Coprinus comatus Leaves.

Coprinus fimetarius Leaves.

Coprinus solstitialis (?) Leaves, etc.

Daedalia quercina Leaves, etc.

Hydnum coralloides Beans.

Lycoperdon wrightii Soil.

Pleurotus ostreatus Beans and manure.

Pleurotus ulmarius Manure.

In some in.stances the sporophores have been minute, owing to the
small quantity of the culture medium.

a Brefeld. O. Tenters, aus d. C}esammtgel)ipte d. Mykologie. S. f), 10.

6 Falclv, R. Die Cultur der Oidien und die Riickfiibrung in die tiohere Frucbr-
form bei den Basidiomyceteu. Cobn's Beitriige /ur Biologie der I'tiauzeu, 8:
307-346 (Pis. 12-17).

22 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

From the standpoint of obtaining pure cnltnres, the tissue-culture
method is capable of very general application. Three considerations
render it particularly important, as follows: (1) WTien a suitable
culture medium is at hand, a pure culture may be obtained almost
invariably from a young, healthy plant. (2) Cultures may be made
from fungi the spores of which have never been brought to germina-
tion. (3) Pure cultures are made by direct inoculation; that is,
dilution cultures are rendered wholly superfluous. In the case of
Agaricus campestris and other Basidiomycetes, in which the gill-
bearing surface is protected until the spores are produced, it is pos-
sible, with the precautions previously mentioned, to obtain the spores
pure, or practically pure, and at the same time in considerable quan-
tity. This is not possible with the great majority of fleshy fungi,
which are truly gymnocarpous. Again, members of the genus Cop-
rinus are deliquescent, and here it is impracticable to secure spores
by the spore-print method. In the Lycoperdacese and other Gaster-
omycetes it has been found that bacteria are frequently present in the
tissues by the time the spores are formed, and, even if the spores
could be germinated, direct cultures would perhaps be seldom possi-
ble. By the tissue method it is only necessary that the plant shall be
so young that the cells of the tissue are capable of growth and that
there are no foreign organisms present in the tissue. In this connec-
tion it may be stated that in the Phallinea?, Hymenogastrinea?, and
Lycoperdinea3 no representative has been germinated, while in the
Plectobasidinese germination is known only in the case of Spliaero-
holus stellatus and PisolHhus crassipes.

"VMien the natural conditions of germination shall have been more
definitely ascertained, direct spore-culture methods should in prac-
tice, perhaps, replace the pure tissue-culture methods in making
virgin spawn. This would render unnecessary a tedious portion of
the work, and the process of spawn making would be thereby made
less expensive.

A discussion of the respective practical merits of the spore and tissue
methods would not be complete Avithout reference to the comparative
vigor, or productive power, of the resulting mycelium. In the growth
of the mycelium no difference could be detected. The writer has also
grown mushrooms from spawn produced by both of these methods;
but the results do not indicate that there is any advantage for the one
over the other. It is believed, therefore, that the processes of basidial
and spore formation are in this regard relatively unessential, or at
least do not intensify whatever invigoration may, in general, result
from mere sporophore production. It is to be expected, perhaps, that
any and all colls of the sporoj^hore may be invigorated by whatever
is to be gained by the assemblage, or concentration, in the ditferen-

NUTRITION. 23

tiated sporophore, of food products collected by a ramifying myce-
lium. According to the studies of Harper," Maire,'' and others, there
is no sexual fusion in the case of the Basidiomycetes which have been
studied. Tayo nuclei are present in the cells of the sporophore, but
these are associated conjugate nuclei, and the fusion of these in the
basidium is generally considered in no sense an act of fertilization,
but rather a form of nuclear reduction. Maire states that the cells of
the mycelium obtained by the germination of the basidiospore are
uninucleate. It has not yet been ascertained when or how the binu-
cleate condition arises.

NUTRITION.

Although Agaricus eampestris has been cultivated for so long a
time, it does not seem that it has previously been subjected to careful
experimentation from the point of view of nutrition. The belief
generally prevalent is that the most essential factor in the nutrition
of the mushroom is the " ammonia " of the manure or compost.
Again, it is claimed that organic Avaste products, such as those indi-
cated, must undergo a process of fermentation, or " preparation,"
in order to furnish the necessary nutrients for the growing mycelium.
This idea, as will be seen later, is merely based upon casual observa-
tions " in nature," and it is found wholly erroneous when tested for
its fundamental worth by the elimination of other factors of the com-
post environment.

Growth on manure and other complex media. — Early in this inves-
tigation it was ascertained that the mycelium of Agaricus eampestris
in pure cultures would grow luxuriantly on fresh stable manure, and
as a rule upon the same product in any stage of fermentation or
decomposition. In some instances, undoubtedly, fresh manure may
contain injurious compounds; somewhat oftener the same is true for
the fermented product. In some instances it is desirable to dry or
thoroughly air the fresh manure before use. Fresh manure from
grass-fed animals is not to be recommended. The mycelium also
grows luxuriantly on bean stems or pods, on half-rotted leaves of
deciduous trees, on rich soil, on well-rotted sawdust, and on a variety
of other substances. It does not grow readily upon peaty products.

Some of the more promising edible species were cultivated in
various media in order to obtain an idea of the comparative value of
these media in furnishing a nutrient to particular forms. It is not
possible, of course, to base definite conclusions upon results obtained

« Harper, R. A. Binucleate cells in certain Ilymenomycetes. Bot. Gaz.,
83: 1-2.3. 1902.

^ INIaire, R. Recherches cytologiques et taxonomiqiies sur les Basidiomycetes.
Bui. Soc. Myc. de France, 18 : 1-209. 1902.

24 MUSHKOOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

from pure cultures, since the presence of particular foreign organisms
in the substratum under natural conditions is perhaps quite as im-
portant a consideration as that of the specific nutrient value of the
substratum. The following results are, however, suggestive :

1. Agaric-US campestris.

Leaves — good groAvth throughout.

f},o\\ — fair growth, with tendency to become threaded early.

Manure — good growth tliroughout.

Beans — good growth throughout.

Sugar beet — fair grox^tli. spreading very slowly.

Potato — slight growth, spreading very slowly.

Corn meal — slight growth, spreading slowly, soon becoming brown.

2. Agaricus fabaceus.

I^ea^es — very good growth, rapidly filling tube.
Soil — good growth, but slower than the above.
Manure — good growth, but slower than the above.
Beans — very dense growth, soon filling whole tube.

Sugar beet — good growth : somewhat less rapid and abundant than the
above.

3. Agaricus villaticus.

Practically the same as Agarirus campestris.

4. Agaricus fabaceus var.

Practiciilly the same as Agaricus fabaceus.

5. Bovistella ohiensis.

Leaves — good growth throughout.
Soil — growth throughout, but sparse and threadlike.
Manure — good growth throughout.
Beans — good growth ; appressed.
Sugar beet — very slight growth.
G. Calvatia cyathiforme.

Leaves — very good growth throughout.
Soil — good growth ; quite as rapid as above.
Manure — practically no growth.
Beans — good growth, but spreads very slowly.
Sugar beet — slight growth.

7. Calvatia craniiformis.

Practically the same as above.

8. Calvatia rubro-flava.

Practically the same as in the other species of this genus, but spreads
somewhat more slowly on soil. '

9. Coprinus atramentarius.

Leaves — very good growth throughout.
Soil — slight growth.
Manure — fair growth, but very slow.
Beans — very good growth.
10. Coprinus comatus.

Leaves — very good growth throughout ; rai>id.
Soil — good growth.

Manure — very good growth throughout ; rapid.
Beans — very good growth throughout; rapid.
Sugar beet — very slow growth.

NUTRITION. 25

11. Lepiota rhaeodes.

Leaves — very siood growth.

Soil — slight growth.

Manure — slight growth.

Beans — very good growth throughout.

Sugar beet — very good growth throughout.

12. Morehella esculenta.

Leaves — very good growth ; mycelium never dense.

Soil — very little growth.

Manure — very slight growth.

Beans — very good growth.

Sugar beet — good growth, l»ut slower than above.

13. rieurotus ostreatus.

Leaves — very good growth ; rapid.

Soil — fair growth.

Manure — good growth.

Beans — very good growth ; rapid.

Sugar beet — slight growth ; very slow.

14. Pleurotus ulmarius.

Practically the same as Pleurotus o.streatus.

15. Polyporus sulphureus.

Leaves — fair growth: al)un(lant, tilling tube.
Soil — fair growth.

Manure — fair growth, but very slow.
Beans — very good growth, rapidly tilling tube.

Sugar beet— fair growth; much lighter mycelium than the above, with
prompt oidial development.
IC. Tricholoma personatum.

Leaves — very good growth throughout.
Soil — very good growth throughout.
Manure — growth slow, but eventually good.
Beans — good growth throughout.

Plates II, III, and IV show some of the more important of these
species.

Taking into consideration the variable qnality of the stable manure
which may be obtained at all seasons, the value of half-rotted decid-
uous leaves as a substratum for Basidiomycetes is worthy of special
emphasis. The writer has found such material more readily sterilized
than manure, and usually more prompt than the latter to give growth.

In order to test in pure cultures the probable effect of fertilizers
as indicated by any marked increase in the rapidity of growth of the
mycelium, experiments were made by adding a small quantity of
ordinary nutrient salts to test tubes containing manure. A chlorid
and a nitrate of the following salts were employed, viz, ammonium,
calcium, magnesium, and potassium. In addition, dibasic potassium
phosphate and also sodium chlorid, as Avell as control cultures, were
used. Three tubes were employed with each of the compounds men-
tioned. There was no marked difference in the amount or rapidity
of the growth noted, as found by comparing the averages of growth.

26

MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

It seemed possible, however, that some slight advantage resulted from
the calcium compounds, but there was no pronounced benefit in any
tube. Further reference is made to the use of nutrient salts in mush-
room growing in another chapter.

Growth on chemically known media. — In an attempt to determine
somewhat more accurately the value of different compounds as
nutrients, particularly carbohydrate and nitrogenous substances, sev-
eral series of extensive tests have been made with Agaricus camfes-
tris, and also with Agcmcus fahaceus and Goprinus comatns. These
fungi do not grow readily in liquid media, and it has been difficult
to obtain a wholly reliable and satisfactory substratum, one which
would itself be practically pure, or well known, chemically, and at
the same time effective for its purpose. After unsatisfactory at-
tempts with various gelatinous solid media, with charcoal, etc., it was
decided that the commercial gray filter paper had more to recom-
mend it than any other substance suggested. Accordingly, all ex-
periments were made in Erlenmeyer flasks of 150 c. c. capacity, and
in each flask was placed about 6 grams of this paper wadded into
pellets. The latter was moistened in each case with the nutrient
solution used. The flasks were subsequently sterilized in the auto-
clave and then inoculated with a very minute fragment of straw
with the fresh mycelium from a pure culture on manure.

Tabulation of special results. — In the following tables are given
the results of two out of several series of experiments, which have
been conducted in order to throw some light on the point just dis-
cussed. These tables include, also, many cultures on media of un-
known composition. ^

Table V. — Results of f/rowth on iiirdia — First series of experiments.

No.

Medium.

Extent of growth.

la

lb

2a

2b

3a

3b

4a

4b

5a

5b

6a

6b

7a

7b

8a

8b

Oa

9b

10a

10b

11a

lib

12a

12b

13a

13b

JDt. HoO -

[solution A -- - -

[■Solution A and cane sugar, li per cent

■Cane sugar, l.j per cent :

[solution A and lactose, IJ^ per cent _ - - .

[Lactose, li per cent _

[solution A and glycerin, IJ per cent

[Glycerin, 1^ percent

[solution A and starch paste, i per cent .

[starch paste, i per cent

[Solution A and starch, i per cent, and diastase, trace

[starch, i per cent, and diastase, trace

I [solution A and dextrose, li per cent

/Very slight,
t Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

fFair growth
1 Do.

Do.

Do.

/Contaminated, discarded.
\Fair.
/Good,
t Do.
J Very slight.
iGood.

NUTRITIOlSr. 27

Table V. — Results of groicth on media — First series of experiments — Continued.

Medium.

>Dextrose, 1^ per cent

J-Solution A and mannite, 14^ per cent.

[■Mannite, li per cent

(Solution A and maltose, li per cent.

[■Maltose, l.i per cent

[•Sohition A and potassium tartrate, i per cent.

Potassium tartrate, i per cent _ _ _

[solution A and magnesium tartrate, i per cent

[Magnesium tartrate, ^ per cent

Solution A and ammonium tartrate, i per cent

[Ammonium tartrate, i per cent

[solution A and potassium lactate, I per cent

[Potassium lactate, i per cent _.

[Solution A and magnesium lactate, f per cent

Magnesium lactate, | per cent

i Solution A and ammonium lactate, l per cent
Ammonium lactate, i per cent

[solution A and calcium hippurate, I per cent

[Calcium hippurate. I per cent

[solution A and asparagin, ^ per cent - -

[Asparagin, I per cent

[solution A and peptone, i per cent

[Peptone, i per cent _ __

[Solution A and casein, i per cent

[Casein, i per cent ...J

[solution A and pepsin, ^ per cent

[Pepsin. i per cent._

[solution B

i Solution B and asparagin, } per cent
Solution B and peptone, i per cent

[Solution B and casein, I per cent

[solution B and pepsin, I per cent

Bouillon _ . .

[Bean decoction _ _ _

•Beet decoction _

^Manure decoction

[Manure _ .

Wheat straw

[Solution A and wheat straw

[solution B and wheat straw

[Solution B and NH4NO;j and cane sugar

[■Solution B and cane sugar and Ca(N03)o, i per cent.

Extent of growth.

fFa

/Slight,
t Do.

Very slight.

Lost.

{Contaminated with Asper-
gillus. Fair growth, yel-
lowish in color.
/Fair.
1 Do.
fSlight.
t Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Slight to fair.
/Slight.
1 Do.

Do.

Do.
air to good.

Do.
/Slight.
1 Do.
f V ery good.
1 Do.
fSlight.
i Do.
- Do.

Do.
f Do.
\ Do.
[Good.
1 Do.
(Very slight.

Do.
/Very good.
\ Do.
/ Do.
t Do.
(Slight to fair.
1 Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
/Slight.

Do.
/Very slight.
1 Do.
/Very good.

t 1)0.

/Culture lost.

t Do.

) Slight to fair.

\ Do.

/Very good.

\ Do.

/Good to very good.

t Do.

fVery good.

/ Do!
1 Do.
Lost.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

/Slight to fair.
I Do.
fVery slight.

28 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

Table V. — Results of (jroivth on media — First scries of experiments — Continued.

No.

56a

56b
57a
5Tb
58a
58b
59a
59b
60a
60b
61a
61b
62a
62b

Medium.

Extent of growth.

[solution B and sugar and MgCNOa)™, i per cent | ^^Jo.^^

ISolution B and sugar and NH4CI, i per cent | j-)q

jsolution B and NH4NO3, J per cent ..-.| yk>[

jsolution B and Ca(N03)2, i per cent ^j -q^'

Isolution B and Mg(N03)2, A per cent { q";

1„ , . T, J -vTTT ^1 , 4. i/Sligbt tofair

[Solution Band NH4CI, i percent - - - 1 ^p^

iMushroom decoction ' |

Do.
Do.

Table A"I. — Results of growth on media — Second series of experiments.

No.

la
lb
2a
2b
3a
3b
4a
4b
5a
5b

Medium.

7a

7b

8a

8b

9a

9b

10a

10b

11a

lib

12a

12b

13a

13b

14a

14b

15a

15b

16a

16b

17a

17b

18a

18b

19a

19b

20a

20b

21a

21b

22a

23a

23b

24a

24b

25a

25b

26a

26b

27a

27b

28a

28b

29a

29b

[■Fresh horse manure (grass-fed animals)

JFresh horse manure, thoroughly washed, residue only used..

[Filtrate, or liquid resulting from washing No. 2

[Decoction of fresh horse manure, as in No. 1 —

[Fermented horse manure, thoroughly washed

^^ [Filtrate or washing from No. 5

[Rotted stable manure - -

[Decoction of green timothy hay -

[Residue from decoction in No. 8... -

[strong bean juice.

[ Weak bean juice --

[strong decoction of mushrooms

lone-half strength decoction of mushrooms

Iweak decoction of mushrooms -

Oat straw - -- ---

Wheat straw

[Corn meal..

H gram cane sugar in 25 c.c. solution A.

U gram milk sugar in 25 c.c. solution A

\i gram galactose in 25 c.c. solution A

U gram cornstarch in 25 c. c. solution A

i^ strength albumen (egg)

U gram glucose in 25 c. c. solution A

[j^ gram dextrose in 25 c. c. solution A -.

[i gram mannite in 25 c. c. solution A

il gram glycogen in 25 c. c. solution A
i gram maltose in 25 c. c. solution A.

[j gram levulose in 25 c. c. solution A.

[i gram glycerin in 25 c. c. solution A

Extent of growth.

1^

/None.

tsiight.

/Contaminated.

\Good.

/Good.

tContaminated.

/Fair.

1 Do.

/Very good.

\ Do.

/Slight.

\ Do.

(Good.

t Contaminated.

/Good.

t Do.

/None.

t Do.

/Slight.

\Contaminated.

[Good.

Do.
/Slight.

Do.
/Slight.

/Contaminated.
/Slight,
t Do.
/Contaminated.
/Slight.
[Good.

Do.
(Fair.

Do.
/Slight.
/Confined to nocules.

Do.
Slight throughout.

Do.
Slight, but contaminated.
/Slight at top.
/Lost.

Confined to nocules.
(Slight at top.
/ Do.
[Fair throughout.

Do.
/Fair.

/Contaminated,
j Slight; contaminated.
/Fair.

/Slight at top.
/ Do.
/Slight,
/slight at top.

Confined to nocules.

NUTRITION. 29

Table VI. — Results of groicth on media— Second series of experiments — Cont'd.

No.

Medium.

Extent of growth.

30a
30b
31a
31b
32a
32b
33a
:«b
34a
34b
35a
Sjb
36a
36b
37a
37b
38a
38b
39a
39b
40a
40b
41a
41b
42a
42b
43a
43b
44a
44b
45a
46b
46a
46b
47a
47b
48a
48b
49a
49b
60a
50b
51a
51b
52a
52b
53a
53b
54a
54b
56a
55b
56a
56b
57a
57b
58a
58b
59a
59b
60a
60b
61a
61b
62a
62b
63a
63b
64a
64b

65a
B5b

66a
66b
67a
67b
68a
68b

I >i gram potassium tartrate in 35 c. c;. solution A

H gram magnesium tartrate in 26 c. c. solution A

j h: gram potassium lactate in 25 c. c. solution A

h gram potassium lactophosphate in 25 c. c. solution A.

H gram magnesium citrate in 25 c. c. solution A

>i gram magnesium malate in 26 c. c. solution A _

H gram calcium hippurate in 25 c. c. solution A . _

H gram asparagin in solution A

Hgram urea in solution A.

H gram peptone in sohition A

>i gram casein in solution A -_.

U gram benzoic acid in solution A

^i gram benzoic acid in solution A

[■Solution A _ _ .-.

[■Solution B -.-

|DistilledHO ..-

^Decoction from productive old bed._. _

j-Oak sawdust, only slightly rotted

[Gluten meal and water

>Cotton-seed meal and water _

[■Cotton-seed meal

H gram asparagin in solution B

>i gram asparagin in solution B 1. _.

\l gram urea in solution B

>i gram urea in solution B

>i gram urea in solution B

H gram peptone in 25 c. c. solution B.

H gram peptone in 25 c. c. solution B

>i gram peptone in 25 c. c. solution B

H gram peptone and I'g gram NaNOs in solution B.

H gram casein in 25 c. c. solution B

1 >i gram casein in 25 c. c. solution B . _

[i'b gram casein in 26 c. c. solution B . -

[j strength albumen (egg) -.

[oil meal and water _

White pine shavings - _

"White pine shavings with bean decoction.

Asbestos with bean decoction.

Old flake spawn

fVeryslight; contaminated.
1 Do.
Confined to nocules.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Slight at top.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Good top.

Do.
Slight.

Do.
Confined to nocules.

Do.
Fair at top.

Do.
Fair throughout.

Do.
None.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Confined to nocules.

Do.

Do.

Do.
f Do.
1 Do.
[Fair throughout.

Do.
Confined to nocules.

Do.
Good throughout.

Do.
/Contaminated .

Do.
SUght at top.
Contaminated.
Slight at top.

Do.
Fair.

Do.
None.

Do.
Slight at top.

Do.
Slight throughout.

Do.
Slight at top.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Fair at top.

Do.
Fair throughout.
Slight.
/Very slight.

Fair at top.
Slight at top.
Fair throughout.

Do.
Slight at top.

Do.
Good throughout.

Do.

Very small area, but copi-
'. ous.
[ Do.
f Do.
[ Do.

FDuflned to nocules.
Do.
ery good.

30 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

It is not possible here to enter into a detailed discussion of the
results, but attention is directed to the fact that under ordinary con-
ditions Agarictis campestris does not give a copious growth when
nitrogen is furnished from an inorganic salt and carbon in the form
of the well-known sugars. Calcium hippurate in a solution of the
necessary salts has almost invariably given better growth than other
organic salts and carbohydrates. In general, casein has been a better
source of carbon, or of carbon and nitrogen, than other proteids.

When the manure is of good quality it furnishes, in pure cultures,
a source of necessary nutrients, whether fresh or fermented, whether
as a decoction or an infusion (a cold aqueous extract).

Acid and alkaline me^ia.— Manure which has undergone fermenta-
tion for a few weeks is usually slightly acid in reaction. Under
certain conditions of fermentation the acidity is increased, and this
is probably an important factor in making the manure from animals
fed with green foods less valuable for mushroom work. Some acid
tests were made of beds which had failed to yield satisfactory results,
and in many instances it was found that the acid content was much
above the normal. A small series of experiments was therefore
instituted to determine the relative amount of acidity or of alkalinity
most favorable for the growth of the spawn under pure-culture con-
ditions. In this test there were also included several other edible
funffi, the results of all of which are included in the table below.
These experiments were made in large test tubes, and in such a test
it was impracticable to determine absolute acidity or alkalinity, and
from the results only a rough qualitative comparison could be antici-
pated. Potassium hydrate and lactic acid were used as reagents.
The duration of the experiments was one month, and duplicate cul-
tures were used in every instance.

Although the results are not wholly uniform, it may be inferred
that in the case of Agaricus campestris a marked acidity of the
medium would be unfortunate; Calvatia cyathiforme^ on the other
hand, seems to have grown somewhat better, in general, in the more
acid media ; Coprinus eomatus grows under a wdder range of condi-
tions; and Coprinus atramentarius, in this instance, thrives in an
alkaline medium. Further tests on a quantitative basis are required
before definite conclusions may be drawn. This matter will also
receive further attention when facilities are at hand for undertaking
to better advantage than has yet been possible the practical growing
of the other species, besides Agaricus campestris^ included in this test.

TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE.

31

Table VII. — Resulfi^ of tc-stx of acUJity and aJkaUnUij.

Medium.

4 drops EHO

•2 drops KHO
1 drop KHO .

Control

Nature of

stable
compost.

[Fresh ..

Rotted -

fFresh ..

JRotted .
(Fresh ..
iRotted .
Fre&h ..

Extent of growth.

Agaricus
campestris.

Calvatia cya-
thiforme.

Very slight

Slight do

Very slight .

1 drop acid-

iRotted .
2dropsacid_ :{^^;

1 good, 1

fair.
Very good .

Good

Very good .
1 very good,

1 fair.
Very slight

1 contami-
nated. ]
very good

Very slight

do

do

1 none , 1
slight.

None...

Very slight . .

None

1 good, 1 none

Contamina-
ted.

1 slight, 1
good.

Very slight . .

do

Very good . . .

Coprinus CO- ICoprinusatra-
matus. mentarius.

Slight..,— ..

Very slight..

1 very good, 1

excellent.
Very good . . .

Excellent

do

do

None

Excellent .

do.

.....do.
None..

1 good, 1 very
slight.

Contamina-
ted.

Very slight.

Good

Very good.
Excellent.
Very slight.

None.

Very slight.

Do.
Do.
Do.

TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE.

P The temperature factor is, next to that of good spawn, perhaps the
most important in mushroom growing. It has been frequently
stated that mushroom growing is not profitable when the temperature
may not be maintained more or less continuously at from 50° to 00° F.
It is very probable that the exact temperature which may be con-
sidered an optimum will vary somewhat in different sections of
the country. It will be noted later in detail that tlie temperature
factor acts not so directly upon the growth of the spawn or the produc-
tion of mushrooms as indirectly to render some other conditions of the
environment injurious. It is best to consider that in practice the op-
timum temperature for mushroom growing varies from 53° to 58° F.
When the matter of temperature was first under consideration,
a series of pure cultures of Agaricus caifnpeHtrh was placed at
diii'erent temperatures in the laboratory in order to determine the
rapidity of growth. It was soon found that a temperature above
60° F. and, indeed, as high as from 80° to 85° F., was much more
favorable to rapid growth than a lower temperature, provided,
of course, that the higher temperature did not encourage a too
rapid drying out of the culture. It was soon dehnitely ascer-
tained that the conditions of pure-culture growth are essentially
different from those attending the growth of mushroom spawn in
the bed. This was perhaps best indicated by comparing spawn
grown in j)ots at 85° F. under impure conditions with similai'
spawn grown at 50° F. At the former temperature, even though
the conditions of moisture were properly maintained, there was
little or no growth. Foreign fungi, molds, and bacteria, as well
as insects, were, however, abundant. At the lower tem])erature there
was little or no evident appearance of other fungi, molds, or insects;
G829— No. 85—05 M 3

32 MUSHEOOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

yet the mushroom spawn grows slowly and continuously so long as
other conditions are maintained. From numerous experiments of
this nature it is apparent that the temperature relation is one Avhich
is governed by the competition to which the nmshroom spawn is sub-
ject in the bed. This is, of course, wholly in accord with the results
obtained from the study of the relative groAvth made by mushroom
spawn in fresh and composted manures.

The statement previously made, therefore, that the optimum tem-
perature may vary slightly in different localities is true on account of
the fact that the mites, insects, and other animal pests of mushroom^
growing may vary considerably in different localities, or under dif-
ferent conditions, even though there nuiy not be a great variation,
perhaps, in the bacterial and fungus flora of the compost uj^on
which the mushrooms are grown. Certain insects, for example, are
more abundant in a moist climate, but if special precautions can be
taken to eliminate all such pests, the growth problem is confined to
the interrelation existing between the nmshroom spawn and the
microscopic flora of the compost. ^lushrooms grown in the open
will probably show greater variation with reference to the tem-
perature factor than those grown in caves or cellars.

AAliile a number of interesting problems would be presented by a
study of the interrelation of the mushroom mycelium with that of
other microscopic fungi i)resent in the compost, these are matters of
detail ; and it has been .Avholly impossible thus far to give any atten-
tion to suggestions which ha^-e been furnished by the experimental
data. It may be possible that other species of mushrooms are more
independent of insects and other microscopic fungi, and such fungi
may therefore be more suitable for cultivation at high temperatures
than is Agaricus campestn.s or any of its close allies. A considerable
effort is being made to obtain spawn of certain species of Agaricus,
and also of other edible mushrooms which make their appearance
during the warm weather. At this time, however, it is not possible
to say Avhat results of value may be anticipated from this line of
work.

The direct effect of a temperature above the optimum upon the spo-
rophores is manifest through lengthening of the stipes and rai)id
expansion of the caps, ordinarily accompanied by toughness and
decreased size. In other words, the lower grade market product is
produced at the higher temperature.

The moisture factor is also one of importance. It is undesiralile
that the place in which mushrooms are grown should be very damp,
or dripping with water. Nevertheless, a fairly moist condition of
the atmosphere should be maintaii^ed throughout the growing and
productive pei-iod. There should b.> grr.dual but slight eva])oration
from the surface of the beds, and sufficient ventilation to insure this

^i

PREPARATION OF THE COMPOST. 33

is believed to he essential. It is certain that in ]j()orly ventilated
caves nuishrooms do not sncceed. On the other hand, in a dry
atmosphere, oi- exposed to drying winds, mushroom beds soon cease
to bear, while such sporophores as are developing may have their
caps cracked and torn.

jNIushrooms are grown in cellars, caves, or specially constructed
houses largely on account of the fact that temperature and moisture
are then practically under control. The nature of the structure or
cellar Avhicli is constructed for mushroom grooving must be deter-
mined, therefore, not merely by its expense, but by the etfectiveness
of the structure in regulating the factors indicated under the par-
ticular climatic conditions.

It is not possible at this time to discuss cellar or house construc-
tion, and the accompanying illustration of nnishroom houses (Plate
VI, fig. 1) must suffice to give an idea of the types which are in use,

PREPARATION OF THE COMPOST.

It is not to be understood that there is one and only one method of
preparing compost for nnishroom growing. Nor is it always neces-
sary that the compost shall be in one particular stage of fermenta-
tion or deca3\ In fact, every change of condition elsewhere may
necessitate a similar change in the amount of fermentation wdiich
may,^ be most desirable. At the outset it should be understood that
it is not the '' fermentation " which is absolutely essential." The

o Kepin, 1. e. (See translation in The Garden (London). February 5. 1898.
Special repi-int. pp. 10-lH.) Here it is stated that "manure is rendered capa-
ble of supplying nutriment suitable for nuishrooms only by means of fermenta-
tion ; " further, that " all the higher orders of nuishrooms, the spores of which
I have succeeded in causing to germinate. Jiave a sterile spawn of a similar
natui-e." Again, the conelusion is expressed somewhat indefinitely that manure
is '■ rendered suitable " by means of c-hemical conibustion, which is said to
proceed rapidly only at a temperature above 178° F. : that it is not the soluble
substances in the manure which are valuable, but rather the cellulose matter,
together with the necessary salts.

In this connection it is of Interest to note that the material constituting many
of the beds in the experimental cellar at Columbia. INIo.. were fermented at
comparatively low temperatures. A complete temperature record was kept of
IS small compost piles in which special kinds of manure were i)repared,
and in only one instance was the temperature in any pile more than 140° F.
In some cases 120° F. was the maximum attained.

Repin imjdies that mushrooms will not grow in maiiui'c until there lias i)eeu
effected " the destruction of all the soluble organic matters, which disappear
through the agency of bacteria or are consumed in the process of oxidation."
\'ery simple nutrition exi)eriments clearly demonstrate that these conclusions
are erroneous.

It may be stated, however, that peculiarities appear when the fresh manure
contains certain comi)ounds which render it injurious; for example, the my-
celium does not grow readily in pure culture ui)on fresh manure from animals
fed almost wholly on green forage. Sucli manure is improved by fermentation.

34 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

'' fermentation " is of itself a minor matter. In j)ure ciiltnres, Avhere
sterile media are employed, mushroom, spawn starts slowly, but
finally grows best, in general, upon fresh (wholly unfermented)
manure. It grows least well. or. rather, less densely, so far as tested,
on very well fermented manure. This certainly indicates that it is
not fermentation Avhich is ordinarily advantageous. In practical
nnishroom growing, however, it is not possible to deal with ])ure cul-
tures; and, therefore, other conditions of the environment must be
correspondingly changed. The rapid oxidation action of bacteria,
and perhaps of independent ferments, upon manure causes a consid-
erable rise of temj^erature. At the higher temperatures (which
uuiy be maintained as long as there are present rapidly oxidizable
food products) bacterial action is vigorous, and is unquestionably
injurious to mycelial development. Wholly aside from the rise of
temperature accompanying their activities, bacteria are otherwise
injurious. In fact, manure which is ])ut to ferment in a small test
tube shows little or no rise of temperature above that of the place in
which it is incubated. Nevertheless, the mycelium of the mush-
room will not grow under such conditions. Rapid bacterial action
is therefore i)rejudicial. Under those conditions where bacterial
action is not rapid, fresh manure might be used to advantage; in
other words, if the beds are so constructed that the manure ferments
very gradually, without either excessive bacterial action or rise of tem-
perature, then spawning might be made in fresh manure.

The old belief that rotten manure does not have the necessary
strength — that is. does iu)t produce so ^'igoro^ls a mushroom growth
as that which has been less transformed V)y bacterial action — has been
confirmed by practical experiments. This loss of effectiveness is
probably due, in part, to a change in texture or to other physical
changes. In well-rotted manure there is am])le food material to sup-
port a very good growth of mycelium in i)ure cultures. This has
been chemically proved by sterilizing such manure and growing mush-
room spawn upon it in pure culture. Nevertheless, by comparing
(in Table VIII) No. 12 with Nos. 13, 14, and 15, it will be seen that
beds prepared with well-fermented manure and left foi- some time
before si)awning do not yield so well. It is believed that here the
physical condition has nnich to do Avitli the result.

The latter does not by any means invalidate the following practice,
which has commended itself to some veiy successful growers: The
maiHire is piled in very large compost heaps, where it is kei)t moist
and is turned only once or twice. It ferments very slowly. Then it
is carted into the cave, or mushroom house, long before it could be
considered in ]>roi)er condition to be s})awned. The l)eds ( usually
flat when this is the procedure) are made immediately. -These are
fairly well moistened and com2)ressed, then left to undergo a gradual

PREPARATION OP TTTK COMPOST, 35

fermentation, which may require a month. When (lio manure shows
a tendency to fall to the temperature of the room it is spawned.
Meanwhile, it will doubtless be found that a heayy cro]) of some
small species of Coprinus will ha ye appeared. The presence of this
funo'us is not injurious, but rather it may be taken as an indication
that the conditions are fayorable.

Ordinarily the manure is obtained as fresh as possible. It should
include the straAV used in bedding the animals, and the quality of the
straw will determine to some extent the yalue of the manure. The
straw of cereals is far better than that of most other grasses. The
more resistant straws seem greatly to improye the texture of the com-
post for mushroom purjDoses. Commercially it is a mistake to
attemi)t to get the manure free from straw. If fresh manure is not
obtainable, that which has been trampled by the animals is ordinarily
rich, well preseryed, and desiral)le. It ferments l)est in large piles,
and these may be of considerable extent, about 3 or 1 feet deep
throughout. If not uniformly moist the material should be sprink-
led. At no time is a yery heayy wateriniJ: desirable. In from four
days to a weelv or more the compost should be turned, or forked oyer,
and a second turning will be required a week or ten days later.
Water should be added only when necessary to maintain a moist (but
not a wet) condition. With this amount of moisture, and with the
piles deep enough to become fairly compact as a result of their own
weight, there will be little danger of any injurious fermentation.
During the normal fermentation the temperature may rise highei-
than 150° F. In from fifteen to twenty-one days or more, depending
uj^on the conditions, the temperature yN'ill begin to fall, and the com-
post may be used in the construction of the beds. Allien used in the
beds, it has ordinarily lost all objectionable odor, and the color of the
straw has changed from yellow to brown. In figure 2 on Plate V
is shown a shed in which the manure is composted during the summer.

As stated in Farmers' Bulletin No. 204 :

It is the eustoiii with some growers to mix a small quantity of loam, about
one-fourth, with the manure. This enables one to use the manure earlier: and.
indeed, under such circumstances it may sometimes be used with ]»ut little or no
composting. Nevertheless, the niajoi-ity of growers have obtained gr(>ater suc-
cess by the use of the manure alone, and this is also the writer's experience,
yery well-rotted compost should not be used in nuishroom growing if large and
solid mushrooms are d(>sired. \yhen sawdust or shavings are employed for
liedding the animals, the comi)ostiiig iii.-iy require a somewbal longer ]iei-io(l.

It has been the experience of some of the most successful growei's
that the use of shayings for bedding material in the stables does not
injure the yalue of the product for mushroom work. The presence
of a lai'ge amount of saw^Iust is, howeyer, objectionable so fai- as the
writer's experience goes. Compost containing uuich sawdust is

86 MUSHEOOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

necessarily very "" short," und therefore the physical condition is not
the most favorable for Agarietis cara'pestris.

In another chapter attention is called to the fact that the value of
the manure depends to a considerable extent upon the feed ^iven the
animals. It would not be wise to depend upon that obtained from
stables in which hay and £>reen foods are used to too great an extent.
Moreover, it is not believed that compost made from the manure of
cattle barns is in mushroom growino" as desirable as stable manure.

In some cities the municipal ordinances require that the manury
shall be promptly removed from the feeding- stables or that it shall
be disinfected. In the latter case crude carbolic acid, or even cori-o-
sive sublimate, may be used to secure this end. Manure thus disin-
fected is, of course, undesirable for mushroom work. For the same
reason the manure of veterinary hospitals is of questionable value.

It is not wholly improbable that some other aa aste products of the
farm, field, and forest may be utilized in mushroom gi'owing: never-
theless, no such product has yet been found which, under the condi-
tions of the experiment, has yielded sufficiently to make it of special
interest in growing Agdricxs (■(iinpesfrh. Among the products which
have been tested, either alone or in conjunction with some commer-
cial fertilizer, are the following: Leaves of deciduous trees, needles of
conifers, sawdust, cotton-seed hulls, cotton seed, corn stover, sorghum
stover (or bagasse), rotten hay. sphagnuui. and yeddo fib^r. The
Avriter is convinced that greater profit may be anticipated, for the
present, at least, if the culture of Agarirus <(tmpeMriH is confined to
manure: and if other edible forms which grow in the woods are used
in l)eds of leaves, etc., as indicated elsewhere in these pages, it is quite
possible that such a fungus as Gopnnua comatus may be grown suc-
cessfully in this latter Avay. It may, however, be too much to hope
that the morel may also be thus made amenable to culture, although
leaf mold is in nature the favorite habitat of this fungus.

From the prompt and abundant growth of Agarhiix campestris on
half-rotted leaf mold in pure cultures, it was thought that mushrooms
might be grown to advantage upon this product. The practical
experiments made to test this point are distinctly discouraging, as
shown by reference to No. IT. Table VIII; Nos. 3 and 4. Table IX,
and Xo. 11. Table X.

For the most part manure may be composted in the open air. It
may, however, be prepared with greater uniformity under cover.
During midsununer. ]U'otection may be desirable on account of dry-
ing out, while in the winter it is more important in case of excessive
cold. If it is necessary to compost manure during the winter, more-
over, the piles should be of considerable depth.

INSTALLATION OF BEDS. 87

INSTALLATION OF BEDS.

In making the beds, as well as in other phases of mushroom work,
regard must he had for all environmental conditions. The type of
bed should be determined by convenience, and the size, to a cer-
tain extent, by the temperature to which the beds may be exposed.
The flat bed. frequently referred to as the English type, is more
commonly employed in the indoor work in England and America.
With this type merely the entire floor space may be utilized, as illus-
trated in the frontispiece, Plate I. or the beds may be arranged in
tiers of shelves. In figure 1 on Plate V a view may be had of the
supports for shelf beds in a large commercial houce. In this house
there is the greatest economy of space. The shelf system gives the
greatest amount of bed space and is certainly most economical where
the floor space is an important factor. Such beds do not require
great depth, but merely sufficient to insure an ample development of
spawn. They should be from 8 to 10 inches deep after being firmed
or compressed. s

The ridge-bsd system is employed almost exclusively m the caves
about Paris. This system is also in use in open-air culture. It may
be used to advantage in low cellars, caves, or houses when labor is
not too expensive. Ridge beds increase slightly the surface area and
permit of easy passage from one part of the cave to another. The
size of such beds in caves, or under other conditions where the tem-
perature remains practically uniform, should be not more than 2 feet
wide at the base and 15 inches high, tapering gradually to the top
when compressed. Slanting beds are commonly employed next to
the walls. Large beds are desirable under changeable open-air
conditions.

The prevalent opinion among amateurs that the bed should ahvays
be deep enough to maintain a considerable heat is believed to be erro-
neous. Grown under more or less uniform conditions, mushrooms
seem to require no bottom heat, and the bed should fall to the tem-
perature of the room some time after spawning. Bottom heat, and
hence large beds, are, however, desirable when sudden changes of
weather would so reduce the temperature of the bed as to delay
growth. Under similar conditions, as well as in dry air, mulching
may be required.

As previously stated by the writer in Farmers' Bulletin No. 204
of the Department of Agriculture —

111 any case, the manure is made up in the form of the bed desired and should
he finned, or fomiiressed. to some extent immediately, in order to prevent dry-
ing out and burning when the secondary fermentation takes place. At this time
the manure should be neither wet mir <lry. but merely iiinist. The only prac-
tical test of the proper moisture content of the manure which can l>e relied upon
is when, upon compression, water can not readily be squeezed out of it.

s

38 MUSHROOM GROWINO AND SPAWN MAKING.

SPAWNING AND CASING THE BEDS.

From what has been said concerning the temperature requirements,
it will be evident that spawn should not be inserted in the beds until
the temperature has fallen low enough to insure suc.cessful competi-
tion on the i^art of the mycelium with other organisms. In many
articles on mushroom growing it has been suggested that beds may be
s])awned when the temperature has fallen to about i)0° F. From
experience and observation, the writer can only conclude that such a
temperature is frequently fatal, and it is believed that the tempera-
ture of the beds should be permitted to fall to 70° F. before being
spawned. In fact, the most successful results have been obtained at
temperatures from 65° to 70° F. It was formerly believed that if
the spawn were inserted at 90° F. this higher temperature incited the
rather dormant mycelium to rapid and vigorous growth. It is clear,
however, that the rapid development of new^ mycelium from the pieces
of spawn brick inserted is not so important a factor as suitable
conditions for continued growth. If the temperature falls rapidly
from 90° F. after spawning, however, no injury may result. Never-
theless, it is to be considered an unfortunate condition.

The bricks of spawn may be broken into from ten to twelve pieces,
from 1^ to 2 inches square. These pieces may be inserted about 1
inch beneath the surface of the manure. In flat beds they may be
placed from 10 to 1'2 inches apart throughout the bed. and in ridge
beds the pieces should be inserted on each side alternately, one near the
top and the next near the bottom. It is well to insert the pieces
vertically, as the mycelium does not then seem so readily to suffer
damping otf. After spawning, the beds should again be firmed, and
they are then ready to be cased or loamed whenever this process may
seem most desirable. At the time of spawning the beds should be in
the best condition possible for the growth of the mycelium. Delay
in growth at this time is one of the surest indications of a light yield.
If the bed contains the proper amount of moisture, and if the walls
and floors of the house or cellar are sprinkled occasionally, so as to
maintain a moist condition of the atmosphere, it is possible to avoid
wholly the use of water upon the beds inunediately after spawning.
In no case should a bed recently sjiawned be heavily watered. The
surface may be sprinkled, if there is a tendency toward (h-ying out.
The same test for moisture content as has been outlined previously
in these pages in the chapter on i)reparinii- the manure should be
followed. The beds should become gradually somewhat drier, how-
ever, during the growth of the spawn.

■ The absolute water content for the bed at the time of spawning
should be about 40 i)er cent, although this will vary considerably,
according to the conditions, and especially with relation to the
quantity of straw in the manure.

MUSHROOM GROWING. 39

If the spawn grows rapidly at first and spreads throughout the bed,
it will not be injured by a slight drying out, or by a tenij^erature even
as low as ?>'2° F. On the other hand, a continuous high temperature
for several days, or excessive watering, is sure to result in an irrep-
arable injury. In several instances where the experimental beds of
the writer have been made during the late autumn, and Avhere a
^'igorous growth of spawn has been secured before the advent of the
coldest weather, the beds have remained unproductive throughout the
winter months, or so long as the temperature remained intermittently
below 40° or 50° F. With warmer weather, these beds have come
into bearing several months later, and where the temperature has then
remained favorable for some time a good yield has l^een obtained. In
this case, moreover, the ])ed will bear much longer at a temperature
of 60° F., or above, than if the temperature has been constantly in the
neighborhood of 60° F. throughout the growing season of the si:)awn.
As a rule, beds thus filled with spawn and then subjected for a time
to cold conditions yield at the outset much larger mushrooms than
beds exposed to a more constant temperature, even if this constant
temperature may be the optimum.

At any rate, the beds nuist be " cased ■' as soon as convenient after
the spawn is inserted. As a rule, one should wait from one to two
weeks in order to be sure that the spawn is growing. Casing consists
m applying to the bed a layer of loam from 1 to U inches deep. In
France the casing soil consists usually of calcareous earth, sometimes
mixed with loam. Ordinary loam of almost any quality will suffice.
This should l^e secured in advance, and it is well to protect it from the
Aveather, so that at a convenient time it may be worked over and, if
necessary, screened, in order to free it from large pebbles or trash.
When the loam is applied, it should, on ridge beds, be carefully
firmed. AMien cased a bed should require watering for the most part
merely to maintain a moist surface.

MUSHROOM GROWING.
EXPERIMENTS AT COLUMBIA, MO.

The practical experiments in mushroom growing which have been
undertaken at Co'lumbia, Mo., were designed, in the first place, to
determine the exact ertect of conditions upon the growth of mush-
rooms, and in the second place to test or immediately ai)ply the
results obtained or suggested by the laboratory work. The etfects
of temperature, moisture, etc., have already l)een discussed, and the
conclusions drawn have l)een based ui)on the most careful ()l)serva-
tions of the experimental beds, as well as upon the evidence which
has been obtained In* a personal study of the conditions in commer-
cial mushroom houses and caves both at home and aI)road. It is
needless to give in detail the record of all failures or of poor yields

40

MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING,

invariably obtained when the conditions were nnfavorable — that is,
when they were beyond the limits which have been more or less
definitely stated as requisite. On the other hand, the results which
are pven do not represent the best yields obtained; they are those
which seem to be most instructive.

The experimental work has been seriously handicapped in one par-
ticular. With only one set of experiments (those recorded in Table
VIII) has it been possible to maintain a temperature constantly
between 50° and 60° F. Unfortunately a north basement room
which gave those results during the winter of 1903-4 has not since
been available for the work. The results are, however, comparative
when not absolute.

The results given in Table VIII are referred to in various parts
of this bulletin. Attention should be directed to the fact that many
of these beds were yielding well when the experiment was neces-
sarily closed to make room for a second series of experiments
planned during the same winter. Beds Nos. 6, 9, 13, 25, and 40, for
instance, each yielded between 8 and 15 ounces the clay the experi-
ment was closed, while beds Nos. 2, 10, 14, 23, 26, 30, and 37 each
yielded 1 jDOund or more on the same day.

It is to be noted that a considerable number of beds in this series
produced more than 1 pound per square foot, and some nearly
2 pounds for a similar area. It is certain that some beds would
have yielded more than 2 pounds if they could have been per-
mitted to produce longer.

Table VIII. — Yields of experimental mushroom heds.

ft

a

8

9

10

11
12

Material used in
the bed.

F ermented
horse manure.

do

do

..do.
..do.
..do.

..do.

.do.
.do.
.do.

do

Fermented
horse manure
(bed left for 2
months before
beingspawned)

Source of the spawn.

Alaska, old .

market

Old American made

English, current year

product.

English, 2 years old

English, 1 year old..

Alaska, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture.
Bohemia, U. S. Department of

Agriculture.
Mixed varieties, U. S. Department

of Agriculture.
Bohemia. U. S. Department of

Agriculture, light spawning.
Bohemia. U. S. Department of

Agriculture, heavy spawning.

Agaric us (imi/gdalinHs, old .■

Bohemia, U. S. Department of

Agriculture.

o

ftod

pi

m

27

104
51

.51
53
51

68
46

61

47
48
78
102
71

!3

o
o
a
zn

tn ■

O) CO

;;' K*i
pins

2

53 54

20

7

17
34

65

tc

03

m a

OS
•S ft

107

20

7

0

0

115

65

112

102

136

0
5

m
ft

0)
S)

m

u
<a
ft

ai .

o O

a o

O <E

9 ^

■" a*

m

2

6
6

6
6
6

5

6

6

6

6
6

18.0

3.6

1.0

0.0
0.0

18.8

13.0

18.6

17.0

22.6

0.0
0.8

MUSHROOM GROWING.

41

Table VIII. — Yields of exj^eri mental wKshroow beds— Continued.

,

■P ! t3

4i

;h

u

• <— 1

^ if

CC ■ CO
g . 1 01 .

* ^

ID

<D

IH

° a

ii

P.
-p

42

O O

C2 g

>>£

O-c , PITS

o ; Oo

o S

0)

a o

Material used in
the bed.

Source of the spawn.

°a

II

o to

^ a

•2" 1 .s""

m

-3

55

!?;

.1

&H

<

>^

13

Fermented

Bohemia, IT. S. Department of

49

110 50

160

6

27.7

horse manure.

Agriculture.

1

14

1 do

do ----

61

241

40

281 12

23.4

15

16
17

Leaf mold ...

do

dftlvcttici ct/(if hi f ovine

0 6

0.0

Bohemia, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

0 6

1

0.0

18

Fermented sta-
ble manure;
bed f aii'lycom-

Alaska, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture.

48

118

71

189 9

21.0

iq

pact.
FevTnPTited sta-

do ....

53

93

30

123

6

20.5

ble manm-e.

20

1

do

Bohemia, U. S. Department of
Agric-ulture.

48

101

39

140

6

23.3

21

do — .

Var.?, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture.

53

96

37

133

6

22.2

'»

do_

0

6

0.0

1 year old.

23

.do

American commercial, Bohemia...

53

111

53

164 8

20.5

24

do.

do

do

51
46

46
22

67
50

113

72

9
6

15.2

25

Bohemia, U. S. Department of

12.0

Agriculture. Lo'ose cakes; dried.

26

do

Bohemia, U. S. Department of
Agriculture. Watered freely
late.

49

74

75

159

6

26.6

27

do

Bohemia, U. S. Department of
Agriculture. Watered freely.

49

42

51

93

6

15.5

28

do

Bohemia, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

46

89

30

119

6

19.8

29

do

do

.55

90

0.-)

145

8

18.1

30

Fermented sta-
ble manure and
5 pounds cot-
tin-seed ineal.

do --

.51

129

146

275

9

30.5

31

Fermented sta-
ble manure.

0

6

0.0

32
33

. — -do

do

0

6

0.0

Bohemia, Americal commercial . _ .

42

70

32

102

6

17.0

34

do-_ -

Ala.ska, American commercial

46

.0

31

101

6

16.7

35

do

French, commei'cial flake

0

8

0.0

36

Fermented sta-
ble manvire and
CO tton-se e d
hulls.

Bohemia, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

53

47

96

143

9

15.9

37

Fermented sta-
ble m a n u r e :

do

61

104

6

17.3

bed heavily

38

compressed.
do

Var.y, U. !S. Deijartmeut of Agri-
culture.

Hi

.58

46

104

6

17.3

39

Fermented sta-
ble manure and
sphagnum.

do -

411

11

11

22

6

, 3.7

40

Fermented
sheep manure.

do --- --.-

.-)0

44

44

6

7.3

41

Fermented sta-

do

41 i

18

39

57

8

7.1

ble man VI re,

cotton-seed

hulls, and cot-

'

ton-seed meal.

42

Fermented cot-
ton-seed hulls
and cotton-
seed meal.

Bohemia, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

.55

5

9

0.6

43

Manure mold

do '

2
0

6
6

43

Sod

Calvatid cyathiforme. Pure cul-
tures.

0.0

1

45

Old compost, left
2 months be-

Bohemia, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

.52

1

5

9

0.6

■

fore spawning.

1

42

MUSHROOM (iROWINCJ AND SPAWN MAKING.

The series of experiments outlined in Table IX followed directly
uj)on the series given in Table VIII. 'J'he beds in the first series
were made in midwinter, and as the manure had been well fermented
there was little or no rise of temperature after the beds were made.
The spawn was therefore inserted at an unusually low temperature.
Dnrino; thaws in the late winter there was considerable seepage
through the walls of the room. Some of the wall beds — Nos. 14 to
21 — were seriously damaged, but although beds Nos. 7 to 18 were
also wall beds seepage was not evident in this region. Within about
thirty days after vigorous mushroom production began in this series
the basement was flooded, and the work was therefore brought to an
abru])t close. The yield up to that time is given, however, since in
this series there are included many fertilizer tests.

Tahle IX. — Yields of cxperitnciitnl iiiiislirooni Jtcda in a north ixiftcinent room,

19(1.1,.

10

11

13

13

14a

1.5a

16«

17"

18a

19«

20a

2101

22

23

24

25
26
27
28
29
•M
31

32

33

Bedding material and fertilizer.

Spawn used.

Stable manure and cotton-seed

hulls.
do_

Leaf mold and stable manure _ . _ _ do

do --. - do

Stable manure and sphagnum 1 do

Stable manure and cotton-seed do

meal. I

do do

Stable manure, timothy fed do

Bohemia, U. S.
Agriculture,
do

Department of

do.
Stable manure, clover fed .

do

Stable manure, bran fed._.

do

Stable manure, corn fed.. .

do.-..

Stable manure, oats fed

do .-

Stable manure

do

.do.
.do.
.do.

Stable manure and complete fer-
tilizer: KCl, 1 ounce; KNOa, 1
ounce; bone meal, 7 ounces.

Stable manure and incomplete fer-
tilizer: NaNO:i, 1 ounce; bone
meal, 7 ounces.

Stable manure and NaCl, 2 ounces.

Stal)le manure and NaNO;;, 2ounces.

Stable manure and MgSOj, 2ounces.

Stable manure and KoS()4. bounces.

Stable manure and kainit, 4 ounces.

Stable manure and CaCL, 2 ounces.

Stable manure and Na.iHPO|, 2
ounces.

Stable manure and (NH4)-jS04, .".'
ounces.

Stable manure and NaNO.;, 1 ouiK-e;
kainit, 2 ounces.

.do.
.do.
_do.
-do.
-do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

.do.

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

.do.

.do.

■r, P.

48

48
48
48
61
61

66
73

66
54

71
68

80
71
66
71

68
48
64

CO

o

a

H

as

9i
38"
36

4
64

73
2
0
1
3

84
109

12
8
3

14

24

40

17

55

61

55

M

m

66

41

48

42

66

39

64

46

(!4

62

64

48

64

&5

54

41

(iK

:io

♦"51-1
®

51-1 u
O eS

S IB

6
6
6
6
6

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

a Some of the beds in this block— Nos. 14-21- were sciiously injured by .seepage water, and the
results are untrustworthy.

MUSHROOM GROWING.

43

Table IX.— Yields of experimental mushroom beds in a north basement room.

190^— Coutinned.

1^

34

35
36

38
39

40

41
42

43
44
45
46

47

4s

Bedding material and fertilizer.

Spawn used.

Stable manure,
-do.

Stable manure, lime dressing

Stable manure, ammonium molyb-
date, i ounce.

Stable manure, ZnNO;;, 1 gram

Stable manure _

do __

English commercial (ordered as

fresh*.
Spawn from bed in full beai'ing _ . .
Bohemia, U. S. Department of

Agriculture.
do .-.

CO .

cs a

(56

68

'6^

.do.

.do.
.do.

.do.

.do

.do.

Stable manure and sawdust .

Stable manure
...do

Ayarldis amygdaliruis

Bohemia, U. S. Department of

Agriculture.
English commercial (New York) .
Bohemia, U. S. Department of

Agriculture.

Spawn from old bearing bed _

Pleurufus ostreatus

English commercial (Philadelphia)
Bohemia, U. S. Department of

Agriculture.

Var.y, American commercial

Alaska, American commercial

64

64

48
64

84

12
8

(?)
(?)

4
33

0
0
0
0

60
22

•a ^

O (S

a 33

From the experiments given in the foregoing table further proof
is furnished of the fact that stable manure alone, when of good
quality, is sufficient for the growth of mushrooms. The addition
of nutrient salts as fertilizers has not, on an average, given any
marked increase in yield, but rather the contrary. It is hardly
possible that the quantity of salts used on the beds was too little to
make the effect felt. On the other hand, it was not sufficient to be
injurious. It is evident from the experiment in bed No. 29, for in-
stance, that the addition of 4 ounces of kainit could not have been
injurious. In some instances the results obtained by the use of fer-
tilizers Avere poorer than where the manure alone Avas used. This,
however, the writer believes to be due largely to differences in the
spawn used, or the differences in condition owing to the location of
the bed, for subsequent experiments with some of the salts Avhich
seemed to be either injurious or beneficial have not wholly confirmed
these results. It is to be noted, however, from the experiment in bed
Xo. (') of this series and also from bed \o. 30. in Table VIII, that the
beds treated with cotton-seed meal have invariably yielded somewhat
above the average. These beds do not come into bearing quite so raj)-
idlv as those in which manure alone is used. It is thought that tliis is
due to the fact that bacterial action is at the beginning more rapid in
beds containing cotton-s(>ed meal, and thai, consexiuently, when tliis
Avave of l)acterial growth lias ])assiMl the nutrition of the s|)a\vn is
favorably affected. Experiments had ah-eady indicated that inaiiui-e

44 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

from animals which were fed a poor diet, such, for instance, as
grass or hay alone, is much less valuable than where the animals are
well fed. The experiments in beds Nos. 10 to 2'2 Avere designed to
test the value of some different feeds. The writer was fortunate in'
being able to secure manure from work animals which were being
used in feeding tests where very difl'erent foods were employed.
Unfortunately, however, the mushroom beds were located next to a
basement wall, and in beds Nos, 14 to 21 the results were vitiated by
the fact that there was considerable seepage water in that region
during the thaAVs and heavy rains of the sj^ring. Nevertheless, it is
believed that the experiments in beds Nos. 8 to 13 are trustworthy.
.Vn attempt was made to check these residts by using some of this
manure in tube cultures, and it was found that the manure used in-
beds Nos. 8, 9, 10, and 11 particularly was unfavorable for the
groAvth of the mycelium even in the pure cultures.

On account of its stimulating action upon the spores of Agarieus
campestris a small quantity of ammonium molybdate was applied
to one bed. No. 37, in order to test its effect upon the growing-
mycelium. Moreover, since certain salts of zinc at considerable dilu-
tion have been found to increase greatly the (juantity of mycelium
produced by other fungi, zinc nitrate was employed in an adjacent
experiment. The results of these two tests were the same. There
Avas a profuse mycelial development and an abundant production of
small deformed sporophores.

Table X also summarizes a series of some interest. These beds were
spaAvned early in NoA^ember, 1904. Soon after the spaAvn began to
spread throughout the beds — about December 15 — the temperature
of the room fell to 40° F. From that time on until March 1, 1905,
the temperature Avas constantly beloAv 52°, and on seA^eral occasions
as loAV as 32° F. After Iavo or three Aveeks of Avarmer Aveather the
beds began to bear vigorously, and the nmshrooms, particularly the
first ones, Avere of unusual size and of excellent flaA'or. Numerous
individuals Aveighed from d to 8 ounces immediately after the se]:»a-
ration of the ring, and a fcAv mature specimens ranged from 10 to 14
ounces.

MUSHROOM GROWING. 45

Table X. — Yields of experimental mushroom beds — Third series.

Bed

No.

Material constitutiug bed.

Spawn used.

Compar-
ative
yield per
bed. in
ounces.

1

Stable manure

English commercial, 2 years old.

Columbia, "green" spawn, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture.

Poor grade English commercial, re-
cent importation.

Good grade English commercial, re-
cent importation.

Good grade English commercial, 6
months old.

American commercial

0

2

do -

70

3

do . ..-•

16

4

do --

49

5

do

40

6

do

57

7

do ---

do

34

8

do .-

do

54

9

. do

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Co-
lumbia.
do.

56

10

Rotted sawdust and stable manure

31

11

Leaves and stable manure

do

30

12

Sawdust

. .do

3

13

Leaves -

do

6

14
15

Stable manure

do...

American commercial, pi'obably J. ur-

vensis, var.
America.!!, A. villiitiriix

60
68

In some publications on mushroom gjrowing the claim is made that
old or practically exhausted beds may be brought into bearing again
by heavy fertilization Avith liquid manure or with a weak solution of
potassium nitrate. From a commercial point of view, no measurable
success has resulted from any trials of this nature made by the writer ;
consequently, it is believed that exhausted beds should be immediately
discarded. From the standpoint of mushroom sanitation, this is
also particularly desirable.

VARIABILITY IN 3IUSHR003IS GROAVN UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS.

The writer does not intend to discuss even in a general way the
relationships of the various forms of Agaricus — that is, those that
may be considered allies of A. ccmipeatr'Di — which he has cultivated or
studied in the field. Some reference to the variability of common
forms should, however, be made. For a comprehensive study of si)e-
cies and varieties, a knoAvledge of Furopean forms as well as of those
found in America is essential. Authors diU'er so widely in their
descriptions of species, as well as in their conce])tions of them, per-
haps, that in the absence of unlimited material nothing short of con-
fusion results from any attempt to harmonize opinions. It is suffi-
ciently difficult to separate what many would regard as varieties of
^4, campestris from those of .4. arvensis. AMien specific rank is
bestowed also upon such forms as .1. pratenMs^ A. riUatinis, ^1. //uif/-
nifciis, A. rodmoni, etc., the difficulties are greatly increased. The
writer has grown many forms of Agaricus, and, as might be expected,
there seems to be no form which will remain practically constant
under variable conditions. Besides general size, size of spores, etc..

46 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

some of the characters used in separating the common forms are color
of gills ; character of ring, particularly as to whether single or double ;
shape of stipe; color and markings of pileus; color of flesh, etc. In
following the develoi)meiit of these characters in different forms,
many variations Avill be found. Ar/apicus campestris grown on com-
posted leaves shows very little pink in the gills. The color changes
rapidly from dull pinkish-brown, or almost white, to a leaden hue.
Several brown-capped forms, usually considered varieties of A. cam-
pestris^ ^never show a bright-pink surface unless produced under
exceptionally^ favorable conditions, moist air being a sine qua non.
The ring is naturally variable. In any variety of ^1. campestris it is
not uncommon for an edge of the partial veil to remain attached to
the base of the stem as a volvate line, or this line may be left at any
stage during the elongation of the stem. Again, if the lower margin
of the partial veil on the stipe separates slightly from the stipe, and
upon drying curves slightly upAvard, there is an indication of a double
ring. A very good double ring appeared on a number of very vig-
orous specimens of an undoubted variety of A. campestris during the
present season. It is possible that there is a greater tendency to pro-
duce a double ring when conditions are favorable for the production
of the most vigorous mushrooms. Agaricus arvensis is also very
variable with respect to the formation of a double ring, as also in the
persistence of the partial veil.

The shape of the stipe is in many forms dependent upon the con-
ditions. Under favorable conditions a brown variety of .1. cam-
pestris may have a very short, thickened, equal stem, when grown on
manure, and practically uniform at maturity, while the same form
groAvn on decayed leaves may show in the main a stipe Avith thicks
ened base, gradually tapering to the top. The color of the cap is of
undoubted value as a varietal or specific character, yet it must be
remembered that whether the surface be smooth or rough, merely
fibrillose, or broken into scales of definite form, may depend entirely
upon Avhether produced in moist air or in dry air, subjected to
drying after being Avet, etc. The color of the flesh is also dependent,
to a considerable extent, upon the conditions. A specimen groAvn in
even fairly unfavorable conditions Avill sIioav the flesh someAvhat
darkened, and on exposure the characteristic pink tint will not be
even momentarily visible. In other Avords, a considerable range of
A^ariation nuist be anticipated, and in comparisons there should be
stated very cknirly the conditions under Avhich the particular forms
are produced.

THK CL JVnVATION Ol' VARIOUS SPECIES OF MUSHUOOMS.

In Table X are given the results of a single test Avith 'Agaricus
(u-rcHsis, or Avhat is supposedly a broAvn variety of this species, and

MUSHKOOM GROWING. 47

also of a single experiment with A. v'dlatkus. In both cases the
yield Avas excellent. It is not well to draw definite conclusions
from individual tests, but it is believed that both of these forms will
yield profitably in general culture under conditions similar to those
required for A. campestris. Plate III, figure 2, indicates the size
and compactness of the mature sporophore of A. rUlaticiis. More-
over, both of the species above referred to are to be recommended
for texture and flavor. Two forms of AgarirvH fahaeevs (see PI.
Ill, fig. 1), both with amygdaline odor and flavor, have been tried
in relatively few experiments. In no case has the yield been verv
good, and further experiments will be required before it will be pos-
sible to state under what conditions these forms may be most suc-
cessfully grown. At the Missouri Botanical (jarden l^rof. William
Trelease has for some time grown successfully one of these varieties.

Owing to the profuse and rapid growth of the mycelium of ('(>j»'i-
iii/s comatus in pure cultures, it was anticipated that it might easily
be grown in beds. The few experiments thus far made indicate that
in impure cultures (beds) of leaf mold the mycelium grows and
spreads very slowly. Hot weather prevented the maturity of the
tests, but no sporophores were produced during a considerable pe-
riod. In similar experiments Lepiota rhacodes and Trieholoma per-
.''onatum were used. The former has given unsatisfactory results thus
far, but the latter is promising.

It is not yet time to report on the possibility of growing the better
and larger species of puffballs and the morel. It has already been
indicated that the mycelium of these fungi grows well in pure cul-
tures. From the pure cultures it has also been demonstrated that
spawn may be made, but it has not been determined under what con-
ditions the fruit may be produced. Figure 1 on Plate IV shows a
young specimen of one of the puffballs, Caloatin craniifortnis, the
spawn of which is produced with the least difficulty.

COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS.

During the V'inter of 1902-3 a small quantity of experimental
spawn made by the writer was sent out to mushroom growers for
trial; in 1903—1: this spawn was made in large quantity, and trial
packages were sent to more than 100 growers or interested persons.
At that time Farmers' Bulletin No. 204 had not been issued, and the
instructions which could be furnished inexperienced growers were
inadequate. Nevertheless, an attempt was made to obtain reports
from all persons receiving the experimental spawn, even from those
who had applied for and received spawn when the season was too far
advanced for successful work except in caves and cool cellars. A
number of reports were received, but, as might be expected, fully 50
per cent of these indicated that the conditions under Avhich the experi-
0329— No. 85-=-()r> m— ^-4

48 ■ MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

nieiits were made were wholly uiisalisfactory, and that, therefore, no
faA'orable results could be anticipated. Among those whose reports
indicated that the conditions were favorable, or fairly favorable, only
a small percentage reported failures, while four-fifths of those claim-
ing success secured yields of more than one-half pound per square
foot of bed space, many ol)taining more than 1 pound per square
foot. In two instances a yield of nearly 2 i)ounds to the scjuare
foot was reported. The frontispiece, Plate T. a bed in full bearing,
and l*late VII, figure 1, showing the nuishrooms as ]^re})ared for mar-
ket, are photographs furnished by cooperating growers who are now
also making spawn of pure-culture origin. It was suggested to
growers Avho received the experimental spawn that a comparative test
of the English or other commercial spawns Avith that received from
the Department of Agriculture would be of interest. Comparative
tests were made and reported by 10 growers. In most cases the
English spawn, obtained at random on the market, failed to groAV.
In only one case did the English spaAvn prove better than the pure-
culture product, and in this instance the spaAvn furnished by the
Department Avhen used Avas nearly one year old.

Failures may ahvays be anticipated Avhen attempts are made to
groAv mushrooms under acU'erse conditions, and it must be said that
greater success Avas obtained from the cooperatiA^e Avork than could
have been hoped for, considering the fact that many of the persons
Avho sent in reports Avere Avholly inexperienced and Avere practically
unguided.

During the present year experimental mushroom spaAvn has been
sent to more than '200 interested persons, and this Avill doubtless be
the last general distribution of this product by the Department of
Agriculture. Representing the varieties of Af/nrici/s campestrh
commonly groAvn. mushroom spawn of pure-culture origin is noAv an
established market product. In order that the standard of the
American spaAvn may be maintained, spawn makers, dealers, and
groAvers should see to it that only the fresh, recently dried product
is used.

Nevertheless, it is hoped that this cooperative Avork may be carried
forAvard, looking toward the deA'elopment of better varieties or the
bringing into culture and the testing of ucav species.

CAVE FACILITIES IN THE UNITED STATES.

CaA-e facilities in the United States are by no means so meager as
has been supposed. There are in some sections caves from Avhic'
rock for Portland cement has been mined. Some of these haA^e been
utilized for mushroom groAviiig. There are also natural caves of
great extent in many of the States of the Central West — especially

OPEN-AIR CULTURE. 49

in Indiana, Missouri, Kentiick}', and Arkansas — as well as in Vir-
ginia." The difficulty is to obtain caves within a convenient distance
from cities, for stable manure becomes expensive if it must be hauled
many miles or transported long distances by the carload. Again,
caves should be easy of access, since after each crop every vestige of
soil, manure, etc., of the preceding crop must be removed as a sani-
tary jjrecaution. This is especially necessary since there is much
Avaste space in most natural caves, and it becomes a very difficult or
expensive matter to fumigate. If the cave system is extensive, it
must also be possible to give it thorough ventilation. Many natural
caves are the courses of subterranean streams. The latter are l)y no
means objectional)le if there is no danger from overflow. In many
caves the stream has long since found a new channel and the cave
is dry. Seepage water, usually accompanied by continuous stalactite
and stalagmite formation, is undesirable. In some of the Eastern
States coalpits or coal mines may l>e important for mushroom [)ur-
poses. Where the coal mine is not too deep, or where perfect venti-
lation may be given, there is no reason why it is not entirely suitable
for mushroom growing.

OPEN-AIR CULTURE.

In some sections of England and France open-air culture of mush-
rooms in beds is practicable during the late autumn and winter
months, in which case the productive period may extend into the
spring. The difficulties in the wa}^ of open-air culture are not merely
those of maintaining a more or less uniform temjjerature, but also
of maintaining practically constant conditions of moisture. For
these reasons it is necessary to mulch the beds heavily with clean
straw. In some instances a light nudch of straw is permitted to
remain even during the period of production, for a rapid drying out
of the surface would be hazardous or fatal. It is better, perhaps,
to put the beds under some form of protection, such as an improvised
cold frame.

In regions where the climatic changes are marked, open-air cul-
ture is ]:)robably not to be recommended during any season for com-
mercial purposes. It is probable that there are some areas in the
ITnited States in which open-air culture might be practiced with
profit. It has seemed that certain sections of California might be
favorable for this phase of the work. In the interest of experiments

« The writer is indebted to Prof. C. F. Marbiit for the information that oaves
are to lie expected in the Sihirian limestone, which occurs particularly in the
extension of the Shenandoah Valley, in the hlucirrass resion of Kentucky, and
in tlie Ozark re.ij;ion of Missouri, and Arkansas; also in the Lower Carboniferous
limestoue, which extends into Indiana. Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri.

50 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

along tliis line the writer has made a special attempt to acquaint
himself with the conditions in that section of the conntry. This has
seemed particularly desirable, inasmuch as fresh mushrooms could
not be shipped to the far West from sections in which they are at
])resent grown in quantity. From the information obtained it is
thought that successful open-air mushroom growing might be antici-
pated in those sections where the average temperature is between
48° and 55° F., provided there are relatively few days when the
temperature falls as low as 82° F. At the same time, open-air cul-
ture can not be reconnnended for those sections in which dry wnnds
are prevalent. As a rule, during the wet or winter season the rain-
fall is so light that heavy mulching Avould probably suffice to prevent
injury from excessive wetting. Nevertheless, it seems apparent that
even in regions most favorable for open-air culture some inexpensive
partial protection against the changes of temijerature due to direct
sunlight, or against heavy rainfall, Avould be desirable.

It was also ascertained that Agaricus eojnpesfris appears naturally
in some quantity during the months of January and February, or
longer, during the rainy season. This, how^ever, is also true of other
species of fleshy fuiigi. The large size of some of the specimens of
Agaricus campestris and ^1. arvensis found would seem to suggest
that they were j^roduced from an unusually vigorous mycelium.
This may be the result of a condition analogous to that previously
mentioned, where, on account of the Ioav temjjerature of the atmos-
])here, the spawn may develop slowly through a considerable period,
and finally, under favorable conditions, sporophores of unusual size
are produced.

In the following table ai'e given the monthly mean temperatures
from several representative stations in California during the years
1899 and 1900. From this table it will be seen that so far as the
mean temperature is concerned Eureka and San Francisco would be
especially favorable during a large portion of the year. Independ-
ence and Red Bluff are likewise satisfactory, wdiile San Luis Obispo,
Santa Barbara, Los Angeles, and San Diego show a mean wdiich is
perhaps rather too high. The moisture of the atmosphere, the
prevalence of hot winds, the variation in the daily temperature, and
the number of hot or cold days must all be considered. From the
data obtained, the general conclusion seems to be that the most favor-
able regions are those where conditions correspond closely to those of
Eureka and San Francisco. This, however, represents a large region,
including a considerable jDortion of the- San Joaquin and of the
Sacramento valleys. In a few places experiments have already been
undertaken to determine the possibilities for the development of this
work, l^ut no definite recommendations can be made until the experi-

OPEN-AIR CULTURE.

51

mental evidence is at hand. It may be said, moreover, that some of
the regions which seem to be too warm for open-air culture may be
especially favorable during several months at a time for mushroom
growing in ordinary cellars, or in very simply constructed mushroom
houses. In those sections the winter and early spring months would
doubtless give the most satisfactory conditions; and this period,
fortunately, corresponds with the tourist season — a season w^hen the
market demands are greatest. It is also possible that wdth mulching
and with simple protection, mushroom growing may be successful in
some of the Eastern States.

Table XI. — Mean inonthlu tciiiperatures (it points in California, in dcf/rces

Fahrenheit.

Montli.

Eureka.

1899. 1900.

January - 47 . 5

February : 44. 4

March ._. iS.O

April- --- 48. a

May ' 49.6

.June - - -.. 52.0

.Tilly - - 54.8

August - 55.9

September _ 54. 8

October - - - 52.0

November 55. 9

December -.--. --- 48.0

Year,-.

50.9

.50.4
48.6
50. 5
50.0
54.4
56.2
.56.4
57.0
56.6
53.8
.53. .3
50.8

.53.2

San Francisco.

1899. 1900.

53.0
.51.6
.53. 2
.54.6
,52.6
.56. 9
.55. 9
.58.3
.58.2
.59. 3
.56.8
49.6

54. 9

50.7
53.6
.55.3
54.0
.57.0
.57.6
58.2
.59.7
63. 3
.58.8
56.3
50.2

.56. 2

Sai Luis
Obispo.

1899. 1900

54.2
54.4
54.0
.56.4
.54.0
62.4
64.4
64.0
65.5
59. 6
.57. 4
54.3

.58. 4

56.3
56.2
.58. 2
.54.2
61.6
63.9
64.2
64.9
64.4
62.8
.59.8
55.6

Santa Barbara.

City. F.H.S.1

60.2

53.0
54.6
55.3
57.9
.59.4
62.6
65.5
66.9
66.1
63.6
.59. 1
55.6

59.9

55.4
.58. 0
.57. 4
59.3
59.4
64.4
68.1
68.9
69.9
64.8
64.7
58.4

63.3

Month.

Los Angeles. San Diego. Independence.

Janiiary_.
Feljruary
March , .'. .

April

May

•June

July

August

September
October . .
November
December

Year

1899.

56
54
57
60
60
65
70
69
70
&3
62
58

62

1900.

1899. 1900.

58
.58
60
57
64
67
71
68
67
64
66
60

64

.56.0
53.4
.56.4
.58.0
.58.0
61.4
65.6
65.8
65.5
62.7
61.0
58.7

60.2

57.1

57.3
59.1
57. 1
60.6
63.9
67.1
65.7
65.3
63.8
63.7
.59.7

61.6

1899. 1900.

40.2
46.5
.50.5
.59. 4
60.0
74.2
80.4
72.6
74.6
.55. 4
49.4
43.1

58.9

46.
48.
.54.
52.
65.
75.
79.
72.
63.
58.
50.
43.

.59.2

Red Bluff.

1899.

48.8
51.6
53.3
60.8
63.2
77.9
83.0
73.8
78.0
61.0
54.4
45.5

62.4

1900.

48.8
51.1
.58.6
57. 6
67.0
76.8
82.6
77.0
69.9
60.0
.54.8
45.4

62.5

" Foothills or suburbs of Santa Barbara, at an elevation of 7.50 feet al)ove the city.

Occasionally one reads of successful natural cultures of mush-
rooms: that is, the production of this plant in pastures, lawns, etc..
under more or less natural conditions. At Columbia, Mo., the writer
has made numerous attempts to spaAvn plats in pastures and lawns;
but thus far failure has attended every attempt. The spawning has,
moreover, been tried at every season of the year. It is believed that
in the section of the country mentioned only exceptionally favorable
seasons will permit any success in this phase of open-air culture.

52 MUSHEOOM GEO WING AND SPAWN MAKING.

MUSHROOM SPAWN MAKING.

The mycelium of the cultivated mushroom has long been known
commercially as " spawn." From early times it has been recognized
that mushrooms may be grown from spawn, and it is (juite certain
that in all attempts to propagate mushrooms spawn has been used
for the purpose.

In France, in England, and in other countries in which the mush-
room has long been groAvn it is recognized that it is not profitable
continually to take growing spawn from one bed to be preserved as
'' seedage " for the next crop. The common expression is that the
spawn " runs out "" in about three years. There seem to be few or
no definite experiments indicating the exact conditions under which
the spawn in two or three years loses the power of vigorous mush-
room production. Nevertheless, it is the almost unanimous opinion
of all extensive growers that there is a marked diminution in the
yield after several successiA^e propagations from the spawn in the
mushroom bed. This has seemed to be true in the writer's experi-
ments, although it must be said that accidents to experiments under-
taken have made it impossible to report at this time upon the nature
of this running out. That deterioration does result is apparently a
fact accepted by all scientific men who haA'e given attention to mush-
room growing. It is possible, however, that under cert«in conditions
the spawn might be repeatedly propagated without loss of proli firm-
ness. It is not necessary to enter here into a discussion of possibili-
ties or to attempt to explain why weakening might be evident under
ordinary conditions.

A " chance " method. — For practical purposes it is necessary to
renew the spawn and to secure, if possible, spawn which has not pre-
viously weakened itself by the production of nnishrooms — known as
virgin spawn. Natural virgin spawn may be found wherever " in
nature " it has been possible for the spores to germinate and to pro-
duce a mycelium. Ordinarily such so-called " spontaneous " appear-
ances of spawn may be anticipated in compost heaps, rich garden
beds, pastures near the feeding places of animals, etc.

Many attempts have been made by practical growers to develop
^■pawn from spores, sowing the gill portions of mature mushrooms in
specially constructed beds; but the results, so far as the writer is
aware, have not been satisfactory. As a rule, therefore, growers
have been compelled to rely wholly upon a virgin spawn which has
been obtained by chance. It is said that in the vicinity of Paris
some persons make a business of searching for this virgin spawn,
which they sell to the growers at a high figure. It is claimed that
they become so adept in detecting the ditferences in the character of
growth, the quality of odors, etc., that they can distinguish not only

MUSUROOM SPAWN MAKING. 58

.[(/arkus rampestris, but also sonic of its varieties. In Elnglaiul
much of the virgin spawn has been obtained from pastures. Where a
•• spontaneous "' growth of spawn is observed, trenches are dug, and
these are filled with good stable manure. The latter in time becomes
penetrated, and it is highly prized for cultural purposes. As a rule,
rhe virgin spawn is used in spawning beds, which, when well pene-
trated, are torn down, and the whole bed used as flake spawn in
spawning the general croj). Again, the virgin spawn may be used
in spawning the brick, or cakes, this being the form in which English
spaAvn is usually made. However adept persons may become in the
identification of various varieties of spawn by odor, etc., this must
be considered essentially a chance method.

A " selective " method. — From what has been said it will be per-
ceived that very little advancement could be made in the selection of
desirable varieties of mushrooms, in varietal improvement and the
like, so long as the chance method of securing spawn should prevail.
The studies in the germination of mushroom spores previously re-
ferred to were encouraged by the apparent necessity of beginning
with spores from mushrooms of known qualities in order to effect
improvement. In recent years the investigations of Costantin « upon
spore germination have found application in a department of the
Pasteur Institute. Bv a secret method, mvcelium is grown from the
spores in jjure cultures. These cultures, which are, of course, pure
virgin spawn, are then offered for sale to the gi-owers. This spawn
does not seem to have received deserved consideration on the part of
the growers. The secret method of effecting spore germination re-
ferred to by Repin 'J has also been practically applied by one of the
largest seed firms in Paris. In general, however, French growers
have not profited so much by the new methods, perhaps partially on
account of the fact that these methods are not known and partially
because of the expense of the new virgin spawn. It is to be noted
that these methods imply pure cultures to begin with.

The successful germination studies with chemical stimulation men-
tioned in this paper were soon overshadowed by the discovery of the
ease of makinsr tissue cultures. The use of the latter method has
])een the means of a sudden advancement in spawn making in this
country during the past tAvo years, for many practical men have
been quick to see the advantages which it offers.

Pure-culture precautions. — It has already been stated that the
pure-culture method of making virgin spawn is not one which will
prove successful in the hands of wholly inexperienced persons, or of
those who are unwilling to spend time and use the utmost care in the
manipulation of the cultures and the culture material. The use of

a Costantin, J., loc. cit ^ Ri'pin, C, loc. cit.

54 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

pure-culture methods necessitates to a considerable extent a knowl-
edge of the bacteria and molds which are everywhere i)resent in the
air and which are especially abundant wherever there are dusty or
damp, moldy conditions. The principle of making pure cultures is
briefly this : The materials, or media, and all the vessels employed
must be sterilized, which implies being heated at a temperature suffi-
cient to kill all germs present in the vessels or materials used. If
the vessels used are test tubes or other pieces of glassware with small
mouths, they should, previous to sterilization, be plugged with cotton
batting. This cotton batting prevents, when carefully manipulated,
the entrance of germs from the air, and therefore keeps the vessel
or medium in a pure or sterile condition. If such a vessel is opened,
this should be done in a room free from currents of air or falling
dust particles ; and, while open, tubes and other apparatus should be
held in a more or less horizontal position, so that they will be less
liable to contamination. It follows, of course, that the cotton plug,
if removed, shoidd not come in contact with any unsterilized sub-
stances. If, now, a small quantity of the growing mycelium of a
mushroom from a pure culture is transferred to such a sterilized
tube, using for this transfer sterile needles, or scalpels, there will be
little danger fi'oui foreign organisms, and the piece of mycelium
inserted will therefore grow as a ])ure cidtui-e free from all other
fimgi or bacteria.

77ie thsve-cvlfiirc ixefhod. — In making jjure cultures of musln-ooins,
large test tubes or wide-mouthed bottles nuiy be used. These should
be carefully cleaned, and, if possible, a sterilization should be given
by means of dry heat as a preliminary precaution. In this event the
tubes are i)lugged with cotton i)lugs and placed in a dry oven made
for the purpose. They are heated to a temperature of about 150° C,
and this temperature should be maintained for nearly an hour.
Ordinarily, however, in rough work it is not essential to employ this
preliminary sterilization. In either case the tubes are next partially
filled (about two-thirds) with the manure, or half-decayed leaves,
upon which it is desired to grow the virgin spawn. A plug is
inserted in each tube, and the tubes are then sterilized in a steam
boiler or under pressure. If sterilized under steam pressure, as in an
autoclave, it is necessary to use about 15 pounds pressure and to allow
the tubes to remain at this pressure for from fifteen mimites to half
an hour. If the sterilization must be effected in a boiler or in an ojien
Avater bath, it can only be done at 100° C, of course; and it is then
desirable to boil the tubes for at least one hour on each of two or three
successive days.

With the tubes thoroughly sterile, the next step is to make the
cultures or inoculations. By the tissue-culture method .it is implied

MUSHEOOM SPAWN MAKING. 55

that the inocidatioiiH are made from pieces of the tissue of a living
mushroom. It is at this stage that selection may be made. One
should procure from a bed of mushrooms in full bearing a mushroom
which represents the most desirable qualities that are to be found.
Size, quality, and general prolihcness must all be considered, as well,
also, as other characteristics in any special selections. One may de-
sire, for instance, to select from a variety which yields throughout
a long period — one wdiich is resistant to higher temperatures, etc.
Having found the mushroom from which it is desired to propagate,
plants as young as possible may be used, and those which show the
veil still intact are especially desirable. With a scalpel, or a pair
of forceps, which has been sterilized by passing the blade through a
gas flame, or even the flame from an alcohol or ordinary lamp, small
!)ieces of the internal tissue ma}^ be removed, and these pieces trans-
ferred to the tubes, without, of course, coming in contact with any
object whatever which has not previously been sterilized. It is a
good idea to Avash the nuishroom first, so that no dust w'ill be made.
The plant may then be broken o])en longitudinally and bits of the
internal tissue readily removed without fear of contamination when
one becomes adept in this kind of manipulation. Immediately upon
inoculation the cotton i)lug is rei)laced in the tube, and after all the
tubes are inoculated they should be j)ut out of the dust, preferably in
a situation where the temperature is about that of an ordinary living
room. In the course of several days a slight growth may be evident
from the tissue if the conditions have been perfectly sterile. In the
course of a week or more the gi'owth shoiUd become very evident, and
in three weeks the moldlike development of mycelium should s})read
to })ractically all parts of the medium in the tube. The method of
making pure cultures and the laboratory apparatus usually involved
are shown in Plate VI, figure 2.

AMien the tubes are thoroughly " run "' the contents may be removed
ii.nd used in spawning brick. The contents of a single tulx; may
spawn several bricks wdien carefully employed. If no transfers are
niade of the growing mycelium from one lot of tubes to another, the
writer has not found it at all impracticable or unfavorable to utilize
this first lot of l)ricks later in si)awning others. No further trans-
fers, how^ever, should be made from these bricks to others under any
circumstances in spawn making. As elsewhere indicated, such a con-
tinuous transference is injurious to the vigor of the spawn and
diminishes the (luantity of nuishrooms produced.

The coTrhTnercidJ process. — The essentials in si)awn making are (1)
a uniform, compact manure brick; {'1) vigorous and well-selected
virgin spawn to be used in inoculating the bricks, and (3) favorable
conditions for the storage of the bricks during the growth of the
spawn.

56 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

It should be indicated that there is no one method of making brick
spawn. The process may and Avill be varied by each spawn maker.
Any skill or mechanical devices which will simplify or improve the
process in any particular are to be recommended.

The materials entering into the composition of the brick are fer-
mented stable manure, cow manure, iind sometimes a small quantity
of well-selected loam. Perhaps the chief value of these different con-
stituents is as follows:

In the horse manure the mycelium grows most readily. The cow
manure binds the materials together into compact brick. The loam,
which is perhaps least essential, is supposed to prevent cracking or
hardening of the surface, and therefore contributes to the appearance
of the finished brick, at the same time tending to prevent rapid fer-
mentation during growth. It also in some cases facilitates the uni-
form spread of the mycelium. If fresh manure is used, the necessity
of using loam is perhaps to be emphasized.

In the experiments which have been made under the auspices of
the Department of Agriculture these materials have been used singly
and in various combinations, and it is beyond doubt that the relative
proportions of these should be determined by the special conditions
under which the spawn is made. Excellent results have been ob-
tained by using a mixture of from two-thirds to three-fourths stable
manure and the remainder cow manure. In this case the compost
for the brick is subjected to fermentation previous to its use. When
loam is employed it may be used in more or less equal proportion to
the cow manure; and the quantity of stable manure should about
equal that of the other two ingredients. If the straw present does
not become sufficiently disintegrated during the preparation of the
manure to enable one to make a smooth brick, it should be removed,
in part at least.

The dry bricks ordinarily measure about 5^ by 8 J by 1] (to 1^)
inches. They should therefore be molded of somewhat larger size,
perhaps 6 by 9 by 2 inches, since there is considerable contraction
during drvinff. The mold consists merely of an oak frame of four
pieces strongly riveted together. It may also be profitably lined
Avith thin steel plates. In molding the brick one of two methods
may be followed : ( 1 ) The compost may be thoroughly wet or pud-
dled; then, with the mold upon a board of suitable width, the manure
is compressed into it, the mold removed from the brick then formed,
and the board pushed along for a succession of such impressions.
The boards supporting the bricks are then disposed in racks and the
l)ricks dried for a few days, or until they may be turned on edge for
further drying out. (2) The comjiost may be used in a condition
which is merely moist. It is comi)ressed into the brick with some
force, a mallet being often employed. The brick thus obtained is

I

I

MUSHROOM SPAWN MAKING. 57

sufficiently rigid to be immediately handled if necessary. By this
method, unless the compost has been in excellent condition, the bricks
are not so smooth as might be desired for commercial purposes. In
some instances they have then been subjected to a repress process,
an old repress brick machine being adapted for the purpose. In
such cases the bricks are made thicker to begin with. The second
method has been discontinued by some who at first employed it.

Two methods are also employed in spawning : ( 1 ) The more com-
mon method is to insert into the brick near both ends a piece of the
virgin spawn obtained for the purpose. A cut is made Avith the
knife, the spawn inserted, and a stroke of the knife effectively closes
the surface. This must be done as soon as the brick can be readily
handled. (;2) The bricks are dried until merely moist throughout;
then, on being piled, nocules of spawn are placed between successive
bricks, a piece at each end. In either case the bricks are not piled
for the growth of the spawn until in good condition as to moisture
content. This should be determined not by the surface, but by the
interior of the brick. In the pile the surface will soon become moist.
When the first method is employed it is sometimes customary to
spread between the layers of brick in the pile a little moist manure
or sawdust. It has been determined, also, that the absolute mois-
ture content of the brick should be about 40 per cent, which is the
same as for the mushroom bed. Tests of the moisture content of
bricks growing well have varied from 35 to 47^ per cent.

Occasional examination should be made to determine the tempera-
ture and the extent of growth. In order that the bricks may become
thoroughly penetrated, more than a month will usually be required.

The most favorable conditions for the growth of the spawn are
practically the same as for mushroom growing. A fairly moist
atmosphere, maintained, if necessary, by spraying, and a more or
less uniform temperature (55° to G0° F.) are to be preferred. The
size of the piles will depend upon the other conditions; but if there
is any danger of considerable fermentative activity the bricks should
be so disposed as to permit perfect ventilation between two or more
adjacent rows.

When the bricks are thoroughly '* run " they are dried under cover
before being shipped or stored in Indk, since in a moist brick the
spawn would continue to grow and would soon produce small mush-
rooms or else would become moldy. Well-penetrated bricks of spawn
are shown in Plate VII, figure 2. The areas of mycelial growth
should be evident to the eye. The growth should be moldlike, how-
ever, rather than composed of very large threads or fibers.

The suggestion made in a previous publication that mushroom
spawn should be sold by the brick (with a uniform standard of size)
seems to have been adopted l)y American makers. The trade names

58 MUSHKOOM GEO WING AND SPAWN MAKING.

siio-o-estofl for the common types of Agaricnis eani jyestrk in culture
have also come into use. It is certain that these names, Alaska,
Bohemia, and Columbia, designating respectively a white, a brown,
and a more or less cream-gray form, do not include all forms in
cultivation. Until a careful study has been made of varieties, how-
ever, this nomenclature will enable spawn makers to keep in mind
certain types, and will make it possible for growers to ask for a
spawn yielding a color demanded by their special markets.

THE VITALITY OF MUSHROOM SPAWN.

Many of the early experiments in nnishroom growing undertaken
by the writer were made in the hope of being able to ascertain the
more frequent causes of failure and some of the chief difficulties
encountered by American mushroom growers. 1'he ordinary com-
mercial spawn used by amateurs, that is, such as is obtainable upon
the market during the winter months, Avas purchased wherever possi-
ble. Samples of this spawn were placed under conditions which were
supposed to Ix' most favoral)le for growth. Nevertheless, in the
majority of cases there was no indication of the development of a
new mycelium from the bricks of spawn thus obtained. From these
results it was suspected that much of the spawn which reaches the
amateur grower may be consideral)ly injdred, or even killed, by
transportation or improper conditions of storage; for it must be sup-
posed that most of this s])awn is in good oi- at least fair condition
when exported from Europe.

Subsequently the writer was abk> to look into the matter of spawn
making in Europe and P'rance, and he was convinced that the diffi-
culty of securing good spawn in England is not a very serious factor.
The same is true witli reference to the material which is obtained by
both extensive and small growers in France.

Special importations of some of the commercial English and
French spawns were made, and this was packed, shipped, and stored
under conditions as favorable as may ordinarily obtain. This sj^awn
was imported during midwinter and stored until March or early
April, when it was used in spawning some experimental beds. The
conditions of the experiments were practically the same throughout,
yet in not more than half the beds was there a favorable development
of mushroom spawn. A distribution of the French spawn, both the
commercial flake and the improved cake spawn, Avas made to several
prominent American growers. Some of these growers experienced
entire failure, while others reported that, after a slow beginning, beds
spawned with this material made a good yield. The general conclu-
sion, reenforced by observation and by the experience of' practical
growers, could only be that a large percentage of loss in mushroom

VITALITY OF MUSHROOM SPAWN. 59

oTowing is attributable to tlie injury suffered by the spawn after its
]3reparation. Tliis conclusion has been further strengthened by the
experience of the past three years. From Table VIII, beds Nos. 1,
2, 4, 5, and 30, it will be seen that, under conditions where fresh spawn
has invariably made a good yield, the spawn which is more than a
year old is, for the most part, seriously injured or killed. To be
exact, in only one case was there any production of mushrooms by
spawn which had been kept for a year or longer. It must be said that
no attempt was made to keep these spawns under similar conditions or
under the most favorable conditions. For the most part the sjDawn
was stored in the dry laboratory room, in which the temperature was
more or less variable, but ncA'er extreme. The old American spawn
which was used in experimental bed No. 1, in Tal)le VIII, was stored
in a l)asement room where the average temperature Avas undoubtedly
cooler than that of the laboratory room.

From experimental beds Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 5, in Table X. it is again
seen that old spawn is unreliable. In this particular case the mate-
i-ial was furnished by a prominent mushroom grower — ^an English
spawn importer. This spawn had been stored in a dry house and
was therefore subject to similar conditions. In Table VIII, beds
Nos. 31, 32, 35, and in Table IX, Nos. 34, 41, and 45, there is further
j)roof of the loss of vitality in the imported spawn ordinarily off'ered
for sale in many of our cities. In these cases spawn was bought on
the market just as offered for sale to the amateur buyer; "best on
hand " was asked for, but no stipulation was made that is should be
of recent importation, and no guaranty was asked. The tests were
not, therefore, to compare the very best English with the best Amer-
ican spawn, but merely to, secure an indication of some of the cause's
of failure by the purchase at random of English and French spaAvn
on the market. Even in times past the extensive mushroom growers
have either imported their spawn direct, or made sure that they
Avere obtaining the best product that the market could furnish.
Unfortunately, it has not been possible to compare, in any exj^eri-
ments thus far concluded, the best English with the best American
spawn.

The results seem also to indicate that brick spawn maintains its
vitality longer than the flake material, and that brick spawn made
of loose, light material is less retentive of vitality than that made
after the formula commonly followed in England. This proves to
be an inifortunate factor to be dealt with in the attempt to reduce
by all means the weight of the brick. The reduction in weight
would be most desirable, since freight upon this material adds con-
siderably to the price of market spaM^i. To the poor keeping quali-
ties of loose spawn is perhaps due the large number of failures w4th
French flake spawn, and perhaps also some of the failures with the

60 MUSHROOM GROWING AND SPAWN MAKING.

newer form of French brick spawn. The latter is made in the form
of very small, thin In'icks, which are luiquestionably more aifected
by weather conditions than the larger English bricks.

These results have seemed to demand that special attention should
be given to methods of spawn making in the United States in order
that growers might be able to secure this product as fresh as pos-
sible. Moreover, it was desirable, as previously indicated, to at-
tempt work leading to the selection and improvement of varieties.
The success of the work in spawn making has been almost all that
could have been anticipated. By the pure-culture methods described,
several firms are now making grades of brick spawn which have
yielded remarkably well. This fact is now thoroughly recognized
by a large number of the best growers throughout the country.
Probably as many as 50,000 bricks Avere sold during 1904, and it is
perhaps to be expected that several hundred thousand will be sold
during the present year.

It is to be regretted that it has not yet been possible to abandon
the pure-culture process by means of which the virgin spawn is made
while retaining the advantages of selection. Nevertheless, it should
be remembered that the very difficulties of this process insure its use
only by those who are able to give it their best attention and who Avill
doubtless develop it to the fullest commercial extent. It has not been
supposed by the writer that the work thus far accomplished will en-
able all mushroom growers to manufacture their own spaAvn with
comparative ease. In other phases of horticultural work it is not so
much to individual growers as to progressive seedsmen that we look
for the best seed of improved varieties. The same thing apparently
must be anticipated in the development of the mushroom industry.
The growing of selected spawn may, in general, become a specialized
process.

Nevertheless, it is believed that in time a method of spawn pro-
duction from spores without pure-culture precautions Avill be devel-
oped. The necessity of developing immediately, or placing on a
practical basis, the pure-cidture process has temporarily directed the
experimental work along other lines.

O

Bui. 85, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Fig. 1.— a Fine Cluster of Agaricus Campestris, the Horticultural Variety

Columbia.

/

■M

FiQ. 2.— Morels (Morchella esculenta), One of the Finest Edible Fungi.

Bui. 85, Bureau of Plant Industiy, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate III.

Fig. 1.— Agaricus Fabaceus, the Almond-flavored
Mushroom.

Fig. 2.— Agaricus Villatigus, a Promising Species, Fleshy and Prolific.

Bui. 85, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IV.

^

/.

y^}' '^^^is^-'^S^

y^y, ■ . ^t

V. ■»

-■«*

Fig. 1.— a Young Spccimen of the Common Puffball
(Calvatia craniiformisi.

Fig. 2.— The Oyster Mushroom i Pleurotus ostreatusi, Growing on Decayed

Willow Log.

Bui. 85, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture.

Plate V.

tmiNH

Fig. 1.— a Mushroom House Provided with Gas-piping Framework

FOR Shelf Beds.

Fig. 2.— The Preparation of Compost.

Bui. 85, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VI.

Fig. 1 .— a Large Mushroom Establishment— a Common Form of Mushroom House.

Fig. 2.— The Method of Making Pure Cultures, Showing the Apparatus and

Materials.

Bui. 85, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VII.

r^TW^. l^'-A^TT^

Fig. 1.— Mushrooms Prepared for the American Market.

Fig. 2.— Good '"Well-Run"i Mushroom Spawn, Brick Form.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 86.

B. T. GALLOWAY, CJiief of Bureau.

AGRICULTURE WITHOUT IRRIGATION IN THE

SAHARA DESERT.

BY

THOMAS H. KEARNEY,
Physiologist.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATIONS.

Issued November 16, 1905.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1905.

BULLETINS OF THE BTJREATJ OE l-LANT INDUSTRY.

The Bureau of I'lant Industry, whieh was organized July 1, 1901, includes
Vegetable Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investiga-
tions, Farm Management (including Grass and Forage Plant Investigations),
Pomological Investigations, and Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of which
were formerly conducted as separate Divisions ; and also Seed and Plant Intro-
duction and Distribution; the Arlington Experimental Farm; Investigations in
the Agricultural Economy of Tropical and Subtropical Plants ; Drug and Poison-
ous Plant Investigations ; Tea Culture Investigations ; the Seed Laboratory ;
and Dry Land Agriculture and Western Agricultural Extension.

Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of
bulletins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published
as one series of the Bureau. A list of the bulletins issued in the present series
follows.

Attention is dii-ected tP the fact that "the serial, scientific, and technical
publications of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general
distribution. All copies not re(iuired for official use are by law turned over to
the Superintendent of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All
applications for such publications should, therefore, be made to the Superin-
tendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington. D. C.

No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10 cents.

2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

3. Macaroni AVheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price, 10 cents.
G. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses

and Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price. 1.5 cents.

13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55

cents.

15. Forage Conditions on the Border of the Great Basin. 1892. Price, 15 cents.

16. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Cam-

pestris and Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price. 10 cents.

18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. Price, .35 cents.

22. Injurious Effects'of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

23. Berseem. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price. 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous Papers : I. The Seeds of Rescue Grass and Chess. II.

SaragoUa Wheat. III. Plant Introduction Notes from South Africa.
IV. Congressional Seed and Plant Distribution Circulars. 1903. Price,
15 cents.

26. Spanish Almonds. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, etc. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

28. The Mango in Porto Rico. 1903. Price. 15 cents.

29. The Effect of Black Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

30. Budding the I'ecan. 1902. Price. 10 cents.

31. Cultivated Forage Crojis of the Northwestern States. 1902, Price, 10 cents.

32. A Disease of the White Ash. 190,3. Price. 10 cents.

33. North American Species of Leptochloa. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

34. Silkworm Food Plants. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

35. Recent Foreign Explorations. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

[Continued on page 3 of cover.]

Bui. 86, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY- BULLETIN NO. 86.

B. T. GALLOWAY, ChkJ of Bureau.

AGRICULTURE WITHOUT IRRIGATION IN THE

SAHARA DESERT.

BY

THOMAS H. KEARNEY,
Physiologist.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATIONS.

Issued November 16, 1905.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1905.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTBY.

B. T. GALLOWAY,

PutJioloijifit uttil Physiologist , and Chief of Bureau.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Albkkt F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge, Acting Chief of Bureau in

Absence of Chief.

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge.

FARM MANAGEMENT.
W. .T. Spillmax, Agriculturist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

G. B. Br.\ckett, Pomologi.it in Charge.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.

A. .T. PiETER.s, Botanist in Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.

L. C. CoRBETT, Horticulturist in Charge.

INVESTIGATIONS IN THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY OF TROPICAL AND SUB-
TROPICAL PLANTS.

O. F. Cook, Bionomisi in Charge.

DRUG AND I'OISONOUS PLANT INVESTKiATIONS, AND TEA CULTURE

INVESTIGATIONS.

Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge.

DRY LAND ACJRICILTURE AND WESTERN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.

Carl S. Scofield, Agriculturist in Charge.

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.
E. M. Byrnes, Superintendent.

SEED LABORATORY.
Edgar Bkown, Botanist in Charge.

.1. E. Rockwell, Editor.
James E. Jones, Chief Clerk.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

scientific staff.

Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge.

Krwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Pathology.

Herbert .1. Webber. Physiologi.it in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Breeding.

Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Life History.

Newton B. Pierce, Pathologist in Charge of Pacific Coast Laboratory.

M. B. Waite, Pathologi.it iu Charge of Inrcitigations of Diseases of Orchard Fruits.

AlARK Alfred Carleton, Cereali-ii in Charge of Cereal Laboratory.

Hermann von Schrenk. in Charge of Mississipiii Valley Laboratory.

1'. II. Rolfs. Pathologist in Charge of Subtropical Laboratory.

C. O. Townsend, Pathologist in Charge of Sugar Beet Investigations.

T. H. Kearney, A. D. Shamel. Phijsiologists. Plant Breeding.

P. II. Dorsett." Cornelius L. Shear, William A. Orton, W. M. Scott, Ernst A.

Bessey, E. M. Freeman, Pathologists.
E. C. Chilcott, Expert in Cultirating Methods, Cereal Laboratory.
C. R. Ball, .issistant Agrostologist, Cereal Laboratory.
Joseph S. Chamberlain.* J. Arthur Le Clerc,<" Physiological Chemists.
Flora W. Patterson, Mijeolor/ist.
Charles P. Hartley, Karl F. Kellerman, Jesse B. Norton, Charles J. Brand,

T. Ralph Robinson. Assistants in Physiology.
1»eane B. Swingle, George G. Hedgcock. A-isistants in Pathology.

I'ERLEY SPAULDING. P. J. 0'GaR\, FLORENCE HEDGES, HENRY A. MiLLER, ERNEST B.

Brown, Leslie A. Fitz, Leonard L. Harter, John O. Mebwin, A. H. Leidigh, H. l-.

Blanchard, Scientifie A.isistants.
W. W. COBEY, Tobacco Expert.
John van Leenhoff, Jr.. T. D. Beck with, Ed-perts.

« Detailed to Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution.
"Detailed fo Bureau of Chemistry.
<> Detailed from Bureau of Cliemistry.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

U. S. Depabt3iext of Agricultttbe,

BuEEAu OF Plant Industry.

Office of the Chief.
'Washington^ D. C, September 6, 1905.
Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for
publication as Bulletin Xo. 80 of the series of this Bureau the accom-
panying paper, entitled "Agriculture without Irrigation in the Sahara
Desert."

This paper was prepared by ^Ir. Thomas H. Kearney, one of the
physiologists of this Bureau, and the data for it were obtained on a
trip which he made to northern Africa for the Office of Seed and
Plant Introduction and Distribution, primarily for the importation
into the United States of offshoots of valuable Tunisian date varieties.
It is believed that the methods described may be usefid in some cases
in our southwestern desert regions where date culture is being intro-
duced.

The accompanying illustrations are necessary to a clear understand-
ing of the text of this bulletin.

Respectfully. B. T. Gallowat,

Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson.

Secretary of Afjrifoltxire.

3

,df,§r

PREFACE.

In view of the interest in farming: withont irrigation that is now
being manifested in the arid portion of the United States, an acconnt
of a region where agricnhure is carried on nnder extremely adverse
natural conditions is particularly timely. The present paper deals
Avith a highly developed system of date-palm culture in the Oued
Souf, a remarkable and little-known part of Ihe Sahara Desert in
northern Africa. Strictly speaking, it is not dry-land agriculture
with which we have to do in the Souf region, for while the rainfall
is practically nothing and irrigation is impracticable, the roots of the
trees quickly find their way to ground water. However, it is quite
possible that similar conditions may be found to exist in this country
in some parts of the desert region of the Southwest, and that the Souf
system, with or without irrigation, can be utilized there on a small
scale in growing certain orchard crops with a view to forcing fruit
to early maturity, so that it can be put upon the market much in ad-
vance of the bulk of the crop.

The Oued Souf was visited by Mr. Kearney at the end of Novem-
ber, 1901, the journey having been made from Nefta, in southwestern
Tunis, where he had spent several Aveeks in a study of the date palm.
This expedition to northern Africa was made under the auspices of
the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution of the
Bureau of Plant Industry.

Acknowledgment is here made to Captain Bussy, Chef du Bureau
Arabe at El Oued, for the cordial assistance rendered by him to Mr.
Kearney during the latter's stay in the Souf region.

A. F. Woods,
Pathologist <ind Physiologist.
Office of Vegetable Pathological

AND Physiological Investigations,

Washingto/i, D. C, August 22, 1905.

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction ... 9

Population 12

Climate 13

Water supply . 16

Soils 18

The date gardens 18

Planting 19

Care of palms 21

Fighting the sand 22

Manuring 22

Harvest 24

Yields . ... 25

Varieties chiefly grown 25

Conclusion 27

Description of plates 30

7017— No. 86—05 M 2 7

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

Page.
Plate I. General view of the Otied Souf region from the town of El Oned,

showing sand dunes and sunken gardens of date palms. .Frontispiece.
II. Fig. 1. — High sand dunes east of El Oued. Fig. 2. — A typical
dwelling house of the Oued Souf, showing its cubical form and
roof composed of flattened cupolas. Fig. 3. — General view of
the Oued Souf region, showing sunken date gardens and sand
dunes -. 30

III. Fig. 1 . — Near view of sunken palm garden and surroiinding dunes.

Fig. 2. — Gradiial extension of a palm garden by cutting down bor-
dering sand hills. Fig. 3. — Vegetable garden irrigated by well
near bottom of basin in which date palms are grown 30

IV. Fig. 1. — Hole on slope of dune near bottom of basin in which a

young palm is planted. Fig. 2. — Camel manure ready for appli-
cation in a date garden 30

V. Fig. 1. — " Dokana," or mound of earth and plaster for strengthen-
ing the base of a palm. Fig. 2. — Rhars palm, showing thickness
of trunk 30

TEXT FIGURE.

Fig. 1. Map showing location of the Oued Souf with respect to other locali

s i

8

ties in Algeria and Tunis 10

B. P. I.— 185.

V. r. p. I.— 144.

AGRICULTURE WITHOUT IRRIGATION IN
THE SAHARA DESERT.

INTRODUCTION.

In the great desert of northern Africa, stretching across in a belt
from southeastern Algeria to the borders of Tripoli, is the region
known as the " Erg." It is a land of enormous sand hills, some of
which reach a height of 500 feet. Chain after chain of these great
dunes, with knife-edge summits and steep slopes and trough-like
vallej^s between, extend diagonally northeast and southwest across
this part of the Sahara. (PI. II, fig. 1.) It is like an ocean caught
in a raging storm, with its huge billows rising skyward and held fixed
and motionless. Not a leaf nor a blade of grass, not a bowlder nor
a pebble mars the smoothness of the sand. Never is the least trace
of water to be seen on its surface. The few drops of rain that fall
at rare intervals are drunk up as soon as they touch the thirsty
ground. Pure quartz sand it is, light yellow in color and so fine of
grain that the least breath of air sends a little cloud of it curling olf
the sharp crests of the ridges. A^'lien a hard w4nd blows the air is
filled with it, the sun is blotted out at noonday, and the traveler can
hardly see his horse's head in front of him. The sharp-cornered
particles of sand sting his face and blind and bewilder him. The
vague tracks of camels and donkeys, the only roads through this
wilderness, are quickly covered up, all landmarks disappear, and
without an experienced guide one is sure to be hopelessly lost.

It is a desolate and unfriendly landscape, yet at times not without
a weird beauty of its own. When the sun is high the glare is blind-
ing and there is little to attract one in the scene. But in the early
morning and the late evening the sand assumes a golden color, and
the dense black shadows cast by the dunes bring out their contours
in sharp relief. Then their surface is seen to be modeled by series
of delicate ripple marks left by the wind, and one finds it hard to
believe that when he climbs the next high ridge he will not see the
ocean at his feet.

10

AGRICU'LTURE IN THE SAHAEA DESERT.

A^^io would suspect that amid these mountains of bare sand, where
even the hardy shrubs and grasses of the desert find no foothold,"
men can live by the products of the soil ? Yet in the very heart of the
Erg, two long days' ride east or west from the nearest habitations,
there exists one of the most highly developed agricultural communi-
ties in the Avorld. This is in the countr}^ known as the Oued Souf,
situated in extreme southeastern Algeria (see fig. 1), about midway
lietween the oases of southwestern Tunis and the Algerian oases
known as the Oued Rirh, in which latter the date palm is grown by

Fig. 1. — Map showing location of the Oued Souf with respect to other localities in Algeria

and Tunis.

Europeans upon a commercial scale.'' From El Oued, the capital of
tlie Souf, it is about 70 miles southwest to Tougourt, the chief toAvn
of the Oued Eirh, and about the same distance northeast of El Oued
is Nefta, the nearest oasis in Tunis. The elevation of El Oued is
about 257 feet above sea level.

o Only eight species of flowering plants were found growing wild in the Souf
region by Massart. See " Un voyage hotanicpie au Sahara," p. 24!) (18!)8).
f> See Plate II (map) in Bui. 53, Bureau of Plant Industry, " The Date Palm,"

by W. T.

Swingle.

INTRODUCTION. 1 1

From the tops of the lofty sand hills that surround El Oued an
excellent view can be had, and there one can form a clear idea of the
character of this remarkable country. (See PL I, frontispiece, and
PL II, fig. 3.) Assuredly there are few regions where any sort of
agriculture is carried on under more extraordinary conditions. As
far as the eye can reach it rests upon an expanse of pure sand, heaved
up into range after range of dunes." In the hollows among these
dunes are the gardens of date palms, sometimes mere pockets contain-
ing 10 or 20 trees, sometimes larger basins in which are groves of 50
to 100 palms.

Often the bordering sand hills are much higher than the tallest
of the palms, so that many of the gardens can not be seen until one is
on the very edge of the basin. In other places, however, the ridges
are lower or gaps occur, allowing a cluster of feathery crowns to
peep through. These are of such a dark green as to look almost black
against the pale sand. A more striking contrast of colors could not be
imagined. The trunks are rarely seen until one reaches the brink of
the basin or pocket in which the palms are growing.

We have before us, in short, a network ^ of basins or hollows con-
taining small groves of date palms and separated by great hills and
ridges of sand. The aspect of the country is wholly different from
tlie Oued Rirh in Algeria and the Djerid in Tunis, where each oasis
is a dense continuous forest of date palms, containing often several
hundred thousand trees,'' and situated upon comparatively level land.

Such, then, is the country of the Souf, a land where there is prac-
tically no rainfall, where there are no streams nor springs nor flowing
wells to furnish water for irrigation, where the soil is a pure hard
sand devoid of organic matter and blown about in clouds by every
wind, so that unceasing vigilance is needed to keep the gardens free
from it, and where the summer heat is almost as great as anywhere
in the world. Yet here the date palm growls to perfection, yielding
fruit of better quality and in larger quantity than elsewhere in the
Sahara. How this has been brought about we shall presently see in
these pages ; but first we should know what manner of men are they
who have developed a flourishing agriculture in a land where Nature
seems to frown most severely upon all efforts to win a living from the
soil. The race that has succeeded so well in the face of such tremen-
dous obstacles must needs be an interesting one.

"The surface of these dunes is easily moved, even by a light breeze, but the
ooi-e is said to l)e stationary and composed of stratified materials.

* The Arab word " erg " (plural areg) means " a vein."

c In 1899 there were only 192,000 date palms in bearing in the entire Souf
region.

12 AGRICULTURE IN THE SAHARA DESERT.

POPULATION.

There are about 25,000 people in the Soiif region, 5,500 of whom
inhabit the capital town. El Oiied, and its immediate neighborhood.
Several distinct tribes are included in this population, some being
chiefly nomadic shepherds, and others more sedentary, devoting most,
of their time to the care of their gardens. They are for the most part
a healthy and strong looking race, and are much more energetic than
the inhabitants of otJier north African oases. This is doubtless
l^artly due to the unceasing labor demanded by the conditions under
which they live and partly to the fact that their climate is a healthful
one, despite the intense heat of summer. There is no standing water
nor even moist surface soil, and mosquitoes are said to be unknown.
The dry air and the hot sand are not friendly to the germs of con-
tagious diseases. The conditions are, therefore, very different from
those in other oases of the Sahara, which are so overirrigated as to be
mere swamjDS in summer, scourged with malarial fevers.

The inhabitants of the Souf region, who are called " Souafas,"
depend for a livelihood largely upon the products of their gardens,
but they have other resources as well. The more nomadic tribes
possess flocks of sheep and goats. They have almost a monopoly of
the trade of camel drivers in a large part of the Sahara, guiding
caravans eastward into Tunis, westward to Biskra, and far south
into the heart of the great desert. Their camels are considered the
largest and finest of the Sahara. The men of the Souf are indefati-
gable walkers, thinking nothing of traveling 20 or 25 miles a day
through the loose sand. Their camel's-hair shoes, tightly bound
around the ankles, are much better adapted to this sort of travel than
the loose-fitting, heelless slippers generally worn by the Arabs.

In building their houses, as in cultivating their palms, the Souafas
have many difficulties to contend wdth that are not experienced by
the dwellers in other oases. Elsewhere in the Sahara, sun-dried
brick, like the Mexican adobe, is the universal building material.
But in the Oued Souf there is no clay to be had. Consequently the
town of El Oued and all the villages of the region are constructed
with irregular masses of grayish, crystalline, gypseous rock, cemented
by plaster made from the same material, which thus furnishes both
stone and mortar. Wood being very scarce, the roofs are not flat,
Avooden ones, but consist of rows of small, flattened cupolas, not
unlike old-fashioned beehives, which give a very odd look to the cube-
shaped houses. (PI. II, fig. 2.) In its architecture, as in everything
else, the Souf is unique. The immaculate cleanliness of the villages
is surprising to the traveler who is familiar wnth the filthy streets of
most Arab towns. The pure, dry sand is constantly drifting among
the houses, and quickly buries all refuse.

CLIMATE. 13

CLIMATE. -

Exact data in regard to the climate of the Oiied Souf are not easily
obtainable. The observations here given were made chiefly by a
medical officer of the French army during the summer of 1884."'
Unfortunately records covering a period of several years are not
available.''

The summer temperatures are very high, few hotter localities being
known in the Sahara. The monthly maximum shade temperatures
observed by Escard in the summer of 1881 are as follow^s (in degrees
Fahrenheit) :

April 93

May ____•___ 100

June 10(3

July 122

August 116.5

September 113

October 91. 5

In June, 1901, a maximum of 127.5° F. is said to have been reached.
The sum total of temperature during the summer, a factor of the
greatest importance in the ripening of the finer varieties of dates, is
said to be greater in the Oued Souf than in the Oued Rirh and the
Djerid. At the time of the writer's visit (November 22-26, 1901)
cool, cloudy weather prevailed, and the nights were decidedly cold.

o Escard. Etude medicale et climatologique sur le pays de I'Oued Souf.
Archives de Med. et de Pharm. Milit, 7 : .33 (18SG).

6 Since the above chapter on climate was written the records of observations
made at El Oued during the whole of 1904 and parts of 1903 and 190.") have been
received, through the courtesy of the Director of the Meteorological Service of
Algeria. These observations necessitate some modifications in the previously
written discussion of the climate of the Souf. The absolute maximum tempera-
.ture at El Oued in 1904 was 121.8° F. in May instead of 127.5° F. in June. The
absolute minimum in 1904 was 32° F. The mean relative humidity during 1904
at El Oued was 58.8. which is lower than the normal at Tozer, in Tunis (G0.8),
but higher than the normal at Ouargla and Biskra, Algeria (47.2 and 48.4, re-
spectively), and at Yuma, Ariz. (42.9). The sum of the monthly means of
evaporation at El Oued in 1904 is 1.50 inches, while the normal at Tuzer is 94 to
98.5 inches. The total precipitation at El Oued in 1904 was 3.23 inches, while
the normal yearly total is 3.61 inches at Ouargla, 6.73 inches at Biskra, 5.1
inches at Tozer, and 2.83 inches at Yuma.

The ol)servations on the prevailing direction of the wind during 1904 and the
first half of 1905 do not agree with those made by Escard and quoted in the
text, but the data are insutticient for an adequate discussion of this factor.

As the climatic factor which is most important in date growing is probalily
the effective temperature during the ripening season, a calculation has been made
of the sum totals of daily mean and of daily maximum temperatures above
«^.4° F. (18° C.) during the months of May to October, 1904, at El Oued, and.
for the sake of comparison, of the sums for the same months of the same year
at Ouargla and Biskra, Algeria; Tozer, in Tunis, and Mecca, in the Salton
Basin. California. Records at Mecca for May and June. 1904. not being avail-
able, the records for those months at Imperial, Cal., were substituted in making

14

AGRICULTURE IN THE SAHARA DESERT.

Almost every winter freezing temperatures are reached, although
])robably the minima are higher and frosts are less frequent in the
Oued Souf than at Tougourt and at Tozer. In the winter of 1903-1
the absolute minimum was 32° F., and for several preceding winters

'27° F.

In respect to atmospheric humidity, the absence of surface water
probably tends to keep the air drier than is generally the case in the
oases of the Sahara.

The rainfall is said to be even less than in the Oued Eirh, wh'jre
the average yearly precipitation (at Tougourt) is only 5.3 inches.
Most of the rain is divided between two periods — October to Novem-
ber, and February to. March. The rains are generally torrential in
character and fall during several successive days, with intervals of
sunshine.

The sky is nearly always clear in summer. Toward the end of
August light clouds appear in the morning and evening, but no rain
falls until October. During the writer's four days' visit to the Souf

the calculations for Mecca, experience having shown that the temperatures
recorded at Mecca and at Imperial are very nearly identical.

Table I. — Sum of daily mean temperatures above 6J,..',° F. (18° C.) from May l to October

SI, 190J,.

Locality.

El Oued, Algeria.
Ouargla, Algeria .
Biskra, Algeria . .

Tozer, Tunis

Mecca, Cal

Degrees
Fahren-
heit.

Degrees
centi-
giade.

3,6T2.6
3,961.3
3, 140. 4
3,831.3
3,591.5

2,040.3
2, 200. 7
1,744.6
2,128.5
1,995.3

The sum of daily means at Biskra for 1904 is nearly 200° F. lower than the
normal, as based upt)n observations covering a period of 10 years (see W. T.
Swingle, Bui. No. 53. Bureau of Plant Industry, p. GO), and the sum at Mecca
for that year is about 400° F. lower than the normal for Indio, Cal.. a few miles
distant.

Table II. — Sutn of daily maximum temperatures above 6k4° F- {1S° C.) from May 1 to

October 31, 190!,.

Locality.

El Oued, Algeria.
Ouargla, Algeria
Biskra, Algeria . -

Tozer, Tunis

Mecca, Cal

Degrees

Degrees

Fahren-

centi-

heit.

grade.

6,325.7

3,514.3

6,501.6

3,612.0

5,219.1

2,899.5

5,903.6

3,279.8

6,370.1

3,539.0

In calculating the sums of daily ma.ximum temperatures allowance was made
for mean monthly minima falling below 04.4° F., in accordance with the prac-
tice suggested by Swingle (ibid., p. 07). The sum of daily maximum tempera-
tures at Biskra during May to October. 1004, is alwut 2.50° F. lower than the
normal for 12 years (Swingle, ibid., p. 68). The sum for Mecca is about 700°
F. lower than that for Imperial, Cal.. in 1902.

CLIMATE. 15

at the end of November the sky was overcast about half of the time,
and there were occasional gusts of cold, drizzling rain.

Winds are probably more frequent and more violent in the Oued
Souf than in the other groups of oases mentioned. It would appear,
in fact, that windiness is the ordinary condition there. During the
winter, northwest and northeast winds prevail. From April to
October, however, the wind is generally from the south (the sirocco)
or the southeast (the simoom). The sirocco is the hottest wind, but
is less frequent than the simoom, which is generally more violent and
transports more sand. All these are winds that blow more or less
steadily for several hours and often days at a time. Cyclonic sand
storms also occur, arising suddenly and lasting but a short time.
Such storms are never accompanied by rain.

Owing to the lack of natural vegetation (see PL II), and the fine-
ness of the sand with which the country is covered, strong winds
carry with them a great deal of material, so that the face of the land
is being constantly altered. This is shown by the fact that an
apparently fresh wagon track noticed by the writer on his journey
from Xefta was completely buried in many places by large heaps of
sand. During his four days' stay in the Souf country, a strong wind
blew constantly, often making travel difficult, as the particles of sand
stung the face and made it hard at times to keep the eyes open. The
air was frequently so full of sand that one could see but a few rods
ahead.

The slopes of the dunes that border the gardens are very steep, so
that when a heavy wind is blowing much sand rolls down upon the
floor of the garden. Generally there is a fence or palisade along the
crest of the dunes, made by sticking palm leaves or pieces of gvpsum
rock close together (PL II, fig. 3; PL III, fig. 1; PL IV, fig. 1), but
this only partly arrests the blowing and drifting sand, and it is nec-
essary to remove it frequently from the gardens. The task is a labo-
rious one, as the sand must be carried up the steep hillside in baskets
and dumped on the outer sloj)e of the dunes. But if it were neglected,
in a few years the trees would be buried, especially in smaller gardens.
The writer saw several little gardens that had been abandoned by
their owners where the basin was almost filled and only the crowns
and a small part of the trunks of the trees still projected above the
soil.

Another injurious effect of the sand-carrying winds is that when
harvested the dates always have more or less sand adhering to the
skin, and this must be brushed or washed oft' before they are fit for
export. Dates that had been kept for some weeks in the houses of
natives, and even those freshly gathered from the trees, were very
unpalatal)le to the writer on this account; although the Souafas them-
selves do not seem to mind eating a good deal of sand Avith their dates.

16 AGRICULTURE IN THE SAHARA DESERT.

WATER SUPPLY.

There is no surface water in the whole Souf country, excepting,
possibly, a small sebka, or salt pond, of which the writer was told,
but which he did not see. There are no natural springs, although
ground water is everywhere very near the surface in the hollows-
among the dunes. It is said to occur sometimes in strata of pure
quartz sand, sometimes in gypseous sand. The distance to standing
water is said to reach as much as 40 feet in ditferent j^arts of the
region, although averaging considerably less; but in the bottoms
of the basins in which date palms are grown it is encountered often
at a depth of only 2 or 3 feet below the surface of the soil, thanks to
the extensive excavation that has been done. In one garden, near
the town of El Oued, the writer saw water standing at a depth of 0
feet in a large hole that had been dug to receive manure. The Souf
oases are believed to mark the course of a buried Quaternary stream ;
Oued Souf means " murmuring river." "

As we shall presently see, the date palm is not irrigated in the Souf
country, receiving at most a few waterings l)y hand during the first
summer after planting. In almost all the gardens, however, shallow
w:ells occur,^ the water of which is used for household purposes and
for irrigating small plats of garden vegetables. (PI. Ill, fig. 3.)
These are generally situated on the slope of the bordering dunes, 10
feet or less above the bottom of the basin, and water stands in them
at a depth of 10 to 16 feet. In the town of El Oued the wells are
much deeper than in the gardens, water standing in them at 30 to 40
feet. All this water is under a slight pressure, rising in the wells
about 1.5 feet higher than the general water table. Sinall gardens of
vegetables and tobacco,^ irrigated from deeper wells, are also located
in some parts of the region far above the bottoms of the ])asins. Prac-
tically no grain is raised, wheat and barley being brought by caravan
from other parts of Algeria and from Tunis, to be exchanged for
dates.

« It is difficult to obtain a very satisfactory idea as to the distribution of tbe
ground water in the Souf region, its depth at various points, and the amount of
excavation necessary to enable the roots of the palms to reach it easily. The
natives themselves give the most conflicting answers to questions upon this
subject, and there are serious discrepancies in the accounts that have been
published by French authorities upon irrigation. The whole matter evidently
needs to be carefully studied by comjietent hydrographers, a study which is cer-
tainly warranted by the rarity of this type of agriculture.

6 In 1883 RoUand estimated that there were 4,4.31 wells in the Souf region.

'Tobacco growing, which is unrestricted in Algeria, is a protttable Industry in
the Souf country on account of that region's nearness to the frontier of Tunis,
where the growing of this crop is forbidden by law and where the selling of
tobacco is controlled by the government. Agents of the Tunisian tobacco
monopoly frequently visit the Oued Souf to purchase supplies.

WATER SUPPLY. 17

The plats of vegetables that are irrigated from wells in the date
gardens are situated on terraces constructed in the side of the sand
hills, usually 10 feet or less above the floor of the basin. (PL III,
figs. 1 and 3.) The well water is raised by hand in a shallow bucket,
generally made of basketware covered outside with pitch, but some-
times of goatskin, which is hung on the small end of a slender palm
trunk and counterpoised by a piece of rock fastened to the large end.
The pole is fastened by its center to a crosspiece that is supported by
two vertical posts made of stouter palm logs or of cemented rock. The
bucket is emptied into a little cement basin adjoining the well curb,
whence the water flows through a system of small conduits into the
plats that are to be irrigated. Flood irrigation alone is practiced. As
there is no soil in the region from which ditch banks and ridges that
Avill stand up when wet can be made, the conduits and ridges of the
plats, as well as the lining and curb of the well, are made of the
same clark-gray plaster with which the walls of the houses are
cemented. Plugs of wool are used for stopping the conduits at places
where water is to be diverted into the plats. Among the vegetables
jnost commonly grown are cabbages, turnips, radishes, carrots, pump-
kins, melons, watermelons, onions, tomatoes (a small-fruited sort),
and peppers.

In parts of the Souf region, especially east of the capital town,
El Oued, the water of the wells is said often to contain enough mag-
nesium and other salts to make it disagreeable for drinking." West
of the town, on the other hand, the water is said to be generally very
pure. Tlie difference is thought to be sufficiently great to have a
marked effect upon the quality of the dates, the most renowned
Deglet Noors of the Souf region being produced near the village of
El Amiche, where the water is purest. The peculiar character of
the water supply of the Oued Souf is not without advantages. Emi-
nent authorities are of the opinion that the underground sheet is
abundant and that it is much less liable to exhaustion than in the
Oued Rirh, where numerous flowing artesian wells exist.

o Well water in the Souf. according to an analysis cited by Jus (Les oasis

du Souf du Departenient de Constantine. Rul. Acad. d'Hippone, No. 22, p. 67

(1880), has the following contents of .solid matter in grams per liter of

water :

Sulphates 1. 099.5

Chlorids . 7769

Carbonates . 2999

Nitrates and dissolved organic matter .0690

Silicates, etc., in suspension . 0335

Total 3. 1786

Schirnier (Le Sahara, p. 261) states that the mean salt content of well water
at El Oued is 2.77 grams per liter.

18 AGRICULTURE IN THE SAHARA DESERT.

SOILS.

The soil of the whole Oued Souf region is a fine-grained, light-
yellow quartz sand, Avliich is practically uniform in character to a con-
siderable depth.* Here and there beds of a coarse, rather soft, gyp-
seous rock occur at a depth, it is said, of 10 to 20 feet and in strata
1.5 to 10 feet thick. The crystals of which this rock is composed
are very large, often 1 foot long. They are often aggregated into
masses which, on account of their shape, are known as " Souf roses." ^
It is therefore a fair inference that the Souf soils are sufficiently
rich in lime. They are very poor in organic matter and doubtless in
nitrogen. Other data as to their composition are wanting.

In the eastern part of the region the soil of all the gardens is said
to be somewhat saline, and the writer was told that there is even a
small sebka (salt pond) in that section, although he saw nothing of
these conditions. There is said to be nowhere enough salt to injure
seriously the palms themselves, but the yields of fruit are diminished
by this cause, and the dates are somewdiat smaller and of slightly
inferior quality. Consequently, palms in full bearing in the gardens
west of El Oued are worth from two to ten times as much as those
in the gardens east of that town. The Souafas do not pretend to
distinguish some varieties of the date palm as being more resistant
to salt than others, as do the inhabitants of the Djerid oases, where
the salinity of the soil is often very pronounced. Neither have they
adopted any special methods of preparing and handling salt land
by drainage, flooding, or otherwise, as is the case in the Tunisian
oases. It is fortunate for the Souafas that their soils are not saline,
or but very slightly so, as it is hard to see how they could possibly
reclaim strongly saline lands in view of the conditions of water sup-
ply in their country.

THE DATE GARDENS.

Let us now have a closer look at the gardens. (PI. Ill, figs. 1
and 2.) The craterlike basins which they occupy are generally cir-
cular or nearly so, and from 35 to 50 feet deep. The bottom is
entirely given up to the palms. Descending to the floor of the basin,

aAccoi'ding to .Jus this hard quartz sand extends to a depth of 3.5 to 4.5 feet ;
next there are from 7 to 8.5 feet of a " reddish gypseous sand ; " and then 3 to
3.5 feet of either " a fine quai'tz sand " or " a yellow gypseous sand."

6 The composition of this rock, as given by Jus (ibid., p. GO), is:

Per cent.

Quartz sand 37. OO

Clay __'_ 5. 10

Gypsum 41. 40

Carbonate of lime '_ 3. 20

Carbonate of maffnesisi 1. 50

Water '___ n. 43

THE DATE GARDENS. 19

or " g:hitaii," as the natives term it, we find it to be a practically level
expanse of clean, bare sand, checkered with the bright sunlight and
the singularly black shadows that are cast by the trunks and leaves.
(PL V, fig. 1.) The palms stand farther apart than in the gardens
owned by natives in the Djerid and the Oued Rirh, but are not
planted in rows and at equal intervals, as in the French plantations
in the latter region. ^Miile native gardens elsewhere in the Sahara
are a perfect jungle of various fruit trees, besides garden vegetables,
barley, and alfalfa underneath the palms, in the Oued Souf one sees
only scattered pomegranate and fig trees, and the groves have an un-
familiarly open and bare look. While in other oases the soil is
often rich and black and is almost always moist, here it is quite dry
on the surface. One misses, too, the irrigation and drainage ditches
by which the gardens of the Djerid and the Oued Rirh are cut up into
small plats.

Another feature of the Souf date orchards that immediately at-
tracts attention is the enormous thickness of the trunks of the trees.
They sometimes attain 3 feet in diameter. (PI. V, fig. 2.) This is
probably due to the trees being comparatively far apart, thus receiv-
ing plenty of light and air from every side, and is, perhaps, also to
some extent a reaction to the butfeting of the sand-laden winds. At
any rate, it is a useful character, giving the trees power to withstand
the winds that prevail here to a greater extent than in the other
oases of the northern Sahara. The relatively small height of the
palms, which rarely exceed 30 feet in the Oued Souf, gives them a
further advantage in this respect. Frequently, when the base of the
trunk has become weakened and there is danger of the tree blowing
down, the natives make a " dokana," or low, circular mound of soil,
plastered on the outside, to strengthen it. (See PI. V, fig. 1.)

The palms are almost invariably strong and healthy looking. The
foliage is extraordinarily well developed, and the leaves commonly
measure 15 to 20 feet long. The yields of fruit, as stated by the
natives, are very heavy.

So unusual are the conditions under which date palms are grown
in the Souf country that further details as to the methods used by
the natives can not fail to be interesting.

PLANTING.

As the date palm is a tree that requires a great deal of water, it
can evidently be grown in a dry country without surface irrigation
only in places where its roots <^an quickly make their way to ground
water. This is exactly the condition obtaining in the Oued Souf,
where the palms are artificially watered only during the first suunner
after the otlshoots are planted, and ai-e then left to shift for them-
selves, so far as water supply is concerned.

20 AGRICULTURE IN THE SAHARA DESERT.

As we have seen, the bottoms of the basins where the palms are
grown are not only far below the summits of the surrounding sand
hills, the height of which is increased by the sand removed in exca-
vating the Gardens, but are even considerablv lower than the mean
surface of the country. It is said that in starting a new garden the
practice is first to sink a well in the bottom of the basin in order
to find out the depth at which water stands. The floor of the basin
is then scooped out until it is so near ground water that when a hole
1^ to 4 feet deep is made to receive the young palm its roots will
have to descend only about 1 or 1^ feet to reach standing water. It
is said that to attain the desired depth it is generally necessary to
remove 10 to 20 feet of sand.

The date palm is always artificially planted in the Oued Souf,
never springing up spontaneously from seed, as in other oases. It
is never planted elsewhere than on the floor of the basins among the
dunes, or at most a very few feet above the bottom. These basins
are probably in all cases natural depressions, but are artificially
deepened to facilitate the roots reaching ground water. New gar-
dens are frequently started in unoccupied basins, and old ones belong-
ing to enterprising owners are being constantly extended b}^ cutting
down the slopes of the bordering sand hills and planting a few palms
every year or so. (See PL III, fig. 2.) The larger and better-situ-
ated basins are now all occupied by gardens, and for the newest
plantations it is often necessary to use small, shallow depressions,
where there is frequently room for but half a dozen trees. Some-
times the slope is not cut down quite to the level of the older part of
the garden, the new pahns being set out slightly above the level, on a
terrace made in the side of the sand hills. (PI. IV, fig. 1.) "\\lien
planted on the slope or near the foot of it, sections of palm log or a
number of palm leaves are placed on the uphill edge of the hole to
check the drifting of sand into it.

Owing to the scarcity of offshoots in the Souf region, the work of
extending the gardens does not proceed as rapidly as the energetic
population could wish. The French attribute the nonproduction of
offshoots in the Souf to the fact that the palms are so valuable there
that it does not pay to let the offshoots develop, absorbing a part
of the energy that would otherwise go to fruit production. They
believe that the Souafas find it actually cheaper to send to the Oued
Rirh for suckers, paying 40 to GO cents apiece for them in addition
to the cost of transportation, than to let them grow on their own trees.
Economic considerations aside, however, it is probable that the date
palm does not sucker as freely in the Oued Souf as in other oases,
because of the dry condition of the surface soil, never wet Ijy irriga-
tion, and because the blowing sand tends to bury the young ofl'shoots
and to lacerate their tender buds. The natives, when questioned

THE DATE GARDEiSTS. 21

about the comparative rarity of offshoots at the base of their pahns,
reply simply that it is due to the absence of irrigation, without going
into details. Whatever may be the cause of the deficiency, there is a
great demand. for oif shoots, and to supply this demand caravans are
sent to procure suckers, especially of the Deglet Xoor variety, to Tou-
gourt, or even as far as Ouargla, 135 miles away. In those oases they
are produced more freely, the palms being irrigated.

Offshoots for planting are generally taken from the mother palm
about the end of February. The natives say that they could be
planted even earlier, but in that case the parent tree is likely to suffer
from the access of cold air to the wound made in cutting off the sucker.
In case the offshoots are removed in midwinter, their bases are slightly
charred before planting, and this is thought to protect them from the
cold.

The hole made to receive the young palm is sometimes as much as
C) feet in diameter, but probably in most cases less. Its depth, as we
have seen, depends largely upon the distance to ground water, being
generally 1^ to 3 feet in the bottom of the gardens near the town of El
Oued. A young palm was seen near El Oued that had been set out
near a well about G feet above the bottom of a garden, in a hole 3^
feet deep. (See PL IV, fig. 1.)

The palms are not set out in straight lines. They stand much far-
ther apart than in gardens belonging to natives in other oases, 50
feet being the average distance. This wide planting is probably
necessitated by the poverty of the soil, which is practically a pure
sand, while the almost entire absence of subsidiary cultures makes the
shade afforded by close planting less valuable than in other oases.

It is estimated that the planting and care of a young Deglet Xoor
palm up to the time it begins to yield costs $25 in the Oued Souf, as
against $5 to $10 in the Djerid oases of Tunis.

CARE OF PALM8.

During the first summer after it is planted the palm ma}^ receive a
few irrigations by hand Avitli water from the well that is situated on
the hillside in nearly every garden, although it is said that frequently
no irrigation whatever is given. "While still very small, before the
leaves have grown out enough to project far above the mouth of the
hole in which it is planted, the tree is protected from drought and
from the cold of winter by covering the hole with palm leaves, dead
pumpkin vines, etc.

^^lien the palms are manured the sand that has piled up into a
low mound around the base of the tree is removed and the soil beneath
is thoroughly worked. This is apparently the only cultivation the
trees receive.

22 AGRICULTUKE ' IN THE SAHARA DESERT.

FIGHTING THE SAND.

AVhile elsewhere in the Sahara irrigation entails the heaviest labor
connected \Yith palm culture, in the Oued Souf it is the struggle that
must be waged with the constantly encroaching sand that demands
the tireless efforts of the gardeners. Every strong wind carries great
volumes of sand. The slight fences of ])alm leaves and the low Avails
of gypseous rock that are constructed along the crests of the bordering
dunes are only a partial protection against this invasion. Once over
these weak barriers, the sand rolls down the steep slopes almost like
water. The danger is always present, but is most pressing when the
dates are ripening. Then bunches of fruit that hang close to the
ground can be half buried by a few hours of high wind, and only the
most strenuous etforts can save them. If a second storm occurs before
the bulk of the sand is removed, the crop is hopelessly lost.

The work of cleaning out the basins is very laborious, being done,
like the original excavation, almost entirely by hand. Travelers in
this region have compared this work to the activities of ants, rather
than of men. Laborers shovel the sand into baskets and carry them
in a ceaseless procession to the top of the slope, their feet sinking
deep into the flowing sand at every step. After a heavy sand storm
tlie work must be continued from dawn to dark. In summer, during
the blazing midday hours, the heat is too great for such heavy labor,
and the removal of the sand goes on at night and in the early morn-
ing hours. At times a large part of the population of the region is"
engaged in this heavy task. It is paid for at the rate of 1 cent for
every 5 baskets of sand, and the laborer has, in addition, the privilege
of eating as many dates as he desires in the garden in which he is
working. Only rich proprietors use the sturdy little gray donkeys
of the Souf for transporting the sand from their gardens.

MANURING.

The soil of the Oued Souf is practically nothing but pure sand,
containing even in the older palm gardens very little organic matter.
Manuring is consequently essential not only to the production of good
yields but even to the well-being of the palm itself."

It is not uncommon in the Souf country to see palms that have
thick trunks up to a certain point, above which they contract more or
less abruptly to a much smaller diameter. In many cases, at a still
greater height, the trunk again becomes thicker. I'his state of things
is explained by the natives as due to a partial starvation of the tree at

" For tlint matter, innmirinir is jjceiun-ally practiceil by good farmers in tlio
oases of tlie Oued Kirli and tlic DJerid, altliongli tlierc the iirowiiiic of Icmmii-
iious food and foi-a.iro crops (liroad beans and alfalfa) helps to restore-to the soil
llic nilrogon that is taken ii]) by tho palms.

THE DATE GARDENS. 23

the time when the trunk began to diminish in size. If manure is
subsequently supplied to it, the palm is soon able to return to its
normal rate of groAvth and the trunk again becomes larger.

Palms are not manured until they are 10 or 12 years old. At that
age each tree usually receives 10 sacks (5 camel loads) of manure,
half of which is applied on one side of the trunk the first year and
the other half on the other side the following year. Thereafter, in
order to obtain the highest yields, the trees should be manured every
twelve or fifteen years, although sometimes thirty years are allowed
to elapse between two manurings. Older palms receive as much as
14 sacks of manure (7 at each application). Camels' dung (see
PI. IV, fig. 2) only is used for date palms in the Oued Souf, although
in the oases of Tunis that of donkeys is preferred, the natives there
considering camel manure injurious where irrigation is practiced.
The cost of a sackful of camel manure in the Oued Souf was stated
by one informant to be 25 to 30 cents, while another placed it at 40
to 45 cents. In either case it is evidently an expensive article.

Manure is never used until it is thoroughly rotted, and even then it
is not allowed to come into direct contact with the base of the tree.
It is placed in a hole that is dug to a depth of 8 to G feet below^ the
general level of the floor of the basin and at a distance of 5 or (> feet
from the foot of the palm. When several neighboring palms are to
be manured at the same time, the hole is dug in the center of the space
among them, and is made so large that none of the palms is more than
0 feet distant from its edge." The hole is then filled with a mixture
of one part manure and one part of a bright yellow sand called
'' baker," which is somewhat more loamy and probably contains more
gypsum than the surface sand of the region, and is obtained at a
greater depth. Unmixed manure is never used, even though thor-
oughly rotted, being considered injurious to the palm roots. The soil
removed in digging the hole is never put back, being '' dirty," as the
natives express it.

October is considered the best season for applying manure, al-
though March is also a good time. Unskillful growers sometimes
manure their palms at other seasons, but this is thought to do more
harm than good. Sometimes, unless the hole is opened and the
manure removed as soon as the tree shows signs of injury, it is said
to die from the effects of manuring at the Avrong period.

The effect of manuring upon the yield is large and almost imme-
diate. It is said that a tree which bears 200 pounds of dates one j^ear
will often give 400 pounds the season following if meanwhile manure

" One such bole, freshly excavated at the time of the writer's visit, occupied
much the greater part of the area .-unoni; four ])alnis. I)eing 12 feet long and .">
feet wide. It was divided unequally by a narrow ridge of soil left in i)lace.
The object of this division could not be learned.

24 AGRICULTURE IN THE SAHARA DESERT.

has been applied. No distinction between varieties is made in the
Oued- Souf in manuring, nor, so far as could be ascertained, in regard
to other cultural practices.

HARVEST.

At the time of the writer's visit (November 22-20, 1904) the date
harvest had been completed in all the gardens of the Souf country.
The Deglet Noor harvest is said generally to begin about October 25.
In the Tunisian oases, on the other hand, the harvest of Deglet Noor
and Fteemy dates — the two most important varieties — was at its
height in November, and continued throughout December and even
the earlier part of January. Of course, in the latter case many of
the dates were ripe long before they were gathered, and the long,
duration of the harvest was largely due to the relative scarcity of the
expert labor required, the crop being many times as large as in the
Souf. Yet it seems certain that in the Oued Souf, dates, especially
the Deglet Noor variety, ripen earlier than in the Oued Rirh oases
of Algeria or the Djerid oases of Tunis. This would be expected
from the fact that the summer is drier and likewise hotter in the
Oued Souf than in the oases of the Djerid. Furthermore, the situ-
ation of the gardens, in hollows bordered by hills of light-colored
sand that are generally higher than the tallest palms, is favorable to
an early ripening of the dates, as they must receive a great amount of
additional heat by reflection from the soil. More perfect natural
conditions for forcing fruit to early maturity could probably not be
found in the world.''

This greater heat and dryness of the Souf climate affect the fruit
in other ways than merely by hastening its ripening. The dates pro-
duced are reputed to be the best grown in the Sahara. They seem,
as a matter of fact, to be sweeter and at the same time drier and more
solid than in the Djerid. This is especially true of the Deglet Noor,
which is of decidedly firmer texture, containing less water. The
Souf dates are said to keep better and to be more adapted to export
than those of the other oases, showing less tendency to blacken and
become moldy.

It was a matter of regret to the writer that the harvest was not
witnessed in the Souf, although it could not be learned that the meth-
ods followed there differ from those practiced in other oases. So far

iRollaiid ( Hydi-ologie dn Sahara Alsei'ien. Taris. 1894. p. 222) describes the
l)asins as " a sort of fiery furnace, under the infiuence of solar radiation. The
.lates here attain i)erfect maturity. Here are realized, better tlian anywhere
else in the Sahara, the conditions assigned by the Arab proverb to the prosperity
of the palm and the excellence of its fruits : ' Its feet in the water and its head
in the fire of heaven.' "

THE DATE GAEDENS. 25

as is known, the pollination of the female flower clusters in the spring
is also effected in the same way as in the Oiied Rirh.'*

YIELDS.

It was impossible to secure verj^ reliable statements of yields from
the natives, but from all that could be learned these must be unusu-
ally large in the Souf country. The clusters of the Deglet Xoor are
said frequentl}^ to weigh over 55 pounds each, and to attain some-
times 90 pounds. Single trees of this variety, which is one of the
lightest bearing kinds, sometimes yield as much as 330 pounds in
the Oued Souf. It was estimated in 1883 that the date crop from the
175,000 palms (of all varieties) in full bearing then existing in the
Souf region was 7,000,000 pounds. This would mean an average
yield of 40 pounds per tree, as against an average yield of 28 pounds
estimated to have been produced in the Oued Rirh the same year.''
A good palm in full bearing is valued at from $50 to $130, according
to the variety to which it belongs.

The practice of planting the trees farther apart than in other oases
is perhaps one reason for the large yields. By wide planting, not
only do the roots of each palm have a larger feeding area, but the
trees do not shade each other so much and more of the fruit can
develop and ripen. Moreover, the climatic and topographical condi-
tions, as we have seen, are exceptionally favorable to the ripening of
dates.

VARIETIES CHIEFLY GROWN.

As has already been indicated in tliis paper, date palms in the
Oued Souf rarely, if ever, spring up from seed, as they do in other
oases where the conditions are more favorable to the spontaneous
development of the palui. They are propagated only by offshoots
that are taken from the parent tree and planted by the grower.
Consequently we do not see a multitude of seedlings, generally of
very inferior quality and of almost endless diversity of characters,
filling every Avaste corner and roadside and even crowding out good
trees in gardens that are not well cared for. Practically every palm
grown in the Souf belongs to some well-known and well-liked variety.

The number of varieties found in this region is considerable.
Most of the gardens contain a mixture of several kinds, although in
some of the recently created ones the tendenc}^ is to plant onl}- one

« Described in Bnl. .53, Bureau of Plant Industry, "The Date Palm," by W. T.
Swingle. 1004, pp. 2(i-29.

''These estimates are quoted from Rolland (ibid.. \,. 824:). The overwhelniin.u;
importance of the date rvo\) in the Souf region is shown by the fact that the
same author states the value of the 1883 crop of dates to have been $301,730,
while that of all other crops combined was only $20,900 in that year.

26 AGRICULTURE IN THE SAHARA DESERT.

sort, most often the Deglet Noor. Nearly all the popular varieties
of the Souf are also common in the Oued llirh."

On the other hand, some of the most characteristic Souf types are
very rare in the Djerid oases of Tunis, only 70 miles away. Such
individuals as occur there are mostly grown from offshoots that have
been brought directly from the Souf. The principal variety common
to the two regions is the Deglet Noor, which is now abundant in
Tunis, but is said to have been first introduced into that country from
Algeria about two hundred and fifty years ago. The Souafas still go
to the Oued Rirh oases to procure offshoots, and they very likely
brought thence those with which the first gardens were started among
the sand hills of the Souf.

The most important of the numerous varieties of the Souf, in point
of abundance as well as of quality, are, in about the order named:
Deglet Noor, Rhars, Tafazween, Massowa, Deglet Beida, and Taker-
mest. Of these Rhars is the earliest and Deglet Noor the latest to
ri])en. After the Deglet Noor, Tafazween is the best sort that is
widely grown. It is a large, reddish-bay-colored, translucent date,
very sweet and rich in flavor.'' A highly esteemed but very rare
variety is the Fezzani, which is said to be superior even to the Deglet
Noor when dried, and to keep well for two years. Rhars, a variety
that is celebrated for its heavy yields, is extensively planted.

In the Oued Souf, as in other oases of Algeria and Tunis, the
Deglet Noor is the only variety that has any importance as an article,
of export to Europe. It is consequently the most valuable, the more
so because the natives themselves generally esteem it above all others.
Deglet Noor dates are carried from the Souf by caravan to Biskra,
whence they are shipped by railway to the seaports. Souf Deglets
are said to be about the earliest to reach the Biskra market. Their
good keeping and shii^ping qualities have already been discussed as
probably due to the peculiar climatic conditions, which give them an
advantage over dates from oases where the palms are lavishly irri-
gated and the air is moister. On the other hand, they appear to be
smaller than those in the Djerid and to be inferior in color and gen-
eral appearance. The latter disadvantage is very likely due in great
part to the sand-laden w4nds to which they are exposed. The Deglet
Noor palm is said to be hardier in the Souf region than elsewhere,
showing greater resistance to disease and to unfavorable climatic
conditions. The foliage of the date palm appears to be less subject
to the attacks of scale insects than in other oases, Avhich is perhaps
attributable to the extreme dryness of the atmosphere.

« Exceptions are said to be the Fezzani, Massowa, Ali Rashid, and Guettara
varieties.

& Twenty offshoots of this variety were obtained from the Oned Souf for trial
in tlie United States tln-ough the liindness of the French commandant at El
Oued. Captain Bussy.

CONCLUSION, 27

CONCLUSION.

The type of agriculture practiced in the Oued Souf is not tlrv-
laiid farming, for it depends upon the ground water, which in ihe
gardens is everywhere near the surface of the soiL It affords us,
however, an excellent object lesson of Avhat can be done under the
most adverse natural conditions in producing a valuable crop, for
throughout riorthern Africa the Oued Souf is renowned for the large
yields of its date orchards and the high quality of their fruit.

It may be that nowhere in the United States are the conditions with
respect to ground water such as to allow of a close imitation of
agricultural methods used in the Souf countrv. One lesson is, how-
ever, to be drawn from them. The sand hills concentrate and reflect
so much heat that the hollows among them ar-e veritable forcing
houses, where dates ripen considerably earlier than elsewhere. Have
we not here a hint of what may be done in the Salton Basin and
perhaps in other hot, arid regions in the Southwest where large sand
dunes exist, and where artesian or other sources of water supply
for irrigation are available? It seems certain that in pockets of
this character excavated among the dunes the Deglet Xoor and other
valuable varieties of dates could be forced to early maturity.

Dates ripened in this way a few weeks ahead of the bulk of the
crop would command a fancy price, especially as the quality of the
fruit produced under these conditions would in all probability be
exceptionally flne. Nor are the possibilities limited to the date
palm. Other fruits, such as figs, pomegranates, and grapes, could
perhaps thus be put upon the market in advance of those from any
other locality in the United States. The experiment is certainly
worth trying. The American fruit grower, awake as he is to every
new idea, may find something worthy of imitation in the example of
these sturdy inhabitants of a remote corner of the Sahara.

PLATES.

29

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I. {Frontispiece.) General view of the Oued Souf region from the town of
El Oued, showing sand dunes and sunken gardens of date palms.

Plate II. Fig. 1. — High sand dunes east of El Oued. The group is standing on
a ridge separated hy a ravine from the very liigh dune in the background.
Fig. 2. — A ty])ical dwelling house of the Oued Souf, showing its cubical
form and roof composed of flattened cupolas. Fig. 3. — General view of the
Oued Souf region, showing sunken date gardens and sand dunes. Fence of
dead italm leaves along crest of dune in foreground.

I'L^VTE III. Fig. 1. — Near view of sunken palm garden and surrounding dunes.
Vegetable garden in left foreground, showing small size of checks. Near it
a young ]ialm. planted in a hole. Fig. 2. — Gradual extension of a iialm garden
liy cutting down bordering sand hills. Oldest palms in background, youngest
in foreground. Fig. ."]. — Vegetable garden irrigated by well near l)ottom of
basin in which date palms are grown.

Plate IV. Fig. 1. — Hole on slope of dune near bottom of basin in which a young
palm is planted. Fig. 2. — Camel manure ready for application in a date
garden.

Plate V. Fig. 1. — " Dokana," or mound of earth and plaster for strengthening
the base of a palm. Shows also distance between trees, absence of. other
cultures, and play of light and shadow on floor of basin. Fig. 2. — Rhars
palm, showing thickness of trunk.

30

O

Bui. 86, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Fig. 1.— High Sand Dunes East of El Oued.

Fig. 2.— a Typical Dwelling House of the Oued Souf, Showing its Cubical
Form and Roof Composed of Flattened Cupolas.

Fig. 3.— General View of the Oued Souf Region, Showing Sunken Date

Gardens and Sand Dunes.

Bui. 86, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate III.

Fig. 1.— Near View of Sunken Palm Garden and Surrounding Dunes.

Fig. 2.— Gradual Extension of a Palm Garden by Cutting Down Bordering

Sand Hills.

Fig. 3.— Vegetable Garden Irrigated by Well near Bottom of Basin in which

Date Palms are Grown.

Bui. 86, Bureau of Plant fndustry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IV.

Fig. 1.— Hole on Slope of Dune near Bottom of Basin in which a
Young Palm is Planted.

Fig. 2.— Camel Manure Ready for Application in a Date Garden.

Bui. 86, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate V.

31

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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAtJ^OF PLANT IPUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 87.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

DISEASE RESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

BY

L. R. JONES,

Botanist of the Vermont Agricultural Experiment

Station, and Collaborator of the Bureau

OF Plant Industry.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATIONS.

Issued December 5, 1905.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1905.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

B. T. GALLOWAY,

Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Albert F. Woods, Pathologic and Physiologist in Charge, Acting Chief of Bureau in Absence of Chief.

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge.

FARM MANAGEMENT.
W. J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
G. B. Brackett, Poinologist in Charge.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.
A. J. PlETERS, Botanist in Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.
L. C. CoRBETT, Horticulturist in Charge.

INVESTIGATIONS IN THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL

PLANTS.
O. F. Cook, Bionoinist in Charge.

DRUG AND POISONOUS PLANT INVESTIGATIONS, AND TEA CULTURE INVESTIGATIONS.

Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge.

DRY LAND AGRICULTURE AND WESTERN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.
Carl S. Scofield, Agriculturist in Charge.

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.
E. M. Byrnes, Superintendent.

SEED LABORATORY.
Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge.

J. E. Rockwell, Editor.
James E. Jones, Chief Clerk.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge.

Erwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Pathology.

Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge ejf Laboratory of Plant Breeding.

Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Life History.

Newton B. Pierce, Pathologist in Charge of Pacific Coast Laboratory.

M. B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge of Investigations of Diseases of Orchard Fruits.

Mark AlfreI) Carleton, Ceredlist in Charge of Cerecd Laboratory.

Hermann von Schrenk, in Charge of Mississippi Valley Laboratory.

P. H. Rolfs, Pathologist in Charge of Subtropical Laboratory.

C. O. TowNSEND, Pathologist in Charge of Sugar Beet Investigations.

T. H. Kearney, A. D. Shamel, Physiologists, Plant Breeding.

P. H. DoRSETT," Cornelius L. Shear, William A. Orton, W. M. Scott, Ernst A. Bessey, E. M. Free-
man, Pathologists.

E. C. Chilcott, Kvpertin Cultivating Methods, Cereal Laboratory.

C. R. Ball, Assistant Agrostologist, Cereal Laboratory.

Joseph S. Chamberlain, bj. Arthur Le ChERc,c Physiological Chemints.

Flora W. Patterson, Mycologist.

Charles P. Hartley, Karl F. Kellerman, Jesse B. Norton. Charles J. Brand, T. Ralph Rob-
inson, Assistants in Physiology.

Deane B. Swingle, George G. Hedgcock, Assistants in Pathology.

Perley Spaulding, p. J.O'Gara, Florence Hedges, Henry A." Miller, Ernest B. Brown, Leslie
A. FiTz, Leonard L. Harter, John O. Merwin, A. H. Leidigh, H. F. Blanchard, Scientific
Assistants.

W. W. CoKKY, Tobacco Expert.

John van Leenhoff, Jr., T. D. Beckwith, Experts.

o Detailed to Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution.
''Detailed to Bureau of Chemistry,
c Detailed from Bureau of Chemistry.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,

Washington, D. C.^ October 7, 1905.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript of a
technical paper entitled "Disease Resistance of Potatoes,'' which
embodies a report upon investigations conducted in cooperation with
the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station.

This paper is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of disease

resistance in European and American varieties of potatoes, and I

respectfulh" reconunend that it be issued as Bulletin No. 87 of the

series of this Bureau.

Respectfully, B. T. Galloway,

Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James AVilson,

Seci'etary of Agriculture.

3

PREFACE

The potato is one of the most important food. crops of the United
States. It is, moreov^er, one which is subject to a number of serious
plant diseases. Some of these, notably the late-blight, can be con-
trolled by spraying-. Yet this remedy is not applied by all farmers,
and the annual loss amounts to many millions of dollars. Other dis-
eases, like drj^-rot and the bacterial blight, are not controlled by spray-
ing and require a different line of treatment. The subject of disease
resistance in plants has received increased attention of late, and it is
likel}^ that the introduction of disease-resistant varieties of potatoes,
by supplementing- spraying and special cultural practices, will be
of great practical value in lessening the waste caused by disease.
Although but little has been done in the United States toward secur-
ing varieties resistant to disease, the attention of potato specialists in
other countries has already been directed toward this aim.

As a preliminary step in our work, Dr. L. K. Jones, ])otanist of the
Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, was counnissioned to
inquire into the occurrence of potato diseases abroad and the methods
employed for their control, particularly with reference to the produc-
tion of disease-resistant varieties. Doctor Jones spent six months —
from April to September, 1904 — in this work.

In the course of Doctor Jones's European itinerary, information of
more or less value was secured at the following places, successively,
and this was supplemented by a considerable correspondence covering
a somewhat wider area: Marseille, Naples, Florence, Munich, Halle,
Berlin and vicinity, Dresden and vicinity, Bonn and vicinity, Wagen-
ingen (Holland), Amsterdam and vicinity, Groningen, Delft, Gembloux
(Belgium), Paris and vicinity, London and vicinity, Reading, Cam-
bridge, and Edinburgh and vicinity. The thanks of the Department
are accorded to the various officials and other botanists in the coun-
tries visited, whose uniform courtesies made possible the success of
the mission.

As shown in this report, a considerable number of varieties are
reputed to be disease resistant. The best of these were selected by
Doctor Jones, and limited quantities of seed tubers were imported by
the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution of the

6 PREFACE.

Bureau of Plant Industry. These are now being tested in trials con-
ducted in cooperation by the Bureau of Plant Industr}^ and the State
experiment stations in Vermont, Florida, Colorado, and Oregon, and
by the Bureau at the Arlington Experimental Farm, near Washing-
ton. In order fully to acclimatize the foreign varieties, these trials
will be continued for three 3'ears before a tinal report is made on their
adaptation to American conditions. This test, together with the
review of our present knowledge contained in this bulletin, will estab-
lish a proper foundation for future eli'orts in breeding better and more
disease-resistant varieties. The field for such work is very large.
Up to the present time most of the breeding has been for resistance
to the late-blight {PlnjtopJdliova infestan fi),2indi this will continue to be
the principal problem in the northern tier of States; but there is also
much promise of success in securing new varieties to resist scab, dr}"-
rot, bacterial blight, and other troubles, which in the Southern and
Western States are more injurious than late-blight. It is hoped tliat
potato specialists will give increasingly careful attention to this fea-
ture in their breeding and testing of varieties, for it is only by such a
general interest and effort that the desired information can quickl}^ be
secured.

Albert F. Woods,
Pathologist and Physiologist.

Office of Vegetable Pathological and

Physiological Investigations,

Washington, D. C'., October 6, 1905.

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction 9

Potato culture in Europe 9

Observations on potato diseases and disease resistance in Europe 12

Certain minor diseases 12

Internal brown spot 12

Filosite, or growing-out 13

Leaf-spot 13

Scabbiness of tubers 14

Potato scab 14

Varietal resistance to scab 15

Other scab-like diseases 16

Potato stem diseases 17

Blackleg 17

Other stem diseases 18

Late-blight and rot due to Phytophthora infestans 19

Resistance as shown toward late-blight and rot 20

Historical statement 20

The meaning of disease resistance 23

Disease resistance and vegetative vigor 23

The relation of hybridity to disease resistance 25

Improvement by selection 25

Are early or late varieties the more resistant? 26

Relation of source of seed and cultural methods to disease resistance 26

Composition and character of tubers as related to rot resistance 27

Character of stem and foliage as related to disease resistance 28

Disease-resistant varieties of Europe 28

Great Britain 29

Germany and Holland 30

France and Belgium 30

Disease-resistant varieties of America 31

Investigations at the experiment stations 31

Work at the Vermont station 32

Information secured by a circular of inquiry 33

Resistance to scab 35

Summary 37

7

B. P. T.-179. V. p. r. I.-140.

DISEASE RESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

INTRODUCTION.

Potatoes are liable to several diseases, some of greater economic
importance in one part of the country, some in another," The causes
of most of these have been determined, and remedies of more or less
practical value, chiefly spraying and seed disinfection, have been
found. The success of the agents of the Department of Agriculture
in securing disease-resistant varieties of various other plants has given
an added interest to the question as to what may be expected in the
way of securing disease-resistant varieties of potatoes. Inasmuch as
this matter has engaged the attention of the potato specialists of
Europe longer and more widely than has been the case in America,
the attempt has been made to glean from their experience whatever
may prove of assistance in furthering the work in this country.

In presenting the results it has seemed best for the sake of clearness
to discuss briefl}^ (1) certain general matters relating to potato culture
in Europe; (2) the potato diseases which occur there, with comments
on the resistance shown by particular varieties to each disease, and
then (3) to summarize the information obtainable in America as to
disease resistance of potatoes.

POTATO CTJI.TURE IN EUROPE.

Potato culture was introduced from America into Europe more than
three centuries ago. It was slower in its popularization there than in
this country, but to-day the potato crop is relatively more important,
both for food and for factory uses, in Europe than in America. This
is partly attributable to the greater success of maize as a starch-
producing plant in America and partly to the difference in economic

« Anyone not familiar with potato diseases should consult Farmers Bulletin No.
91, Potato Diseases and Their Treatment, by B. T. Galloway, which will be sent free
of charge upon application to a Senator, Representative, or Delegate in Congress, or
to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

8838— No. 87—05 2 9

10 DISEASE RESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

conditious — land and labor values and food habits — between the two con-
tinents. In the British Islands the annual acreage in the last decade''
was more than one and a quarter million; in France three times and in
Germany six times this amount. The crop in Great Britain is chiefl}^
used for human food; in France about -10 per cent is used in starch and
alcohol manufacture, and in Germany like conditions exist, with the
use of the potato for alcohol distillation promising to increase largely.

It is the German national policy so to improve processes of culture
and manufacture that potato alcohol may rival, if not displace, petroleum
for lighting and fuel purposes. Various organizations are aiding in
this movement, including the Deutschen-Kartoflel-Kultur-Station and
the Institut fiir Gahrungsgewerbe und Stiirkefabrikation. These
institutions, maintained partly b}" private endowment and membership
and partly by government aid, have been in operation about fifteen
years. Under the directorship of Profs. C. von Eckenbrecher and
W. Delbriick, respectively, the}" give attention to all matters pertain-
ing to potato culture, starch manufacture, and distillation, including
the breeding, selecting, and trial of new varieties. The}" work in close
cooperation with the various German experiment stations and private
potato specialists. No similar institutions were met with elsewhere in
Europe, although the potato growers of England have organized dur-
ing the last year an association of much promise, the National Potato
Society.

In any comparison of European with American varieties the diffei'-
ence in popular taste must be kept in mind. The English market is
like the American in giving preference to varieties with white flesh,
rich in starch, and in making little use of potatoes except for human
food. On the continent of Europe, however, only the varieties with
yellow flesh are rated as of first quality for table use. These are rela-
tively poor in starch and richer in protein than the white-fleshed varie-
ties, and when cooked they are not sufficiently dry and mealy to suit
the American taste. On the Continent the white-fleshed, starch- rich
potatoes are demanded by the starch factories and distilleries, and as a
result continental potato breeders have aimed to develop white-fleshed
varieties of high starch content and large productiveness, regardless
of table qualities, and anyone importing their varieties for use in
America must consider these facts. It is from England, therefore,
that we may expect the more promising varieties.

It is worthy of note in this connection that the difi^erence in char-
acter of the potato in popular favor in different countries is closely
related to differences in methods of cooking. The varieties with yel-
low flesh are inclined to sogginess when baked or boiled, l)ut are admir-
ably suited for frying. The starch-rich white potato, which is of

aSutton, A. W., Potatoes, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc, XTX (189*^), pp. 387-430.

POTATO CULTURE IN EUROPE. 11

highest quality when baked, may go to pieces if boiled and will not
hold together sufficiently for frying. In the latter case steam cooking
gives better results than boiling in water.*^

The methods of culture of potatoes vary somewhat in different Euro-
pean countries, as they do in America. In general, closer planting is
practiced than in this country, which is partly explained by the greater
number of unskilled laborers in Europe. A matter of more pertinence
to the present discussion is that much more attention is given, espe-
cially in England, to the source and handling of seed potatoes than is
generally the case in America. The best informed English srrowers
considered that this has much to do with the question of disease resist-
ance, as will be explained later. Indeed, it has come to be accepted
by them that, for the best results, seed potatoes should be imported
from some more northern region, at least as often as every third or
fourth year, and this is done by many large growers every j^ear.
English growers use Scotch seed very largel3\ On the grounds of
Sutton & Sons, Reading, England, a comparative trial was conducted
during the summer of lf)Oj- with a number of varieties, using seed
from Scotland, middle England (Lincolnshire), and southern England,
respectively. When these plats were visited in August, the vigor of
the plants was in all cases greatest from the Scotch-grown seed and
least from that grown in the south of England. In certain varieties
the development of the tops was as two to one. At the Cambridge Uni-
versity farms, located in the famous potato region of Lincolnshire
fens, it was said that Scotch-grown seed did better than home-o-rown
there and in the Lincolnshire district generally.

A large potato-growing company of the Canary Islands uses Ger-
man in preference to English seed, because the growth from the latter
is too rank and the tubers are too large. Potato growers on the island
of Jersey in recent years have sent to England and Scotland for their
seed. Italy and the Mediterranean islands look to France and Ger-
many largel3^

While some American potato growers recognize the importance of
the source of seed and attend to this point consistently, there is gener-
ally indifference, disagreement, or lack of information on this subject,
as Eraser'' has recently shown. It is a matter deserving of further
careful inquiry and experiment.

«The writer is indebted to Professor Petermann for calling his attention to these
matters. For a further discussion of this subject reference may be made to Peter-
mann, A., Etudes sur la pomme de terre, Bui. de I'lnst. Chini. et Bact., No. 70, ( Jem-
bloux (Beljiium), 1901; and Condon and Bussard, Annalesde la science agronomique,
I, Paris, 1(S97. To the latter, credit may l)e given for showing that the behavior of
the potato in cooking is primarily dependent not So much on the total percentage
of starch contained as on the relative percentages of starch and protein. The proper
proportion of the protein is necessary to hold the starchy mass together when cooked.

''Fraser, S., The Potato, New York, 1905, pp. 51-52.

12 DISEASE RESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

The relation of the maturit}' of seed to its value has also received
considerable attention in Great Britain. Some of the best practical
potato growers prefer to have potatoes intended for seed dug before
they are fully mature, i. e., while the tops are still green and the outer
skin of the tuber rubs up easily. These tubers are then allowed to lie
on the ground a short time to " harden" in the light, i. e., to dry and
be slighth' sunburned, before they are put into storage.

The practice of '"boxing" is common and very highly commended.
This consists of setting the tubers with "seed end'" up in shallow
boxes or trays in a dry, light room for some weeks before planting, so
as to have strong, short sprouts started upon them. In this way
quicker germination, stronger young plants, and a perfect stand are
secured.

The general preference in Scotland and in England is for planting
small tubers, one and one-half to three ounces, planted whole. If
larger tubers are used they are cut, as in this countrj-.

OBSERVATIONS ON POTATO DISEASES AND DISEASE RESISTANCE

IN EUROPE.

Insects cause the European potato grower little annoyance or loss
as compared with American conditions. Nowhere in Europe, so far
as learned, is any use whatever made of insecticides upon potatoes,
leaf-eating insects being practicalh" unknown. On the other hand,
diseases caused by fungi or bacteria or of nonparasitic origin are even
more common and destructive than in America. In the following
paragraphs is a discussion of the nature and relative seriousness of
such diseases as came under the Avriter's personal observation, coupled
in each case with the evidence secured as to disease resistance. The
less important and nonparasitic maladies are discussed lirst, reserving
until later the consideration of the late-blight and rot.

CERTAIN MINOR DISEASES.

INTERNAL BROWN SPOT.

The peculiar disease of the potato called internal brown spot is as well
know^n to plant pathologists and practical potato specialists in Elurope
as in America. The writer learned nothing more about it on the Con-
tinent than is set forth by Frank," who reached onh" negative conclu-
sions. It is considered not to be a parasitic disease, and no remedy is
known and no suggestions are made except the doubtful one of aA'oid-
ing the use of diseased tubers for seed. . In England and Scotland
several potato specialists'' of wide experience gave evidence of like

"Frank, A. B., Kampfbuch gegen die Schildlinge unserer Feldfriichte, "Bunt-
werden oder Eisenfleckigkeit," p. 211.

6 Prof. J. H. Middleton. Messrs. Suttijn & Sons, and Thomas A. Scarlett.

CERTAIlSr MimiR DISEASES. 13

purport. The trouble is frequentl}^ observed, and is most commonly
termed "sprain." It is not propagated in seed or soil and is non-
parasitic. It is considered to be the direct result of malnutrition
associated with unfavorable soil conditions, resulting either from too
dry conditions or from the lack of potash or lime. It is frequent in
light, dry soils during dry seasons, and is never seen on heavy, strong,
moisr soils. The remedy, in the judgment of the specialists cited, lies
wholly in attention to cultural conditions and the choice of varieties.
Some varieties are more liable than others to internal brown spot
and should not be used on soil that favors the disease; e. g., Mr. Scar-
lett stated that the British Queen variet}^ is especially predisposed to
"sprain.'' The primary remedy, however, lies in selection and treat-
ment of the soil — i. e., in avoiding dry soil — and in so cultivating as to
conserve moisture, while using lime and potash liberall3^

FILOSITE, OR GROWING-OUT.

The names "iilosite" and "growing-out" are applied in France'*
and England, respectivel}^, to various forms of secondary outgrowths
from tubers. Examples that were shown to the writer were in some
cases merel}' "prongy" tubers, while in others stolons starting from
the eyes produced secondary small tubers. Delacroix describes con-
ditions where the seed tubers send out an abundance of weak shoots,
both above and below ground, but these soon die without yielding any
crop. The latter type is therefore allied to the curl disease of the
potato.* The less serious forms of growing-out are attributed to cli-
matic and soil conditions, especially to a long, wet autumn following a
dry summer. The more serious types of the disease, especially as occur-
ring in France, are attributed to varietal weakness or "running out."
In both France and England the use of seed from an}'^ plants showing this
tendency was condemned as tending to give a crop of generally reduced
vitality.

LEAF-SPOT.

Since there has been a difference of opinion among pathologists as
to the occurrence and destructiveness of the fungus Alternaria aolani
in Europe, the writer was led to keep an especially close watch for it.
Prof. P. Sorauer kindly sent specimens from Europe some years ago
corresponding fully with the leaf -spot disease caused by this fungus,

« See Delacroix, G., Sur la filosite des pommes de terre, Jour, de 1' Agriculture,
December, 1903.

''Frisolee (French), or Kriiuselkrankheit (German), is a common but not very
serious potato malady of Europe, of which the cause is not clear, but apparently it
is associated with varietal weakness and malimtrition. It is characterized by dwarf-
ish plants bearing an excessive number of rather undersized leaves, which are down-
curled and brittle. The tops have thus a dense or bushy appearance. They may be
quite as green as normal plants.

14 DISEASE EESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

and termed eaHy-blioht in America. It is known, therefore, that it
occurs in Europe, but it can not be as common and destructive as it is
here, for no trace of it could be found in an}- of the fields visited.
Much was seen, however, of a leaf-spot disease which bears a super-
ficial resemblance to it. This was shown us first by Dr. Otto Appel in
the experimental fields of the board of health at Dahlem, near Berlin.
Later it was seen elsewhere in Germany and in Eno-land. Apparently'
there has lieen a confusion of this Avith our American early-blight,"
but both Doctor Appel and Professor Sorauer stated that there was no
fungus present in this leaf-spot disease, and the writer's examinations
confirmed this. The cause of this trouble has not as yet been clearly
established, but since Appel and Sorauer both have it under observa-
tion, further advice may be expected upon it in the near future.
Opportunit}' was presented to compare the relative development of
this trouble on difi'erent varieties in the trial grounds of the University
Farm, Cambridge, England, in the latter part of the summer. There
was a considerable difference in the amount of spotting of the various
varieties, but none was altogether free from it.

SCABBINESS OF TUBERS.

POTATO SCAB.

Scab-like diseases, i. e., those characterized by surface erosions of
the tubers, are frequent in Europe and apparently more varied -in
nature than is recognized to be the case in America. Yet nowhere
does injury to the crop from such diseases approach that which is
common in this country. This is in some ways surprising and unex-
plained. A disease closely resembling in appearance the common
American type of scab was frequentl}^ seen, but growers everywhere
in Germany, France, and Great Britain testified that it is not common
or destructive enough to be of much practical importance. Scientific
men are not agreed either as to the cause of the disease or as to the pos-
sibility of benefit from seed disinfection. But few recommended this
treatment, and no practical potato grower was met who practiced it.
The most puzzling thing, in the light of American experience, is that
potatoes are grown year after year continuously or in the shortest of
rotations on the same soil without increase of scabbiness. In each of
these countries potatoes are often grown on the same soil for ten or
twenty or even forty successive years with practically no trouble

«See Frank, Kampfbuch, p. 220. Apparently the disease mentioned above is the
same as Frank's " Pockenfleckigkeit. " Frank was altogether mistaken in consider-
ing it the same as the American "early-blight," as Sorauer subsequently showed.
See also Bahna, J. J., Blattbraune der Kart. ; Zeitsch. f. Land. u. Fortwirtsch., 2: 113
(March, 1904). Prof. C. von Tiibeuf comments upon this article and reviews the
literature in the June, 1904, number of the same journal.

SCABBINESS OF TUBERS. 15

from seal)." Since this is often on rich and heavy land, such as would
develop scab under like treatment in America, the European experi-
ence is diihcult to understand. Does not our type of disease exist
there, or is it less virulent because of some difference in the climatic
and soil conditions? The writer is not prepared to answer with full
contidence, but his judgment favors the second suggestion.

Europeans, both pathologists and practical men, recognize more
than one form of disease under the name of scab (the German
" schorf ," Dutch " schurft," French ''la gale "). Frank's subdivisions*
of "schorf into four kinds — flach, tief, buckel, and buckel-tief
schorf — were familiar to the continental pathologists interviewed, but
the general opinion is that these are simply forms of one common dis-
ease, the variations being attributable to the season of attack or to
varietal or vegetative conditions of the potato. Frank's specimens of
" tief -schorf " were seen in the museum of the board of health at Berlin
and have the appearance of the common American scab.

As to the cause, opinions differ.'" The German pathologists who have
given most attention to this disease consider the commonest German
form to be due to a fungus similar to Thaxter's Oospora scabies^ but
perhaps not identical with it. In Holland doubt was expressed as to
the common Dutch form of potato scab being a fungous disease at all,
while in Belgium and France it is considered a parasitic disease, but
due to bacteria {Micrococcus pellic id us Roze) rather than to fungi.'' In
England Oospora scabies is held responsible for only the minor part of
the trouble, Sorosporitmi scabies Fisch. being the commoner parasite.

VARIETAL RESISTANCE TO SCAB.

As already stated, none of these scab diseases has proved of suffi-
cient economic importance to attract much attention from practical
potato growers in P^urope. Probabl}^ most of the diseases would yield
to the seed-disinfection treatment practiced for potato scab in America,
yet this is nowhere used by European growers, so far as learned.
The only valuable data as to the relative susceptibility of varieties to
scab are those furnished by the reports of Professor Eckenbrecher,^
whose results point to certain newer varieties as being comparatively
free from scab, while others are quite susceptible. Age of the variety,

«See Sutton, A. W., Potatoes, Jour. Roy. Soc, XIX, pp. 387-430 (1896).

^Kampfbuch, p. 170.

'These conclusions are the result of conferences with a number of men and reference
to the publications of others. Among those who have given this disease careful con-
sideration in their respective countries and whose opinions were learned are Professors
F. Kriiger, Berlin; Ritzema-Bos, Amsterdam; Marchal, Gembloux; Roze and Dela-
croix, Paris; Massee and Cooke, England.

''Roze, E., Histoire de la pomme de terre, Paris, 1898, p. 275.

«C. von Eckenbrecher, Berichte Deutsch.-Kart.-Kult.-Stat., 1903 and earlier.

16 DISEASE RESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

however, seems to be of less consequence than it is with the blight, for
while one of the least resistant is Dabersche, an old standard, one of the
most resistant is Richters Imperator, also an old variety. Other
varieties reported as preeminently scab resistant are Irene and Pro-
fessor Wohltmann. Boncza and Pomerania are reported resistant,
but to a less deo-ree. Seed of all these have been secured for trial in
this country. Early Rose is found especially liable to scab there as it
is in America. It will be better, however, to postpone the discussion
of resistance to scab as shown by American varieties of potatoes until
the latter part of this publication.

OTHER SCAB-LIKE DISEASES.

Rhlzoctonia. — This was seen on potato tubers in Europe even more
commonly than it occurs in America, but most European pathologists
regard it as nonparasitic. Those who consider it as a facultative para-
site attribute little injury to it generally, although some think it capable
of causing rot, as described ))v Frank."

Sjwngospora solani Brun. — This fungus is said^ to cause a scab-like
disease in the north of Europe. This disease occurred'" to a consider-
able extent on potatoes secured by the writer's order from Groningen,
Holland.

Superficial scurv}^ diseases attributed to other fungi occur in Europe.
Frank ^ describes one such caused by Phellomyces sclerotiophorus^ but
Doctor Appel told the writer that this had not proved serious in Ger-
many. Johnson ^ reports it as causing some trouble in Ireland. In
England another scurf disease of somewhat similar appearance is attract-
ing attention. It occurred on the P^ldorado seed potatoes imported
with our order from Scotland, and the cause is apparently the fungus
Spicaria nivea Hors.-'

Oedomyces leproides Tvahut. — This is a fungus^ which attacks the
young sprouts or eyes of the tubers, stimulating them to abnormal,
cauliflower-like growth, of which the dark color has given rise to the
popular name black-scab. The writer did not see this disease on the

«Kampfbuch, p. 194.

&Ibi<l., p. 176.

c Found and identified by James Birch Rorer.

'^Kampfbuch, p. 182.

« Johnson, T., The Diseases of the Potato and Other Plants in Ireland, Journal,
Dept. Agric. Ireland, Vol. Ill, No. 1 (1902).

/ So identified by Dr. Ernst A. Bessey. Dr. Thomas Milburn, of the Midland Agri-
cultural and Dairy Institute, England, advises the writer by letter that he is engaged
in a special study of this disease. He finds it to occur on most English varieties,
Evergood and Sutton's Flourball being by far the worst, while East Anglian and
Sutton's Discovery are the only ones he has found entirely free from it.

9 This also occurs on beet roots. See M,assee, Geo. A., Textbook of Plant Diseases,
p. 225.

POTATO STEM DISEASES. l7

Continent, but while in England Dr. M. C. Cooke sent specimens, as
did also Dr. John Wilson, from Scotland. It is regarded as capable of
causing much harm, but fortunately has not as yet become common.

POTATO STEM DISEASES.

BLACKLEG.

" Schwarzbeinigkeit,''' or blackleg, is a name applied to a disease
seen commonl}^ in central Europe. It is characterized by the black-
ening and rotting of the main stem, accompanied })y a checking of the
growth, uprolling, yellowing, and ultimate death of the leaves, and
more or less rotting of the tubers. It has been exhaustively studied
in recent years by Appel" in Gerniany, who concludes that it is due to
bacteria {Bacillus pliytophthorus^ and perhaps other allied species),
which either enter from the soil or are carried in the seed tuber.
These start the disease below ground, the rot proceeding, as a rule,
from the seed tuber to the 3'oung plant. Appel's conclusions are gen-
erally accepted by pathologists in Germany, Holland, and Belgium,
and, so far as learned, in England.

The writer had opportunity to see rnuch of the German disease in
the vicinity of Berlin, and to verifv Doctor AppeFs observations, in a
measure, in his own laboratoiy. Later (August) the same malady was
seen in England, where it is said to be common, though apparently
less troublesome than Appel reports it from Germany. All of the
personal observations of the writer therefore lead to an indorsement
of AppeFs conclusions both as to the bacterial nature of the disease
and as to its widespread occurrence and economic importance.

In France a similar if not identical disease is attributed to bacteria.
Delacroix, who has studied this, considers the organism causing the
disease, which he calls Bacillus solanicola, to be specifically distinct
from that described by Appel. He kindlj- showed the writer speci-
mens of the French disease in his garden in Paris, but it was in a
stage so much more advanced than that seen in Berlin that a comparison
of the two does not seem justifiable.

Of course, the possible occurrence of these stem diseases in America
was kept in mind. The writer has never seen much, if any, of the
same trouble in potato fields in the Mortheastern States and adjacent
Canada which have come under his observation. Certainly it is not so
common in America as it is in Europe. The S3nnptoms correspond,
however, somewhat closely to certain diseases attributed to Rhizocto-
nia in the South and West.^

« Appel, O., Arb. aus Biol. Abt. Gesundheitsamte, 3: 364 (1903).
& See especially Selby, A. D., Ohio Exp. Sta. Buls. 13i> aiiJ 145, and Rolfs, F. M.,
Colo. Exp. Sta. Bills. 70 and 91.

8838— >;o. 87—05 3

18 DISEASE RESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

The onl}^ remedies proposed or practiced for blackleo- in Europe
consist in selection of sound seed, careful avoidance of rotten tubers
or those taken from a diseased crop, attention to rotation of crops,
since the germs ma}^ persist and accumulate in the soil, and the use of
disease- resisting- varieties. None of these methods has been tested
carefully enough to establish its merits.

The chief evidence as to varietal susceptibilities or resistance to
blackleg is that of Appel." He states that while no varieties have
been shown to be entirely free from the disease, the evidence is that
thick-skinned, starch-rich, late varieties are in general more resist-
ant than thin-skinned, starch-poor, early varieties. The Dabersche he
tinds to be the most resistant of the widel}^ used German sorts, while
the Rose varieties are especially liable to blackleg. Contiguous plats
of the Dabersche and White Rose in Doctor AppeFs grounds showed
this difference very clearl3^ at the time of the writer's visit in July,
1904, the Rose being badly diseased, the Dabersche but slightly. At
the Deutschen-Kartoffel-Kultur-Station distinct evidence of variations
in disease resistance was found. It was stated at this station that in
the trial grounds the red varieties were in general found to be more
resistant than the white.

A considerable development of this disease was noticed at the Uni-
versity Farm. Cambridge, England, where extensive variety trials were
being conducted. The observations of Mr. H. Henshaw, who had imme-
diate charge of these, were in agreement with those of Doctor Appel
as to the association of the disease with the rot of the seed tuber, and
he regarded it as a bacterial malady. There was a difference in the
amount of the disease on different varieties, but Mr. Henshaw found
none wholly free from it. At the time of this visit Factor and Up-to-
Date were noticeably freer from the trouble than any other varieties
there under trial. They were about alike in this, as, indeed, in all
other characters. Doctor Delacroix cited as especially resistant to his
bacterial disease in France the variety La Czarine. He also stated
that the variety Geante Bleue is resistant, but to a less degree. Lau-
rent observed in his work on bacterial diseases that the maximum of
resistance was shown by the varieties Chardon, Pousse-debout, and
Chave.

OTHER STEM DISEASES.

Several other potato stem diseases have been reported in Europe,
but since the writer did not study them in the field and learned noth-
ing beyond what is recorded in literature they will be passed with brief
mention. Prillieux and Delacroix have described another bacterial
stem disease in France attributed to Bacillus cmiUvorus. Rhizoctonia
is conmion on potato stems as well as tubers, but none of the patholo-

aArb. aus Biol. Abt. Gesundheitsamte, 3: 408 (1903).

LATE-BLIGHT AND ROT. 19

gists conferred with regards it as a parasite of importance on either.
Professor Marchal, of Genibloux, said, however, that he sometimes
found a basidiomj'cetous fungus, Ili/jyoc/mis solaniFriW., ^ causing a
bhickleg-like stem disease in Belgium. Prof. T. Johnson, of Dul)lin,
sent specimens of Sclerotinia sclerotioruni^ which at times causes a
destructive stem disease in Ireland, called "yellow blight." He also
reports* the occurrence in Ireland of bacterial stem diseases, including
what he believes to be the malad}^ termed brown-rot in America and
shown by Dr. Erwin F. Smith to be caused by Bacillus solanacearwm .
In none of these cases was anything learned as to relative varietal
resistance to the disease in question.

LATE-BLIGHT AND ROT DUE TO PHYTOPHTHORA INFESTANS.

Late-blight and rot due to PhytopJdhora infestans occurs in Europe
even more widely and destructively than in America, being recog-
nized as the most important malady in all the countries visited by
the writer — Italy, Austria, Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, and
the British Islands. There was less unanimity of opinion than was
anticipated as to the probable life history of the fungus, and conse-
quently as to the remedial treatment. While all agreed that it lives
over in the seed tubers, the opinion was frequentl}^ expressed, by
scientific and practical men alike, that there is probably some hiberna-
tion in the soil, either in tubers left in the lield or in the haulms.
Possible hibernation in the tubers is to be associated with the fact that
potato tubers left in the soil are not killed b}^ frost in southern Eng-
land and the south of Europe. The value of Bordeaux mixture as a
remedy is recog'uized generally. Spra3'ing is consistently advocated
and practiced in the British Islands — especially Scotland and Ireland —
the Netherlands, Italy, and portions of France. Germany has been
surprisingly backward in accepting- or even fairly testing this remedy.
The reason seems to l)e that some of the experiments conducted by
scientific men have shown injur}' to the plants, and so they have pro-
nounced against it. No other remedial treatments are in common use.
*No one indorsed or practiced any method of seed disinfection. No
particular culture methods were advocated or condemned other than
attention to fertilization. There was a general agreement that
excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers, either chemicals or composted
manures, increases the loss from this disease. Much attention is being
given, however, to the' relation of varieties and of source of seed to
disease resistance, and the results are of sufficient importance to merit
the somewhat detailed report which follows.

^'Probably identical with Corticiuni vagum var. solani Burt, which is the fruiting
6tao;e of the common Rhizoctonia of the potato.

''Johnson, T., Diseases of the Potato and Other Plants in Ireland, Journal, Dept.
Agric. Ireland, III, No. 1 (1902)

20 DISEASE KESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

RESISTANCE AS SHOWN TOWARD LATE-BLIGHT AND ROT.

HISTORICAL STATEMENT.

Doubtless examination of the earlier writings upon the potato disease
known as late-blight and rot would show that from the beginning of
its ravages differences have been observed in the resistance of varieties.
An}^ such records of the thirty years from 1845 to 1875 would have no
practical value now, since the varieties then in use have passed out of
culture; nor would they have much scientific significance, owing to the
lack of exact knowledge then as to the cause of disease. Going back to
the origin of the varieties still in cultivation, it is found that in the early
seventies an unusual anjount of attention was focused upon the matter
of the potato disease, as to causes and remedies. Ninety-four essays
secured by the Royal Agricultural Societ}^ of England in 1872 showed
agreement that an luiderl^^ng cause was the degenerac}' of the varieties
then in culture.'* The necessity for the production of new varieties
was emphasized. The introduction of improved American varieties
into England at about this period was most beneficial and stimulating
to the potato specialists of that country.-' These varieties were made
the parents in further breeding. The best production of this revival
was the JMagnum Bonum, originated by James Clark from a cross of
Early Rose with Victoria and introduced by Sutton in 1876. Experi-
ence with this variety laid the foundation for belief in possil)le disease
resistance in potatoes both in England and on the Continent. Magnum
Bonum soon became the standard main-crop variety of Great Britain
and so continued until within the last fifteen ^^ears, when it yielded to
Up-to-Date and others. It is still in considerable favor on the Conti-
nent.

Charles Darwin in 1877-78 became interested in the possibilities of
disease-resistant breeding. Francis Darwin '^ states that Mr. James
Torbitt, of Belfast, bred and selected varieties to secure disease

«See Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. Eng., XX : 291 (1884).

6 Dean, A. Potato Improvement in the Past Twenty-five Years. Jour. Eoy.
Hort. Soc, XII :41 (1890).

Mr. C. G. Pringle, who was then the foremost potato breeder in America, states
that the demand from Europe for new American varieties was very active at that
period, and continued until tlie fear of the Colorado potato beetle led to the prohi-
bition by European governments of further importations of potato tubers from Amer-
ica. Thereupon I\Ir. Pringle supplied B. K. Bliss & Sons with specially hybridized
potato seed, which was sent abroad in considerable quantity.

cLUe and Letters of Charles Darwin, II, pp. 519-522.

The writer learns from Prof. T. Johnson, of Dublin, that Torbitt has been dead
some twenty years. He was in the wine trade and raised varieties of potatoes for
the berries, or seed balls, which he used as a source of material for wine. All of
his varieties have disappeared except onfe coarse, red one, which was. and is proof
against disease.

HISTORICAL STATEMENT. 21

resistance, his method being- to cross-fertilize, rear the seedling-s, and
expose them ruthlessly, to infection, retaining only those showing
some degree of resistance. In this work he received much encour-
agement and some financial aid through Charles Darwin.

A committee of the English House of Commons, reporting in 1880
upon the potato disease, found all its witnesses concurring in the
necessity for the production of new varieties with increased disease
resistance.'^ Parliament was asked to give financial aid for experi-
ments aiming to produce new and disease-proof varieties, but it did
not do this. Earl Cathcart, in commenting on this report, states
that-
All potatoes have deteriorated in their disease-resisting powers. A variety from
seed takes four to six years for its establishment, and under the most favorable cir-
cumstances a good variety might be expected to degenerate in twenty years. The
production of new varieties is of national importance.

Apparently through the influence of Cathcart, Baker ^ was led to
make an exhaustive comparative stud}' of the genus Solanum in order
to advise as to the relation of the cultivated varieties to the several
wild species of the American continent preparatory to breeding experi-
ments in which these might be used. As a result, two species were
considered worthy of further trial in the attempt to improve disease
resistance, viz, the Darwin potato, S. inaglia, from the Chonos Archi-
pelago, and the Uruguay potato, ^S'. commersonii. Cathcart furnished
Sutton with the former and he hybridized it with the common S. tuher-
osinn. Sutton'" reports that, beginning in 1886 —

Although many hundreds of flowers of S. maglia were artificially fertilized with
pollen from cultivated varieties, only five were successful, resulting in five berries.
From these but two seedlings w'ere secured and only one of these showed any prom-
ise whatever, the second having to be grown under glass to prevent its dying.
* * * This hybrid, although a vast improvement on S. maglia, is far behind the
ordinary potato in appearance, crop, and quality. The seedling * * * grown for
eight years, in 1894 was slightly diseased, although previously free from attack.

Sutton still has the jS. hiaglia and this hybrid in propagation at
Reading, where the writer saw them in August, 1901:. Phytophthora
was then more rampant on the foliage of both of these and on S. com-
we?'8on{(, which he also has, than on the average potato plants in his
fields. No h3'brids of /(S^. coiumersonn had been secured by him pre-
vious to this. Mr. Lasham, potato specialist for the firm, has been
giving renewed attention to the possibilities of species hj'bridization,
and showed the writer balls which he considered to contain hybrid
seeds of S. tuherosum X commersonii.

«Jour. Eoy. Agr. Soc. Eng., XX: 291 (1884).

^Baker, J. G., A Review of the Tuber-Bearing Species of Solanum. Jour. Linn.
Soc, London, XX, 489-507 (1883-84).

<^Sutton, A. W., Potatoes, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc, XIX, 387 (1896).

22 DISEASE RESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

Interest in the possibilities of S. commers(mil has recently been
stimulated by the experiments inspired in Frasce by Prof. £. Heckel/'
who believes in the economic possibilities of this species when improved
by longer culture and perhaps by hybridizing, and has distributed it
quite widely in France with this end in view. One French horticul-
turist, Labergerie,* claims already to have succeeded in producing a
variety of edible qualit}^, large yield, and superior disease resistance.
This was seen growing in the grounds of Vilmorin-Andrieux &Co., at
Paris. This firm was not yet convinced of the practical value of the
plant, and since Labergerie refuses to send out any of these potatoes
for trial at present, judgment must be reserved.

Returning to the consideration of the varieties of the common potato,
it is found that during the last decade increasing attention has also
been given to their comparative disease resistance. This has been well
sununarized by Prunet.^ The main facts developed are as follows:
Sorauer'^ in 1896 considered the evidence to date as showing that the
highest degree of disease resistance was possessed by Magnum Bonum,
the following showing some degree of resistance: Blaue Riesenkartofl'el,
Richter's Imperator, Athene, Reichskanzler. Rostrup,'' writing about
the same time from Denmark, places Magnum Bonum at the head as
a disease-resisting variety, with Richter's Imperator and Champion
as somewhat resistant.

In this connection it is noteworthy that Magnum Bonnm has yielded
its place in. popular favor in Great Britain for main-crop purposes to
Up-to-Date and other varieties, even while holding its reputation on
the Continent. During the last decade these standard varieties in turn
have been "running out,'' and the demand in England for something to
take their place has stimulated potato breeders and seed specialists to
direct their attention very generally to the development of a disease-
resisting main-crop variety. The greatest efforts in breeding have been
made during the last four years, while speculation in the most promising
of the varieties produced has been at fever heat for the last two years,
during which time many new varieties, more or less disease resistant,
have been pushed to the front. There are now so many potato special-
ists in Great Britain breeding and handling varieties of reputed disease
resistance that it is impracticable to mention all. Archibald Findla}',

«Heckel, E., Sur le S. rommersonii, Rev. Hort. de la Soc. d'Hort. et de Bot. des
Bouches-du-Rhone, No. 581, pp. 200-206 (December, 1902); also, Contrib. a I'etude
botanique de qnelques solanum tuberiferes, Ann. de la Faculte des Sciences de
Marseille, vol. 8 (1895).

''Labergerie, M., Le Solanum commersonii et ses variations, Bui. Soc. Nat. d'Agric.
de France, March, 1904.

''Prunet, A., Le miklieu de la pomme de terre. Rev. de Viticult., XVII, 66;?;
XVIII, 97 et seq.(1902).

''Zeitsch. f. PHanzeiikr., VI, 284 (1896).

eXidsskrit't f. Landbrugets Planteavl, 1895, 1896, 1897.

DISEASE RESISTANCE AND VEGETATIVE VIGOR. 23

of Mairsland, Auchtermuchty, Scotland, has originated some varieties
of liio-li repute; Sutton & Sons, of Reading-, England, have also taken a
prominent part in this work. Scotland-grown seed of all the leading
varieties can be secured from Thomas Scarlett, of Edinburgh, and Mr.
Scarlett has some promising varieties of his own introduction. Any-
one desiring more specific information should secure the publications
of the National Potato Societ}^ from its secretary, Walter P. Wright,
Postling Vicarage, Hythe, Kent, England.

Meanwhile the German Potato Station has been making extensive
tests, doing some breeding and encouraging several potato breeders.'^
These efforts have not been directed primaril^^ to disease resistance,
but the station has taken note of this feature and published the data
regarding all varieties tested.

While the results of this work in Europe have been collected or
correlated bv no one, the writer was able to gather considerable infor-
mation, in addition to that already referred to, from conversation with
potato specialists, especially in Great Britain. This, together with
what has been learned in Amei'ica, is made the basis of the followino-
discussion. It is to be regretted that it is impracticable to give detailed
credit in some cases to those who kindl}^ furnished the information.

THE MEANING OF DISEASE RESISTANCE.

Although potato specialists, especially in England, apply the term
"disease proof " to their favorite varieties, this is not to be taken liter-
ally. No variety has as yet shown itself to be absolutely proof against
disease. The writer personally collected leaves infected with the
blight fungus from two varieties which were said to be "disease
proof." Absolute resistance against the blight fungus has not as yet
been and may never be secured. Varieties are known, however, which
show a relatively high degree of disease resistance. This mav be
shown in the delay in date of appearance of the blight on the leaves
or its slower progress after appearing, and still more clearl}^ in the
relatively small amount of loss from rot of the tubers. M'ost of the
exact observations made in Europe have been based on this latter
difference.

DISEASE RESISTANCE AND VEGETATIVE VIGOR.

Disease resistance and vegetative vigor are closely associated,
although the factors involved are not necessai'ily identical. In an}'
consideration of the problems of the life and death of the potato plant
it must be remembered that the potato has two natural methods of

«The most active of these are Paulsen, Cimbal, Riohter, and Dolkowski. Graf
Arnim-Schlagenthin, of Nassenheide in Poinmern, is an extensive breeder and dealer
in new varieties, as is also F. Heine, of Hadmersleben.

24 DISEASE RESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

reproduction, the true seed produced in the berries or ''balls'' follow-
ing the blossoms, and the tubers produced below ground. Repro-
duction b}' seed is a sexual process, that l\y tubers is vegetative.
Both are exhaustive of vitality. The two are in a certain sense
physiologically opposed to each other and can not well be carried on
at the same time by the plant. Under the natural conditions of the
wild potato plant in Mexico, and doubtless elsewhere, seed production
precedes tuber formation. In Europe and northern America, with a
shorter season and intensive culture, the two processes overlap. As
a result there is, just after the potato plant comes into blossom, a period
when the natural tendencies within the plant toward seed production
above and tuber formation below are such as to subject it to unusual
phj'siological stress. This has been termed the "critical period" '^ in
the development of the potato plant.

Usually the blossoms fall without the setting of the fruit, and the
plant then passes into a stage where its energies are devoted to tuber
formation alone. Once well started upon this vegetative period, its
growth is more or less indeterminate, i. e., there is no clearl}" defined
natural terminus to the life of the cultivated potato plant. Instead,
there is the gradual decline in vegetative vigor which may prepare the
way for earl3'-blight and other diseases characteristic of weakling-
plants. It is noteworth}' that the destructive attacks of the late-blight
fungus occur, as a rule, after the blossoming period has passed. So
far as the evidence goes it seems to suggest that high vegetative vigor
enables the plant to ward otf in some degree the fungus attack.

There is, moreover, a natural decline in vigor, or "running out,"
with the age of the variety. The length of life of a variety depends
upon numerous conditions, and is an indefinite matter in any case. It
is ordinarily placed by potato specialists at from twelve to twenty
3"ears. As a variety begins to ""run out" it apparently shows, among-
other things, a lessened degree of general disease resistance. Thus
Magnum Bonum had the highest reputation in this respect from its
origin in 1876 until about 1890 in Great Britain. On the Continent it
has remained longer in favor. Up-to-Date has held a like place during
the last decade in Great Britain, and Richter's Imperator has a similar
record in Germany. These statements are based upon the popular
verdict, not upon exact experiments; but the belief that disease resist-
ance decreases with the age of the variety is iirml}^ established in the
minds of specialists in potato culture in Great Britain, at least so far
as concerns resistance to Phytophthora.

There is little definite evidence regarding the relation of vegetative
vigor to resistance to other diseases, but so far as it is formulated it

« See Jones, L. R., Certain Potato Diseases and Their Remedies, Vermont Exp. Sta.
Bui. 72: 4 (1899); also The Diseases of the Potato in Relation to ItsDevelopment,
Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. (1903), Part I: 144.

IMPROVEMENT BY SELECTION. 25

favors the general applicabilit}- of the idea. The production of ber-
ries, or seed balls, is held by some English breeders to be an indica-
tion of such vigor, and therefore presumabl}^ of disease resistance,
although no one claims that the absence of these is equally strong
evidence in the opposite direction. It is worthy of passing note that
berries are formed much more commonly in Europe, especially in
Germany and Holland, than in America, apparently because of cli-
matic diU'erences.

THE RELATION OF HYBRIDITY TO DISEASE RESISTANCE.

By a "new variet}'*' of potato, as the term is commonh^ used, is
meant one recently developed from the seed. Sports may appear and
are indeed frequent in some varieties. These will, however, be men-
tioned later. The seed in all cases presumabl}" represents a sexual
origin, i. e., comes from a fertilized flower, but this may have been
either self-fertilized or cross-fertilized. One would expect greater
vigor to result from the cross-fertilization, and potato breeders are of
the opinion that it is secured. On the other hand, while varieties
recently originated from seed ma}^ show a high degree of disease
resistance, this is not necessarily the case according to the verdict of
English and German breeeders, man}' new varieties proving as sus-
ceptible as old ones.

Reference has already been made to the work of Cathcart and Sut-
ton in England and of Meckel and Labergerie in France based on the
hope of advantage from using one or another of the wild Solanums
for such hybridizing. There are interesting possibilities along this
line, since there are many wild forms of «S'. tuherosum in addition to
other species of tuberiferous Solanums. Thorough trials of these are
now being made by Stuart ** at the Vermont Experiment Station which
will be reviewed later in this paper. It should be emphasized at once,
however, that while the use of the wild Solanums does ofter interest-
ing possibilities, there is no record of practical success from their use,
if we except the doubtful one of Labergerie's variety of S. eoinmer-
smiii previously referred to. On the other hand, great practical
improvements have been secured by various breeders from crossing-
varieties of cultivated potatoes.

IMPROVEMENT BY SELECTION.

All plants tend to vary. One of the commonest ways to improve
plants is by selection from among the var3^ing individuals. For the
first two years after their origin, variants, or "rogues," are not uncom-
mon with the seedling potato, but the variety is "fixed" by the weed-
ing of such rogues before it is distributed for general culture, and

« Stuart, W., Disease- Resistant Potatoes, Vermont Exp. Sta, Bui. 115 (May, 1905).

26 DISEASE RESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

thereafter very little variation occurs. kSome moditication is to be
expected, nevertheless, and among other things there ma}^ be varia-
tion in disease resistance. It seems worth while, therefore, to keep a
lookout for individual plants which show especial resistance to the
blight when this is epidemic about them. The tubers of such indi-
viduals deserve to be carefulh" saved apart and planted, in order that
it may be seen whether their resistance is a fixed and inheritable char-
acter or the result of some chance difterence in environment. Such
selection has alread}' been undertaken by three persons to our knowl-
edge: Appel in Germany,^' Stuart in Vermont,'' and Fraser in New
York;'' but no practical results have as yet been secured.

ARE EARLY OR LATE VARIETIES THE MORE RESISTANT?

The blight never becomes serious until the midseason of potato
growth is passed; thus in our Northern States its worst ravages come
in August and September. Therefore early varieties, as a rule, escape.
But this is simply because they mature before the blight is epidemic.
So far as evidence has been secured, both in America and Europe,
when the early varieties are planted late enough to expose them to
the disease alongside of the later ones, the early varieties as a class suf-
fer the worst. For example, the most complete destruction by rot
which the writer ever saw was with a late crop of Early Ohio potatoes
attacked by the disease in September. Woods,^' of Maine, has also
found early varieties especialh^ susceptible.

RELATION OF SOURCE OF SEED AND CULTURAL METHODS TO DISEASE

RESISTANCE.

The opinions of highly intelligent potato growers in Great Britain
are especiall}^ worthy of note. One of the first concerns with them is
the source of their seed. Mention has already been made of the experi-
ments at Sutton's grounds, showing the superiority of northern-grown
seed. It was found to be the general verdict of practical men in
Europe that northern-grown seed is more highly disease resistant, as
well as more productive. If one is to aim for the best results in
health of crop, therefore, attention should be directed to quality and
source of seed as well as to variety.

Practical men as well as scientists generally agree that methods of |
culture also determine to a considerable degree liabilitv to disease. '
These act not only indirectly as the}' affect moisture content or other
ph3'^sical conditions of the soil, but more directly as they affect the \

"Appel, Otto. Die diesjiihrige Phytophthora-epidemie, Deutsche Landw. Presse,
XXIX: 685 (1902).

«> Vermont Exp. Sta. Bui. 115, p. 139.

<^ Reported in correspondence.

<^ Woods, C. D., Maine Exp. Sta. Rpt., XIX: 181 (1903).

COMPOSITION AND CHARACTEE, AND ROT RESISTANCE. 27

vigor or inherent disease resistance of the plant itself. Seed dealers
in this coiuitry, as well as in England, have also expressed a prefer-
ence for seed from a crop that has not been very highly fertilized,
especially with nitrogenous manures. The most detailed study along
this line is that of Laurent,'* whose results indicate that nitrogenous
fertilizers predispose both the foliage and the tubers of the plants to
the attacks of Phytophthora. This is in harmony with the general
opinion of practical potato growers, that high manuring increases the
liability to disease.

COMPOSITION AND CHARACTER OF TUBERS AS RELATED TO ROT

RESISTANCE.

There is considerable evidence that the chemical composition of the
tubers bears a direct relation to resistance to rot. Paulsen ^ claimed
that varieties rich in nitrogen compounds are less resistant to disease
than those rich in starch. He classed most of the early varieties in
the first category and found the larger percentage of the second class
to be of the late varieties. The table varieties of better quality were
also of the first category.

Petermann'' has recentl}^ made field and laboratory studies at the
Belgium Experiment Station. These led him to practically the same
conclusions, viz, (1) that varieties richer in amids are more liable to
rot, although of superior table quality; and (3) that varieties relatively
richer in starch, including several recently originated German factory
varieties, are less liable to rot but are of inferior quality for table use.

Sorauer'' has published similar conclusions, and he made more
detailed statements as to his belief on this point in conversation last
summer. In general, he believes that the varieties richer in protein
are more liable to disease, while those richer in starch are more
resistant. This probably explains his observation that the yellow-
fleshed varieties, which are in higher repute in Germany for table use,
are more liable to disease*^ than the white-fleshed varieties which are
grown for factory purposes. His further observations in harmony
with this idea are that the thicker and rougher skinned red varieties^ —
e. g., Dabersche — have a higher degree of disease resistance, coupled
with relatively high starch and low protein content, whereas the thin-
skinned white varieties, which are more liable to the disease, have

'^f Laurent, Recherches exp. sur la mal. des plantes, Ann. Inst. Past., XIII, pp.
1-48 (1899).

''Biedermann's Centralbl. Agr. Chem., 1887, p. 107.

^Bul. Inst. Chim. et Baot. Gembloux, 70 (1901).

^'Jahresher. d. Sondersaussch. f. Pflanzensch., XII and XIII (1902 and 1903).

^See evidence of this also in Jahresber. d. Sondersaussch. f. Pflanzensch., XIII,
1903.

/Bee also statement that red varieties are in general more resistant; Jahresber. d.
Sondersaussch. f. Pflanzensch., XII, 1902.

28 DISEASE KESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

proportionately less starch and more protein. As a rough empirical
test he considers that if, when a fresh tuber is cut open, the flesh
browns quickly on exposure to the air and the vascular bundles darken
soon, it is evidence of hig-h protein content, and therefore of liability
to disease, whereas the reverse condition is evidence of probable dis-
ease resistance. Professor Sorauer also emphasized to the writer his
belief in the relation of soil, manuring-, or other cultural condition to
disease resistance. The testimon}^ secured elsewhere in Germany, as
well as from American sources, is in harmon}^ with these ideas so far
as it goes.

While character of skin is probably a less relial)le index to rot
resistance than is chemical composition, yet the writer has learned of
several potato experts in America, as well as others in Europe, who
regard the red varieties, especially such as have a rough skin, as less
liable to rot than are the white thin-skinned varieties. The Dakota
Red has often been cited as an example of this class in America.
Abundant evidence can be found, however, especially from English
experience, of high disease resistance coupled with a thin, white skin.
Breeders aiming at disease resistance need not turn from the white-
skinned varieties.

CHARACTER OF STEM AND FOLIAGE AS RELATED TO DISEASE RESISTANCE.

In connection with the question of the relation of the character .of
the stem and foliage to disease resistance it is not safe to go far in
generalizing. Mr. Lasham, potato expert and breeder with Sutton &
Sons, considers that a stem that is strong, rough, and hard, almost
woody at the base, is an important character if the plant is to be most
highly disease resistant. The nature of the foliage is considered by
others to be of greater importance, the preference being for small
leaflets, rough and relatively thick rather than large and flabby. A
rich dark- green is preferred to the lighter colored foliage. It seems
inherentl}' probable that the character and color of foliage should
stand in close relation to the other matters which have with more cer-
tainty been shown to be related to disease resistance, viz, general
vigor and capacity for starch manufacture. Those giving further
attention to disease resistance may, therefore, well bear these sugges-
tions in mind.

DISEASE-RESISTANT VARIETIES OF EUROPE.

When all the factors are considered, two important things become
evident: First, that no variety will maintain its disease-resistant qual-
ities indetinitely, losing them sooner in one locality than in another;
second, that no one variety will be equally disease resistant in all
countries, i. e., what is best suited to one may not be to another.

DISEASE-RESISTANT VARIETIES OF EUROPE.

29

Hence we must expect much conflicting evidence regarding the same
variety, especially as grown under difi'erent conditions and in difl:'erent
countries.

The most satisfactory way will be to summarize separately the evi-
dence obtained in each country visited in Europe, followed by that
from America.

The greatest activity in breeding for resistance occurs in Great
Britain, and next to this in Germany, while France has recently shown
special activity in one line. There were secured from each of these
countries all the varieties of especial promise for trial in America —
comprising a total of nearly one hundred. By no means all of these
have an established reputation as being highly disease resistant,
although all will be tested for this as well as other characters.

Experience has shown that the transference of a variet}'^ from Europe
to America, or the reverse, is likely so to disturb the equilibrium of
the plant that the developments of the first year are scarcely normal.
At least two years are necessary for the adequate testing of imported
varieties. Commercial growers should therefore make only trial
plantations of any European variety until its adaptabilit}' to American
conditions has been proved. Seed of the varieties secured will be
under trial at several points this season and next. While it does not
seem worth while to publish the full list of these in advance, the fol-
lowing are selected as representing the varieties or types most strongly
indorsed in their respective countries for disease resistance.

GREAT BRITAIN.

More attention has been given to this question in Great Britain
than anywhere else. Careful comparative observations are recorded
as to the relative disease resistance of all the leading varieties. The
last report of the National Potato Society specifies the following eight
varieties as the best for disease resistance, named in the order of their
merit. The writer appended certain facts as to the origin and charac-
ters of each. All are white skinned, white fleshed, of excellent qual-
ity, of high general vigor, and heavy yielders.

Table I. — The most disease-resistant varieties of potatoes in Great Britain, as announced

hi/ the National Potato SociettiJi

Order

of
merit.

Name of variety.

Evergood

[Discovery

\Royal Kidney

Northern Star

Sir John Llewelvn.

King Edward VJI .

Eldorado

Factor

Originator.

Findlay
Sutton . .
Findhiv

do".

Harris . .
Butler..
Findlay
Dobbie .

When
sent
out.

1896
1903
1896
1901
1900
1901
1903
1898

Season.

Medium hite.
Late.

Second early.
Late.

Early.
Medium.
Medium late.
Late.

aAnnual Report, National Potato Society, I: 36 (1904).

30

DISEASE EESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

Two points brought out l)y the foregoing table are worthy of espe-
cial note: First, the remarkable success of one man in producing four
of these eight varieties, showing that there is something more than
chance in their development; second, the comparatively recent origin
of all. For the latter fact there is probably a double explanation: (1)
The loss of disease resistance with age of the variety; (2) the remark-
able activit}^ of British potato breeders during the last few years, with
the aim above all else of securing increased disease resistance.

It should be remarked that there are a number of more recent intro-
ductions which promise to rank with the best of these varieties, but
they have not as yet been so fully tested.

GERMANY AND HOLLAND.

The potato-growing industries of Germany and Holland have much
in common, and similar or identical varieties are used. Data were not
available for making so definite a selection as in Great Britain. The
following are probably representatives of the highest grade of disease
resistance achieved:

Table II.— The most disease-resistant varieties of potatoes in Germany and Holland.

Name.

Originator.

Season.

Color of
skin.

Mohort

Dolkowski

Paiil.seii

Late

White.

Irene

Medium late

do

Red.

Geheinirat Thiel

Richter

White. -

Professor Wohltmann

Cimbal

Del kowski

Late

Medium late

Red.
Do.

Eigenheimer

(Holland)

Medium early

Late

White.

Paul Kriierer

do

Do.

The first five varieties have been imported from Germany. All of
these are of the white-fleshed, starch-rich type which is being devel-
oped there primarily for factory rather than for table use. They are,
however, reputed to be of fair qualitj^ except, perhaps, in the case of
Irene. These, like the British varieties, are of comparatively recent
introduction.

The Holland varieties are of a similar t3^pe except that Eigenheimer
has a vellowish-tinted flesh.

FRANCE AND BELGIUM.

The conditions are similar in France and Belgium. Neither countiy
has varieties of much promise for trial in our Northern States. In
Belgium the varieties recommended as being most highly resistant to
blight and rot were the recentl}' originated- German factory types like
those already mentioned, to which might be added Topas and Pro-
fessor Maercker. The verdict in France was similar, Professor
Maercker again being commended, along with the English varieties

DISEASE-KESISTANT VAKIETIES OF AMEKICA. 31

Magnum Bonum aud Roj^al Kidne3^ The indorsement of these com-
parativel}^ late, white-fleshed, starch-rich potatoes in France and in
the other continental countries is the more signiticant when one
remembers that the chief aim with potato specialists there is to produce
the yellow-fleshed potato rich in protein.

DISEASE-RESISTANT VARIETIES OF AMERICA.

Until two or three years ago no systematic attempt was recorded,
so far as the writer has learned, to determine the relative resistance to
blight and rot of potato varieties in America. Of course this would
not imply that individual growers have not observed these difl'erences,
but they are rarel}' matters of record, and as a rule are based only
upon limited observations. Only two or three potato-seed dealers are
advertising disease-resisting varieties with an}^ prominence this year,
and these are in all cases comparatively new and little-tried sorts.

INVESTIGATIONS AT THE EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

Promising investigations have been inaugurated at several of the
State agricultural experiment stations which should soon supply data
for more reliable conclusions than are now possible. Woods," of the
Maine station, and Green, ^ of the Minnesota station, have each
reported results of variety trials as to disease resistance.

Woods found a marked difi'erence in the ability of varieties to with-
stand both blight and rot. As a rule the earlier varieties were soonest
attacked. The variety Rustproof showed the highest degree of foliage
resistance and also the least rot, viz, only a little more than 1 per cent,
whereas the average of all varieties under trial was more than 30 per
cent.

Green found that the loss from rot varied widely with varieties,
ranging from 1 per cent in the most resistant to 40 per cent in the
least resistant types. Potatoes of the type of Sir Walter Raleigh and
Rural New Yorker resisted rot better than those of an}' other class.
Of the 49 varieties tested, onl}^ two. Clay Rose and an unnamed seed-
ling, were practically free from rot. These trials will be continued.

Observations on disease resistance have also been made by Macoun
at the Central Experimental Farm, at Ottawa, Canada. He has kindl}^
advised the writer, in correspondence, of his conclusions. The follow-
ing varieties have shown especial disease resistance as judged by
appearance of blight on the foliage: Holburn Abundance and Pro-
fessor Maercker are most resistant, with Swiss Snowflake, State of
Maine, and Rural Blush onh^ a little less so.

"Woods, C. I)., Maine Exp. Sta. Report, XIX: 181 (1903).

''Green, S. B., Potatoes at the University Farm, Minn. Exp. Sta. Bui. 87 (1904).

32 DISEASE RESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

WORK AT THE VERMONT STATION.

The most extensive work on potatoes has been done b}^ Stuart, who
two 3^ears ago inaugurated at the Vermont station variety trials as- to
disease resistance, supplemented by breeding experiments. Professor
Stuart has kindly supplied the following summar}^ of his results to
date:**

Eight varieties were under trial in 1903 — Dakota Red, Enormous,
Green Mountain, Rustproof, Squire, Sir Walter Raleigh, and two of
Manum's unnamed seedlings. In 1904 the same varieties were used, with
the addition of June, Mammoth Gem, Minister, New Queen, State of
Maine, Sutton's Discovery, nine more of Manum's seedlings, S. coin-
mersonll from Doctor Heckel, of Fi-ance, a Peruvian variety from the
United States Department of Agriculture at Washington, and four
Mexican varieties furnished by Mr. C. G. Pringle. The latter included
two cultivated varieties termed Monterey and Mexican, and the two
wild species, S. polyadenuuii and S. stoloniferum. Observations have
been made as to both foliage and tuber resistance. As to foliage, none
was wholly free from blight, but there was a marked difference, some
being quickly and entirely destro3'ed, while others suffered only
slightl}^ In 1903 Rustproof headed the list in this respect, and Dakota
Red was second. In 1904 those showing greatest foliage resistance
were as follows, in the order of their resistance: Monterey, S. com-
mersonii^ S. polyadenium., Rustproof, Sutton's Discovery, June, Mex-
ican, Mammoth Gem, and Manum's No. 3. Dakota Red did not equal
its 1903 record.

Judged b}' resistance of tubers to rot, Dakota Red made the best
showing of the varieties which were tested for two seasons, but there
was some rot in it both 3'ears. Of those added to the series of 1904
several varieties gave a crop of tubers entirely free from rot, namely
8. polyadenium^ S. coinmersonii^ Sutton's Discovery, June, and the
two Mexican varieties. It is noteworthy that these are likewise the
varieties which showed the least blighting of the foliage. Possibly
the absence of rot is in some degree attributable to the lessened amount
of infection of tubers from vines in consequence of this, although there
were adjacent plants showing badly diseased foliage.

Selection. — In 1903 a few plants in the varieties grown v/ere observed
to remain green longer than the others. The tubers from these were
saved and were planted in 1904 along with others of the same variet}^
that succumbed much earlier. So far as could be noted no increased
disease-resistant qualities were transmitted to the offspring of these
plants.

«For further details see Stuart, W., Disease-Resistant Potatoes, Vermont Exp. Sta.
Bui. 115 (May, 1905).

INFORMATION" SECURED BY A CIRCULAR OF INQUIRY. 33

In view of the limited number of varieties tested and the consequent
restricted scope of observation, it would hardly be justifiable as 3^et to
give an expression of opinion as to the probable outcome of such a line
of investigation. These observations are to be continued on a much
larger scale the coming season.

Ilifrrid ami other xeeiUlngs. — Seedlings were grown in 1903 from the
Mexican species supplied by Mr. Pringle — S. poJyadeniuiii^ S. stolon l-
ferum^ and S. hulhocaatanuw . This number has recently been aug-
mented by S. verrxLcosum. and a wild form of 8. tuheroswn. In 1904
some of these were successfully hybridized with the cultivated potato.

While it is yet too early to say very much regarding the possibili-
ties of developing a conmiercially desirable disease-resistant variety of
potato through the hybridization of wild species with our cultivated
varieties, there seems good reason for believing that improvement may
result from such crossing, especially as to disease resistance.

In addition, a large number of seedlings of the common potato were
grown in 1901. Among this number several vigorous-growing plants
were noted, which remained quite green up to the time of digging.
Some 50 of the more promising of these were saved for trial the com-
ing season. Selections were based on vigor of vine, size and 3deld of
tubers, and freedom from rot.

One of the most interesting and instructive features of the seedling
experiment was the object lesson it presented of the extreme vigor of
some of the plants, showing quite plainly that one of the best sources
for increasing the vigor lies in the production of new varieties from
seed. Proper fertilization and good tillage are also important aids in
increasing the vigor and disease-resisting powers of the vine.

While the data in hand do not warrant broad generalizations, the
following inferences are drawn by Professor Stuart:

(1) Some varieties are less subject to vine injmy than others.

(2) Some show a greater tuber resistance to rot than others.

(3) With some there seems to be a fairly close relation between resist-
ance of vine to disease and of the tuber to rot.

(1) Selection has not given visible increase of resistance.

(5) Hybridization and the growing of seedling plants, followed by
careful selection, seem to offer a more logical method of securing
disease-resistant varieties than does selection.

INFORMATION SECURED BY A CIRCULAR OF INQUIRY.

In order to secure all information possible as to the relative merits
of the varieties now before the public, a circular letter of inquiry was
sent recently to various experiment station officers and to about two

34

.DISEASE RESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

hundred potato specialists in the United States and Canada" asking
their opinions and the basis for them. There was a surprising lack
of agreement upon any one v^ariety as being especially disease resist-
ant. The replies indicate several things: (1) That ver}^ few American
potato specialists have up to the present time given careful attention
to this question; (2) that there are few varieties in conmion use which
have preeminent worth as disease resisters; and (3) that in so large a
geographical area local conditions affecting culture and disease are so
widely variant as to prevent close comparisons or broad generaliza-
tions. No less than 38 varieties were commended as showing resist-
ance to blight or rot. Of these, 26 were commended only once, while
the other 12 were favorably spoken of b}^ two or more persons. Still
other varieties were mentioned, but not with sufficient positiveness to
entitle them to a place in the following list. Those named more than
once, with the locality in which they were indorsed, are as follows:

Table III. — The bed varieties of potatoes in the United States and Canada, as reported by
various experiment station officers and potato specialists.

Variety.

Dakota Red

Irish Cobbler

Green Mountain . . .

Doe's Pride

Norcross

White Beauty

Professor Maercker

Ionia Seedling

Quick Lunch

Rustproof

Sir Walter Raleigh .
Vermont Gold Coin

Number
of in-
dorse-
ments.

Localities in which commended.

Canada (4): Maine (3); Massachusetts;
Michigan; New York.

New York (2); Maine; Ohio; Rhode
Island.

Maine (2); Massachusetts (2); Ver-
mont.

Maine (2); Michigan.

Maine; New York; Vermont.

Maine; Minnesota.

Canada; Rhode Island.

New York.

Pennsylvania; Vermont.

Vermont.

Minnesota; New York.

Pennsylvania; New York.

The following varieties were mentioned once each, the commenda-
tion coming from the locality mentioned in parentheses: American
Wonder (Minnesota); Babl)itt (Maine); Bonanza (New York); Boss
(Vermont); Buffalo (Maine); Burbank (New York); Cambridge Russet
(New York); Carmen No. 3 (Ohio); Clarke's Pride (Maine); Clay Rose
(Minnesota); Crines Lightning (New Jerse}'); Delaware (Minnesota);
P^normous (New York); Gem of Aroostook (Rhode Island); Gloria
(Rhode Island); Harris Snowball (New York); Holborn Abundance
(Canada); Imperial Mills Prize (Maine); Keeper (New Hampshire);

« The writer is indebted to the following experiment station officers for helpful
advice: Professors Macoun, Canada; Woods, Maine; Rane, New Hampshire; Stuart,
Vermont; Brooks, Massachusetts; Wheeler and Adams, Rhode Island; Fraser and
Stewart, New York; Buckhout, Pennsylvania; Halsted, New Jersey; Selby, Ohio;
Taft, Michigan; and Green, Minnesota. Much information has been secured from
the replies of leading i)otato growers and seed dealers. It is regretted that it is
impracticable to give detailed credit to these correspondents.

RESISTANCE TO SCAB. 35

Professor Kuelin (Rhode Island); Million Dollar (Michigan); Orange
Blossom (Vermont); Rural New Yorker No. 2 (Vermont); Scabproof
(Wisconsin); Squier (Vermont); Star of the East (Maine); State of
Maine (Canada); Swiss Snowflake (Canada); Virgirosa (Vermont);
Westfield (Vermont); White Scotch King (Minnesota). In addition
three unnamed varieties received favorable mention from Vermont.

From these reports it is observed that certain varieties like Dakota
Red, Rustproof, and Keeper have very well proved powers of disease
resistance, but lack other desirable characters to make them popular
varieties. Several of the standard main-crop varieties are in some
degree disease resistant, and doubtless owe their general popularity, in
a measure, to this fact, although it has not been clearly defined. To
this group belong Carmen's best productions — Carmen No. 3, Sir
Walter Raleigh, Rural New Yorker No. 2, and Rural Blush — Green
Mountain, State of Maine, Delaware, Enormous, and White Beauty.
Irish Cobbler is highly spoken of as disease resistant, but it is a
question whether this may not be in part due to its early maturity, by
\ virtue of which it escapes the worst ravages of Ph3^tophthora.

There is also a very promising series of new seedlings which should
be carefully watched as to disease-resisting characters, among which
may be especially mentioned Norcross, Star of the East, and Babbitt
(Johnson Seed Company); Vermont Gold Coin (Burpee); Ionia Seed-
ling (Dibble); Harris Snowball (Harris & Co.).

It is encouraging to learn from the replies that several of the newer
German and English varieties which are reputed disease resisting in
their home countries have upon trial in America made a good show-
ing. This is evidenced b}- the reports from the Rhode Island and
Canada stations favorable to Professor Maercker, Gloria, Professor
Kuehn (German), Holborn Abundance (English), and Swiss Snowflake.

RESISTANCE TO SCAB.

It is a matter of common observation that some varieties of potatoes
are more liable to seal) than are others. Reference has been made
earlier in this publication to conclusions to this effect reached in Ger-
many. So far as known the only American publication recording the
results of comparative trials as to scab resistance is that made by the
Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station in 1901-2." Thirteen varie-
ties were tested in 1901 and fourteen in 1902 in soil badly infested
with scab germs. While all showed some scab, there was a consider-
able difference in the amount. Sir Walter Raleigh made a good show-
ing Vjoth years, but an unnamed seedling sent by Mr. A. E. Manum,
his No. 56, was more highly resistant. These trials established the
writer's confidence that still more resistant strains may be secured by

a Jones, L. R., and W. J. Morse. Vermont Exp. Sta. Report, XV: 225 (1902).

36 DISEASE KESISTANCE OF POTATOES.

breeding and selection. Prof. William Stuart, of the Vermont station,
has undertaken this work in connection with the development of resist-
ance to blight and rot.« He has made further trials during the last
two years, but without conclusive results as 3^et.

A request for information as to relative scab resistance was inserted
in the circular of inquiry, already referred to, recently sent to Amer-
ican potato specialists. Most of the replies to this question were
negative in character, but a number gave interesting information,
some of which is especially pertinent. The strongest evidence as to
scab resistance comes from Mr. Hiram Presley, of Port Huron, Mich.,
a potato specialist, who has tested hundreds of varieties during the past
thirty years. He commends the Cambridge Russet as practically
exempt from scab. Mr. Frank Paddock, of Perry, N. Y., gives like

evidence.

Carmen No. 3 is highly spoken of as scab resisting by several grow-
ers in Ohio, New York, and Vermont, but one Michigan correspondent
condemns it.

American Giant receives strong indorsement from Freehold, N. J.,
and vicinity; Salzer's Scabproof from Wisconsin, and Aurora from
Vermont. Favorable reports come from New York regarding Sir
Walter Raleigh and Irish Cobbler, and from Canada regarding
Mclntyre.

The following were each commended by one correspondent from the
localities mentioned in parentheses: Best (Maine); Doe's Pride (Maine);
Early Freeman (Ontario); Keeper (New Hampshire); Seneca Beauty
(Michigan); Squier (Vermont); White Beauty (Michigan); White
Elephant (New Jersey); White Scotch King (Minnesota).

On the other hand, the Early Ohio and some of its seedlings are
condemned as especially liable to scab. Early Rose, Bliss Triumph,
and Beauty of Hebron are also reported to scab badly.

It is encouraging to note that in some cases the same variety is rated
as in a high degree resistant to both diseases, the scab and the late-blight
and rot. A similar coincidence will be found if a comparison is made
of the lists of German varieties showing resistance to the several
diseases discussed earlier in these pages, and the same thing was
observed in some degree with the English varieties.

This indicates that the attributes which give power of resistance
against one disease are not incompatible with those operative against
another. Indeed, it is not unlikely that the general characteristics of
disease resistance may prove to be similar or the same for these vari-
ous maladies. If so, it will prove the easier to secure the model
potato, which, while possessing that which is desirable in quality and
productiveness, shall, in addition, show the highest degree of resist-
ance to the various diseases. This is an ideal worth striving for.

"Vermont Exp. Sta. Bui. 115, p. 139.

SUMMAKY. 37

SUMMARY.

The aim of this bulletin is to present in concise form what is known
about disease resistance of potatoes. Much of this information is from
European sources.

Certain minor diseases of obscure nature, but apparently nonpara-
sitic, are tirst considered— the internal brown spot, filosite, and leaf-
spot. Among remedial measures for each is the selection of resistant
varieties.

Scab diseases of tubers are in most, and perhaps in all, cases of para-
sitic origin — fungous or bacterial. Apparentl}' the variet}^ of these is
greater in Europe than in America, but the severity is less in Europe.
It is undecided to what extent the American type of scab occurs in
Europe, so a close comparison of conditions and remedies is not prac-
ticable. In Germany certain varieties are known to be more scab
resistant than others, among them being Richter's Imperator, Profes-
sor Wohltmann, and Irene. The same is true in America, Cambridge
Russet leading the list, so far as is known. Other American varie-
ties showing a considerable degree of resistance are Carmen No. 3,
American Giant, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Irish Cobbler. Scabproof
and Aurora are also highly commended for scab resistance.

Various stem diseases of the potato are known. The commonest
t3^pe in Europe is termed blackleg (Schwarzbeinigkeit), a bacterial
disease. It is not known to occur in America, but it resembles certain
maladies which do occur here and which are as yet imperfectly under-
stood. Varietal resistance to blackleg is not full}^ established, but
apparently Dabersche and certain similar, thick-skinned, starch-rich
late varieties are more resistant than thin-skinned, starch-poor early
I varieties of the Rose t^^pe. Factor and Up-to-Date showed a consider-
able degree of resistance to blackleg in England. La Czarine and
other varieties are reported to show resistance to a bacterial stem
disease in France.

The late-blight and rot due to the fungus PJujtophthora infestans
occurs more commonl}^ in Europe than in America. Attention has been
given for many years to relative varietal susceptibilit}- to this disease,
especially in Great Britain and in Germany. Varieties of superior
disease resistance are known in both countries, and a number of the
most promising from these and other European sources have been
imported for trial.

The following statements are tentatively formulated as to the nature
of resistance toward blight and rot and the character of the varieties
exhibiting it:

(1) Disease resistance in potatoes is relative, not absolute, no variety
known being wholly proof against late-blight and rot.

38 DISEASE RESISTANCE OB' POTATOES.

(2) It seems related to general vegetative vigor, and is therefore in
a measure dependent upon cultural and developmental conditions and
tends to decrease with the age of the variety.

(3) It can be restored b}^ originating new varieties from seed,
especiall}^ of hybrid origin. Not all seedlings show superior disease
resistance,

(4) The use of other species of tuber-bearing Solanums for h3'brid-
izing offers some promise, but no practical results have 3^et been
secured.

(5) Possibly the disease resistance in established varieties can be
improved by selection, but this has not been proved.

(6) Early varieties may escape the disease by maturing before it
becomes epidemic, but when similarly exposed they are as a class less
resistant than late varieties.

(7) The source of seed tubers is a matter of importance, northern-
grown seed giving plants of superior disease resistance in Europe.
Seed from a crop that was not too highly fertilized is probably prefer-
able. Possibl}^ tubers are better for seed purposes if dug before they
reach full maturity.

(8) High fertilization, especialh^ with nitrogenous manures, lowers
the power of the plant to resist both blight and rot.

(9) Varieties relatively rich in starch are more resistant to rot; those
richer in protein are more susceptible to it.

(10) So far as skin characters are an index, the red varieties with
thick and rough skin seem more resistant as a class than the thin-
skinned white varieties.

(11) So far as stem and foliage characters are concerned, the evidence
favors the stem that is hard, rough, and rather woody at the base, and
the leaf that is small, somewhat rough, and dark colored.

The varieties rated highest as to disease resistance in England are
Evergood, Discovery, Royal Kidney, Northern Star, Sir John Lle-
wel3'^n, King Edward VII, Eldorado, and Factor.

In German}' and Holland the following represent the best types:
Mohort, Irene, Geheimrat Thiel, Professor Wohltmann, Boncza,
Eigenheimer, and Paul Kriiger.

In Belgium and France no improvement as to disease resistance has
been made over the best English and German t3^pes.

In America, trials as to disease resistance have been conducted at
some of the experiment stations, notably in Vermont, where experi-
ments in breeding and selection for increased resistance are under way.
These results have been correlated with information recently secured
by a circular of inquiry addressed to a large number of potato special-
ists in the Northeastern States and in Canada. From these it appears
that a wide variation is shown in disease resistance among the varieties
now in cultivation in America, but that no one variet}' is preeminent.

SUMMARY. 39

Among those which have been widely tested, the following deserve
mention as of the resistant class: Dakota Red, Rustproof, Irish Cob-
bler, Sir Walter Raleigh, Doe's Pride, and White Beauty. Certain
European varieties of the disease-resistant type seem to retain that
character when grown in this country, e. g., Professor Maercker and
Sutton's Discovery. There is much of promise in certain new varie-
ties under trial at the Vermont station. Several new sorts of reputed
disease resistance have recently been place<^l on the market by American
seedsmen, e. g., Harris's Snowball, Dib])le\s Ionia Seedling, Burpee's
Vermont Gold Coin, and Johnson's Norcross, Star of the East, and Bab-
bitt. Those having opportunit}" should carefully observe the relative
disease resistance of these and also of other new varieties.

The evidence at hand seems to justify the hope that the coordinated
efforts of potato specialists working from both the practical and the
scientific standpoints may soon result in the development of varieties
of potatoes combining general excellence with a high degree of disease
resistance. All who can do so are urged to aid toward the accomplish-
ment of this end.

O

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 88.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS
OF THE COTTON PLANT.

BY

O. F. COOK,

BiONOMiST IN Charge of Investigations in the Agricultural
Economy of Tropical and Subtropical Plants.

Issued January 13, 1906.

WASHINGTON:

government printing office.

1906.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes.
Vegetable Pathological and Physiological Investigations; Botanical Investiga-
tions ; Farm Management, including Grass and Forage Plant Investigations ;
Pomological Investigations, and Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of
which were formerly conducted as separate divisions ; and also Seed and Plant
Introduction and Distribution; the Arlington Experimental Farm; Investiga-
tions in the Agricultural Economy of Tropical and Subtropical Plants; Drug
and Poisonous Plant Investigations ; Tea Culture Investigations ; the Seed
Laboratory, and Diy Land Agriculture and Western Agricultural Extension.

Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of
Bulletins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published
as one series of the Bureau. A list of the Bulletins issued in the present seiies
follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that " the serial, scientific, and technical publi-
cations of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general dis-
tribution. All copies not required for official use are by law turned over to the
Superintendent of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All
applications for such publications should, therefore, be made to the Superin-
tendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

No. 1. Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10 cents.

2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

8. A collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price. 10 cents.

9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses

and Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

14. Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents.

15. Forage Conditions on the Great Basin. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

1(3. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Cam-
pestris and Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price. 15 cents.

21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. Price, 35 cents.

22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents.'

23. Berseem. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

24. Unfermented Grape Must. 3902. Price, 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous Papers: I. Seeds of Rescue Grass and Chess. II. Saragolla

Wheat. III. Plant Introduction Notes from South Africa. IV. Con-
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20. Spanish Almonds. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, etc. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

28. The Mango in Porto Rico. 1903. Price. 15 cents.

29. The Effect of Black Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

30. Budding the Pecan. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

31. Cultivated Forage Crops of Northwestern States. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

32. A Disease of the White Ash. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

33. North American Species of Leptochloa. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

34. Silkworm Food Plants. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

35. Recent Foreign Explorations. 1903. Price, 15 cents.-

[Continued on page 3 of cover.]

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

B. T. GALLOWAY,
Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge, Acting Chief of Bureau in Absence of Chief.

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge.

FARM MANAGEMENT.
W. J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
G. B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.
A. J. Pieters, Botanist in Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.
L. C. CoRBETT, Horticulturist in Charge.

INVESTIGATIONS IN THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL

PLANTS.

O. F. Cook, Biouomist in Charge.

DRUG AND POISONOUS PLANT INVESTIGATIONS, AND TEA CULTURE INVESTIGATIONS.

Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge.

DRY LAND AGRICULTURE AND WESTERN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.
Carl S. Scofield, Agrictdturist in Charge.

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.
E. M. Byrnes, Superintendent.

SEED LABORATORY.
Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge.

J. E. Rockwell, Editor.
James E. Jones, Chief Clerk.

INVESTIGATIONS IN THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL

PLANTS.

scientific staff.

O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge.

G. N. Collins, Assistant Botanist.

F. L. Lewton, .Scientific Asi<istant.

H. Pittier, Special Agent.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,
Washington^ D. 6'., September 26. 1905.

Sir : I have the honor to transmit hereAvith a report on " Weevil-
Resisting Adaptations of the Cotton Phint," and to reconnnend it
for publication as Bulletin No. 88 of this Bureau. This report has
been prepared by Mr. O. F. Cook, bionomist in charge of investiga-
tions in the agricultural economy of tropical and subtropical plants.
It contains an account of his observations and experiments which
show that some of the varieties of the cotton plant have definite
weevil-resisting characters. The establishment of these facts opens
new and unexpected lines of approach to cultural solutions of the
weevil problem.

The investigation of cotton referred to in this report was begun
in March, 190-1, through the Laboratory of Plant Breeding, there
having been set aside for it from the emergency cotton boll weevil
appropriation a part of the funds which had been devoted to the
breeding of weevil-resistant cotton. The existence of a field culture
of cotton in the presence of the boll weevil had been ascertained by
Mr. Cook during a visit to Guatemala in 1902, and it was hoped that
the immunity of the cotton might prove to be due to some weevil-
resistant quality.

The first result of detailed observations was the discovery of the
weevil-eating kelep or so-called Guatemalan ant, which has been
made the subject of previous reports through the Bureau of Ento-
mology. It now appears that the usefulness of this insect is not
Hmited to the boll weevils which it catches and kills. Bv makine- a
regular field culture of cotton possible in the presence of the boll
weevil it has contributed in an important manner to the development
of the weevil-resisting characters here described. The cotton plant,
it seems, has been greatly modified in protecting itself against the
ravages of its insect enemy. Not only has it attracted the kelep to
its service and developed other means of defense w^hich are more

3

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

direct, but even the lint, on the Deculiar character of which the com-
mercial value of the crop depends, appears to find its chief use to the
plant in excluding the weevil larvae from the seed. Our Sea Island
and Upland varieties have been raised for long periods in regions
where the boll weevil did not exist and, as was to have been expected,
are largely lacking in protective features. The Kekchi cotton, on the
other hand, which has continued its development in a weevil-infested
region under the protection of the keleps, has by far the largest
number of weevil-resisting characters.

The fact that weevil-resisting adaptations really exist, as shown in
numerous instances in the present report, emphasizes the necessity of
a thorough study of our cultivated cottons for the purpose of taking
advantage of any and all protective characters.

It is possible, as Mr. Cook suggests, that the Guatemalan variety
of cotton which he has discovered, and which has such a surprising
number of weevil-resisting adaptations, may not prove suited to culti-
vation in the United States, but even in that case the value of the
present paper on weevil-resisting characters would not be diminished,
for it will serve as a help to all who may engage in seeking and
developing such characters in the types of cotton now cultivated in
our country.

Respectfully, B. T. Galloway,

Chief of Bureau.

Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agricultiwe.

CONTENTS,

Page.

Introduction 7

Selective inflnence of the boll weevil 10

General protective characters H

Dwarf habit and determinate growth of Kekchi cotton 11

Variations in the Kekchi cotton I5

Effects of Guatemalan conditions on United States varieties. 17

Acclimatization of Kekchi cotton in the United States 17

Early bearing facilitated by long basal branches 19

Early rejection of superfluous squares 20

Seasonal bearing of perennial varieties 23

Annual cutting back of perennial varieties 24

Hairy stalks and leaf stems 25

Pendent bolls 27

Extrafloral nectaries 28

Nectaries of the leaves 30

External nectaries of the involucre _ 31

Inner nectaries of the involucre 31

Nectaries of Guatemalan Sea Island cotton 32

Continued secretion of nectar 32

Bractlets subtending inner nectaries 33

Efficiency of the kelep protection , 34

Other nectar-bearing plants visited by the keleps 36

The in vohicre as a protective structure _ . . * _ . . 37

Involucral bracts grown together * 37

Appressed margins of bracts 38

Large involucres of Kekchi cotton ,, 39

Opening, or flaring, of bracts avoided 40

Hairy margins of involucral bracts . 41

Extent of protection by involucre 41

Advantage of open involucres 42

Behavior of parasitized l)uds 43

Shedding of weevil-infested squares ... 43

Countings of fliired and fallen squares 45

Prolif, ration of internal tissues of buds 46

Causes and conditions of bud proliferation .' 49

Proliferation in other varieties 50

Protection of the bolls . . .51

Persistence of flowers , .51

Immunity of very young bolls 52

Rapid growth of young bolls _ 55

Thick- walled bolls ,56

Tough linings of chambers of bolls - . 56

5

6 CONTENTS.

Protection of the bolls — Continued. Page.

Proliferation from the wall of the boll _ 58

Time reqnired for proliferation 60

Efficiency of adaptive characters of bolls 61

Bacterial diseases following weevil injuries 62

Breeding in buds a derived habit 62

Relation between proliferation in buds and in bolls . 64

Protection of seeds by lint 65

Protective seed arrangement in Kidney cotton 66

Cultural value of Kidney cotton . 67

The nature and causes of adaptations . 67

Conscious and unconscious selection 70

Summary of adaptations 72

Classification of adaptations . 72

Adaptive characters of different types of cotton 73

Concluding remarks . 74

Description of plates .._ 78

Index 79

ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate I. Valley at Secanquim, Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala, the scene of

experiments with weevil-resisting cotton Frontispiece.

II. Fig. 1. — Mature plant of Kekchi cotton. Fig. 2. — Kekchi cotton

plant with bolls 78

III. Involucres of Kekchi cotton, showing nectaries and bractlets 78

IV. Fig. 1.— Involucres of Rabinal cotton, showing connate and ap-

, pressed margins. Fig. 2. — Open involucres of Egyptian cotton _ 78
V. Fig. 1. — Young buds of Kekchi cotton with weevil punctures.

Fig. 2. — Buds of Kekchi cotton with proliferation 78

VI. Large buds of Kekchi cotton with proliferation 78

VII. Weevil-infested bolls of Kekchi cotton 78

VIII. Carpels of Kekchi cotton, showing proliferation 78

IX. Fig. 1.— Kekchi cotton, successive stages of the boll. Fig. 2. —

Kekchi cotton bolls (right) compared with King bolls (left)... 78
X. Fig. 1.— Rabinal cotton with bolls. Fig. 2. — Bolls and seeds of

Kidney cotton 78

B. r. I. — 180.

WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF THE
. COTTON PLANT.

INTRODUCTION.

The fact that Central American varieties of cotton have developed
weevil-resisting adaptations has alread^y received preliminary notice."
A third visit to Guatemala, in the spring of 1905, has given opportu-
nity for further studies of the protective characters of the native
varieties and for comparing them with the types of cotton now cul-
tivated in the United States. For this purpose plantings of Upland
and Sea Island varieties have been made in Guatemala, and as the
season advanced other tests of the Guatemalan and United States
varieties Avere arranged under very ditl'erent climatic conditions in
Texas and at Washington,

These opportunities of comparative observation have revealed a
series of protective adaptations of such number and nicety as to fur-
nish a unicpie and well-nigh incredible instance of selective develop-
ment. The statement of the former paper may be repeated with
emphasis, that the presence of the weevil-eating kelep has enabled
the Indians of eastern Guatemala to maintain since very ancient
times field culture of cotton in the presence of the weevils, with the
result that there has been developed a dwarf, annual, short-season
variety with numerous features Avhicli, in the absence of sufficient
numbers of keleps, afford material assistance in protecting the crop
against the ravages of the weevil.

IMiether this Guatemalan cotton can be made of direct use in the
United States or not, it demonstrates the existence in the cotton
plant of weevil-resisting characters. The new variety has lint of
good length and (piality, so that its utilization in the United States
depends upon its adaptal)ility to our climate and methods of culture.

As already explained in publications devoted to the kelep, the
Aveevil-eating propensities of that insect were discovered in 190-1
during a visit to Guatemala which had been undertaken in the hope
of finding a weevil-resisting variety of cotton. It had beei\observed

« Cotton Culture in Guatemala. Yearbook of the Friited States Department of
Agriculture for 1904, 475-488 ; Science, N. S., 20 : 6G6-G70, November IS. 1904.

7

8 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

two years before that a field of dwarf cotton cultivated by the Indians
did not suffer from the boll weevils, though these pests were abundant
on a "^ tree cotton " a short distance away.

The kelop afforded an entirely unexpected and yet very striking
explanation of the fact that cotton Avas being grown 'as a regular
field crop in a region which had probably been infested with weevils
for many centuries, if it were not, indeed, the original home of the
species. That there was an insect in existence specially qualified
by structure and habits to attack, disable, and devour the boll Aveevil,
was welcome news in the United States, and in accordance with cabled
instructions from the Secretary of Agriculture numerous colonies
of the keleps were brought home and colonized in the cotton fields
of Texas.

The finding of the kelep explained the failure of the weevils to
prevent cotton cultivations in eastern Guatemala, and seemed at first
to diminish the prospects of weevil resistance in the cotton itself.
Nevertheless, the intention of studying Guatemalan varieties of cot-
ton and the cultural methods in use in that country was not aban-
doned, and the residts are not Avithout bearing on the original (|ues-
tion of the causes of the apparent imnuniity of the Guatemalan
cottons, and also upon the more practical question of securing cotton
varieties and cultural methods by Avhich the injuries of the boll
Aveevil in the United States may be reduced to a minimum.

The Guatemakn cotton protected by the keleps is a genuine Up-
land variety, very early and productive, with a fiber of good length
and texture, as already stated. In addition to features which di-
rectly favor the keleps, it has many other qualities which may
render it useful, even without its insect guardians. In former reports
it has been compared Avith the very early Upland varieties, such as
King and Parker; but comparative tests made in eastern Guatemala
show that the native variety, which it is proposed to call Kekchi,
represents a very distinct type of this important cultivated plant.
. It belongs to Gossypiutn hlrsutum, the Upland species or series of
varieties, in the sense that it is not a Sea Island, Egyptian, or Kidney
cotton," but it is distinctly more different from any of the Upland
"'varieties now cultivated in the United States than these are from eacli
other. It has not been ascertained that the Kekchi cotton in its

a The Sea Island cotton is so called because cotton of this fype is cultivated
on the Sea Islands of South Carolina, long famous for the excellence of their
product. The Sea Island cotton came originally from Barbados, whence also
its botanical name, Go.ssijpiuni b(irha(]eitsc.

Upland cotton gained its name as a means of distinguishing it from the Sea
Island, being cultivated in the interior, or " upland," districts of the Southern
States. The I'pland type of cotton was recognized as a distinct species by
Linnaeus under the name GossyiJiuiii liirautKin, but many subsequent writers

INTEODUCTTON. 9

present form is suited to cultivation in the United States, but it has,
without any doubt, new and significant characters which must bo
regarded as factors in cultural solutions of the weevil problem. (PL
ILfig. 1.)

Although cotton was not found to be planted as a regular field cul-
ture in any localities in (luatemala where the keleps do not exist,
small quantities are produced in the interior plateau region about
Rabinal by Avhat may be called dooryard cultivation, and these, too,
have suggested cultural factors and expedients which may not be
Avithout practical bearing.

The present paper can claim to make only a beginning in the
bionomic Andy of the question, but it shoAvs at least that the weevil
problem has many avenues of approach on the botanical side.

The cotton of (Guatemala and neighboring countries has maintained
an existence, at least, in the presence of the weevils, and has suffered
an acute natural selection with reference to its ability to protect itself
against the weevil or to secure the assistance of allies, such as the
keleps. That no commercial cotton crop is raised or exported from
such districts does not prove that they are unworthy of scientific
investigation, or that they are not likely to yield materials and sug-
gestions of practical value in meeting the invasion of weevils which
is now so serious a menace to the cotton industry of the United States.

Some of these weevil-resisting adaptations have been of use in
securing for the cotton the assistance of the keleps. There are others
which, if properly utilized, might render these interesting insects
unnecessary. Tropical America has been serving for thousands of
years, evidently, as a laboratory for this class of experiments. Texas
was invaded only yesterday — a decade ago. Now that we are forced
to engage in the strife, the first preliminary should be, it would seem,
to take stock of the weapons which nature has forged.

The present report was planned and partly written before the dis-
covery of the true nature of the best of the weevil-resisting adapta-
tions—the proliferation of the tissues of the buds and bolls. Some
of the characters here described may have no value except as sug-
gestions, but taken together they may be of interest as an outline of
the results of the very long period of selection to which the presence
of the boll weevil has subjected the Central American varieties of
the cotton plant.

iiave erroneously confused it with the Old \Yorl(l species Gossijpium herhaccum,
which is not cultivated in the T'nited States, thou.ich often so reported.

The Efiyptian and Kidn«^y cottons l)eioni,' to the Sea Island series, and are of
Anieric-an origin. The Kidney cottons seem not to have heen cultivated on a
commercial scale, but they are very widely distributed in troiMcal America. The
name refers to the fact that the seeds cf each compartment of the l)oll are
grown together into a small comjiact mass, in shape suggesting a kidney.

10 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

SELECTIVE INFLUENCE OF THE BOLL WEEVIL.

The boll Aveevil exerts a most prejudicial effect upon the cotton
croi), but, unlike most parasites, it does not cause disease or debility
in its host plant. The young buds and bolls are merely pruned away,
as it were, the purposes of the Aveevil being the better served when the
plants remain vigorous and continue to produce more buds and bolls,
in which more eggs can be laid and more larvae brought to maturity.
Nevertheless, if no bolls are allowed to develop no seed can be set.
The fate of the cotton crop in wet seasons in Texas shows that with-
out some form of protection the plant would have been extinct long
since in all localities reached by the boll weevil.

The long contact between the boll weevil and the cotton plant in
Central America has given ample opportunity for the latter to profit
by the selection which the insect itself has provided. Ever}^ differ-
ence by which a cotton plant was able to resist or to avoid the weevil
and thus ripen more seeds than its fellows would give it a distinct
advantage, quite as if the selection were consciously carried on by the
planter or the plant breeder. The case is different from that of the
recent improvements of many of our cultivated plants by selection
for the increase of some particular quality already existing. Such
improvements can often be made appreciable, or even highly valu-
able, in comparatively few years, but under the desultory Indian
methods of cultivation long periods of time would be required for
the origination and accumulation of such characters as these pro-
tective adaptations.

Climate and other local conditions must also be taken into consid-
eration. An adaptation which would be effective in one set of cli-
matic conditions may be of little use, or even a positive disadvantage,
in others, as, for example, the prompt shedding of the parasitized
buds. In a dry regi(m the falling of a bud to the superheated,
sun-baked earth insures the death of the weevil larva, either by the
heat directly or by the complete drying out of the tissues in which
the larva is embedded. In the moist districts of eastern Texas, how-
ever, this expedient is quite ineffective, the larvse often developing
even better when the buds fall off' and lie on moist soil than when thev
remain attached to the plant.

It need not surprise us to learn also that the weevil-resisting adap-
tations shown by the Kekchi and other cotton varieties of Central
America are shared, to some extent, bv those already known in the
United States, since the whole Upland type of cotton appears to have
been, originally, a native of the C^itral American region. Varieties
which reached the United States from Mexico and the West Indies
may, however, have had little or no contact with the weevil for many
centuries, while in Central America the struggle for existence has
remained severe and continuous down to the present day.

GENEKAL PROTECTIVE CHARACTERS. 11

It is now known that in the plateau region of Mexico the long dry
season effectuall}' excludes the weevil, so that varieties of cotton from
the Mexican highlands, instead of being weevil-proof, as sometimes
represented, may have no immunity whatever when brought into
the ranch more moist climate of the cotton belt of the United States.

The Kekchi cotton of Guatemala, on the other hand, has to a much
greater degree than anv of the varieties now grown in the ITnited
States the very qualities which experiment has shown to l)e effective
for the mitigation by cultural means of the injuries inflicted by the
boll Aveevil. That it has, in addition, other features not possessed
by our United States varieties, or not hitherto interpreted as weevil-
resisting adaptations, need not be looked upon as anything outside
the normal order of nature, but is entirely in accord with what
appears to be the biological and agricultural history of the cotton
plant in Central America.

GENERAL PROTECTIVE CHARACTERS.
DAVARF HABIT AND DETERMINATE GROWTH OF KEKCHI COTTON.

Although Guatemala is a tropical country and the climatic condi-
tions are suitable for the growth of cotton throughout the year, the
Kekchi cotton is cultivated only as an annual, and is smaller and
more determinate in its habits of growth than the Upland varieties
now known in the United States. It soon attains its full height,
and after a crop of bolls has set on the lower branches there is a
definite tendency to cease growing or producing new buds. The
later upAvard growth of the plants seems to be supplementary, as it
were, to the formation of the bolls; often there appear to be no
more flowers formed, and many of those which come seem to be
undersized, as though the plant were really mature and were
&j)proaching the natural termination of its existence. Our Upland
varieties, on the contrary, continue to produce throughout the season
hundreds of small squares on each j^lant which serve only as breed-
ing places for the weevils.

The explanation of the high development of these short-season
qualities of the Kekchi cotton is doubtless to be found in the custom
of the Indians, who pull up the cotton as soon as the bulk of the crop
has ripened to make room for the peppers, which are ahvays ])lanted
with the cotton. For the Indians the peppers are an even more
important crop than the cotton, so that when the time comes for
clearing away the cotton they do not wait for the plants which may
have delayed maturity. Late bolls, even, Avould lie^'er come to
maturity or furnish seed for planting. The result has been a very
long-sustained selection for early bearing and uniform ripening of
the crop. Some of our earliest Upland sorts may begin blossoming

12 WEEVIL-KESIST-fNG ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

as soon as the Kokchi, but they show far less tendency to determinate
growth.

The development of earliness has been assisted, no doubt, by the
climatic conditions which prevail in eastern Guatemala. The rainy
season oftens begins before the cotton harvest is completed, so that
the later bolls are very likely to become diseased, or, if they reach
maturity and open, the lint is often beaten to the ground and made too
dirty for use in spinning and weaving. In either case the seed is not
harvested.

The Indians believe that even if they did not pull the cotton up it
would not become a perennial, but would die out completely, even to
ihe roots, during the rainy season. Seeds scattered accidentally in
the plantation at harvest time are rotted by the rain and do not germi-
nate, so that little or no volunteer cotton is carried over from one
season to another.

If the Kekchi cotton were the only variety planted in Guatemala
nnd the weevil had there, as in the United States, no other food plant
than the cotton, the insects might all die off between April or May,
when the cotton is pulled up, and October, Avhen the next crop is
planted. There is, however, enough perennial '' tree " cotton in the
country to keep the j^est from becoming exterminated. Moreover,
the question of additional food plants in Guatemala is still open.

The importance of securing short-season varieties of cotton for the
United States can hardly be overestimated, since, as already intimated
elsewhere," there is no longer any reason to hope that the more severe
winters of the northern districts of the cotton belt will give any pro-
tection against the weevils.

As long as the weevil was confined to the southern part of Texas,
where the cotton could survive the winter, the destruction of the
plants as soon as possible after the maturing of the crop was the only
measure calculated . to seriously reduce the number of weevils. It
was also essential to plan.t cotton as early as possible in the spring to
avoid the Aveevils bred on the volunteer, or hold-over, cotton which
negligent planters had left in the ground. The extension of the pest
farther north and the possibility of securing cotton varieties with
determinate habits of growth introduce several new considerations.
The hold-over cotton is eliminated from the problem, but in the more
northern latitudes, where the cold comes earlier and the temperature
remains lower throughout the winter, it nuiy often happen that there
will be no period in which the weevils can be reduced by starvation,
unless time can be secured for this purpose in the spring by the plant-
ing of short-season varieties of cotton.

a Cook, O. F., 1905. Progress iu the .Stuuy of the Kelep, Science^ X. S., 21 :
552.

PROTECTIVE CHARACTERS OF KEKCHI COTTOX. 13

Instead of colder winters being unfavorable to the weevils, there is
every probability that cold sufficient to keep them in a torpid, inactive
condition will preserve their noxious lives much better than warm and
pleasant weather, which enables them to continue active and thus
deplete their vital energies. The winter of 1904-5 was one of un-
precedented severity in Texas, both in absolute temperature and in
continued cold and wet, and jet the weevils were able, in many locali-
ties, to infest heavily the earW plantings of cotton to a far greater
extent than in previous years.

The farther north the localitv the more will the efficiencv of cul-
tural methods of avoiding the boll weevil depend upon the plant-
ing of quick-maturing varieties of cotton. It is true that in a
favorable season the cotton planted first would set its crop soonest,
and thus escape a part of the damage suffered by adjoining fields
of later growth, the earlier fields breeding weevils to attack in
larger force the later plantings. But instead of insuring a decrease
of the number of weevils in a given locality and checking the
propagation of the pest, very early planting by a part of the farmers
of a community might tend, after an early fall and a cold winter,
to the opposite result, since it would save the lives of large numbers
of Aveevils which would otherwise perish before the cotton, if sown
ii. few weeks later, would be large enough to furnish the weevils
with food. Dr. Herbert J. Webber states that planting could
probably be deferred even to the middle of June without impair-
ing the chances of a crop as large as that which can be obtained
in the presence of the weevil.

There would seem to be little object in planting cotton where
the weevils are as abundant as in some places in southern Texas in
the spring of the present year, 1905. Nevertheless, the opportune
occurrence of a few weeks of dry weather was able, even then, to
greatly improve the prospects of a crop. Xo matter how bad the
weevils, the planter still has hope that dry weather may come and save
his crop from being a total loss. As long as indeterminate varie-
ties are planted this possibility will always make it difficult to carry
out a general j^olicy of early destruction of the plants.

Some of our Upland varieties of cotton are early enough in the
sense that the}^ begin flowering and fruiting very promptly, but
unless the season is very dry they will produce a continuous succession
of buds until they are pulled up or frost cuts them off. The earli-
ness of practical value is not to be shown merely by the date of
flowering, but by the date of ripening the crop of bolls and of
ceasing to form new buds in Avhich weevils can breed. If the im-
provements noted in other parts of this report can be realized in
practice, it would no longer be necessary to destroy the cotton plants

14 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

in order to put an end to the breeding of the weevils. It would
then become practicable and desirable to regulate planting so as to
bring the growing period of the cotton at the most favorable season
for a rapid dcA'elopment of the crop, and thus to give the weevils
the shortest possible opportunities for breeding." If the fall and
winter had favored the survival of many weevils, planting could well
be deferred until the weevils had disappeared, a fact which could be
ascertained by starting early a few observation plants from which
the weevils could be carefully picked by hand as long as they con-
tinued to appear.

The extent of the mortality of the boll weevil in the spring has been
well shown in the investigations reported by Mr. W. D. Hunter on
the effects of applying Paris green to the very young cotton as a
means of destroying the weevils which had lived through the winter.
Numerous dead weevils were found in the poisoned fields, but equal
or even greater numbers were found in those to which no Paris green
had been applied, and the conclusion was drawn that a large propor-
tion of the weevils, which pass the winter in a state of hibernation
or torpidity induced by the cold, perish through starvation or other
causes in the spring, after the weather has become warm enough to
render them active again and permit them to renew their search for
cotton plants on which to feed and lay their eggs.''

It is easy to understand, too, that after the weevils have been re-
duced by the cold to a condition of inactivity involving an almost com-
plete suspension of the vital functions, the lack of food and the lapse
of time can make very little difference with them. Starvation comes
much quicker during warm weather while they are going actively
about, so that it is the autumn and spring which must be relied upon
to reduce the numbers of the weevils rather than the cold periods of
the winter months. Messrs. Hunter and Hinds have also noted as
significant the fact that of weevils captured at the middle of Decem-
ber, 15.8 jDer cent passed the winter successfull3% while of another lot
captured a month earlier, only 1 per cent survived. Their conclu-
sions were as follows :

It is evident ttiat the weevils which pass the winter and attaelv the crop of
the following season are among those developed latest in the fall and which, in
consequence of that fact, have not exhausted their vitality by oviposition or any
considerable length of active life.

AYith these facts in mind it becomes plain that no objections need
be raised on general biological principles to the introduction of new

aA determinate variety of cotton would also avoid the cultural disadvan-
tages incidental to very early planting, for if the weather happens to turn
cold and wet the cotton is often either killed outright and has to be replanted
or, what is still worse, it becomes permanently stunted and unproductive.

ij Hunter, W. D., 1904. The Use of Paris (ircen in Controlling the Cotton Boll.
Weevil, Farmers' Bulletin No. 211, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

VARIATIOIQ^S IN KEKCHI COTTON. 15

quick-maturing varieties of cotton from tropical countries on the
ground that cold weather will exclude them from the United States.
The early spring is the only time in which they will be likely to
encounter adverse conditions in this respect, and if varieties can be
secured which are able to mature a satisfactory cro}) in a short season^
these quick-maturing qualities will far more than compensate for any
lack of ability to withstand cold weather in the early spring.

The Kekchi cotton may prove, however, to be quite as tolerant of
cold as the other Upland varieties now cultivated in the United
States." In its native country it is planted in October and grows
throughout the winter months in mountain valleys where tempera-
tures of between 40° and 60° F. are not infrequent. (PL I.)

VARIATIONS IN THE KEKCHI COTTON.

Very great diversity of size, habit of growth, and other features
exists in the Indian cotton of the vicinity of Secanquim and Cajabon.
The plants cultivated by Mr. John H. Kinsler on the United States
system were also very diiferent from any grown by the Indians,
being much more robust and compact than in the more crowded
native fields. The spreading lateral branches and low, compact
growth of the Kekchi cotton, as shoAvn in Plate II. figure 1, might have
cultural disadvantages if these tendencies were to be maintained in
regular field cultures. Such, however, is not likely to be the case.
^Mien growing closer together the plants are more upright and less
leafy below.

To what extent the differences observed thus far represent varietal
characters can scarcely be determined without a field test of the
apparently different strains, side by side. The broken, precipitous
nature of the country renders it impossible to rely upon comparisons
of the conditions of the different fields.

The conservatiA^e agricultural habits of the Indians would tend to
the continued planting by one man or family of the same seed for
long periods of years, wJiich might well conduce to the formation of
separate strains. The low germinating power of the seed may pos-
sibly be due to such inbi'eeding, though it is more likely that it deteri-
orates because of the humidity of the climate.'^ Nevertheless, our
experiments Avere sufficient to prove that even among plants grown
from seed raised by the same Indian there Avere very appreciable

« This was shown to be a fact before the report was printerL See p. 18.

6 The Indians appreciate the fact that the cotton seed does not germinate well.
They are accustomed to plant six seeds together, from which two or three plants
usually reach maturity, often with one or two insignificant d\Tarfs underneath.
The yield per plant in these crowded fields is naturally very small, but the larger
individuals often bear from 20 to .30 bolls. At Kabinal from H to 10 jilants in a
cluster is the rule, the product of the individual being still further reduced.

16 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

differences, sufficient to have a Very practical bearing upon the ques-
tion of securing strains having the special characters required in the
United States. Indeed, there was nearly as much diversity among
Ihe Guatemalan plants as among all the Upland varieties, though
these were in some cases unusually variable, as a result apparenth'
of the transfer to new and unwonted conditions of climate and soil.

The usual number of locks or cells in a boll of the Kekchi cotton is
four, but bolls containing three or five are not uncommon; often thej^
are on plants which have otherwise the usual number.

There is also considerable diversity on the same plant in the shape
of the bolls, some, for example, remaining quite conical and pointed,
while others round out to near the apex. One plant was observed
in which the bolls were very nearly spherical. The involucre was
also unusually large. The plant had an unusually deep red or black-
ish color, and was distinctly more vigorous than its neighbors, as
often happens with mutations.

It is not at all probable that a close selection has ever been prac-
ticed by the Indians, so that a wide diversity of mutational charac-
ters may be expected when once the variety has been brought under
careful observation.

The stems and petioles' of the Kekchi cotton plant are dark red.
or at least spotted with red, and the leaves turn dull red with matu-
rity. The bracts and bolls are green when young, but with- age and
exposure to the sun become more or less tinged or spotted with red."
The outer involucral nectaries also turn deep red, especially the tAvo
upper ones, even while the buds are still very young. The great
majority of the leaves are simply three-i^ointed, but many of them
have an additional smaller lateral point on each side near the base.

a One plant at Secanquim showed a very decided instance of variegation
with white and red. though the latter color might have been due to an increased
tendency of the white portions to take the red discoloration common on normal
leaves. The lower branches of the plant show only normal green coloration,
and a part of the upper branches is also normal in color and size, and with
fruits rather above the average size. The variegated branches do not regu-
larly alternate, nor do they come all from one side, but they might still have
connection with the ])liyllotaxy. There seem to be two stages of the variega-
tion, a white and a light greenish-yellow ; the latter may belong only to young
leaves. Both are distributed with the utmost irregularity, and both may
affect the upper surface of the leaf while the under surface remains green, or
vice versa, though the latter condition is much less common than the former.
The etiolated portions of the leaves, involucres, and fruits do not attain the
full size of the corresponding normal organs, so that the parts affected are
more or less unsymmetrical, though whei*e the variegation is slight this result
may be apparent, or if It be complete the symmetry is not affected. Except
for two jn-cMiiature bolls the seed was not ripe, and these were from the nor-
mal lower part of the iilant.

ACCLIMATIZATION OF KEKCHI COTTON. 17

EFFIXTS OF (ilATEMAI.AX CONDITIONS ON UNITED STATES VARIETIES.

I'he behavior of the United States varieties under changed climatic
conditions in Gnateniahi is interesting in several ways. The " King,"
which in the United States appears to resemble the Guatemalan
variety most nearly, hero loses most of its distinctive characters and
l)reaks up into a variety of types, many of which would not be recog-
nized in the United States as at all related to King. One of these is
n " limbless " or " cluster " variety, which for a time appeared to
Mr. Kinsler as a very promising new sort. It was smaller and dis-
tinctly earlier than King plants of the normal type, and seemed
likely to be more productive, but only a few bolls developed, and
these proved to be of abnormal form, with deep grooves or notches
across the tip.

One of the features in which the change of climate seems to ])ro-
duce remarkable effects is that of earliness. The King, which in the
States is looked upon as the earliest variety, is found by Mr. Kinsler
to be somewhat exceeded in this respect by " Allen," which has not
been looked upon as a competitor. The Sea Island and Egyptian
varieties, too, prove to be much more precocious than was expected.
Some of them begin flowering almost as soon as the Upland sorts.
The Rivers variety of Sea Island cotton, in particular, was very
early, robust, and productive, distinctly ahead of the near-by Janno-
vitch, though not so tall.

ACCLIMATIZATION OF KEKCHI COTTON IN THE UNITED STATES.

It was not unexpected that the Kekchi cotton would show a change
in its method of growth on being transferred to Texas. New condi-
tions of soil and climate often cause notable disturbances of the
organism. Some of the tropical cottons planted in Texas for experi-
mental purposes have grown into large bushes without showing the
slightest tendency to produce fruit or even flowers. In 1904 cotton
from Peru planted at Victoria, Tex., grew most vigoro^.sly to a
height of 18 feet, but remained quite sterile. It is possible, howcA^er,
that even in their own country these Avere what are called " tree
cottons." which usually grow to considerable size before beginning
to flower. Letters from Mr. Kinsler, in charge of our experimental
l)lot at Pierce, Tex., relate a similar behavior on the part of the
Kekchi cotton, which at that place has grown large and rank; but
toward the end of July it was beginning to fruit, so that the ripening
of seeds in Texas is to be anticipated.

Two or three years will probably suffice to diminish this abnormal
vegetative vigor, due to the stimulus of the new conditions, and ])er-
mit a return to the normal earliness of the variety. Similar results
9962— No. 88—05 m 2

18 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

' I •

have attended the introduction into Texas of Mexican varieties of
corn. The phuits grew 1-1 feet high the first year and bore very little
seed ; in the following seasons they became smaller, earlier, and more

productive.

The probability that the Kekchi cotton can be grown even at the
northern limits of cotton cultivation is strongly indicated by the
results of an experiment at Lanham, Md. (11)05). In favorable sea-
sons cotton can be grown to maturity as far north as AVashington, but
the present year has been very unfavorable, the summer months being
for the most part cool and rainy, and with several intervals of
unusually low temperature. The cotton, which was planted intention-
ally in rather poor soil, to avoid too great luxuriance of growth, ger-
minated very badly and renuiined small and stuuted until August.
The Kekchi rows have, hoAvever, produced more plants, and more of
these have grown to maturity than with any of the domestic or for-
eign varieties included in the test. The Kekchi type has also remained
more constant in Maryland than did the King variety when grown in
Guatemala, though there arc obvious ditt'erences between individual
plants. Two plants in particular were found to have numerous buds,
some ready to blossom before any of the others had begun to show
signs of productive maturity.

It might be feared that a variety newly introduced from a tropical
country would be likely to sutler more from low temperatures than
our United States varieties, but this seems not to be the case with Ihe
Kekchi cotton, even when the cold is carried down to the freezing
point. There were light frosts in Lanham about the end of Septem-
ber, just sufficient, as it happened, to do appreciable damage to cotton
in low ground. The Kekchi plants did not suffer more than the
American Upland varieties. The difference, if any, was in favor of
the Kekchi cotton, perhaps on account of the closer foliage.

Many annual plants, even those of tropical origin, are most vigor-
ous and productive at their northern limits of growth, not, as has been
supposed, because this is the coldest part of their range, but because
the heat and sunlight, necessary to plant growth, are greater during
our summer months than can be secured in a similar time in the
Tropics, owing to the much longer days of our northern latitudes."

The Pachon cotton from western Guatemala, though it has grown
taller at Victoria, Tex. (52-79 inches), than at Lanham, Md. (30-4U
inches), has produced numerous buds in Maryland, but none in
Texas. The Kekchi cotton also appears to have been more productive
at Lanham than at Victoria, to judge from a recent partial report
from Mr. Argyle McLachlan.

o Cook, O. F., 1902. Agriculture in the Tropical Islands of the United States,
Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1001, p. 367.

EAELY BEAEING AIDED BY LONG BASAT. BRANCHES. 19

It is very possible, therefore, that if the Giiateinahm variety is able
to thrive in the United States it will ripen its crop here in even less time
than it requires in Guatemala, and this is rendered the more probable
from the fact that in Guatemala the cotton has to be planted in the
rainy season and is obliged to exist for the first few months under
conditions of excessive moisture. The dry Reason of this district is
short and uncertain. For tAvo years, 190:^) and li)04, the Indians were
unable to burn their clearings, so that the corn crop failed and the
conununity was reduced to the verge of starvation. The cotton crop,
in normal seasons, is said to be planted in the latter half of October
and ripens in March.

The introduction of a dwarf, short-season cotton would require, of
course, something of a change in cultural methods in the South, since
the smaller size of the plants will need to be compensated by closer
planting. Tt will be readily understood that to secure the settinjr of
a crop m the minimum of time as many plants as possible should
be set at work. The question is not that of the maximum [)roduct for
each plant or for a given area! With the weevil in the field the time
factor becomes of chief importance.

Little is gained in i-eality by the rank growth of the larger varie-
ties; in fact there is a distinct loss in earliness, even though some
l)olls are set in the early part of the season. If these are overshad-
owed and starved by the continued upward growth, the crop is delayed
and the lower part of the plant becomes, on the whole, distinctly
unjH'oductive.

EAHLY BEARING FACILITATED BY LONG BASAL BRANCHES.

The earliness of the Kekchi cotton is made possible by the fact that
the bolls are nearly all borne a,t the base of the plant, the upper
branches and their foliage serving merely to assist in bringing to
maturity the fruits which are set while the plant is still very young.

Like several other tropical economic species, such as coifee, cacao,
and the Central American rubber tree, the cotton plant has two kinds
of branches — the true or primary branch, which arises in the normal
positicm of branches in the axil of the leaf, and the secondary or fruit
branches, one of which arises at the side of each primary branch. In
most varieties only a few of the true branches are develo])ed; often
none at all. They are almost always plainly indicated, however, by
a small bud or a stunted leaf or two, in case the bud has not remained
entirely dormant.

Cotton plants are either right-handed or left-handed in the sense
that on the same plant all the secondary branches come out on the
same side of the primary branches. It is possible, therefore, to de-
termine by its position whether any particular branch is a primary ov

20 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

a secondary. But the function of the two sorts of branches does not
always remain as distinct as in the coifee and cacao. A primary
branch, like the main stem, never bears any fioAvers ; it produces only
leaves and other branches, mostly secondarv.

Secondary branches, on the other hand, produce normally a flower
bud at the axil of each leaf, and this rule holds very generally, except
that at the lower part of the plant it sometimes happens that a l)rancli
which has the secondarv position functions as a primary; that is,
instead of bearing buds and flowers it produces only leaves and sec-
ondary branches. In the Kekchi cotton, as grown crowded together
in the Indian fields, the primary branches seldom appear, but when
more space is allowed and the soil is fertile it is usual for two branches
to start from the axil of each of the lower leaA^es, one promptly pro-
ducing flowers, the other assisting in the rapid increase of the leaf
surface of the plant and of its power to elaborate food.

Under the ])opular idea that plants draw their food from the
ground the possession of branches which bear little or no fruit might
be looked upon as an undesirable character, but when we take into
consideration the fact that the leaves instead of the roots are the true
assimilating organs of the plant it becomes apparent that a variety
of cotton wliich develops its lower primary branches may have an
advantage in earliness over one which is ol)liged to depend for its
foliage upon secondarv or fruit-bearing branches. In the matter of
determinate habits of growth these primary brandies are also a fea-
ture, because they enable a jjlant to produce a full quota of leaves
without unduly increasing the number of fruiting branches and thus
continuing to add to the number of superfluous buds.

The most obvious characteristic of the Kekchi cotton as it grows in
our experimental plots is the long basal branches, which often equal
or exceed in length the main stem itself. The most prolific branches
of the United States varieties are those which come out from the main
stem at the height of about a foot, but the bulk of the crop on the
Kekchi cotton is borne much closer to the ground. (PI. II, fig. 2.)
The long basal branches facilitate the early ripening of a uniform
crop of cotton, but they will not be an advantage under all circum-
stances; as, for example, in dry regions where the weevil can be held
in check by open culture. The necessary exposure of the fallen
squares to the full sunlight on hot. dry soil would be interfered with
by a plant of low spreading habit and dense foliage.

EAKI^V lUOJECTION OF SUPERFLUOUS SQI^ARES.

That the Kekchi cotton has a limited or determinate growth and
does not take advantage of the perpetual summer to become a tree or
even a large bush is evident from the fact that in the latter part of

EARLY REJECTION OF SUPERFLUOUS SQUARES. 21

the season most of tlic flower l)ii(ls and leal' huds blast ami fall off
while still very young', before the \vee\il would i^ive attention to them.
By the time the lirst of the cotton is beginninii' to I'ipen, most of the
plants have ceased flowering and no new leaves are being put forth,
(lenerally there are bolls only near the base of the plant.

It is a normal character of the cotton plant that the fruiting
branches shall produce a bud at each node or joint ; that is, at the base
of each leaf. If all these buds were to be retained and treated impar-
tially to the food materials which the plant is able to supply, the
result would undoubtedly be disastrous, since the plant would be able
to bring very few of its fruits to maturity, perhaps none at all, unless
a part of the burden were removed by the weevils or by other outside
causes." It is nnder the necessity of throwing off a part of its load of
fruit at one stage or another of its development, the younger the
better.

The rejection is accomplished by the formation at the base of the
peduncle, or fruit stalk, of special layers of cells of soft texture,
wdiich soon disintegrate and allow the bud or young fruit to fall off.
This is one of the many instaiices of the prodigality of nature, which
makes so many allowances in advance for the accidents which beset
the existence of all living things. The waste of buds is, perhaps, not
so large in proportion among the perennial " tree " cottons, which
form a considerable shrub l)efore beginning to blossom. In cultiva-
tion, however, the tendency has always been to encourage early bear-
ing, and thus reduce the early vegetative period of the plant and
bring it to a precocious maturity. The result is that fruiting branches
are produced, even on young plants, and buds are formed out of all
true proportion to the actual productive power.

The habit of rejecting a large part of the squares and bolls is espe-
cially obvious in the " cluster cottons," varieties in which the branches
are abnormally shortened, so that the leaf surface of the plant is still
further reduced. This cuts down still more the productive power of
the individual plant, though there may be a gain in the number which
can be grown on a given area.

But cluster cottons have not learned to moderate their promises to
correspond with their powers of performance, and continue to set
vast numbers of buds, flow^ers, and bolls, which they are unable to
ripen. The same is true to a less obvious extent of all our Upland
varieties, l)ut until the advent of the boll weevil the superfluous buds
were not a serious factor, and the waste under favorable conditions
Avas often well compensated by the power to recover and set a new

" 111 Texas it is Iielievetl that rain at the time of flowering reduces the crop to
half the normal (luantity. or even less. The explanation ,s,Mven is that water
settles in the flowers and r)revents fertilization. This might serve as an addi-
tional indication that cotton originated in a dry climate.

22 weevil-resisttnct adaptations of cotton.

crop when in unfavoi'able seasons the earlier buds were lost, or when, as
occasionally happened in southern Texas, there was a liberal top croji.
or second period of bearin<>-. late in the autunui months.

The presence of the weevil alters all these factors. The superlluous
buds become positively detrimental, for they furnish the breeding
grounds for successive generations of weevils and enable the pest to
attain in the latter half of the season such numbers that a top crop
Jiot only becomes utterly impossible, but a menace is prepared for the
cotton of the following year. For, although only a small proportion
of the weevils live through the winter, the number of survivors un-
doubtedly has a very jjractical relation to the snp])ly maintained at
the end of the previous season, and this again is merely a question of
this persistent production of buds, now much worse than useless.

A short-season variety of cotton having a sufficiently determinate
habit of growth would by itself constitute a solution of the weevil
problem. The Department's entomological investigations in Texas
indicate that it is only the weevils hatched in the last month of the
growing season — in October or November — which have a prospect
of surviving the winter. A cotton which ceased to produce l^uds
after July or August would remove the chance of wintering over
from all the weevils except the few that might develop in the bolls,
an almost infinitesimal number compared with those that now attain
maturity in the squares. Much would be gained, of course, if all
planters would promptly pick their cotton and then pull up and
destroy the plants, being especially careful to collect the infested
bolls. But to carry out efficiently such a programme is difficult and
expensive.

To what extent, if any, the Kekchi cotton will meet this need of a
short-season determinate variety, it is too early to form an opinion,
but the fact that it has these qualities to a higher degree than any of
the varieties hitherto known in the United States must be accepted
as evidence, at least, that the possibilities of this method of protection
have not been realized. In the latter part of the season the Kekchi
cotton ceases the upward growth of the main stem and its branches
and regularly drops the greater part of its buds before they are large
enough to be entered or fed ui)on by the weevils, and the analogies
to be drawn from the habits of other plants wnll justify persistent
ejBforts toward the development in this and in other stocks of the
habit of rejecting the buds still earlier or of not forming them at all
after the first crop of fruits has set. Many ]:»lants have, in fact,
exactly this habit so desirable in cotton; they continue to flower until
])ermitted to set seed.

SEASONAL BEARING OF PERENNIAL VARIETIES. 23

SEASONAL BEARING OF PERENNIAL VARIETIES.

The continued existence of jDerennial cottons in weevil-infested
countries, like Guatemala, proves the presence in these also of means
of protection. One of the most important is, doubtless, the produc-
tion of an annual crop at a definite season, leaving the weevils with-
out opportunity to breed in the intervening months, thus greatly
reducing their numbers.

The popular impression that troi^ical plants take advantage of the
continuous summer climate and blossom continuously is correct only
for a small minority. Where there are definite wet and dry seasons
many tropical plants have alternating periods of growth and rest
almost as pronounced as in temperate climates, and even in regions
of continuous humidity there are some species which shed their leaves
annually and rest for a time.

A further general reason for a simultaneous annual blossoming of

all the flowers of a species is undoubtedly to be found in the greatly

^ increased opportunities of cross-fertilization, just as many insects

swarm and many birds and mammals collect in flocks before the

breeding season. Simultaneous flowering is carried to a remarkable

extreme among the bamboos, where whole species grow for long series

l, of years without flowering, and then flower and die at once over long

W distances and in spite of local diversity of conditions which might be

expected to advance or retard maturity.

Accordingly, while it would not be reasonable to insist that peren-

hnial varieties of cotton have adopted the habit of annual flowering
pnly because of the boll weevil, the analogy of other plants may be
mvoked to show that such a character can be brought about by select-
• ive influence. The weevil could certainly assist in the development
of such a tendency, especially if there Avere a season of the year in
which the insects were less numerous, from climatic or other ext^'rnal
causes as yet unknown.

The tropical varieties of cotton are, as is well known, mostly peren-
nial, and some of them develop into trees of considerable size, the
trunk attaining a diameter of G or 8 inches, and the main branches a
length of 15 or '20 feet. The existence in Mexico of tree cotton
immune to the weevils has been reported, but as yet this has not been
substantiated. Possibly the weevil has not yet penetrated some of the
remote and arid parts of the republic. In eastern Gvuitemala, at
least, the tree cottons appear to enjoy no immunity from the weevil,
and at the time of the visit of the writer it was often impossible
to secure uninjured ])olls, even as samples of the varieties. The
native cottons of the island of Cuba, according to Mr. E. A. Schwarz,
also have the habit of annual blossoming, in the intervals of Avhich
the number of the weevils becomes greatly reduced. The cutting back

24 WEEVIL-RESISTTNG ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

of tlu' ('ottou hy the Indians at Eabinal, as described in the next
paragraph, is an artificial means of attaining the same end, hut the
native Sea Island cotton, found at San Lucas, and the Kidney cotton,
at Tucuru, are the best Guatemalan examples of this protective habit.

ANNUAL CUTTING BACK OF PERENNIAL VARIETIES.

IMiile the annual variety of cotton protected by the keleps is the
basis of the only field culture found in eastern Guatemala, the Indian
population of the central plateau about Salama and Rabinal raise
small quantities of cotton in their doorvards by means of another
cultural expedient, apparently of great antiquity, as indicated by the
extent to which the plant is adapted to the cultural conditions. The
variety is perennial and has very small and inactive nectaries, pos-
sibly as an adaptive result of the dryness of the climate.

Most of the perennial varieties l)egin bearing only after the plants
have attained considerable size, but the Rabinal cotton is a notable
exception to this rule and avoids injury from weevils by the very
prompt flowering and fruiting of the new shoots.

The weevils are present in numbers, and are frequently seen crawl-
ing about on the plants in a leisurely manner quite different from
that which they affect in regions stocked Avith keleps. At the time
of our visit not a single boll or bud of any except the smallest size
could be found which had not been attacked by them. Nevertheless,
a crop of cotton is secured at another season. In the month of April
the Indians cut back all the bushes to the ground, and as the cotton
is always planted immediately about the doors of their houses, where
the chickens and turkeys congregate, the mortality of weevils at this
time is probably very great. The protection of the domestic birds
doubtless continues until the new shoots have grown out of reach.

As soon as the plants are a few inches high they begin flowering,
and before the weevils are sufficiently increased in numbers to become
injurious a crop has been set. Flowers and fruit are commonly borne
on the lower branches, only 6 or 8 inches from the ground. The
Indians say that if the cotton is not cut back, but allowed to grow
tall, they get no crop. The fact is that by that time the weevils are
too numerous to permit normal bolls to be formed. Our search for
such was quite in vain on both our visits to Rabinal. One boll which
gave no certain external proof of injury was wrapped up in a paper
and retained as a sample, but was overlooked in packing and not
transferred to the jjreserving fluid. When the paper was unwrapped
a fcAV weeks later three dead boll weevils were found.

The Rabinal cotton crop is evidently not large, but the harvest is
said to be regular, and the area of fertile land in this district is so
small that none of it is wasted. Much foreign thread is now

HAIRY STALKS AND LEAF STEMS. 25

imported, however, for weaving in the native h)oms. The industry
has greatly declined in the last century, i)erhaps because chickens
have been generally substituted for turkeys, which were formerly the
only domestic fowl possessed by the Indians.

All attempts at establishing field cultures of cotton in this region
have failed. The local public, which does not take the weevil factor
into consideration, is firndy persuaded that cotton will not bear ex-
cept in the heavy, rich soil of the dooryards of the Indian villages.

HAIRY STALKS AND LEAF STEMS.

The weevil on foot is a rather slow -moving, clumsy insect, and it
has been ascertained in the course of the investigations conducted by
Messrs. Hunter and Hinds that its movements on the plants are to a
great extent impeded by hairy stalks and leaf stems. The smooth
Egyptian and Sea Island vsirieties were found to be more susceptible
to weevil injuries than- the hairy Upland sorts. The Kekchi cotton
is still more hairy, however, than the United States varieties, and
gains an added advantage from this fact." The longer it takes the
weevils to climb from one bud to another the greater are the chances
of their being caught by the keleps. The latter insects, owing to
their much longer legs and the claAvs with which their feet are armed,
are not only able to travel readily over the hairs, but find them of
definite assistance. On smooth surfaces they are much less adroit
in catching and stinging the boll weevils. In our experiments, too,
they seemed to prefer the hairy Upland cottons to the smooth Sea
Island varieties.

The difference between the two insects in this respect may also be
illustrated by the fact that the keleps are unable to ascend a perpen-
dicular surface of clean glass, a feat which the weevils accomplish
without difficulty.

That the Guatemalan cotton was more attractive to the keleps than
the ITnited States Upland and Sea Island varieties jdanted in ad-
jacent rows seems to be indicated by a census of our plot experiment,
taken April 19 l)y Mr. Argyle McLachlan. Kele}) nests were
found at the bases of 41 per cent of the plants of the other varieties.

o Though distinctly hairier than our ordinary Upland varieties, the Kekchi
cotton is exceeded in tills respect l)y two other (Juatemalan types, as well shown
in a field test at Lanhani. Md. The Pachon cotton olttained Ity Mi-. William K.
Maxon in the Uetalhnlen district of western (iuateniala is distinctly more
liairy than the Kekchi variety, thou^'h it seems to he lackinij in other weevil-
resistiiii; features. The iiivolucral hracts are not closed any more than in the
Sea Island or Esyi>tian types. Tlie most hairy cotton of all is the Kabiiial
variety, at least in the form it has taken at Lanham. The plants are very nuich
more rolmst in every respect than at home in Guatemala, and the hairy covering
shares in this increased vigor.

26 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

while 7<'» per cent of the plants of the Kekchi cotton were favored with
kelep nests. This apparent preference may be somewhat exaggerated,
perhaps, in view of the fact that the plants Avere often farther apart
in the rows of the Kekchi cotton, the seed having germinated very
irregularly. Moreover, the superior attraction of the Kekchi cotton
for the keleps may not have consisted entirely in the greater hairiness
or the more abundant nectar. The compact foliage and spreading
lower branches of the Kekchi cotton give greater protection from the
midda}^ sun, which the keleps utilize by greater activity in the middle
of the day.

AVith the Sea Island varieties it seemed obvious, however, that the
smooth stems, more open habit, and smaller supply of nectar result in
distinctly less attention from the keleps. From 9 or 10 o'clock on hot
days they foraged very little, and seemed to have quite disappeared
from these varieties, though still to be found in considerable numbers
on the stems of the Upland varieties and most of all on the Kekchi
cotton, which appears especially adapted for the comfort and con-
venience of the keleps.

It was noticed, however, that the keleps went much more often into
the involucres of the Sea Island and Egyptian varieties than into those
of the Kekchi cotton, for the simple reason, probably, that they can
get in more easily.

In the latter part of the season, after the weevils had gained a foot-
ing in this field. Professor Pittier noticed a very decided preference
on their part for the Egyptian varieties, though it seems certain that
this type of cotton had never been planted in the country before. The
partiality of the weevils might be explained, perhaps, on such grounds
as the relative absence of the keleps, and also the ease of access to the
buds of the Egyptian cotton allowed by the more open involucres.
However, a slight change of food or of conditions of growth is often
a distinct advantage to plants and animals, so that a direct preference
for a new variety as food might reasonably be expected, and similar
instances are known.

The greater hairiness of the stems and the presence of the keleps
may also explain why the weevils in Guatemala were seldom seen
walking about on the cotton plants as they do in Texas. On the
other hand, they take to wing very readily and seem to prefer to
alight in the open flowers, the only places on the cotton plants where
they are safe from the keleps.

The petals are so smooth that the keleps seldom descend into the
flowers, and when they do sometimes appear to be unable to climb
out. The petals of the Sea Island sorts are smooth even on the mar-
gins, sometimes entirely so, while those of the Upland varieties are
fringed with fine hairs well up on the sides, if not all the way round
the apex.

PENDENT BOLLS. 27

Tlu' li:il)ility lo cm])! me l»y such an insect as llic kolep may also
aff'oi'd an explanation of the peculiar sedentary hahits of the male
weevils, which ofteji remain stationary in one involucre for lone-
j)ei'iods, or as lon<i- as their food supply lasts. It is necessary for the
females to go about in search of fresh squares for egg laying, but
similarly active habits on the part of the males would subject them
to unnecessary danger.

PENDENT BOLLS.

The early bearing of the Kekchi cotton is made possible, as already
noted, by the unusual development of the lower lateral branches,
which often have a drooping habit, leaving the buds and bolls in
pendent position, intead of upright. There are several advantages
in this arrangement, one being that the instinct of the weevils leads
them to the upper portion of the plant. In a very badly infested
field without kelep protection, the only bolls wdiich escaped the
weevils were a few lying close to the gi'ound on these lower pendent
branches of the Kekchi cotton. Only at the time of fiowerino- does
the peduncle curve upward and give the flower its normal upright
]iosition. Thus these drooping lateral branches of the cotton, which
seem to hide the buds and bolls away from the weevil, may be looked
upon as a short step in the direction of such phenomena as the
cleistogamous flowers of violets Avhich remain buried in the ground,
or those of the peanut which, after flowering, burrow into the soil to
ripen their seeds.

The flowers of the cotton plant open in a more or less directly up-
right position, and this is retained by the boll in most varieties. In
the so-called " stormproof " sorts, ho\vever, the bolls hang down, and
this is looked upon by many planters as a distinct advantage, since
when the boll is rij^ and open the rain does not beat into it and wet
the cottQn or wash it out, but is shed by the protecting outer shell and
involucre.

On pendent bolls 'the external nectaries are brought upward, so
that there is no danger of an abundant secretion of nectar being lost
by dropi)ing off. The surface of the nectary is papillate and has a
somewhat waxy appearance. The secretion often collects as a dis-
tinct drop. The nectaries are also more readily visited by the keleps.
and the young bolls are likely to be better protected by them. If
these remained upright, the weevils would be more likely to alight
and enter the involucre at once.

The drooping habit may have a mechanical explanation as the re-
sult of the weakness of the comparatively slender lateral branches.
It is also to be c(mnected, i)erhaps, with the habit of early flowering
and fruiting, since this would bring heavier bolls upon smaller and
softer branches wdiich would be twdsted over by their weight. In

28 weevtl-reststtxct adaptations of cotton.

tlu' Inlci- ami more iii)i'iiilil vai'ictios llic ilowcrs are not formed until
(lie wood of the branches has hai'dened and become sti'ong- and rigid.
Pendent bolls may thus be said to be incompatible with the cluster
habit, which is brought about bv the abnormal shortening and thick-
ening of the lateral branches, which are able to hold their flowers an-d
fruits rigidly upright, except as they nuiy be turned sidewise by l>eing
crowded together. The cluster cottons, too, have the undesirable
tendency to an abnormal nudtiplication of squares and young bolls,
many more than the restricted leaf surface of the plant will enable
it to ripen. This superabundance of flowers and fruits gives, how-
ever, the greater encouragement to the Aveevil, and uses up vegetative
energy which could be better employed in the prompt ripening of the
bolls already set. It is no unconnnon thing, however, for even half-
sized bolls of cluster cottons to die without any sign of external
injury or disease, while other varieties close l)y remain perfectly
healthy. The cause is probably to be found in inadequate nutrition,
but this might also be expected to give them increased susceptibility
to injury from parasitic enemies of every kind.

It is not unlikely, too, that the drooping habit may be connected
with the greater size of the inside nectaries of the Guatemalan vari-
ety. These are, as far as we have seen, larger than in any other
American variety yet known ; but the Asiatic cottons, which have the
inside nectaries still larger and more active, are also more definitely
pendent. The involucre is grown together at the base, as though to
more thoroughly protect the nectaries from above — from the sun,
which would dry up the secretion, and from the rain, which would
wash it off.

The nectar is formed in great abundance, and Mr. F. J. Tyler, of
this Department, has called attention to the fact that the surface of
the nectaries of the Asiatic cottons, instead of being merely papil-
late, as in the American Upland varieties, has a covering of close-
standing fine hairs, to which its velvety appearance is due.

Finally, it may be remarked that for cotton with upright bolls the
inside nectaries are often an element of danger, since when the secre-
tion is abundant and is not removed it flows along the bases of the
involucre and may serve as a medium for the germination of j)arasitic
fungi or bacteria. Bolls are not infrequently found diseased arou.nd
the base, apparently from this cause.

EXTRAFLORAL NECTARIES.

The cotton plant is not without floral nectaries similar to those of
related genera, consisting of fringes of nectar-secreting hairs lining
the ])its inclosed between the bases of the petals. The nectar serves,
doubtless, the same purpose as in other plants, the attraction of the

EXTRAFLOKAL NECTARIES. 29

honey-loving insects through which cross-fertilization is secured.
It does not appear, however, that the floral nectaries of the cotton
haA^e any connection with the ])r()bleni of weevil resistance, although
the Aveevils seem in Guatemala to spend a considerable part of their
time in the flowers, which are indeed the only safe places for them
on plants protected by the keleps. It had been noticed from the first
that the keleps seldom visit the cotton flowers, and Mr. Kinsler has
learned a very adequate explanation of this fact, namely, that they
are able to climb out of the flowers only with considerable difficulty,
and sometimes remain imprisoned in spite of all their efforts to
escape.

The functions of the extra floral nectaries of plants are, as far as
can be ascertained, similar to those of the floral nectaries to the extent
that they attract insects, but beyond this there is a fundamental dif-
ference; the floral nectaries and highly colored floral organs serve to
secure visits of fljdng insects and thus maintain intercommunication
and cross-fertilization between the different members of the same
species, in spite of the fact that the individual plants are rooted fast
in the ground. The extrafloral nectaries, on the other hand, attract
to the plants insects which will remain iij^on them as permanent resi-
dents, and this is the end secured by the extrafloral nectaries of the
cotton.

It may be objected l)v some that no use or benefit to the plant lias
been ascertained in the case of many species which have extrafloral
nectaries and other insect-attracting devices. Much remains to be
learned concerning these marvelous biological specializations, and
there are two obvious alternatives which need to be canvassed before
belief in the adaptive nature of extrafloral nectaries and analogous
structures can be destroyed. The character and extent of many such
specializations show that they have existed for a long time. They
may have served protective purposes no longer apparent. The other
consideration is that some of the symbiotic specializations existing
between such plants as Cecropia and Acacia and their insect inhab-
itants have arisen through selective encouragement, nnich as the
special characters of our domestic plants and animals have been
developed. It may 1h> sufficient, in other words, that the nectaries or
other structures be of use to the insects which have done the selecting.
It may seem absurd to think of bushes or trees as having been domesti-
cated by ants many thousands of years ago. but the Avonder is no
greater than that ants and termites regularly maintained subter-
ranean fvmgus gardens ages before mushroom culture was undertaken
by man.

30 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

NECTARIES 01 THE LEAVES.

The midrib of each leaf bears on the under side an oblong pit.
from which a drop of nectar may often be seen to exude. This is
collected and eaten by the keleps, which are thus induced to visit
all parts of the plants, especially while they are still small.

The habit of collecting the nectar was not previously known to
exist among the insects of the family (Poneridae) to which the kelep
has been referred. Xevertheless, the fact is not open to question.
The process is easy of observation in even greater detail than with
the true ants or the bees, because the keleps do not, like these insects,
have the art of regurgitating their food. They merely lap the nectar
up to form a drop, which, protected by the widely opened mandibles,
is carried into the nest to feed the queen and the young.

Nectaries, , or at least nectary-like depressions, are to be found
probably on the leaves of all varieties of cotton, though very small
and apparently inactive on some of the larger tree sorts." The
shape of the nectaries also varies greatly in the diiferent species and
varieties, some being longitudinal, others transverse, and still others
crescentic or even sagittate. Some varieties have nectaries on the
three principal veins, and some even on five veins.

The leaf nectaries of the Kekchi cotton are to be found on the
midrib of the leaf about 1.5 cm. from the base. They consist of a
rather shallow longitudinally oval depression surrounded by a broad
raised rim. The midrib often appears distinctly narrower above the
depression than below it, as though there were extra tissues to supply
it. The secretion is quite active, nearly all the nectaries showing a
small amount of liquid, wdiich sometimes spreads out on the adjacent
surfaces.

These nectaries furnish, as might be expected, a medium favorable
for the growth of molds or fungi, and there is often a considerable
network of dark-colored fungus mycelium creeping in and about the
moistened depressions, and wdth occasional erect, needlelike points,
which may be fruiting bodies.

a This was not true, however, of a Mexican " tree cotton " of the Upland
type srown in tlie Department's experimental i)lots in Texas last year. Large
nectaries were generally present on three veins of each leaf, and the midvein
often liad two. They were of the crescentic or sagittate type, but often
extremely long and distorted. Another Mexican tree cotton, with a different
type of lighter green foliage, suggesting that of Bixu. had nectaries only
on the midvein and these redui-ed to a narrow groove. The vein was not
thickened nor the margins raised. Tiie two varieties were about as different
as c(mld w(>ll be with resiiect to nectaries. Xeither produced either flowers
or fruit, so that their true relationships were not to be ascertained.

NECTAKIES OF THE INVOLUCRE. 31

EXTERNAL NECTARIES OF THE INVOLUCRE.

The Guatemalan cotton protected by the keleps has three broadly
oval or reniforni pits at the base of the involucre, one at the middle
of the base of each of the involiicral leaves." These are larger, deej^er,
and more active than the nectaries of any of the Texas varieties as
vet observed, though there is very great diversity of size and nectar-
secreting activity. In some of the varieties these nectaries are
reduced to mere rudiments or are entirely wanting. The depres-
sion may be present, but with no secreting tissue. The variety nearest
apin'oaching the Guatemal-an cotton in having large and active necta-
ries is the Redshank, but the King and other related sorts also have
fairly large nectaries.

The drooping or pendent i)ositiun of the bolls in the Kekchi cotton
may be correlated with the special development of these nectaries, as
already noted. In the middle of the day the keleps are not veiy
active, but the nectaries are sometimes full to overflowing. If the
l)olls kept the erect position usual in the varieties cultivated in the
United States the nectar would frequently drop off and be lost, but
when the fruits hang down the cuplike nectaries are brought upper-
most and hold the liquid much longer.

The evolutionary origin of these nectaries is fairly obvious. The
bracts are to be looked upon merely as modified leaves, with nectaries
which have increased in size and activity as the leaves have become
smaller and more specialized,

INNER NECTARIES OF THE INVOLUCRE.

As though to induce the keleps to come inside the involucre and
thus more effectually protect the young buds and bolls against the
Aveevil, the Guatemalan cotton is also provided with unusually large
interior nectaries, alternating in position with those of the outer
series and thus placed opposite the edges of the involucral leaves or
bracts. These inside nectaries, like the outside ones, are larger and
more active than those on most of the cottons cultivated in the
Southern States, but the closing of the involucre and the devolopment
of the inside nectaries have been carried much farther in the Old
World cottons belonging to the species Goxsi/pivm herhacetini.
Here the external nectaries are quite Avanting, but the internal ones
are enormously larger and heartshaped, and secrete nectar in such
quantities that it often flows out in the groove between the adnate

"I Instances are occasionally found where only two nectaries are developed,
but such deficiencies are much less freciuent than lu other varieties of the
Upland and Sea Island series. The Rabinal cotton commonly has only two
external nectaries. The Old World cottons thus far observed have no nectaries
in this position.

32 WEEVIL-RESTSTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

bnicts to iiu)isten the ed<res of the involucre. As yet. however, the
purpose of these adaptations in the Asiatic cottons is entirely
unknown, both the holl \Yeevil and the kelep being absent in the
Eastern Hemisphere.

The botanical honioloo-y of the inner nectaries is somewhat diU'erent
from that of tlie outer. They correspond in all probability with the
nectaries which are found on the calyx of some of the species of
Hibiscus, but there the calyx is large and covers the buds and each
sepal bears a nectary near its middle.

NECTARIES OF (iUATEMALAN SEA ISLAND COTTON.

A variety of Kidney cotton planted in small quantities by the
Indians at Trece Aguas. (ruatemala. has the outer nectaries verj^
variable in size and commonly (luite wanting." The inside necta-
ries seem always to be developed and are unusually large, being ex-
ceeded, as far as known, only l)y those of the Asiatic varieties. The
nectar secretion is also very abundant. No weevils were found upon
this cotton, nor any keleps.

On the other hand, the free-seeded Sea Island cotton found by
iNIr. Kinsler in the San Lucas '' neighborhood, not far from the
kelep cotton culture of Secanquim. reverses again the tendency of the
Kidney cotton to the great development of the inner nectaries and
the suppression of the outer. The latter are, in the San Lucas cotton,
nearly always present, of rather large size, and of a red color. The
inner nectaries are often rudimentary or quite absent.

CONTINCED SECRETION OF NECTAR.

Our Upland varieties commonh' secrete nectar only at the time of
flowering, but in the Kekchi cotton the liquid continues to exude
until the boll is nearly or quite full gi'own, thus securing the protec-

a This variety not infrequently produces flowers with only two linicts. closely
nitpressecl. like a clam shell. In one such inst.-nu-e there were two nectaries at the
base of each bract, or. to be more exact, two separate nectaries on one side and
one partly divided nectary on the other, as though the nectary belonging to the
deficient third bract had separated into two parts and joined the other necta-
ries.

6 This San Lucas Sea Island cotton is probably the variety in which the
weevils were found abundant in I'.Mii'. when the first intimation was gained
that the Kekchi cotton had means of protection against the weevil. The San
Lucas cotton is attacked not only by weevils, but by another long-bodied in-
sect larva, evidently lepidopterous. that gnaws through the boll at the ends,
both from above and below, and eats out the seeds. Nothing of the sort has
been seen in the fields protected by the keleps. -There was also noticetl in this
cotton an occasional abnormality closely comparable to the navel orange.
Kudimentary parts like a small secondary boll were found in the middle of
bolls otherwise normal. The orange tree and the cotton plant belong, it may
be remembereil, to related families.

BEACTLETS SUBTENDING INNER NECTARIES. 33

tiuii of the keleps for a longer period. The temporary character of
the secretion in our United States sorts was reported by Professor
Trelease several years ago.

In Guatemala, however, the young bolls seem to l)e quite as effi-
cient as the flowers. It is even possible that this generosity on the
part of the plant is excessive, since if the number of keleps is small
they may find all the nectar they need on the lower bolls, and hence
have less inducement to inspect other parts of the plant. Under
favorable conditions in Texas the cotton plant produces a much
larger number of flowers than in Guatemala, so that what is lacking
in quantity may be made up by numbers, in case it should become
possible to utilize the keleps in Texas.

RACTLETS SUBTENDING INNER NECTARIES.

The Kekchi cotton is distinguished from all our Upland and Sea
Island types by the more regular presence and much larger size of
a series of bractlets, a pair of which usually subtends each of the
inner nectaries. In other varieties these are either wanting entirely
or are rare and rudimentary." The bractlets are inserted somewhat
obliquely, with their margins in contact below the nectary.

Sometimes they serve to conduct nectar to the edge of the involucral
bracts, the nectar following along between the slender bractlets like
ink between the nibs of a pen, as though to coax the keleps inside the
involucre. This must happen rather infrequently, however, to judge
from the great irregularity in the size of the bractlets. Sometimes
they are half an inch or more long, and extend well into the angles of
the involucre, or even project outside. (PI. III.) Nevertheless, it

o Professor Trelease, who studied the American Upland varieties, appears not
to have found the Ijractlets in pairs. He says: "These glands (the inner nec-
taries) belong in reality to an inner whorl of three jiracts. alternating with
the outer ones, but generally wanting. In stunted plants, especially as cold
weather conies on. one or more of these inner bracts may be found." (See
Comstock, 1875, Report upon Cotton Insects. .'',24.)

The shape and position of the bractlets seem to warrant the suggestion tliat
they represent the stipules of the outer bracts instead of an independent inner
whorl of bract leaves which lias first become specialized and then become rudi-
mentary. The suggestion has the further warrant in that it may help to explain
the numerous involucral appendages of some of the related plants, which range
about the number 9 — that is, 3 leaves and 6 stipules. The normal number should
be 6. if the two whorls of leaves were represented. One of the Guatemalan
species of Hibiscus examined with this interpretation in mind seemed to con-
firm it by showing very often 3 of the appendages broader than the others,
though the total number varied from 8 to 11. with an irregularity quite compar-
able to that of the bractlets of the cotton. Even the bracts of the cotton some-
times vary, involucres of 2 bracts being found occasionally, and in rare
instances 4.

9962— No. 88—05 Ai 3

34 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

may well be questioned whether these inner bractlets have remained
unusiiallv hiree in the Kekchi cotton because they have a definite
function or because of the greater size and activity of the adjacent
nectaries.

A variety of cotton called Pachon. planted rather extensively in the
Retalhuleu district of western Guatemala, and likewise protected by
the keleps, is similar to the Kekchi cotton in many respects, including
the possession of these large stipular bracts subtending the inner
iiectaries, but with the addition that the bracts are fringed with long
hairs, as though to hold the nectar the better. This may also be the
function of the hairs which cover the nectaries of the Old World
cottons

EFFICIENCY OF THE KELEP PROTECTION.

The special development of the extrafloral nectaries in the Kekchi
cotton has been noted in former reports, it being the nectaries which
attract the keleps to the cotton plant. That the kelep preys upon boll
weevils and protects the cotton crop was learned last year, but it was
still possible to question the practical value of this form of defense.
Such doubts would not have survived an inspection of our recent
experiments in Guatemala. A small field of cotton just outside the
kelep area was attacked by the weevils in such numbers that not a
single normal boll developed on any of the United States Upland and
Sea Island varieties. In the field protected by the keleps the weevils
obtained no footing until the plants were well grown and an excellent
crop of full-sized bolls had been developed.

To test the efficiency of the keleps as destroyers of boll weevils and
as protectors of cotton would be possible in Texas only by stocking a
large area with keleps — a difficult and expensive undertaking. No
small tract would give a fair indication, since the weevils from the
whole neighborhood would continue to come in, and, although they
might soon be captured, would be able to do vastly more damage than
would be possible if the whole region were stocked with keleps.

In Guatemala, however, it was quite possible to contrast a protected
with an unprotected piece of cotton by the simple expedient of plant-
ing outside the area occupied by the keleps. A more striking result
could hardly be imagined. For several weeks, during which the two
plots were under continuous obserA'ation, the one remained almost
entirely free from weevils and weevil injuries and set an excellent
crop, while in the other scarcely a floAver opened or a boll developed.
The ver}' few exceptions Avere on the concealed drooping branches of
the natiAe Kekchi cotton.

The weevils became, indeed, too numerous for their OAvn prosperity
and fed upon and destroyed the very young buds before -they Avere
old enough to breed lar\'a?. TAventy-five fallen squares collected and

EFFICIENCY OF THE KELEP PEOTECTION. 35

examined from under the plants of the plot without keleps yielded
only 6 larvae, or 24 per cent. They even attacked the young leaf
buds, as observed last year at Rabinal.

A large proportion of the injuries were caused by feeding punc-
tures, but this only emphasizes the fact that the number of Aveevil?
which migrated into this plot was sufficient for a complete destrilC-
tion of the crop, and since the other experiment protected by the
keleps was much nearer to the fields of the Indians there is every
probability that the weevils would have been, if possible, even more
numerous if the keleps had not been at hand to catch them.

The unprotected plot was located at about one-quarter of a mile
outside of the belt of Indian cotton culture, on land not inhabited by
keleps. The weevils lost no time in finding the new field. Infesta-
tion was complete, and quite as destructive as in Texas, the weevils
being so numerous as to overcome whatever resistance the cotton
might have been able to oppose to smaller numjbers of the pests.
The Sea Island, Egyptian, and United States Upland varieties were
not permitted to produce flowers or even full-sized buds, and even
the native Guatemalan varieties shed their squares before the per-
sistent onslaughts of the weevils.

Cotton is regularly cultivated by the Indians in this immediate
neighborhood, and Indian plantings more or less infested with
weevils were to l)e found within short distances of the protected field.
Nevertheless, the keleps proved to be sufficiently abundant on this
piece of ground to completely exclude the weevils. There were
enough, indeed, to protect with apparent impartiality all the kinds
of cotton included in the experiment, but if the numbers had been
less and the plants had been closer together, as in the Indian fields,
we may be sure that those producing the most nectar would have
received the most protection from the keleps.

The weevils were seldom to be found in the plot stocked with
keleps as long as the Indian cotton remained in vigorous growing
condition. l)ut about the time the Indian cotton ripened, the weevils
seemed to make a more determined raid on our field, and along one
side nearly every plant suffered somewhat, though the weevils
could rarely be found except in the open flowers, wdiich seem
to be recognized as their only safe roosting places. In a week or
ten days there was a distinct falling off, so that very little damage
was being done, and there was another short interval of practically
complete protection. But after this a renewed onslaught began and
the numl)ers of weevils gradually increased, the Upland and Sea
Island plants continuing to produce thousands of new squares in
which the weevils were able to breed, quite as in the United States.

That the keleps are definitely attracted to the cotton plants, as
stated in previous reports, is fully demonstrated by the fact that

36 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

iiuuiv of the' colonies moved their nests to new burrows excavated
immediately at the bases of the cotton plants. In some parts of the
field the proportion of cotton plants having kelep nests established
about their roots reached nearly T5 per cent, whereas the chance
that the positions of the cotton plants which stood in regular rows
would coincide with those of kelep nests would not be one in hun-
dreds.

The success of this experiment would seem to justify fully the
suiTirestions made in connection Avith the first announcement of the
discovery of weevil-resisting adaptations of the cotton plant, namely,
that the protection wdiich these Central American varieties had
been able to secure from the kelep had afforded them an opportmiity,
perhaps unique, of developing other resisting adaptations. The
Kekchi and other related cottons, though having no monopoly of
weevil-resisting characters, furnish, however, the only instance as
yet known to scientific observation in which a field culture of cotton
has been maintained for long periods of time under climatic condi-
tions favorable to the boll weevil.

In Central America, at least, the secretion of nectar by the cotton
is not a useless or meaningless function, as observers of the plant in
other parts of the world have sometimes supposed. The cotton is
not the only plant upon which the kelep can live, nor the boll weevil
the only insect upon which it preys. To secure the attention and
obvious preference of the kelep the cotton has been obliged to put
forth the superior attractions provided by its numerous extra floral
nectaries.

This additional proof of the value and efficiency of the kelep does
not affect, of course, the possibility of acclimatizing it in the United
States. A more extended search in Guatemala resulted in finding the
insects under a wide range of conditions, and at altitudes of from 200
to 2,000 feet. It lives and thrives, moreover, in soils very much drier
than those to which it was supposed last year to be confined. Last
year's experiments in Texas indicated likewise that the kelep with-
stands drought much better than it does standing water in its burrows,
and care is being taken this season to locate colonies with a view to
adequate drainage.

OTHEK iNECTAR-BEARING PLANTS VLSI FEU BY THE KELEPS.

The honey-collecting habits of the keleps are not confined to the
cotton. Another favorite is a species of Bidens (/>. p'dom) called by
the Indians " tshubai," which has considerable value as a forage
plant, being of quick growth and succulent texture.

The preference of the kelep for the tshubai as a second jchoice after
cotton was noted last year, but no explanation was found, though

THE INVOLUCRE AS A PROTECTIVE STRUCTURE. 37

the jDlant avus searched foi nectaries. It was noticed by Mr. Kinsler
that the keleps seemed to be giving especial attention to the midrib
near its junction with the veins of the lower divisions of the leaf.
Our lenses then revealed the fact that there are two minute raised
wings or margins running along the ui)per side of the midrib and
petiole, forming two narrow grooves in which the nectar is evidently
secreted. The grooves are also protected by a row of fine hairs which
project across Ihem from the raised margin. The behavior of the
kele^D thus receives a practical explanation, and the tshubai finds a
regular place next to the cotton among the plants protected by the
kelep. The nectar-secreting habit of the tshubai may also explain
its being eaten so readily by stock, and nui} helj) to give it standing
as a forage plant, in spite of its weedy and unpopular relatives.

A second member of the eonqjosite family often visited by the
kelei^s is the '* sajal."" a species of Melanthera (probably M. (leltoidea).
Avhich also has hjcal value as a forage plant. I)eing eaten greedily
l)y horses and mules, even in preference to grass. No nectaries have
been found on this. A third composite, not yet identified, produces
nectar in small depressions at the base of the leaf on the under side.

THE INVOLUCRE AS A PROTECTIVE STRUCTURE.

0-

Cotton is the only plant known to be attacked bv the boll weevil,
and it is also unique among its relatives in the possession of a large
leafy involucre. This nuiy be a mere coincidence, or it may be that
the weevil has had a considerable influence in the development of the
involucre, depending upon the antiquity of the contact between the
insect and its host plant. The involucre has. it is true, functions
other than the exclusion of the weevils, since it takes the place of the
calyx in protecting the young bud, but the reduction of the calyx
probably followed the enlargement of the bracts, instead of preceding
it. But however originated, the large bracts have, at the present
time, a definite value in the problem of weevil resistance. There are
several specialized characters which appeal- as though definitely cal-
culated to increase the efficiency of the involucre in excluding the
weevils from the young buds.

INVOLUCRAn BRACTS (JROWX TOGETHER.

Both the Kekchi and Rabinal cottons frequently have the involucre
closed at the base, the three bracts being grown together, thus making
it impossible for the Aveevils to enter from below. In the Sea Island
and Egyptian varieties, as well as in some of the Upland sorts, the
bracts are not merely divided to the base, but they often have the
lower corners rolled back, thus leaving an open passage for the
weevils. The Rabinal cotton much excels all the other varieties thus

38 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

far studied in the extent to which the bnu-ts are grown together at
the base. Sometimes they are united for a quarter or even a third
of their length. (PL lAs'fig. 1, and PL X, fig. 1.)

APPRESSED MARGINS OF BRACTS.

In both of these (xuatemalan varieties the margins of the bracts of
young invohicres are firmly and closely appressed, in striking con-
trast with the Sea Island and Egyptian varieties, where the bud is
commonly exposed even when very young. This form of protection
is effective while it lasts, but in the Rabinal cotton the involucre is
too small, and the growth of the young bud soon separates the bracts
and permits the entrance of the weevil. The United States Upland
varieties are intermediate between the Sea Island and the Kekchi cot-
tons in the degree to which the involuci'es are closed and the margins
fitted together. A large proportion of the Upland involucres give
ready access to the weevils, while most of those of the Kekchi cotton
remain effectively closed for a longer period, as will be understood
after a survey of the other involucral characters which conduce to
the same result.

In one respect the firmly closed involucres of the Rabinal cotton
seemed almost like an advantage to the weevil rather than the con-
trary, for the insect is not admitted to the bud until it is about large
enough to furnish a place of development for a larva. The plant
having taken control, as it were, of this relation, the weevils have not
needed to possess an instinct against the destruction of young buds.
Those of the open involucred Sea Island varieties often were attacked
while still altogether too small to bring a larva to maturity. The
advantage of the closed involucres lies, no doubt, in the fact that they
shorten the period of access and alloAv some of the buds to escape
which would be punctured either for feeding or for egg laying if the
weevil has a longer opportunity. (PL IV.)

The Rabinal cotton culture is that in which the plants are cut
back yearly to the ground. During the next month, or until the buds
l)egin to develop on the new shoots, the weevils have no breeding
places and nothing to feed upon except the leaves and leaf l)uds. In
patches where the weevils are abundant the leaf buds are eaten out
so persistently as to seriously interfere with the growth of the plants,
and the A^ery 3'oung flower buds were also reached in some instances
by boring through the involucres. AVhen attacked at this stage the
buds wither and drop off. They serve the weevils only for feeding
purposes, and their use in this way only postpones the time when
breeding can be resumed.

The cotton at Rabinal was often overrun by two species of small
black ants, identified by Dr. W. H. Ashmead as belonging to the

LAEGE INVOLUCRES OF KEKCHI COTTON. 39

genera Solenopsis and Tapinoma." There was no indication, how-
ever, that these afforded any protection against the weevils, aUhough
they might, j^erhaps, act as watchmen and scare weevils away when
they happened to be present on bnds or bolls where weevils had
alighted, like other small ants wdiich have been reported as attacking
the boll weevil. The keleps belong in an entirely distinct category
in being able to sting and carry off the weevils and make regular use
of them as food. Instead of being of service to the cotton these
small ants at Rabinal were a distinct injury; the Solenopsis was
taking care of plant lice,'' which often infested the cotton to a
decidedly harmful extent. It continues and supplements the work
of the boll weevils in stunting and distorting the plants. When the
aphids are very numerous, the leaves are badly curled and growth is
greatly impeded.

LARGE INVOLUCRES OF KEKCHI COTTON.

The Kekchi cotton has the bracts of the involucre much larger in
proportion to the contained bud than the Rabinal cotton or than any
of our Upland varieties. The possession of larger bracts constitutes
a distinct weevil-resisting adaptation, since it permits the involucre
to be more effectively closed and the protection to be continued for a
longer time. Sooner or later, of course, the bracts must be separated
by the growing bud. The larger the bracts the longer the bud can
continue to grow before spreading the bracts apart. (PL IX, fig. 1.)

Prof. H. Pittier, who had charge of the Secanquim experiment in
the latter part of the season, was especially impressed with the pro-
tective utility of the larger bracts of the Kekchi cotton, as shown by
the following summary of his observations:

The large size of the bracts in proportion to the floral bud is a very important
protective feature. In the Kekchi cotton the amplitude of these bracts is sucli
as to completely inclose the bud at all times before the anthesis, and even in
cases when thoy happen to be slightly separated the occlusion is maintained by
tlie long hairs wliicli fringe them on all sides. The length of these bail's con-
stitutes a serious obstacle to the progress of the weevils, whose tarsi can not
obtain a firm hold on the solid surface. I have seen them drop to the ground
after many awkward attempts to gain access to the squares, while on the other
hand the keleps did not seem to be impeded at all by the bristles.

o The material was not sufficient for a conclusive determination of the species.
Doctor Ashmead says : " You have two distinct species of ants here. One, No.
1, belongs to the family Myrmicidte and is apparently the worker of Solenopsis
picca Emery; the other. No. 2, belongs to the family Dolichoderida^ and is
apparently the worker of Tapinonia rannilonim Emery. I am sorry you did
not have the different sexes, so that I could make positive of the species. In
Solenopsis, as you probably know, there are four or five different forms, and it
is not easy to identify from a single form."

6 These have been identified by Mr. Theodore Pergande as Aphis gossypii, a
species well known in the United States.

40

WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

To show the increased size of the bracts in the Kelcohi cotton, I have carefully
measured over 250 squares of live of the most ijromising varieties of the Upland
species. The dimensions taken were the length of the floral hnd. and the length
and breadth of the bracts. The table, in which these data are condensed in a
comprehensive form, shows a decided advantage in favor of the Kekchi cotton.

Table I. — Dmenmrns of floral hiids aiul bracts of several varieties! of cotton

coDipared.

Length of

floral bud

(millimeters).

Kekchi.

Parkei'.

King.

Allen.

Jewett.

1
1

6
5
3
4
3
2
1
3
2

3

O

m

=1-1
o

Sg

O

o

.Q'2

.at

o

Iz;

o

?

tig

pq

5 6

mm.
20
28
39
42
42
42
47
52
37
47
42

mm.
11
18
27
30
30
30
33
30
27
36
30

mm.

mm.

m,ni.

mm.

mm.

mm.

mm.

mm.

7 8

2

13
16
18
8
6
3
3
1
3
2
2
1

25
81
36
39
38
39
43
48
36
37
44
45
47

19
20
24
25
23
26
24
26
25
25
25
24
30

1

18

10

18

13

5

1

1

5

1

5

26
34
34
37
39
39
49
40
40
33
42

20
21
23
23
24
25
29
26
23
21
25

&-10

5

7
9
6
6
4
1
2

33
34

40
44
40
43
43
41

19
23
24
25
24
26
25
26

3
2

10

1"

5

1
2

38
36
39
41
39

26

21
26

28

;50

11-12....

13-14

1.5-16

17-18

19-80

52 38 1

21-22....

47

34

23-24

25 26

1

48

33

27 28

2
1

40
49

25

28

29-30

31 32

33-34

1

42

32

Total..

78

31

78

43

32

The advantage is particularly notable with respect to the greater
width of the bracts, w hicli enables them to remain much more eft'ect-
ively closed at the angles. In the Parker, King, and Allen varieties
the bracts very seldom attain a width of 30 mm., while in the Kekchi
cotton the average width for all except the smallest buds is above
30 mm.

OPENING, OR FLARING, OF BRACTS AVOIDED.

The unusually large and well-closed bracts of the Kekchi cotton
have another practical use in keeping the bud from drying out, as
explained in the discussion of proliferation.

The external indication of this difference is that in the Kekchi
cotton punctured squares commonly do not open, or flare, by the
spreading apart of the involucral bracts, wdiile among the Upland
and Sea Island varieties flaring is the regular rule. Quite a per-
centage of the squares of Abbasi, Parker, King, and other varieties
stand well open normally before any injury has occurred, but the
Kekchi cotton seldom or never exposes its squares before flowering.
The larger and broader involucre is also able- to permit the protrusion
of the flower without losing the power of closing and remaining
shut for a considerable period after flowering, while the Parker and
King varieties often remain quite open, so that the young boll is
fully exposed to the weevils.

EXTENT OB' PROTECTION BY INVOLUCRE. 41

All example of the promptness with whieli weevil injuries cause
the involucres of our Uj^land cotton to open is well shown in a note
by Mr. McLachlan :

On August S. at 2 p. lu., a small cage was placed over a small plant of Parker
cotton, and 5 female and 2 male weevils were introduced. The plant i)ossessed.
;!0 squares. 4 flowers, and 0 bolls. The nutrninir after the weevils were imt
into the cage several of the squares had Hared and one had fallen. It would
seem that the mechanical forces of the square are quiclcly affected by the work
of the weevils. Here, of course, the imnctui-es were numerous, because of the
n)any weevils on the plant. Some of the sipiares were riddled witli feeding
and egg punctures.

The buds of Kekchi cotton often recover from three or four punc-
tures, though they might not do so if these were all made at the same
time. But it often happens that squares with numerous feeding
punctures remain closed and Avither up Avithout flaring.

HAIRY MARGINS OF INVOLUCRAL BRACTS.

In addition to their larger size, the bracts of the Kekchi cotton have
the marginal teeth or lacinitv more numerous and more hairy than
those of our Upland varieties and able to afford more of an impedi-
ment to the entrance of the weevils. The difference was very pro-
nounced in our experimental plot, where King, Parker, and other
familiar American sorts were planted beside the Kekchi. It is as
superior in this respect to the other Upland varieties as they are to
the Sea Island.

The Kekchi and Rabinal varieties, though both belonging to the
Upland series and having many similarities, have also vei-y distinct
differences, as, for example, in the present character. The small,
firmly appressed bracts of the Rabinal cotton have the maro-inal
lacinia' few and small; sometimes the edges are nearly entire, or
merely toothed. The hairy covering is also reduced to a fine, short
coat, which can afford little or no impediment to the weevils.

EXTENT or PROTECTION BY INVOLUCRE.

That the closed involucres do indeed contribute to the protection of
the young buds from the weevils became very obvious in (me of our
experimental plots at Secanquim, located about a quarter of a mile
outside the belt of Indian cultivation of cotton. There being no
keleps to afford protection, the cotton soon became thickly infested
with weevils, and very few bolls were allowed to develop on any of
the plants. There was a notable difference, however, in the age at
which the buds were punctured. As already stated, the edges of the
bracts of some of the Sea Island and Egyptian varieties separate at
a much earlier period than those of the Upland varieties, and the

42 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

weevils commonl}^ attack them in their very early stages, and even
Avhile they are altogether too small to permit the development of a
Aveevil larva. It has been pointed out already l)y Messrs. Hunter
and Hinds that the smooth stems and petioles of the Sea Island and
^Egyptian cottons render them much more readily susceptible to
injury by the boll weevil than are the Upland types, and if we add
to this the disadvantage arising from the later development and the
more open involucres the possibility of protecting the long-staple
cottons against the Aveevils seems small indeed.

Instead of being immune to the boll weevil, as at one time hoped,
the Egyptian and Sea Island varieties seem to be most lacking in
weevil-resisting adaptations, as might, indeed, have been expected in
view of the fact that they have been developed in regions to which the
weevil has not yet penetrated. The Kidney cottons, which may be
looked upon as representing the Sea Island type on the mainland of
the American continents, have, as will be seen later, a peculiar
feature of protective value.

ADVANTAGE OF OPEN INVOLUCRES.

It will be apparent from the facts already recited that the partly
closed involucres of the Sea Island and Upland varieties now culti-
vated in the United States serve little or no purpose in resisting the
boll weevil. On the contrary, they often appear to be an advantage
to the insect, serving, as they do, to hide the parasite from its enemies
and protect it against the application of insecticides or capture by
insectivorous birds.*

The great variation in the size and shape of the involucre in the
different varieties of cotton suggests the practicability of securing
sorts with open involucres or with these structures reduced to small
dimensions. If the weevils were to be caught by insectivorous birds,
like the Cuban oriole, whose weevil-eating habits have been discovered
by Mr. E. A. Schwarz, open involucres would be a distinct advantage.
It might then be possible also to apply Paris green or other insecti-
cides to young buds which are, except in the early spring, the
exclusive feeding places of the weevils.

The practicability of an open involucre will need, however, to be
considered from another standpoint. It must be ascertained whether
the young buds will bear full exposure. Unlike most of the related
plants, the cotton bud is not protected by a calyx. The involucre may
be necessary as a substitute, especially in dry climates. In humid

a Dr. H. J. Webber states that the desirability of open involucres has been
aiipreciated and that selections of Upland varieties with a view to the develop-
ment of this character have been made.

BEHAVIOR OF PARASITIZED BUDS. 43

regions, however, this requirenieiit might be rehixed, and it is in such
places that the injuries of the Aveevils are the greatest."

BEHAVIOR OF PARASITIZED BUDS.

SHEDDING OF WEEVIL-INFESTED SQUARES.

In a dry climate, like that of the Mexican plateau region, the drop-
ping of the squares in which the weevils have deposited eggs would
constitute a very effective adaptation. The weevil larvae do not sur-
vive a thorough drying out of the squares. It is only in the arid
districts of Mexico that the cotton plant has shown its ability to
escape from cultivation and maintain itself without human assistance,
if indeed it be not in some places a truly indigenous wild plant, as
several botanists have reported. But in a moist region like the cotton
belt of eastern Texas this habit of the plant has no practical use,
since as many of the weevils die when the injured squares remain
attached to the plant as Avhen they fall to the ground.

" It is generally true that squares seriously injured by the weevil sooner or
later fall to the ground. Some plants, however, shed the injured squares more
readily than do others. It seems to be a matter of individual variation rather
than a varietal character. Thus occasional plants retain a large proportion of
their infested squares, which hang l>y the very tip of the base of the stem.
Normally the squares are shed because of the formation of an absciss layer
of corky tissue across their junction with the stem. In the case of the squares
which remain hanging, the formation of this layer seems to be incomplete, or
else it becomes formed in an unusual plane, so that while the square is effectu-
ally cut off, it merely falls over and hangs by a bit of bark at its tip. In this
position it dries thoroughly and becomes of a dark brown color. Plants
showing G or 8 of these dried brown S(iuares are quite common in infested
fields. Although exposed to complete drying and the direct rays of the sun,
the larvfe within are not all destroyed. * * *

" It seems a conservative estimate, therefore, to say that fully one-third of
these exposed dried squares may he expected to produce adults. Considering
the exposed condition of such squai-es this seems to be a very high percent-
age. * * * The observations made, however, certainly show that a complete

"After the above had been written it was observed that the Pachon cotton
from western (iuatemala, grown in an experimental plot at Lanham, Md., has
the peculiar feature of a large calyx, which completely covers the young bud
and extends above it into long, slender, hairy tips. It may be that this is to be
looked upon as still another weevil-resisting adaptation. The weevils would be
able, undoubtedly, to bore through the calyx, but the hairy tips might hinder
their access to the bud. The bra<-ts are much smaller and nmch more oi)en
than in tlie Kekchi and Rabinal varieties, but the lacinia\ or teeth, along their
margins are rather stiff and are clothed with numerous hairs, sti'onger and
more bristlelike than in the Kekchi and Rabinal vai-i(>ties, and able to keep the
lacinia- from closing together. It may be that the greater rigiditj- of the lacinia;
and the bristles gives better protection than the open i)osition of the bracts
would indicate. The case is in reality quite different from that of the Sea
Island varieties, where the bracts are both naked and open.

44 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

drying (if the s<iuare does not necessarily destroy tlic Iar\a. and that a square
may undergo far more exposure to direct sunshine than liad liecn su]iposed
possible without causing the death of the larva or pui)a within.""

It is to be renienibered, hoAvever, that such disconnected squares are
thoroughly (Uini})ened every night by the dew, and that a small
amount of moisture nuiy pass out from the plant through the shred
of dead tissue. In either case the hanging boll might get more moist-
ure and less heat than if lying on the dry ground, exposed to full
sunlight. Suspended l)olls are exposed to air temperatures only.

If no other means of avoiding the weevil becomes practicable a
g^eat extension of the cotton production into the semiarid districts of
western Texas, Oklahoma, and even Kansas is to be expected. The
long days of the more northern districts will conduce to the shorten-
ing of the growing season, and if dr}^ weather cuts down the yield the
loss is likely to be neutralized by more or less complete ]:)rotection
against the weevils.

These contradictory eti'ects of the same adaptation depending upon
climatic condition may render necessary a complete dilferentiation of
the cotton varieties of wet and dry regions.

It is not improbable that the Upland varieties previously known in
the United States came originally from the more or less arid regions
of Mexico, where absence or very small development of the basal
branches keeps the groinid from being constantly shaded and gives
better chances for the weevils to be killed by the drying out of the
fallen squares. ,

Our Upland cottons are undoubtedly of American origin, but the
region from which they came has not been ascertained. Some of the
Texas varieties are said to have been brought from Mexico. Coro-
nado's Journal of the earliest Spanish exploration in Arizona and
New Mexico contains many references to the cultivation of cotton by
the Indians. There can be little doubt that the agricultural Indians
of the Gulf region also cultivated cotton, though no documentary
evidence of the fact seems to have come to light as yet.

It is highl}^ j^robable that the original home of the cotton plant, and
of the boll Aveevil as well, was in a somewhat arid region, since it is
only under such conditions that the weevil would be effectually pre-
vented from increasing to the fatal degree of destroying its host
plant, and thus cutting off' its only means of subsistence. On the
other hand, it was oidy in a humid country like eastern Guatemala
that many of these weevil-resisting adaptations would be likely to
develop if, as now a])pears, it has required the selective influence of
the boll weevil itself to bring them to their present advanced develoj)-
ment.

"Ilwnter. W. D., and Hinds, W. E.. 1904. The Mexican Cottcm Boll Weevil.
Bui. 45, Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, pp. 73 and 74.

COUNTINGS OF FLARED AND FALLEN SQUARES. 45

The adaptive character of this habit of shedding the parasitized
squares seems to be confirmed l)y the fact that it depends upon the
existence of a special layer of soft cells which readily break down
Avhen the bud is injured. Many plants have such cells as a means of
shedding their fruits, but they seem not to be prevalent among the
relatives of the cotton. The cotton itself does not drop the ripe bolls,
and even the empty shell often remains long after the seeds are gone.
The drier the climate the more eifective is the prompt shedding of
injured squares. Whether there are other adaptations thus especially
sinted to dry climates is not yet known, our studies having been con-
fined mostly to humid regions.

Dr. EdAvard Palmer, who has spent many years in botanical ex-
plorations of the dry plateau region of Mexico and who discovered
that the boll weevil was a cotton pest, states that in several localities
where the cotton was formerly grown Avithout difficulty the introduc-
tion of irrigation improvements has proved disastrous. With the
assistance of the moist soil the weevils are now able to reach maturity
in large numbers and complete the devastation of the crop, quite as
in Texas. The irrigated soil a fiords a situation favorable for the
development of the larvse in the fallen squares.

This is said to have been the case about Parras, and at Rio Verde,
below San Luis Potosi. The culture of cotton has declined also in
the "Huasteca Potosina," the tropical district between San Luis and
Tampico, and on the Pacific side of Mexico, along the Santiago River
above San Bias, as well as about Tepic. Doctor Palmer saw cotton
growing in a wild condition in the fences at the old mission, San Jose
de Guaymas, <) miles from the conunercial port ; again at Mulege,
Lower California, across the Gulf from Guaymas, the latter a nuich-
branched, prolific tree, producing a nankeen-colored lint. About
Guaymas cotton was formerly utilized by the Indians as tinder, after
being dipped in a solution of saltpeter. The same facts were observed
by Dr. L. O. Howard in 1899 at San Jose de Guaymas.

COUNTIN(JS or FLAKED AND FALLEN SQITARES.

An attempt was made in connection with oui- (luatemalan experi-
ment to secure data on which a definite statement might be based
regarding the extent to Avhich the difi'erent varieties were protected
by their involucral characters, but the problems are too complex to
be reached except by more elaborate statistical studies than were prac-
ticable at that time.

Countings were made, for (>xample, of the fiari>d and fallen
squares — that is, of those which it might be supposed that the weevils
have injured — and of the numl)er of weevil larvie, proliferations, etc.,
found inside them. The results in percentages do not agree, however,

46 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

with the facts obvious in the fields; indeed, they greatly misrepre-
sent them. Thus the percentage of weevil injuries in flared and
fallen squares does not appear very much higher in the Kekchi cotton
than in the Sea Island and Upland varieties; yet as a matter of
fact the squares of the Kekchi cotton seldom flared for any other
reason than weevil injuries, and much less often for this cause than
did those of other varieties. Many small squares of the Kekchi cot-
ton fall ofi', however, before they are large enough or open enough
to be attacked by the weevils." This takes place in the other varie-
ties to a much smaller extent, but with them the apparent percentage
of weevil injuries among flared squares is much diminished, because
many squares stand open and appear as though beginning to flare,
even before the weevils have attacked them.

rROLll'ERATION OF INTERNAL TISSUES OF BUDS.

The protection of the buds does not end with devices for the exclu-
sion of the adult weevils, nor with the rejection of those in which they
have laid their eggs. It is also possible for the plant to heal the
wound, and bring the injured bud to maturity by preventing the
growth of the weevil larva. Where the climate is dry the weevil
larvtv in the rejected buds are killed, as already explained. The
humid climate alternative of the falling of the parasitized squares is
proliferation, the groAvth inside the bud of loose, watery tissue in
which the larva does not develop. Whether the larAa is killed by
smothering, starving, or poisoning, or by some combination of these,
is not yet known. Starvation is a sufficient explanation, since the
material with which the larva becomes surrounded can be no adequate
substitute for the highly nutritious pollen grains on Avhich the infant
larva would otherwise feed.

Proliferation is much more frequent in the Kekchi cotton than in
any of our United States varieties, as far as known. The first and
second punctures are commonly resisted successfully, but the third,
fourth, or fifth attempt may succeed in the development of a larva.
The proportion of weevil punctures rendered ineflective by prolifera-
tion was found to run Avell above 50 per cent,- sometimes between 80

and 1)0. (PLY.)

The promptness and efficiency of proliferation bear an inverse pro-
portion to the size of the buds. As the latter grow larger the mass of
anthers inside becomes less compact, and the other tissues become too

"Professor Pittier found in the latter part of tlie season that the buds of
the Kekchi cotton were sometimes cut away at the base and left hanging in a
wilted condition. These were at first taken for flared squares as the result
of weevil injuries, but it was later ascertained that this was not the case,
though the true cause was not learned. The damage was done in the night.

PROLIFERATION OF INTERNAL TISSUES OF BUDS. 47

nearly mature to put forth iieAv growth. If the presence of the larva
at this stage is sufficient to cause the bud to fall otf, the development
of the parasite to maturity is well assured, the large bud affording
good protection and adequate food.

In the Kekchi cotton, however, such late attacks very seldom cause
the bud to fall off. Larvae developed in the larger buds are turned
out of doors, as it Avere, by the opening of the flower. The tendency
of injured buds to persist is notably greater than in the United
States, either because of some physiological difference between the
varieties, or because of the larger and more firmly closed involucres
of the Kekchi cotton, which keep the buds surrounded Avith a moist
atmosphere and protect it against drying out while the neAv tissues
are forming to heal the wound and encyst the egg.

In the closely planted Indian fields the squares seldom flare as in
the Texas varieties. They generally remain in place and continue to
grow until the bracts have reached nearly their full normal size. In
fields partially protected by the keleps the weevil larva^ do not
seem to develop in buds as small as in Texas. Proliferation may
partly explain this delay and also the more firmly closed involucres,
but in our unprotected plot the weevils were able by repeated punc-
tures to infest smaller squares and reach maturity in them, after they
had fallen to the ground.

The behavior of Aveevil larv» inside the squares in Guatenuila
seems also to differ appreciably from that observed in Texas where
younger squares are usually much more accessible to the weevils, and
are commonly punctured. In Texas the larvae regularly grow to
maturity, depending for food upon the pollen, Avhich is completely
eaten out. In Guatemala this very seldom occurs. Small squares
with Avell-developed weevil larvae are rarely found under normal con-
ditions, nor do the larvae depend upon the pollen as their principal
article of diet, as in Texas.

Several reasons for this difference may be considered. The first is
that the larger and more firmly closed involucre of the Kekchi cotton
gives the buds several days of protection, so that the average size
would naturally be larger. The examination of large numbers of
squares picked at random from the Indian cotton fields by Messrs.
Kinsler and McLachlaji show also that a very large jji-oportion of the
punctures are followed by proliferation, and that this means of pro-
tection is much more efficient in the younger squares. Another rea-
son must be sought, hoAvever, for the failure of the larva- to eat tht'
pollen of the large buds Avliere proliferation is less prompt and less
frequent. The impression might l)e gained that (he pollen of the
Kekchi cotton is in some Avay not acceptable to (he weevils, since eA'en
when there is an abundance of pollen at hand they prefer to eat out

48 WEEVIL-HESISTTNG ADAPTATIONS OK COTTON.

ilu' ?«tvU' ;uul iTiitnil coliiinii of llu' llowfr. aiul ihciu-o down into the
ovarv or yoimi:' '>oll. After this Inis Iuhmi consunuMl tlu> lnrva> return
to tlio iippi'i' |>:ii1 of tlu' l)iul to linisli the riMuaindcr of llic polliMi.

Nevcrtlu'lcs^, this su«:'iiVstioii of a protect ini;- (|iiality in the pollen
itself can not l)e acct'pte<l with mnch conli(lence hecanse the weevils
showeil in luinierons in-tances that they conUI live and thrive upon the
pollen (d' iht' youn<>' sipiares. (|uite as in the Tnited States. This oc-
curred in the (>\periniental jilot where then- were no f<ele])s. and th(
weevils were wry nnni'M'ons and persistent in their attacks. After
two oi' thi'ce punctni'es the stjuai'es flared and fell to the i>;round in
the usual manner, and in these the weevil larva' were able to reach
maturity.

A nu)re probable reason for the usual failure of the lai\a' to eat the
pollen as freely as in the Tnited States is furnished by tlu' ojjinion of
Mr. ^^'. D. Hunter, that tlu' original habit of the wee\il was to attack
the l)oll>. like related species of .Vnlhononuis. which li\-e upon various
kinds of fruits." If this be true with ivfereuce to the boll weevil we
may think of the (iuatemalan memlHU's of the species as having
retained sonu'what more of the ancestral habits which with them are
dednitely useful, because the cotton variety with which they have to
deal has jx'rfectiHl. to i lariier t-xtent than tlu' Texas \arieties, the art
of proli feral ion.

As a furthir indieatitm o[' the i^reater streuiith amonjj the Guate-
malan wiH'\"ils oH the instinct of attackinjj,' the ovary of the bud
may be mentioni'd the fact that a \ery lai'u'e proportion of the
punctures oci'ur low down — that is, (,)n or below the level of the apex
of the younii' boll. 'Idie larva couuuonly eats directly to the ciMiter of
the bud and hollows out the apex of the youna' l)oll. This habit
gives rather less opi)oi-t unity for successful proliferation than in
Texas, because the ca\ity hollowed out Ity the lar\a lies btdow the
K'\el of the staminal tube, the tissues of which ai-e the most active
in proliferation. The Kekchi cotton shows occasionally anothei-
form of })roliferation not recorded from Ti'xas, namely, that of the
base of the corolla. Sometimes this enlargement takes place in ;in
outward direction, forming a wart or protuberance on one side
of the bud, as shown in Plate W. In otlu>r instances the direc-
tion i> reversed and the ingi'owing edge> of the wound made by
the wcexil hll the inteiaial caxity and prexcnt \\\v chM-eloinuent
of the larva. The proliferation of the corolla, besides being less

"A new species of .\iitlioiiennis witli habits closely idontienl with those of the
boll weevil, but parasitic on the i>epi'er plant (Caiisicmn ), lias been discovered
reeentlv in 'I'e.vas by .Mr. K. \. Scliwar/.. Tliis pains an .iibUvl interest from the
fact already noted that it is the reunlar custom of the Indians -of Alta Vera
I'az to plant i)ei)j)ers amoni: the cotton.

CAUSES AMI) CONDITIONS OF BCD I'Kol-I FKIIA'IION. 49

fre({iient than that ol" the staiuiiial tiilx-. is probably also k'ss cH'ect-
ive, since the weevil larva' could escape before it into the center of
the flower while the proliferation from the staniinal tube ^rows
outward, as though to meet the intruder and keep him separated
from ^he nu)re s))ecial ()r<»;ans.

The habit of the larvie to seek tlie center of the biul and gnaw
off the style is responsii)le for the loss of large numbei's of younger
bolls which have sutfered no direct injury from the weevil. Even
though the larva be subsequently killed by proliferation or though
the flower drops oti' and carries the larva with it, the lack of polli-
nation must prevent the development of the young boll unless par-
thenogenesis takes place, which seems improbable.

Larva' were foinid in several instances in nearl}- full-sized buds
about to oj)('n. and in another case a more than half-grown larva
was found inside the central colunni of an open flower. More or less
distorted flowers with unmistakable signs of previous proliferation
in the bud stages are commonly found in the Kekchi cotton fields.

Summarizing the results of the study of proliferation in the
Kekchi cotton, it nuiy be said that although the frequency of pro-
liferation in the young scpmres is very great, its eflicienc}^ in prev^ent-
ing the breeding of the weevils is somewhat less than might be ex-
j)ected in Texas, owing to the difference of food habits among the
weevils. If the Texas weevils are as consistent in their habits as
now suj)[)osed, the introduction of the Kekchi cotton or of a similar
proliferating variety might be of gi'eat benefit as a preventive
measure. The extent, however, to which it could be made to compass
the complete destruction of the weevil would depend somewhat upon
the degree, if any, to which they might i-eturn to the habit shown in
Guatemala of feeding upon the ovaries or boll I'udiments rather
than upon the j)ollen of the young buds, an important and hitherto
unsusjiected difference in habits between the weevils of Texas and
those of Guatemala.

CAUSES AND CONDITIONS OF BUD PROLIFERATION.

That the proliferation is occasioned by the injuries of the weevil is
too obvious to admit (jf doubt, but it may be of much practical
imj^ortance to learn the exact way in which the new growth of tissue
is brought about. The disturbing factor might be either mechanical
or chemical. The new growth may be a direct response to injury of
the weevils in feeding or laying eggs, or it might be stinudated indi-
rectly by the secretions of the young larva, or by chemical changes
or decay of the danuiged tissue. A second mechanical possibility is
that of pressui'c developed in the young and rapidly growing bud.

liDtrJ— No. ««— u.j M i

50 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

The burrow inii' of the weevil relieves this pressure at one point, and
may thus furnish the exciting cause of the rapid growth in this direc-
tion of the tissue of the staniinal tube.

It seems not improbable that a relation will be found between the
method of culture and the extent and frequency of proliferation.
Open-field conditions, with much bare ground about the plants, Avould
increase the daily exposure of heat and dry air, and this would con-
duce to the wilting of the punctured squares, which might then be
expected to flare and fall oif instead of remaining to proliferate. The
result of weevil work in our open-culture plots was obviously differ-
ent from that in the more crowded cotton fields of the Indians. On
the widely separated plants the squares often fell off and permitted
the larva? to develop, as in Texas, except that there was still a distinct
tendency on the part of the larva^ to attack the pistil and ovary first,
before eating out the pollen.

PUOLIFERATION IN OTHER VARIETIES.

Proliferation is by no means confined to the Kekchi cotton, but
probably occurs, occasionally at least, in all the Upland and Sea
Island varieties. A noteworthy Guatemalan Sea Island cotton was
found by Mr. Kinsler in the aldea of San Lucas, a few miles from
Secanquim." Both the buds and the bolls afforded fine examples of
effective proliferation. Even the Egyptian varieties showed a dis-
tinct ability in this direction. In one instance no less than 17 of 23
punctured squares of Jannovitch had proliferated, and 15 cases
seemed to have been effective.

Proliferation ceases to occur when the bud has become too large.
The anthers are no longer so closely packed together and the tissues
of the staminal tube are too nearly mature. By that time, however,
the style may be sufficiently developed to furnish adequate food.
It is well known, however, that the period of development of the
weevil larva^ may be greatly prolonged, and this would seem likely
in the present instance, since the tissues of the styles must be less
nutritious than the pollen. The delay also would be advantageous,
since it would i)ermit the young boll to become larger.

a This variety is peculiar in having about half of each seed covered only with a
very fine, short, bright bluish-green lint. The upper half bears the long white
fiber, and is smooth and l)laclv when this has been removed. Some of the
plants had excellent crops of bolls, mnisually uniform in size and ai)parent age,
as though the habit of seasonal fiowerlng were well accentuated. The variety
is evidently perennial and grows to a height of from 6 to S feet, but on the
other plants the leaves, flowers, and bolls were much reduced in size. The
plants were all occupied by small black ants. On some of them no weevils nor
any indications of weevil injury were fomid, but others only a few" rods awaj'
were badly infested,

PROTECTION OF THE BOLLS. 51

But as the power of effective proliferation declines in the larger
buds another factor of protection comes into play. The later the
attack of the weevil the greater is the chance that the bud will mature
and the flower will open and turn the weevil larva out of its quarters
to die. And since buds commonl}^ mature which have been attacked
while still young enough to proliferate, it is easy to understand why
attacks made in the later stages seem to be effective only in excep-
tional instances.

An element of uncertainty often attaches to the enumeration of
weevil injuries because of the difficulty of finding the egg or very
young larva^ of the weevil in the squares which have been only
recently attacked. This is especially true in small squares wdiere the
anthers are still white and of about the same color, size, and general
appearance as the eggs. The possible error does not, however, mate-
rially affect the result, since it is to be expected that the same propor-
tion of bolls will proliferate and the same percentage of weevil
larva^ develop as in the squares which are far enough advanced to
show definite results.

PROTECTION OF THE BOLLS.

If it be true, as already intimated, that the original habit of the
wee\il was to attack the boll instead of the bud, the opportunity for
the selective development of protective characters of the boll has
l)een greater. This suggestion seems to accord with the results,
since the boll of the Kekchi cotton has a series of protective characters
even more striking and effective than those of the involucre and the
bud.

TERSISTENCE OF FLOWERS.

As long as the flower remains in place the young boll is thoroughly
protected, the weevils having no means of access except by boring
through the withering tissues, which seems not to be attempted. In
the Kekchi cotton the flower falls only when detached by the swelling
of the young boll. This may also be true of other varieties. (See
PI. IX.')

The frequent sequel of proliferation in the bud, as noted above, is
the loss of the young boll through lack of pollination. This is espe-
cially true in Guatemala, owing to the tendency of the weevil larvae
to eat away the style. On one occasion Mr. Kinsler collected from a
field of Indian cotton 28 young bolls showing signs of debility. These
measured from 18 to 20 mm. in length, most of them about 15 mm.
None of the smaller bolls showed signs of weevil injury, but in many
of them the ovules were ah-eady shriveling up. A few punctures were
found in some of the larger bolls, aiul in some of these proliferation
had occurred. The development of the weevil larva> to maturity

52 WEEVIL-RESISTTNG ADAPTATIONS (IF COTTON,

seemed unlikely in any case, because the unfertilized ovules were
already withering.

Presumably there are various stages and degrees of fertilization.
Some of the stigmas of proliferated buds seem to have adeijuate
pollejn, so that the bolls can develop normally, while others obtain
none at all or only a little. The persistence of injured flowers is
much greater. They may not fall off at all, and often remain at-
tached by the withered style to the boll when nearly full size.

It thus happens that injured flowers protect their young l)olls
longer than the others, but in most instances such bolls remain small
or unsymmetrical, presumably as a result of inadequate fertilization.
It is quite i^ossible, however, for normal bolls to develop occasionally
from Aveevil-infested buds wdiich never open, for the style often
pushes through and becomes fully exposed, so that fertilization by
pollen from another flower might readily take place.

IMMUNITY OF VERY YOUNG BOLLS.

For reasons not yet ascertained, the weevils in Guatemala seldom
or never attacked the very young bolls. This may be due to a con-
servative instinct on the part of the weevil, like that which forbids
the laying of any additional eggs in a bud already parasitized." It
is not impossible, however, that the oil glands with wdiich the sur-
face of the young boll is very thickly beset may have a protective
function. As the boll grows larger the glands do not appear to
increase in numbers, but become separated much more widely. On
bolls of the Kekchi cotton the oil glands are usually absent from a
distinct longitudinal band running down the middle of each carpel.
(PL VII.) A large proportion of the weevil egg punctures are
made along this naked band, although very few of them take effect.
The wall is thicker here, and the w^eevil in boring meets the tough
lining of the boll chamber at an angle, and is seldom able to penetrate.
If this interpretation of the facts be correct, the naked band consti-
tutes a veritable weevil trap, a device for inducing the weevil to
make its punctures and lay its eggs in the part of the boll where they
can do no harm.^

To ascribe a protective value to the oil glands is not unreason-
able in view of the fact reported by Messrs. Quaintance and Brues,

a Hunter. W. D.. and Hinds, W. E., 1905. The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil.
Bui. ni. Bureau of Entomology. I'. S. Department of Agriculture, j). IS.

('This peculiarity of a glandless longitudinal band in the middle of each
carpel was also noticed in a variety of cotton cultivated by the Moqui Indians
of Arizona, grown in 1904. in the Department's plant-hreeding experimental
field at Terrell. Tex. The Moqui cotton is interesting also by reason of its
short, squarish, distinctly apiculat«> Ixills. more like some of the" Old World
cottons than are those of other members of the Upland series.

IMMUNITY OF VERY YOUNG BOI.LS. 58

that the Eg-yptiau cotton, the bolls of which are excessively oily, is
(111 this accoiiiii ininmiic from the hollworin." The oil contained in
the glands has a deep-brown color, a sticky, molasses-like consistence,
a disagreeable, pungent odor, and a sharp, resinous taste, suggesting
turpentine or Canada balsam.

The development of the oil glands seems to be especially great in
the Egyptian variety known as Mit xVfifi, and the glands are more
superficial. By slight pressure, or by drawing the nail across the sur-
face, the oily liquid is freely obtained. Most of the Upland varieties
have the oil glands much more scattering and deep set than the Egyp-
tian sorts, and it is not possible to squeeze the resin out of them in
any such manner.

On Redshank and other Upland types the resin glands are marked
by slight superficial depressions, but a cross section shows them to be
well below the surface, with several layers of chlorophyll-bearing
cells betW'een. On the Egyptian sorts the glands are also set in de-
pressions, but the gland itself is very close to the surface, and makes
the bottom of the depression again convex, the superficial layer of
cells being very thin. It seems to break spontaneously in some in-
stances; at least there are frequently small spots of hardened resin,
and very slight pressure brings out the dark, gummy fluid. The
fingers receive a permanent brownish stain, which with the acrid,
biting sensation experienced when the liquid is applied to the tongue,
increases the probability that substances of a definitely protective
character are present. It is w^ell known that many of the aromatic
oils are for some reason highly distasteful or even fatal to many
insects.

The Sea Island and Kidney cottons have the oil glands conspicu-
ously developed, like the P]gyptian varieties, but the Old World
cotton {Gassy piion herhacevm) is in this, as well as in other respects,
more nearly related to the American ITjjland cotton {Gossyphmi hir-
siiti/m). The Aidin (Asia Minor) variety of Go.sst/ph/m herhacevm
has the oil glands rather small and deep set, with the superficial pits
rather shallow, more so than the Ceylon or Korean types.

Even the petals of the Guatemalan Kidney cotton found at Trece
Aguas '' contained oil glands. The color of the petals was a uniform
pale yellow, without purple spots on the inside, but in the upper

<' Qualntaiice, A. L., and Brues, C. T., 1905. The Cotton Bolhvorm, Bui. 50,
Hui-eau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, p. 71.

''The Kidney cotton at Trece Aguas is called iHiiyJ. and seems to have little or
no relation in the minds of the Indians with the dwarf Upland cotton, which is
called nol{. In the Secanquim district, only a few miles away, this name paiyi
(pronounced like the English words pie ye) is not recognized. Kidney cotton,
though ai^parently not now i^lanted by the Indians, is not entirely unknown to
them. They call it simply che nok, or tree cotton.

54 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

half Specked with minute liroAvn glandular dots." The oil glands of
the bolls of this Kidney cotton are apparently quite as strongly devel-
oped as in the Egyptian varieties, or even more so. Thev are distrib
iited very irregularly over the surface, and are not lacking above the
dissepiments, along the middle of the carpels. The position and
structure of the glands seem also to be the same as in the Egyptian
cottons. They are close to the surface and show as distinct black
spots, there being no green tissues over them as in the Upland and
Jterbaceum types.

I am indebted to Mr. Guy N. Collins for the suggestion that the
present inefficiency of the oil glands as a means of protecting the
cotton from the boll weevil furnishes no argument against the
adaptation of the glands nor their development through the selective
agencies of the boll w^eevil itself. This fact is sufficiently obvious
when once stated, but it is not commonly taken into account in con-
sidering questions of this kind. We may be sure that the gradual
development of a protective character like the oil gland would carry
with it a corresponding increase in the power of the weevil to avoid
or to endure the injury. The ultimate value of the device would de-
pend on whether the glands were able to keep ahead of the Aveevils
in quantity and distastefulness. The readiness with which the boll
weevils attack the Egyptian cotton renders it obvious that oil is now
no adequate protection, but the preference of the weevils for the un-
protected strips of the bolls of the Kekchi cotton indicates that the
weevils still dislike the oil, though they may have foiled the attempt
of the plant to protect itself in this way.

There are tAvo attendant facts which under certain circumstances
might readily obscure the immunity of the young bolls. Many such
small bolls fall off, a particularly large number it seemed from our
row of Parker cotton, but an examination of these failed to show
anything in the way of weevil injuries, except such as had been in-
flicted wdiile the bud or flower was still in place, the style and a
small apical cavity having been eaten away in numerous instances.
Many small bolls w^ere to all appearances quite uninjured. They
may have been rejected by the plant as supernumerary, the plant
being unable to furnish the food material needed to bring them to
maturity, or they may have failed of fertilization as a result of
w'eevil injuries to the bud or from other causes, such as the absence
of bees, w-hich were extremely scarce in the Guatemalan cotton fields.
The frequency with which the boll weevils were found inside the

a The flowers of the Kekchi cotton are pure creamy \Ahite when young and as
long as they remain open. When old and rolled together they become a pinkish
red. They are not yellow or bluish at any stage. The stamens and pistils are
also nearly white, the latter with rows cf oil glands showing as small grayish
dots.

EAPTD GROWTH OF YOUNG BOLLS. 55

cotton flowers and well dusted over with pollen suggests the possi-
bility that in this district at least they were a not unimportant
agency of cross-fertilization. The performance of such a service by
the boll weevil would be comparable to the famous case of the yucca
and its moth, the plant being dependent for cross-fertilization u])on
its insect i^arasite. The weevils eat the pollen from the bud; that
they visit the flowers for the same purpose seems highly probable.
The investigations of Messrs. Hunter and Hinds have shown, indeed,
that a pollen diet is a necessity for the complete sexual maturity and
reproduction of the weevils; if without buds to feed upon they
seldom copulated and never laid eggs."

RAPID GROWTH OF YOUNG BOLLS.

Mr. John H. Kinsler, who gave careful attention to the earlier
stages of the Guatemalan experiment, gained an impression that the
young bolls of the Kekchi cotton increased in size with a rapidity
distinctly greater than that of the United States Upland varieties
planted alongside. It was not practicable to establish the fact by
carrying out a series of daily measurements, though it was possible
to ascertain from dated tags used in connection with the hybridiza-
tion experiments that the Kekchi cotton can grow bolls to full
size in less than a month from the time the flower opens. Plate IX,
figure 2, shows on the right two bolls of Kekchi cotton less than a
month from flowering. On the left are the two largest bolls from an
adjoining plant of King, the seed of both varieties having been sown
the same day.

Such an acceleration of the growth would be of very obvious utility
in lessening the period in which the danger of infestation is greatest.
A large proportion of the weevils found in adult bolls of Kekchi cot-
ton w^ere in " locks " or compartments of diminutive size, showing
that the infestation had taken place while the boll was less than half
grown. Indeed, the weevils seldom seem to be, able to affect lodg-
ment in bolls more than half grown, although numerous attempts
are made in fields wdiere the weevils are numerous. The following
field note describes such an instance :

.\ boll showing many external marks of weevil punctures was found on being
cut ui) with care to have been nttacl<ecl at least fourteen times. In five cases
the outer wall seemed not to have been penetrated, but in nine others there had
b(^en complete jierforations. All of these had been closed, however, by prolifer-
ation from the inner surface, and no living larva^ wei'e found.

Such persistent attacks, however, may finally induce a diseased
condition which interferes with the normal growth of the boll, even

" Hunter, W. D., and Hinds. W. E., 1905. The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil,
r.ul. r>^. Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, p. 113.

56 WEEVIL-RESTSTTNa ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

though the weevils be suecessfully resisted. Such injured bolls often
show a brownish discoloration of the interior tissues near the base
and connecting with the nectaries, which may indicate a bacterial
disease, to be discussed later. Sometimes this aft'ects the walls only,
sometimes one or more seeds and the surrounding lint.

THICK-WALLED BOLLS.

In the Kekchi cotton there are considerable A^ariations in the thick-
ness of the outer wall of the boll. Xot infrequently the wall equals
or exceeds the length of a weevil's snout, so that only the largest or
longest snouted weevils would be able to make an opening into the
interior cavity. It was noted, also, that on the inside such bolls are
often quite free from these injuries or small larvae, though numerous
attempts may have been made. Large larvae or pup* may be found,
but these have come, obviously, from eggs laid while the boll was still
young. On some plants the development of large thick walls takes
place very promptly, so that a protective character of considerable
value might be obtained if this feature could be increased and ren-
dered constant. Early development of the thick walls was indicated
by the fact that the young seeds and lint did not fill the cavity, and
the seeds were still far from mature. Instances might be drawn
from other plants where the growth of the pod or seed vessels far
outruns the seeds at first, so that the development of such a character
in cotton might reasonably be expected.

Even when a wall thicker than usual has been bored through, the
egg must be laid on the outside of the mass of lint wdiich still inter-
venes between it and the young seed, so that the larva's chances of
development are greatly lessened. As will be shown later in the dis-
cussion of proliferation in the bolls, the instances are very numerous
in which, although the Avail is penetrated, no further damage results;
either the egg is not laid or the development of the larva is pre-
A'ented by proliferation. In any CA'ent the boll escapes further
injury, and it is a very significant fact that in the dissection of a large
number of such bolls of Kekchi cotton scarcely any young larA^w
were found, in spite of the fact that most of them had been punctured
not once only, but many times.

TOUGH LININGS OF CHAMBERS OF BOLLS.

The three, four, or five chambers Avhich contain the locks of cotton
in the unopened boll haA^e each a complete mem})ranous lining. In
the Kekchi cotton, at least, this is extremely tough and parchment-
like, even in bolls not yet full groAvn and in Avhich the seeds are not
yet fully formed. This membrane is readily separable "from the
more fleshy external layers of the boll, and though flexi])le, it is very

TOUGH LININGS OF OH AMBERS OF BOLLS. 57

finu ;ui(l incimiprossiblc. and resists tearing- unless considerable
strength be exerted.

A lar<^e percentage of attempted punctures of the larger bolls
failed because the weevils are unable to penetrate this protective lin-
insf. This fact is readily determined bv the studv of radial sections
of the outer wall through the warts which mark the weevils' points
of attack. The different texture of the new tissue which has closed the
wound shows, usually, that the cavity eaten out by the w^eevil extended
down to the tough basal lining, even when no evidence of the injury
has become apparent on the inside. In other instances, also very fre-
quent, the new tissue, developed as a result of the irritation of the
attempted puncture, exceeds the cavity and causes an inward swelling
or prominence of the inner lining analogous to the projecting warts
which are the usual external indication of weevil punctures.

It occasionally happens, too. that the projection of the new tissue
occurs almost entirely in the inside, the external wart being very
slightly developed or not at all, though the new tissue and the inner
swelling show that a puncture had been attempted.

The utility of this lining as a means of excluding the boll weevil
seems not to have been considered heretofore, and there has been no
opportunity as yet to compare the Kekchi cotton with other varieties
with reg-ard to this feature." Certain it is, however, that in the Kekchi
cotton the parchment lining is almost as firm and tough as that which
surrounds an adult coffee seed. And it is certain, also, that a very
large proportion of the attempted punctures of the bolls failed to
bore through this inner wall of defense.

The examination of a large number of bolls, which were full size or
nearly so, though still far from maturity, in most cases failed to find
more than a very few instances, if any, of very recent perforation,
though there w^ere large numbers of instances where the weevils had
gnawed their way down through the parchment and deposited an
egg. In many such cases the proliferation or new growth induced by
the injury causes the parchment to be raised np from the wall on the
inside to form a blister-like, rounded protuberance. (PI. VIII.)
Eggs laid outside the parchment are firmly embedded in the new

a Since this was written Mr. McLachlan has reported the existence of the same
form of protection in Uphind varieties in Texas. The following note describes
the results of injuries inflicted upon the bolls of a plant of Parker cotton in four
days from August 8 to August 12. 190,5 :

" The 0 larger bolls, when opened, were found to have 28 weevil eggs deposited
in them : fi had struck the dissepiment ; 12 were not entirely through the shuck of
the boll (either not more than half way there or else stuck in the tough inner tis-
sue of the shuck) ; the others were embedded in the lint. In only two instances
was there any proliferation apparent. The outer shuck had proliferated at the
wound and in one case had encysted the egg. The other had merely forced the
egg to one side, having begun the development too late."

58 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

growth and do not appear to hatch, or if they do the larvte are not
able to do any damage, since they can not penetrate into the interior
of the boll. It quite frecjuently happens that eggs are laid in the
sinns or groove between the linings of two locks, but without penetrat-
ing the parchment of either. The tissue is here somewhat looser
than in other parts of the wall. In a few instances it was observed
that the larvge had hatched, but no case was found which indicated
that larvae hatched outside the parchment lining had been able to
penetrate to the interior cavity.

PROLIFERATION rRO:M THE WALL OF THE BOLL.

The wall of the boll olfers an active form of weevil resistance Jw
proliferation, in a manner somewhat analogous to that of the pro-
liferation of the square. The channel excavated by the weevil is
closed by the new growth, which continues to push out on the inner
surface of the wall in the form of a rounded, blister-like protuber-
ance of loose tissue. This surrounds and encysts the weevil egg, and
prevents its development. A section through the mass of new tissue
shows the egg embedded in it or pressed against the lint. Prolifera-
tion often takes place even when the tough lining of the chamber has
not been penetrated, and then appears as a prominence underneath
the membrane.

It has been seen from the preceding paragraph describing the
thick walls and tough lining that in the Kekchi cotton, at least,
the weevil is practically excluded from the boll after the boll has
reached about three-quarters of its full size ; but even in its younger
stages also there is a measure of defense through the formation of
new tissue as a result of the irritation set up by the weevil's injuries
in a manner analogous to that which induces the formation of galls
and other vegetable excrescences.

The first result of the proliferation is to fill up and heal the
wound bored out by the weevil. The cavity is not only completely
filled, but in most cases a wartlike prominence is formed on the out-
side, and if the parchment lining or the inner wall has been pene-
trated the new proliferating tissue also grows through on the inside
and often spreads out as a biscuit or button shaped protuberance
of soft white or transparent tissue several millimeters in diameter
and readily visible to the naked eye. (PL VIII.)

There are two alternatives in the fate of an egg destroyed by
proliferation. Either it is completely surrounded in the proliferating
tissue outside or inside of the parciiment wall or it is carried on
the apex of the proliferation down against the lint and flattened
between the growing surfaces. After the egg has disintegrated
and disappeared its position is frequently shown by a minute brown

J

PROLIFERATION FROM WALL OF BOLL. 59

stain. Such a discoloration often spreads back into the loose tissue
and then gradually extends over the whole lock of cotton of that
particular chamber. The seeds fail to develo}) and finally shrivel up.
If the proliferation results, as usual, in the death of the weevil
egg or young larva, the process of abnormal growth ceases with
the formation of a knot) or button of the new tissue on the inside
of the wall of the boll. AVhen, however, the young weevil escapes
destruction and continues to eat and groAv, the proliferatino- tissue
also continues to increase, until in some instances the whole compart-
ment is filled with a silvery-white cheesy material which seems to
arise not only from about the original perforation of the outer wall,
but also from other parts which have been injured and irritated
by .the presence of the weevil larva. This, with other facts already
stated, seems to show that in some varieties of cotton, at least, the
tendency to proliferation is very general, or, in other words, con-
stitutional, which warrants a larger hope of increasing this character
and making it uniform by selection.

^Mien proliferation, which results from the presence of the weevil
larva, has become very extensive and fills the entire compartment,
the weevil larva is sometimes found to have eaten through the dis-
sepiment into the next chamber, perhaps to escape starvation. Such
extensive proliferation, accompanied by the failure of the seeds to
develop, means, of course, that the weevils gained entrance while the
boll was still very young. Moreover, if the boll had been older
there would have been plenty of food for the larva without the
necessity of entering a second compartment. Finally, the dissepi-
ment would have been too tough for the larva to penetrate easily.

Further proof of the fact that the weevil larva? are seldom or
never able to gain a footing in the larger bolls is to be found in the
fact, already stated, that the weevil larva^ found in them are nearly
always in undersized compartments, nnich smaller than those which
have remained uninjured, and have thus been able to continue their
normal development.

It is to be supposed, perhaps, that if the weevils could gain access
U) large bolls and feed upon the nearly adult seed they would be able
to develop in less time than they usually spend in reaching maturity
on the rather poor provender they secure among the abnormal tis-
sues which arise after they have entered the young bolls.

The exclusion of the weevil from the large bolls has been evidently
not only an important measure of protection for the cotton, but it
has probably compelled the weevil to accustom itself to a gradually
longer and less prosperous development in the boll. The develop-
ment of the weevil-resisting adaptations on the part of the cotton
plant has left the insect with two opposite alternatives. It must
enter the boll early and submit to a very long period of development

60 WEEVTL-EESTSTTNG ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

or enter the square late and develop very pioniptly. 1 he insect has
been able, as we know, to avail itself with a lar^^e measure of success
of both these alternatives, but it is not without eucourageinent for
future progress in weevil resistance to know that the plant has so
successfully guarded itself in two parts of its life history.

If additional evidence be needed to show that the food supply
obtained by the Aveevil larvae in the bolls is very diiferent from that
in the squares, it is to be found in the large, firm-walled cells of com-
pacted excrement with which they surround themselves in the bolls
before reaching maturity. The food being of a nuich coarser nature
and the period of development about three times as long, the amount
of waste material is naturally very much greater. If feeding upon
the boll is, as now appears probable, the ancestral habit of the ys'ee-
vil, it need not surprise us that the protective adaptations of the boll
are more numerous and effective than those of the bud, which mav
have been attacked by the weevil in comparatively recent times.

TIME REQUIRED FOR PROLIFERATION.

In connection with the experiments in Texas, Mr. McLachlan at-
tempted to ascertain the time required for proliferation to take place
after the injury had been inflicted. The amount of proliferation
and the time required for it to develop may be expected to depend
much on external conditions. Squares of Parker cotton showed no
develoiDuient in six hours, but observation on bolls showed that pro-
liferation w^as complete in twenty-four hours. Two of Mr. McLach-
lan's observations are described in the following notes :

On August 14, Jit 9.15 a. m., a wire cage was placed over a plant of King
cotton, and four weevils, of which jit least two were females, were put inside.
Later, three more were introduced. At the time there were 11 bolls, 89 squares,
and 1 flower on the plant.

On August 17, at 1 p. m., 11 l)olls and 18 squares were picked, a little more
than three days being allowed for the weevils to work. There was no rain, and
of the 18 squares examined only one revealed proliferated tissue, though the
weevils had scarred the buds in more than '.VA separate places and had deposited ir,
eggs. But the bolls showed better results. They had been scarred at 32 different
points, and 2.3 eggs were discovered when the bolls were cut open. In 12 cases
inward proliferation of the " shuck "" had destroyed the eggs. Several of thi'
incited growths had caught the egg, encysted it. and carried it along, inclosed
at the apex, as they pushetl their way into the lint. As in the Parker cotton
examined a short time ago, weevils seem to have some difliculty in getting
the egg thi-ough the shuck of the boll. In dry weather it apjiears that the
King cotton is as backward as the Parker in proliferation in the squares, but
in bolls proliferation goes forward as well in dry as in wet weather.

On the .30th of August, at 10.1.5 a. m., a lx)ll (half grown and tender) was
bagged with a weevil. At (> p. m. of the same day an egg i)uncture was found
on the fruit, but at 8 a. m. of the 81st no further injury had been inflicted. At
12 m., September 1, four more egg ituuctures were discovered, and the boll was

EFFICIENCY OF ADAPTIVE CHARACTERS OF ROLLS. fil

pullod ;tiul Fxuiiiiued. Tlie first puncture was theu forty-two lioui-s old mid the
other four some twenty-four hours old. The examination revealed niarki'd pro-
liferation in every case, with no greater growth in that of forty-two liours'
duration than there was in that of twenty-four. Eggs had been laid inside the
wall of the boll, since it was easy, in the case of young, tender fruit, for the
weevil to cut an oiteuing to the lint. But every one of the five eggs had been
encysted by the proliferated tissue. It is quite possible that one or two of the
punctures reckoned as twenty-four hours old were still more recent.

EFFICIENCY OF ADAPTIVE CHARACTERS OF BOLLS.

The amount of protection att'orded in Guatemala by the weevil-
i-esi.sting characters of the bolls might be greatly underestimated if
it were to be supposed that the weevils make numerous attacks upon
the bolls for the purpose of feeding upon them.

In their accounts of the habits of the l)oll weevil in Texas, Messrs,
Hunter and Hinds have devoted a chapter to '' eifects of feeding upon
squares and bolls,"" l)ut in Guatemala no indications were found that
weevils punctured the larger bolls for any other purpose than egg
laying. It is true that the outer surfaces of bolls are frequently
marked with scars of weevil punctures from which no larva? have
developed and no internal injuries have resulted, but these failures
can be explained in other ways than by the supposition that the wee-
vils feed upon the tough and innutritions outer walls of the bolls.
In Guatemala, at least, it appears that the weevil scars on large bolls
mark attempts at egg laying, though for a variety of reasons already
recited most of them are not elective. The only instance where wee-
vils were found feeding in bolls in Guatemala w^as at Rabinal. Two
weevils were together attacking a small boll, and had eaten out large
superficial pits, quite unlike the punctures in which eggs are laid.

Feeding punctures in bolls are referred to by Mr. McLachlan in a
note dated at Victoria, Tex., August 31, 1905. Such injuries were
not found, however, to lead to the formation of external w^arts which
could be mistaken for egg punctures, doubtless for the reason which
Mr. McLachlan gives :

It has been noticed that in bolls no proliferation occurs following the injury
from a feeding i)uncture, liowever serious that may i>e. Furthermore, from the
above and other observations it is apparent that ])roliferation is not excited by
the egg puncture or the egg, unless the puncture extends through the inside
tissue and the egg is tixed in the tissue or has been pushed through it to the
lint. In that ca.se a dense knob of proliferation ocoirs on the inner side of the
shuck, in tlie center of which the egg is often encysted. There nmst be a con-
stant irritant like the egg, with an opening to give it access to the lint, in order
to occasion the specialized growth. As a suggestiou it might be noted that all
the egg punctures are sealed by tlie adult weevil at the time -of egg laying,
while the feeding iiundnrcs arc left open.

" Hunter. W. D.. and Hinds. W. E.. 1905. The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil,
Bui. 51, Bureau of Entomology, V. S. Department of Agriculture, p. od, PI. VIII.

62 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

The feedino- cxperinient reported by Messrs. Hunter and Hinds "
shows that weevils fed exchisively upon bolls lived less than twenty
days, while those fed upon the squares lived nearly seventy days.
The bolls proved to be much less suitable for food than the leaves, on
which the weevils were able to prolong life for thirty days and
upward, though no eggs were laid on a leaf diet. It may be that in
Texas, where the army worms sometimes destroy all the leaves, the
Aveevils miffht be driven to onawing the bolls for food, but in Guate-
mala the plants remain in full leaf throughout the growing season.

BACTERIAL DISEASES FOLLOWING WEEVIL INJURIES.

In the study of the bolls of the Kekchi cotton three diseased con-
ditions were observed, some or all of which may be of bacterial
origin, the bacteria having been introduced, perhaps, by the weevils
at the time of egg laying. None of these diseased conditions is fre-
quent, and as they do not permit the fruit to reach normal maturity
it seems very unlikely that they can be introduced into the United
States with the seeds. It may be stated in addition that the seed
obtained by j\Ir. Kinsler in the season of 1905 has been carefully
selected in the field and comes from the earliest and most vigorous
bolls.

The first of the diseased conditions consists in a Avhite deliquescence
of the immature seeds and lint as though the lock had been dipped in
milk. There is also a distinct odor of fermentation. Another dis-
ease turns the seed and lint brown. Though observed only in bolls
which have been punctured by the weevil, there was often an
apparent connection between the disease inside and the large extra -
floral nectaries. A column of transparent or somewhat discolored
tissue extends from each nectary obliquely upward to the cavity of
the boll. This may be a symptom of the disease or it may indicate
that bacteria find their way into the bolls by way of the nectaries.

The third abnormal condition was also indicated by a brown dis-
coloration of the wall and contents of the affected compartment of
the boll. The seeds and lint soon die and shrivel. No special indi-
cation of bacterial activity was noted, and it may be that the death
of the weevil egg or larva has some prejudicial efi'ect upon the sur-
rounding cells, as suggested by the broAvn discoloration already
noted in describing the effects of proliferation. Such a disturbance
might continue to spread and thus cause the death of the young seeds,

BREEDING IN BUDS A DERIVED HABIT.

The fact that the weevil larvae are found in the young buds of the
cotton plant and also in the full-grown bolls has been taken to mean
that it affects all the intervening stages as well. This would imply

« Hunter, W. D., and Hinds, W. E.. 1. c. pp. 34-35.

BREEDING IN BUDS A DERIVED HABIT. 63

also that if the weevil fed originally upon the bolls it has followed
hack to earlier and earlier stages and finally to the bud. The facts
already detailed seem to prove, however, that this is not the case.
The weevil does not attack the very young bolls, nor does it operate
while the flower is open or while it remains in place, though in a
withered condition. The hatching of the weevil larva in the large
buds is likewise inetfective because the larva is deprived of shelter
when the flower opens. It seems necessary to believe, therefore, that
the parasitism of the weevils upon the buds of the cotton is a habit
(juite distinct from that of its relations to the boll. The habit of
breeding in the bud marked a new departure in the biological history
of the insect and not a gradual change from the previous habit of
infesting the bolls only. Nevertheless, the change of habits need not
be thought of as anything very remarkable from the standpoint of the
insect. A cotton bud is very nuich larger than a small boll. The
peculiarity lies in the plant rather than in the insect, since very few
plants afford a continuous and abundant succession of large, pollen-
tilled buds. It is this quality of the cotton plant which has enabled
the weevil to develop its peculiar and highly destructive secondary
haljits of feeding upon the buds and using them as breeding places.
If the boll weevil Avere restricted, like related beetles, to parasitism
upon the fruit of the cotton, it would have remained a comparatively
iiarmless and agriculturally insignificant enemy. These considera-
tions may assist in a better appreciation of the extent to which the
weevil's power of injury Avould be diminished if we could obtain a
variety of cotton with a fully determinate habit of growth, one which
would cease producing buds as soon as a crop of cotton had been set.
The much more rapid development of w^eevil larvae in the Inid is
to be connected, doubtless, Avith the much richer food offered by the
mass of poll-en, but it may represent also a somewhat more definitely
adaptive specialization of the life history of the weevil, for it is gen-
erally a question of eating the pollen })romptly or not at all. If the
bud falls off' on moist ground the pollen would be completely decom-
posed long before the larva could develop, at the rate at which it
grows in the boll, and if the bud did not drop off', but continued to
grow, the flower would open and turn the larva out. It is obliged,
therefore, to do damage fast enough to keep the flower from opening,
and must then eat the remaining ])ollen before it spoils and leaves
the hu-va too hungry and stunted to pass through the final meta-
niorphosis into the adult stage. In a cotton which has a highly
developed habit of shedding the injured buds it would not be so neces-
sary for the larva to attack the pistil. It may be that this policy
ou the part of the weevils in Guatemala has a use to the weevil as
being necessary to prevent the opening of the flower and cause the
falling of the bud.

64 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

The diversity in size of tlu' boll weevils, while not unprecedented
among insects, is unusual, and not without biological significance in
the present connection. An explanation of the variation in size is
to be founil, no doubt, in the varying amounts of food which the
weevil larva? can obtain, but there is needed, none the less, a si^eciai
adaptability on the part of the weevil to permit it to reach a nornuil
reproductive maturity in spite of very unfavorable conditions. The
smaller weeAdls probably have less than a quarter of the weight of
the large ones, which means that they are able to develop Avith a cor-
respondingly small proportion of the food required to raise a full-
sized weevil. The weevils developed in the bolls have a much greater
uniformity of size. The small weevils are at once a means and a
result of the acquisition of the habit of living in the buds, and espe-
cially in the small ones, where the supply of food is often very small.

RELATION BETWEEN PROLIFERATION IN BUDS AND IN BOLLS.

The analogy of the mucilaginous tissue found in the young fruits
of okra and other relatives of the cotton would lead us to expect that
proliferation could occur more readily in the boll than in the bud,
which may mean that all the varieties wdiich proliferate in the bud
will do so in the bolls as well.

It was at first supposed that if the buds proliferated but not the
bolls ' the result would be merely a postponement of the breeding
season of the weevil for two or three weeks, or until the bolls had time
to develop. Such a delay would be of great practical importance in
retarding for that length of time the effective breeding period of the
weevils. Moreover, most of the eggs of the weevils which had passed
through hibernation would be lost by being laid in the buds, which
would further keep down numbers in the early j^art of the season.
There is, hoAvever, the further and still more important consideration,
that the period of development of the weevil in the boll is very much
longer than required for it to mature and emerge from the square."

a Determinations of tlie length of the life cycle in bolls have been made only
in a few instances. In 7 cases between August 1l> and November 11, 1903.
the average time required from the deposition of the egg to the escape of the
adult from the opening boll was sixty-one days. The average effective tempera-
ture for the period was 'M.7° F.. and the average total effective temperature
required for development in bolls was therefore 1,93.3.7° F., or nearly two and
one-half times as much as in squares. Several larvae often develop within a
single boll. They appear to remain in the larval stage until the boll becomes
sutticiently mature or so sevei'ely injured as to begin to dry and crack open.
When this condition of the boll is reached, pupation takes place, and by the
time the spreading of the carpels is sufficient to permit the escape of the weevils
they have become adult. — Hunter. W. D.. and Hinds. W. E., The Mexican Totton
Boll Weevil, Bui. 45. Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1904,
p. 75.

PROTECTION OF SEEDS BY LINT. 65

Moreover, it seems that the adult Aveevil does not come out through
the Avail of the boll, but waits to be liberated when the boll opens to
maturity. This would mean that if proliferation can exclude the
weevil from breeding in the squares it would ali'ord a practical solu-
tion of the problem, since instead of merely delaying the emergence
of the first brood of weevils for two or three weeks, none of them
would be able to set about the work of destruction until the crop had
begun to ripen, and all danger of appreciable damage would have
passed. It seems, therefore, that the proliferation in the squares is
the much more valuable characteristic to be considered in seekinsf for
a w^eevil-resistant cotton. Proliferation in the bolls is very desirable,
but the absence of it should not be allowed to fip:ure verv larsrelv
against a variety which might have a pronounced tendency toward
proliferation in the bud. Nevertheless, other factors must enter the
calculation, for thin-walled bolls might allow the weevils to escape
earlier. In moist weather the bolls might not crack open, biit give the
weevils comfortable shelter all winter, as would seem to have been the
case in the spring of 1905, when various observers noted that some of
the weevils seemed to have the appearance of having emerged only
recently from the pupal condition, their very light color showing that
their outer covering of scales Avas still in place.

The probability is, however, that the proliferation in both places
will be found to depend upon the same internal factor or quality,
so that it will be safe to assume that a high degree of proliferation
in the bud could be taken as an index of what might be expected
from the bolls. This would simplify the problem of selection by
permitting us to confine our attention to the buds.

PROTECTION OF SEEDS BY LINT.

Like the large leafy involucre, the lint is also a peculiar feature
of the cotton plant which may prove to have a practical connection
with the weevil. Cotton is the only food plant of the boll weevil,
and only the cotton, of all the related plants, has an abundant pro-
vision of lint. Some of the species of Hibiscus have the seeds
slightly silky, but the cotton stands quite alone in the length and
abundance of the hairy covering which grows out from the seeds at
the time the bolls are most subject to Aveevil injuries.

From the standpoint of those who believe that all characters are
useful to the organisms which possess them, the interpretation of the
lint as a weevil-resisting adaptation will not appear unreasonable,
since it can scarcely be claimed that there is any other use of the lint
so important to the plant as j^rotection of the seeds from the weevils.
In other respects the lint seems rather a disadvantage than other-
0902 — No. .S.S — Oo M 5

66 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

Avise. In a humid tropical country the seeds, if left to themselves,
remain inclosed in the tangled mass of lint and usually rot. Birds
might carry the lint away to build nests, and in so doing might assist
in scattering the seeds, but in most of the varieties the seeds are to
be detached only Avith difficulty.

Composed as it is of nearly pure cellulose, the lint can afford very
little .nourishment, even in the younger stages. Between the lint and
the watery proliferating tissue the weevil larva must find the inside
of a cotton boll a very 'uliospitable place unless it can penetrate to the
seeds. Dead and moribund larvse are occasionally foiuid in these
unfavorable situations. And evon the seeds themselves do not pro-
vide so favorable a food as the pollen, as shown by the nuich longer
time required by the larvae to develop in the boll than in the square..

PROTECTIVE SEED ARRANGEMENT IN KIDNEY vOTTON.

Further intimation of the protective value of the lint is to be found
in the very peculiar Kidney cottons, so called because the seeds are
crowded together in the central angle of the chamber and adhere
firmly to each other, thus forming a small, kidney-like mass. This
unique arrangement brings all the lint to the outside of the seed, and
may be the explanation of the fact that the Kidney cottons are the
only representatives of the Sea Island type which have gained a wide
distribution on the mainland. The separate-seeded Sea Island cot-
tons came from Barbados, where the boll weevil did not exist and has
not yet been introduced. (See PI. X, fig. 2.)

The outer wall of the boll of the Kidney cotton is notably thinner
than that of Kekchi cotton, so that the beaks of the weevils could
reach through without difficulty. But with the layer of lint to sup-
plement it the wall becomes, for practical purposes, much thicker than
in the free-seeded varieties. The inner parchment lining is rather
tough, though apparently less so than in the Kekchi cotton.

The Indians about Trece Aguas, Guatemala, are said to recognize
the weevils as enemies of the dwarf cotton, but it is the local opinion
that the Kidney cotton is proof against them.

No weevils were found on the two l)ushes of Kidney cotton exam-
ined in that locality, but these w^ere single plants growing near Indian
houses several miles away from the nearest field culture. In a forest-
covered country like this part of Guatemala the luxuriant and
tangled vegetation may well impede the flight of such an insect as the
weevil. And if it lives, as supposed, only on cotton, its chance of
I'eaching a single bush of tree cotton would be very small. That the
buds and young bolls of the Kidney cotton are able to offer any abso-
lute resistance to the weevil seems very improbable, and the abundance
of weevils found on the large tree of Kidnev cotton at Tucuru last
year proved that the immunity, if any. is not general.

NATURE AND CAUSES OF ADAPTATIONS. 67

The Kidney cotton, though commonly treated as a distinct species
under the name Gossypiuin peruoianum, agrees with the Sea Island
type in all its characters except the peculiar arrangement of the seeds.
If this should prove to be an adaptive feature the idea of specific
distinctness would have little left to support it.

CULTURAL VALUE OF KIDNEY COTTON.

The possession by the Kidney cotton of a definite weevil-resisting
adaptation Avould naturally raise a question regarding its cultural
value. It belongs to the Sea Island series, and has the long, fine fiber
and smooth seeds. The growing of the seeds together in masses would
still further facilitate picking and ginning operations. The bolls, too,
of this Guatemalan Kidney cotton, at least, are larger than those of
any of the Sea Island varieties.

It is not likely, however, that any of the varieties of Kidney cotton
thus far known will be found of use in the United States, for all are
perennial '' tree cottons," Avhich have refused thus far to flower or
fruit in the period of growth allowed by the shorter summers of our
Temperate Zone. In tropical regions this objection would not hold,
and there appears to be no reason why the Kidney cottons should be
disregarded in the search for varieties suited to the various soils and
climates. The Trece Aguas Kidney cotton, for example, seems to
thrive well in a humid mountain climate considered by the natives to
be unfavorable for the annual Kekchi cotton, which is planted several
hundred feet lower down.

THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF ADAPTATIONS.

To explain how such characters as the weevil-resisting adaptations
arise involves an interpretation of general evolutionary questions upon
which the scientific world is still by no means agreed. Nevertheless, it
is evident that students of such subjects should conduct and describe
their investigations in accordance with some consistent plan or
policy, if their writings are to be understood or their facts intelligibly
recorded. Moreover, it would be scarcely reasonable to maintain that
such characters can be further increased by selective influence unless
it could be believed that they had been assisted in the past by the same
agency.

It seems necessary to state that in the present report it is not
assumed that the weevil-resisting characters have arisen as direct pro-
tective responses to the injuries, or that they are the results merely of
stimulation or irritation caused by the weevils, as other writers on
evolutionary subjects might lu)l(l. Nor have they been thought of as
caused by selection in anv strict sense of the word. Thou^li consti-
tutmg a most striking instance of the results of selective influence, it

68 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

is believed that the cotton phiiit must first have originated in some
measure the protective characters before the external conditions (in
this instance, the weevils) conld make them of advantage to the
plants and thus encourage their further development.

The older theory that environment and natural selection are the
efficient or actuating causes of evolutionary change has lost many
adherents in the last -decade, especially among those who found
themselves unable to credit any longer the idea that all the characters
and difl'erences of plants and animals are, or have been, of use to
them. It has been shown, too, by Professor Weissman and his fol-
lowers, that direct adaptations or responses of individual organisms
to the environment are seldom or never inheiited by their offspring.
To take the place of the doctrine of direct environmental influence
in evolution it has been suggested that there may be an internal
"' hereditary mechanism," as it has been called, which determines
adult characters in advance, in the reproductive cells, so that modifi-
cations of the specific or varietal type can arise suddenly. Selection
would determine, of course, which of such new "mutations" should
survive, but it would be a mere accidental coincidence if the new
character happened to fit the conditions better than the old.

It is possible, however, to explain evolutionary progress and select-
ive adaptations without ascribing them either to external causes or
to theoretical internal mechanisms. The diversity which plants or
animals of the same parentage often show under the same conditions
makes it evident that there is no })recise mechanism which determines
their form in advance, and all attempts at securing any absolute uni-
formity or " fixity " of form and color have failed. The fact is that
organisms, even of the same species or variety, are normally diverse,
and must have ancestry mixed by interbreeding if bodily vigor is to be
maintained for any great number of generations.

The generalized " specific type," which is a product, as it were, of
this diversity and interbreeding, is constantly and gradually chang-
ing, and in many ways at once, though in some characters more rap-
idly than in others. Selection, ^Yhile in no strict sense a cause of
this vital motion of the species or variety, may profoundly influence
the direction and rate of change. Selection, in other words, explains
adaptation, but does not explain evolution."

The word adaptation is used in more than one sense by writers on
biological subjects. Some treat as adaptations the changes of form
or structure by which many i)lants and animals are able to conform
to the needs of different conditions. There ai-e several plants, for
example, which haxc noiMual broad leaves when they grow on land,
and very narroAv and much-divided leaves when they grow submerged

"Natural Seh-clion in Kinetic Evolution, Science. N. S.. 1!>:."»4!». ItMi-i.

NATURE AND CAUSES OF ADAPTATIONS. 69

•ill Avatei-. Some ])lanis are liairv in drv localities, but are nearly
naked in humid districts. Others (i-eat these direct responses to
extei-nal conditions under the heading:: of accommodation, and reserve
the word adajjtation for characters which api>ear regularly in a spe-
cies or variety, but which fit it for some special condition, such as
that ])resented to the cotton plant by the boll weevil. It has seemed
])roper, therefore, to discuss as protective adaptations any characters
which seem to give the Central American varieties an advantage in
withstanding the attacks of the w^eevil, particularly if it can be shown
also that the presence of the weevil would tend to the preservation
and extension of the given character.

In the strict sense of the words, the weevil-resisting adaptations
of the cotton plant would include only those characters which have
been increased by the selective influence of the boll weevil, but in the
broader practical sense we may treat as a weevil-resisting adaptation
any feature which tends to limit the destructiveness of the insect.

The adaptive nature of some of the characters of the Central
American varieties discussed in the present paper is reasonably obvi-
ous, but in other instances extended studies in developmental biology
and primitive agriculture might be necessary to determine the origin
and development of a varietal characteristic which may have signifi-
cance in the weevil problem.

It is easy to understand that so injurious an insect as the boll weevil
has exerted a definite selective influence ever since its remote ances-
tors turned their attention to the cotton. Perhaps its earlier food
plants were completely exterminated. The nearest living relatives
of the cotton are the species of Hibiscus, Paritium, and Thespesia,
none of which is known to have any attractions for the weevil. It is
evident, too, that in the presence of the weevil the cotton plant would
have met long ago a like fate if it had not been able to take on its
various adaptive characters. That so many of the features by which
it differs from its nearest relatives have such obvious connection with
the weevil would certainly justify the belief that strong adaptive
influence had been at work, even if the other circumstances were
unknown.

In thinking of the relation between two organisms like the weevil
and the cotton we often fall into the error of too threat humanizinir.
so to speak; that is, we ascribe too great intelligence or too complete
a reaction to cause or conditions. Thus the weevil, althou"-h hishh-
specialized in some of its instincts, has, of course, no equivalent for
the human judgment. It will puncture, as already seen, buds much
too small to raise a larva, and will lay its eggs in the rind of the boll,
where the larva^ can never develop. If the conditions are too favor-
able to the weevil, as in humid regions, it would undoubtedlv exter-

<() WEEVIL-RESTSTTNO ADAPTATIONS OP COTTON.

niinate its oavii host plant by permitting the cotton to produce no.
seed. Paradoxical as it may at fii'st seem, we may, nevertheless,
believe that the best conditions for the perpetuation of the weevil are
those which are not altogether favorable to its unlimited nndti-
plication.

CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS SELECTION.

There are two principal ways in which improved varieties of cotton
and other cultivated plants come into existence. The first is by sud-
den or abrupt changes, or sports; also called mutations, saltations,
and discontinuous variations. These are represented in cotton by the
occasional appearance of a plant with brown lint," deeply divided
leaves'* (okra cotton) or very short branches (cluster cotton). The
Guatemalan varieties represent a second type of evolutionary history,
in which improvement is accomplished by more gradual progressive
change, fostered and accelerated by selection.

Two forms of selection are commonly recognized, natural and arti-
ficial, the latter effected by man, the former by circumstances of the
environment. This distinction is of doubtful value in any case, and
quite obscures the important point in the evolutionary history of
cotton and other j^lants domesticated by primitive man. It would
be much better to think of selection as either conscious or unconscious,
and between these two a very practicable difference exists. Conscious
selection implies the preservation of individuals having a desired
quality in the highest degree, while unconscious selection, whether
by man, animals, or inanimate conditions, means merely the rejec-
tion of the most unfit, so that the improvement of the species or
variety is gradual. Conscious selection acts, of course, much more

o In Guatemala sevei'al tribes of Indians prefer brown cotton, and for certain
garments use brown cotton only. Separate jilantings of brown cotton are not
made in the neighborhood of Secanquini, where our experiment was located, but
there were said to be such at Cajabon and Laniiuin. only a few leagues away.
The Cajabon people have a dark-brown cotton called " canch nok," and a lighter
brown called " canni nok."

On the Pacific slope Mr. William R. Maxon found considerable culture of a
brown cotton called " ixcaco." At Antigua a similar brown variety is said to
have been grown formerly in considerable quantities, the common name of
which is " cuj'uscate." It was not learned that any special religious use or
significance is attached to brown cotton in Guatemala, as is said to be the case
in Peru and in India.

^ Some may be inclined to interpret these as reversions and to argue that the
deeply divided involucral leaves may be a reminiscence of an ancestral charac-
ter of the cotton. Or it may be that the divisions attained by the involucral
leaves represent a tendency of specialization which the remainder of the leaves
sometimes share by mutation, in accordance with the principle of translocation
of characters recently formulated by Dr. R. G. Leavitt (Contrib. Ames Bot.
Lab. No. 3).

CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS SELECTION. 71

speedily than unconscious, but is subject to the serious danger of
weakening its proteges l)y inbreeding, if the selection be too rigid and
persistent.

The unconscious selection by wljich the development of the pro-
tective characters of the Guatemalan types of cotton has been encour-
figed dilfers in no respect from the progress l)y which adaptive
evolution takes place in nature. The Indians have planted and har-
vested the crop, it is true, instead of the birds or other natural agents,
but they have been entirely unconscious of the struggle for existence
to which the cotton plant was being subjected by the presence of the
boll w'eevil. The Indians were only another factor, along with the
dry and moist climates, the keleps, and the turkeys. The problem
has been solved in a genuinely natural fashion, and affords an excel-
lent illustration of the nature of selective influence in evolution.

Instead of representing the final possibilities of improvement
in characters which give protection against the boll weevil, the
Indian varieties of cotton may be looked upon rather as affording
materials which conscious selection can render still more valuable.
The proliferation character, for example, might never be brought to
uniform expression by unconscious selection, because the possession
of it w^ould give the individual plant no advantage over its neighbors
in the production of seed. The proliferating plant might produce
no weevils itself, but the free movement of the insects w^ould keep the
general average the same. Indeed, a plant might easily sacrifice all
its buds, set no fruit at all, and thus fail to perpetuate itself. Pro-
liferation can become a direct advantage to the individual plant only
under conscious selection. The full value of the newly ascertained
])rotective adaptations will not be known until they have had the
direct selective encouragement now commonly accorded to desirable
characters of other cultivated plants.

It may appear remarkable that such definite and potentially valu-
able characters as the weevil-resisting adaptations of the Kekchi cot-
ton should have remained so completely unrecognized hitherto. The
explanation of this doubtless lies in the fact that cotton culture is
practiced in Central America largely by the Indians and very little
by the foreigners or the more intelligent part of the native community,
so that it had not received scientific study. Even the existence and
utility of the keleps, though apparently known to the Indians from
ancient times, had entirely escaped the attention of the European
residents of the country. That the Indians should have come to
recognize the keleps as beneficial and necessary to a full crop of cotton,
although not knowing that the weevils injure the cotton or that the
keleps eat the w^eevils, only shows in higher relief the completely
imconscious character of the selection conducted in this system of
primitive agriculture. The Indians of Alta Vera Paz are extremely

( z

I WEEVTL-RESISTTNG ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

stolid, nncoinmuiiieative people, from whom little information is
likely to be obtained except as replies to direct (piestions. Familiar
from their earliest childhood with the agricultural lore of their own
tribe, it does not occur to them that these everyday incidents can be
of interest to the white stranger, or if they perceive his interest they
learned long since to fear it as a danger of further intrusion. Even
our own cotton experiments were misunderstood as a menace of addi-
tional demands for lands from the white men who now own so large
a part of the country.

SUMMARY OF ADAPTATIONS.

If the facts stated in the present report have been correctly observed
and interpreted, we must admit that the cotton plant is in a high
state of adai^tive specialization in its relations Avith its now famous
insect enemy, the boll weevil. Indeed, it may be that the most dis-
tinctive and important characters of the plant, from both the botan-
ical and the agricultural standpoints — such as the involucre, the
nectaries, the oil glands, the large bolls, and the very lint itself —
are adaptive features which the selectiA'e influence of the weevil has
brought to their present degree of development.

CLASSIFICATION OF ADAPTATIONS.

The adaptations of the cotton plant might be summarized from
three different standpoints. A historical treatment would proceed
from the adaptations of the bolls to those of the buds. Breeding in
the buds, for instance, was evidently a later adaptation on the part
of the weevils which has called for a second set of the protective
charactei*s on the part of the plant.

It may be better, however, to classify the adaptations as such,
without special regard to their historical sequence of derivation.
The more practical purposes are served by dividing the adaptations
into four groups : ( 1 ) Those calculated to avoid the weevils by gen-
eral habits of growth; (2) those which exclude the weevils, or at
least hinder their operations in the buds and bolls; (3) those which
attract insect enemies such as the w^eevil-eating kelep; (4) those
which prevent the development of the Aveevil larvae, even after the
eggs have been laid.

ADAPTATIONS TO AVOID WEEVILS.

1. Determinate growth.

2. Early bearing.

'.\. Long basal branches.

4. Early rejection of superfluous .-squares,
i"). Seasonal bearing of perennial varieties.
<;. Prompt bearing after cutting back.

7. Hairy stalks and le.-if stems.

5. Pendent bolls.

!). Rapid growth of young bolls.

SUMMARY OF ADAPTATIONS, 78

ADAPTATION.S TO EXCLVUE WEEVILS.

1. Involueral bracts grown together at liase.

•J. Closely appressed margins of invohn-ral bracts.

3. Margins of involueral Itracts strongly la<-lniate and hairy.

4. Unusual size and width of involueral bracts.

5. Calyx produced into slender hairy lacinire.
<i. Persistent flowers.

7. Oil glands (Vl of .very young bolls.

8. Thick-walled bolls.

9. Tough linings of boll chambers.

ADAPTATIONS ATTRACTIVE TO THE KELEP.

1. Nectaries of leaves.

2. Large outer nectaries of involucre.

3. Large inner nectaries of involucre.

4. Bractlets subtending inner nectaries.

5. Continued secretion of nectar.

0. Hairy stalks and leaf stems.

7. Dwarf, compact habits of growth.

ADAPTATIONS TO PREVENT DEVELOPMENT OF WEEVIL LARV.E.

1. Shedding of weevil-infested buds.

2. Proliferation of internal tissues of buds.

3. Proliferation from the walls of the bolls.

4. Absence of oil glands over dissepiments. ,

5. Growth of lint on seed.

6. Compacted seeds (Kidney cotton).

7. Lint confined to outer end of seed (San Lucas Sea Island cotton).

ADAPTIVE CHARACTERS OF DIFFERENT TVPLS OF COTTON.

The third st;\ndpoint for viewing the adaptive characters is that
of the dilferent types of cotton. All varieties share, to some extent,
the older adaptive features, but the special characters are accentuated
in different degrees in the various types. Our study has been directed
toward the Kekchi variety, both on account of its relation to the
keleps and because it has seemed to possess by far the largest series
of adaptive features. But now that the existence of adaptations of
practical value has been ascertained it will be necessary to canvass
the field thoroughly.

ADAPTATIONS OF KEKCHI COTTON.

An enumeration of the adaptations of the Kekchi cotton is scarcely necessary,
because that variety has nearly the whole series and most of them in a more
accentuated form than the other types thus far studied. The few" exceptions
are noted below.

ADAPTATIONS OF RABINAL COTTON.

1. Prompt bearing after cutting back.

2. Very hairy stalks, leaf stems, and involueral bracts.

3. Closely appressed margins of involueral bracts.

4. Involueral bracts gi'own together at base.

74 WEEVTL-RESISTTNG ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

ADAPTATIO^'S UF l'A( HON (OTTO.X.

1. Iiivolucral bracts margined with stiff laciiii.-r and liristk-s.

2. Calyx large, the divisions slender and hairy.

ADAPTATIONS OF SAN LUCAS SEA ISLAND COTTON.

1. Definite seasonal Ijearing.

2. Lint fonfined to outer half ol" seed.

0. Proliferation in buds.
4. Proliferation in bolls.

ADAPTATIONS OF KIDNEY COTTON.

1. Definite seasonal bearing.

2. Seeds compacted at center, covered with thicl'; layer of lint.

ADAPTATIONS OF UPLAND COTTON.

1. Shedding of weevil-infested buds.

This is the only weevil-resisting character in which the Upland varieties
excel the Kekchl cotton, but, as already explained, the habit is of practical use
only in dry climates. The Upland cottons share, however, a large number of
the adaptations, though in a less degree than in the Kekchi. Thus there is pro-
liferation both in buds and in bolls, the stems and petioles are somewhat hairy,
the habit of growth is somewhat reduced from the tree-cotton stage, the nec-
taries are often large and active, the involucra! bracts are sometimes well
folded together, etc.

And now that the possibility of weevil resistance has been shown,
variations may be found in all probability among our United States
varieties which will enable Aveevil-resisting strains of the Upland
sorts to be developed. At this stage of the inquiry it is too much to
liope that the Kekchi type will prove to be adapted to the wide
diversity of conditions to be found in the cotton belt. Either the
Kekchi or the native cottons, or both, are likely to require extensive
modification V)efore the full value of the weevil-resisting adaptations
can be realized.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

The protection afforded by the weevil-resisting adaptations is
most effective at the two ends of the period of development, but con-
tinues in varying degrees from the young bud to the ripe boll. Under
favorable conditions an extremely small proportion of the weevil
eggs develop to maturity. Instead of a single attack being fatal to
a bud or boll, the same fruit at its different stages may resist numerous
punctures and egg-layings. The young bud is protected for a time
by the closed involucre. After the weevils have gained entrance the
first egg, and often the second or third, may be rendered harmless
through the proliferation of the bud in its younger stages. Pro-
liferation becomes less certain as the bud increases in size, but if egg
laying l)e delayed a few days too h)ng the development of the larva^

CONrLUDTNO REMAT^KS. 75

is renderci I impossible by tlic ()|)eiiiiig" ol" the flower. Then ensues
.mother jxMiod oi' ininiiinity while the withered flower remains in
place and Avhile the bolls are still too small to be attacked. Between
about the quarter and the three-quarter size the bolls can still be
parasitized, though proliferation reduces the successful attempts to a
very small percentage. But after the lint has grown out, the lining
has hardened, and the walls have become thick, the boll is well-nigh
impregnable, though the surface may be roughened by a dozen or
a score of warts, Avhicli mark the location of as many persistent but
ineffectual attempts to gain entrance.

As an instance of adaptive specialization the cotton plant seems des-
tined to a very high rank. The development of such a series of pro-
tective characters can scarcely be explained except upon the suppo-
sition that the culture of cotton in Guatemala is extremely ancient,
and of this there are many other indications.

The practical utilization of these protective characters in the cotton
industry of the United States may require the solution of many pre-
liminary problems of acclimatization and adaptation, as well as of
physiology and cultural methods. The proliferation characters, for
example, appear to l)e much more pronounced in some varieties than
in others, but they are also affected, probably to a very considerable
extent, by conditions of climate or soil which check the growth of
the plant or cut down its water supply and thus reduce the normal
turgidity of the tissues."

The weevil-resisting characters are much more highly developed in
the variety of cotton cultivated by the Kekchi Indians of eastern
Guatemala than in any other type yet knowai, and it jDroduces also
large bolls and lint of good length and quality, so that it may be of
value in the United States. But even though the Kekchi cotton in
its present form should prove, for any reason, not to be adapted to
cultural conditions in the United States, it demonstrates, at least, the
fact that the Upland type of cotton is capable of assuming other
characters Avhich will render it far better adapted to cultivation in
the presence of the boll weevil than the varieties hitherto grown in
the United States.

"That the transfer to Texas will not destroy the proliferating hahit of the
Kekchi eottoii Is shown by the following report from Mr. McLachlan :

" On the 23cl of August Mr. Kinsler and I made a comparative examina-
tion of four varieties of cotton at Mackay, Tex., to determine the nature of
their proliferation. Rows of Kekchi cotton from Secanquim and Lanquin. and
two of native Upland varieties (Parker and King) were compared. The results,
in brief, are that in squares the Kekchi cotton proliferated much more readily
than did the native varieties. In the bolls all four varieties were about equally
active in this protective adaptation. The extent of proliferation in the Guate-
malan bolls was, if different in any way. somewhat greater than in the native
\ arieties."

7^) WEEVTL-RESTSTTKG ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

No end is in sight of the new problems and adjustments of cotton
culture occasioned by the invasion of the weevils, and no assurances
can be given in advance regarding the utility of the weevil-resisting
adaptations, any more than with the kelep, or so-called '' (luatemalan
ant." Both have a present value, however, in proving that the Aveevil
is no invulnerable dragon which it is hopeless to resist. Instead of
having no enemies, as long supposed, the weevil is regularly preyed
upon by the active and efficient kelep. And instead of there being
no remedies which can be used against the weevil, it is now found
that the cotton plant itself has a whole series of Aveevil-resisting
characters — a whole boll weevil armory, as it were, from which we
may select and sharpen the weapons which prove best suited to our
purposes.

The weevil period of each year, that in which the damage is done,
extends from the time when the squares are large enough for egg
laying to the period when a full crop would normally be set. If the
value of the cotton crop be divided by the number of days of this
]:)eriod, the result will show the value of each day of protection. It
has been estimated bv Mr. AV. D. Hunter that the boll weevil damaged
the cotton crop in 1904 to the extent of $20,000,000. It is therefore
a very conservative estimate that when the pest shall have spread
over the other cotton-growing States the damage will be well beyond
a million dollars a day for the growing season — in unfavorable years
probably two million dollars or more a day. Each day of protection
which can be secured by the utilization of weevil-resisting adapta-
tions will have, therefore, very definite and considerable value, so that
the study and perfection of this group of characters are sure to be
the objects not only of formal scientific study on the part of special-
ists but of general interest and consideration on the part of the prac-
tical cotton-growling public.

PLATES.

//

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I. (Frontispiece.) Valley at Secanquim. Alta Vera Paz. Guatemala, the
scene of exijerimeuts with weevil-resisting cotton.

Plate II. Fig. 1. — Mature plant of Kekchi cotton, to show small size and
determinate habits of growth, compact foliage, and long basal branches.
Fig. 2. — Plant shown in figure 1. opened to show numerous large bolls and
habit of fruiting on basal branches.

Plate III. Involucres of Kekchi cotton, opened to show external and internal
nectaries, bracts, and bractlets. (Natural size.)

Plate IV. Fig. 1. — Involucres of Rabinal cotton, showing connate and closely
appressed involucral bracts. (Natural size.) Fig. 2.— Open involucres of
Egyptian cotton. (Natural size.)

Plate V. Fig. 1. — Young buds of Kekchi cotton, showing numerous weevil punc-
tures. The buds were split in half so that the full number of punctures
could be seen. (Natural size.) Fig. 2. — Buds of Kekchi cotton (same as
fig. 1), showing successful proliferations. (Natural size.)

Plate VI. Large buds_pf Kekchi cotton, the distortion indicating proliferation.
(Natural size.)

Plate VII. Weevil-infested bolls of Kekchi cotton, showing larger number of
punctures along the middle line of the carpel, where the oil glands are
absent. (Natural size.)

Plate VIII. Carpels of Kekchi cotton, showioig method of proliferation.
(Natural size.)

Plate IX. Fig. 1. — Kekchi cotton, successive stages of the boll. Fig. 2. —
Kekchi bolls (right) : King bolls (left), to show comparative size. (Re-
duced to about one-half natural size.)

Plate X. Fig. 1. — Rabinal cotton, showing foliage, connate bracts, and weevil-
infested bolls. (Reduced.) Fig. 2.— Bolls and seeds of Kidney cotton,
showing oil glands and protective arrangement of lint and seeds.
(Reduced.)

78

Bui, 88, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept of Agriculture

Plate II.

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Plate III.

Involucres of Kekchi Cotton, Showing Nectaries and Bractlets.

( Xal Lirul .size. )

Bui. 88, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IV.

Fig. 1.— Involucres of Rabinal Cotton, Showing Connate and Appressed

Margins.

(Natural size. )

FiQ. 2.— Open Involucres of Egyptian Cotton.
(Natural .■^ize.)

Bui. 88, Burpau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept of Agriculture.

Plate V.

Fig. 1.— Young Buds of Kekchi Cot-
ton WITH Weevil Punctures.

Fig. 2.— Buds of Kekchi Cotton
WITH Proliferation.

(Natural size.)

(Natural size.)

Bui. 88, Buieau of Plant Industry U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VI.

Large Buds of Kekchi Cotton with Proliferation.
(Natural .size.)

Bui 88, Bureau of Pla-it Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VII.

Weevil-infested Bolls of Kekchi Cotton.
(Natural size )

Bui. 88, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VIII

Carpels of Kekchi Cotton, Showing Proliferation.
(Natural size.)

Bui. 83, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IX,

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Plate X.

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Al)ba>'i fotfon, flarinjr of f^iunn-i^ 40

A<a<:ia, s^ymWiotic H|;<-<;iiili/,af,i<»fi '^')

Ai'climatizafiod of K<;k<hi cotton 17

Arf;ot(irrio<latioTi, <lir(;ct nj«iKMiHt!8 to external corulitioriH 'W

A'laptatiori, diwruHHion — (iH,fii)

fX]>\ii\tKi(\ \)y natural w^W^ion W

AdaptatioriH, attracti v<; to tin; k<i«;p T-i

claHHi fixation 72

ditfiaticofforrt I0,i:i,44

<y>mrn(jrcial value 7ft

hiHtorical trfatrnorit 72

nature and <auw« ft7

fXiriod" w))«;n rnoHt efferrti v*; 74

of Asiatic cotton.'- unknown '^2

Kekchi an'l Ilahinal cottonH 7'i

Kidney, l':ichon, Han IjUchh Hi-a J«laii'l, and Cpland rottonn.. 74

Hiiminary 72

to avoid weevil." 72

exclude wceviln 7''>

{(Hf vent developtn<;nt of weevil larvje ~''>

Adaptive characterH, ext«ent ft'*

orij^in ft7

Aidin cMtxm, charact'rr ''>'5

Allen cotton, earlier than King in i iiinUmmUi 17

AnthonoinuH, behavior of Hi*eeie« relate^l to hK>ll weevil IS

Antidroiny in cotton 1'*

A ntijrua, Guatemala, culture of brown cotton 70

Ant« (firing for plant lif;e -i*^

injurioiiH t'^j cotton 1^-*

no protection ai(ain.«(t wfc<;vil>* '5''

plants dornf^ticated by 2i*

A phid.s injurious t/> cotton -i''

Apfiijf f/oi-ifi/pii, inff^tinjr plant." at liabinal, (iuaUnnala. '■'»'•*

Arid climate, inacti ve nectari<;#^ an a^lapti ve r<«ult 24

re^nonn, befiavior of 'otton 4'{, 44, 4o

tyfj^; of plant adapt/;d 20

Artificial wde^rtion, an indefinite; term 70

A.'-hmead, William II., ant« identifie^l 39

Asiatic cottonH, (■otn\/dr'm>ii w ith other varietien 53

nc^ttarina 28, 31

Baf-terial di-^;a.H^?- fol lowing? w<;r^vil injuries ft2

Bifli-nn p'dom, nectar pvAncMA '^

Hird.i, value a." weevil d<r«troyen» 42

Holl weevil larvsf;, a^laptations to prevent developn«ent 7;i

Ixjhavior in Guatemala and Texas 47

destruction V^y dry injr out of wjiiare« 43

prol i feration 4^

development in f^>l l.« 46

effect of (>\)(-m\u'4 of flowers 47, ft3

rapid development in bud« ft3

weevils, al*sence from P^astem Hemisphere 32

Mexican plateau region 11

arlaptations to avoid 72

excjud*- ^'^

aid Uy cr<jsK-fertilization •''•''

80 WKEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

Boll weevilH— Continued. I'a&t'-

bacterial diseases following injuries 62

behavior in absence of keleps 24

on foot 25

within bolls 59

best conditions for perpetuation 70

change of habits 63

destruction by chickens and turkeys 24

determination of life cycle in bolls and squares 64

development of pollen-eating habit 63

diverse habits of males and females 27

diversity in size 64

effect on unprotected cotton field 35

under favorable conditions 69

eggs, fate 58

exclusion from large bolls 59

feeding in bolls 61

general effect on cotton plants 10

in fields cultivated by Indians 35

injuries in Guatemala 47

injurious nature unknown to Indians 71

mortality in spring _ 14

not attracted by nearest relatives of cotton 69

pollen diet 55

preference for upper portion of plant 27

selective influence 10

self-destruction 34

short-season varieties of cotton for control 22

starvation 12, 14

Bolls, diseases from superfluous nectar 28

efficiency of adaptive characters 61

fed upon by boll weevils 61

feeding punctures 61

infestation by w'eevils 55

injured, discoloration 56, 59,. 62

Kekchi cotton, description 16

immunity 56

linings of chambers, toughness as protection from boll weevil 56

normal, absence at Rabinal, Guatemala 24

oil glands 53

outer walls, proliferation 58

variation in thickness 56

pendent, discussion 27

periods of immunity : 74, 75

position 27

proliferation ' 59

in relation to that of buds 64

protection 51

unconscious selection for uniform ripening 11

very young, immunity 52

weevil punctures 61

weevil-proof lining 57

young, rapid growth 55

Bractlets of involucre 33

Bracts, appressed margins 38

dimensions 40

flaring 40

involucral, grown together 37

hairy margins 41

laciniif 43

of Kekchi cotton -. 16

protective feature <jf large si/e 39

Branches, long basal, disadvantages of 20

of Kek<'hi cotton 19

of cotton, compared with those of other plants : 19

dimorpliic 19

INDEX. 81

. Page.

Brown cotton, origin '. 70

preference of Indians 70

Brues, C. T., observations 52

Bnds, breeding in, a derived habit 62

falling in Kekchi cotton 20

floral, dimensions 40

method of rejection 21

ovaries of, attacked by weevils 48

parasitized, behavior 43

periods of immunity , 74, 75

persistence of injured 47

l^rolife ration 46

causes and conditions 49

in relation to that of bolls 64

protection by involucre 39, 41

recovery from weevil punctures 41

superfluous 21

detrimental 22

weevil-infested, shedtling 74

Cacao branches compared with cotton 19

Cajabon, Guatemala, cotton grown in vicinity 15

planting of brown cotton 70

Cecropia, symbiotic specialization 29

Chickens, boll weevil destroyers 24

Climate, effect of change on Upland varieties 16

on earliness , 17

germination of seed 15

Climatic conditions, effect on United States varieties 17

effects on adaptations 1 0, 43, 44

variations in cotton 17

Cluster cotton, discussion 28

origin 70

pendent bolls 28

rejection of buds 21

variety of King cotton 17

Coffee branches compared with cotton 19

Cold, effect on tropical varieties 18

weevils 12, 13

Collins, G. N. , observation 54

Conscious selection 70

Corn, effect of changed conditions 18

Cotton aphis, infesting cotton ; 39

I^roduction, probable extension 44

short-season varieties 12, 14, 22

stimulus of new conditions 17

Cross-fertilization aided by boll weevils 55

effect of simultaneous blossoming 23

secured through nectar 29

Cuba, native cottons 23

Culture of cotton, methods, in eastern Guatemala 19

on Pacific slope of Guatemala 70

Mexico 45

Determinate growth of Kekchi cotton 11

habit, disadvantages of early planting avoided 14

jirimary branches a fact< )r ' 20

Dimorphic branches 19

Dry climate, region, etc. iSt'g Arid.

Dwarf cotton, effect on cultural methods 19

habit of Kekchi cotton 11

Earliness, effect of development of primary l)ranches 20

climatic conditions 12, 17

not shown by date of flowering 13

Early bearing, facilitated by long basal branches 19

planting, disadvantages 14

9962— No. 88—05 m 6

82 WEEVIL-KESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

Paga

Early planting, discussion 13

essential in southern Texas 12

Egg puncture sealed Ijv weevil 61

Eggs of boll weevils, encystation 58, 61

Egyptian cottons, immunity from boll worm 53

involucral bracts ,37

less hairy than Upland varieties 25

not immune to boll weevil 42

oil glands 53

of xlmerican origin 9

precocious in (jruatemala 17

preference of weevils 26

proliferation 50

susceptibility to injury 42

Environment not actuating cause of evolutionary change 68

Evolution, illustration of influence of natural selection 71

Evolutionary origin of external nectaries 31

Fertilization, discussion . . .■ '52

prevention by rain 21

Field cultures, failure in plateau region of Guatemala 25

Flower bud, position 20

Flowering period, short 23

Flowers, failure of pollination 51

keleps imprisoned 29

of Kekchi cotton, color 54

Kidney cotton, color 53

Oldening, effect on larvte 47, 63

persistence 51

position 27

Foliage, compact, effect on keleps 26

Food, change, advantage to jjlants and animals 26

Fungi, growth in nectaries 30

Germination, cotton seed in Guatemala 15

Gossypium burhadense, origin ' 8

herhaceinn, Asia Minor varieties 53

confusion with G. hirsutum 9

nectaries 31

X>eruvianum, specific validity 67

Growth, alternating periods in tropical plants 23

utility of acceleration 55

Guatemala, central jilateau 24

eastern, climate 12

methods of cotton culture 19, 70

nature of the countrj^ 15

field experiments 34

importation of foreign thread 24

Indian methods of cultivation 12

western , cotton 25, 70

Guatemalan conditions, effect on United States varieties 17

cottons, preference of keleps 25

Hairs, cotton plant, assistance to keleps 25

Hairy Guatemalan varieties of cotton 25

stalks and leaf stems of cotton 25

Heredity, mechanism 68

Hibiscus, involucral appendages of species 33

nectaries of species 32

species not attractiv^e to boll weevil 69

Hinds, W. E., observations 25, 42, 43, 44, 55, 61, 62, 64

Howard, L. 0. , observations ; 45

Humid districts, behavior of cotton 43, 44

Hunter, W. D., observations 14, 25, 42, 43, 44, 48, 55, 61, 64, 76

Immunity of buds and bolls, periods _ 74, 75

Inbreeding of cotton by Indians 15

Indeterminate varieties unsuited to early destruction of plants 13

INDEX. 88

Page.

Indian methods of cotton culture 11, 35

names of cotton 53, 70

Indians, agricultural habits 11, 15, 35, 48

cotton culture 11, 35, 71

cultivation of peppers 11

customs at Rabinal, Guatemala 24

formation of new varieties 15, 71

Guatemalan, observations on boll weevils 66

of Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala, characteristics 71, 72

selections of cotton 15, 16, 71

utilization of cotton 45

Interbreeding necessary to vigor 68

Involucral a])pendages of plants related to cotton 33

bracts of Pachon cotton 25

Involucre, as a protective structure 37

bractlets 33

external nectaries, discussion 31

inner nectaries, discussion 31

protection to inside nectaries 28

protective value 37

Involucres, closed, advantages 38, 41

Egyptian cottons 41

Kekchi cotton 37, 39, 40

Kidney cotton 32

open, advantage 42

Rabinal cotton 37

Sea Island cotton, attractive to keleps 26

Upland cottons 38

value in protecting buds 39, 41

Irrigation, effects 45

Ixcaco cotton in Guatemala 70

Jannovitch cotton compared with Allen 17

proliferation 50

Jewett cotton, dimensions of buds and bracts 40

Kekchi cotton, adaptations 73

at northern limit of cotton culture 18

behavior, in Texas 17

bolls, variation in thickness of walls 56

characteristic feature , 20

comparison with other varieties, at Lanham, Md 18

date of planting in Guatemala 15

developed in weevil-infested regions 4

distinct type of Gossi/pium hirsntum 8

effect of crowding on character 20

fruiting 17

habits of growth 15

in the United States 17

most promising short-season variety 22

quality of lint 7

rapidity of development 55

shortness of season, explanation 11

stems, petioles, leaves, and bolls 16

tolerance of cold 15

variations 15

weevil resistance, high value 11

Keleps, absent from Eastern Hemisphere 32

adaptations, attractive 73

definitely attracted to cotton plants 35

effect of dense foliage '. 26

habitat extension 36

hairs of cotton plant, assistance in climbing 25

imprisonment in flowers 29

preference for Egyptian and Sea Island cotton an(i Bideits j)ilos(i.. 26, 36, 37

protection to cotton 8, 34, 35

unknown to European residents in < niatemala 71

84 WEEVIL-EESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

Page.

Keleps, usefulness in comparison with ants 39

value known by Indians 71

visitation of other nectar-bearing plants than cotton 36

Kidney cotton, Jidaptations 74

at Trece Aguas, Guatemala 32, 53

Tucuru, Guatemala 24, 66

characters 67

cultural value 67

of American origin 9

oil glands 53, 54

origin of name 9

protective features 42

seed arrangement 66

thin outer wall of boll 66

King cotton, behavior in Guatemala 17

cluster variety 17

dimensions of 1 )uds and bracts 40

flaring of squares '40

large nectaries 31

proliferation 60

rapidity of development 55

Kinsler, J. H., observations 17, 29, 37, 47, 50, 51, 55

plants cultivated in Guatemala 15

Lacinia? of involucral bracts : 43

Lanham, Md., exi)eriments 18, 25, 43

Lanquim, Guatemala, planting of brown cotton , 70

Large varieties, disad vantages 1 19

Late planting in northern localities 13

Leaves, Kekchi cotton 16

nectaries, general discussion 30

Leavitt, R. G., principle of translocation of characters 70

Limbless variety of King cotton 17

Lint, disadvantages .65

protection of seeds 65, 66

Locks, number in Kekchi cotton 16

Mackay, Tex. , examination of cotton 75

Maxon, W. R. , cotton obtained 25

ol )servations . .' 70

McLachlan, Argyle, observations 18, 25, 41, 47, 57, 60, 61, 75

Melanthera deltoidea visited by keleps 37

Mexican plateau, absence of weevils 11

region, advantages 43

Mexico, cotton culture 45

Mit Afifi cotton, oil glands 53

Molds, growth in nectaries 30

Moqui Indian cotton, character 52

Mutations in Kekchi cotton 16

Natural selection by boll weevil 54, 69

cotton 9

conscious and unconscious 70

effect of oil glands 54

illustration of influence in evolution 71

in simultaneous flowering 23

not actuating cause of evolutionary change 68

tlie exjilanation of adaptation 68

Nectar, continued secretion by plants 32

purpose 28

secretion in Kekchi and Upland cottons ...- 32

on bolls 33

Nectaries, external, discussion 31

position in pendent bolls 27

secretion .- 27

extrafloral, connection with bacterial diseases 62

discussion 28

functions 29

INDEX,

85

Page.

Nectaries, extrafloral, in Kekchi cotton 34

fioral, no connection Avith weevil resistance 29

homology 32

inactive, of Rabinal cotton 24

inner, bractlets subtendino; 33

connected with drooping habit 28

of involucre, discussion 31

of different varieties 31, 32

Kekchi cotton 16

leaves, general discussion 30

species of Hibiscus 32

Oil glands, of bolls _ 53

protective feature 52, 54

Okra cotton, origin 70

Old World cottons. See Asiatic.

Origin of cottons in arid regions 21

improved varieties of cotton 70

Upland varieties of cotton 10, 44

Pachon cotton, adaptations 74

characters 34, 43

comparison in Texas and Maryland 18

hairiness 25

involucral bracts - 25

Palmer, Dr. Edward, discovery of weevil 45

observations on cotton 45

Paris green, effects on boll weevils 14

Paritium, species not attractive to boll weevil 69

Parker cotton, dimensions of buds and bracts 40

experiments 41 , 57, 60

flaring of squares 40

l^roliferation 60

Pendent bolls, discussion 27

Peppers, importance to Indians 11

Perennial cottons, annual cutting back 24

not likely to be of use in the United States 67

seasonal bearing 23

Pergande, Theodore, identification of ai)hids 39

Peruvian cotton in Texas 37

Petals, smoothness an obstacle to keleps 26

Petioles, Kekchi cotton 16

Pittier, H. , observations 26, 39, 46

Planting, date in Guatemala 19

late in northern localities 13

Plant lice injurious to cotton 39

Plants, destruction in the fall, difhculty 22

Pollen, diet of weevils 55

eaten by weevil larvte :\ 47

necessity for sexual maturitj^ of weevils 55

Pollen-eating habit, development 63

Poneridic, nectar collected 30

Proliferation, advantage only under conscious selection 71

best weevil-resisting adaptation 9

diminution of power in larger buds 51

effect of dry weather 60

efficiency 46

from staminal tube 49

wall of boll 58

in buds and bolls, relation 64

Kekchi cotton 46, 49, 75

King cotton 60

Parker cotton 60

varieties other than Kekchi 50

of bolls 55, 56, 59

bud, causes and conditions 49

corolla 48

internal tissues of buds 46

86 WEEVIL-RESISTING ADAPTATIONS OF COTTON.

Page.

Proliferation, probable effects of culture 50

summary of results of study -13

time required 60

value §0

Protection afforded by adaptations, commercial value 76

when most effective 74

the involucre 37

tough linings of chambers of bolls 56

by keleps, efficiency 34, 35

of seeds by lint : 65

Protective characters, first originated by cotton plant 68

general 1 1

of bolls 51

value of involucre 37

Quaintance, A. L., observations '. 52

Rabinal cotton, adaptations 73

bolls fed upon by boll weevils 61

characters -11

hairiness -5

involucres 37, 38

nectaries 31

Guatemala, ants - - 39

cotton culture 9, 38

customs of Indians 24

Rain, effect at time of flowering 21

Redshank cotton, characters - 53

large nectaries _^ 31

Retalhuleu district of Guatemala, cotton planted -^'^t

Rivers cotton, character in Guatemala 17

Rubber, Central American, branches compared with those of cotton 19

8ajal, plant often visited by keleps 37

Salama, Guatemala, cotton culture of Indians 24

San Lucas, Guatemala, Sea Island cotton 24

adaptations 74 ,

attai'ked by other insects 32

discovery 50

nectaries 32

Schwarz, E. A., observations 42, 48

on Cuban cottons 23

Sea Island cotton, Guatemalan, discovery 50

nectaries 32

of San Lucas, Guatemala, annual flowering 24

cottons, comparison of petals with Upland varieties 26

flaring of squares _ 40

involucral bracts 37, 38

lacking in protective features 4

less hairy than Upland varieties 25

not immune to boll weevil 42

oil glands 53

' origin 8

precocity in Guatemala 17

smoothness a disadvantage to keleps 25

Seeanquim, Guatemala, cotton grown in vicinity 15

experiments 39, 41

Seed, low germination in Guatemala 15

Seeds, protective arrangement in Kidney cotton _ 66

Selection, conscious, unconscious, natural, and artificial, discussion 1 1, 70, 71

in cotton, time required , -. 10

provided by l)f)ll weevil 10

Selective influence of boll weevil 10

Short season varieties of cotton 1 2, 14, 22

Soleriopsls pirea, ant inhabiting Rabinal cotton 39

Specific tyi)e, generalized, the product of diversity and interbreeding 68

Squares, boll weevil injuries 41

flared and fallen, countings 45

flaring .' 40, 41

INDEX. 87

Page.

Squares, multiplication in cluster cottons - 28

small, breeding places for weevils 11

superfluous, early rejection 20

weevil-infested, shedding 43, 74

Staminal tube, proliferation 49

Stipules of outer bracts represented by bractlets 33

Stormproof varieties of cotton 27

Superfluous buds, discussion •. 21

Symbiotic specializations between plants and animals 29

Tapinoma ramulonun, ant inhabiting Rabinal cotton 39

Temperatures at localities where Kekchi cotton is grown 15

Terrell, Tex., experiments 52

Texas, early advent of weevils 9

southern, method of checking weevil 12

Thespesia, species not attractive to boll weevil 69

Top crop, effect of weevil 22

Tree cottons, dimensions 23

discussion 17

immunity to weevils, reported 23

in Guatemala 12

infestation by weevils 8

Mexican, nectaries 30

rejection of buds 21

weevil adaptations 23

{See also Perennial cottons.)

Trelease, William, observations 33

Tropical A merica, field for experiments 9

Tshubai, plant protected by the kelep 36

Tucuru, Guatemala, Kidney cotton 24, 66

Tuikeys, boll weevil destroyers 24

Tyler, F. J. , observations 28

United States cotton varieties, effect of Guatemalan conditions 17

Ui:)land cottons, adaptations 74

effect of change of climate 16

indeterminate habit in United States varieties 13

native in Central America 10

origin 10, 44

preference of keleps 25

secretion of nectar 32

Variations, climatic, in cotton 17

in Kekchi cotton 15

Variegation in Kekchi cotton 16

Varieties, new, formation by Indians 15

Victoria, Tex. , experiments 60, 61

Volunteer cotton, absence in eastern Guatemala 12

breeding of weevils 12

Weather, dry, effect on crop 13

exclusion of boll weevil from Mexican plateau 11

Webber, H. J., statements 13, 42

Weaving by Guatemalan natives, use of foreign thread 25

Weevil. See Boll weevil.

Weevil-proof lining of bolls 57

Weissman, Professor, doctrine of inheritance 68

Winters, severe, no protection from weevils 12

o

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 89.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chaj of Uureaii.

WILD PPICINAL PLANTS OF THE

UNITED STATES.

BY

ALICE HENKEL,

Assistant, Drug-Plant Investigations.

Issued January 16, 1906.

WASHINGTON:

government printing office.

1906.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes Vege-
table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investigations, Farm
Management (including Grass and Forage Plant Investigations), Pomological Inves-
tigations, and Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of which were formerly con-
ducted as separate divisions; and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution;
the Arlington Experimental Farm; Investigations in the Agricultural Economy of
Tropical and Subtropical Plants; Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigations; Tea Cul-
ture Investigations; the Seed Laboratory, and Dry Land Agriculture and Western
Agricultural Extension.

Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of Bulle-
tins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published as one
series of the Bureau. A list of the Bulletins issued in the present series follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that "the serial, scientific, and technical publica-
tions of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general distribution.
All copies not required for official use are by law turned over to the Superintendent
of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All applications for such
publications should, therefore, be made to the Superintendent of Documents, Gov-
ernment Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10 cents.-

2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses and

Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents.

15. Forage Conditions on the Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

16. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Campes-

tris and Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. Price, 35 cents.

22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, K» cents.

23. Berseem. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous Papers: I. The Seeds of Rescue Grass and Chess. II. Saragolla

Wheat. III. Plant Introduction Notes from South Africa. IV. Congres-
sional Seed and Plant Distribution Circulars. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

26. Spanish Almonds. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, etc. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

28. The Mango in Porto Rico. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

29. The Effect of Black Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

30. Budding the Pecan. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

32. A Disease of the White Ash. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

33. North American Species of Leptochloa. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

34. Silkworm Food Plants. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

35. Recent Foreign Explorations. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

36. The "Bluing" and the "Red Rot" of the Pine. 1903. Price, 30 cents.

[Contiuued on page 3 of cover.]

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 89.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE

UNITED STATES.

BY

alicp: henkp:l.

Assistant, Drug -Plant Investigations.

Issued January 16, 1906.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

CiARDEN.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1906.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

B. T. GALLOWAY,

PaiholofiM and Physiologist, and Cliirf of Bureau.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

ALBERT F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge, Acting Chief of Bureau in Absence of Chief

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Frederick V. Coville. Botanist in Charge.

FARM MANAGEMENT.

W. .J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

G. B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.

A. .1. Pieters, Botanist in Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.

L. C. Corbett, Horticulturist in Charge.

INVESTIGATIONS IN THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL

PLANTS.

O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge.

DRUG AND POISONOUS PLANT INVESTIGATIONS, AND TEA CULTURE INVESTIGATIONS.

Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge.

DRY LAND AGRICULTURE AND WESTERN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.

Carl S. Scofield, Agriculturist in Charge.

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.

E. M. Byrnes, Superintendent.

SEED LABORATORY.

Edgak Brown. Fiotanist in Charge.

J. E. Rockwell, Editor.
James E. .Jones, Chief Clerk.

DRUG-PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.

SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge.

W. O. RiCHTMANN, W. W. Stockberger, E.rperts.

Alice Henkel, G. Fred Klugh, Assistants.

LE'rriiR OF TRANSMITTAL.

P

U. S. Department of Acriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,

W(if<hingto7\, I). C, OctoJm- 30, 1W5.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for pub-
lication as Bulletin No. 89 of the series of this Bureau the accompany-
ing manuscript entitled ''Wild Medicinal Plants of the United States."
This paper was prepared by Miss Alice Henkel, Assistant in Drug-
Plant Investigations, and has been submitted by the Physiologist in
Charge with a view to its publication.

Respectfully, B. T. Gallowat,

Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,

/Secretary of Agrindtufre.

PREFACE.

In connection with the work of Drug--Plant Investigations many
inquiries are receiv^ed from various parts of the country asking for a
list of the drug-producing plants of the regions concerned and for
information as to the parts of the plants used in medicine, etc. It
being- impossible to comply with requests of this nature in any satis-
factor}" way. Miss Henkel was asked to compile a list of the drug
plants of this country, using- as a basis the catalogues of dealers in
crude drugs and the standard works on S3^stematic botan3^ It has
seemed from an inspection of these lists and of much current phar-
maceutical literature that the recent changes in botanical nomenclature
have succeeded one another too rapidly to permit the drug dealer and
the pharmacist to keep pace with them. This has resulted in consider-
able confusion in regard to botanical names, and in some cases in the
matter of the common names of drug-producing plants. In such a
list as that herewith presented the opportunity for helping- to clear up
this situation has seemed worth improving. The recent appearance
of the new Pharmacopteia, in which the botanical nomenclature has
been revised, has seemed to emphasize the desirability of making this
attempt, since the names in the case of official plants will be fairly
definitely fixed among- pharmacists for the next ten years. In the
accompanying list the pharmacopceial names are given and a revision
of the nomenclature of the unofticial drugs is also presented. Mr.
Frederick V. Coville, Hotanist, has kindly revised the botanical names
used in this publication.

It is hoped that this compilation will tend to unify usage among
those who have to do with crude di-ugs and drug plants.

Rodney H, Truk,

Phy.t!olo<//sf III Charge

Office of Drucx-Plant Investkiations,

\yaHh'i,uji(>n, I). ('., Octohir m^ WUo.

5

IB. P. I.— 187.

WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED

STATES.

In the preparation of this bulletin only such wild medicinal plants
a.s have a commercial value were considered; that is, such as were
usually mentioned in the trade lists of drug dealers throughout the
country-. Plants that were found listed by onl}' one or two firms
have been omitted.

Both official and nonofiicial drugs are included in this list. A num-
ber of drug plants that were oflScial in the United States Pharmacopoeia
for 1890 have been dropped from the Eighth Decennial Revision
(1900), which became official on September 1, 1905, and a few new
ones have been added. In this bulletin the drugs that were official in
the Pharmacopoeia for 1890 are so indicated, while those of the new
edition are marked simply ''official.''

In the following list the information on each species is given under
the accepted botanical name. This name and that of the family to
which the plant belongs occupy' the first line of the description. Botan-
ical s^nionyms, if any, are mentioned, and these are followed in the
next line by the most common names. A few words of information
indicating the most important features of habit and stature, as well as
the sort of situation in which found, together with the geographical
distribution in the United States, are then given in each case. This
information is too meager for the identification of the plants concerned
in all cases, but it was impossible within the space limits of a publica-
tion such as this to include more descriptive matter. The parts of the
plants used and the official status of the product close the description.
Unless otherwise indicated, the products mentioned are used in the
dried state.

Abies balsamea (L. ) Mill. Pine family (Pinaceae).

Balsam-fir; Canada balsam tree.

Slender, evergreen, native tree, 50 to 60 feet high, occurring in damp woods from
Newfoundland to the high mountains of southwestern Virginia, west to Min-
nesota, and northward.

Parts used .—Balsam, known as Canada turpentine, Canada balsam, or balsam of
fir (official); also bark (nonofficial) .

11072— No.. 89—06 2 7

8 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Ahiex canadensis Michx. Same as Txnga canadensis.

Abies nigra Desf. Same as Picea mariana.

Abscess-root. See Polemonium reptans.

Absinth. See Artemisia absinthium.

Absinthium. See Artemisia absinthium.

Acacia, false. See Rohinia pseudacacia.

Acer rubrum L. Maple family (Aceraceae).

Red maple; swamp-maple.

Large, native tree, often 120 feet in height, growing in swamps and low grounds
from Canada to Florida and Texas.

Part used. — Bark (nonofficial.)
Achillea millefolium L. Aster family ( Asteraceae).

Yarrow; milfoil; thousandleaf.

Perennial weed, 10 to 20 inches high, common in fields and waste places nearly
throughout the United States, especially eastward; naturalized from Europe
and Asia.

I'art used. — Herb (nonofficial).

Acorus calam.us L. Arum family (Araceae).

Calamus; sweet-flag.
Native, herbaceous perennial, about 2 feet high, found in wet and nuiddy places

and along streams from Nova Scotia to Minnesota, southward to Florida and

Texas.
Parttised. — ITnpeeled, dried rhizome (official).

Actaea alba (L. ) Mill. Crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae).

White cohosh; white baneberry; necklace-weed; rattlesnake-herb.

Native, perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, found in rich woods from Nova Scotia
to Georgia and Missouri, and northward; most common from Indiana and
Kentucky to Pennsylvania and New York.
Parts v.^ed. — Rhizome and rootlets (nonofficial).
Actaea raceinosa L. Same as Cimicifuga racemosa.

Actaea rubra (Ait.) Willd. Crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae).

S>jiimii/)ii. — ^Ictaea spicata var. rubra Ait.
Red cohosh; red baneberry; rattlesnake-herb.

Native, perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, found in woods from Nova Scotia to the
Middle States, west to the Rocky Mountains; most abundant from New
England to Ontario.

Parts u.^ed. — Rhizome and rootlets (nonofficial).

Actaea, spicata var. rubra^ Ait. Same as Actaea rubra.
Adam-and-ICve. See Ajdecirum spicatum.
Adder's-tongue, yellow. See Erythronium. americanum.

Adiantum pedatum L. Fern family (Polypodiaceae).

Maidenhair-fern.
Native fern, 9 to 15 inches high, growing in rich moist .soil in woods in Canada

and almost all parts of the United States.
Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Aesculus g-labra Willd. Buckeye family ( Aesculaceae) .

Ohio buckeye; fetid buckeye; smooth buckeye.

Small, native tree, 20 to 40 feet in height, found in woods and on river ))anks
from Pennsylvania south to Alabama, westward to Michigan and the Indian
Territory.

Parts used, — Bark and fruit (nonofficial).

AESCULUS HIPPOCASTANUM ALNUS RUGOSA. 9

Aesculus hippocastanum L. Buckeye family ( Aesculaceae).

Horse-chestnut.

Large tree, 60 feet or more in height. Eycaped from cultivation, southeastern

New York and New Jersey. Native of Asia.
Partii used. — Bark and fruit (nonofficial).

After! )irth- weed. See Stylnmnihes hiffora.

A(/nin<inia mpatorla (of American authors, not L. ). Same as Agrimonia hirRvtn.
Agrimonia hirsuta (Muhl.) Bicknell. Rose family (Rosaceae).

Synonym. — Agrimonia eupatoria of most American authors, not L. "
Agrimony; tall hairy agrimony.

Perennial herb, 8 to 4 feet high, found in woods and thickets from New Bruns-
wick to Minnesota and Nebraska, south to North Carolina; also in California.
Native.

I'drt \ix.ed. — Herb (nonofficial).
Agrimony. See Agrimonia Irirsuta.
Agrimony, tall hairy. See Agrimonia Jnrxuta.

Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. Grass family (Poaceae).

Synonym. — Triticum repens Beauv.

Triticum; couch-grass; dog-grass; (juack-grass.

A troublesome grass in cultivated land from INIaine to Marvland, west to Minne-
sota and Missouri; sparingly distributed in the South. Introduced from
Europe.

Part used. — Rhizome, gathered in spring (official).
Ague-tree. See Sassafras variifoUwn.

Agueweed. See Eupatorium perfoliatum and Gentiana gv,in<juefoUa.
Alder, black. See Ilex rertieillata.
Alder, common. Hee .ilnus rugosa.
Alder, red. See Alnus rugosa.
Alder, smooth. See Alnus rngosa.
Alder, tag-. See Alnus rugosa.

Aletris farinosa L. Lily family (Liliaceae).

Star-grass; false (not true) unicorn-root;'' colic-root.

Native, perennial lierb, 2 to 8 feet high; in dry, sandy soil from Maine to Minne-
sota, south to Florida and Tennessee.

Part used. — Rhizome (nonofficial) , gathered after the plant has flowered.
Allspice, Carolina. See Butneria ftorida.
Allspice, Florida. See Butneria florida.
Allspice, wild. See Benzoin benzoin.

Alnus rugosa (Du Roi) K. Koch. Birch family (Betulaceae).

Syuouym. — Alnus xerrulnta, Willd.

Tag-alder; common alder; red alder; smooth alder.

Native shrub, or sometimes a small tree, occurring in swamps aijd marshy bor-
ders of streams from the New England States west to Minnesota and south-
ward to Florida and Texas.

Part used. — Bark (nonofficial).

"According to Bicknell (Bui. Torr. Bot. Club, 23: 508-525, 1896), the name Aqrimonia nipatoria L
long used in local floras and text-books for the agrimony of the Eastern States, has been doing duty
for a group of related species, of which at least five are now clearly recognized. Furthermore Doctor
Britton (Bui. Torr. Bot. Club, 18 : 3titi, 1891) states that the true Afirimtmia eupatoria is not known at
all as an American plant. The native plant to which the name Aiirimonia eupatoria has been most
frequently applied by American authors is Aririmonia liiiviitn (Muhl.) Bicknell.

fiThename " true unicorn-root " has long been api)licd to Aletris farinosa, b\it as "unicorn-root"
was the common name first given to ChamacHrium hileinii. (IMonias dioira). this should more prop-
erly be called the true unicorn-root and Aletris farinosa the false unicorn-root.

10 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Alnus serrulala Willd. Same as Abms rugosu.

Alsine media L. Pink family (Silenaceae).

Synonym. — Stellaria media Cyr.
Common ehickweed.
.Small, annual herb, probably introduced from Europe, and now common in

fields and around dwellings' throughout the United States.
Fart used. — Herb (nonoflicial) . v

Althaea. See Althaea officinalis.

Althaea officinalis L. Mallow family (Malvaceae).

Althaea; marshmallow; sweatweed; mortification-root.
Perennial herb, 2 to 4 feet high, naturalized from Europe; occurs in salt marshes,

coast of Massachusetts and New York, and in Pennsylvania.
P((rts used. — Root from plants of second year's growth, deprived of the periderm
(official); leaves and flowers (nonofficial) are also used.

Alum-root. See fieranivui maculatum and Headiera americana.

Ambrosia artemisiaefolia L. Ragweed family ( Ambrosiaceae).

Roman wormwood; ragweed; hogweed; stammerwort.

Coarse, native weed, annual, 1 to 3 feet high; in waste places, eastern United
States, west to British Columbia and Mexico.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Ampelopsis quinquefolia Michx. Same as Parthenocissus quinquefolia.
Amy-root. See Apocynum cannabinum.
Anag-allis arvensis L. Primrose family (Primulaceae) .

Red diickweeil; red jjimpernel; scarlet pimpernel; shepherd' s-weatherglass.

Low, spreading, annual herb, naturalized from J^urope, and growing along road-
sides and in fields almost throughout the United States.

Part used. — Herb ( nonofficial).
Anaphalis m,argaritacea (L. ) Benth. & Hook. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Synonyms. — Gnaplialiiim margaritaceiim L. ; Anfennaria margaritacca Hook.

Everlasting; pearly everlasting; large-flowered everlasting; cottonweed.

White-hairy or woolly perennial herb, native in dry soil from Newfoundland to
Alaska, south to North Carolina and California.

Part used. — Leaves (nonofficial).
Andromeda arhorea L. Same as Oxydendrmn arboreum.
Anemone patens var. nuttalliana A. (xray. Same as Pulsatilla Jdrsutissima.
Angelica, American. See Angelica atropurpurea.
Angelica atropurpurea L. Parsley family (Apiaceae).

Synonym. — Archangelica atropurpurea Hoffm.

Purple-stemmed angelica; American angelica; masterwort.

Tall, stout, perennial herb, 4 to 6 feet high; native in swamps and damp places
from Labrador to Delaware and west to Minnesota.

Parts used. — Root and seeds (nonofficial).

Angelica, purple-stemmed. See Angelica atropurpurea.
Anise-root. See Washingtonia longistylis.

Antemiaria margaritacea Hook. Same as Anaphalis margaritarea.
Anthemis cotula L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Synonym. — Morula cotula DC.

Mayweed; dog-fennel; fetid camomile (or chamomile).

Strong-scented, annual herb, naturalized from Europe; occurs in dry sod, fields,
waste places, and along roadsides almost throughout North America, wilh
the exception of the extreme North.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

APLECTRITM HYEMALE ARCHANGELICA ATROPURPLTREA. 11

Aplectrum hyenude Niitt. Same as Aplectmm spicatuw.

Aplectrum spicatum (Walt.) B. S. P. Orchid family (Orchidaceae).

Synonym. — Aplectrum hyemale Nutt.
. Adam-and-Eve; putty-root.

Native herb, perennial, 1 to 2 feet high; in rich woods and swamps from Canada
to (reorgia and California.

Part used. — Root (nonofheial) .

Apocynnm. See Apnrijnum cannahlnum.

Apocynum androsaemifoUum L. Dogbane family ( Apocynaceae) .

Bitterroot; spreading dogbane; honeybloom.

Perennial herb, 1 to 4 feet high, native in fields and thickets from Canada south
to (jeorgia and Arizona. The most common species in Canada and the North-
eastern States.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

Apocynum cannabinum L. Dogbane family (Apocynaceae).

Apocynum; Canadian hemp; black Indian hemj); amy-root.

Perennial herb, 2 to 3 feet high, native in moist ground and borders of fields
throughout the United States.

Part used.— Rhizome of this or of closely allied species of Apocynum (official).
Apple, custard-. See Asimina trUoha.
Apple, May-. See Podophyllum peltatum.
Apple, thorn-. See Datura stramonium.
Apple-of-Peru. See Datura stramonium.
Aquilegia canadensis L. See under AquUegia vulgaris.

Aquilegia vulgaris L. Crowfoot family ( Ranunculaceae) .

European columbine; garden-columbine.

Perennial herb, with sliowy flowers. Naturalized from Europe, and well known
in cultivation; escaped from gardens into woods and fields; frequent in the
Eastern and Middle States. The wild columbine {Aqmlegia canadensis L )
occurring in rocky woods throughout Canada and the eastern United States'
IS said to possess properties similar to those of the European columbine.
Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

Aralia hispida Vent. Ginseng family ( Araliaceae ) .

Dwarf elder; wild elder; bristly sarsaparilla.
Erect, leafy perennial, 1 to 3 feet high, native in sandv woods and fields from

Labrador south to North Carolina, west to Minnesota and Indiana.
Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

Aralia nudicaulis L. Ginseng family (Araliaceae).

American sarsaparilla; wild sarsaparilla; false sarsaparilla; Virginian sarsapa-
rilla; small spikenard.

Herbaceous perennial, native, growing in moist woods from Newfoundland west

to Manitoba and soutli to North Carolina and Missouri.
Part used. —Root (nonofficial).

Aralia racemosa L. Ginseng family ( Araliaceae ) .

Indian-root; spikenard; American spikenard; spignet.
Herbaceous perennial, native, 3 to 6 feet high, growing in rich woods and rocky

places from Canada to Ceorgia, west to Minnesota and Missouri.
Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

Arbor-vitae. See Thuja occidentalis.

Arbutus, trailing. See Epigaea repens.

Archangelira atropurpurea Hoffm. Same as Angelica atropurpurea.

12 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Arctium lappa L. Aster family ( Asteraceae).

,St/nonyia. — Lappa major Gaertn.

Lappa; burdock; cockle-button; beggars' -buttons; bardane.

Coarse, biennial weed, 4 to 9 feet high, introduced from the Old World, and

occurring along roadsides and in fields and waste places in the Eastern and

Central States.
'arts used. — Root of this or of other species of Arctium collected from plants of

first year's growth (official). The fresh leaves and the seeds are also used

(non official).

Arctostaphylos glauca Lindl. Heath, family (Ericaceae).

Manzanita.

A shrub-like tree, 9 to 25 feet high, growing in California, in dry, rocky dis-
tricts on the western slopes of the Sierras.

Part used. — Leaves (nonofficial).
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L. ) Spreng. Heath family (Ericaceae).

Uva-ursi; bearberry; upland-cranberry.

Low, evergreen perennial, with trailing stems, native in rocky or dry, sandy
soils from the Middle Atlantic States north to Labrador, westward to Califor-
nia and Alaska.

Part used. — Leaves (official).
Arisaema triphyllum (L. ) Torr. Arum family (Araceae).

Synonym. — Aram triphyllum L.

Indian turnip; wild turnip; wake-robin; Jack-in-the-pulpit.

Native, perennial herb, 10 inches to 3 feet high, found in moist woods from
Canada to Florida, west to Kansas and Minnesota.

Part used. — Partially dried corm (nonotticial).

Aristolochia reticulata Nutt. Birthwort family (Aristolochiaceae).

Serpentaria; Texas serpen taria; Texas snakeroot; Red River snakeroot.
Perennial herb, about 1 2 feet in height, native in the Southwestern States, occur-
ring on river l)anks from Arkansas to Louisiana.

Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (official).
Aristolochia serpentaria L. Birthwort family (Aristolochiaceae).

Serpentaria; Virginia serpentaria; Virginia snakeroot.

Native, perennial herb, 10 inches to 3 feet high, found in rich woods from Con-
necticut to Michigan and southward.

Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (official).
Arrowwood. See Viburnum dentaturn.
Arrowwood, Indian. See Euonymus (dropvrpureus.
Artemisia abrotanum L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Southernwood.

Shrubby, perennial herb, about 2 to 4 feet in height, occurring in waste places
from Massachusetts to Nebraska. Adventive from Europe.

Part used. — Herl) (nonofficial).
Artemisia absinthium L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Absinthium; wormwood; absinth.

Shruljby, perennial herb, 2 to 3 feet high, naturalized from Europe, and occur-
ring in waste places and al(jng roadsides from Newfoundland to New York and
westward.

Parts used. — Leaves and tops (official in I^. S. P. 1890).
Artemisia vulgaris L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Common mugwort.

Perennial herb, 1 to 3i feet high, naturalized from Europe; found in waste
places, Nova Scotia to the Middle States and westward to Michigan.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

ARUM TRTPHYLLUM ASTHMA-WEED, QUEENSLAND. 13

Arum triphylhnn L. Same as Arisaema tripltylluin.

Asarum canadense L. Birthwort family ( Aristolochiaceae).

Canada snakeroot; wild ginger; Indian ginger.

Perennial herb, about 1 foot in height, native in rich woods from Canada to
North Carolina and Kansas.

Parts used. — Rhizome and rootlets (nonofiicial).
Asclepias. See Asclepias tuber osd.
AKrlejnan ammtl Dec. Same as Asclepias si/riara.
Asclepias incarnata J.. Milkweed family (Asclepiadaceae).

White Indian hemp; swamp-milkweed; swamp-silkweed; rose-colored silkweed.

Perennial herb, 2 to 4 feet high, native in swamps from Canada to Tennessee and
Kansas.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial) .

Asclepias syriaca L. Milkweed family (Asclepiadaceae).

iSyno7iynt. — Asclepias eornuti Dec.
Common milkweed; silkweed.

Perennial herb, 3 to 5 feet high, native in fields and waste places from Canada

to North Carolina and Kansas.
Part iised. — Root (nonofficial).

Asclepias tuberosa L. Milkweed family (Asclepiadaceae).

Asclepias; i)leurisy-root; butterfiy-weed; Canada-root; whiteroot.

Native, perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, growing in dry fields from Canada to
Florida and Arizona; most abundant southward.

Part used.— Root (official in U. S. P. 1890).
Ash, American mountain-. See Sorbus americana.
Ash, black. See Fraxinus nigra.
Ash, cane-. See Fraxinus americana.
Ash, hoop-. See Fraxinus nigra.

Ash, prickly. See Fagara clara-liemills and XanllKi.ri/hini americanum.
Ash, wafer-. See Ptelea trifoliata.
Ash, white. See Fraxinus americana.

Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. Custard-apple family ( Anonaceae).

North American pawpaw; custard -apple.

Small, native tree, growing in rich soil alcjng the banks of streams from New
York to Michigan and southward. Most connnon in the Ohio Valley.

Part used. — Seed (nonofficial).
Aspen, Aniei-ican. See Popidtts tremuloides.
Aspen, quaking. See Pupulus tremuloides.
Aspidium. See Dryopterisfilix-mas and D. utarginalis.
Aspidium. filix-mas Sw. Same as Dryopteris filix-mas.
Aspidium marginale Sw. Same as Dryopteris viarginalis.
Asplenium jilix-foemina (L. ) Bernh. Same as Athyrivm Jilix-foemina.
Aster puniceus L. Aster family ( Asteraceae ) .

Red-stalked aster; cocash; meadow-scabish.

Perennial her)), with stout, reddish stem, 3 to 8 feet high, native; in swamps
and on banks of streams, Nova Scotia to Minnesota, south to North Carolina,
Ohio, and Michigan.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).
Aster, red-stalked. See A.ster puniceus.
Asthma-weed, Queensland. See Euphnrhia jiilnllfera.

14 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Athyrium filix-foemina (L. ) Roth. Fern family ( Polypodiaceae ) .

Synonym. — Aspleiiium fiUx-foemlna (L. ) Bernh.

Backache-brake; female-fern; lady-fern.

Native fern, with leaves 1 to 3 feet long; in woods and thickets, Canada to
Alaska, southward to Florida and Arizona.

Pari uaed. — Rhizome (nonofficial).
Avens, purple. See Geuni rivale.
Avens, water-. See (ieani rivale.

Backache-brake. See Athyrium filix-foemina.

Backache-root. See Lacinaria spicata.

Balm. See Melissa officinalis.

Balm, bee-. See Monarda didyma.

Balm, field-. See Glecoma hederacea. >

Balm, garden-. See Melissa officinalis.

Balm, horse-. See Collinsonia canadensis.

Balm, lemon-. See Melissa officinalis.

Balm, mountain-. See Eriodictyon calif ornicum .

Bahn, scarlet. See Monarda didyma.

Balm, sweet. See Melissa officinalis.

Balm-of-Gilead. See Popidus candicans.

Balmony. See Chelone glabra.

Balsam, sweet. See Gnnphalinm ohtusifolivm.

Balsam tree, Canada. See Abies halsanud.

Balsam, white. See Gnaphalium obtusifolium.

Balsam-fir. See Abies balsamea.

Bamboo-brier. See Smilax pseudo-china.

Baneberry, red. See Actaea rubra.

Baneberry, white. See Actaea alba.

Baptisia tinctoria (L. ) R. Br. Pea family (Fabaceae).

Wild indigo; yellow indigo; American indigo; indigo-weed; horsefiy-weed.

Native, perennial herb, 2 to 3 feet high, growing in dry, poor soil from Maine
to Minnesota, south to Florida and Louisiana.

Parts u.'ied. — Root and leaves (nonofficial).
Barberry, holly-leaved. See Berbtris aijiiifolium.
Bardane. See Arctium lappa.
Basswood. See Tilia americana.
Bay, rose-. See Rhododendron maximum.
Bay, sweet. See Magnolia virginiuna.
Bay, white. See Magnolia virginiana.
Bayberry. See Myrica cerifera.
Bean, bog-. See Menyanthes trifoliata.
Bean, buck-. See Menyanthes trifoliata.
Bean, hog's-. See Hyoscyanms niger.
Bearberry. See Arctostaphylos uva-ursi.
Bearberry-tree. See Rhamnus pursliiava.
Bear's-foot, yellow. See J'olymnia vn'd<ih(^.

BEAr's-WEED BITTERBLOOM. 15

Bear's- weed. See Erlodicti/on calif ornicum.

Beaver-poison. See C'lcuta maculuta.

Beaverroot. See Nymphaea advena.

Beaver-tree. See Magnolia virginiana.

Bedstraw. See Galium aparine.

Bee-balm. See Monarda didyma.

Beech, American. See Fagus americaym.

Beechdrops. See Leptamnium virginiantun.

Beechnut- tree. See Fagus americana.

Bee-plant. See ScropJmlaria, marilandica.

Beggars' -buttons. See Arctium lappa.

Bellwort, perfoliate. See Uvular ia perfoliata.

Benjamin-bush. See Benzoin benzoin.

Bennet. See Pimpinella saxifraga.

Benzoin benzoin (L.) Coulter. Laurel family (Lauraceae).

Synonyms. — Laurus benzoin L. ; Lindera benzoin'Meissn.; Benzoin odoriferum Nees.

Spicebush; feverbush; Benjamin-bush; wild allspice; spicewood.

Indigenous shrub, 5 to 12 feet high; in damp, shady woods, and along streams,
Massachusetts to Michigan, south to North Carolina and Kansas.

Parts used. — Bark and berries (nonofRcial).
Benzoin odoriferum Nees. Same as Benzoin benzoin.
Berberis. See Berberis aquifolium.
Berberis aquifolium Pursh. Barberry family (Berberidaceae) .

Berberis; Oregon grape; holly-leaved barberry; Rocky Mountain grape.

A shrub, native in woods from Colorado to the Pacific Ocean; especiallv abun-
dant in Oregon and northern California.

Parts used.— Rhizome and roots of this and of other species of Berberis (official).

Bergamot, wild. See Monarda fstulosa.

Bethroot, ill-scented. See Trillium erectum.

Betony, Paul's-. See Veronica officinalis.

Betula lenta L. Birch family (Betulaceae).

Sweet birch; black birch; cherry birch.

Large, indigenous forest tree; Newfoundland to Ontario, south to Florida and
Tennessee.

Part used.— Bark (nonofficial). Oil of betula, obtained bv maceration and dis-
tillation from the bark, is official.

Bikukulla canadensis (Goldie) Millsp. Poppy family (Papaveraceae),

Synonyms.— Corydalis formosa Pursh; Corydalis canadensis Goldie; Dicentra
canadensis Walp.

Turkey-corn; squirrel-corn; turkey-pea; staggerweed.

Native, perennial plant, 6 to 12 inches high; in rich woods from Nova Scotia

south along the mountains to Kentucky, and westward to Missouri and

Minnesota.

Part used. — Tubers (nonofficial).
Birch, black. See Betula lenta.
Birch, cherry. See Betula lenta.
Birch, sweet. See Betula lenta.
Bird' s-foot violet. See Viola j->edata.
Birthroot. See Trillium erectum.
Bitterbloom. See Sabbatia angnlaris.
11072— No. 89—06 3

16 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Bitter-buttons. See Tanacetum vulgare.

Bitterroot. See Apocynum androsaemifolium.

Bittersweet. See Solanum dulcamara.

Bittersweet, false. See Celastrus scandens.

Bitterweed. See Erigeron canadensis.

Blackberry, high-bush. See Rubus nigrobaccus.

Blackberry, knee-high. See Ruhus ciineifoUus.

Blackberry, low running. See Rubus procumbem.

Blackberry, low-bush. See Rubus trivialis.

Blackberry, sand-. See Rubus cuneifolius.

Blackcap. See Rubus occidentaUs.

Blackroot. See Veronica virginica.

Blackroot, Indian. See Pterocaulon undulatum.

Blackwort. See Sym2)hytmn officinale.

Bladderpod. See Lobelia inflata.

Blazingstar. See Chamaelirium luteum.

Blazingstar, blue. See Lacinaria scariosa.

Blazingstar, scaly. See Lacinaria squarrosa.

Bloodroot. See Sanguinaria canadensis.

Bloodwort. See Hieracium venosum.

Bloodwort, striped. See Hieracium venosum.

Blowball. See Taraxacum officinale.

Blue-curls. See Prunella vulgaris.

Bog-bean. See Menyanthes trifoliata.

Bog-myrtle. See Myrica gale.

Boneset. See Eupatoriwn perfoliatum.

Boneset, deerwort-. See Eupatoviutn ageratoides.

Boneset, purple. See Eupatoriwn purjnireum.

Bouncing-Bet. See Saponaria officinalis.

Bowman's-root. See Porteranthus trifoliatus and Veronica virginica.

Boxwood. See Cornus florida.

Brake, backache-. See Athyrium filix-foemina.

Brake, buckhorn-. See Osmunda regalis.

Brake, rock-. See Polypodium vulgare.

Brassica nigra (L. ) Koch. Mustard family (Brassicaceae) .

Synonym. — Sinapis nigra L.

Sinapis nigra; black mustard; brown mustard; red mustard.

Annual herb, introduced from Europe; found in fields and waste places almost
throughout the United States.

Part MSfd.— Seed (official); the volatile oil obtained from black mustard seed is
also official.
Brauneria angustifolia (DC.) Heller. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Synonym. — Echinacea angustifolia DC.

Echinacea; pale-purple coneflower; Sampson-root; niggerhead (in Kansas).

Native, perennial, herbaceous plant, 2 to 3 feet high, occurring in rich prairie
soil or sandy soil from Alabama to Texas and northwestward; most abundant
in Kansas and Nebraska.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

BROOM CALICO-BUSH. 1 7

Broom. See Cytisus scoparius.
Broom, green. See Ci/tisus scoparius.
Broom, Scotch. See Cytisus scoparius.
Brownwort. See Prunella vulgaris.
Bruisewort. See Symphytum officinale.
Buck- Dean. See Menyanlhes trifoUata.
Buckeye, fetid. See Aescuhis glabra.
Buckeye, Ohio. See Aesculus glabra.
Buckeye, smooth. See Aesculus glabra.
Buckhorn-brake. See Osmunda regalis.
Buckthorn. See Rhamnus cathartica.
Bugle, 8weet. See Lycopus virginicus.
Bugle, water-. See Lycopus virginicus.
Bugleweed. See Lycopus virginicus.
Bullbrier. See Smilax pseudo-china.
Bull-nettle. See Solanum carolinense.
Bulrush. See Typha latifolia.
Burdock. See Arctium lajjpa.
Burnet-saxifrage. See Pimpinella saxifraga.
Burningbush. See Ettonymus atropurpurea.

Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) Britton. Mustard family (Brassicaceae).

Synonym. — Capsella bursa-pastoris Medic.
Shepherd 's-purse; cocowort; toywort.

Annual plant, about 1 foot in height, found in fields and waste places; widely
distributed. Introduced from Europe.

Part used.— Herb (nonofficial).
Burseed, spiny. See Xanthium spinosum.
Burweed, thorny. See Xanthium spinosum.

Butneria florida (L.) Kearney. Strawberry-shrub family ( Caly canthaceae ) .
Synonym. — Calycanthus floridus L.

Hairy strawberry-shrub; sweet-scented shrub; Carolina allspice; Florida allspice.
Native shrub, 4 to 8 feet high; in rich soil, Virginia to Mississippi.
Part used. — Bark (nonofficial).

Butterfly-weed. See Asclepias tuberosa.
Butternut. See Juglans cinerea.
Buttonbush. See Cejyhalanthus ocddentalis.
Button-snakeroot. See Eryngium yuccifolium.
Button-snakeroot, dense. See Lacinaria spicata.
Button-snakeroot, large. See Lacinaria scariosa.
Button-tree. See Cephakmthus ocddentalis.
Buttonwood-shrub. See Cephalanthus ocddentalis.

Cabbage, .skunk-. See Spathyema foetida.
Cabbage, swamp-. See Spathyema foetida.
Calamus. See Acorus calamus.
Calfkill. See Kalmia angustifolia.
Calico-bush. See Kalmia latifolia.

18 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Calycantlvus floridus L. Same as Butneria flonda.

Camomile, fetid. See Anthemis cotida.

Canada i)alsam tree.' See Abies halsamea.

Canada-root. See Asdepias tuberosa.

Cancerroot. See Lejitamnium virginianum.

Candleberry. See Myrica cerifera.

Cane-ash. See Fraxinus americana.

Canker root. See Coptis trifolia and Limonium caroHnianum.

Canker-weed. See Nabalus serjjentariw.

Canker-weed, white. See Nabalus albus.

Cankerwort. See Taraxacum officmale.

Canoewood. See Liriodendron tidijnfera.

Capsella bursa-pastoris Medic. Same as Bursa bursa-pastoris.

Cardinal, red. See Lobelia cardinalis.

Cardinal-tiower. See Lobelia cardinalis.

Cardinal-flower, blue. See Lobelia sipliilitica.

Carduus arvensis (L.) Robs. Aster family (Asteraceae) .

Synonym. — Cirsium arvense Scop.

Canada thistle; creeping thistle; cursed thistle.

Perennial herb, 1 to 3 feet high; growing in cultivated fields, pastures, and waste
places from Newfoundland to Virginia, west to Minnesota and Nebraska. A
bad weed, introduced from Europe.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).
Carduus benedictus Auct. Same as Cnicus benedlctus.
• Carpenter' s-square. See Scrophularia niarUandiea.
Carrion-flower. See Smilax herbacea.
Carrot, wild. See Daucus carota.
Carya alba Nutt. Same as Hicoria ovata.
Cascara sagrada. See Rhamnus pur.?hia.na.
Cassia marilandica L. Senna family (Caesalpiniaceae).

American senna; wild senna; locust-plant.

Native, perennial herb; in swamps and wet soil. New England to Florida, west
to Louisiana and Nebraska.

Part used. — Leaves ( nonofiicial ) .

Castalia odorata (Dryand.) Woodv. & Wood.

Water-lily family (Nymphaeaceae).

Synonym. — Nympliaea odorata Dryand.

White pond-lily; water-lily; sweet-scented water-lily.

Indigenous, aquatic herb; perennial; in ponds, marshes, and sluggish streams,

from Canada to Flonda and Louisiana.
Part used. — Rhizome (nonofiicial).

Castanea. See Castanea dentata.

Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh. Beecli family (Tagaceae).

Castanea; chestnut; American chestnut.

A large, spreading tree, occurring in rich woods from Maine to Michigan, south
to Tennessee. Especially abundant in the Allegheny region. Native.

Pari used.— Leaves (official in U. S. P. 1890).
Catch weed. See Galium aparine.
Catfoot. See Glecoma hederacea.

CATGUT CHAMAEIJRIUM LUTEUM. 19

Catgut. See Oracca rirginiana.

Catmint. See Nepeta cataria.

Catnip. See Nepeta cataria.

Cattail, broad-leaved. See Tyjiha latifolia.

Cattail-flag. See Typha latifolia.

Caulophyllum. See Caulophyllam thalictroides.

Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx. Barberry family (Berberidaceae).

Caulophyllum; blue cohosh; squawroot; papoose-root.

Native, perennial herb, 1 to 3 feet high; found in rich, shady woods from New
Brunswick to South Carolina, westward to Nebraska; abundant throughout
the Allegheny Mountain region.

Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (official in U. S. P. 1890) .

Ceanothus americanus L. Buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae).

Jersey tea; New Jersey tea; redroot.

A native shrub, growing in dry, open woods from Canada to Florida and Texas.

Parts used. — Root, root-bark, and leaves (nonofficial).
Cedar, red. See Juniperus virginiana.
Cedar, shrubby red. See Juniperus sahina.
Cedai-, white. See Thuja occidentalis.
Cedar, yellow. See Thuja occidentalis.
Celandine. See Chelidonium majus.
Celandine, garden-. See Chelidonium majus.
Celandine, great. See Chelidonium majus.
Celandine, wild. See Impatiens aarea.

Celastrus scandens L. Staff-tree family (Celastraceae).

False bittersweet; staff-tree; waxwork; fevertwig.

An indigenous, twining, woody vine; in rich, damp soil, woods, and thickets,
Ontario to Manitoba, south to North Carolina and New Mexico.

Part used. — Bark of plant and of root (nonofficial).
Centaurea benedicta L. Same as Cnicus benedictus.
Centaury, American. See Sabbatia angularis.
Centaury, ground-. See Polygala mdtallii.
Cephalanthus occidentalis I.. Madder family (Rubiaceae).

Buttonbush; button-tree; buttonwood-shrub; globefiower.

Indigenous shrub, 6 to 12 feet high; in swamps and damp places, Canada to
Florida and California.

Part used. — Bark (nonofficial).

Cercis canadensis L. Senna family (Caesalpiniaceae).

Judas-tree; redbud.

Small, native tree, growing in rich soil from New Jersey to Minnesota, south to
Florida and Texas.

Part used. — Bark of root (nonofficial).

Chamaelirium luteum (L. ) A. Gray. Bunchflower family (Melanthiaceae).

Synonym. — Helovias dioica Pursh.

True (not false) unicorn-root; « blazingstar; starwort; drooping starwort.

Slender, i)erennial herb, aliout 2 feet high ; native in moist meadows and thickets

from Massachusetts to IMichigan, south to Florida and Arkansas.
Part used. — Rhizome (nonofficial).

"The name " uiiicoru-root " wa.s first iii)i)!iod to Chamaelirium luteum, and tlio designation "true
unicorn-root " \vf)uld seem to heloiiK moro properly to that spectics tiian to .-Uelri.i fariuoxa, to which
the name unicorn-njot was given hiter, and wliicli nniy thus he ealleii "false unic'orn-rool."

20 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Chamaenerion angustifolium (L.) Hoop. Evening-primrose family

( Onagraceae ) .

Synonym. — EpUobinm angustifolium L.

Great willow-herb; Avickup.

Native perennial herb, 2 to 8 feet high, found in dry soil from Canada to Alaska,
south to North Carolina, Arizona, and California. Very common from Penn-
sylvania northward.

Parts used.— Leaves and root (nonofficial).

Chamomile, fetid. See Anthemis cotula.
Champion-oak. See Querms rubra.

Checkerberry. See Gaultheria procumbens and Mitchella repens.
Cheeseflower. See Malva sylvestris.
Cheeses. See Malta rotundifoUa.
Chelidonium. See Chelidonium majus.

Chelidonium majus L. Poppy family (Papaveraceae).

Chelidonium; celandine; garden-celandine; great celandine; tetterwort.
Perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, growing along fences, roadsides, and in waste

places; common in the East. Naturalized from Europe.
Part used— Entire plant (official in U. S. P. 1890).
Chelone glabra L. Figwort family (Scrophulariaceae) .

Balmony; turtle-head; shellflower; snakehead; salt-rheum weed.
Native, perennial, herbaceous plant, 2 to 3 feet high; in swamps and along

streams, Newfoundland to Manitoba, south to Florida and Kansas.
Part used.— Herh, and especially the leaves (nonofficial).
Chenopodium. See Chenopodlum ambrosioides and C. unthelminticum.
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae).

Chenopodium; Mexican tea; American wormseed; Jerusalem tea; Spanish tea.
Strong- scented herb, 2 to 3 feet high, annual; naturalized from tropical America,
and occurring in waste places, meadows, and pastures from New England
to Florida, west to CaUfornia.
Part used.— Fmit (official in U. S. P. 1890).
Chenopodium anthelminticum L. Goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae).

Chenopodium; wormseed; Jerusalem oak.

Annual, sometimes perennial, herb, usually taller than C. ambrosioides, natural-
ized from Europe, and found in waste places from southern New York to
Wisconsin, south to Florida and Mexico.
Parts used.— Fmit (official in U. S. P. 1890). The oil of chenopodium, distilled
from this plant, is official.
Chenopodium botrys L. Goosefoot family ( Chenopodiaceae) .

Jerusalem oak.
Annual herb, about 2 feet high, introduced from Europe; found in waste places

from Nova Scotia to New York and Kentucky, westward to Oregon.
Parts used.— Herb and seeds (nonofficial).
Cherry birch. See Betula lenta.
Cherry, rum-. See Prunus serotina.
Cherry, wild. See Prunus serotina.
Chervil, sweet. See Washingtonia longislylis.
Chestnut. See Castanea dentata. ■ ■

Chestnut, American. See Castanea dentata.
Chestnut, horse-. See Aesculus Mppocastanum.
Chickentoe. See CoraUorhiza odontorhiza.
Chickweed, common. See Alsine media.

CHICK WEED, RED CLEMATIS. 21

Chick weed, reil. Hee Anugailh (trvensix.

Chicory. See Oichorium inlyhux.

Chimaphila. See Chunaphila umhellata.

Chimaphila umbellata (L. ) Nutt. "Wintergreen family (Pyrolaceae).

Chimaphila; pipsissewa; i3riiice's-pine; bitter wintergreen; rlieumatisni-weed.

Small, perennial herb, native in dry, shady woods, especially in pine forests, from

Nova Scotia to Georgia, west to California.
Part used. — Leaves (official).

China-root, American. See Smilax pseudo-china.
China-root, false. See Smilax pseudo-china.

Chionanthus virginica L. Olive family (Oleaceae).

Fringe-tree; old-man 's-beard.

A shrub or small tree, native in moist thickets from Delaware to Florida and
Texas.

Part used. — Bark of root (nonofficial).
Chittem-bark. See Ehamnus purshiana.

Chrysantliemum. leucanthemum L. Aster family ( Asteraceae).

Syiw)iyiii. — Leucunthemuni ndgarc Lam.

Oxeye daisy; white daisy.

Perennial herb, 1 to 3 feet high, naturalized from Europe; occurring in pastures,
meadows, and waste places in nearly every section of the country, but less
abundantly in the South and rarely in the West.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Chrysanthemum parthenium (L. ) Pers. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Synoayni. — Pyrethnun parthenium Smith.

Common feverfew; featherfew; febrifuge-plant.

Perennial herb, naturalized from Europe. Mostly escaped from cultivation; in
waste places. New Brunswick to New Jersey, and locally in the interior.

Part ttsed. — Herb (nonofficial).
Cicliorium intybus L. Chicory family (Cichoriaceae).

Chicory; succory.

Perennial herb, 1 to 3 feet high, growing in fields, waste places, and along road-
sides from Nova Scotia to North Carolina, west to Nebraska. Abundant east-
ward. Naturalized from Europe.

Part used.— B^oot (nonofficial).
Cicuta m.aculata L. Parsley family ( Apiaceae).

Water-hemlock; musquash-root; beaver-poison.

Native perennial, 3 to 6 feet high, stout, erect; poisonous. Found in swamps and
low grounds from Canada south to Florida and New Mexico.

Part used. — Leaves (nonofficial).
Cimicifuga. See Cimidfuga racemosa.
Cimicifuga racemosa (L. ) Nutt. Crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae).

Synonym. — Adueu racemosa L.

Cimicifuga; black snakeroot; black cohosh; squawroot; rattle-root.

Native, perennial herb, 3 to 8 feet high; in rich soil in shady woods, Maine to
Georgia, west to Wisconsin and Missouri. Most abundant in the Ohio Valley.

Parts Msed.— Rhizome and roots (official).
Cinquefoil. See PotentUla canadensis.
Cirsium arrense Scop. Same as Carduus arvensis.
Cleavers. See Galium aparine. .
Cleaverwort. See Galium aparine.
Clematis. See Clematis rirginiana.

22 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Clematis virginiana L. Crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae).

Virgin's-bower; clematis.

Shrubby, perennial vine; native; found along river banks in hedges and thick-
ets from Canada to Georgia and Kansas.
Parts Msed.— Leaves and flowers (nonofficial).
Clotbur, spiny. See Xanihium spinosum.
Clotweed, thorny. See Xanthium spinosum.
Clover, bitter. See Sabbatia angularis.
Clover, meadow-. See Trifolium pratense.
Clover, purple. See Trifolium pratense.
Clover, red. See Trifolium pratense.
Clover, yellow sweet. See Melilotus officinalis. '
Club-moss. See Lycopodium clavatum.

Cnicus benedictus L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Syiionjirns. — Cardmis benedictus Auct. ; Centaurea benedicta L.
Blessed thistle; holy thistle; bitter thistle; spotted thistle; St. Benedict' s-thistle.
Annual plant, 1 to 2 feet high; in waste places, Southern States, and in Califor-
nia and Utah; introduced from Europe.
Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Cocash. See Aster puniceus.
Cocash-weed. See Senecio aureus.
Cockle-but*^on. See Arctium lappa.
Cocowort. See Bursa bursa-pastoris.
Cohosh, black. See Cimicifuga racemosa.
Cohosh, blue. See Caulopliyllum thalictroides.
Cohosh, red. See Actaea rubra.
Cohosh, white. See Actaea alba.

Colic- root. See Aletris farinosa, Dioscorea villosa, Lacinaria spicata, and L. squarrosa.
CoUinsonia canadensis L. • Mint family (Menthaceae).

Stoneroot; richweed; knobroot; horse-balm.
Native, perennial herb, about 2 feet high, occurring in rich, moist woods from

Maine to Wisconsin, south to Florida and Kansas.
Parts used.— B^oot and leaves (nonofficial).
Colt's-foot. See Tussilago farfara.
Colt's-tail. See Erigeron canadensis.
Columbine, European. See Aquilegia vidgaris.
Columbine, garden-. See Aquilegia vulgaris.
Columbine, wild. See under Aquilegia vidgaris.
Columbo, American. See Frasera carolinensis.
Comfrey. See Symphytum officinale.
Compass-plant. See Silphium laciniatum.
Comptonia asplenifolia Gaertn. Same as Comptonia peregrina.

Comptonia peregrina (L.) Coulter. Bayberry family (Myricaceae).

Synonyms. — Comptonia asplenifolia Gaertn.; My ricci asplenifolia L.
Sweet fern; spleenwortbush; meadow-fern.
Shrubby plant, about 2j feet high, native; in thin sandy or stony woods and on

hillsides, Canada to North Carolina, Indiana, and Michigan.
Parts used. — Leaves and tops (nonofficial).

Coneflower, pale-purple. See Brauneria angudifoHu.

CONEFLOWER, TALL ^CORNUS FLORIDA. 28

Coneflower, tall. See Rudbechia laciniata.

Congo-root. See Psoralea pedunculata.

Conium. See Conium maculatum.

Conium maculatum L. Parsley family (Apiaceae).

Conium; poi-son-hemlock; spotted parsley; spotted cow bane.

Biennial herb, 2 to 6 feet high, naturalized from Europe; common in waste
places, especially in the Eastern and Middle States. Poisonous.

Farts used. — Full-grown, but unripe, fruit, carefully dried and preserved (offi-
cial); leaves (nonofficial).

Consumptive' s-weed. See Eriodictyon californicum.

Convallaria. See Convallaria majalis.

Convallaria hiflora Walt. Same as Polygonatum Inflorum.

Convallaria majalis L. liily-of-the-valley family (Convallariaceae).

Convallaria; lily-of-the- valley.

A low, perennial herb; indigenous; on the higher mountains from A' irginia to
the Carolinas.

Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (official); herb and flowers (nonofficial).
Convallaria racemosa L. Same as Vagnera racemosa.
Convolvulus panduratus L. Same as Ipomoea pandurata.
Coolwort. See Tiarella cordifolia.

Coptis trifolia (L.) Salisb. Crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae).

Goldthread; cankerroot; mouthroot; yellowroot.

Low, native, perennial herb, growing in damp mossy woods and bogs from Can-
ada and Alaska south to Maryland and INIinnesota; most common in the New
England States, northern New York and Michigan, and in Canada.

Paris used. — Rhizome and rootlets (nonofficial).
Corallorhiza odontorhiza ( Willd. ) Nutt. Orchid family ( Orchidaceae ) .

Crawley-root; coralroot; dragon's-claw; chickentoe.

Leafless plant, 6 to 15 inches high, found in rich woods from Mauie to Florida,
west to Michigan and Missouri. Native.

Part used. — Rhizome (nonofficial).
Coralroot. See Corallorhiza odontorhiza.
Corn, squirrel-. See Bikukulla canadensis.
Corn, turkey-. See Bikukulla canadensis.
Cornel, silky. See Cornus amomum.
Corn-snakeroot. See Eryngium yuccifolium. and Lacinaria spicata.

Cornus amomum Mill. Dog-wood family (Cornaceae).

Synonym. — Cornus sericea L.
Red osier; swamp-dogwood; silky cornel; rose-willow.

Native shrub, 3 to 10 feet high; in low woods and along streams, Canada to

Florida, west to Texas and the Dakotas.
Part used. — Bark (nonofficial).

Cornus circinata L'Her. Dogwood family (Cornaceae).

(jreen osier; round-leaved dogwood.

Native shrub, 3 to 10 feet high; in shady places, Canada and the northeastern
United States.

Part used. — Bark (nonofficial).

Cornus florida L. Dog-wood family (Cornaceae).

Flowering dogwood; boxwood.

Small, native tree or large shrub, growing in woods from Canada to Florida,

Texas and ^Missouri. Most abundant in tiie IMiddle States.
Parts rtsed— Bark of tree and of root, the latter preferred (nonofficial).
11072— No. 89—06 4

24 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Cornus sericea L. Same as Cornus amomum.
Corydalis canadensis Goldie. Same as Bikukulla canadensis.
Corydalis formosa Pursh. Same as Bikukulla canadensis.
Cotton-gum. See Nyssa aquatica.
Cotton weed. See Anaphalis margaritacea.
Couch-grass. See Agropyron repens.
Coughweed. See Senecio aureus.
Coughwort. See Tussilago farfara.
Cowbane, spotted. See Conium maculatum.
Cow-lily. See Nymphaea advena.
Cow-parsnip. See Heracleum lanatum.

Cracca virginiana L. Pea family (Fabaceae).

Synonym. — Tephrosia virginiana Pers.
Devil' s-shoestring; hoary pea; goat's-rue; catgut.
Hoary, perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, native; occurring in dry, sandy soil

from New England to Florida, west to Texas and Minnesota.
Fart used. — Root (nonofficial).
Cramp-bark. See Viburnum opulus.
Cranberry, high-bush. See Viburnum opulus.
Cranberry, upland-. See Arctostaphylos uva-ursi.
Crane's-bill, spotted. See Geranium maculatum.
Crane's-bill, wild. See Geranium maculatum.

Crataegus oxyacantha L. Apple family (Malaceae) .

Hawthorn; hedgethorn; whitethorn; maythorn.

Shrub or tree, introduced from Europe, and sparingly escaped frum cultivation.-
Partused. — Berries (nonoflBcial).
Crawley-root. See Corallorhiza odontorhiza.
Crosswort. See Eupatorium perfoliatum.
Cucumber-tree. See Magnolia acuminata and M. tripetala.
Cudweed, low. See Gnaphaliuyn uliginosum.
Cudweed, marsh-. See Gnaphalimn uliginosum.
Culver' s-physic. See Veronica virginica.
Culver' s-root. See Veronica virginica.
Cunila mariana L. Same as Cunila origanoides.

Cunila origanoides (L.) Britton. Mint family (Menthaceae).

Synonym. — Cunila mariana L.
American dittany; stonemint.
Indigenous, perennial plant, found on dry hills and in dry woods from New York

to Florida, west to Ohio.
Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Cup-plant. See Silphium perfoliatum.
Custard-apple. See Asimina triloba.

Cynoglossum officinale L. Borage family (Boraginaceae).

Hound's-tongue; gypsy-flower.
Biennial herb, about 3 feet high, naturalized from Europe, and occurring in

waste places from Canada to North Carolina, west to Kansas and Mmnesota.
Parts used. — Leaves and root (nonofficial).
Cypripedium. See Cypripedium hirsutum and C. j>arviflorum.

CyPEIPEDIUM HIRSUTUM DELPHIN^IUM CONSOLIDA. 25

Cypripedium hirsutum Mill. Orchid family (Orchidaceae).

Synonym. — ( 'ypripedium pubescens Willd.

Cypripedium; large yellow ladies-slipper; yellow moccasin-flowery American
valerian.

Herb, 1 to 2 feet high, native in woods and thickets from Nova Scotia south to

Alabama and west to Nebraska and Missouri.
Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (official).

Cypripedium parviflorum Salisb. ' Orchid family (Orchidaceae),

Cypripedium; small yellow ladies-slipper.

Herb, 1 to 2 feet high; native in woods and thickets from British America to
Georgia, Missouri, and Oregon.

Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (official).
Cypripedium pubescens Willd. Same as Cypripedium hirsiitum.

Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link. Pea family (Fabaceae).

Synonym. — SarofJiamnus scoparius Wimm.
Scoparius; broom; green broom; Scotch broom.

Stiff, wiry plant, 3 to 5 feet high; naturalized from Europe; growing in dry, sandy
soil from Massachusetts to Virginia and becoming common in many places in
the northwestern United States.

Part used. — Tops (official).

Daisy, oxeye. See Chrysanthemum leucanthemum.
Daisy, white. See Chi-ysanthemum leucanthemum.
Daisy-fleabane. See Erigeron philadelphicus.
Damiana. See Tiirnerdmicrophylla.
Dandelion. See Taraxacum officinale.

Daphne mezereum L. Mezereon family (Daphnaceae).

Synony)ii. — Mezereum offichiarum C. A. Mey.

Mezereum; mezereon; spurge-laurel; paradise-plant; spiirge-olive.

A very hardy shrub, introduced from Europe and escaped from cultivation in
Canada and New England.

Part used.— Bark of this and of other European species of Daphne (official).
Datura stramonium L. Potato family (Solanaceae).

Stramonium; jimson-weed; Jamestown- weed; thorn-apple; apple-of-Peru.
Poisonous weed; annual, 2 to 5 feet high; introduced from the Tropics, and

occurring in fields and waste places throughout the United States, with the

exception of the North and West.

Paus K.sfrf.— Leaves (official); seeds (official in U. S. P. 1890).

Daucus carota L. Parsley family (Apiaceae).

AVild carrot; Queen- Anne' s-lace.

Biennial herb, 2 to 3 feet high; naturalized from Europe; common almost
throughout the United States, growing in old fields and along roadsides.

Parts used.— B.oot, fruit, and leaves (nonofficial).
Deerberry. See GauUheria procumbens and Mitchella repens.
Deer-laurel. See Rhododendron maximum.
Deer's-tongue. See Trilisa odoratissima.
Deerwood. See Ostrya virginiana.
Deerwort-boneset. See Eupatorium ageratoides.

Delphinium consolida L. Crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae) .

Field-larkspur; knight's-spur; lark-heel.

An annual herb, about 2 feet- high; naturalized from Europe, and found in waste
places from southern New Jersey and Pennsylvania southward. The indig-

26 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Delphinium consolida — Continued.

enous tall larkspur, Delphinium urceoJatum J acq. [D. exaltatuui Ait.), is used
for similar purposes. This is found in woods from Pennsylvania to Minnesota,
south to Alabama and Nebraska.
Parts used. — Herb and seeds (nonofficial) .

Delphinium exaltatum Ait. See under Delphinium consolida.

Delphinium urceolatum Jacq. See under Delphiniuvi consolida.

Devil' s-bit. See Lacinaria scariosa.

Devil' s-shoestring. See Oracca virginiana.

Dewberrj'. See Ruhus 2'>rocumbens.

Dewberry, one-flowered. See Ruhus villosus.

Dewberry, southern. See Ruhus triviaUs.

Dicentra canadensis Walp. Same as Bikukulla canadensis.

Digitalis. See Digitalis purpurea.

Digitalis purpurea L. Figwort family ( Scrophulariaceae ) .

Digitalis; foxglove; fairy-fingers; thiml)les; lady's-glove.

Very handsome biennial plant, o to 4 feet high; introduced from Europe as a
garden plant, and now escaped from cultivation in i>arts of Oregon, Washing-
ton, and West Virginia.

Parts used. — Leaves from plants of second year's growth, gathered at conmience-
ment of flowering (official) .

Dioscorea villosa L. Yam family (Dioscoreaceae).

Wild }'am; colic-root; rheumatism-root.

Slendei-, herbaceous, native vine, growing in moist thickets from Rhode Island
to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas; more common in central and south-
ern parts of the United States.

Part used. — Rhizome (nonofficial).

Diospyros virginiana L. Ebony family (Diospyraceae).

Persimmon.

Indigenous tree, 15 to 50 feet in height; in fields and w"oods, Rhode Island to
Kansas, Florida, and Texas.

Parts used. — Bark and unripe fruit (nonofficial).

Dirca palustris L. Mezereon family (Daphnaceae).

Leathervvood ; moosewood; American mezereon; wickopy; rope-bark.

A native shrub, occurring in woods and thickets. New Brunswick to Florida,
west to Missouri and Minnesota; most common in the Northern and Eastern
States.

Part used. — Bark (nonofficial).
Ditch-stonecrop. ' See Penthorum sedoides.
Dittany, American. See Cunila origanoides.
Dock, bitter. See Rumex obtusifolius.
Dock, blunt-leaved. See Rumex obtusifolius.
Dock, broad-leaved. See Rumex obtusifolius.
Dock, curled. See Rumex crispus.
Dock, narrow. See Rumex crispus.
Dock, sour. See Rumex crispus.
Dock, spatter-. See Nymphaea advena.
Dock, velvet. See Verbascum thapsus.
Dock, yellow. See Rumex crispus.
Dogbane, spreading. See Apocynmn androsaemi folium.
Dogberry. See Sorbus americana.

DOG-FENNEL — EMETIC-ROOT. 27

Dog-fennel. See Anthemis cotula.

Dog-grass. See Agropi/ron repenn.

Dog's-tooth violet. See Erythronium americanum.

Dogwood, flowering. See Cornus florida.

Dogwood, round-leaved. See Cornus circinata.

Dogwood, swamp-. See Cornus amomuni.

Dooryard-plantain. See Plantayo major.

Dracont'miii fuetklum L. Same as Spaihyema foetkla.

Dragon's-claw. See CoraUorhiza odoiitorlriza.

Dropwort, western. See J'orteranthus (rifoluihis.

Drosera rotundifolia L. Sunde-w family (Droseraceae).

Round-leaved sundew; youth wort.

Low, perennial herb, growing in bogs and muddy shores of rivers from Canada
to Florida and California.

Part used. — Herb (nonoflicial).

Dryopteris filix-mas (L. ) Schott. Fern family (Polypodiaceae).

Synonyms.— Aspidiumjilix-mas Sw.; Polypodium Jiib-mas L.

Aspidium; male-fern.

Fern, with leaves 1 to 3 feet long; in rocky woods from Canada to northern
Michigan, and in the Rocky Mountains to Arizona.

Part used. — Rhizome (official).

Dryopteris marginalis (L. ) A. Gray. Fern family (Polypodiaceae).

Synonyms. — Aspidium marginale Sw.; Polypodium marginale L.

Aspidium; evergreen wood-fern; marginal-fruited shield-fern.

Fern, with leaves 6 inches to 2-2 feet long; in rocky woods from Canada south to
Alabama and Arkansas.

Part tised. — Rhizome (official).
Dulcamara. See Solanum dulcamara.
Dysentery-weed. See Gnaphalium uliginosum.

Earth-smoke. See Fumaria officinalis.

Ec'hinacea. See Brauneria angustifolia.

Echinacea angustifolia DC. Same as Brauneria angustifolia.

Elder. See Sambucus canadensis.

Elder, American. See Sambucus canadensis.

Elder, dwarf. See Aralia hispida.

Elder, sweet. See Sambucus canadensis.

Elder, \\\\(\. See Aralia hispida.

Elecampane. See Imda lielenium.

Elk-tree. See Oxydendrum arboreum.

Elkwood. See Magnolia tripetala.

Elliott' s-sabbatia. See Sabbatia elliottii.

Elm. See Vlmus fulva.

Elm, Indian. See TJlvfius fulva.

Elm, moose-. See Ulmus fulva.

Elm, red. See Ulmus fulva.

Elm, slippery. See Ulmus fulva.

Emetic-root. See Euphorbia coroUata.

28 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Epigaea repens L. Heath family (Ericaceae).

Gravel-plant; trailing arbutus; mayfiower.

Small, shrubby, native plant, spreading on the ground in sandy soil, especially
under evergreen trees, from Florida to Michigan and northward.

Part used. — Leaves (nonofBcial).
Epilohhunanguslifolmm L. Same as Chamaenerion angtiMifoUum.
Epilobium palustre L. Evening--primrose family ( Onagraceae).

Swamp willow-herb; wickup.

Slender, erect, native herb, 6 to 18 inches high, found in swamps and marshes
from Canada and the New England States west to Colorado and Washington.

Parts used. — Leaves and root (nonofficial).
Epipltcgns vlrginuma Bart. Same as Leptamniuvi virfjinUtnuin.
Equisetum^ hyemale L. Horsetail family (Equisetaceae).

Common scouring-rush ; honsetail; shave-grass.

Rush-like perennial plant, growing in wet places along river banks and borders
of woods throughout nearly the whole of North America.

Part used. — Plant (nonofficial).
Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Fireweed; pile wort.

Native, annual herb, 1 to 8 feet high, in woods, fields, and waste places, Canada
to Florida, Louisiana, and Nebraska.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Erigeron canadensis L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Synonym. — Leptilon eanadense (L. ) Britton.«

Canada fleabane; horseweed; colt's-tail; prideweed; bitterweed.

Native, annual weed, 3 inches to 10 feet in height; in fields and meadows, along
roadsides, and in waste places, almost throughout North America.

Part used.— Herh (nonofficial); the oil of erigeron, distilled from the fresh,
flowering herb, is official.

Erigeron philadelphicus L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Philadelphia fleabane; sweet scabious; daisy-fleabane.

Native, perennial herb, 1 to 3 feet high, infields and woods througliout NOrtli
America, exgept extreme North.

Part used. — Herb (nonofiicial).
Eriodictyon. See Eriodictyon californicum.

Eriodictyon californicum (H. & A.) Greene. Waterleaf family

( Hy drophyllaceae ) .
Synonym. — Eriodictyon glutinosum Benth.

Eriodictyon; yerba santa; mountain-balm; consumptive's- weed; bear's- weed.
Shrubby plant, 2 to 4 feet high, native; grows in clumps in dry situations and

among rocks throughout California and northern Mexico.
Part used. — Leaves (official).
Eriodictyon glutinosum Benth. Same as Eriodictyon californicum.
Eryngium ynccaefolium Michx. Same as Eryngium yuccifolium.

Eryngium yuccifolium Michx. Parsley family ( Apiaceae).

Synonym. — Eryngium ynccaefolium Michx.
Water-eryngo; l)ntton-snakeroot; rattlesnake-weed; rattlesnake-master; corn-

snakeroot.
Native, perennial herb, 1 to 5 feet high, growing in swamps and low wet ground
. from the pine barrens of New Jersey west to Minnesota, and south to Texas
and Florida.
Part used. — Rhizome (nonofficial).

a Some authors hold that this plant belongs to the genus Leptilon and that its name should be
Leptilon eanadense (L.) Britten. The Pharmacopceia is here followed.

ERYNGO, WATER EUPHORBIA NUTANS. 29

Eryngo, water-. See Eryngium yuccifolium.

Erythronium americanum Ker. liily family (Liiliaceae).

Yellow adder' s-tongue; dog's-tooth violet; yellow snowdrop; rattlesnake- violet;

yellow snakeleaf.
Native, perennial herb, occurring in moist woods and thickets, Nova Scotia to

Minnesota, south to Arkansas and Florida.
Parts used.— Leaves and root (nonofficial).

Euonymus. See Euonymus atropurpureus.

Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq. Staflf-tree family (Celastraeeae).

Euonymus; wahoo; burningbush; spindle-tree; Indian arrowwood.

Native shrub or small tree, growing in woods and thickets from Ontario and
eastern United States west to Montana.

Part used. — Bark of root (official) .
Eupatorium. See Eupatormm perfoliatum .

Eupatorium ageratoides L. f. Aster family (Asteraceae).

White snakeroot; white sanicle; Indian sanicle; deerwort-boneset; poolwort;
poolroot; richweed; squaw-weed.

Erect, perennial herb, 1 to 4 feet high, native; in rich woods from Canada to
Georgia, west to Nebraska and Louisiana.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

Eupatorium aromaticum. L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Smaller white snakeroot; poolwort; poolroot; wild hoarhound.

Native, perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high; in dry soil from Massachusetts to
Florida, especially throughout the Middle States.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).
Eupatorium. perfoliatum L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Eupatorium; boneset; thoroughwort; Indian sage; agueweed; crosswort.
Native, perennial herb, 1 to 5 feet high; in low, wet places from Canada to

Florida, west to Texas and -Nebraska.
Parts used. — Leaves and flowering tops (official).

Eupatorium purpureum. L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Queen-of-the-meadow; gravelroot; Joe-Pye-weed ; purple boneset; kidneyroot.
Native, perennial herb, 3 to 10 feet high; in low grounds from Canada to Florida

and Texas.
Parts used. — Root and herb (nonofficial).

Euphorbia corollata L. Spurge family (Euphorbiaceae).

Flowering spurge; emetic-root; milk-ipecac; snakemilk; purging-root.

Native, perennial herb, about 3 feet in height, growing in dry fields and woods
from Ontario to Florida and Minnesota to Texas.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).'
Euphorhia hijpericifolia A. Gray. Same as EujyJiorhia nutans.
Euphorbia ipecacuanhae L. Spurge family (Euphorbiaceae).

Wild ipecac; ipecac-spurge; American ipecac; Carolina ii)ecac.

Native, perennial herb, 4 to 10 inches high; in dry, sandy soil, mostly near the
coast, from Connecticut to Florida.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

Euphorbia nutans Lag. Spurge family (Euphorbiaceae).

Synonym. — Euphorhia hypericifoUa A. Gray.

Large spotted spurge; black purslane; fluxweed; milk-purslane.

Native, annual plant, from ^ to 2 feet in height; in rich soils, iields, and thickets
throughout eastern North America, except extreme north, and extending
west to the Rocky Mountains.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

30 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Euphorbia pilulifera L. Spurge family (Euphorbiaceae).

Pill-bearing spurge; snakeweed; Queensland asthma-weed.

Herbaceous annual, 10 to 15 inches high, occurring from the Gulf States through
Texas to New Mexico.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Evening-primrose. See Oenothera biennis.
Everlasting. See Anaphalis margaritacea.
Everlasting, large-flowered. See Anaphalis margaritacea.
Everlasting, pearly. See Anaphalis margaritacea.
Eve's-cup. See Sarracenia flava.

Fagara clava-herculis (L.) Small. Rue family (Rutaceae).

Synoiiijrn. — Xanthoxylum clava-herculis L.

Xanthoxylum; southern prickly ash; toothache-tree; yellowthorn; yellow-
wood; Hercules-club.

Small, indigenous, very prickly tree, sometimes 45 feet in height, occurring
along streams from southern Virginia to Florida, west to Texas and Arkansas.

Parts used. — Bark official under the name "Xanthoxylum"; berries (non-
official).

Fagus americana Sweet. Beech family (Fagaceae).

Synonym. — Fagus ferruginea Ait.

American beech; beechnut-tree.

Large, native forest tree, growing in rich soil from Nova Scotia to Florida, west
to Wisconsin and Texas.

Parts used. — Bark and leaves (nonofficial).
Fagus ferruginea Ait. Same as Fagus americana.
Fairy-fingers. See Digitalis purpurea.
Featherfew. See Chrysanthemum parthenium.
Febrifuge-plant. See Chrysanthemum parthenium.
Female-fern. See Athyrium filix-foemina and Polypodium vulgare.
Fennel, dog-. See Anthemis cotula.
Fern, evergreen wood-. See Dryopteris marginalis.
Fern, female-. See Athyrium filix-foemina and Polypodium rulgare.
Fern, lady-. See Athyrium filix-foemina.
Fern, maidenhair-. See Adiantum pedatum.
Fern, male-. See Dryopteris filix-mas.
Fern, marginal-fruited shield-. See Dryopteris marginalis.
Fern, meadow-. See Comptonia peregrina.
Fern, parsley-. See Tanacetum vulgare.
Fern, royal. See Osmunda regalis.
Fern, sweet. See Comptonia peregrina.
Fernroot. See Polypodium vulgare.
Feverbush. See Benzoin benzoin and Ilex vertidUata.
Feverfew, common. See Chrysanthemum parthenium.
Feverroot. See Triosteum perfoliatum.
Fevertwig. See Celastrus scandens.
Field-balm. See Glecoma hederacea.
Field-larkspur. See Delphinium consolida.
Field-sorrel. See Rumex acetosella.

i

FIGWOKT, MARYLAND FRAXINUS NIGRA. 31

Figwort, Maryland. See Scrophularia marilandica.

Fir, balsam-. See Ahies balsamea.

Fireweed. See Erechtites hieracifolia.

Fit-plant. See Monotropa uniflora.

Fitroot. See Monotropa uniflora.

Fivefinger. See Potentilla canadensis.

Flag., blue. See Iris versicolor.

Flag, cattail-. See Typha latifolia.

Flag, sweet-. See Acorus calamus.

Flag, water-. See Iris versicolor.

Flag-lily. See Iris versicolor.

Flannel-leaf. See Yerhascum thapsus.

Fleabane, Canada. See Erigeron canadensis.

Fleabane, daisy-. Hee Erigeron philadelphiciis.

Fleabane, Philadelphia. See Erigeron iMladelphicus.

Fluxweed. See Euphorbia nutans.

Flytrap. See Sarracenia purpurea.

Foamflower. See Tiarella cordifolia.

Foxglove. See Digitalis purpurea.

Fragaria virginiana Duchesne. Rose family (Bosaceae).

Virginia strawberry; scarlet strawberry.

Native, perennial herb, occurring in dry soil from Canada to Georgia, west to
Indian Territory and Minnesota.

Part used. — Leaves (nonofRcial).
Frankenia grandifolia Cham. & Schlecht. Frankenia family (Frankeniaceae).

Yerba reuma.

Native, perennial herb, 8 to 13 inches high, common in salt marshes and sandy
localities near the coast in California.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Frasera carolinensis Walt. Gentian family (Gentianaceae).

Synonym. — Frasera- tvalteri Michx.

American columbo; Indian lettuce; meadowpride; pyramid-flower.

Smooth, perennial herb, 3 to 8 feet high, found in dry soil from New York to
Wisconsin, south to Georgia and Kentucky.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

Frasera walteri Michx. Same as Frasera carolinensis.

Fra.rinus acuminata Lam. Same as Fraxinus americana.

Fra.rinus alba. Marsh. Same as Fraxinus americana.

Fraxinus americana L. Olive family (Oleaceae).

Si/noni/ms. — Fraxinus alba Marsh; Fraxinus acuminata Lam.

White ash; cane-ash.

Large, native forest tree, in rich woods from Nova Scotia to Minnesota, south to
Florida and Texas. Occurs chiefly in the Northern States and Canada.

Part used.— Bark ( nonofficial).
Fraxinus nigra Marsh. Olive family (Oleaceae).

Synonym. — Fraxinus sambucifolia Lam.

Black ash; hoop-ash.

Native tree, 40 to 70 feet in height, occurring in swamps and wet wood.^ from
Canada to Virginia and Arkansas.

Fart used. — Bark (nonofficial).

11072— No. 89—06 5

32 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Praxinus sambucifolia Lam. Same as Fraxinus nigra.

Fringe-tree. See Chionanthus lirginica.

Frost-plant. See Helianthemum canadense.

Frostweed. See Helianthemum canadense.

Frostwort. See Helianthemum canadense.

Fuller's-herb. See Saponaria nfficinalin.

Fumaria officinalis L. Poppy family (Papaveraceae).

Fumitory; hedge-fumitorj' ; earth-smoke.

Annual plant, 10 to 15 inches high, adventive from Europe and found in waste
places about dwellings, in cultivated land, and on ballast, Nova Scotia to the
Gulf States.

Part used. — Herb (nonoflficial).

Fumitory. See Pumaria officinalis.
Fumitory, hedge-. See Pinnaria officinalis.

Gagroot. See Lobelia inflata.
Gale, sweet. See Myrica gale.

Galium aparine L. Madder family (Rubiaceae).

Cleavers; goose-grass; cleaverwort; bedstraw; catcliweed.

Annual plant, with weak, procumbent stem, 2 to 6 feet long, growing in shady
thickets and margins of woods. New Brunswick south to Florida and Texas.
Naturalized from Europe.

Part used. — Herb of this and of other species of Galium (nonofficial).
Gall weed. See Gentiana quinquefolia.
Garden-balm. See J/e^i.ss« officinalis.
Garden-celandine. See Chelidonium majus.
Garden-columbine. See Aquilegia vulgaris.
Garden-valerian. See Valeriana officinalis.
Garget. See Phytolacca decandra.

Gaultheria procumbens L. Heath. fam.ily (Ericaceae).

Wintergreen; checkerberry; mountain-tea; teaberry; deerberry.
Small, native perennial, with evergreen leaves, found in sandy soils in cool,
damp woods, especially under evergreen trees, in Canada and the northeastern
United States.
Part used. — Leaves (nonofficial) ; the oil of gaultheria, distilled from the leaves,
is official.

Gay-feather. See Lacinaria scariosa and L. spicata.

Gelsemium. See Gelsemium sempervirens.

Gelsemium^ sempervirens (L. ) Ait. f. Logania family ( Log-aniaceae ) .

Gelsemium; yellow jasmine; Carolina jasmine; wild woodbine.

Twining, shrubby perennial, native, growing on low ground in woods and
thickets from eastern Virginia to Florida and Texas, mostly near the coast.

Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (official).

Gemfruit. See Tiarella cordifolia.

Gentian, American. See Gentiana saponaria.

Gentian, blue. See Gentiana saponaria.

Gentian, five-flowered. See Gentiana quinquefolia.

Gentian, horse-. See Triosteum perfoliatum.

Gentian, marsh-. See Gentiana villosa .

Gentian, snake-. See Nahalus serpentarius.

GENTIAN, SOAPWORT GINSENG. 33

Gentian, goapwort-. See Gentiana saponaria.

Gentian, stiff. See Gentiana quinquefoUa.

Gentian, straw-colored. See Gentiana villosa.

Gentian, striped. See Gentiana villosa.

Gentian, white. See Triosteum perfoliatum.

Gentiana catesbaei Walt. Same as Gentiana saponaria.

Gentiana ochroleuca Froel. Same as Gentiana villosa.

Gentiana quinqueflora Lam. Same as Gentiana quinquefoUa.

Gentiana quinquefoUa L. Gentian family (Gentianaceae).

Synonym. — (rcntiana quinqueflora Lam.

Stiff gentian; five-flowered gentian; agueweed; gallweed.

Native, annual plant, 1 to 2 feet in height, growing in pastures and other open
situations from Maine to Michigan, south to Florida and Missouri.

Parts used. — Root and herb (nonofficial).
Gentiana saponaria L. Gentian family ( Gentianaceae ) .

Synonym. — Gentiana catesbaei Walt.
American gentian ; blue gentian; soapwort-gentian.

Native, perennial herb, 1 to 2^ feet high; in wet soil, Ontario to ^linnesota,
south to Louisiana and Florida.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).
Gentiana villosa L. Gentian family (Gentianaceae).

Synonym. — Gentiana ochroleuca Froel.

Striped gentian; straw-colored gentian ; marsh-gentian; Sanipson's-snakeroot.
Native, perennial herb, 6 to 18 inches high; in shaded places, Middle and

Southern States.
Part used.— 'Root (nonofficial).

Geranium. See Geranium maculatum.

Geranium maculatum L. Geranium family (Geraniaceae).

Geranium; wild crane's-l)ill; spotted crane's-bill; wild geranium; spotted gera-
nium; alum-root.

Native, perennial herb, 1 to I5 feet high; found in low grounds and open woods
from Canada south to Georgia and Missouri.

Part used. — Rhizome (official).
Geranium, spotted. See Geranium maculatum.
Geranium, wild. See Geranium maculatum.

Geum rivals L. Rose family ( Rosaceae)'.

Water-avens; purple avens.

Native, perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, occurring in swamps and wet meadows
from Canada to Pennsylvania and Colorado, especially in the Northern and
Middle States.
Parts used. — Rhizome and rootlets (nonofficial).

Ghostfiower. See Monotropa uniflora.

Gillenia trifoliata Moench. Same as Porteranthus trifoliatus.

Gill-over-the-ground. See Gfcconia hederacea.

Ginger, Indian. See Asarum canadense.

Ginger, wild. See Asarum canadense.

Gingerroot. See Tussdagofarfara.

Ginseng. See Panax quinquefoHion.

34 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Glecoma hederacea L. Mint family (Menthaceae).

Siinonym. — Nepeta glechoma Benth.

Ground-ivy; gill-over-the-ground; catfoot; fiel<l-balm.

Low, perennial herb, with creeping stem. Naturalized from Europe and found

in waste places, woods, and thickets from Newfoundland to Minnesota, south

to Georgia and Kansas.
Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

Globefiower. See Cephalanthus occidentalis.

Gnaphaliiim margaritaceum L. Same as Anaphalis margaritacea.

Gnaphalium^ obtusifolium L. Aster family ( Asteraceae ) .

Synonym. — Gnaj)halium polycephalum Michx.

Sweet balsam; life-everlasting; sweet life-everlasting; white balsam.

Native, herbaceous annual, 1 to 2 feet high; in dry, open places and old fields
from Nova Scotia and Manitoba south to Florida and Texas.

Fart used. — Herb (nonofficial).
GnaphaUimi polyeephcdum Michx. Same as Gnaphalium obtusifoliuin.
Gnaphalium uliginosum L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

]Mouse-ear; low cudweed; marsh-cudweed; wartwort; dysentery-weed.

Annual herb, 2 to 8 inches high, occurring in damp soil from Newfoundland to
Minnesota, south to Indiana and Virginia; apparently naturalized from Europe.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Gnaphalium undulatum Walt. Same as Pterocaulon undulatum.
Goat's- rue. See C'racca virginiana.
Goldenrod, anise-scented. See Solidago odora.
Goldenrod, fragrant-leaved. See Solidago odora.
Goldenrod, sweet. See Solidago odora.
Goldenseal. See Hydrastis canadensis.
Goldthread. See Coptis trifolia.

Goodyera pubescens R. Br. Same as Peraniium pubescens.
Goodyera repens R. Br. Same as Peramium repens.
Goose-grass. See Galium aparine.
Grape, Oregon. See Berberis aquifolium.
Grape, Rocky Mountain. See Berberis aquifolium.
Gravel-plant. See Epigaea repens.
Gravelroot. See Eupatorium purpureum.
Gravel-weed. See Onosmodium virginianum.
Greenbrier, long-stalked. See Smilax pseudo-china.
Grindelia. See Grindelia robusta and G. squarrosa.
Grindelia robusta Nutt. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Grindelia; gum-plant.

Perennial herb, about IJ feet high, native in the States west of the Rocky
Mountains.

Parts used. — Leaves and flowering tops (official) .

Grindelia, scaly. See Grindelia squarrosa.

Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal. - Aster family ( Asteraceae )

Grindelia; scaly grindelia; broad-leaved gum-plant.

Perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, native; occurring on the plains and prairies
from the Saskatchewan to Minnesota, Texas, and California.

Paris used. — Leaves and flowering tops (official).

GROMWELL, VIRGINIA FALSE HELENIUM AUTUMNALE. 85

Gromwell, Virginia false. See Onosmodium virglnianum

Ground-centaury. See Polygala nuttallii.

Ground-ivy. See GJecoma hederacea.

Ground-raspberry. See Hydrastis canadensis.

Ground-squirrel pea. See Jefersonia diphyUa.

Gum, cotton-. See JS^yssa aquatica.

Gum, red. See Liquidajnbar styraciflua.

Gum, star-leaved. See Liquidambar styraciflua.

Gum, sweet-. See Liquidambar styraciflua.

Gum, tupelo. See Nyssa aquatica.

Gum-plant. See Grindelia robusta.

Gum-plant, broad-leaved. See Grindelia squarrosa.

Gypsy-flower. See Cynoglossum officinale.

Gypsy-weed. See Lycopus virginicus.

Hackmatack. See Larix laricinu.

Haircap-moss. See Polytrichum juniperinvm.

Hamamelis. See Hamamelis rirginiana.

Hamamelis virginiana L. Witch-hazel family ( Hamamelidaceae ) .

Hamamelis; witch-hazel; winterbloom; snapping hazel.

Indigenous shrub, found in low, damp woods from New Brunswick to Minne-
sota, south to Florida and Texas.

Parts used. — Leaves (collected in autunui), bark, and twigs (official).
Hardback. See Spiraea tomentosa.
Hart's-thorn. See liJunmnis cathartica.
Haw, black. See Viburnum prunifolium.
Hawkweed, early. See Hieracium venosum.

Hawthorn. See Crataegus oxyacanfha. .

Hazel, snapping. See Hamamelis rirginiana.
Heal-all. See Prunella rulgaris and Scrophuluria niarilandica.
Healing-herb. See Symphytum officinale.
Heart-liverleaf. See Hepatica acuta.
Heartsease. See Viola tricolor.
Hedeoma. See Hedeoma pulegioides.
Hedeoma pulegioides (L. ) Pers. Mint family (Menthaceae).

Hedeoma; American pennyroyal; tickweed; squawniint.

Low, native, annual plant, 6 to 12 inches high, growing in barren woods and dry
fields, Nova Scotia to Minnesota, south to Nebraska and Florida.

Parts used. — Leaves and flowering tops, and the volatile oil distilled from these,
are official.

Hedge-fumitory. See Fumaria officinalis.

Hedgethorn. See Crataegus oxyacantJui.

Helenium^ autumnale L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Sneeze weed; sneezewort; swamp-sunflower.

Native perennial, 2 to 8 feet high, growing in swamps, wet fields, and meadows,
Canada to Florida and Arizona.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

36 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Helianthemum canadense (L.) Michx. Rock-rose family (Cistaceae).

Frostweed; frostwort; frost-plant; Canadian rock-rof-e.

Native, perennial herb, about one foot in height; in dry, sandy soil, Maine to
Wisconsin, south to North Carolina and Kentucky.

Part ttxed. — Herb (nonofficial).
Hellebore, American. See Veratrnni riride.
Hellebore, green. See Veratrum riride.
Hellebore, swamp-. See Veratrum riride.
Helmetpod. See Jeffersonia diphylla.
Helonias dioica Pursh. Same as C'hamaeUrium luteum.
Hemlock. See Tsuga canadensis.
Hemlock, poison-. See Coniuni rnaeulatum.
Hemlock, water-. See Cicuta maculata.
Hemlock-spruce. See Tsuga canadensis.
Hemp, black Indian. See Apocynum cannabinum.
Hemj:), Canadian. See Ajjoojnum cannahinum.
Hemp, white Indian. See Asclepias incarnata.
Henbane. See Hyoscyamus niger.
Hepatica acuta (Pursh) Britton. Crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae).

Synonym. — Hepatica aciitiloba DC.

Heart-liverleaf; sharp-lobed liverleaf; liverwort.

Perennial herb, 4 to 9 inches high, found in woods from Quebec and Ontario,
south to Georgia (but rare near the coast), west to Iowa and Minnesota.

Part used. — Leaves (nonofficial).

Hepatica acutiloha DC. Saine as Hepatica acnta.

Hepatica hepatica (L. ) Karst. Crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae).

Synonym. — Hepatica triloba Chaix.

Round-lobed liverleaf; kidney-liverleaf; liverwort.

Perennial herl), 4 to 0 inches high; in woods from Nova Scotia to northern
Florida, west to Iowa and Missouri; less common than the heart-liverleaf.

Part used. — Leaves (nonofficial).
Hepatica triloba Chaix. Same as Hepatica hepatica.
Heracleum lanatum. Michx. Parsley family ( Apiaceae).

Masterwort; cow-parsnip; youthwort.

Native, perennial herb, 3 to 5 feet high, growing in moist meadows and culti-
vated ground from Canada south to North Carolina, Utah, and California.

Parts used. — Root, leaves, and seeds (nonofficial).
Hercules-club. See Fagara clava-herculis.
Heuchera americana L. Saxifrage family ( Saxifrag-aceae ) .

Alum-root; American sanicle.

Native, perennial herb, 2 to 4 feet in height; in shady, rocky woodlands from
Connecticut to Minnesota, south to Alal^ama and Louisiana.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).
Hickory, shellbark-. See Hicoria orata.
Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britton. Walnut family ( Jug-landaceae) .

Synonym.- — Carya alba Nutt.

Shagbark, shellbark-hickory.

Large, native tree, sometimes 120 feet in height; in rich soil from Quebec to
southern Ontario and Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas.

Parts used. — Bark and leaves (nonofficial).

I

HIERACIUM VENOSUM HYDRASTIS CANADENSIS. 37

Hieracium venosum L. Chicory family (Cichoriaceae).

Early hawkweed; )-attlesuake-\veed; bloodwort; striped bloodwort.

Perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, native; occurring in drj' woodn and thickets
from Maine to Georgia, west to Nebraska; more common in the northern and
eastern United States.

Farts used. — Leaves and root (nonofficial).
HighbeHa. See Lobelia siphilltica.
] live-vine. See Mitchella repens.
Hoarhound. See Marrubium rulgare.
Hoarhound, water-. See Lycopus virginicus.
Hoarhoiind, wild. See Eupator'mm aromaticum.
Hog-potato. See Tpomoea pandurata.
Hog's-bean. See Hyoscijamus niger.
Hogweed. See Ambrosia arfemisiaefolia.
Holly, American. See Ilex opaca.
Holly, white. See Ilex opaca.
Honeybloom. See Apocynum aiuh-osaemifoUum.
Hoodwort. See Scutellaria lateriflora.
Hoop-ash. See Fraxinus nigra.
Hop-hornbeam. See Ostrya virginiana.
Hop-tree. See Ptelea trifoliata.
Hornbeam, hop-. See Ostrya virginiana.
Horse-balm. See Collinsonia canadensis.
Horse-chestnut. See Aescidus hippoca.<<tanu'm.
Horsefly-weed. See Baptisia tinctoria.
Horsefoot. See Tiissilagofarfarn.
Horse-gentian. See Triosteujii perfoliatiim.
Horseheal. See Intda lielenium.
Horsemint. See Monarda fistulosa and M. punctata.
Horse-nettle. See Solanum carolinense.
Horsetail. See Eqiiisetum hyemale.
Horseweed. See Erigeron canadensis.
Hound' s-tongue. See Cynoglossum officinale.
Hydrangea. See Hydrangea arhorescens.
Hydrangea arborescens L. Hydrangea family (Hydrangeaceae).

Hydrangea; wild hydrangea; seven-l)arks.

Indigenous shrub, 5 or 6 feet in height; on rocky river banks from southern
New York to Florida, west to Iowa and Missouri; very abundant in the val-
ley of the Delaware.

Part used. — Root (nonothcial) .
Hydrangea, wild. See Hydrangea arborescens.
Hydrastis. See Hydrastis canadensis.
Hydrastis canadensis L. Crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae).

Hydrastis; goldenseal; yellowroot; ground-raspberry; orangeroot; yellow
puccoon.

Perennial herb, about 1 foot in height, native in rich soil in shady w(Jods,
southern New York to ^Minnesota, south to ( reorgia and ^Missouri, l)ut prin-
cipally in Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and West Virginia.

Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (oflicial).

38 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Hyoscyamus. See Hyoscyamus niger.

Hyoscyamus nig-er L. Potato family ( Solanaceae) .

Hyosc3'amus; henbane; hog's-bean; inaane-root.
Biennial herb, 6 inches to 2 feet high, sparingly naturalized from Europe, in

waste places from Nova Scotia to Ontario, New York, and ^lichigan.
Partft used. — Leaves and flowering tops from plants of second year's gro\\'th
(official); seeds are also used (nonofficial).

Hypericum perforatum L. St. John's-wort family (Hypericaceae).

John's-wort; common St. John's-wort.

Herbaceous perennial, 1 to 2 feet high, naturalized from Europe; common in

fields and waste places throughout almost the entire United States, except the

Southern States.
Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

Hyssop., See Hyssopus officinale.
Hyssop, wild. See Verbena hastata.
Hyssop-skullcap. See Scutellaria integrifoUu.

Hyssopus officinalis L. Mint family (Menthaceae).

Hyssop.

Perennial herb, 1 to 3 feet high, naturalized from Europe, and found along road-
sides and in waste places from Ontario and Maine to North Carolina, and on
the Pacific coast.
Part used.— Herb (nonofficial).

Ilex opaca Ait. Holly family ( Aquifoliaceae ) .

American holly; white holly.

Native tree, 20 to 40 feet in height, with evergreen leaves; in moist woodland.*.

Maine to Florida, and west to Missouri and Texas; most abundant in the

Atlantic States.
Parts used. — Leaves and bark (nonofficial).

Ilex verticillata (L. ) A. Gray. Holly family (Aquifoliaceae).

Synonym. — Prinos verticillata L.

Black alder; feverbush; Virginia winterberry.

A native shrub, growing in moist woods and along banks of streams from Nova
Scotia to Florida, west to "Wisconsin and Missouri.

Parts used. — Bark and berries (nonofficial).
Impatiens aurea Muhl. Jewelweed family (Impatientaceae).

Synonym. — Impatiens pallida Nutt.

Jewelweed; pale touch-me-not; snapweed; wild celandine.
Native, annual plant, 2 to 4 feet high, found in rich soil in moist, shady places
from Quebec to Oregon, south to Georgia and Kansas.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Impatiens biflora Walt. Jewelweed family (Impatientaceae).

Synonyrii. — Impatiens fulra Nutt.

Jewelweed; spotted touch-me-not; snapweed; silverleaf.

Native, annual plant, 2 to 5 feet high, growing in rich soil in moist, shady place.s
from Canada to Alaska and Oregon, south to Florida and Missouri; more com-
mon than the pale touch-me-not.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Impatiens fulva Nutt. Same as Impatiens bijiora.
Impatiens pallida ^utt. Same as Impatiens aurea.
Indian-cup. See Silphlnm perfoliatum.
Indian-paint. See Saugmnaria canadensis.
Indian-physic. See Porteranthus irifoliatus.

INDIAN-PIPE JASMINE, YELLOW. 39

Indian-pipe. See Monotropa uniflora.
Indian-roiit. See Aralia racemosa.
Indigo, American. See Bapt'ma t'mdoria.
Indigo, wild. See Baptisla tindoria.
Indigo, yellow. See Buptisia tinctoria.
Indigo-weed. See Bapima tinctoria.
Inkberr}-. See Phytolacca decandra.
Inkroot. See Limonium carolinianum.
Insane-root. See Hyoscyamns niger.
Inula. See Inula hchniium.

Inula helenium L. < Aster family (Asteraceae).

Inula; elecampane; horseheal; scabwort.
Rough, perennial herb, 3 to 6 feet high, naturalized from Europe, and found

along roadsides and in fields and pastures from Nova Scotia to North Carolina,

westward to IMissouri and Minnesota.

Part med.—Rooi (official in U.- S. P. 1890).
Ipecac, American. See Euphorbia, ipecacuanhae.
Ipecac, Carolina. See Euphorbia ipecacuanhae.
Ipecac, false. See Porteranthus trifoliatus.
Ipecac, milk-. See Euphorbia coroUata.

Ipecac, wil<l. See Euphorbia ipecacuanhae and Triostevm perfoUatum.
Ipecac-spurge. See Euphorbia ipecacuanhae.

Ipomoea pandurata (L.) Meyer. Morning-glory family (Convolvulaceae).

Synonym. — Convolvulus panduratus L.

Manroot; man-of-the-earth; wild potato; hog-potato; wild jalap.

Native perennial, with trailing stems 2 to 12 feet long; in dry fields or on hills

from Connecticut to Michigan, south to Florida and Texas. "
Part ».s«7. — Root (nonofficial).

Iris. See Irl^ versicolor.

Iris versicolor L. Iris family f Iridaceae ) .

Iris; blue flag; fiag-lily; liver-lily; water-flag; snake-lily.

Native, perennial plant, 2 to 3 feet high, found in wet, marshy localities from
Newfoundland to ManitoVja, south to Florida and Arkansas.

Part.^ used. — Rhizome and roots (official in U. S. P. 1890).
Ironwood. See Odrya nrginiana.
Ivy, American. See Parlhenocissus quinquefolia.
Ivy, ground-. See Glecoma hederacea.
Ivy, j)oison-. See AV/h.s radicans and P. toxicodendron.

Jack-in-the-i)ulpit. See Arisaenw triphyllnm.
Jacob' s-ladder. See Polemoniwu reptans.
Jacob's-ladder; American. SeeSrnildx herbacea.
Jalap, wild. See Ipomoea pandurata.
James-tea. See Ledum groenlandicum .
Jamestown-weed. See Datura .stramonium.
Jasmine, Carolina. See Gelsemium semfjerrirnis.
Jasmine, yellow. See Gelsemium sempervirens.

40 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Jeffersonia diphylla (L. ) Perf^. Barberry family (Berberidaceae).

Twinleaf; rheumatism-root; helmetpod; yellowroot; ground-squirrel pea.

Native, perennial plant, 8 to 14 inches in height, growing in woods and near
streams from New York to Virginia, westward to Wisconsin.

Part used. — Rhizome (nonofficial).
Jewelweed. See Impatiens aurea and I. h'ifora.
Jimson-weed. See Datura stramonium.
Job's-tears, wild. See Onosmodium. virginianum.
Joe-Pye-weed. See Eupatorium purpureum.
John's-wort. ^ee Hyperu-um perforatum.
Judas-tree. See Cercis canadensis.
.Tuglans. See Juglans cinerea.
Juglans cinerea L. Walnut family ( Juglandaceae).

Juglans; butternut; white walnut.

Indigenous tree, 20 to 50 feet in height, common in rich woods from New Bruns-
wick to North Dakota, south to Georgia, Mississijtpi, and Arkansas.

Part used. — Bark of root, collected in autumn (official in U. S. P. 1890).

Juniper. See Juniperus <'i»iimunis.

Juniperus communis L. Pine family (Pinaceae).

Juniper.

Evergreen shrub or low tree, common on dry, sterile hills from Canada south
to New Jersey, west to Nebraska, and in the Rocky Mountains to New Mexico.
Part used. — Fruit (nonofficial). The oil of juniper, distilled from the fruit, is
official.

Juniperus sabina L. Pine family (Pinaceae ).

Sabina; savin; shrubby red cedar.

A shrub, usually procumbent, seldom more than 4 feet in height, occurring i4i
rocky places in the northern United States.

Part used. — Tops, and the oil of savin, distilled from the fresh tops, are official.
Juniperus virginiana L. Pine family (Pinaceae).

Red cedar; red savin.

A tree, sometimes 100 feet in height, connnon in dry soil from Canada to Florida
and Arizona.

Parts used. — Leaves and "cedar apples" (nonofficial).

Kalmia angustifolia L. Heath family (Ericaceae).

Sheep-laurel; lambkill; calfkill; narrow-leaved laurel.

Native, evergreen shrub, about 3 feet high, growing in moist soil from Canada
south to Georgia.

Part used. — Leaves (nonofficial).
Kalmia latifolia L. Heath family ( Ericaceae "l.

Mountain-laurel; calico-bush; broad-leaved laurel; sheep-laurel.

Native, evergreen shrub, 10 to 20 feet high, growing in sandy or rocky soil
from New Brunswick to Ohio, Florida, and Louisiana.

Part used. — Leaves (nonofficial).

Kidney-liverleaf. See Hepatica hepatica.
Kidneyroot. See Eupatorium purpureum.
Knight' s-spur. See Delphinium consolida.
Knobroot. See CoUinsonia canadensis.
Knotweed, biting. See Polygonum hydropiper.

KOELLIA MONTANA LAKIX AMERICANA. 41

Koellia montana (Michx.) Kuntze. Mint family (Menthaceae).

Synonym.— Pycnanthemum montanum Michx.

Thin-leaved mountain-mint.

Native perennial, 2 to 3 feet high, found in woods from southern Virginia to
Georgia and Alabama.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

Koellia pilosa (Nutt. ) Britton. Mint family (Menthaceae).

tSynonym. — FycnuntJiemum pilosum Nutt.

Hairy mountain-mint.

Native perennial, 1 to 2i feet high, occurring in prairies and dry woods from
Ohio to Georgia, west to Missouri and Arkansas.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

Lacinaria scariosa (L. ) Hill. Aster family ( Asteraceae).

Synonym. — Llatrh .'icnriosa Willd.

Blue blazingstar; large button-snakeroot; rattlesnake-master; gay-feather;
devil 's-bit.

Native, perennial herb, 4 to 5 feet high, found in dry woods and sandy fields

from Maine to Florida, west to Texas and Nebraska.
Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

Iiacinaria spicata (L. ) Kuntze. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Synonym. — Liafris sjncata AVilld.

Dense button-snakeroot; colic-root; prairie-pine; gay-feather; rattlesnake-
master; corn-snakeroot; backache-root.

Native, perennial herb, 2 to 5 feet high, in moist places from Massachusetts to
Florida, west to Wisconsin and Arkansas.

Part used. — Hoot (nonofficial).

Lacinaria squarrosa (L.) Hill. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Synonym . — lAalrh squarrosa Willd.

Scaly blazingstar; colic-root; rattlesnake-master (in the South).

Native, perennial herb, 2 to 3 feet high, in dry soil, Ontario to Florida, west to
Nebraska and Texas.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial). '

Lactuca canadensis L. Chicory family ( Cichoriaceae) .

Synonym. — Lactnca elongata Muhl.

Wild lettuce; tall lettuce; wild opium; trumpet-milkweed.

Annual or biennial plant, 3 to 10 feet in height, native in moist, open places,
British America south to Georgia and Louisiana.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Lactuca elongata Muhl. Same as Lactuca canadensvi.
Ladies-slifjper, large yellow. See Cypripedium hirsuivm.
Ladies-slipper, small yellow. See Cypripediirm parviflorum.
Lady-fern. See Athyrium filix-foemina.
Lady's-glove. See Digitalis purpurea.
Lambkill. See Kcdmia angustifolia.
J^appa. See Arctium lappa.
Lappa major Gaertn. Same as Arctium lappa.
Larch, American. See Lari.v laricina.
Larch, black. See Larix laricina.
Larix americana Michx. Same as Larix laricina.

42 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Iiarix laricina (Du Koi) Koch. Pine family (Pinaceae).

Synonym. — Larlx americana Michx.

Tamarack; American larch; hackmatack; black larch.

A tall, slender tree, native in swampy woods and moist places from Canada
south to New Jersey, Indiana, and Minnesota.

Pari used. — Bark (nonofficial).
Lark-heel. See Delphinium consolida.
Larkspur, field-. See Delphinium consolida.
Larkspur, tall. See under Delplmnum consolida.
Laurel, broad-leaved. See Kalmia latifolia.
Laurel, deer-. See Rhododendron maximum.
Laurel, great. See Rhododendron maximum.
Laurel, mountain-. See Kalmia latifolia.
Laurel, narrow-leaved. See Kalmia angiistifolia.
Laurel, rose-. See Rhododendron maximum.
Laurel, sheep-. See Kalmia angustifolia and K. latifolia.
Laurel, spurge-. See Daphne mezereum.
Laurel, swamp-. See Magnolia virginiana.
Laurus benzoin L. Same as Benzoin benzoin.
Lavender, sea-. See Limonium carolinianum.
Leafcup, yellow. See Polymnia uvedalia.
Leatherwood. See Dirca palustris.
Ledum groenlandicum Oeder. Heath family (Ericaceae).

Synonym. — Ledum httifolium Ait.

Labrador tea; continental tea; James-tea.

Evergreen shrub, 1 to 4 feet high, native in cold bogs and damp mountain
woods, northern part of the United States and in Canada.

Part used. — Leaves (nonofficial).
Ledum latifolium Ait. Same as Ledum groenlandicum.
Lemon, wild. See Podophyllum peltatum.
Lemon-balm. See Melissa officinalis.
IiBonurus cardiaca L. Mint family (Menthaceae).

Motherwort; lion's-tail; throw wort.

Perennial plant, 2 to 5 feet high, naturalized from Europe, and occurring in
fields and waste places from Nova Scotia to North Carolina westward to
Nebraska.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Iieptamnium virginianum. (L. ) Raf. Broomrape fam.ily (Orobanchaceae).

Synonyms. — Epiphegus virginiana Bart.; Orobanche virginiana L.

Beechdrops; cancerroot.

Plant 6 inches to 2 feet in height, parasitic upon the roots of beech trees from
New Brunswick to Florida, west to Michigan and Louisiana.

Part used. — Whole plant (nonofficial).
Leptandra. See J'eronica rirginica.

Leptandra virginica (L.) Nutt. Same as Veronica rirginica.
Leptilon canadense (L. ) Britton. Same as Erigeron canadensis.
Lettuce, Indian. See Frasera carolinensis.
Lettuce, tall. See Lactuca canadensis.
Lettuce, white. See Nabalus albus and X. serpentarius.

LETTUCE, WILD LIRIODENDRON TFLIPIFERA. 43

Lettuce, wild. See Lactuca canadensis.

Leucanthemuiii rulgare Lam. Same as Chrysanthemum leucunthemum.

Leverwood. See Ostri/n rirginiana.

Liatris odoraiissima ]Michx. Same as Trilisa odoratissima.

Llatris scariosa Willd. Same as Lacinaria scariosa.

Liatris splrafa Willd. Same as Lacinaria spicata.

Liatris squarrosa Willd. Same as Lacinaria, squarrosa.

Life-everlasting. See Anaphalis margaritacea and Gnaphalium ohtusifolium.

Life-everlasting, sweet. See Gnaphalium ohtusifolium.

Liferoot. See Senecio aureus.

Ligustrum vulgare L. Olive family ( Oleaceae).

Privet; primwort; prim.

A shrub, 5 or 6 feet high, introduced from Europe; escaped from cultivation and
grows wild in woods and along roadsides from Ontario to Pennsylvania and
North Carolina.

Part used. — Leaves (nonofficial).
Lily, cow-. See Nymphaea advena.
Lily, flag-. See Iris versicolor.
Lily, large yellow pond-. See Nymphaea advena.
Lily, liver-. See Iris versicolor.
Lily, snake-. See Iris versicolor.
Lily, sweet-scented water-. See Castalia odorata.
Lily, water-. See Castalia odorata.
Lily, white pond-. See Castalia odorata.
Lily-of-the-valley. See Convallaria majalis.
Lime, Ogeechee. See JVyssa ogeche.
Limonium carolinianum (Walt.) Britton.

Plumbago family fPlumbaginaceae).

Synonym. — Statice caroliniana Walt.

Marsh-rosemary; inkroot; sea-lavender; cankerroot.

Native, perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, in salt meadows on the Atlantic and
Gulf coasts.

Part used. — Root (nonofhcial).
Linden, American. See Tilia americana.
Lindera benzoin Meissn. Same as Benzoin benzoin.
Lion's-foot. See Nabalus albus and X. serpentarius.
Lion's-tail. See Leonurus cardiaca.

Liquidambar styraciflua L. Witch-hazel family (Hamamelidaceae).

Sweet-gum; star-leaved gum; red gum.

Large, native tree, 80 to 140 feet high, in moist woods from Connecticut to
Florida, Illinois, and Missouri. Most common near the coast in the Middle
and Southern States.

Parts used. — Bark and resin (nonofficial).

Liriodendron tulipifera L. Magnolia family (Magnoliaceae).

Tulip-tree; yellow poplar; whitewood; tulip-poplar; canoewood.
An indigenous tree, (50 to 190 feet in height, growing in rich woods from New

England to Florida, west to Michigan and Arkansas; reaches greatest size in

the Middle and Southern States.
Part used. — Bark of trunk and of root (nonofficial).

44 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Lithospermum virginianum L. Same as Onosmodium virginianum.

Liverleaf, heart-. See Ilepatica acuta.

Liverleaf, kidney-. See Hepaiica hepatica.

Liverleaf, round-lobed. See Hepatica hepatica.

Liverleaf, sharp-lobed. See Ilepatica acuta.

Liver-lily. See Iris versicolor.

Liverwort. See Hepatica acuta and //. hepatica.

Lobelia. See Lobelia inflata.

Lobelia, blue. See Lobelia siphilitica.

Lobelia cardinalis L. Bellflower family (Campanulaceae).

Cardinal-flower; red cardinal; red lobelia.

Native, perennial herb, 2 to 4 feet high, with showy scarlet flowers; in moist
soil from British America south to Florida and Texas.

Part used.— Herb (nonofiicial).
Lobelia, great. See Lobelia siphilitica.
Lobelia inflata L. Bellflower family ( Campanulaceae ).

Lobelia; Indian tobacco; gagroot; vomitwort; bladderpod.

Native, annual, herbaceous plant, 1 to 3 feet high, poisonous; in dry soil, fields
old pastures, and along roadsides from Canada to Georgia, Nebraska, and
Arkansas.

Parts used.— Leaves and tops, collected after a portion of the capsules have
become inflated (ofticial). The seeds are also used (nonofficial).

Lobelia, red. See Lobelia cardinalis.

Lobelia siphilitica L. Bellflower family (^ Campanulaceae).

Blue cardinal-flower; great lobelia; blue lobelia; highbelia.

Native, perennial herb, about I to 3 feet high, growing in moist soil from Ontario
to Georgia, west to Louisiana and the Dakotas.

Part used. — Herb (nonofiicial).
■ Locust, black. See Robinia pseudacacia.
Locust, yellow. See Robinia pseudacacia.
Locust-plant. See Cassia marilandica.
Locust-tree. See Robinia pseudacacia.
Lycopodium. See Lycopodium clavatum.
Lycopodium clavatum L. Club-moss family ( Lycopodiaceae ) .

Lycopodium; club-moss; stag's-horn.

Native perennial, with trailing stem, growing in dry situations in woods from
Canada to North Carolina, Michigan, and ^Yashington.

Part M.srf/.— Spores of this or of other species of Lycopodium (official).
Lycopus virginicus L. Mint family (Menthaceae ) .

Bugleweed; sweet bugle; water-bugle; gypsy-weed; water-hoarhound.

Indigenous, perennial herb, 10 to 20 inches in height; in wet, shady places from
Canada to Florida, Missouri, and Nebraska.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

^Nladweed. See Scutellaria lateriflora.

Magnolia acuminata L. Magnolia family (Magnoliaceae).

Cucumber- tree; mountain-magnolia; blue magnolia.-

Native tree, 60 to 80 feet in height, occurring in the mountainous regions from
New York to Georgia. More abundant in the Southern States.

Part used. — Bark (nonofficial).
Magnolia, blue. See Magnolia acuminata.

MAGNOLIA GLAUCA MARSH-CUDWEED. 45

Magnolia glauca L. Same as Magnolia virginiana.
Magnolia, mountain-. See Magnolia acuminata.
Magnolia, sweet. See Magnolia virginiana.

Magnolia tripetala L. Magnolia family ( Magnoliaceae).

Si/nongm. — Magnolia umbrella Lam.
Cucumber-tree; umbrella-tree; elkwood.

A small native tree, not more than 40 feet high, growing in rather moist, rich
soil; widely distributed in the Appalachian Mountain region, but nowhere
very common.

Part used. — Bark ( nonoffi cial ) .

Magnolia umbrella Lam. Same as Magnolia trijieiala.

Magnolia virginiana L. Magnolia family (Magnoliaceae).

Synonym. — Magnolia glauca L.

White bay; sweet bay; sweet magnolia; beaver-tree; swamp-sassafras; swamp-
laurel.

A native tree, averaging about 25 feet in height, growing in swamps and

morasses, Massachusetts to the Gulf of ]Mexico.
Part it.'iefl. — Bark (nonofficial).

Maidenhair-fern. See Adiantum pedatum.

Male-fern. See Drgopteris Jili.v-mas.

Mallow, common. See Malva sylvestris.

Mallow, dwarf. See Malra rutundifolia.

]Mallow, high. See Malva sylvestris.

Mallow, low. See 3(alva rotundifoUa.

Mallow, running. See Malva rotundifoUa.

Malva rotundifolia L. Mallow family (Malvaceae).

Low mallow; running mallow; cheeses; dwarf mallow.

Annual or biennial procumbent plant, naturalized from Europe, and widely dis-
tributed as a weed in waste places.
Parts used. — Leaves and Howers (nonothcial).

Malva sylvestris L, Mallow family (Malvaceae).

High mallow; common mallow; cheesefiower.

Biennial herb, adventive from Europe; sparingly distributed in the United
States and Canada, growing in waste places and along roadsides.

Part used. — Flowers (nonofficial).

Mandrake, American. See Podophyllum peltatum.

Mandrake, wilil. ^qq Podophyllum peltatum.

Man-of-the-earth. See Ipomoea pandurata.

Manroot. See Ipomoea pandurata.

Manzanita. See ArctostapJiylos glauca.

Maple, red. See Acer rubrum.

Maple, swamp-. Hee Acer rubrum.

Maple, vine-. See Menispermum canadense.

Marrubium. See Marnddum vulgare.

Marrubium vulgare L. Mint family ( Menthaceae) .

Marrubium ; hoarhound.

Bushy, perennial herb, 1 to 3 feet high, naturalized from Europe, and growing
in dry, sandy soil, in fields and waste places, from ^hune southward to Texas
and westward to California and Oregon.

Part.'i used. — Leaves and flowering tops (otiicial).
Marsh-cudweed. See Gnaphalium tdiginoxum.

46 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Marsh-gentian. See Gentiuiut riUomi.
Marshmallow. See Althaea officinalis.
Marsh-rosemary. See Limonium carolinianum.
Marsh-trefoil. See Menyauthes trifoUata.
Maruta cotula DC. Same as Anthem ii^ colitla.
Masterwort. See Angelica atropurpurea and Heracleum lanatum.
May-apple. See Podophylhmi peltatum.
Mayflower. See Epirjaea repent.
May-poi3s. See Passiflora incarnata.
May thorn. See Crataegus oxyacantha.
Mayweed. See Anthemis cotula.
Meadow-clover. See Trifoliimi pratense.
Meadow-fern. See Comptonia peregrina.
Meadowpride. See Frasera caroUnemis.
Meadow-scabish. See Ai^ter puniceus.
Meadowsweet, pink. See Spiraea tomentosa.
Mealy-tree. See Viburnum dentatum.
Melilot, yellow. See Melilotus officinalis.

]y^^lotus officinalis (L. ) Lam. Pea family (Fabaceae).

^ Yellow melilot; yellow sweet clover.

Annual or biennial herb, 1 to 3 feet high, introduced from Europe, and occurring .
in waste places throughout the eastern United States.

Parts used. — Leaves and flowering tops (nonofficial).

Melissa. See Melissa officinalis.

Melissa officinalis L. Mint family (Menthaceae).

Melissa; balm; lemon-balm; gar<len-balm; sweet balm.

Perennial herb, 10 to 20 inches high, naturalized from Europe, and growing in
waste places, fields, and woods from Maine to Georgia.

Parts used. — Leaves and tops (official in U. S. P. 1890).
Menispermum. See }fenispermmn canadense.

Menispermum canadense 1^. Moonseed family (Menispermaceae).

Menispermum; yellow parilla; Canada moonseed; Texas ■sarsaparilla; vine-maple.
Native, perennial, woody climber, found in woods along streams fi-om Canada

to Georgia and Arkansas.
Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (official in U. S. P. 1890).

^Mentha piperita. See Mentha piperita L.

Mentha piperita L. Mint family (Menthaceae) .

Mentha piperita; peppermint.

Aromatic, perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, naturalized from Europe, and occur-
ring in damp places from Nova Scotia to jNIinnesota, south to Florida and Ten-
nessee. Cultivated principally in ^Michigan and New York.
Parts used. — Leaves and flowering tops, and the oil of peppermint distilled from
these, are official.

Mentha spicata L. Mint family (Menthaceae).

Synonym. — Mentha rlridls L.

^lentha viridis; spearmint.

Aromatic, perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, naturalized from Europe, and grow-
ing in moist fields and waste places from Nova Scotia to Utah, south to Florida
and Kansas. Also cultivated.

Parts ?t.s<'d.— Leaves and flowering tops, and the oil of spearmint distilled from
these, are official.

MENTHA VIRIDIS MONARDA FISTULOSA. 47

Mentha viridis. See Mentha spicata.
Mentha viridis L. Same as Mentha spicata._

Menyanthes trifoliata L. Buck-bean family (Menyanthaceae) .

Buck-beun; bog-bean; marsh-trefoil; water-shamrock.

Indigenous, perennial plant, about 1 foot in height, found in spongy, boggy
soils and swamps from Canada and Alaska south to Pennsylvania, Minnesota,
and California.
Parts iiai'd. — Rhizome and leaves (nonofficial).

Mezereon. See Daphne ntezeremn.

Mezereon, American. See l>irca jialnstris.

Mezereum. See Daphne inezereurn.

Mezereiun officinarinn C. A. Mey. Same as Daphne mezereum.

Micrpmeria chamissonis (Benth.) Greene. Mint family (Menthaceae).

Synonym. — Micromeria douglasU Benth.

Yerba buena.

A trailing, perennial herb, common in woods along the Pacific coast of the United
States.

Part used. — Plant (nonofficial).

Micromeria douglasii Benth. Same as Micromeria chamissonis.

Milfoil. See Achillea millefolium.

Milk-ipecac. See Euphorbia corollata.

Milk-purslane. See Eujjhorbia nutans.

Milkweed, common. See Asclepias syriaca.

Milkweed, swamp-. See Asclepias incarnata.

Milkweed, trumpet-. See Lactuca canadensis.

Milkwort, Nuttall's-. See Poly gala nuttalUi.

Mint, hairy mountain-. See Koellia pilosa.

Mint, mountain-. See Monarda didyma.

Mint, thin-leaved mountain-. See Koellia montana.

jVIistletoe. See Phoradendron flavescens.

Mistletoe, American. See Phoradendron favescens.

Mitchella repens L. Madder family (Rubiaceae).

Squaw-vine; checkerberry; partridgeberry ; deerberry; hive-vine; squawberry.

Small, creeping, evergreen herb, common in moist woods from Nova Scotia to
IVIinnesota, south to Florida and Arkansas.

Part xised. — Plant (nonofficial).

Miterwort, false. See Tiarella cordifolia.

Moccasin-fiower, yellow. See Cypripedium hirsutum.

Mohawk-weed. See Uvularia perfoliata.

Monarda didyma L. Mint family (Menthaceae).

Bee-balm; Oswego tea; mountain-mint; scarlet balm.

Native perennial, 2 to 3 feet high, growing in moist soil, especially along streams,
from New Brunswick to Michigan and south to Georgia.

Pari used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Monarda fistulosa L. Mint family (Menthaceae).

Wild bergamot; horsemint.

Native perennial, 2 to 3 feet high, found on dry hills and in thickets from
Ontario south to Floi-ida and Louisiana.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

48 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Monarda punctata L. Mint family ( Menthaceae ) .

Horsemint.
Native, perennial herb, 2 to 3 feet high, found in dry, sandy fields from New

York to Florida, west to Wisconsin and Texas.
Part used.— Kerh (non official).
Monotropa uniflora L. Indian-pipe family (Monotropaceae).

Indian-pipe; fit-plant; fitroot; ghostflower; pipe-plant.
A curious plant, white in all its parts, growing in rich, moist woods from (Canada

to Florida, westward to Washington and California.
Part used. — Root (nonofficial).
Moonseed, Canada. See Menispermum (-(madense.
Moose-elm. See Ulmusfidva.
Moosewood. See Dirca palustris.
Mortification-root. See Althaea officinalis.
Moss, club-. See Lycopodium clavatum.
Moss, haircap-. See Polytriclium juniperinum.
Motherwort. See Leonurus cardiaca.
Mountain-ash, American. See Sorbus americana.
Mountain-balm. See Eriodictyon californicum.
Mountain-laurel. See Kalmia latifolia.
Mountain-magnolia. See Magnolia acuminata.
Mountain-mint. See Monarda didyma.
Mountain-mint, hairy. See Koellia pilosa.
Mountain-mint, thin-leaved. See Koellia montana.
Mountain-sumac. See Sorbus americana.
Mountain-tea. See Gaultheria procumbens.
Mouse-ear. See Gnaphalium uliginosurn.
Mouthroot. See Coptis trifoKa.
Mugwort, connnon. See Artemisia vuUjaris.
Mullein. See Verbascum thapsus.
Musquash-root. See Cicuta maculata.
Mustard, black. See Brassica nigra.
Mustard, Ijrown. See Brassica nigra.
Mustard, red. See Brassica nigra.
Mustard, white. See Sinajjis alba.
Mustard, yellow. See Sinapis alba.
Myrica asplenifolia L. Same as Comptonia peregrina.

Myrica cerifera L. Bayberry family (Myricaceae).

Bayberry; wax-myrtle; candleberry; waxberry.

Grows in sandy swamps or wet woods from Florida and Texas northward to
Maryland. In the South it is a small evergreen tree, becoming in its north-
ward range a tall, semi-deciduous shrub, or a dwarfed and deciduous shrub.
Parts used. — Bark of root, leaves, and berries (nonofficial)..
Myrica gale L. Bayberry family (Myricaceae).

Sweet gale; Dutch myrtle; bog-myrtle; golden osier.
Indigenous shrub, growing in swamps and along streams from Canada and

Alaska to Virginia and Washington.
Parts used. — Leaves and buds (nonofficial).

MYRTLE, BOG NYSSA CAPITATA. 49

Myrtle, bog-. See Myrica gnle.
Myrtle, Dutch. See Myrica gale.
Myrtle, wax-. See Myrica cerifera.

Nabalus albus (L. ) Hook. Chicory family (Cichoriaceae).

tSyno))y)n. — Premintlics alha L.

Liou's-foot; rattles^nake-root; white lettuce; white canker-weed.

Native, perennial lierb, 2 Lo 4 feet high, common in rich, moist woods from
Canada to Georgia and Kentucky.

I'aH ufti'd. — Plant (nonothcial).

Nabalus serpentarius (Pursh) Hook. Chicory family (Cichoriaceae).

Synonym. — Prenanthes serpentaria Pursh.

Lion's-foot; canker-weed; white lettuce; rattlesnake-root; snake-gentian.

Native, perennial herb, about 2 feet high, growing in dry, sandy soil in fields
and thickets from Ontario to Florida and Alabama.

Part used. — Plant ( nonofficial ) .
Nannybush. See Vibiu-num lentago.

Necklace-weed. See Actaea alba and Onosmodium virginianum.

Nepeta cataria L. Mint family (Menthaceae) .

Catnip; catmint.

Common, perennial weed, 2 to 3 feet high, naturalized from Europe; found in
waste places and cultivated land from Canada to Minnesota, south to Virginia
and Arkansas.

Partu-sed. — Herb (nonofficial).
Nepeta glechoma Benth. Same as Glecoma hederacea.
Netleaf-plantain. See Peramium puhescens.
Netleaf-plantain, smaller. See Peramium repens.
Nettle, bull-. See Solannm carolinense.
Nettle, great. See Urtica dioica.
Nettle, horse-. See Solanum carolinense.
Nettle, stinging. See Urtica dioica.
Niggerhead. See Brauneria angustifolia.
Nightshade, woody. See Solanum dulcamara.
Niiphar advena R. Br. Same as Nymphaea advena.
Nuttall's-milkwort. See Polygala nuttallii.
Nymphaea advena Soland. Water-lily family (Nymphaeaceae).

Syiioiiyiu. — Nuphar advena R. Br.

Large yellow pond-lily; cow-lily; spatter-dock; beaverroot.

An aquatic: plant, found in ponds and sloiv streams from Canada to Florida, and
westward to the Rocky Mountains.

Part used. — Rhizome (nonofficial).

Nymphaea odorata Dryand. Same as Castalia odorata.

Nyssa aquatica L. Dogwood family (Cornaceae).

Synonym. — Nyssa uniflora Wang.

Large tupelo; cotton-gum; tupelo gum.

A large, native tree, occurring in swamps from southern Virginia to Florida,
west to Texas and IVIissouri,

Part used. — Root wood (nonofficial).
Nyssa capitata Walt. Same as Nyssa ogeche.

50 AVILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Nyssa ogeche .Marsh. Dogwood family (Cornaceae).

Sli7ioni/))i. — Xt/ssa capitata Walt.
Sour tupelo; Ogeechee lime.

A .small tree, growino; in swamps near the seacoast from southern South Caro-
lina to Florida.
Part used. — Root wood (nonofficial).

Ny><s<i II II Word A'S'^ang. Same as Nyssa aquatica.

Oak, cliampion-. See Quercus rubra.

Oak, Jerusalem. See Chenopodiuni, ardltebninticuni and ' '. Iiotnjs.

Oak, poison-. See Rhus radicals nnd /'. toxicodendron.

Oak, red. See Quercus rubra.

Oak, Spanish. See Quercus rubra.

Oak, stone-. See Quercus alba.

Oak, white. See Quercus alba.

Oenothera biennis L. Evening-primrose family ( Onagraceae ) .

Synonym. — Onagra biennis (L. ) Scop.

Evening-primrose; tree-primrose; night willow-herl».

Annual or biennial plant, 2 to 5 feet high, common in lields and waste places
from Labrador to Florida, west to the Rocky Mountains. Native.

Part used. — Plant (nonofficial) .
Old-man' s-beard. See Chionanthus virginica.
Olive, spurge-. See Daphne mezereum.
Onagra biennis (L. ) Scop. Same as Oenothera biennis.
Onosmodium virginianum (L.) DC. Borage family (Boraginaceae).

Synonym. — Lithospermum virginianum L.

Virginia false gromwell; gravel-weed; necklace-weed; pearl-i^lant; wild Job's-
tears.

Rough-hairy, native, perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high; in dry, hilly grounds
from the New England States to Florida, Kansas, and Texas.

Parts used. — Root and seeds (nonofficial ).
Opium, wild. See Lactuca canadensis.
Orangeroot. See Hydrastis canadensis.
Orobanche virginiana L. Same as Leptamnium virginianum.
Osier, golden. See Myrica gale.
Osier, green. See Cornus drcinaia.
Osier, red. See Cornus amomum.

Osmorrhiza longistylis DC. Same as Washingtonia longistylis.
Osmunda regalis L. Royal fern family ( Osmundaceae) .

Royal fern; Ijuckhorn-brake.

A tall, native fern, with fronds 3 to 4 feet high, occurring in swamps and marshes
from Canada to Florida and Mississippi.

Part used. — Rhizome (nonofficial).
Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) Willd. Birch family (Betulaceae).

Hop-hornbeam; ironwood; deerwood; leverwood.

Native tree, 25 to 30 feet in height, growing in rich woods, Canada and eastern
United States.

Part used. — Bark (nonofficial).

OXALIS ACETOSELLA PENNYROYAL, AMERICAN. 51

Oxalis acetosella L. "Wood-sorrel family (Oxalidaceae).

White wood-sorrel; snamrock; sour trefoil.
Small, native, i^erennial herb, found in cold, damp woods, Canada ^outh to

Michigan and North Carolina.
Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

Oxeye daisy. See Chrysanthemum leucanthemum.

Oxydendrum arboreum (L. ) DC. Heath family (Ericaceae).

Synonym. — Andromeda arborea L.

Sourwood; sorrel-tree; elk-tree.

Native tree, sometimes 40 to 50 feet in height, growing in rich woods from Ohio
to Maryland, south to Alabama and Florida.

Farts used. — Leaves and bark (nonofficial)

Palmetto, saw-. See Serenoa serrulata.

Panax quinquefolium L. Ginseng- family (Araliaceae).

Ginseng.

Native, perennial herb, about 1 foot in height, found in rich, shady woods
from the Middle and Northern States south to Alabama and Georgia.

Part used., — Eoot (nonofficial).
Pansy. See Viola tricolor.
Papoose-root. See CaulojjJtyllwn thalictroides.
Paradise-plant. See Daphne mezereum.
Parilla, yellow. See Menispermum canadense.
Parsley, spotted. See Conium maeidatum.
Parslej'-fern. See Tanacetum vulgare.
Parsnip, cow-. See Heracleum lanatam.

Partlienocissus quinquefolia (L. ) Planch. Grape family (Vitaceae).

Syvoiii/m . — A mpelopsis (/niiiqtiefolla Michx.

American ivy; Virginia creeper.

A couunon, woody vine, native in woods and thickets from Canada to Florida

and Texas.
P<(rts used. — Bark and young twigs (nonofficial).

Partridgeberry. See Mitchella repens.

Pasqueflower, American. See Pulsatilla hirsutissima. ^

Passiflora incarnata L. Passion-flower family (Passifloraceae).

Passion-flower; passion-vine; may -pops.

Climbing, perennial plant, native in dry soil from Virginia to Florida, westward
to Missouri and Arkansas.

Parts used. — Root and stem base (nonofficial).

Passion-flower. See Passiflora incarnata.
Passion-vine. See Passiflora incarnata.
Paul's-betony. See Veronica oflicinalis.
Pawpaw, North American. See A.nmina triloba.
Pea, ground-squirrel. See Jefersonia diphylla.
Pea, hoary. See Cracca virginiana.
Pea, turkey-. See Bikukulla canadensis.
Pearl-plant. See Onosmodium virginianum.
Pencil-flower. See Stylosanthes hiflora.
Pennyroyal, American. See Hedeoma pulegioides.

52 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Penthorum sedoides L. Virginia stonecrop family (Penthoraceae).

Virginia stonecrop; ditch-stonecrop.
Native, perennial herb, about 1 foot in height, growing in ditches and swamps

from New Brunswick to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas.
Part used. — Herb (nonofficial.)
Pepper, water-. See Polygonum'-hydropiper.
Peppermint. See Mentha piperita.
Pepper-plant. See Polygonum hydropiper.

Peramium pubescens (Willd.) MacM. Orchid family ( Orchidaceae ) .

Synonym. — Goodyera pubescens R. Br.

Downy rattlesnake-plantain; rattlesnake-weed; netleaf-plantain ; scrofula-weed.
Native, perennial herb, 8 to 12 inches in height, occurring in rich woods from
Newfoundland to Minnesota, south to Florida and Tennessee. Most common
southward.
Part used. — Plant (nonofficial).
Peramium repens (L.) Salisb. Orchid family (Orchidaceae).

Synonym. — Goodyera repens R. Br.

White plantain; lesser rattlesnake-plantain; smaller netleaf-plantain; squirrel-
ear.
A smaller plant than P. pubescens, but very similar to it and more common

northward.
Part used. — Plant (nonofficial).

Persimmon. See Diospyros virginiana.

Phoradendron flavescens (Pursh) Nutt. Mistletoe family (liOranthaceae).

Synonym. — Viscnin _^ft<<re.^cens Pursh.

Mistletoe; American mistletoe.

Parasitic shrub, found on deciduous-leaved trees from New Jersey to Missouri,
south to Florida and Texas.

Parts used. — Leaves and branches (nonofficial).

Phytolacca. See Phytolacca decandra.
Phytolacca americana L. Same as Phytolacca decandra.

Phytolacca decandra L. « Pokeweed family (Phytolaccaceae).

Synonym. — Phytolacca dmencana L.«
Phytolacca; poke; pokeweed; garget; scoke; inkberry.
Native, perennial herb, with large and branching stem, 6 to 10 feet high; in rich,

moist soil, INIaine to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas.
Parts tfsed.— Root collected in autumn (official); fruit (official in U. S. P. 1890);
leaves (nonofficial).

Picea mariana (Mill.) B. S. P. Pine family (Pinaceae).

Synonym. — Abies nigra Desf.

Black spruce; spruce-gum tree.

Indigenous, evergreen tree, 40 to 80 feet in height, growing on elevated situa-
tions and in cold bogs from Canada south along the mountains to North Car-
olina, and to Minnesota.

Parts used. — Branches, and the essence obtained from the same (nonofficial).

Pilewort. See Erechtites hieracifolia and Scrophularia marilandica.
Pilotweed. See Silphium laciniatum.
Pimpernel. See Phnpinella saxifraga.
Pimpernel, red. See Anagallis arvensis.
Pimpernel, scarlet. See .Anagallis arvensb.

a Phytnlacr.a americniiH 1 .. by right of priority should be accepted, but P. decandra L. is used in con-
formity with tlie Pharmacopoeia.

PIMPINELLA SAXIFEAGA POKE. 53

Pimpinella saxifraga L. Parsley family ( Apiaceae ).

Burnet-saxifrage; bennet; pimpernel.
Erect, perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, adventive from Europe, and found in

waste places in eastern Pennsylvania, at several localities in the valley of the

Delaware, and in Ohio.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

Pine, northern. See Piniis sirobus.

Pine, prairie-. See Lacmaria spicata.

Pine, prince' s-. See Chimapkila umbellaia

Pine, "Weymouth. See Pinus strobus.

Pine, white. See Pinus strobus.

Pink, rose-. See Sabbatia angularis.

Pinkroot. See Spigelia mcmlandica.

Pinkroot, Indian. See Spigelia marilandica.

Pinkroot, Maryland. See Spigelia manlandica.

Pinus strobus L. Pine family (Pinaceae).

White pine; northern pine; Weymouth pine.

Large, indigenous forest tree, sometimes 175 feet in height, growing in woods
from Canada south to Georgia and Iowa.

Part used. — Bark (nonofficial).
Pipe-plant. See Monotropa uniflora.
Pipsissewa. See Chimaphila umbellata.
Pitcher-plant. See Sarracenia purjiurea.

Plantago major L. Plantain family (Plantaginaceae).

Gommon plantain; dooryard-plantain; greater plantain.

Perennial herb, 1 to 3 feet high, naturalized from Europe; common in fields and

waste places and along roadsides nearly throughout North America.
Parts used. — Root and leaves (nonofficial).

Plantain, common. See Plantago major.

Plantain, dooryard-. See Plantago major.

Plantain, downy rattlesnake-. See Peramiimn pubescens.

Plantain, greater. See Plantago major.

Plantain, lesser rattlesnake-. See Peramium repens.

Plantain, net leaf-. See Peramium pubescens.

Plantain, smaller netleaf-. See Peramium repens.

Plantain, white. See Peramium repens.

Pleurisy-root. See Asdepias tuberosa.

Podophyllum. See Podophyllum peltatum.

Podophyllum peltatum L. Barberry family (Berberidaceae).

Podophyllum; May-apple; wild mandrake; American mandrake; wild lemon.

Native, perennial herb, 1 to lo feet high, found in low, rich woods from Canada
to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas.

Part used. — Rhizome (official).
Poison-hemlock. See Conium maculatum.
Poison-ivy. See Rhus radicans and R. toxicodendron.
Poison-oak. See Rhus radicans and R. toxicodendron.
Poison-vine. See Rhus radicans.
Poke. See Phgtolacca decandra.

54 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Pokeweed. See Phytolacca decandra.

Polar-plant. See Silphium laciniatum.

Polecat- weed. See Spathyema foetida.

Polemonium reptans L. Phlox family (Polemoniaceae).

American Greek valerian; abscess-root; sweetroot; Jacob' s-ladder.

Native, perennial herb, 12 to 20 inches high, growing Iti woods and damp ground
from New York to Minnesota, south to Georgia and Missouri.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).
Polygala nuttallii T. & G. Milkwort family (Polygalaceae).

Nuttall's-milkwort; ground-centaury.
Slender, erect, annual herb, 6 to 12 inches high, native in dry, sandy soil from

Massachusetts to North Carolina, west to Alabama and Missouri.
Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Polygala senega L. Milkwort family (Polygalaceae).

Senega; Seneca snakeroot.
Native, perennial herb, 8 to 12 inches high, found in rocky woods and on hillsides

from New Brunswick and western New England to Minnesota, south to North

Carolina and Missouri.
Part used. — Root (oflBcial).

Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) Ell. Lily-of-the-valley family

( Convallariaceae ) .

Synonyms. — ConvaUaria bifloraWaAt.; Salomonia hiflora (Walt.) Britton.

Hairy Solomon' s-seal; smaller Solomon' s-seal.

Native, perennial herb, 8 inches to 3 feet high, found in woods and thickets
from Canada soutli to Florida and Michigan.

Part used. — Rhizome (nonofficial).

Polygonatum commutatum (Roem. & Schult. ) Dietr. Lily-of-the-valley family

( Convallariaceae ) .

Stfrionyms. — Polygonatum gigantenm Dietr.; Salomonia commutata (Roem. &

■ Sehiilt. ) Britton.
Giant Solomon's-seal; great Solomon' s-seal; smooth Solomon's-seal.

Native, pei'en'nial herb, 1 to 8 feet high, occurring in moist woods and along
streams from Canada to Georgia, west to Louisiana and Utah.

Part used. — Rhizome (nonofficial).
Polygonatum giganteum Dietr. Same as Polygonatum commutatum.
Polygonum hydropiper L. Buckwheat family (Polygonaceae).

Smartweed; water-pepper; biting knotweed; pepper-plant.

Smooth, annual plant, 8 inches to 2 feet high, naturalized from Europe; common
in moist waste places almost throughout North America.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

Polygonum punctatum Ell. Buckwheat family (Polygonaceae).

Dotted smartweed; water-siuartweed.

Native, annual or perennial herb, found in swamps and other wet places through-
out most of North America.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Polymnia uvedalia L. Aster family ( Asteraceae).

Yellow bear's-foot; yellow leafcup; uvedalia.
Large, native, perennial plant, 3 to 6 feet high ; in ravines and edges of woods

from New York to Michigan, south to Florida and Texas.
Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

Polypodium Jilix-mas L. Same as Dryopteris filix-mas.
Polypodium marginale L. Same as Dryopteris marginalis.

POLYPODIUM VULGARE POTENTILLA CANADENSIS. 55

Polypodium vulgare L. Fern family (Polypodiaceae).

Common polypody; fernroot; rock-brake; female-fern.

Native fern, 3 to 10 inches in height, with a perennial, creeping rhizome; on

shady, rocky banks, in woods and mountains almost throughout North

America.

Parts used. — Rhizome and tops (nonoflBcial).

Polypody, common. See Polypodium vulgare.

Polytrichum juniperinum Hedw. Haircap-moss family (Polytrichaceae).
Haircap-moss; robin's-rye.

Native moss, 4 to 7 inches in height, growing along margins of dry woods and
exposed places, mostly on poor, sandy soil.

Part used. — Whole plant (nonofficial).

Pond-lily, large yellow. See Nymphaea advena.

Pond-lily, white. See Casta! la odorata.

Poolroot. See Eupatorium ageratoides, E. aromuticum, and Sanicula marilandica.

Pool wort. See Eupatorium ageratoides and E. aromaticum.

Poplar, silver. See Populus alba.

Poplar, silverleaf-. See Populus alba.

Poplar, trembling. See Populus tremidoides.

Poplar, tulip-. See Liriodendron tulipifera.

Poplar, white. See Popidus alba and P. tremuloides.

Poplar, yellow. See Liriodendron iidipifera.

Populus alba L. Willow family ( Salicaceae).

White poplar; silverleaf-poplar; silver poplar; white-bark.

A large tree, sometimes 120 feet in height, naturalized in the United States;
occurs along roadsides from New Brunswick to Virginia.

Part used. — Bark, collected in spring (nonofficial).
Popidus balsamifera candicans A. Gray. Same as Popidus candicans.
Populus candicans Ait. Willow family (Salicaceae).

/Synonym. — Populus balsamifera candicans A. Graj^

Balm-of-Gilead.

A large tree, about 80 feet in height, mostly escaped from cultivation, New

Brunswick to New Jersey, west to Minnesota.
Parts used. — Leafbuds and bark (nonofficial) .

Populus tremuloides Michx. Willow family (Salicaceae).

Quaking aspen; American aspen; white poplar; trembling poplar; quiverleaf.
A slender, indigenous tree, growing in dry or moist soil from lower Canada south

to Kentucky and in the Rocky ]Mountains to Lower California.
Part used. — Bark, collected in spring (nonofficial).

Porteranthus trifoliatus (L.) Britton. Rose fam.ily (Rosaceae).

Synonym. — Gillenia trifoliata Moench.

Indian-physic; Bowman's-root; false ipecac; western dropwort.

Native,~perennial herb, 2 to 3 feet higli, found in moist, shady places in rich
woods from New York to Michigan, south to Georgia and Missouri; more
common in the Atlantic States than in the Western States.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

Potato, hog-. See Ipomoea pandurata.

Potato, wild. See Ipomoea jiandurata.

Potentilla canadensis L. Rose family (Rosaceae).

Fivefinger; cinquefoil.

A 'small, annual or biennial i)lant, with creeping stems, growing in dry soil from

Quebec to Georgia, west to Minnesota and the Indian Territory.
Part used. — Plant (nonofficial).

56 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Prairie-jiiue. i^t^e Lacmaria spicatu.

Prenanthen alba L. Same as Nabalus nlbm.

Prenanthes serpentaria Pursh. Same as Nabalus serpentarius.

Prickly ash, northern. See Xanthoxylum nmericanum.

Prickly ash, southern. See Fagara dava-herculis.

Prideweed. See Erigeron canadensis.

Prim. See Ligustrum imlgarS.

Primrose, evening-. See Oenothera biennis.

Primrose, tree-. See Oenothera biennis.

Prim wort. See Ligustrum vulgar e.

Prince' s-pine. See Chimaphila umbellata.

Prinos reriicillatus L. Same as Ilex verticlllata.

Privet. See Ligustrum rulgare.

Prunella vulgaris L. Mint family (Mentliaceae).

Self-heal; heal-all; brownwort; sicklewort; blue-curls.

Perennial plant, 2 inches to 2 feet high, naturalized from Europe, and found
in fields, woods, and waste places throughout nearly the whole of North
America.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Prunus serotina Ehrh. Plum family (Amygdalaceae).

tSy 110111/ lit. — Prunus cirginiana Mill., not of Linnaeus.

Prunus virginiana; wild cherry; rum-cherry.

A large, indigenous tree, 50 to 80 feet high, growing in woods or open places from
Ontario to Florida, west to Texas and Dakota. Most abumlant in the South-
western States.

Part used. — Bark, which should be collected in autumn and carefully dried and
preserved (official).

Prunus virginiana. See Prunus serotina.

Prunus virginiana. Mill., not L. Same as Prunus serotina.

Psoralea. See Psoralea pedunculata.

Psoralen melilotoides Michx. Same as Psoralea pedunculata.

Psoralea pedunculata (Mill.) Vail. Pea family (Pabaceae).

Synoni/rn. — Psoralea vielilotoides Michx.

Psoralea; Samson's-snakeroot; Congo-root.

Slender, herbaceous perennial, 1 to 2k feet high, native in dry soil in open woods
from Ohio and Kentucky southward.

Parts used. — Root and leaves (nonofficial ).

Ptelea trifoliata L. Rue family (Rutaceae).

Wafer-ash; wingseed; hop-tree; shrubby trefoil.

Native shrub, 6 to 8 feet high; in shady woods from New York to Florida, west
to Minnesota and Texas; grows more abundantly west of the Alleghenies.

Parts used. — Bark of root, fruit, and leaves (nonofficial).
Pterocaulon undulatum (Walt.) Mohr. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Sgnonym. — Gnuplialium undulatum Walt. '
Indian blackroot.
Native, perennial herb, growing in sandy pine lands from North Carolina to

Florida and Mississippi. . -

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

Puccoon, red. See Sanguinaria canadensis.
Puccoon, yellow. See Hydrastis canadensis.
Pulsatilla, American. See Pulsatilla hirsutissima.

PULSATILLA HIRSUTTSSIMA RATTLESNAKE-HERB. 57

Pulsatilla hirsutissima (Pursh) Britton. Crowfoot family ( Rantinculaceae ) .

SijiKDiijin. — Aneiitoiie jxdeus \ar. nnUaU'Ktiia A. (Iray.
American pasqueflower; American Pulsatilla.

Native, perennial herb, 6 to 16 inches high, found in the prairie regions of Illi-
nois, west to the Rocky ]\Iountains and the Northwest.
Part lined. — Flowering herb (nonofficial).

Purging-root. See Euphorbia coroUata.

Purslane, black. See Euphorbia nutans.

Purslane, milk-. See Euphorbia nutans.

Pussy-willow. See Salix nigra.

Putty-root. S&e Aplectrum spicatum.

Pycnanthemum montanum Michx. Same as Koellia montana.

Pycnantliemum pilosum Nutt. Same as Koellia pilnsa.

Pyramid-flower. See Ih'asern caroli)iensis.

'Pyrethrum parthenium Smith. Same as Chrysanthemtmi parthenium.

Pyrus americana DC. Same as Sorbus americana.

Quack-grass. See Agropyro)i repens.

Queen-Anne's-lace. See Daucus carofa.

Queen-of-the-meadow. See Enpatorixm piirpureum.

Queen's-delight. See Stillingia sylvafini.

Queensland asthma-weed. See Euphorhin pihUlfera.

Queen' s-root. See Stillingia sylvatica.

Quercus. See Quercus alba.

Quercus alba L. Beech family (Fagaceae).

Quercus; white oak; stone-oak.

Large, indigenous forest tree, 50 to 100 feet in height, in woods from Maine to
Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas. More abundant in the Middle States.

Part used. —Bark, "collected frona trunks or l^ranches 10 to 25 years of age, and
deprived of the periderm" (official).

Quercus rubra L. Beech family (Fagaceae),

Red oak; champion-oak; Spanish oak.

Large, wide-spreading, indigenous forest tree, about 70 feet in height, from Nova
Scotia to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas. More common in the
Northern States and in Canada.

Part used. — Bark (nonofficial).
Quinine-flower. See Sabbatia elliottii.
Quinine-herb. See Sabbatia elliottii.
Quinine-plant. See Sabbatia elliottii.
Quiverleaf. See Populus tremuloides.

Ragged-cuj). See Silphium perfoliatum.
Ragweed. See Ambrosia artemisiaefolia.
Ragwort, golden. See Senecio aureus.
Raspberry, black. See liubus occidentalis.
Raspberry, ground-. See Hydrastis canadensis.
Raspberr\-, wiUl red. See Rubus strigosus.
Rattle-root. See Cimicifuga racemosa.
Rattlesnake-herb. See Actaea alba and .1. rubra.

58 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Rattlesnake-master. See Eryngium yucci folium, Lucinaria )<cariosa, L. spicata, and

L. squarrosa.
Rattlesnake-plantain, downy. See Feramium pubescens.
Rattlesnake-plantain, lesser. See Peramium repens.
Rattlesnake-root. See Nabalus albus and N. serpentarius.
Rattlesnake-violet. See Erythronluvi americanum.

Rattlesnake-weed. See Eryngium yuccifolium, Hieracium vpnomm, and Peramium

jmhesceiis.

Redbud. See Cercis canadensis.

Red root. See Ceanothus americanus.

Rhamnus cathartica L. Buckthorn family ( Rhamnaceae ) .

Buckthorn; hart's-thorn; way thorn.

A shrub 6 to 15 feet high, introduced from Europe; escaped from hedges and
growing in dry soil in the New England and Middle States.

Part used. — Berries (nonofficial).
Rhamnus purshiana. See Rhamnus purshiana DC.
Rhamnus purshiana DC. Buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae).

Rhamnus purshiana; cascara sagrada; chittem-bark; sacred-bark; bearberry-tree.

Small, indigenous tree, 15 to 20 feet in height, found on the sides and bottoms
of canyons. Rocky Mountains west to the Pacific Ocean, and extending north
into British America.

Part used. — Bark, collected at least one year before being used (official).

Rheumatism-root. See Dioscorea villosa and Jeffersonia diphylla.
Rheumatism-weed. See Ckimaphila umbellata.

Rhododendron maximum L. Heath family (Ericaceae).

Great laurel; rose-bay; deer-laurel; rose-laurel.
Tall, native, evergreen shruVj or small tree, found in low woods and along streams

from Canada to Georgia.
Part used. — Leaves (nonofficial).
Rhus aromatica Ait. Sumac family (Anacardiaceae).

Fragrant sumac; sweet-scented sumac. ^

. Indigenous shrub, 2. to 6 feet high, growing in woods and rocky situations,
C'anada to Florida, especially along the mountains, west to Minnesota and
Arkansas.
Part used. — Bark of root (nonofficial).

Rhus glabra. See Rhus glabra L.

Rhus glabra L. Sumac family (Anacardiaceae).

Rhus glabra; smooth sumac; scarlet sumac.
Indigenous, branching shruV), from 4 to 12 feet high; in dry soil, thickets, and

waste grounds nearly throughout the United States and Canada.
Parts u.ved. — Fruit (official) ; bark and leaves (nonofficial).
Rhus radicans L. « Sumac family (Anacardiaceae).

Rhus toxicodendron (pharmacopo^ial name, 1890); poison-ivy; ]ioison-oak;

poison-vine.
Native, woody vine, clinging to trees and fence rows; Canada to Florida, west
to Nebraska and Arkansas. Very poisonous to the touch.

Part used. — Fresh leaves (official in U. S. P. 1890).
Rhus toxicodendron. See Rhus radicans. ■ '

a Rhus radicans L. was formerly believed to be a variety of Rhus to.i-icodendron L., ))iit tiie two are
now regarrled as distinct speeies, and the leaves from both have been used under the pliarmacoi»eial
name (U. S. P. 1890) Kluis toxicodendron.

RHUS TOXICODENDRON RUBUS OCCIDENTALIS. 59

Rhus toxicodendron L. Sumac family ( Anacardiaceae) .

Poison-ivy; poison-oak.
Low, erect, and finely pubescent plant, more shrubby than Bhus radicans, and~

found in dry soil in more southern localities from Virginia to Georgia. Very

poisonous to the touch.

I'art nsed. — Vresh leaves, collected with those of Rhus radicam.
Rich\\eed. See CoUlnsonia canadensis and Eupatorium ageratoidex.
Robinia pseudacacia L. Pea family (Fabaceae) .

Locust-tree; black locust; yellow locust; false acacia.

A large, indigenous tree, sometimes 80 feet in height, growing in woods from
Pennsylvania south along the western slope of the Allegheny Mountains to
Georgia, west to the Indian Territory. Most abundant in the Middle and
Eastern States.

Pari used. — Bark of root (nonofhcial).

Kol)in's-rye. See PoJytrichuni juniperinum.

Rock-brake. See Polypodium vidgare.

Rock-rose, Canadian. See Helianthemum cauadense.

Rope-bark. See Dirca palusti'is. »

Rose, Canadian rock-. See Helianthemum cauademe.

Rose-bay. See Rhododendron maximum .

Rose-laurel. See Rhododendron maximum.

Rosemary, marsh-. See Limonium. carolinianum.

Rose-jjink. See Sabbatia angidaris.

Rose-willow. See Cornus amomum.

Rosin weed. See Silphium laciniatiwi.

Roundwood. See Sorbus americana.

Rubus. See Rubus cuneifolius, R. nigrobaccus, R. procumbens, R. trivialls, and R.
viUosus.

Rt(bus m7iadnisisT. & G., not L. Same as Rubus procumhevs.

Rubus cuneifolius Pursh. • Rose family (Rosaceae).

Rubus; sand-blackberry; knee-high blackberry.

Shrubby plant, 1 to 3 feet high; in sandy soil from Connecticut to Florida,
west to Missouri and Louisiana.

Pari used. — Bark of rhizome (official).

Ruhus idaeus var. americanus Torr. Same as Rubus occidenialis.

Rubus nigrobaccus Bailey. Rose family (Rosaceae).

Sijnonym. — Rubus villosus A. Gray, not Ait.
Rubus; high-bush blackberry.

Slender shrub, 3 to 7 feet high, growing in dry fields and along roadsides. New

England States to Florida, and west to Arkansas.
Part used. — Bark of rhizome (official).

Rubus occidentalis L. Rose family (Rosaceae) .

Si/nonym. — Rubus idaeus var. americanus Torr.
Black raspberry; thimbleberry; blackcap.

A straggling shrub, growing along the borders of woods and in rocky thickets

from Canada south to Georgia and Missouri.
Parts used. — Fruit and leaves (nonofficial) .

60 WILD MEDICmAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Rubus procumbens Muhl. Rose family (Rosaceae).

Synonym. — Hubus canadensis T. & G., not L.

Kubtis; low running blackberry; dewberry.

Shrubby, trailing plant, found in dry soil from Newfoundland to Lake Superior,
south to Virginia and the Indian Territory.

Part used.— Bar^ of root (official in U. S. P. 1890).
Rubus strigosus Michx. Rose family (Rosaceae).

Wild red raspberry.

Shrubby plant, found in dry or rocky situations from Canada to North Carolina
and New Mexico.

Parts used. — Fruit and leaves (nonofficial) .
Rubus trivialis Michx. Rose family (Rosaceae).

Kubus; southern dewberry; low-l)Ush blackberry.

Shrubby, procumbent plant, found in sandy soils, Virginia to Florida, west to
Missouri and Texas.

Part used.— Bark of root (official in U. S. P. 1890) .
Rubus villosus A. Gray, not Ait. Same as Rubus nigrobaccus.
Rubus villosus Ait. ~ Rose family (Rosaceae).

Rubus; one-flowered dewberry.

Trailing plant, with slender branches, growing in sandy or dry soil near the
coast from Maine to South Carolina.

Part used. — Bark of rhizome (official)
Rudbeckia laciniata L. Aster family ( Asteraceae) .

Thimbleweed; tall coneflower.

Much-branched, native perennial, 3 to 12 feet high; in moist thickets, Canada
and Montana, south to Florida and New Mexico.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Rum-cherry. See Prnnus serotina.
Rumex. See Rumex crispus.
Rumex acetosella L. Buckwheat family (Polygonaceae) .

Sheep-sorrel; field-sorrel; sour-grass; common sorrel.

Annual or perennial herb, abundant 'in dry fields, pastures, and waste ground
throughout the United States.

Part used. — Leaves (nonofficial).
Rumex crispus L. Buckwheat family (Polyg-onaceae).

Rumex; yellow dock; curled dock; narrow dock; sttur dock.

A weed introduced from Europe, and common in cultivated and waste ground
throughout the United States. Perennial plant, 2 to 4 feet high.

Part used.— Root of this and some other species of Rumex (official in U. S. P.
1890).
Rumex obtusifolius L. Buckwheat family (Polygonaceae).

Bitter dock; blunt-leaved dock; broad-leaved dock.

A perennial weed, 2 to 4 feet high, naturalized from Europe, and found in waste
places from New England to Florida, west to Texas and Oregon.

Part used.— Uoot, collected with that of Rumex crispus.

Sabal. See Serevoa scrrulata.

Sabbatia annularis (L.) Pursh. Gentian family (Gentianaceae).

American centaury; rose-pink; bitterbloom; bitter clover.

Native, biennial plant, 1 to 2 feet high, growing in damp, rich soil, in meadow^s
and among high grass, from New York to Michigan, south to Florida and
the Indian Territory.
Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

SABBATIA KLLIOTTII SANIOLP], WHITE. ' 61

' Sabbatia elliottii Steud. Gentian family (Gentianaceae).

S^/iio)iy)n. — Sahhatia paniculata Ell.

Quiiiiiie-flower; quinine-plant; quiuine-herb; Elliott' s-sabbatia.

An erect, native herb, about one foot in height, growing in pine barrens from
North Carolina to Florida.

Part used. — Herb (nonofiicial).

Sabbatia, Elliott's-. See Sahhatin eUluttii.

Snbbaiia paniculata Ell. Same as Sabbatia elliottii.

Sabina. See Juniperus sabina.

Sacred-bark. See Tihamnus pursliiana.

Sage, Indian. 8ee Eupatorium perfoliatum.

Saint-Benedict's thistle. See Cnicus benedictus.

"Saint- John's wort, common. See Hypericuin perforatum.

Salix alba L. "Willow family (Salicaceae).

^^'hite willow; European willow.

A large tree, sometimes 90 feet in height, introduced from Europe; occurs in
moist soil along streams from Pennsylvania northward to New Brunswick
and Ontario, sparingly escaped from cultivation.

Part used. — Bark ( nonofficial ) .

Salix nigra Marsh. "Willow family (Salicaceae ).

Black willow; pussy-willow; swamp-willow.
Tall, indigenous tree, growing on banks of rivers from Canada to Florida and

California.
Parts used. — Bark, and fresh aments gathered early in May (nonofficial).

Salomonia biflora (Walt.) Britton. Same as Pohigonatuiii biforum.

Saloifconia commutata (Roem. & Schult. ) Dietr. Same as Poly gonatuyn coyninvlal ton.

Salt-rheum weed. See Chelone glabra.

Sambucus. See Sambucu.'t canadensis.

Sambucus canadensis L. Honeysuckle family ( Caprifoliaceae ) .

Sambucus; elder; American elder; sweet elder.

Indigenous shrub, 6 to 10 feet high, growing in low, damp ground from Canada
to Florida and Arizona.

Parts used. — Flowers (official in U. S. P. 1890); bark and berries (nonofficial).

Sanij)son-root. See Brauneria angustifolia.

Sampson' s-snakeroot. See Gentiana vUlosa.

Samson' s-snakeroot. See Psoralea pedunculata.

Sand-blackberry. See Rubus cuneifolius.

Sandbrier. See Solarium carulifiense.

Sangninaria. See Savgninaria canadensis.

Sanguinaria canadensis L. Poppy family (Papaveraceae).

Sangninaria; bloodroot; redpuccoon; Indian-paint; tetterwort.

Native, perennial herb, about 6 inches high, found in rich, open woods from
Nova Scotia to Neliraska, south to Florida and Arkansas.

Part used. — Rhizome, "collected after the death of the foliage" (official).
Sanicle, American. See Heucliera americana and Sanicula marilandica.
Sanicle, black. See Sanicula marilandica.
Sanicle, Indian. See Eupatorium ageratoides.
Sanicle, white. See Eupatorium ageratoides.

(>2 WILD MEDICINAL I'LANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Sanicula marilandica L. Parsley family (Apiaceae).

Black sanicle; black nnakeroot; American sanicle; poolroot.

Native, perennial herb, 1 to 3 feet high; in rich woods, Cana<la to Georgia.

Part used. — Koot (nonofficial).
Saponaria officinalis L. I'ink family (Silenaceae).

Soapwort; soaproot; bouncing-Bet; fuller's-herb.

Stout, perennial herb, 1 to 2 feet high, naturalized from Europe and found along
roadsides and waste places; common almost everywhere.

Parts med. — Root and herb (nonofficial).
Snrofhfmnwi sro^xirius Wimm. Same as Cytimx scoparius.
Sarracenia flava L. Pitcher-plant family (Sarraceniaceae).

Trumpetleaf; trumpets; Eve's-cup; watercup; yellow-flowered watercup.

Curious, indigenous perennial, about 1 to S feet high, found in low, wet pine
barrens in the southeastern United States.

Parts used. — Root and sometimes the leaves (nonofficial).
Sarracenia purpurea L. Pitcher-plant family (Sarraceniaceae).

Piti'her-plant; flytrap; sidesaddle-flower; Avatercup; smallpox-plant.

Indigenous perennial, 1 to 2 feet high, growing in wet, boggy places and marshes,
from Canada to Minnesota and Florida.

Parts used. — Root and sometimes the leaves (nonofficial).

Sarsaparilla, American. See Aralia nudicaulis.

Sarsaparilla, bristly. See Aralia Mspida.

Sarsaparilla, false. See Aralia nudicaulis.

Sarsaparilla, Texas. See Menispermum canadense.

Sarsaparilla, Virginian. See Aralia nudicaulis.

Sarsaparilla, wild. See Aralia nudicaulis.

Sassafras. See Sassafras variifoUum.

Sassafras officinale Nees & Eberm. Same as Sassafras variifoUum.

Sassafras sassafras (L. ) Karst. Same as Sassafras variifoUum.

Sassafras, swamp-. See Magnolia virginiana.

Sassafras variifolium (Salisb.) O. Kuntze. « Laurel family (Lauraceae).

Synonyms. — Sassafras officinale Nees & Eberm.; Sassafras sassafras (L. ) Karst. «

Sassafras; ague-tree.

Native tree, sometimes reaching a height of 125 feet; in rich woods, Massachu-
setts to Ontario and Michigan, south to Florida and Texas.

Parts used. — Bark of root, collected in early spring or autumn and deprived of
the periderm (official); pith (official); and the oil of sassafras distilled from
the root, especially the root bark (official).

Satureia hortensis L. Mint family ( Menthaceae) .

Summer-savory.

Hairy, aromatic, annual herb, adventive from Europe and occurring in waste
places from Canada to Pennsylvania and Nevada.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Savin. See Juniperus sabina.
Savin, red. See Juniperus virginiana.
Savory, summer-. See Satureia hortensis.
Saw-palmetto. See Serenoa serrulaia.
Saxifrage, burnet-. See Pimpinella saxifraga.

".Although the combination Sassafras sassafras (L.) Karst. should be accepted by strict right (
iriority, the usage of the Pharmacopcela is followed.

SCABIOUS, SWEET SER\ ICE-TREE, AMERICAN. 63

Scal)ious, sweet, iiee Erigeron. jjhiladelphicui^.
»Scal)iHh, meadow-, ^ae Ader pimlccuii.
Scabwort. See Ituila Jielenium.
Scarletberr}'. See Solannni dulcamara.
Scoke. See Phytolacca decandra.
Scoparius. See Cyfimi? Kcoparius.
Scoiiring-rnsli, common. See Equisetum hyemale.
Scrofula-plant. See Scroplmlaria )iiarilandica.
Scrofula-weed. See Peramiuin pubescens.

Scrophularia marilandica L. Figwort family (Scrophulariaceae).

St/ii(}iiyiii. — Scrophidai'ia nodosa var. murdandira A. Gray.

Maryland figwort; scrofula-plant; carpenter' s-scjuare; heal-all; bee-plant; pile-
wort.

Smooth, native perennial, :Mo 5 feet high; moist, shady ground in woods and
thickets, New York to North Carolina and Kansas.

Parts used. — Herb and root (nonofficial).
Scrophidar'ui nodosa var. marUaiidica, A. Gray. Same as Scrophularia niarUandica.
Scutellaria. See Scutellaria lateriflora.
Srntellaria hyssopifolia L. Same as Scutellaria iidegrifolia.

Scutellaria integrifolia L. Mint family ( Menthaceae) .

Syniniyin. — Scutellaria hyssopifolia L.

Larger skullcap; hyssop-skullcap.

Native, perennial herb, (5 inches to 2 feet high, found in liclds and woods from
-Connecticut south to Florida and Texas.

Part v.sed. — Herb (nonofhcial).

Scutellaria lateriflora L. Mint family (Menthaceae).

Scutellai'ia; skullcap; madweed; hoodwort.

Smooth, branching perennial, 1 to 2 feet high, native in damp j)laces along
banks of streams from Canada south to Florida, New Mexico, and Washington.
Part wied. — Plant (official).

Sea-lavender. See Limonium carolinianum.

Self-heal. See Prunella vulgaris.

Senecio aureus L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Liferoot; swamja squaw-weed; golden ragwort; cocash-weed; coughweed.

Indigenous, perennial herb, 1 to 20 feet high, growing in swamps and wet mead-
ows, Newfoundland to Ontario, south to Florida, Missouri, and Texas.
Parts used. — Root and iierl) (nonofficial).

Senega. See Polygala senega.

Senna, American. See Cassia marilandica.

Senna, wild. See Cas.sia marilandica.

Serenoa serrulata (Roem. & Schult. ) Hook. f. Palm family (Phoenicaceae).
Sabal; saw-palmetto.

A ])ahn, 3 to 7 feet in height, found in sandy soil from North Carolina and

Arkansas to Florida^nd Texas.
I'art used. — Partially dried ripe fruit (official).

Serpentaria. Hee Aristolochia reticulata and A . serpentaria

Serpentaria, Texas. See Aristolochia reticidata.

Serpentaria, Virginia. See Aristolochia serpentaria.

Service-tree, .American. See Sorfiiis aiiicrii-(uia.

64 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Seven-btirks. i^ee lli/dmugeu arborexceni^.

Shagbark. See Hicoria ovata.

Shamrock. See O.ralh acetosella.

Shamrock, water-. See Menyanlhes frifnliatn.

Shave-grass. See Equiselnm hyemale.

Sheepberry. See Vihurinnn lenUigo.

Sheep-laurel. See Kalmia angudifolia and K. hififoVia.

Sheep-sorrel. See Rume.v acetosella.

Shellbark-hickory. Sae'Hicoria ovata.

Shellflower. See Chelone glabra.

Shepherd' s-purse. See Bursa ha;r.<<a-j)aslori.^.

Shepherd's-weatherglai?s. See AnagalUs arremis.

Shield-fern, marginal-fruited. See Dri/ajt/n-in niaiyinalis.

Shrub, sweet-scented. See Bulneriajlorida.

Shrub yellowroot. See Xanthorvhka aplifolia.

Sicklewort. See Prunella vulgaris.

Side?addle-fiower. See Sarrarenia p'urpurca.

Silkweed. See Asdepias syriaca.

Silkweed, rose-colored. See Asdepias incarnata. ^

Silkweed, swamp-. See Asdepias incarnata.

Silphium laciniatum L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Rosinweed; compass-plant; pilotweed; polar-plant.

Coarse, native perennial, 3 to 12 feet high, growing on prairies from Ohio to
Alal)ama, west to Texas and South Dakota.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Silphium perfoliatum L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Cup-plant; Indian-cup; ragged-cup.

Stout, perennial herb, 4 to 8 feet high, native in moist soil and low ground from
Ontario and the eastern United States west t«> Louisiana and Nebraska.

Part used. — Root (nonofficial).
Silverleaf. See Impatiens biflora, Spiraea tomeutosa, and Stdlbigia .^yl/alira.
Silverleaf-poplar. See Populus alba.
Simpler' s-joy. See Verbena hastata.
Sinapis alVja. See Sinapis alba L.
Sinapis alba L. Mustard family ( Brassicaceae).

Sinapis alba; white mustard; yellow mustard.

Annual herb, about 2 feet in height, natuializcd from Europe, and found in
fields and waste places, but not so widely distributed as the black mustard.

Par< ((.sed.— Seed (oflScial).

Sinapis nigra. See Brassica nigra.

Sinapis nigra L. Same as Bras.Kica nigra.

Skullcap. See Scutellaria lateriflora.

Skullcap, hyssop-. See Scutellaria integrifolia.

Skullcap, larger. See Scutellaria integrifolia.

Skunk-cabbage. See Spathyema foetida.

Skunk weed. See Spathyema foetida.

Sloe. See Vitmnnun prunifolium. '

Snialliiox-planl. '^w Sarracenia jnirpnrra.

&MARTWEED SOLANUM CAROLINENSE. 65

Smartweed. See Polygoniun lii/dropiper.
Smartweed, dotted. See Polygonum punctaium.
Smartweed, water-. See Polygonum punctatum.
SmUacina racemosa Desf. Same as Vagnera rdcemoaa.

Smilax herbacea L. Smilax family ( Smilacaceae).

C'anion-Hijwer; American Jacob' s-ladder.

Native, herbaceous perennial, occurring in woods and tiiickets in CJunada and
the eastern United States.

Fartim'd. — Herb (nonofficial).

Smilax pseudo-china L. Smilax family ( Smilacaceae ) .

Bamboo-brier; long-.«talked greenbrier; American China-root; false China-root;
l)ulll)rier.

Perennial vine, native, growing in dry or sandy thickets, Maryland to Florida,
west to Texas and Nebraska.

Part vsrd. — Rhizome (nonofficial).
Snake-gentian. See Ndhahix serpentariui^.
Snakehead. See ('helone ghihra.
Snakeleaf, yellow. See EryOu'onium (ivu'ricariinn.
Snake-lily. See Iris versicolor.
Snakemilk. See Euphorbiu rorollnta.

Snakeroot, black. See Cimicifiiga racemosa and San tenia marilandica.
Snakeroot, button-. See Erynglum yuccifoliinn.
Snakeroot, Canada. See Asanim canadense.

Snakeroot, corn-. See Eryngium yuccifolium and Lacinaria spicata.
Snakeroot, dense l)utton-. See Lacinaria. spicata.
Snakeroot, large button-. See Lacinaria scario.m.
Snakeroot, Red River. See Aristolochia reticulata.
Snakeroot, Sampson's-. See Gentiana villosa.
Snakeroot, Samson's-. See Psoralen pedunculata .
Snakeroot, Senec^a. See Poly gala senega.
Snakeroot, smaller white. See Eupatorium aroiitatic-nm.
Snakeroot, Texas. See Aristolochia reticulata.
Snakeroot, \'irginia. See Aristolochia serpentarin.
Snakeroot, white. See Enpatorinin ageratoides.
Snake- violet. See Viola pedata.
Snakeweed. See Euphorbia piluUfera.
Snapweed. See Impatiens aurea and I. hiflora.
Sneeze weed. See Helenium autumnale.
Sneezewort. See Helenium autumnale.
Snowdroi), yellow. See Lyythronium amrricamnn.
Soaproot. See Saponaria officinalis.
Soapwort. See Saponaria officinalis^.
Soapwort-gentian. See (lentiaiia saponaria.
Solanum carolinense L. Potato family (Solanaceae).

llorse-nettle; bull-nettle; sandbrier.

Rough-hairy, native, perennial herb, common in dry fields and on sandy or
gravelly banks from the eastern United States west to Texas and Nebraska.

Parts used. — Root, leaves, and berries (nonofii(!ial).

66 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Solanum dulcamara L. Potato family ( Solanaceae ) .

Dulcamara; bittersweet; woody nightshade; violet-bloom; scarletberry.
Climbine shrubby perennial, naturalized from Europe; found in low, damp
grounds and moist banks, New Brunswick to Minnesota, south to New Jersey
and Kansas.
Part usgrf.— Young branches (official in V. S. P. 1890).
Solidago odora Ait. Aster family ( Asteraceae ) .

Sweet goldenrod; fragrant-leaved goldenrf)d; anise-scented goldenrod.
Slender, perennial herb, 2 to 3 feet high, native; in dry soil from Maine to Texas.
Parts used. — Leaves and tops (nonofficial).
Bolomon's-seal, false. See Vagnera racemosd.
Solomon' s-seal, giant. See Polygonatum commntatum.
Solomon's-seal, great. See Polygonatum commulatum,.
Solomon' s-seal, hairy. See Polygonatum Uflorum.
Solomon's-seal, small. See Vagnera racemosa.
Solomon's-seal, smaller. See Polygonatum Mfloriun.
Solomon's-seal, smooth. See Polygonatum commutatum.

Sorbus americana Marsh. Apple family (Malaceae).

Synonym. — Pyrus americana DC.
American mountain-ash; roundwood; dogberry; mountain-sumac; American

service-tree.
Indigenous tree or tall shrub, growing in low woods or moist ground from New-
foundland south along the mountains to North Carolina, and to Michigan.
Parts used.— Bark and berries (nonofficial).
Sorrel, common. See Rumex acetosella.
Sorrel, field-. See Rumex acetosella.
Sorrel, sheep-. See Rumex acetosella.
Sorrel, white wood-. See Oxalis acetosella.
Sorrel-tree. See Oxydendrum arboreum.
Sour-grass. See Rumex acetosella.
Sourwood. See Oxydendrum arboreum.
Southernwood. See Artemisia abrotanum.

Spathyema foetida (L. ) Raf. ~ Arum family ( Araceae).

Synonyms. — Dracontiumfoetidum L. ; Symplorarpus foetidns Nutt.
Skunk-ca])bage; skunkweed; polecat-weed; s\vamp-cabl)age.
Indigenous, perennial herb, about 1 to 2 feet high, found in swamps and wet
soil from Canada south to Florida, Iowa, and Minnesota. Appears very early
in spring.
Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (nonofficial).

Spatter-dock. See Nymphaea advena.
Spearmint. See Mentha spicata.
Speedwell, common. See ]"eronica officinalis.
Speedwell, tall. See Veronica virginica.
Spicebush. See Benzoin benzoin.
Spicewood. See Benzoin benzoin.
Spigelia. See Spiyelia marilandica.

SPIGELIA MARILANDICA STARWORT. 67

Spigelia marilandica L. Logania family (IiOgraniaceae).

Spigelia; pinkn.xjt; Maryland pinkroot; Indian pinkroot; worm-grass.

Erect, native, perennial herb, 6 inches to U feet high, found in rich woods. New

jersey to Florida, west to Texas and AVisconsin. Occurs principally in the

Southern States.

I'ariK used. — Rhizome and roots (official).

Spignet. See Antlid raremosa.

Spikenard. See Anilia racemosa.

Spikenard, American. See Aralia rarcmosa.

Spikenard, false. See Yagneni ntceiiioxd.

Spikenard, small. See Aralia nidlii-diilin.

Spikenard, wild. See Yngnera rucemusa.

Spindle-tree. See Euoni/mus atrii/iiirpnreus.

Spiraea. See Spiraea iomentom.

Spiraea tomentosa L. Bose family (Rosaceae).

Spiraea; hardback; steeplebush; pink meadowsweet; silverleaf.

Native shrub, occurring in low grounds and laoist meadows from Nova Scotia
south to Georgia, west to Kansas and Manitoba.

Parts used. — Leaves and root (nonofhcial).
Spleenwortbush. See Comptonia peregrina.
Spruce, black. See Picea mariana.
Spruce, hemlock-. See Tsuga canadensis.
Spruce, weeping. See Tsuga canadensis.
Spruce-gum tree. See Picea mariana.
Spurge, flowering. See Euphorhia corolUita.
Spurge, ipecac-. See Euphorbia ipecacuanhae.
Spurge, large spotted. See Euphorbia rnitans.
Spurge, pill-bearing. See Euphorbia, pihdifera.
Spurge-laurel. See Daphne mezereuuu
Spurge-olive. See Daphne rnezereuni.
Squawberry. See Mitchella repens.
Squawbush. See Viburnum ojndus.
Squawflower. See Trillium erectum.
Squawmint. See Hedeoma pulegioides.

Squawroot. See Caulophyllurn thalidroides and Cimicifuga racemosa.
Squaw-vine. See Mitchella repens.
Squaw-weed. See Eupatorium agcratoides.
Squaw-A\eed, swamp. See Senecio aureus.
Squirrel-corn. See Bikukulla canadensis.
Squirrel-ear. See Peramium repens.
Staff-tree. See Celastrus scandens.
Stagbush.- See Viburnum prunifolium.
Staggerweed. See Bikukulla canadensis.
Stag's-hoin. See Lycopodium clavatum.
Stanniierwort. See Arnhmsia arliiniaiaefolia.
Star-grass. See Alefri^ furiiKixii.
Starwort. See Chamaelirimu lutenni.

68 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Starwort, drooping. See Chamadirmm luteum.

Statice caroliniana Walt. Same as Limonium caroLmianum.

Steeplebush. See Spiraea tomentosa.

Stellaria media Cyr. Same as Alsine media.

Stillingia. See Stillingia sylvatica.

Stilling-ia sylvatica L. Spurge family (Euphorbiaceae).

Stillingia; queen's-root; queen' s-delight; silverleaf.

Native, herbaceous perennial, 1 to 3 feet in height, occurring in dry, sandy soil,
and pine barrens from Maryland to Florida, west to Kansas and Texas.

Part used. — Root (official).
Stonecrop, ditch-. See Penthonim nedoidex.
Stonecrop, Virginia. See Penthorum. sedoidcK.
Stonemint. See Cunila origanoides.
Stone-oak. See Quercus alba.
Stoneroot. See CoUinsonia canadensis.
Stramonium. See Datura stramonium.
Strawberry, scarlet. See Fragaria virginiana.
Strawberry, Virginia. See Fragaria virginiana.
Strawberry-shrub, hairy. See Butneria jiorida.
Stylosanthes biflora (L.) B. S. P. Pea family (Fabaceae).

Synonym. — Stylosanthes elatior Sw.

Pencil-flower; afterbirth- weed.

Wiry, perennial herb, 6 inches to 2 feet in height, native; occurring in dry soil
from New York to Florida, west to the Indian Territory.

Part used.— Ht'vh (nonofficial).
Stylosanthes elatior Sw. Same as Stylosanthes bijtora.
Succory. See Cichoriiim intybuft.
Sumac, fragrant. See Rhus aramatica.
Sumac, mountain-. See Sorbus (iinrricana.
Sumac, scarlet. See Rhns glabra.
Sumac, smooth. See Rhus glabra.
Sumac, sweet-scented. See Rhus aromatlca.
Summer-savory. See Saturela hortensis.
Sundew, round-leaved. See Drosera rotundij'olia.
Sunflower, swamp-. See Helenium (uitumntde.
Swamp squaw-weed. See Senecio aureus.
Swamp willow-herb. See Epilobium jKdustre.
Swamp-cabbage. See Spathyema foetida.
Swamp-dogwood. See Cornus amomum.
Swamp-hellebore. See Veratrum viride.
Swamp-laurel. See Magnolia virginiana.
Swamp-maple. See Acer rubrum.
Swamp-milkweed. See Asclepias incarnata.
Swamp-sassafras. See Magnolia lirginiana.
Swamp-silk weed. See Asclepias incarnata.
Swamp-sunflower. See Helenium autumnale.
Swamp-willow. See Salix nigra.

SWEATWEED THIMBLEBERRY. 69

Sweatweed. See Althaea officinalis.

Sweet-cicely. See Washingtonia longistylia.

Sweet-flag. See Acorns calainus.

Sweet-gum. See Liquidamhar styracijiua.

Sweetroot. See Polemonium reptaus.

Symphytum officinale L. Borage family ( Boraginaceae).

Comfrey; healing-herb; blackwort; bruisewort.

Erect, perennial herb, 2 to 3 feet high, naturalized from Europe; found in waste

places, Newfoundland to Minnesota, south to Maryland.
Part used. — Root (nonotiicial).

Sj/mplocarpus foetidns Nutt. Same as Spathyetna foetida.

Tag-alder. See Alnus ragosa.

Tamarack. See Larix laricina.

Tanacetum. See Tanacelum vulgare.

Tanacetum vulgare L. Aster family ( Aster aceae).

Tanacetum; tansy; doul>le tansy; bitter-buttons; parsley -fern.

Strong-scented, perennial herb, 1^ to :i feet high, introduced from Europe;
escaped from (-ultivation and found along roadsides from Nova Scotia to Min-
nesota, south to North Carolina and Missouri.

Parts used. — Leaves and flowering tops (otflcial in U. S. P. 1890).
Tanbark-tree. See Tsuga canadensis.
Tansy. See Tanacetum vulgare.
Tansy, double. See Tanacetum vulgare.
Taraxacum. See Taraxacum, officinale.

Taraxacum officinale Weber. « Chicory family (Cichoriaceae).

Siinonyiit. — Taraxacani taraxacum (L. ) Karst."

Taraxacum; dandelion; blowball; cankerwort.

Low, perennial weed, 5 to 10 inches high, naturalized from Europe; very abun-
dant in lawns, meadows, and waste places throughout the United States, with
the exception of the South.

Part used. — Root, collected in autumn (official).
Taraxacum taraxacum (L. ) Karst. Same as Tara.idcKm </J}ici)uUe.
Tea, continental. See Ledum groenlandicum.
Tea, James-. See Ledum groenlandicum.
Tea, Jersey. See Ceanothus americanus.
Tea, Jerusalem. See Chenopodium a)iibrosloldis.
Tea, Labrador. See Ledum, groenlandicum.
Tea, Mexican. See Chenopodium umhrosioides.
Tea, mountain-. See Gaultheria procumbens.
Tea, New Jersey. See Ceanothus americanus.
Tea, Oswego. See Monarda, didyma.
Tea, Spanish. See Chenopodium ambrosioides.
Teaberry. See Gaultheria prof-umbens.
Tejmrosia virginiana Fers. Same as Cracca mrgiDiatia.
Tetter wort. See Chelidonium majus and Sanguinaria canadensis.
Thimbleberry. See Rubns occidentalis.

"Although the combination Taraxacum taraxacum (L.) Karst. should be accepted by right of
priority, the usage of the Pharmacopoeia is followed.

70 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Thimbles. Ree Digitalis purpurea.
Thimbleweed. See Rudbeckia lariniata.
Thistle, bitter. See Cvicns hened ictus.
Thistle, ble.ssed. See Cnicus benedictm.
Thistle, ( -anada. See Carduus arrnisi.'<.
Thistle, creeping. See Cardans arcensis.
Thistle, cursed. See Carduus arvensis.
Thistle, holy. See Cnicus benedictus.
Thistle, St. Benedict's-. See Cnicus licnedictus.
Thistle, spotted. See Cnicus benedictus.
Thorn-apple. See Datura stramrmiinu.
Thoroughwort. See Eupatorium pcrfoliatinn.
Thousandleaf. See Achillea millefoHinu.
Throwwort. See Leonurus curdiacu.

Thuja occidentalis L. Pine family (Pinaceae).

Arbor-vitae; white cedar; yellow cedar.
Indigenous, evergreen tree, 20 to 50 feet in height; in wet S()il and along banks

of streams, Canada to North Carolina, Illinois, and Minnesota. E.specially

abundant in Canada and the Northern States.

Parts used. — Branchlets and leaves (nonofficial).
Tiarella cordifolia L. Saxifrage family (Saxifragaceae).

Cool wort; false miterwort; foaniHower; gemfruit.

Slender, indigenous perennial, 6 to 12 inches high, found in rich, moist woods,
Nova Scotia to Minnesota, south, especially along the mountains, to ( Jeorgia
and Indiana.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).
Tickweed. See Hedeoma pulegioides.

Tilia americana L. Linden family (Tiliaceae).

Synonym. — Tilia glabra Vent.
Basswood; American linden; whitewood.

Large, indigenous forest tree, 60 to 125 feet in height; in rich woods, especially
along the mountains, from Canada to Georgia, west to Texas and Nebraska.

Part used. — Inflorescence of this and of other species of Tilia (nonofficial).
Tilia glabra Vent. Same as Tilia americana.
Tinker' s-weed. See Triosteum perfoliatum.
Tobacco, Indian. See Lobelia inflata.

Toothache-tree. See Fagara clava-herculis and Xanthoxylum americanum.
Touch-me-not, pale. See Impatiens aurea.
Touch-me-not, spotted. See Impatiens biflora.
Toywort. See Barsa bursa-pastoris.
Tree-primrose. See Oenothera biennis.
Trefoil, marsh-. See Menyanthes trifoliata.
Trefoil, shrubby. See Ptelea trifoliata.
Trefoil, sour. See Oxalis acetosella.

Trifolium pratense L. ' Pea family (Fabaceae).

Red clover; meadow-clover; purple clover.

Perennial herb, 6 inches to 2 feet high; common in fields and meadows through-
out the eastern United States; naturalized from Europe, and widely cultivated.
Part Msed,— Blossoms (nonofficial).

TRILISA ODORATISSIMA TWINLEAF. 71

Trilisa odoratissima (Walt.) Cass. Aster family ( Asteraceae).

Si/nuni/iii. — Liutrix odonitisHiina Michx.

Vanilla-plant; deer's- tongue; vanilla-leaf; Carolina vanilla.

Rather stout, native, perennial herb, 2 to 3 feet high, with fragrant leaves; in

pine barrens from Virginia south to Florida and Louisiana. ,

Purf used. — Leaves ( nonofficial ).

Trillium erectum L. Iiily-of-the-valley family (Convallariaceae).

Wake-robin; ill-scented bethroot; birthroot; squawflovver.

Stout, native perennial, 8 to 16 inches high, growing in rich soil in damp, shady
woods from Canada south to Tennessee ancl Missouri.

I'drt used. —Rhizome of this and of several other species of Trillium (nonofRcial).
Triosteum perfoliatum L. Honeysuckle family ( Caprifoliaceae ) .

Feverroot; horse-gentian; tinker's- weed; white gentian; wild ipecac.

Indigenous, perennial herb, 2, to 4 feet high; in rich soil in shadv locations, Que-
bec to Minnesota, south to Alaban^a and Kansas.

Fart used. — Root (nonoflicial) .
Triticum. See Agropyron repens.
Tritlciuii repens Beauv. Same as Agropyron repens.
Trumpetleaf. See Sorracenia flara .
Trumpet-milkweed. See Laduc.a canadensis.
Trumpets. See Sarracenia flava.

Tsug-a canadensis (L. ) Carr. Pine family (Pinaceae).

Siiuoiiyin. — Abies canadensis Michx.

llemloc-k; hemlock-spruce; weeping spruce; tanbark-tree.

Indigenous tree, about 7o feet in height, in forests from Canada south to Alabama
and Wisconsin.

Pails used. — Bark and prepared resinous exudate (nonoflicial).

Tulip-poplar. See Liriodendron tuUpifera.

Tulip-tree. See Liriodendron tulipifera.

Tupelo gum. See Nyssa aqucdic.a.

Tupelo, large. See Nyssa aquatica.

Tupelo, sour. See Nyssa ogeche.

Turkey-corn. See Bikutulla canadensis.

Turkey-pea. See Bikukulla canadensis.

Turnera aphrodisiaca Ward. Same as Turnera microphylla.

Turnera microphylla Desv. Turnera family ( Turneraceae ) .

iSynonytn. — Turnera aphrodisiaca Ward.

Damiana.

A small, shrubby plant, native of Lower California, Texas, and northern Mexico,
growing in dry soil.

Part used. — Leaves (nonoflicial) .
Turnip, Indian. See Arisaema triphyllum.
Turnip, wild. See Arisaema IripJiyllum.
Turtle-head. See Chelone glabra.

Tussilago farfara L. Aster family (Asteraceae).

Colt's-fuot; coughwort; horsefoot; gingerroot.

Perennial herl), 3 to 18 inches high, naturalized from Europe; in moist places

along i-oadsides and brooks, northeastern United States and Minnesota to

Canada.

Parts used. — Leaves and root (nonoflicial).
Twinleaf. See Jeffersonia diphylla.

72 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Typha latifolia L. Cattail family ( Typhaceae ) .

Broad-leaved cattail; cattail-flag; bulrush.
Native marsh plant, perennial, 4 to 8 feet high; found in marshes, ditches,

muddy pools, and other wet places throughout North America, except

extreme northern part.
Part used. — Root (nonofficial).

IJlnms. See T'Iiiihs fiilrn.

Ulmus fulva ^Michx. Elm family (Ulmaceae).

tSi/noin/jii. — Ulmus puhescens Walt.

Ulmus; elm; slippery elm; red elm; moose-elm; Indian elm.
Indigenous tree, 50 to 60 feet high, growing on liills, along streams and in woods
from Quebec to North Dakota, south to Florida and Texas. .More common m
the western part of its range.
Part used. — Bark deprived of its periderm (official).
Ul)mispube.scens Walt. Same as U/nnisfnlva.
Umbrella-tree. See Magnolia trtpetala.
Unicorn-root, false. See Aletris farinosa.
Unicorn-root, true. See Chamaelirium luteum.
Upland-cranberry. See Arctostaphylos nva-ursi.

Urtica dioica L. Nettle family (Urticaceae).

Stinging nettle; great nettle.

Herbaceous, perennial plant, 2 to 4 feet high, with stinging hairs; naturalized
from Europe and found in waste places from Canada and Minnesota south to
South Carolina and ^Missouri.
Parts used. — Flowers, leaves, and root (nonofficial).

Uva-ursi. See Arctostaphylos uva-ursi.

Uvedalia. See Polymnia uvedalia.

Uvularia perfoliata L. Bunchflower family ( Melanthiaceae) .

Perfoliate bellwort; Mohawk-weed.

Native, perennial herb, 6 to 20 inches high; in moist woods and thickets, Quebec
to Florida and ^Mississippi.

Part used. — Root (nonf)fficial).

Vagnera racemosa (L. ; Morong. Lily-of-the-valley family

( Convallariaceae).

Synonyms. — Convallaria racemosa L. ; Smilacina racemosa Desf.

False Solomon' s-seal; small Solomon' s-seal; wild spikenard; false spikenard.

Indigenous, perennial herb, 1 to o feet high, found in moist woods and thickets
from Canada south to Georgia and Arizona.

Pai't used. — Root (nonofficial).
Valerian. See V(deriaua offieinaUs.
Valerian, American. See Cypripedium hirsutum.
Valerian. American Greek. See Polemonium reptans.
Valerian, garden-. See Valeriana offichudis.
Valeriana. See Valeriana officinalis.
Valeriana officinalis L. Valerian family ( Valerianaceae ) .

Valeriana; valerian; garden-valerian; vandal-root.

Perennial herb, 2 to 5 feet high, native of P]urope; escaped from gardens to
roadsides in New York and New Jersey.

Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (official).
Vandal-root. See Valeruma offieimdis.

VANILLA, CAROLINA VIHTJRNUM LENTAGO. 73

\''anilla, Carolina. See TrUixii odoratissima.

Vanilla-leaf. See 7yilis<i ndoratissima.

Vanilla-plant. See Tnl'mi i)d<ir<ttiitmm<i.

\''elvet-i)lant. See Verhascum. tJuipsus.

Veratruin. St'e Vcr<ttrv)u rir'ide.

Veratrum viride Ait. Bunchflower family (Melanthiaceae).

Veratrum; American hellebore; swamp-helleljore; green hellebore. •
Native, ])erennial herb, 2 to 7 feet high, growing in swamps, wet woods, anil

meadows, Canada and Alaska, Minnesota south to Creorgia.
Parts uxeiJ. — Rhizome and roots of this or 1'. aZ/w»r(official).

Verbascum thapsus \j. Figwort family ( Scrophulariaceae).

Mullein; velvet dock; velvet-plant; flannel-leaf.

Tall, erect, biennial weed, sometimes 7 feet in height; naturalized from Europe
and growing in fields, jiaslures, and waste places, Nova Scotia to Minnesota,
southward to Florida.

Parts ufifd. — Leaves and flowers (nonotticial).

Verbena hastata L. Vervain family (Verbenaceae).

Vervain; simpler's-joy; wild hyssop.

Erect, indigenous perennial, 3 to 4 feet high, found in fields, meadows, and

waste places, Canada to Nebraska, New Mexico, and Florida.
Parts nsed. — Root and herb (nonofficial).
Veronica officinalis L. Figwort family ( Scrophulariaceae ) .

Common speedwell; Paul's-betony.
Perennial herb, 3 to 10 inches high; in dry fields and woods. Nova Scotia to

Michigan, south to North Carolina and Tennessee.

Part used. — Herb (nonofficial).

Veronica, tall. See Veronica virginica.

Veronica virginica L.« Figwort family (Scrophulariaceae).

St/iioin/iii. — Li'jttandra virginica^ (L. ) Nntt. "

Leptandra; Culver' s-root; Culver's-physic; blackroot; Rowman's-root; tali sju'cd-

well; tall veronica.
Indigenous, perennial p'ant, 2 to 5 feet high, in moist, rich ground in woods,

meadows, and thi('kets from Canada to Alal)ama and Nebraska.

Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (ofiicial).
\'ervain. See Verbena hasUda.

Viburnum dentatum L. Honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae).

Arrow wood; mealy-tree.

Smooth, indigenous shrub, about 15 feet in height, growing on low ground and in
damp woods and thickets from New P>nmswick and Ontario south along the
mountains to Ceorgia, and westward to Minnesota.
Part used. — Bark (nonofficial).
Viburnum lentago L. Honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae).

Nannybush; shcepljerry; sweet viburnum.
An indigenous slirul), sometimes asmall tree; in rich soil from ("anada to ( leorgia

and Missouri.
Part used. — Bark of the root of this specuesorof V. prun [folium ofiicial under the
name "Viburnum prunifolium."

'(Some authors hold that this phmt bolonss to the gciiiis Leptanrlrn and that its iiamo nltould bo
l,fl>taii<lni riniinica (L.) Nutt. The Pharmaooixcia is hero I'dHowi'iI.

I

74 WILD MEUTCIISrAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Viburnum opulus. >See Viburnum opiilus L.

Viburnum opulus L. Honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae).

Viburnum opulus; cramp-bark; high-bush cranberry; squawbush.

Indigenous shrub, 4 to 10 feet in height, found in low, rich woods and borders
of fields from New Jersey, Michigan, and Oregon, northward.

Part used. — Bark (official).
Viburnum prunifolium. See Vihurnum lentago and V. prunifolium L.
Viburnum prunifolium L. Honeysuckle family ( Capriioliaceae ) .

Bla(;k haw; sloe; stagbush.

Indigenous shrub or small tree, growing in dry woods and thickets and on rocky
hillsides, Connecticut to Florida, west to Michigan and Texas. Most aVmn-
dant in the South.
Pcu't used. — Bark of the root of this species or of I', lentago official under the
name "Viburnum prunifolium."

Viburnum, sweet. See Viburnum lentago.
Vine-maple. See Menispermum canadense.
Viola odorata L. Violet family (Violaceae).

English violet; sweet violet; March violet.

Low herb, native of Europe; escaped from gardens, Nova Scotia to New York
and New Jersey, and on the Pacific coast.

Part used. — Flowers (nonofficial).
Viola pedata L. Violet family (Violaceae).

Bird's-foot violet; wood-violet; snake-violet.

Native plant, perennial, 3 to 10 inches high, occurring in dry fields and on hill-
sides from Maine to Minnesota, south to Florida and Missouri.

Parts Msed.— Herb and root (nonofficial).
Viola tricolor L. Violet family (Violaceae).

Pansy; heartsease.
Small herb, 4 to 12 inches high, introduced from Europe; found in waste places,

sparingly escaped from gardens.
Part used. — Flowering herb (nonofficial).

Violet, bird's-foot. See Viola pedata.

Violet, dog's-tooth. See Erythronium americanum.

Violet, English. See Viola odorata.

Violet, March. See Viola odorata.

Violet, rattlesnake-. See Erythronium aniericaniim.

Violet, snake-. See Viola pedata.

Violet, sweet. See Viola odorata.

Violet, wood-. See Viola pedata.

Violet-bloom. See Solarium dulcamara.

Virginia creeper. See Parthenocissus quinquefolia.

Virgin' s-bower. See Clematis mrginiaiiu.

ViscumflavescensPnrsh. ^iame as Phoradendr on ft avescens. J

Vomitwort. See Lobelia inflata. J

Wafer-ash. See Ptelea trifoUatu.

Wahoo. See Euonymus atropurpureus. ' ]

Wake-robin. See Arisaema triphyllum and Trillium erectum. "

Walnut, white. See Juglans cinerea.

Wai'twort. See Gnaphaiinm uliginosum.

i

WASHINGTONIA LONGISTYLIS WOOD-FERN, EVERGREEN. 75

Washingtonia longistylis (Torr. ) Britton. Parsley family ( Apiaceae).

Synonym. — Osmorrhiza hngutylls DC. >

Sweet-cicely; anise-root; sweet chervil.
Erect, rather stout, perennial herb, 2 to 3 feet high, native; in rich, moist woods

and banks of streams from Canada to Alabama and Texas.
Part used. — Root ( nonofficial ) .

\\'ater-avens. See Geum. rivalc

Water-bugle. See Lycopas virginicus.

Watercup. See Sarracenla flnnt and S. purpurea.

Watercup, yellow-flowered. See Sarracenia flava.

^\'ater-eryngo. See Eryngimn yuccifolium.

Water-flag. See Iris rersuvlor.

Water-hemlock. See Cicuta nidcuUtta.

Water-hoarhound. See Lycopus rirginuMs.

A^'ater-lily. See Castalia odorata.

Water-lily, sweet-scented. See Castalia, odorata.

Water-pepper. See Polygonum hydropiper.

Water-shamrock. See Menyanthes trifoliata.

Water-smartweed. See Polygonum punctatum.

Waxberry. See Myrica cerifera.

Wax-myrtle. See Myrica cerifera.

Waxwork. See Celastrus scandens.

\Vaythorn. See Rhamnus cathartica.

White-bark. « See Populus alba.

Whiteroot. See Asclepias luberosa.

Whitethorn. See Crataegus oxyacantha.

^Vhitewood. See Liriodendron tuHpifera and Tilia amerirana.

Wickopy. See Dirca palustris.

AVickup. See Chamaenerion angustifolium and Epilobiam jxitustre.

Willow, black. See ASaiu' nigra.

Willow, European. See Salix alba.

Willow, pussy-. See Salix nigra.

Willow, rose-. See Cornus amomurn.

Willow, swamp-. See Salix nigra.

Willow, white. See Salix alba.

Willow-herb, great. See Chanawnerion. angustifolium.

Willow-herb, night. See Oenothera biennis.

Willow-herb, swamp. See Epilobium palustre.

Wingseed. See Ptelea trifoliata.

Winterberry, Virginia. See Ilex vertidllata.

Winterbloom. See Hamamelis virginiana.

Wintergreen. See Gaultheria procumbens.

^Vintergreen, bitter. See Chimaphila umhellata.

Witch-hazel. See Hamamelis virginiana.

Woodbine, wild. See Gelsemium sempervirens.

Wood-fern, evergreen. See Dryopteris marginalis.

76 WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Wood-Korrel, white. See OxiiUi^ aretoxeUa.
Wood-violet. See Viola pedata.
Worm-grass. See Spif/elia marilandica.
Wormseed. See Chenopodium anthelmirdicum.
Wormseed, American. See Chenopodium ambrosioides.
Wormwood. See Artemisia absinthium.
Wormwood, Roman. See Ambrosia artemisiaefolia.

Xanthium spinosum L. Ragweed family ( Ambrosiaceae).

Spiny clotbur; spiny burseed; thorny clotweed; thorny burweed.

An annual weed, 1 to 3 feet high, naturalized from Europe or Asia; in waste
ground, Ontario to Florida, westward to Missouri and Texas.

Part used. — -Leaves (nonofficial).

Xanthorrliiza apiifolia L'Her. Crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae).

Shrub yellowroot; southern yellowroot.

Low, shrubby, indigenous perennial, 1 to 2 feet high, growing in woods and
along river Ijanks, southwestern New York to Florida, chiefly in the moun-
tains.

Parts used. — Rhizome and roots (nonofficial).
Xanthoxylum. See Fagara rlara-herculis and Xantlioxylum americanum.

Xanthoxylum americanum Mill. Rue family (Rutaceae).

Sy)i<myra. — Xa utliox yluui fraxineum Willd.

Xanthoxylum; northern prickly ash; toothache-tree.

Indigenous shrub or small tree, maximum height about 25 feet; common in
woods and thickets and along river banks from Virginia, Missouri, and
Nebraska northward to Canada.

Parts used. — Bark of this or of Fagara dava-herculis official under the name
"Xanthoxylum." Berries (nonofficial).

Xanthoxylum dava-herculis L. Same as Fagara dava-liercidis.

Xanthoxylum fraocineum Willd. Same as Xanthoxylum americanum.

Yam, wild. See Dioseorea villosa.

Yarrow. See Achiltea millefolium.

Yellowroot. See Coptis trifolia, Hydrastis canadensis, and Jeffersonia di]»hy/la.

Yellowroot, shrub. See Xanthorrhiza apiifolia.

Yellowroot, southern. See Xanthorrhiza apiifolia.

Yellowthorn. See Fagara dava-herculis.

Ycllowwood. See Fagara dava-herculis.

Yerba buena. See Micromeria chamissonis.

Yerba reuma. See Frunkenia grandifolia.

Yerba santa. See Eriodictyoii calif ornicum .

Youthwort. See Drosera rotundifolia and Heradcutn lanatum.

o

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 90, PART I.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chkf of Bureau.

THE STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF

WILD RICE SEED.

BY

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

GARDEN.

J. W. T. DUVEL,
Assistant in the Seed Laboratory.

Issued September 7, 1905.

WASHINGTON:

government trintinc: office.

I !» () .'. .

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY OF THE UNIT
STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes
Vegetable Pathological and Pliysiological Investigations, Botanical Investiga-
tions, Farm Management (including Grass and Forage Plant Investigations),
Pomological Investigations, and Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of
which were formerly conducted as separate Divisions ; and also Seed and Plant
Introduction and Distribution ; the Arlington Experimental Farm ; Investiga-
tions in the Agricultural Economy of Tropical and Subtropical Plants; Drug,
Tea, and Poisonous Plant Investigations; the Seed Laboratory; and Western
Agricultural Extension.

Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of
bulletins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published
as one series of the Bureau. A list of the bulletins issued in the present series
follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that " the serial, scientific, and technical pub-
lications of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general
distribution. All copies not required for ot^cial use are by law turned over to
the Superintendent of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost."
All applications for such publications should, therefore, be made to the Super-
intendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C,
accompanied by a postal money order for the required amount or by cash.
Stamps and personal checks will not be accepted in payment for publications.

No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10
cents.
2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

4 J. Vt?""''^^' ^^ cents.

*5/ '% Vitality and Germination of Seeds. 1904. Price, 10 cents.
0^ * ture. Meadow, and Forage Crops in Nebraska. 1904. Price, 10
■x-7'i? ;ents.

^ Soft Rot of the Calla Lily. 1904. Price, 10 cents.
*? le Avocado in Florida. 1904. Price, 5 cents.
u otes on Egyptian Agriculture. 1904. Price, 10 cents.
^ nvestigations of Rusts. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

J A Method of Destroying or Preventing the Gr 'wth of Algse and Certain
Pathogenic Bacteria in Water Supplies. 1904. Price, 5 cents.
Reclamation of Cape Cod Sand Dunes. 1904. Price, 10 cents.
Seeds and Plants Imported During the Period from September, 1900, to
December, 1903. Inventory No. 10. 1905. Price, 20 cents.
I? /. Range Investigations in Arizona. 1904. Price, 15 cents.
j 8. North American Species of Agrostis. 1905. Price, 10 cents.
}; >9. American Varieties of Lettuce. 1904. Price, 15 cents.

70. The Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

71. Soil Inoculation for Legumes. 1905. Price, 15 cents.

72. Miscellaneous Papers: I. Cultivation of Wheat in Permanent Alfalfa
Fields. II. The Salt Water Limits of Wild Rice. III. Extermina-
tion of Johnson Grass. IV. Inoculation of Soil with Nitrogen-Fixing
Bacteria. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

73. The Development of Single-Germ Beet Seed. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

74. The Prickly Pear and Other Cacti as Food for Stock. 1905. Price, 5
cents.

75. Range Management in the State of Washington. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

76. Copper as an Algicide and Disinfectant in Water Supplies. 1905.
Price, 5 cents.

77. The Avocado, a Salad Fruit from the Tropics. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

78. Improving the Quality of Wheat. [In press.]

79. The Variability of Wheat Varieties in Resistance to Toxic Salts. 1905.
Price, 5 cents.

80. Agricultural Explorations in Algeria. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

81. Evolution of Cellular Structures. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

82. Grass Lands of the South Alaska Coast. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

83. The Vitality of Buried Seeds. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

84. The Seeds of the Bluegrasses. [In press.]

jl'^ASHiNGTON, D. C, Sejjtemher 8, 1905.

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction 5

Distribution 5

Habitat 6

Germination of the seed 7

Fall seeding versus spring seeding 7

Directions for storing the seed 8

Detailed conditions and results of storage experiments 9

Packing for transportation 11

Methods of making germination tests 11

Effect of temperature on germination 12

Summary' 12

Description of plates 16

3

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.
Plate I. Wild rice growing in water after being kept wet in cold storage at a
temperature of 32-34° F., from October 19, 1903, to November 15,

1904 16

II. Stages of germination of wild rice, showing the development of the
root system and the relative position of the seedling and the parent

seed 16

4

B. P. 1.-1/

THE STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD

RICE SEED."

INTRODUCTION.

The seed of wild rice, sometimes called Indian rice or water oats
[Zlsania aquatica L.), has alwaj^s been a very valuable food among
the Indians, especially those of the upper ^Mississippi Valley. Of
recent 3'ears wild rice has found a place on the menu cards of some
of our best American hotels. The rich and highlv nutritious o-rains.
together with the slightly smoky flavor it has when properly pre-
pared, make it an extremely palatable article of diet. If it were not
for the difficulties of harvesting the seed and preparing the finished
product for market it is probable that wild rice would find a place in
many American homes.

At present, however, the greatest interest in wild rice is created by
the vahie of the seed as a food for wild waterfowl, particularly wild
ducks. As a result of this interest the propagation of wild rice from
seed has become a question of considerable importance, especial!}' to
the members of the gunning clubs throughout the United States and
Canada.

DISTRIBUTION.

The. distribution of wild rice is now reported from New Brunswick
and Assiniboia south to Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. There are.
however, comparative!}' few localities in which it grows abundantly.

« Wild rice is considered one of the most important foods for Avild ducks and other
waterfowl, and a large number of inquiries have been received from meni1)ers of
gunning chiles throughout the United States asking where good, germinable seed can
be secured. It is quite generally recognized that wild rice seed lofes its vitality if
allowed to become dry, and better methods of storing the seed during the winter
have long since been demanded.

The results of investigations begun two years ago show that wild rice seed can be
handled without any deterioration in vitality if it is harvested and stored according
to methods outlined in the present paper.

J. W. T. DrvEL, Actiiuj BoianiM in Charge nf Seed LdhiD-dlor;/.
Seed I^auoratory,

Wushimjton, D. V., Jabj JO, lUO,').

5

6 STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED.

Good reasons exist for assiiniing that this area can be extended to
include all fresh-Avater lakes, as well as swamps and river bogs, where
the water does not become stagnant, throughout the whole of North
America south of latitude 55° north. Wild rice also grows luxuri-
antly along the lower parts of man}- of the rivers of the Atlantic Coast
States, the waters of which are affected by the action of the tide to a
considerable degree, and consequently contain an appreciable quantitj^
of salt. It has been shown '^ that the maximum degree of concentra-
tion of salt water in which wild rice plants can grow successfully is
equivalent to a 0.03 normal solution of sodium chlorid. This concen-
tration corresponds to 0.1755 per cent by weight of sodium chlorid,
which is sufficient to give a slight salty taste to the water.

HABITAT.

While it is w^ell recognized that the habitat of the wild rice plant is
in shallow fresh water, it is now known that it will grow luxuriantly
in water containing little less than two-tenths of 1 per cent of sodium
chlorid. Occasional plants have been found growing in water which
contained, for short periods at least, nearly double that amount of
salt. These facts indicate the possibility of a much wnder range of
conditions to which this plant ma}' be subjected without hindering its
development. It is not beyond the range of possibility — indeed, it is
quite probable — tUat by careful selection plants may be obtained which
will thrive on soil that is comparatively dry, at least in places in which
the water can be drawn off graduall}" during the latter part of the
growing season.

In September, 1904, Mr. G. C. Worthen, of the Bureau of Plant
Industry, collected a cluster of wild rice plants which were growing
on the Potomac Flats, near Washington, D. C, in soil which was suf-
ficiently dry to permit the use of a 2-horse mowing machine for cutting
down the rank growth of vegetation. This was newly made land, and
in all pro])ability the seed giving rise to this cluster of plants was
pumped in with the dirt from the Potomac River the year previous.

This amphibious t\'pe once established, it will undoul)tedl3^ carry
with it a strain of seed which can withstand considerable drying with-
out any marked injury to its vitalit}'. Such being true, the methods
and difficulties of propagation from seed would be greatly simplified.

Simultaneous with establishing an amphibious tj^pe should come the
selection of seed plants which are capable of retaining their seed until
the larger part of it has reached maturity. These two steps once
made, the future of wild rice as a cereal will be assured.

(> The Salt Water Limits of Wild Rice. Bulletin No. 72, Part II, Bureau of Plant
Industiy, United States Department of Agriculture, 1905.

FALL SEEDING VERSUS SPRING SEEDING. 7

GERMINATION OF THE SEED.

The greatest difficult}- to be overcome in extending the area for
growing wild rice is the poor germination of the commercial seed.
Inasmuch as wild rice constitutes one of the most important foods of
wild ducks and other wild waterfowl, many individuals and most of
the gunning clubs east of the Rocky Mountains have been asking the
question, How can we propagate wild rice from seed in order to estab-
lish better feeding and fattening grounds for our game birds?

The man}' failures in the propagation of wild rice fi'om seed have
been due to the use of seed that had become dry before sowing, or to
the fact that the seed when sown fresh in the autumn had been eaten
by ducks or other animals or was carried away by heavy floods before
germination took place. '

It is now very generally known that the seed of wild rice, if once
allowed to become dry, will not germinate, save possibly an occasional
grain. In its natural habitat the seed, as soon as mature, falls into the
water and sinks into the mud beneath, where it remains during the
winter months, germinating the following spring if conditions are
favorable.

Heretofore the plan generally followed, and the one usually recom-
mended by those who have given some attention to the propagation of
wild rice, was practically that of natural seeding; that is, to gather the
seed in the autumn, as soon as thoroughly mature, and, while still fresh,
to sow it in 1 to 3 feet of water.

FALL SEEDING VERSUS SPRING SEEDING.

It must be remembered that the bulk of the seed remains dormant
during the winter, germinating first the spring after maturing; con-
sequently, with but few exceptions, fall seeding is unsatisfactory and
unrelia))le. Fall seeding is likely to prove a failure for three reasons:
(1) Wild ducks and other animals of various kinds eat or destroy the
seed in considerable quantity before it has had time to germinate the
following spring; (2) much of the seed is frequently covered so deeply
with mud that washes in from the shore during the winter that the
young plants die of sufli'ocation and starvation before they reach the
surface; (3) in some cases a large quantity of the seed is carried away
from the place where sown by the high waters and floating ice prev-
alent during the latter part of the winter and early spring.

In exceptional cases these difficulties can be overcome; under which
circumstances autumn sowing may be preferable to spring sowing.
In the majority of cases, however, much better results will be
obtained if the seed is properly stored and sown in the early spring,
as soon as the danger of heavy floods is passed and the water level
approaches normal.

8 STOKAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED.

In sowing' the seed considerable rare must he exercised in selectinsf
a suitable place, securing the proper depth of water, etc. Good
results can be expected if the seed is sown in from 1 to 3 feet of water
which is not too stagnant or too swiftly moving, with a thick layer of
soft mud underneath.^' It is useless to sow wild rice seed on a o-ravellv
bottom or in water where the seed will be constantly disturbed by
strong currents.

Previous to this time, save in a few reported cases, the seed which
was allowed to dry during the winter and was sown the following
spring gave only negative results. It is now definitely known that
wild rice, if properly handled, can be stored during the winter without
impairing the quality of germination to any appreciable degree, and
that it can be sown the following spring or summer with good success.

DIRECTIONS FOR STORING THE SEED.

The vitalit}" of wild rice seed is preserved almost perfectly if kept
wet in cold storage — Nature's method of preservation. This method
of storage implies that the seed has been properly harvested and cared
for up to the time of storage. The seed should be gathered as soon
as mature, put loosely into sacks (preferal)ly l)urlap), and sent at once
to the cold-storage rooms. If the wild rice fields are some distance
from the cold-storage plant the sacks of seed should be sent by express,
and unless prompt delivery can be guaranteed it is not advisable to
send by freight even for comparatively short distances. It is very
important that the period between the time of harvesting and the
time when the seed is put into cold storage be as short as possible.
If this time is prolonged to such an extent as to admit of much fer-
mentation or to allow the seed near the outside of the bags to become
dry during transit, its vitality will be greatly lowered.

It is not practicable to give an}^ definite length of time which may
elapse between harvesting and storing, inasmuch as the temperature,
humidity, and general weather conditions, as well as the methods of
handling the seed, must be taken into consideration. Let it sufiice to
say, however, that the vitalit}- of the seed will be the stronger the
sooner it is put into cold storage after harvesting.

As soon as the seed is received at the cold-storage plant, while it is
still fresh and before fermentation has taken place, it should be put
into buckets, open barrels, or vats, covered with fresh water, and
placed at once in cold storage. If there is present a considerable
quantity of light immature seed or straw, broken sticks, etc., it will
be profitable to separate this from the good seed b}' floating in water

« Wild Rife: Its Uses and Propagation. Bulletin No. 50, Bureau of Plant industry,
United States Department of Agriculture, 1903.

STORAGE EXPERIMENTS. 9

preparatory to storing. The storage room should be maintained at
a temperature just al)ove freezing —what the storage men usually
designate as the "chill room."

When taken from cold storage in the spring the seed must not be
allowed to dry out before planting, as a few days' dr3'ing will destroy
every embr3"o.

Seed which was stored under the foregoing conditions from October
19, 1903, to November 15, 1901, 393 days, germinated from 80 to 88
per cent. Another lot of seed, which was stored on October 6, 1904,
and tested for vitality on April 17, 1905, germinated 79.8 per cent.

Plate I shows the luxuriant growth made b}" the seed which was kept
wet and stored at a temperature of 32"^ to 31^ F. for 393 da3's.

DETAILED CONDITIONS AND RESULTS OF STORAGE EXPERI-
MENTS.

The foregoing conclusions are based on the results obtained from
two series of experiments, as follows:

In October, 1903, a box of wild rice seed was received from Ontario,
Canada. This seed, as soon as gathered, was loose!}' packed in moist
sphagnum and sent b}' express to the Seed Laboratory of the United
States Department of Agriculture. After a few da^'s, while it was
3'et moist and before an}^ fermentation had taken place, the seed was
divided into four lots for special treatment, as follows:

(1) Seed subiuerged in water and placed in cold storage at a temper-
ature of 32° to Sl'^ F.

(2) Seed submerged in water and placed in cold storage at a temper-
ature of 12^ F. The seed was soon embedded in a solid ma.ss of ice
and remained so until samples were taken for test.

(3) Seed, without the addition of water, put into cloth bags and kept
in cold storage at a temperature of 32° to 31° F.

(1) Seed, without the addition of water, put into cloth bags and kept
in cold storage at a temperature of 12° F.

In October, 1901, a second consignment of seed was received from
Minnesota, and the following additional storage experiments were
made by Mr. C. S. Scotield, of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

(5) Seed submerged in water and placed in cold storage at a temper-
ature of 32° to 31° F., as in No. 1.

(6) Seed sul)merged in water and placed in cold storage at a temper-
ature of 12° F., as in No. 2.

(7) Seed submerged in water in a galvanized-iron bucket and stored
on the roof of the laboratory building. The water was changed daily
when not frozen.

10 STOKAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD KICE SEED.

(8) Seed submerged in water in a galvanized-iron bucket and stored
on the roof of the laboratory })viilding, as in No. 7. In this case the
water was not changed save to replace the loss due to evaporation.

(9) The conditions for No. 9 were the same as those for No. 8,
except that air was forced into the water dailv when not frozen solid.

Samples of seed were taken from the different lots and tested for
vitality at irregular intervals throughout the time of storage, which,
in the former series, extended over a period approximately thirteen
months and in the latter series over a period of little more than six
months.

Experimeyits Nos. 1 and 5. — The seed w^hich was submerged in water
and stored in the "chill room" showed no deterioration in vitality.
The results of the tinal tests gave a germination varying from 79.8 to
88 per cent. This is practically Nature's method of preserving the
vitality of the seed during the Avinter.

Experiments Nos. 2 and G. — The seed which was submerged in
water and stored at a temperature of 12^ F. was all killed liefore the
spring following the date of storage. Soon after being placed in stor-
age the water was frozen solid and the seeds were embedded in a mass
of ice, in which condition they remained throughout the experiment,
a portion being cut out from time to time for germination tests. The
complete loss of vitality in these two lots of seed is attributed not to
the freezing directl3% but to the thorough desiccation as a result of
the continuous low temperature.

Experiments Nos. 3 and Jf. — The samples of seed w"hi(;h were stored
in cloth bags at the temperatures of 32° to 34° F. and of 12° F. had,
for all economic purposes, entirel}' lost their vitality. The average
percentage of germination, as shown by the 37 tests made from each
of the two lots, was less than live-tenths of 1 per cent.

Exj>eriment No. 7. — The seed which was submerged in water and
stored on the roof of the laboratory building, the water being changed
daily, showed a good percentage of germination when the last vitality
tests Ave re made. If onh" a small quantity of seed is desired for the
spring planting and cold storage can not be readily secured, good
results may be obtained b}" this treatment; but it is much less certain
and probabh' more expensive than keeping the seed in cold storage,
and for this reason is not recommended. The success of this method
will likewise depend largel}' on the temperature of the water.

Experiments Nos. 8 and 9. — On April 22, 1905, samples taken from
each of these two lots of seed showed a marked deterioration in vitality.
Thoroughly mixed samples from No. 8 showed a vitalit}' of only 58
per cent, while No. 9 had deteriorated to 1-1.3 per cent.

METHODS OF MAKING GEKMINATION TESTS. 11

PACKING FOR TRANSPORTATION.

Too much care can not be given to the matter of packing the seed
for transportation, for unless the packing is properly done the vitality
of the seed will be destroyed during transit. What is here said applies
to fresh seed which is to be sown in the autumn, as well as to seed
which has been kept in cold storage during the winter. It must not
be forgotten, however, that the vitality of cold-storage seed is more
quickly destro3'ed on drying than that of fresh seed.

For transportation the seed should be carefully packed, with moist
sphagnum, cocoaniit liber, or fine excelsior, in a loosel}^ slatted box.
If the time of transportation does not exceed five or six days no spe-
cial precautions need be taken as to the temperature. During the
period of transportation it is quite probable that some of the seed will
germinate, but if sown at once growth will not be retarded and the
roots will soon penetrate the soil and anchor the young plants.

If the time of transportation is necessarily long, it is reconnnended,
if the best results are desired, that some provision be made for a
reduced temperature. The nearer the temperature approaches that of
freezing the better. It has been demonstrated, however, that a fair
percentage of seed will remain germinable for a considerable time if
packed as above described.

On October 10, 1904, Mr. C. S. Scofield sent a small quantity of
wild rice, packed in moist sphagnum moss in a well-ventilated box, to
Doctor De Vries, of Amsterdam, Holland. On October 14 or 15 this
box was placed in cold storage on the steamer in New York Harbor.
The box of seed was received b}^ Doctor De Vries in good condition on
November 2, twenty-one days after the seed was packed for shipment.

METHODS OF MAKING GERMINATION TESTS.

The samples were tested (IJ between folds of blotting paper — our
regular method for testing the germination of most seeds — and (2) in
water, Nature's method of sowing wild rice seed. The latter method
gave much better results and was the one finalh^ adopted for the
laboratory tests. The seed should be covered with water, the water
in the dishes to be changed daily.

Plate I shows the importance of making the germination tests in
water, as described in the foregoing paragraph. The seed was covered
with water and placed in a germinating chamber maintained at an
alternating temperature of 20- C. {iiS'-' F.) for eighteen hours, and
30'^ C. (84^ F.) for six hours, until the majority of the seeds had
germinated. At this stage the dish containing the seeds was trans-
ferred to the worktable, which was exposed to the temperature of the
laboratory — approximately that of a living-room. The water in the

12 STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED.

dish was changed daily during the period of germination, and water
was afterwards added at irregular intervals to replace the loss by
evaporation.

Plate 11 shows somewhat in detail the diti'erent stages in the germina-
tion of wild rice seeds. The seeds and seedlings are shown in natural
size. In h and c the first sheath has just burst through the seed coats,
taking a position at right angles to the seed proper. The lateral roots
begin to emerge when the first sheath leaf has attained a length of i to
1\ inches. From this time growth continues rapidly, and by the time
the seedlings are 2 or 3 inches long the root system is very well
developed (/' and g). At this stage under favorable conditions the
plants have a good hold in the soil and will not be washed away by an
ordinary freshet. The relative position of the actively growing
seedling is always at right angles to that of the old seed, as shown in
/"and g.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON GERMINATION.

Germination tests were made at constant and alternating tempera-
tures, ranging from 15- to 35- C. (59- to 95° F.). While no etfort
was made to show the minimum and maximum temperatures of ger-
mination, the percentage was somewhat reduced at a constant tempera-
ture of 35*^ C, and the maximum is not much above that. All of the
other temperatures gave good results. The lower temperatures, how-
ever, were slightly more favorable than the higher. These facts are
valuable to sho\v that the wild rice plant can thrive in either warjii or
cold water, but better, perhaps, in northern than in southern latitudes.

SUMMARY.

(1) Under no circumstances should wild rice seed which is intended
for planting be allowed to dry. Driec^seed will germinate but rarely
and should never be sown.

(2) Wild rice seed can be stored without deterioration if it is gath-
ered as soon as matured, put into barrels or tanks, covered with fresh
water, and, before fermentation has set in, stored at a temperature of
32-34- F. Seed treated in this way germinated as high as SS per cent
after being in storage 393 days. Fresh seed seldom germinates better,
and usually not so well.

(3) After the seed is taken from cold storage it should not l)e
allowed to dry. The vitality of cold-storage seed is destroyed on
drying even more quickly than that of fresh seed.

(4) For transportation the seed should be packed in moist sphagnum,
cocoanut liber, or line excelsior. If not more than live ox six days
are required for transit, no special precautions need be taken for con-
trolling the temperature; but if the time for transportation exceeds

SUMMARY. 13

six days, provision should be made for a temperature sufficiently low
to prevent marked fermentation. A temperature approximately
freezing will give the most satisfactorv results.

(5) Wild rice can be sown either in the autumn or in the spring.
Spring sowing is preferable, thus avoiding the danger of having the
seed eaten or destroyed by wild ducks or other animals during the fall
or winter, or of its being buried or washed away by the heavy floods
of late winter or early spring.

(6) Wild rice should be sown in the spring in from 1 to 3 feet of
water which is neither too stagnant nor too swiftly moving, as soon as
the danger of heavy Hoods is passed.

(7) Wild rice is of the greatest importance as a food for wild water-
fowl, likewise a delicious breakfast food for man, and the area in which
it is extensively grown should be extended. It will grow luxuriantl}^
in either warm or cold water; furthermore, it can be grown success-
fully in water which is slightly salty to the taste.

(8) In determining the vitalit}' of any sample of w^ild rice seed the
germination tests should be made in water — the condition under which
the self-sown seed germinates,

(9) The seed will germinate well at temperatures ranging from
lo-" to 30^ C. ' The maximum temperature of germination is above
35^ C. (95^ F.), but better results are obtained at lower temperatures.

1

1

PLATES.

15

i

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I. Wild rice growing in water. This seed was submerged at a temperature of
32-34° F. for approximately thirteen months. In making the germination test
the seed was covered with water and placed in a germinating chamber main-
tained at a temperature of 20° C. (68° F.) for eighteen hours, and at 30° C.
(86° F. ) for six hours. After the majority of the seeds had germinated the dish
was transferred to the worktable of the Seed Laboratory.

Plate II. Progressive stages in the development of wild rice seedlings; / and g, seed-
lings showing the relative position of the growing seedlings and the parent seed,
which take a position at right angles to each other when grown normally in
water. (Natural size. )
16

O

Bui 90, Pt. I, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

Wild Rice Growing in Water after being Kept Wet in Cold Storage at a Tem-
perature OF 32-34" F., from October 19, 1903, to November 15, 1904.

4

Bui. 90, Pt. I, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agricultim

Plate II.

Stages of Germination of Wild Rice, Showing the Development of the
Root System and the Relative Position of the Seedling and the
Parent Seed. Natural Size.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 90, PART II.

B. T. GALLOWAY, C'liirf nf Bureau.

THE CROWN-GALL AND HAIRY-ROOT DISEASES

OF THE APPLE TREE.

BY

GEORGE G. HEDGCOCK.
Assistant in Pathology, Mississippi Valley Laboratory.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATIONS.

Issued Noyember 17, 1905.

l^EW YORK

30TANICAL

GARDEN*

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1 0 0 5 .

I

CONTENTS.

Page.

lutrodnction 5

Two distinct diseases, crown-gall and hairy-root 5

Types of apple crown-gall 6

Effect npon the length of life of the apple tree 6

Suggestions to nurserymen 6

Data desired 7

8

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction 5

Two distinct diseases, crown-gall and hairy-root 5

Types of apple crown-gall 6

Effect upon the length of life of the apple tree 6

Suggestions to nurserymen 6

Data desired 7

8

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate I. Fig. 1.— Apple crown-gtiU on grafted tree. Fig. 2.— Apple crown-gall
on tranf^planted seedling. Fig. 3.— Hairy-root disease on grafted

apple tree. Fig. 4. — Hairy-root disease on grafted apple tree

II. Fig. 1.— Apple seedlings diseased with hairy-root. Fig. 2.— Apple

seedlings diseased with soft crown-gall

III. Fig. 1.— Healthy fibrous-rooted apple tree, pot grown. Fig. 2.—
Apple seedlings diseased with hairy-root

Page.

Bui. 90. Pt. II, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

i . ''^jj } ^''^""N-J

k

^, if^w^B

L^^^

~-i*^^^ '/' -J^H^^H

Bh|rjv^;-\*^

S^i^X^«V^ '

Ba)l\ I 1

IW.

/ :f\

ijf^

^r^

x<:^

\^^

Fig. 1.— Apple Crown-Gall on
Grafted Tree.

Fig. 2.— Apple Crown-Gall on
Transplanted Seedling.

Ai

il: J\l f.

£

/■-^^BBJ

^p-

*'^^^

-,y

\ i

Fig. 3.— Hairy-Root Disease on
Grafted Apple Tree.

Fig. 4.— Hairy-Root Disease on
Grafted Apple Tree.

Bui. 90, Pt. II Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dfcpt. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Bui. 90, Pt. II, Bureau of Plant Indust'y, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture.

Plate III

B. P. I.-186. V. P. P. I.-145.

THE CROWN-GALL AND HAIRY-ROOT DISEASES

OF THE APPLE TREE.

INTRODUCTION.

The diseases of the apple which have been classed under the name
crown-gall have, during- the last few ^^ears, attracted much attention,
due partly to an increase of these diseases and partly to the enacting
of more stringent State laws governing the shipment and inspection of
trees.

A series of investigations into the nature of crown-gall upon the
apple, pear, raspberry, peach, almond, grape, rose, and other plants
has been in progress for some time in the Mississippi Valley Labora-
tory of the Bureau of Plant Industry at St. Louis, ]Mo., and also at
other points in the Mississippi Valley. It is not to be assumed, how-
ever, that such diseases are more common in this locality than in some
other portions of the United States. Apple crown-gall and hairy -root
have been found in all nurseries that have been examined in various
portions of the country.

This preliminary report is sent out, not with the intention of giving
the results of all our investigations, but for the purpose of calling the
attention of apple-tree growers to the ditlerent diseases hitherto known
as apple crown-gall, and to endeavor to interest them in the collection
of data regarding the predisposition of varieties to these diseases.

TWO DISTINCT DISEASES, CROWN-GALL, AND HAIRY-ROOT.

Our investigations have resulted first in separating apple crown-gall
into two diseases, which are considered distinct. The disease now
designated as crown-gall is a callous-like gall growth of hypertrophied
tissue following w^ounds on some portion of the root system of the
tree, which rarely occurs above the ground on parts of the trunk or
limbs. (See PI. I, ligs. 1 and 2.)

The malady now called the hairy-root disease is evidently the same
as the one first given this name by Stewart, Rolfs, and Hall in Bulletin
IHl of the New York State Experiment Station. It is characterized
both in seedlings (PI. II, tig. 1, and PI. Ill, tig. 2) and in grafted or

5

6 CEOWN-GALL AND HAIRY-KOOT DISEASES OF THE APPLE TREE.

budded trees (PI. I, figs. 3 and 4) by a stunted root system, accom-
panied with an excessive production of small fibrous roots, often origi-
nating- in clusters from the main root, or taproot, (lalls often occur
in connection Avith hairy-root, but these are a result of wounds rather
than a form of this disease. Seedlings of the hairy-root t3'pe, unless
wounded, remain free from galls.

TYPES OF APPLE CROWN-GALL.

Apple crown-gall is of two types. A hard callous form is common
on grafted trees at the union of the root and scion, and at any other
point of the root system where wounds occur in either the cultivation
or transplanting of trees (PI. I, fig. 1). The results of extensive inoc-
ulations with this type have failed to prove that this disease is of a
contagious nature.

A second type is a soft form more common on seedlings (PI. 11,
fig. 2), occurring more rarely on grafted trees (PI. I, fig. 2). These
softer galls resemble those of the raspl)erry and peach, in that they
are soft and often rot off. It is not certain, however, that they, like
the latter, are replaced the following year by a new gall growth from
the adjacent live tissues of the host, nor is there proof yet that they
are of a contagious nature.

EFFECT UPON THE LENGTH OF LIFE OF THE APPLE TREE.

Careful data are being collected from orchards and nurseries as to
the effect of these diseases upon the life and fruitfulness of trees.
Any information as to the locality of orciiards in which diseased trees
have bee-n planted w^ill be highly appreciated. In our crown-gall
orchard there are more than 200 trees diseased with the hard type of
crown-gall, and 20O healthy trees of the same grade planted under
similar conditions. After two years' growth six of the crown-gall
trees and nine of the healthy ones have died. No difference in the
growth of the trees is noticeable. However, it can not be assumed
from the results so far that, on the one hand, the disease may not yet
shorten the life of the trees, or, on the other, that the trees may not
entirely overcome its effects. A tree having crown-gall on its roots,
however, can never be correctly graded with a smooth-rooted tree.
The root system of a healthy fibrous-rooted apple tree is shown in
Plate III, figure 1.

SUGGESTIONS TO NURSERYMEN.

Nurserymen are advised to be careful in the selection of seedlings
for grafting and budding. All rough, warty, or galled seedlings
should be thrown out, for most of them will form rough-rooted trees.
Seedlings with tufted or hairy roots should also be rejected, for these,

DATA DESIRED.

as shown b}^ our experiments, develop into hairy-rooted trees with a
verj- deficient root system. The hairy-root disease, as it appears from
the results of two years' experiments, is not contagious. It is hoped
in the near future to be able to offer some practical means of reducing
the percentage of trees affected with these diseases in the nursery.

DATA DESIRED.

The hearty cooperation of nurserymen and orchardists in securing
data is desired. It is hoped to secure the help of the leading nursery-
men of this country in getting an accurate count from each nursery
of the number of diseased trees in at least one row of every variety
in all fields where the trees are all dug in one season. Such data are
desired from every locality where apple trees are grown. Printed
blanks with directions for tabulating such data have been provided
and these will be sent to all who request them. Address the Missis-
sippi Valley Laboratory, St. Louis, Mo. .

o

I

i

U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY- BULLETIN NO. 90, PART III.

B. T. <;aLLOWAY, Cliiif nf lUtieau.

PEPPEEMINT.

BY

ALICE HENKEL,

Assistant, Drug-Plant Investigations.

Issued December 28, 1905.

-itJRARV

'^EW YORK

BOTANICAL

GARDENv

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1905.

CONTENTS.

Pace

Description 5

Countries where grown 6

Peppermint ciiltivation in the United Sta4;es 7

Cultivation . 8

Conditions injurious to crop 9

Harvesting and distillation ^ 10

Description of still 11

Peppermint oil and menthol 18

Export of peppermint oil -. 13

Prices of peppermint oil 14

3

i

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.
Fig. 1 . Peppermint • ' runners. ' " showing method of propagation 6

2. Leaves and flowering top of peppermint 6

3. Peppermint still (after Dewey, in Bailey's Cyclopedia of American

Horticulture) 12

4 /

i

(

B. P. 1-189.

PEPPERMINT.

DESCRIPTION.

One of the most important essential oils produced in the United
States is distilled from the peppermint plant and its varieties. The
three kinds of mint grown in this country for the distillation of pep-
permint oil are the so-called American mint {Mentlui piperita L.),
the black mint {MentJia piperita ralffai'is Sole), and the white mint
{Mentha piperita officinalis Sole), the two last named being varieties
of the American mint.

The American mint, although introduced from England many
years ago, is so called from the fact that it has long been cultivated
in this C(Mnitrv. and the name " State mint " has been applied to it in
the State of New York for the same reason.

The peppermint, or American mint, is now naturalized in many
parts of the eastern United States, occurring in wet soil from the Xew
England States to Minnesota, south to Florida and 'Tennessee. It is
an aromatic perennial belonging to the mint family (Menthacea'),
and propagates by means of its long, running roots (fig. 1). The
smooth, square stems are erect and branching, from 1 to 3 feet in
height, bearing dark-green, lance-shaped leaves, which are from 1 to
2 inches long, and from one-half to 1 inch wide. The leaves are
pointed at the apex, rounded or narrowed at the base, sharply
toothed, smooth on both sides, or with hairy veins on the lower sur-
face. The flowers are borne in whorls in dense, terminal spikes: they
are purplish, with a tubular, five-toothed calyx, and a four-lobi^d
corolla. (Fig. 2.)

a In response to a steady demand for information relating to the peppermint
industry, Miss Alice Henkel. Assistant in l)rn.i,'-l'l:int Invcstiiiations. lias hccn
requested to bring together the most imiiortant facts r»^garding the history,
culture, and utilization of the peppermint i)lant. The information here pre-
sented has been obtained in large part from scattered articles on the subject,
and in part from experience with the plant in the Testing (iardens of the l)ei)art-

rnent of Agriculture.

Rodney II. True. Phii-siologist in Charge.

Office of Drug-Plant Investigations.

Washwyton, I). C.. (xlobrr I',, 190-5.

5

6

PEPPERMINT.

Pig. 1.

-Peppermint -'runners," showing method of
pi'opagation.

The two varieties mentioned are closely related liotanically. al-
though in general appear-
ance they are quite differ-
ent. The variety known
as black mint {Mentha
piperita nulgaris) has piu'-
ple stems and slightly
toothed, dark-green leaves,
while the white mint
{Mentha piperita offici-
nalis) has gre6n stems,
with brighter green leaves,
which are more lance-
shaped and more deeply
toothed. Black mint is much more hardy and i:)roductive than either
the American mint or the white mint,
and is groAvn on nearly all pepper-
mint farms in this country. The white
mint. Avhich produces a fine grade
of oil. is rarely cultivated on a com-
mercial scale in this country on ac-
count of its inability to withstand the
climate and its smaller yield of essen-
tial oil.

The oils spoken of as Japanese and
Chinese " peppermint " oils are not ob-
tained from the true peppermint plant,
but are distilled from entirely diti'erent
species, namely, Mentha arvenms plper-
ascens Malinvaud and Mentha arrensts
glahrata Holmes, respectively.

COUNTRIES WHERE GROWN.

The most important pejipermint-
producing countries are the United
States. England, and Japan. Pepper-
mint is grown on a smaller scale in
Germany, France, Italy, Russia, China,
and southern India.

In Japan, peppermint cultivation
is said to have been undertaken
before the Christian era. The plant
groAvn there is not, as already fig. 2.
stated, the peppermint cultivated in
our country, but Mentha arrensifi pipei'aseens, which is entirelj^ dis

Leaves and flowering top of
peppermint.

CULTIVATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 7

tinct from the true peppermint, not only botanically but also in taste
and odor.

Peppermint is cultivated on many drug farms in England, espe-
cially at Mitcham, the middle of the eighteenth century marking the
beginning of peppermint cultivation in that country. Up to 1805,
however, there were no stills at Mitcham, and the crops obtained
there were sent to London for distillation. About 1S50. at which
time the peppermint industry in England was at its height, the eifect
of American competition began to be felt, and caused a decided
check in the production.

PEPPERMINT CULTIVATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

Wayne County, X. Y., in ISIG, was the first locality in this country
to distill peppermint on a commercial scale. The supply of root-
stocks was obtained from the wild plants found growing along the-
banks of streams and brooks. Adjacent counties soon undertook the
cultivation of peppermint, but Wayne County was then, and is now,
the principal peppermint district in New York.

The cultivation of peppermint was extended to Ashtabula, Geauga,
and Cuyahoga counties in Ohio, and also to northern Indiana. Roots
were taken from Ohio into St. Joseph County, Mich., the first plan-
tation being made on Pigeon prairie in 1835. Other plantations in
St. Joseph County Avere established the following j^ears, and adjoin-
ing counties soon took up the cultivation of peppermint, and south-
western Michigan has been for thirtv-five vears or more the greatest
peppermint-producing section in the United States.

About 184-t an interesting peppermint-oil monopoly " was under-
taken by a Xew York firm, Avliich seems to have put an end to pepper-
mint cultivation in Ohio, for none of the counties just mentioned
has since been heard from as a peppermint-producing section.

The first step taken by this Xew York firm in its efforts to con-
trol the pepperi,nint-oil market was to send a representative to
Liverpool, England, to ascertain the amount annually demanded by
that market, which was found to be about 12,000 pounds. This done,
another agent was sent West to determine the amount produced annu-
ally, with the result that it Avas found that the farms in Xew York
did not produce enough oil for their purposes, the plantations in
Ohio too much, while those in IMichigan seemed to produce just about
tlie right amount to satisfy the Liverpool demand. A contract was
then entered into by this agent with the producers in Xew York and
Ohio '• whereby he bound them muler heavy penalties to plow up
their mint fields and destroy the roots, and not plant any more mint.
or sell or give away any roots, or produce or sell any mint oil for the

aProc. Amer. Pharui. Assoc, 7:449-459 (1858).

8

PEPPERMINT.

period of five years." For this Avholesale destruction of their mint
fields the producers received a bonus of $1.50 per acre. Next a con-
tract was made by the agent witli the producers of St. Joseph County.
Mich., agreeing to pay them $2.50 a pound for their mint oil, every
ounce of the mint oil to be delivered for a period of five years to the
agents named in the contract. They also were prohibited during
this period from extending their plantations and from selling roots
to anyone. The producers held to these contracts for about three
years, after which period the New York firm was not so anxious to
enforce them, having, in the meantime, acquired a large fortune
through its pepi^ermint-oil monopoly.

Since that period the area devoted to peppermint cultivation in
Michigan has steadily increased, and northern Indiana, with its prin-
cipal centers of production in St. Joseph, Steuben, and La (irange
counties, continues to place on the nuirket a considerable quantity of
oil. Ohio seems to have abandoned i^eppermint ctdtivation, at least
on a commercial scale, and New York, for a number of years and until
very recently, had greatly reduced the area under peppermint, thou-
sands of acres formerly devoted to this crop having been given over
to sugar beets, onions, and celery. In 1889 Wayne County, N. Y.,
had 3,325 acres of peppermint, whereas in 1801) there were only 300
acres. In 1905, about 933 acres were under cultivation.

Special canvassers appointed by fhe State of ^lichigan " made a
canvass of 299 growers in the peppermint district in that State, cover-
ing 39 townships in nine counties (Allegan, Berrien, Branch, Cass,
Kalamazoo, Oakland, St. Joseph. St. Clair, and Van Buren), and
the total numljer of acres under peppermint cultivation, the mnnber
of pounds of oil distilled, and the average number of pounds per acre,
as ascertained by this canvass, for the years 1900, 1901, and 1902, are
as follows :

Items.

Total number of acres grown . . _

Total number of pounds distilled ...
Average number of pounds per acre

1902.

6.4a)?

82,42(li-

12.8

CULTIVATION.

Peppermint cultivation is most i^rofitable on muck lands, such as
are now used in Michigan for this crop and for celery and cranberry
culture. These muck lands were formerly marshes and swamps,
which have been reclaimed by draining, j^lowing, and cultivating,
the swamp vegetation having been thus subdued, and the decayed

n Twentieth Animnl Iteport of the P.iu'e.in of Lahor of the State of ^Michigan,
1903. pp. 4:]S-i4T.

CONDITIONS INJURIOUS TO CROP. ' 9

vegetable matter resulting in a very black soil Avhicli is most admir-
ably adapted to mint cultivation. Formerly peppermint was grown
exclusively on upland soil in Michigan. l)iit it is a very exhausting-
crop on such land. Only two crops can be obtained from upland
plantations, and after the second year's harvest the land is plowed and
a rotation of clover, corn, etc.. is practiced for five years before pep-
permint is again planted. But on the rich muck land peppermint
can be grown year after year for six or seven years, the land being
jjlowed up after each crop is harvested, and the runners turned under
to form a new growth the succeeding year. The ground is harro^^■ed
in autumn and again in spring, and carefully weeded. Peppermint
will grow, however, on any land that will produce good crops of corn,
the ground being prepared by deep plowing and harrowing.

In Michigan" the land is plowed in the autumn, and early in spring
it is harrowed and marked with furrows about 3 feet apart. The
roots selected for planting are from one-eighth to one-quarter of an
inch thick, and from 1 to 3 feet long; and the workmen engaged in
•• setting mint," as the process is called, carry these roots in sacks
across their shoulders and place them in the furrows by hand, cover-
ing the roots with one foot and stepping on them with the other.
The roots are planted so close together in the furrow as to form a
continuous line. An expert workman can plant about an acre in
a day.

In about two weeks the young plants Avill make their appearance,
and are carefully hoed and cultivated until July and August, when
the plants have usually sent out so many runners as to make further
cultivation difficult. The crop is cultivated with horse cultivators,
but if the land was very weedy in the first place, the weeds will
have to be pulled by hand. It is very necessary that the land be free
from weeds, as any collected with the peppermint crop will seriously
injure the quality of the oil.

It may be interesting to note here that on muck lands, when
necessary, the horses are usually provided Avith mud shoes to prevent
their sinking into the soft, wet ground, these mud shoes consisting
of wide pieces of iron or Avood about 0 by 10 inches, fastened to the
hoofs and ordinary shoes by means of bolts and straps.

CONDITIONS INJURIOUS TO CROP.

Cold and wet weather or extremely dry periods have a very unfa-
vorable effect on the mint crop. Insect enemies also tend to cut down
Uie mint harvest — grasshoppers, crickets, and cutworms sometimes
doing considerable damage. A rust, causing the foliage to droj) off

« Twentieth •Annual Report of tbe Bureau of Labor of the State of Michigan,
1903. pp. 438-447.

10 PEPPERMINT.

and leaving the stems almost bare, is apt to follow if ver}^ moist
weather occurs toward the latter part of the season. Weeds are
especially to be avoided in a mint field, since, as stated, the quality
of the oil will be seriously impaired if these are harvested with the
jieppermint. The weeds generally found in a peppermint field are
Canada fleabane {Leptilon canadense) ^ fireweed {ErechtiteH hieraci-
fol/a), giant ragweed {Amhrasia triflda)^ pennyroyal {Hedeoma
2)idegioidefi), Eaton's grass {Eatonia pennsylvanica) ^ June grass
{Poa pratensis) , and other low grasses.

HARVESTING AND DISTILLATION.

The first crop of mint is harvested in the latter part of August,
when the plants are in full flower, and the gathering continues until
about the middle of September, the stills running night and day
until all the mint is disposed of. The first crop is usually cut with a
scythe, as mowing machines do not Avork well on soft cultivated land.
The succeeding crops are cut with a mowing machine or sweep-rake
reaper. The highest yield per acre and the best qualit}^ of oil are
obtained from the first year's crop. Sometimes, if the weather con-
ditions have been very favorable, a second cutting is made. The
yield of oil from peppermint obtained from the same field sometimes
varies \erv much, the condition of the atmosphere seeming to exert
an influence upon it. as it is said that mint cut after a warm and
liumid night will yield more oil than that cut after a cool and drv
night. It requires about 880 pounds of dried peppermint to produce
J pound of oil, and the yield of oil from an acre ranges from 12 to 50
pounds.

If the mint crop has been grown on muck land, all that is necessary
after the crop has been harvested is to plow up the land and turn the
runners under for a new crop. If grown on upland, after the second
year's crop is in, or, at the most, after the third year's harvest, the land
is ploAved and then given up to other crops. Peppermint exhausts
the land, and it is necessary to practice rotation of crops for about five
years in order to put the land in condition if it is desired to use it
again for peppermint cultivation.

After the plants are cut they are usually placed in windrows until
they are dried, but are not allowed to become so dry as to permit the
leaves to shatter off. and are then taken to the distillery. Some grow-
ers believe that if the plants are allowed to dry there will be a smaller
oil content owing to the escape of some of the oil into the atmosphere,
and so have the plants brought to the distillery in the green state;
but Mr. A. M. Todd " is of the opinion that no loss of oil will result

I

nAmer. .Jour. Pharin., 60: 828-332 (1888).

DESCRIPTION OF STILL. 11

from drying, his experiments along this line showing that the dry
plants can be distilled three times as rapidly as the green plants, and
that a larger qnantity of oil may be obtained. He states that —

To obtain the best results, lioth as to quality of essential oil and economy of
transportation and distillation, the plants should be dried as thoroughly as pos-
sible without endangering the loss of the leaves in handling. Distillation
should then take place as soon as convenient to prevent the oxidation of the oil
in the leaf by atmospheric action.

The smaller producers, who have no stills of their own, have their
mint crop hauled to the nearest peppermint distillery, where it is
distilled for them at a cost of 25 cents per pound of oil.

DESCRIPTION OF STILL.

The apparatus used in peppermint distillation in the early years
of the industry in this country consisted of a copper kettle, from
the top of which a pipe connected with a condensing *' worm.''
Water was placed in the kettle and the plants were immersed in it,
and direct heat was applied to the bottom from a furnace. AVith
such a still only about 15 pounds of oil could be obtained froni a
charge. In 18J:G, large wooden vats Avere substituted for the copper
kettles, and the plants were distilled l)y steam passing through them.
Tlie kettle formerly used as the still was now employed to generate
steam, a long pipe conveying the steam to the bottom of the vats.
AVith this method of distillation from 75 to 100 pounds of oil could
be obtained from a charge without much additional expense.

A modern peppermint still (fig. 3) may be briefly described as fol-
lows: The apparatus required consists of a boiler, a pair of large
circular wooden vats, a condenser, and a receiver. The boiler, of
course, is used for the generation of steam.

Two wooden vats are used in order that they may be filled and
emptied alternately. These vats are al)out 0 feet high and about
5 feet in diameter, with tight-fitting removable covers and perfo-
rated false bottoms. Steam pipes are led from the boiler into the
bottom of the vats.

The condenser consists of a series of pipes of block tin, either
immersed in tanks of cold water or over which cold Avater is kept
running, tlie condenser being connected with the top of the dis-
tilling vats. The condensed steam, together Avith the oil, floAvs into
a metallic receiA^er, in Avhich the oil, being lighter than the Avater,
rises to the top and can be drawn off.

The perforated false bottoms Avith Avhich the vats are supplied
permit the passage of steam. A strong iron hoop is placed about
this false bottom, and tAvo pairs of stout chains, Avhich meet at the top

12

PEPPERMINT.

of the vat in a pair of rings, are attached to it. After the charge
has been distilled it is drawn from the vats by means of this arrange-
ment.

The plants are thrown into the vats and are closely packed by two
or three men tramping upon them, and as the vat becomes about
one-third full the packing is still further assisted by turning in a
small supply of steam, which softens the plants. When the vat is
filled the tight cover is replaced and a full head of steam turned on.
In the largest distilleries the vats have a capacity of from 2.000 to
3,000 pounds of dried plants each.

Fio. 3. — reppermint still. (After Dewey, in Bailey's Cyclopedia of American

Horticulture.)

Aj boiler ; B, steam pipes leading to vats ; C, valves for shutting off steam ; 7), mint
packed in vat ready for distilling; E, mint being lowered into vat; F, tight-fitting cover
used alternately for both vats ; G, pipe from top of vat. joined at H so as to swing to
other vat ; J, perforated pipe, from which cold water drops over condensing tubes ; K,
supply pipe for cold water ; .1/. condensing pipes ; A", outlet for condensed oil and water ;
O and P, water and oil in separating can ; R, outlet for water ; »s', floor of distilling room.

Large tanks are used for storing the oil, and cans holding 20
pounds each are employed for shipping, three of these cans being
placed in a wooden case.

The pejjpermint hay which remains after distillation is used as a
fertilizer or is fed to stock.

PEPPERMINT OIL AND MENTHOL.

Peppermint leaves and flowering tops are official in the Eighth
Decennial Revision of the United States Pharmacopreia. as are like-
wise the following products and preparations derived from these
parts: Oil of peppermint, menthol, spirit of peppermint, and pepper-
mint water.

EXPORT OF PEPPERMINT OIL. 13

The United States Pharmacopoeia describes oil of peppermint as
" a colorless liquid, having the characteristic strong odor of pepper-
mint and a strongly aromatic pungent taste, followed by a sensation
of cold when air is drawn into the mouth.'' It is largely used in medi-
cine, internally as a stimulant and carminative, and externally to
relieve neuralgic and rheumatic conditions. It is also used for flavor-
ing and scenting confectionery, cordials, and cosmetics. There is a
slight difference in the odor of white and black peppermint oil, the
black being more pungent and less agreeable in fragrance than the
white, which has a much finer odor, but, as already indicated, the
white mint is less hard}' than the black and yields a smaller quantity
of oil.

The Japanese oil of peppermint, wdiich, as pointed out elsewdiere in
these pages, is obtained from a different species of mint than that
which produces the true oil of peppermint, is very inferior to the last
named. It has a very unpleasant odor and a bitter, disagreeable
taste, but it is a heavy oil and contains a higher percentage of menthol
and, being a very much cheaper oil, it is liable to be used as an adul-
terant of true peppermint oil.

Menthol, formerly known as peppermint camphor, is the solid con-
stituent of oil of peppermint, obtained by subjecting the distilled oil
to an exceedingly low temperature by means of a freezing mixture.
Its properties are about the same as those of oil of peppermint, only
someAvhat intensified. It is very largely made up into cones or pencils,
which furnish a popular remedy, to be applied externally or inhaled,
•for the relief of headache, neuralgia, catarrh, asthma, and kindred
affections. It is also largely employed in other forms of medication.
The name " pipmenthol " has been applied to the menthol obtained
from the American oil. to distinguish it from the Japanese menthol.
Pipmenthol is said to have a distinct odor of peppermint, while the
Japanese menthol has but a slight peppermint odor.

EXPORT OF PEPPERMINT OIL.

The exports of peppermint oil during the fiscal year ended June 30,
1904, amounted to 42,939 pounds, valued at $121,728. Germany and
the United Kingdom were the largest consumers, the former receiving
22,372 pounds, valued at $65,505, and the latter 11,558 pounds, worth
$31,798.

The following tables show the export of peppermint oil, by coun-
tries, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1904, and the quantities and
values of peppermint oil exported for a period of ten years, from
July 1, 1894, to June 30, 1904, inclusive :

14 PEPPERMINT.

Exports of prppeniii)^ oil hy couiiiricK, for the fi.^cal year ended June 30, lOOJf.a

Country.

Value.

Belgrium _

France __

Germany _

Italy

Netherlands

United Kingdom ._.

Dominion of Canada:

Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, etc

Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, etc...

Newfoundland and Labrador.

West Indies:

British

Cuba

Danish .

Dutch

Argentina _

British Guiana

Peru

British Australasia

Total

Sl,.585
10, 059
65, .505
2,471
1,934
31,798

124, 728

« The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the year ending
June 30, 1904, vol. 1, p. 531, Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor.

Quantities and ralues of peppermint oil e.rported during the fiscal years JS95

to 190'/, inclusive.'t

Fiscal year.

Quan-
tity.

Value.

Fiscal year.

Quan-
tity.

Value.

1895

Pounds.

87.633

85,290

162,492

145,375

117,462

$194,616
174,810
257,484
180.811
118,227

1900

Pounds.
89,558
60,166
36,301
13.033
42.939

$90,298
63,672
54.-898
34 "^43

1896

1901

1897

1902.

1903... _

1904.- ._

1898.__

1899

124 728

" From The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the year ending
.Tune 30. 1902. vol. 2, p. 309, Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department"; and The
Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the year ending June 30,
1904, vol. 1, p. 192, Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce "and Labor.

PRICES OF PEPPERMINT OIL.

The price of peppermint oil was very low for a few years prior to
1900, the enormous production of 1897 resulting in a great drop in
price. The lowest price paid for it was in 1899, when it brought
only 75 cents per pound. As a result of the low price a great many
mint farmers restricted the area of their mint plantations or alto-
gether abandoned peppermint cultivation. The smaller output of
the following seasons again sent prices up, and in 1902 the oil sold
as high as $4.75 a pound, which price was maintained until early in
1903, when it gradually declined, until toward the end of that year it
reached $2.20 per pound.

PRICES OF PEPPERMINT OIL.

15

The following table" gives the highest and lowest prices of pepper-
mint oil in bulk from 1873 to September IG, 1905 :

Year.

1873
1874
1875

1876
1877
1878
1879

i8a»

1881

1882
1883

Highest.

Lowest.

S3. 15

S3. 15

5.25

3. 75

5.50

3.20

3.75

2.40

3.00

1.75

2.00

1.50

2.65

1.45

2.87

2.60

2.85

2.:i5

2. .50

2.25

2.60

2.20

Year.

1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894

Highest.

1
Lowest.

$3.00

$2.50 '

4.37

2.75

3.60

2.75

2.75

1.90 ,

2.40

1.75 1

2.30

L80 ;

2.40

1.80 ;

2.50

2.45

2.50

2.15

2.45

2.15

2.45

L70 1

1

Year.

1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905*

Highest.

$2.00
1.85
L25
.90
.90
LIO
1.80
4.'»
4.75
3.75
3.45

Lowest.

$1.70

1.20

.90

80
75
80
10
70
20

25

I

* To September 16.

The good prices of the past few years have caused many farmers
to look again to peppermint as a profitable crop, as noted in increased
areas under cultivation in many localities. This is the case not only
in Michigan and Indiana, but also in New York, where for many
years the peppermint industry has been declining. Thus, if favor-
able conditions of growth prevail, an increased production may be
looked for within the next few years, which will have the effect of
again depressing prices.

As is the case with other products the prices of which are subject
to great fluctuations, the condition of the market for peppermint oil
needs to be closely observed. The cost of cultivation per acre has
been stated at from $12 to $1-1, and, with a charge of 25 cents per
pound of oil for distillation, the market price may easily fall below
the cost of production.

o From Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter, September 18, 1905, p. 7.

o

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of plant industry— Bulletin No. 90. part iv.

B. T. Galloway, Chirf of Uvnav.

m mm^ action or joonson grass.

BY

ALBERT C. CPxAWFORD,
Pharmacologist, Poisonous Plant Investigations.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANJCAL

GARDEN.

Issued January 17, 1906.

WASHINGTON :

G O V E K N .^1 E N T P K I N T 1 N ( i ( ) F F ICE,
1906.

B. P. I -li14.

THE POISONOUS ACTION OF JOHNSON GRASS.'

Johnson grass, which was introduced from Turkey into this country'
about 1830,^ has spread so that in manj^ pkices it is considered as a
weed and pest.'' Some farmers, however, have utiHzed the dried grass
as haj' with advantage, eitlier alone or combined with other food ma-
terial,^ and chemical analyses have proved its value as feed. Recently
reports have come to this oflSce from California of the death of cattle
under such circumstances as to point to Johnson grass as the causative
agent — the cattle dying in thirt}^ minutes after eating the grass. John-
son grass belongs to the same genus of the Gramineae as sorghum.
This group has been partially investigated chemically, and it has been
found that the fresh green plants of various members yield hydrocyanic

iThis olfice has from time to time received communications from stockmen,
especiaUy in tlie lower part of California, Arizona, and adjacent territor\', ex-
pressing a suspicion that the eating of Johnson grass had caused the death of
stock with rather sudden and violent symptoms. There has seemed to be little
ground in poisonous-plant literature to support such an explanation. Last sum-
mer, however, convincing observations were reported from California by a stock-
man who had lost heavily, and a supply of the grass in question was obtained.
The result of the study of this material was so positive, and the possibility of
damage due to this unsuspected forage plant so clear, that this preliminary notice
is put out in the hope of getting observations and material for study from many
sources, in order, if possible, to determine the conditions under which the
poisonous properties are developed and over how wide an area they are likely
to appear.

Rodney H. True, Physiologist.

Office of Poisonous Plant Investigations,

Washinfjton, D. C, December 11, 1905.

-Ball, C. R. Johnson Grass. Bui. No. 11, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture, 1902.

■'Spillman, W. J. Extermination of Johnson Grass. Bui. No. 72, Part III,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 190').
■» North Carolina Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 97, p. 92.
Vasey, G. Grasses of the South. Bui. No. 3, Division of Botany, U. S. Dept.
of Agriculture, 1887.

Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for ISSl, pp. 231, 232, 239, 241 ;
Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, 1890, p. 381.

acid as a result of the action of enzymes on more highly complex
bodies.^

Ball- in 1902 stated that at that time there had been no official re-
ports to his office of cases of poisoning bj- Johnson grass, but that there
were some newspaper statements to that effect. He thought these
accounts were probably not authentic, but stated that "since Johnson
grass is closely related to sorghum, which is known to be poisonous
under some circumstances, it would not be surprising if Johnson grass
should also be poisonous under like conditions. * * * In compari-
son with the great number of cattle fed or pastured in Johnson grass,
the reported cases of poisoning are extremely rare."

The first report of the poisonous action of Johnson grass which
reached the Department came from Miles City, Mont. Mr. William
Story reported that he and a neighbor had lost several head of cattle
after thej^ had eaten small quantities of the grass, and that they had
died very suddenh'. Mr. Story suggested that there was "something
peculiarly poisonous about the grass." The Commissioner of Agricul-
ture in publishing this report stated that "although the grass has been
cultivated in the South for fortj' or fiftj^ years, no similar charges have
been made against it.""'

In India this plant is widely used as a fodder for cattle,* and the
natives make use of the seeds for food. It has been noted there that
deaths in cattle frequentlj' occur when, on account of the failure of rain,
the plants which have reached a certain size become stunted and
withered. The toxic principle appears simultaneously over a wide area,
but soon disappears if a rainfall occurs.'' The deaths of cattle have
been attributed by some to an insect living upon the plant, and in
Australia it is the belief that Sorghum vulgare, which also yields hydro-
cyanic acid, becomes more poisonous when attacked by an insect dur-
ing a drought. A similar observation has been made with Sorghum
vulgare in the Sudan. Balfour" found that one specimen of the plant

1 Diinstan, W. R., and Henry, T. A. The Nature and Origin of the Poison of
Lotus Arabicus. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 1901, vol. 194, B., p. 515.

Duustan, W. R., and Henry, T. A. Cyanogenesis in Plants. Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc. London, 1902, vol. 199, A., p. 399.

Slade, Henry B. Prussic Acid in Sorghum. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 1903,
vol. 25, pp. 55-59.

Slade, Henry B. Study of the Enzymes of Green Sorghum. Fifteentli Ann.
Report, Agr. Expt. Sta. of Nebraska, 1902, pp. 55-62.

Briinnich, J. C. Hydrocyanic Acid in Fodder-plants. Jour. Chem. Soc,
1903, vol. 83, part 2, pp. 788-796.
- Loc. cit., p. 23.

■' Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 18S5, p. 74.
•*I)uthie, J. F. Fodder Grasses of Northern India, 1888, p. 41.
■''Pease, ?L T. l*oisoning of Cattle by Andropogon Sorghum. Jour. Compar.
Med. and Vet. Arcli., vol. IS, 1897, p. 679. See also Agr. Ledger, hsiuj. No. 24.
" Balfour, Andrew. Cyanogenesis in Sorghum Vulgare. First Report, Well-
come Research Laboratory, at Gordon Mem. College, Kliartum, 1904, p. 47.

which harbored aphids j'ielded more hydrocj'anic acid than a second one
without parasites. Pease has lately claimed that the deaths from John-
son grass in India were really cases of nitrate poisoning, as he found 25
per cent of nitrate of potassium in the stem of the plant and was able to
produce somewhat similar symptoms in animals bj' feeding them this
salt. Johnson grass is being introduced into Australia as a fodder plant,
but as yet no reports of its poisonous action there have been noted by
the writer.^

There has been some chemical studj^ of Johnson grass, but not with
reference to anj^ poisonous principle.-

A fresh, green, mature, nonflowering specimen of Johnson grass, moist-
ened with a little water and preserved with chloroform, was sent from
Santa Rosa, Cal., in sealed glass vessels, to this laboratory. This was
botanicalh' identified here as Johnson grass. This specimen was not
immediately worked up, but remained in the jars for about a month.
At that time on opening the jars a marked odor of h3'drocyanic acid,
together with that of chloroform, was detected. The ground-up plant,
with the water in which it came, was distilled, and the distillate was
caught in, sodium hydrate solution. This distillate, on mixing with
ferrous sulphate and acidulation with hydrochloric acid, gave a heavy
blue precipitate with ferric chlorid. Yellow ammonium sulphid was
added to the same filtrate, and the mixture was evaporated to dr3'ness
on the bath. The dried residue was then taken in hydrochloric acid
water, and on the addition of ferric chlorid the fluid gave the charac-
teristic red reaction for hydrocyanic acid. The nitro-prussid, picric
acid, and silver nitrate reactions were all positive for hydrocj'anic acid.
The aqueous fluid in which the plant was shipped was filtered off from
the plant and gave on distillation all the above reactions for h3^dro-
cyanic acid.

According to our California correspondent, this plant is poisonous
when grown on irrigated as well as on nonirrigated lands, but especial I3'
so when grown on irrigated soil and the growth has become rank.

Recently Dunstan'' has shown that Lima beans (Phaseolns lunafus),
which when grown wild in Mauritius 3'ield sufiicient h3'droc3^anic acid to
produce poisoning, when cultivated in Burma lose this toxicity almost
entirely, although it may return most unexpectedly.^ He was unable,
however, to determine the condition which increased its poisonous
properties.

1 Maiden, J. H. Useful xiustralian Plants. Dept. Agr. New South Wales,
Misc. Pub. No. 22, l.S9(j.

- Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 1878, p. 1(18.

■■'Dunstan, W. R. Phaseolus Lunatus. Agr. Ledger, lifO"), No. 2.

••Church, A. H. Kood-liraius of India. 188(), p. 155.
Watt, (.leorge. Dictionary of the Economic i'rodncts of India, vol. (1, ])art 1,
1892, p. 187.

6

It is interesting to note, besides this production of hj'drocj^anic acid
from complex glucosids, that proteids, when subjected to oxidation
under certain conditions, also yield it.^ In fact, hj'drocj'anic acid may
exist in plants in two forms, either as the acid or as one of its salts, or
in the form of complex glucosids.'-^ Under the circumstances, the
conclusions of Briinnich''' should be held in mind, viz, that " all fodder
plants related to sorghum must be used with discretion in either the
green or the dried state, and should not be given in large amounts to
animals which have fasted for some time."

In reference to other forage plants, Avery ^ says that "Kafir-corn
leaves also contain this poison, but other forage plants — clover, alfalfa,
grasses, and corn — give no test for prussic acid," and Briinnich also
found it in Guinea grass or Panicmn maxhnmn and P. muticnm. Manj'
facts have been collected relative to the distribution of hydrocyanic acid
in plants, yet its exact significance in their metabolism is unknown."
The question as to the relationship of parasites'' to the production of
hydrocyanic acid remains to be solved.

Later investigations will be carried on to determine the nature of this
cyanogenetic compound, to determine whether hydrocyanic acid is
present in all stages of its growth, but disappears on drying the plant,
whether the hydrocyanic acid production occurs under all conditions or
only when grown on certain soils, and the amount produced. Hydro-
cyanic acid will also be looked for in other members of this genus.

1 Plnmnier, R. H. A. The Formation of Prussic Acid by the Oxidation of
Albumins. Jour. Physiol., vol. .".1, 1904, p. 65; vol. .S2, 1904, p. 50.

■- Les Nouveaux Reniedes, vol. 14, 1S9S, p. 272.

3 Loc. cit., p. 792.

^ Avery, S. Laboratory Notes on Poison in Sorghum, Jour. Compar. Med.
and Vet". Arch., vol. 23, 1902, p. 705.

■""■Czapek, F. Biochemie d. Ptlanzen, 1905, vol. 2, p. 259.

'' Literature on some parasites of the sorghum family can be found in Bot, Gaz.,
vol. 28, 1899, p. 05. Also in Busse, W., Untersuch. u. d. Krank. der Sorghum
Hirse, Arb. a. d. biol. Abtheil. f. Land u. Forstw. am kaiserl. Gesundheitsamt,
1904, vol. 4.

O

I

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 90.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

MISCELLAMOUS PAPERS.

I. THE STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED.

By J. W. T. DUVEL, Assistant.

II. THE CROWN-GALL AND HAIRY-ROOT DISEASES OF THE APPLE TREE.

By GEORGE G. HEDGCOCK, Assistant.

III. PEPPERMINT.

By ALICE HENKEL, As^siant.

IV. THE POISONOUS ACTION OF JOHNSON GRASS.

By A. C. CRAWFORD, Pharmacologist.

Issued Febeuary 21, 1906.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1906.'

BTTLIiETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes Vege-
table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investigations, Farm
Management (including Grass and Forage Plant Investigations), Pomological Inves-
tigations, and Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of which were formerly con-
ducted as separate Divisions, and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution;
the Arlington Experimental Farm, Investigations in the Agricultural Economy of
Tropical and Subtropical Plants; Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigations; Tea Cul-
ture Investigations; the Seed Laboratory, and Dry Land Agriculture and Western
Agricultural Extension.

Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, 'the several series of bulle-
tins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published as one.
series of the Bureau. A list of the Bulletins issued in the present series follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that "the serial, scientific, and technical publica-
tions of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general distribution.
All copies not required for official use are by-law turned over to the Superintendent
of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All applications for such
publications should, therefore, be made to the Superintendent of Documents, Gov-
ernment Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10 cents.

2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. ,1902. Price, 10 cents.

6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses and

Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents.

15. Forage Conditions on the Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

16. A Preliminary Stu^y of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Campes-

tris and Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables. l903. Price, 35 cents.

22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

23. Berseem. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents,

25 Miscellaneous Papers: I. The Seeds of Rescue Grass and Chess. II. Saragolla
Wheat. III. Plant Introduction Notes from South Africa. IV^ Congres-
sional Seed and Plant Distribution Circulars. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

26. Spanish Almonds. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, etc. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

28. The Mango in Porto Rico. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

29. The Effect of "Black Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

30. Bjudding the Pecan. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

32. A Disease of the White Ash. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

33. North American Species of Leptochloa. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

34. Silkworm Food Plants. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

35. Recent Foreign Explorations. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

36. The ' ' Bluing ' ' and the ' ' Red Rot ' ' of the Pine. 1903. Price, 30 cents.

[Continued on page 3 of cover.]

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY^ BULLETIN NO. 90.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

>

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.

1. THE STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED.

By J. W. T. DUVEL, Assistant.

II. THE CROWN-GALL AND HAIRY-ROOT DISEASES OF THE APPLE TREE.

By GEORGE G. HEDG€OCK, Assistant.

III. PEPPERMINT.

By ALICE HENKEL, Assistant.

IV. THE POISONOUS ACTION OF JOHNSON GRASS.

By A. C. CRAWFORD, Pharmacologist.

USfvWRY

NHVV YORK

BOTANICAL

Issued Febkiaky 21, 1906.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

190 6.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

B. T. GALLOWAY, i

4

Patholoqist and Phyuoloqist, and Chief oj Bureau. \

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

ALBERT F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge, Acting CliifJ of Bureau in Absence of Chief.

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge.

FARM MANAGEMENT.

W. J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

G. B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.

A. .J. PiETERS, Botanist in Charge.

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.

Ij. C. Corbett, Horticulturist in Charge.

INVESTIGATIONS IN THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL

PLANTS.

O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge.

DRUG AND POISONOUS PLANT INVESTIGATIONS, AND TEA CULTURE INVESTIGATIONS.

Rodney H. True, Pliysiologist in Charge.

DRY LAND AGRICULTURE AND WESTERN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.

Carl S. Scofield, Agriculturist in Charge.

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.

E. M. Byrnes, Superintendent.

SEED LABORATORY.

Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge.

i

J. E. Rockwell, Editor.
James E. Jones, Chief Clerk.

CONTENTS/'

Page.

The storage and germination of wild rice seed 5

Introduction . 5

Distril nition 5

Habitat 6

Germination of tlie seed 7

Fall seeding versus spring seeding 7

Directions for storing the seed 8

Detailed conditions and results of storage experiments 9

Packing for transportation 11

Methods of making germination tests 11

Effect of temperature on germination 12

Summary 12

Description of Plates I and II 14

The crown-gall and hairy-root diseases of the apple tree 15

Inti'oduction 15

Two distinct diseases, crown-gall and hairy-root 15

Types of apple crown-gall 1<>

Effect upon the length of life of the apple tree 16

Suggestions to nurserymen 16

Data desired 17

Peppermint 19

Description 19

Countries where grown . 20

Peppermint cultivation in the United States 21

Cultivation 22

Conditions injurious to crop 23

Harvesting and distillation 24

Description of still 25

Peppermint oil and menthol 26

F^xport of peppermint oil 27

Prices of pej^permint oil 28

The poisonous action of Johnson grass HI

o The four papers constituting this Bulletin were issued in separate form on September 7, November
17, December 28, 1905, and January 17, 1906, respectively.

3

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

Page.
Platk I. Wild rice growing in water after being kept wet in cold storage at a
temperature of 32-34° F , from October 19, 1903, to November 15,

1904 14

II. Stages of germination of wild rice, showing the development of the
root system and the relative position of the seedling and the parent
seed !■*

III. Fig. 1.— Apple crown-gall on grafted tree. Fig. 2.— Apple crown-

gall on transplanted seedling. Fig. 3.— Hairy-root disease on
grafted apple tree. Fig. 4.— Hairy-root disease on grafted apple
tree 1^

IV. Fig. 1.— Apple seedlings diseased with hairy-root. Fig. 2.— Apple

seedlings diseased with soft crown-gall 16

V. Fig. 1.— Healthy fibrous rooted apple tree, pot grown. Fig. 2.—

Apple seedlings diseased with hairy-root 16

TEXT FIGURES.

Fig. 1. Peppermint "runners," showing method of propagation 20

2. Leaves and flowering top of peppermint 20

3. Peppermint still (after Dewey, in Bailey's Cyclopedia of American

Horticulture) 26

4

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.

B. P. I.— 178.

I -THE STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE

SEED."

By J. W. T. DuvEL, A.^sist(tiit in tin' Seed Laboratory.

INTRODUCTION.

The seed of wild rice, sometimes called Indian rice or water oats
{Zizania aquatica L.), has always been a very valuable food among-
the Indians, especially those of the upper Mississippi Valley. Of
recent }■ ears wild rice has found a place on the menu cards of some
of our best American hotels. The rich and highly nutritious grains,
together with the slightl}^ smoky flavor it has when properly pre-
pared, make it an extremely palatable article of diet. If it were not
for the difiiculties of harvesting the seed and preparing the finished
product for market it is probable that wild rice would find a place in
many American homes.

At present, however, the greatest interest in wild rice is created by
the value of the seed as a food for wild waterfowl, particularly wild
ducks. As a result of this interest the propagation of wild rice from
seed has become a question of considerable importance, especiall}" to
the members of the gunning clubs throughout the United States and
Canada.

DISTRIBUTION.

The distribution of wild rice is now reported from New Brunswick
and Assiniboia south to Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. There are,
however, comparativel}^ few localities in which it grows abundantly.

« Wild rice is considered one of the most important foods for wild ducks and other
waterfowl, and a large number of inquiries have been received from members of
gunning clubs throughout the United States asking where good, germinable seed can
be secured. It is quite generally recognized that wild rice seed loses its vitality if
allowed to become dry, and better methods of storing the seed during the winter
have long since been demanded.

The results of investigations begun two years ago show that wild rice seed can be
handled without any deterioration in vitality if it is harvested and stored according
to methods outlined in the present paper.

J. W. T. DuvEL, Acting Botanist in Charge of Seed Jjdxn-atory-
Seed Labor.\tqrv,

Washington, D. C, July £0, 1905.

6 MISCELLANEOUS PAPEKS.

Good reasons exist for assuming that this area can be extended to
include all fresh- water lakes, as well as swamps and river bogs, where
the water does not become stagnant, throughout the whole of North
America south of latitude 55° north. Wild rice also grows luxuri-
antly along the lower parts of many of the rivers of the Atlantic Coast
States, the waters of which are affected by the action of the tide to a
considerable degree, and consequently contain an appreciable quantity
of salt. It has been shown ^' that the maximum degree of concentra-
tion of salt water in which wild rice plants can grow successfully is
equivalent to a 0.03 normal solution of sodium chlorid. This concen-
tration corresponds to 0.1755 per cent by weight of sodium chlorid,
which is sufficient to give a slight salty taste to the water.

HABITAT.

While it is well recognized that the habitat of the wild rice plant is
in shallow fresh water, it is now known that it will grow luxuriantly
in water containing little less than two-tenths of 1 per cent of sodium
chlorid. Occasional plants have been found growing in water which
contained, for short periods at least, nearly double that amount of
salt. These facts indicate the possibility of a much wider range of
conditions to which this plant ma}' be subjected without hindering its
development. It is not beyond the range of possibility — indeed, it is
quite probable — that by careful selection plants may be obtained which
will thrive on soil that is comparatively dry, at least in places in which
the water can be drawn off gradually during the latter part of the
growing .season.

In September, 1904, Mr. G. C. Worthen, of the Bureau of Plant
Industry, collected a cluster of wild rice plants which were growing
on the Potomac Flats, near Washington, D. C, in .soil which was suf-
ticiently dry to permit the use of a 2-horse mowing machine for cutting
down the rank growth of vegetation. This was newly made land, and
in all prol)abilit3' the seed giving rise to this cluster of plants was
pumped in with the dirt from the Potomac River the year previous.

This amphibious t3^pe once established, it will undoubtedly carry
with it a strain of .seed which can withstand considerable drj^iug with-
out any marked injur}' to its vitalit}'. Such being true, the methods
and difficulties of propagation from seed would be greatlj'' simplified.

Simultaneous with establishing an ampliibious t3'pe should come the
selection of seed plants which are capable of retaining their seed until
the larger part of it has reached maturity. These two steps once
made, the future of wild rice as a cereal will be assured.

n The Salt Water Limits of Wild Rice. Bulletin No. 72, Part II, Bureau of Plant
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1905.

STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED. 7

GERMINATION OF THE SEED.

The greatest difficult}- to be overcome in extending the area for
growing wild rice is the poor germination of the commercial seed.
Inasmuch as wild rice constitutes one of the most important foods of
wild clucks and other wild waterfowl, many individuals and most of
the gunning clubs east of the Rocky Mountains have been asking the
question, How can we propagate wild rice from seed in order to estab-
lish better feeding and fattening grounds for our game birds?

The many failures in the propagation of wild rice from seed have
been due to the use of seed that had become dry before sowing, or to
the fact that the seed when sown fresh in the autumn had been eaten
by ducks or other animals or was carried away by heavy floods before
germination took place.

It is now ver}- generally known that the seed of wild rice, if once
allowed to become dry, will not germinate, save possibh' an occasional
grain. In its natural habitat the seed, as soon as mature, falls into the
water and sinks into the mud beneath, where it remains during the
winter months, germinating the following spring if conditions are
favorable.

Heretofore the plan generally followed, and the one usualh?^ recom-
mended by those who have given some attention to the propagation of
wild rice, was practically that of natural seeding; that is, to gather the
seed in the autumn, as soon as thoroughl}' mature, and, while still fresh,
to sow it in 1 to 3 feet of water.

FALL SEEDING VERSUS SPRING SEEDING.

It must be remembered that the bulk of the seed remains dormant
during the winter, germinating first the spring after maturing; con-
sequentlv, with but few exceptions, fall seeding is unsatisfactoiy and
unreliable. Fall seeding is likel}^ to prove a failure for three reasons:
(1) Wild ducks and other animals of various kinds eat or destroy the
seed in considerable quantity before it has had time to germinate the
following spring; (2) much of the seed is frequently covered so deeply
with mud that washes in from the shore during the winter that the
young plants die of sufl:ocation and starvation before the\' reach the
surface; (3) in some cases a large quantity of the seed is carried away
from the place where sown by the high waters and floating ice prev-
alent during the latter part of the winter and earh' spring.

In exceptional cases these diflnculties can be overcome; under which
circumstances autumn sowing ma}^ be preferable to spring sowing.
In the majority of cases, however, much better results will be
obtained if the seed is proper!}' stored and sown in the early spring,
as soon as the danger of heavy floods is passed and the water level
approaches normal.

16976— Xo. 90— U6 2

8 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.

In sowing" the seed considerable care must be exercised in selecting
a suitable place, securing- the proper depth of water, etc. Good
results can be expected if the seed is sown in from 1 to 3 feet of water
which is not too stagnant or too swiftly moving', with a thick ]a3^er of
soft mud underneath.'* It is useless to sow wild rice seed on a g-raveliy
bottom or in water where the seed will be constantly disturbed by
strong currents.

- Previous to this time, save in a few reported cases, the seed which
was allowed to dr^- during the winter and was sown the following-
spring gave only negative results. It is now definitel}^ known that
wild rice, if properly handled, can be stored during the winter without
impairing the quality of germination to any appreciable degree, and
that it can be sown the following spring or summer with good success.

DIRECTIONS FOR STORING THE SEED.

The vitality of wild rice seed is preserved almost perfectly if kept
wet in cold storage — Nature's method of preservation. This method
of storage implies that the seed has been properly harvested and cared
for up to the time of storage. The seed should be gathered as soon
as mature, put loosely into sacks (preferably burlap), and sent at once
to the cold-storage rooms. If the wild rice fields are some distance
from the cold-storage plant the sacks of seed should be sent by express,
and unless prompt delivery can be guaranteed it is not advisable to
send by freight even for comparatively short distances. It is very
important that the period between the time of harvesting and the
time when the seed is put into cold storage be as short as possible.
If this time is prolonged to such an extent as to admit of much fer-
mentation or to allow the seed near the outside of the bags to become
dry during transit, its vitalit}^ will be greatly lowered.

It is not practicable to give any definite length of time which mav
elapse between harvesting and storing, inasmuch as the temperature,
humidit}', and general weather conditions, as well as the methods of
handling the seed, must be taken into consideration. Let it sufiice to
say, however, that the vitality of the seed will be the stronger the
sooner it is put into cold storage after harvesting.

As soon as the seed is received at the cold-storage plant, while it is
still fresh and before fermentation has taken place, it should be put
into buckets, open barrels, or vats, covered with fresh water, and
placed at once in cold storage. If there is present a considerable
quantity of light immature seed or straw, broken sticks, etc., it will
be profitable to separate this from the good seed by floating in water

« Wild Eice: Its Uses and Propagation. Bulletin No. 50, Bureau of Plaiit Industry,
United States Department of Agriculture, 1903.

STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED, 9

preparatory to storing. The storage room should be maintained at
a temperature just above freezing- — what the storage men usually
designate as the "chill room."

When taken from cold storage in the spring the seed must not be
allowed to dry out before planting, as a few days' drying will destroy
every embryo.

Seed which was stored under the foregoing conditions from October
19, 1903, to November 15, 1904, 393 days, germinated from 80 to 88
per cent. Another lot of seed, which was stored on October 6, 1904,
and tested for vitality on April 17, 1905, germinated 79.8 per cent.

Plate I shows the luxuriant growth made by the seed which was kept
wet and stored at a temperature of 32° to 34° F. for 393 days.

DETAILED CONDITIONS AND RESULTS OF STORAGE EXPERI-
MENTS.

The foregoing conclusions are based on the results obtained from
two series of experiments, as follows:

In October, 1903, a box of wild rice seed was received from Ontario,
Canada. This seed, as soon as gathered, was loosely packed in moist
sphagnum and sent by express to the Seed Laboratory of the United
States Department of Agriculture. After a few da^^s, while it was
yet moist and before any fermentation had taken place, the seed was
divided into four lots for special treatment, as follows:

(1) Seed submerged in water and placed in cold storage at a temper-
ature of 32° to 34° F.

(2) Seed submerged in water and placed in cold storage at a temper-
ature of 12° F. The seed was soon embedded in a solid mass of ice
and remained so until samples were taken for test.

(3) Seed, without the addition of water, put into cloth bags and kept
in cold storage at a temperature of 32° to 34° F.

(4) Seed, without the addition of water, put into cloth bags and kept
in cold storage at a temperature of 12° F.

In October, 1904, a second consignment of seed was received from
Minnesota, and the following additional storage experiments were
made by Mr. C. S. Scofield, of the Bureau of Plant Industry,

(5) Seed submerged in water and placed in cold storage at a temper-
ature of 32° to 34° F., as in No. 1.

(6) Seed submerged in water and placed in cold storage at a temper-
ature of 12° F., as in No. 2.

(7) Seed submerged in water in a galvanized-iron bucket and stored
on the roof of the laboratory building. The water was changed daily
when not frozen.

10 MISCELLANEOUS PAPEKS.

r

(8) Seed submerged in water in a galvanized-iron bucket and stored

on the roof of the laboratory building, as in No. 7. In this case the
water was not changed save to replace the loss due to evaporation.

(9) The conditions for No. 9 were the same as those for No. 8,
except that air was forced into the water daily when not frozen solid.

Samples of seed were taken from the different lots and tested for
vitality at irregular intervals throughout the time of storage, which,
in the former series, extended over a period of approximately thirteen
months and in the latter series over a period of little more than six
months.

Experiments JVos. 1 and 5. — The seed which was submerged in water
and stored in the "chill room" showed no deterioration in vitality.
The results of the final tests gave a germination varying from 79.8 to
88 per cent. This is practicallv Nature's method of preserving the
vitality of the seed during the winter.

Experiments JVos. 2 and 6. — The seed which was submerged in
water and stored at a temperature of 12° F. was all killed before the
spring following the date of storage. Soon after being placed in stor-
age the water was frozen solid and the seeds were embedded in a mass
of ice, in which condition they remained throughout the experiment,
a portion being cut out from time to time for germination tests. The
complete loss of vitality in these two lots of seed is attributed not to
the freezing directly, but to the thorough desiccation as a result of
the continuous low temperature.

Experiments Wos. 3 and If.. — The samples of seed which were stored
in cloth bags at the temperatures of 32° to 34° F. and of 12° F. had,
for all economic purposes, entirely lost their vitality. The average
percentage of germination, as shown by the 37 tests made from each
of the two lots, was less than five-tenths of 1 per cent.

Exjyeriment No. 7. — The seed which was submerged in water and
stored on the roof of the laboratory building, the water being changed
daily, showed a good percentage of germination when the last vitalit}^
tests were made. If only a small quantity of seed is desired for the
spring planting and cold storage can not be readily secured, good
results may be obtained by this treatment; but it is much less certain
and probably more expensive than keeping the seed in cold storage,
and for this reason is not recommended. The success of this method
will likewise depend largely on the temperature of the water.

Experiments Nos. 8 and 9. — On April 22, 1905, samples taken from
each of these two lots of seed showed a marked deterioration in vitalit3\
Thoroughly mixed samples from No. S showed a vitality of only 58
per cent, while No. 9 had deteriorated to 14.3 per cent.

STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED. 11

PACKING FOR TRANSPORTATION.

Too much care can not be given to the matter of packing the seed
for transportation, for unless the packing is properly done the vitality
of the seed will be destroyed during transit. What is here said applies
to fresh seed which is to be sown in the autumn, as well as to seed
which has been kept in cold storage during the winter. It must not
be forgotten, however, that the vitality of cold-storage seed is more
quickly destroyed on drying than that of fresh seed.

For transportation the seed should be carefully packed, with moist
sphagnum, cocoanut fiber, or tine excelsior, in a loosely slatted box.
If the time of transportation does not exceed five or six days no spe-
cial precautions need be taken as to the temperature. During the
period of transportation it is quite probable that some of the seed will
germinate, but if sown at once growth will not be retarded and the
roots will soon penetrate the soil and anchor the young plants.

If the time of transportation is necessarily long, it is recommended,
if the best results are desired, that some provision be made for a
reduced temperature. The nearer the temperature approaches that of
freezing the better. It has been demonstrated, however, that a fair
percentage of seed will remain germinable for a considerable time if
packed as above described.

On October 10, 1904, Mr. C. S. Scofield sent a small quantity of
wild rice, packed in moist sphagnum moss in a well-ventilated box, to
Doctor De Vries, of Amsterdam, Holland. On October 14 or 15 this
box was placed in cold storage on the steamer in New York Harbor.
The box of seed was received by Doctor De Vries in good condition on
November 2, twenty-one days after the seed was packed for shipment.

METHODS OF MAKING GERMINATION TESTS.

The samples were tested (1) between folds of blotting paper — our
regular method for testing the germination of most seeds — and (2) in
water. Nature's method of sowing wild rice seed. The latter method
gave much better results and was the one finally adopted for the
laboratory tests. The seed should be covered with water, the water
in the dishes to be changed daily.

Plate I shows the importance of making the germination tests in
water, as described in the foregoing paragraph. The seed was covered
with water and placed in a germinating chamber maintained at an
alternating temperature of 20° C. (68'-' F.) for eighteen hours, and
30" C. (84° F.) for six hours, until the majority of the seeds had
germinated. At this stage the dish containing the seeds was trans-
ferred to the worktable, which was exposed to the temperature of the
laboratory — approximately that of a living-room. The water in the

12 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.

dish was changed daily during the period of germination, and watei
was afterwards added at irregular intervals to replace the loss by
evaporation.

Plate 11 shows somewhat in detail the different stages in the germina-
tion of wild rice seeds. The seeds and seedlings are shown in natural
size. In h and c the first sheath has just burst through the seed coats,
taking a position at right angles to the seed proper. The lateral roots
begin to emerge when the first sheath leaf has attained a length of ^ to
li inches. From this time growth continues rapidly, and by the time
the seedlings are 2 or 3 inches long the root system is ver}- well
developed {f and g). At this stage under favorable conditions the
plants have a good hold in the soil and will not be washed awa}^ by an
ordinary freshet. The relative position of the actively growing
seedling is alwa3^s at right angles to that of the old seed, as shown in
y and g.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON GERMINATION.

Germination tests were made at constant and alternating tempera-
tures, ranging from 15° to 3.5° C. (59° to 95° F.). While no effort
was made to show the minimum and maximum temperatures of ger-
mination, the percentage was somewhat reduced at a constant tempera-
ture of 35° C, and the maximum is not much above that. All of the
other temperatures gave good results. The lower temperatures, how-
ever, were slightly more favorable than the higher. These facts are
valuable to show that the wild rice plant can thrive in either warm or
cold water, but better, perhaps, in northern than in southern latitudes.

SUMMARY.

(1) Under no circumstances should wild rice seed which is intended
for planting be allowed to dry. Dried seed will germinate but rarely
and should never be sown.

(2) Wild rice seed can be stored without deterioration if it is gath-
ered as soon as matured, put into barrels or tanks, covered with fresh
water, and, before fermentation has set in, stored at a temperature of
32-31° F. Seed treated in this way germinated as high as 88 per cent
after being in storage 393 days. Fresh seed seldom germinates better,
and usually not so well.

(3) After the seed is taken from cold storage it should not be
allowed to dry. The vitality of cold-storage seed is destroyed on
drying even more quickly than that of fresh seed.

(1) For transportation the seed should be packed in moist sphagnum,
cocoanut fiber, or fine excelsior. If not more than five or six days
are required for transit, no special precautions need be taken for con-
trolling the temperature; but if the time for transportation exceeds

STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED. 13

six days, provision should be made for a temperature sufficiently low-
to prevent marked fermentation, A temperature approximately
freezing will give the most satisfactory results.

(5) Wild rice can be sown either in the autumn or in the spring.
Spring sowing is preferable, thus avoiding the danger of having the
seed eaten or destroyed by wild ducks or other animals during the fall
or winter, or of its being l)uried or washed away by the heavy floods
of late winter or early spring.

(6) Wild rice should be sown in the spring in from 1 to 3 feet of
water which is neither too stagnant nor too swiftly moving, as soon as
the danger of heavy floods is passed.

(7) Wild rice is of the greatest importance as a food for wild water-
fowl, likewise a delicious breakfast food for man, and the area in which
it is extensively grown should be extended. It will grow luxuriantly
in either warm or cold water; furthermore, it can be grown success-
fully in water which is slightly salty to the taste.

(S) In determining the vitalit}^ of any sample of wild rice seed the
germination tests should be made in water — the condition under which
the self-sown seed germinates.

(9) The seed will germinate well at temperatures ranging from
15^ to 30^ C. The maximum temperature of germination is above
35 "" C. (95^ F.), but better results are obtained at lower temperatures.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES I AND II.

Plate I. Wild rice growing in water. This seed was submerged at a temperature of
32-34° F. for approximately thirteen months. In making the germination test
the seed was covered with water and placed in a germinating chamber main-
tained at a temperature of 20° C. (68° F. ) for eighteen hours, and at 30° C.
(86° F.) for six hours. After the majority of the seeds had germinated the dish
was transferred to the worktable of the Seed Laboratory.

Plate II. Progressive stages in the development of wild rice seedlings; /and g, seed-
lings showing the relative position of the growing seedlings and the parent seed,
which take a position at right angles to each other when grow'n normally in
water. (Natural size. )
14

Bui. 90, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate

Wild Rice Growing in Water after being Kept Wet in Cold Storage at a Tem-
perature OF 32-34'-' F., FROM October 19, 1903, to November 15, 1904.

Bui. 90, Bureau of Plant Indusiry, U. S Pept of Agriculture.

Plate II

c

V

y

/

Stages of Germination of Wild Rice, Showing the Development of the
Root System and the Relative Position of the Seedling and the
Parent Seed. Natural Size.

B. P. I.— 186. V. p. 1'. 1.-145.

Il.-THE CRO\V\-G.\LL AND H.\IRY-ROOT DISEASES

OF THE APPLE TREE.

By George (t. Hedcjcock, Assistant in Pathology, Vegetable Pathological and

Physiologica I Investigations.

INTRODUCTION.

The diseases of the apple which have been classed under the name
crown-gall have, diirino- the last few years, attracted much attention,
due partly to an increase of these diseases and partly to the enacting-
of more stringent State laws governing the shipment and inspection of
trees.

A series of investigations into the nature of crown-gall upon the
apple, pear, raspberry, peach, almond, grape, rose, and other plants
has been in progress for some time in the Mississippi Valle}" Labora-
tory of the Bureau of Plant Industry at St. Louis, Mo., and also at
other points in the Mississippi Valley. It is not to be assumed, how-
ever, that such diseases are more common in this locality than in some
other portions of the United States. Apple crown-gall and hairy-root
have been found in all nurseries that have been examined in various
portions of the country.

This preliminary report is sent out, not with the intention of giv^ing
the results of all our investigations, but for the purpose of calling the
attention of apple-tree growers to the different diseases hitherto known
as apple crown-gall, and to endeavor to interest them in the collection
of data regarding the predisposition of varieties to these diseases.

TWO DISTINCT DISEASES, CROWN-GALL AND HAIRY-ROOT.

Our investigations have resulted first in separating apple crown-gall
into two diseases, which are considered distinct. The disease now
designated as crown-gall is a callous-like gall growth of hypertrophied
tissue following' wounds on some portion of the root system of the
tree, which rarely occurs above the ground on parts of the trunk or
limbs. (See PI. Ill, figs. 1 and 2.)

The malady now called the hair^-root disease is evidentl}^ the same

as the one first given this name by Stewart, Rolfs, and Hall in Bulletin

191 of the New York State Experiment Station. It is characterized

both in seedlings (PI. IV, fig. 1, and PI. V, fig. 2) and in grafted or

16976— No. SO— OH .S 15

16 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.

budded trees (PL III, figs. 8 and -i) b}' a stunted root S3\stem, accom-
panied with an excessive production of small fibrous roots, often origi-
nating in clusters from the main root, or taproot. Galls often occur
in connection with hairy-root, but these are a result of wounds rather
than a form of this disease. Seedlings of the hairj^-root type, unless
wounded, remain free from galls.

TYPES OF APPLE CROWN-GALL.

Apple crown-gall is of two types. A iiard callous form is common
on grafted trees at the union of the root and scion, and at any other
point of the root sj^stem where wounds occur in either the cultivation
or transplanting of trees (PL III, fig. 1). The results of extensive
inoculations with this type have failed to prove that this disease is- of
a contagious nature.

A second type is a soft form more common on seedlings (PL IV.
fig. 2), occurring more rarely on grafted trees (PL Jli^ fig. 2). These
softer galls resemble those of the raspberry- and peach, in that thev^
are soft and often rot off. It is not certain, however, that they, like
the latter, are replaced the following year by a new gall growth from
the adjacent live tissues of the host, nor is there proof yet that they
are of a contagious nature.

EFFECT UPON THE LENGTH OF LIFE OF THE APPLE TREE.

Careful data are being collected from orchards and nurseries as to
the effect of these diseases upon the life and fruitful ness of trees.
Any information as to the locality of orchards in which diseased trees
have been planted will be highly appreciated. In our crown-gall
orchard there are more than 200 trees diseased with the hard type of
crown-gall, and 200 healthy trees of the same grade planted under
similar conditions. After two years' growth six of the crown-gall
trees and nine of the healtlw ones have died. No difference in the
growth of the trees is noticeable. However, it can not be assumed
from the results so far that, on the one hand, the disease may not ^et
shorten the life of the trees, or, on the other, that the trees may not
entirel^^ overcome its effects. A tree having crown-gall on its roots,
however, can never be correctly graded with a smooth-rooted tree.
The root system of a healthy fibrous-rooted apple tree is shown in
Plate V, figure 1.

SUGGESTIONS TO NURSERYMEN.

Nurserymen are advised to be careful in the selection of seedlings
for grafting and >)udding. All rough, warty, or galled seedlings
should be thrown out, for most of them will form rough- rooted trees.
Seedlings with tufted or hairy roots should also be rejected, for these.

1

Bui. 90, Bureau of Plant Industiy, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate

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Fig. 1.— Apple Crown-Gall on
Grafted Tree.

Fig. 2.— Apple Crown-Gall on
Transplanted Seedling.

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Fig. 3.— Hairy-Root Disease on
Grafted Apple Tree.

Fig. 4.— Hairy-Root Disease on
Grafted Apple Tree.

Bui. 90, Buieau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IV.

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Bui. 90, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture.

Plate V.

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CROWN-GALL AND HAIRY-ROOT DISEASES OF THE APPLE TREE. 17

as shown b}'^ our experiments, develop into hairy-rooted trees with a
very deficient root systenL The hairy-root disease, as it appears from
the results of two 3'^ears' experiments, is not contagious. It is hoped
in the near future to be able to offer some practical means of reducing
the percentage of trees affected with these diseases in the nursery.

DATA DESIRED.

The hearty cooperation of nurserymen and orchardists in securing
data is desired. It is hoped to secure the help of the leading nursery-
men of this countr}^ in getting an accurate count from each nursery
of the number of diseased trees in at least one row of every variety
in all fields where the trees are all dug in one season. Such data are
desired from every locality wdiere apple trees are grown. Printed
blanks with directions for tabulating such data have been provided
and these will be sent to all who request them. Address the Missis-
sippi Valley Laboratory, St. Louis, Mo.

B. P. T.— 189.

III.-PEPPERMINT/'

By Alice Henkel, J,s'.s/sta»/, lirug-Phiut Invedigalions.

DESCRIPTION.

One of the most important essential oils produced in the United
States is distilled from the peppermint plant and its varieties. The
three kinds of mint grown in this conntrv for the distillation of pep-
permint oil are the so-called American mint {Mentha piperita L.),
the black mint {Mentha piperita rulgaris Sole), and the white mint
{Mentha piperita ofjjcinalis Sole), the two last named being varieties
of the American mint.

The American mint, although introduced from England many
years ago, is so called from the fact that it has long been cultivated
in this country, and the name ^ State mint " has been applied to it in
the State of New York for the same reason.

The peppermint, or American mint, is now naturalized in many
l)arts of the eastern United States, occurring in wet soil from the New
England States to Minnesota, south to Florida and Tennessee. It is
an aromatic perennial belonging to the mint famil}^ (Menthaceae),
and propagates by means of its long, running roots (fig. 1). The
smooth, square stems are erect and branching, from 1 to 3 feet in
height, bearing dark-green, lance-shaped leaves, Avhich are from 1 to
2 inches lonjr. and from one-half to 1 inch wide. The leaves are
pointed at the apex, rounded or narrowed at the base, sharply
toothed, smooth on both sides, or with hairy veins on the lower sur-
face. The flowers are borne in whorls in dense, terminal spikes; they
are purplish, with a tubular, five-toothed calyx, and a four-lobed
corolla. (Fig. 2.)

a In response to a steady demand for infovniatiou relating to the peppermint
industry. Miss Alice Henkel, Assistant in Dvug-I'lant Investigations, lias Ikhmi
requested to bring together the most iniiiortiint facts rognrding tlio history,
culture, and utilization of the peppermint |)lant. The iiiforiuation here pre-
sented has been obtained in large part from scattered articles on the subject,
and in part from experience with the phuit in the Testing Gardens of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

RoDNKY II. True. Phusiologist hi Charfjc.

Office of Dkug-Pl.\nt Investigations,

Wushiiif/toii. D. ('.. Orldhrr 1 ',. 100.1.

19

L>()

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.

Fig. 1.— Peppermiut •'runners,'' showing method of
propagation.

The Uvo varieties mentioned are closely related botanically, al-
though in general appear-
ance they are quite dilfer-
ent. The variety known
as black mint {MentJui
piperita vulgaris) has pur-
ple stems and slightly
toothed, dark-green leaves,
whiljC the white mint
{Mentha piperita o-ffiei-
iialis) has green stems,
with brighter green leaves,
Avhich are more lance-
shaped and more deeply
toothed. Black. mint is much more hardy and productive than either
the American mint or the white mint,
and is groAvn on nearly all pepper-
mint farms in this country. The Avhite
mint, which produces a fine grade
of oil, is rarely cultivated on a com-
mercial scale in this country on ac-
count of its inability to withstand the
climate and its smaller yield of essen-
tial oil.

The oils spoken of as Japanese and
Chinese " peppermint " oils are not ob-
tained from the true peppermint plant,
but are distilled from entirelj^ dili'erent
species, namely, Mentha arvensls piper-
ascens Malinvaud and Mentha arrensi.s
glahrata Holmes, respectivel3\

COUNTRIES WHERE GROWN.

The most important j^eppermint-
producing countries are the United
States, England, and Japan. Pepper-
mint is groAvn on a smaller scale in
Germany, France, Italy, Russia, China,
and southern India.

In Japan, peppermint cultivation
is said to have been undertaken
before the Christian era. The plant

grown there is not, as already ^i«- 2 —Leaves and flowering top of

stated, the peppermint cultivated in peppeimm .

our country, but Mentha arrensh pipcrai^een.s^ which is entirely dis-

PEPPERMINT. 21

tinct from the true peppermint, not only botanically but also in taste
and odor.

Peppermint is cultivated on many drug farms in England, espe-
cially at ]Mitcliam. the middle of the eighteenth century marking the
beginning of peppennint cultivation in that country. Up to 1805.
hoAvever, there were no stills at Mitcham, and the crops obtained
there were sent to London for distillation. About 1850, at wdiich
time the peppermint industry in England was at its height, the effect
of American competition began to be felt, and caused a decided
check in the production.

PEPPERMINT CULTIVATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

Wayne County, N. Y., in 181(5, was the first locality in this country
to distill peppermint' on a commercial scale. The supply of root-
stocks was obtained from the wild plants found growing- along the
banks of streams and brooks. Adjacent counties soon undertook the
cultivation of peppermint, but Wayne County was then, and is now,
the principal peppermint district in New York.

The cultivation of peppermint was extended to Ashtabula, Geauga,
and Cuyahoga counties in Ohio, and also to northern Indiana. Roots
were taken from Ohio into St. Joseph County, ]Mich., the first plan-
tation being made on Pigeon prairie in 1835. Other plantations in
St. Joseph County Avere established the following years, and adjoin-
ing counties soon took up the cultivation of peppermint, and south-
western Michigan has been for thirty-five years or more the greatest
peppermint-producing section in the United States.

About 1844 an interesting peppermint-oil monopoly « was under-
taken by a NeAv York firm, Avhich seems to haA^e put an end to pepper-
mint cultivation in Ohio, for none of the counties just mentioned
has since been heard from as a peppermint-producing section.

The first step taken l)y this Xcav York firm in its efforts to con-
trol the peppermint-oil market Avas to send a representative to
LiA^erpool, P]ngland, to ascertain the amount annually demanded by
that market, Avhich was found to be about 12,000 pounds. This done,
another agent Avas sent West to determine the amount produced annu-
ally. Avith the result that it Avas found that the farms in Xcav York
did not produce enough oil for their purposes, the plantations in
Ohio too nnich, Avhile those in Michigan seemed to produce just about
the right amount to satisfy the LiA'erpool demand. A contract was
then entered into l)y this agent Avith the producers in Xcav York and
Ohio •• whereby he bound them under heaA-y penalties to i)low up
their mint fields and destroy the roots, and not plant any more mint,
or sell or giA^e aAvay any roots, or produce or s(>11 any mint oil for the

"Prof. Aiuer. Phiinii. .Vssoc. T : 449-4r»<.) (l8r)S).

22

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.

period of five years." For this wholesale destruction of their mint
fields the producers received a bonus of $1.50 per acre. Next a con-
tract was made by the agent with the producers of St. Joseph County,
Mich., agreeing to pay them $2.50 a ])ound for their mint oil, every
ounce of the mint oil to be delivered for a period of five years to tlie
agents named in the contract. They also were prohibited during
this period from extending their plantations and from selling roots
to anyone. The producers held to these contracts for about three
years, after which period the New York firm w^as not so anxious to
enforce them, having, in the meantime, acquired a large fortune
through its pepi)ermint-oil monopoly.

Since that period the area devoted to peppermint cultivation in
Michigan has steadily increased, and northern Indiana, with its prin-
cipal centers of production in St. Joseph, Steuben, and La (irrange
counties, continues to place on the market a considerable quantity of
oil. Ohio seems to have abandoned pep])ermint cultivation, at least
on a commercial scale, and New York, for a number of years and until
very recently, had greatly reduced the area under peppermint, thou-
sands of acres formerly devoted to this crop having been given over
to sugar beets, onions, and celery. In 1889 Wayne County, N. Y.,
had 3,325 acres of peppermint, whereas in 181)1) there were only 300
acres. In 1905, about 933 acres were under cultivation.

Special canvassers appointed by the State of Michigan " made a
canvass of 299 growers in the peppermint district in that State, cover-
ing 39 townships in nine counties (Allegan, Berrien, Branch, Cass,
Kalamazoo, Oakland, St. Joseph, -St. Clair, and Van Buren), and
the total number of acres under peppermint cultivation, the number
of pounds of oil distilled, and the average number of pounds per acre,
as ascertained by this canvass, for the years 1900, 1901, and 1902, are
as follows:

Items.

Total number of acres grown _

Total number of pounds distilled

Average number of pounds per acre

1900.

1901.

2,112

47,628i
22.5

2,r82i

63,718J

23.9

1

1902.

6.400i

82,42()i

12.8

CULTIVATION.

Peppermint cultivation is most profitable on muck lands, such as
are now used in ]\Iichigan for this crop and for celery and cranberry
culture. These muck lands were formerly marshes and swamps,
which have been reclaimed by draining, plowing, and cultivating,
the swamp vegetation having been thus subdued, and the decayed

a Tweutieth Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor of the State of illchlgan,
1903, pp. 438-^47.

PEPPERMINT.

23

vegetable matter resulting in a very black soil which is most admir-
ably adapted to mint cultivation. Formerly peppermint was grown
exclusively on upland soil in Michigan, but it is a very exhausting
crop on such land. Only two crops can be obtained from upland
plantations, and after the second year's harvest the land is plowed and
a rotation of clover, corn, etc., is practiced for five years before pep
permint is again planted. But on the rich muck land peppermint
can be grown year after year for six or seven years, the land being
plowed up after each crop is harvested, and the runners turned under
to form a new growth the succeeding year. The ground is harrowed
in autunm and again in spring, and carefully weeded. Peppermint
will grow, however, on any land that will produce good crops of corn,
the ground being prepared by deep plowing and harrowing.

In Michigan* the land is plowed in the autumn, and early in spring
it is harrowed and marked with furrows about 3 feet apart. The
roots selected for planting are from one-eighth to one-quarter of an
inch thick, and from 1 to 3 feet long; and the workmen engaged in
" setting mint," as the process is called, carry these roots in sacks
across their shoulders and place them in the furrows by hand, cover-
ing the roots with one foot and stepping on them wdth the other.
The roots are planted so close together in the furrow as to form a
continuous line. An expert workman can plant about an acre in
a day.

In about two weeks the young plants will make their appearance,
and are carefully hoed and cultivated until July and August, when
the plants have usually sent out so many runners as to make further
cultivation difficult. The crop is cultivated with horse cultivators,
but if the land was very weedy in the first place, the weeds will
have to be pulled by hand. It is very necessary that the land be free
from Aveeds, as any collected with the peppermint crop will seriously
injure the quality of the oil.

It may be interesting to note here that on muck lands, when
necessary, the horses are usually provided with mud shoes to prevent
their sinking into the soft, wet ground, these mud shoes consisting
of wide pieces of iron or wood about 9 by 10 inches, fastened to the
hoofs and ordinary shoes by means of bolts and straps.

CONDITIONS INJURIOUS TO CROP.

Cold and wet weather or extremely dry periods have a very unfa-
vorable effect on the mint crop. Insect enemies also tend to cut xlown
the mint harvest — grasshoppers, crickets, and cutworms sometimes
doing considerable damage. A rust, causing the foliage to drop off

a Twentieth Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor of the State of Michigan,
1903, pp. 4.38-447.

24 MISCELLANEOPS PAPERS.

and leaving the stems almost bare, is apt to follow if very moist
weather occurs toward the latter part of the season. Weeds are
especially to be avoided in a mint field, since, as stated, the quality
of the oil will be seriously impaired if these are harvested with the
peppermint. The weeds generally found in a peppermint field are
Canada fleabane {Leptilon canadense), fireweed {Erechtites hieraci-
folia), giant ragweed {Amhrosia trifida), pennyroyal {Hedeoma
pidegioldes) , Eaton's grass {Eatonia pennsylvanica) , June grass
{Poa pratensis), and other low grasses.

HARVESTING AND DISTILLATION.

The first crop of mint is harvested in the latter part of August,
when the plants are in full flower, and the gathering continues until
about the middle of September, the stills running night and day
until all the mint is disposed of. The first crop is usually cut with a
scythe, as mowing machines do not work well on soft cultivated land.
The succeeding crops are cut with a mowing machine or sweep-rake
reaper. The highest yield per acre and the best quality of oil are
obtained from the first year's crop. Sometimes, if the weather con-
ditions have been very favorable, a second cutting is made. The
3'ield of oil from peppermint obtained from the same field sometimes
varies very much, the condition of the atmosphere seeming to exert
an influence upon it, as it is said that mint cut after a Avarm and
humid night will yield more oil than that cut after a cool and dry
night. It requires about 330 pounds of dried peppermint to produce
1 pound of oil, and the yield of oil from an acre ranges from 12 to 50
pounds.

If the mint crop has been grown on muck land, all that is necessary
after the crop has been harvested is to plow up the land and turn the
runners under for a new crop. If grown on upland, after the second
year's crop is in, or, at the most, after the third year's harvest, the land
is plowed and then given up to other crops. Peppermint exhausts
the land, and it is necessary to practice rotation of crops for about five
years in order to put the land in condition if it is desired to use it
again for peppermint cultivation.

After the plants are cut they are usually placed in windrows until
they are dried, but are not alloAved to become so dry as to permit the
leaves to shatter oif, and are then talven to the distillery. Some grow-
ers believe that if the plants are allowed to dry there will be a smaller
oil content owing to the escape of some of the oil into the atmosphere,
and so have the plants brought to the distillery in the green state;
but Mr. A. M. Todd " is of the opinion that no loss of oil will result

«Amer. Jour. Pharin., fJO: 328-332 (1888).

PEPPERMINT.

25

from drying, his experiments along this line showing that the dry
plants can be distilled three times as rapidly as the green plants, and
that a larger quantity of oil may be obtained. He states that —

To obtain the best results, both as to quality of essential oil and economy of
transportation and distillation, the plants should be dried as thoroughly as pos-
sible without endangering the loss of the leaves in handling. Distillation
should then take place as soon as convenient to prevent the oxidation of the oil
in the leaf by atmospheric action.

The smaller producers, who have no stills of their own, have their
mint crop hauled to the nearest peppermint distillery, where it is
distilled for them at a cost of 25 cents per pound of oil.

DESCRIPTION OF STILL.

The apparatus used in peppermint distillation in the early years
of the industry in this country consisted of a copper kettle, from
the top of which a pipe connected with a condensing "worm."
Water was placed in the kettle and the plants were immersed in it,
and direct heat was applied to the bottom from a furnace. With
such a still only about 15 pounds of oil could be obtained from a
charge. In 18-16, large wooden vats were substituted for the copper
kettles, and the plants were distilled by steam passing through them.
The kettle formerly used as the still was now employed to generate
steam, a long pipe conveying the steam to the bottom of the vats.
With this method of distillation from 75 to 100 pounds of oil could
be obtained from a charge without much additional .expense.

A modern peppermint still (fig. 3) may be briefly described as fol-
lows: The apparatus required consists of a boiler, a pair of large
circular Avooden vats, a condenser, and a receiver. The boiler, of
course, is used for the generation of steam.

Two wooden vats are used in order that they may be filled and
emptied alternately. These vats are about G feet high and about
5 feet in diameter, with tight -fitting removable covers and perfo-
rated false bottoms. Steam pipes are led from the boiler into the
bottom of the vats.

The condenser consists of a series of pipes of block tin, either
immersed in tanks of cold water or over which cold water is kept
running, the condenser being connected with the top of the dis-
tilling vats. The condensed steam, together with the oil, flows into
a metallic receiver, in which the oil, being lighter than the water,
rises to the top and can be drawn ofl".

The perforated false bottoms with which the vats are supplied
permit the passage of steam. A strong iron hoop is placed about
this false bottom, and two pairs of stout chains, which meet at the top

26

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.

of the vat in a pair of rings, are attached to it. After the charge
has been distilled it is drawn from the vats by means of this arrange-
ment.

The plants are thrown into the vats and are closely packed by two
or three men tramping npon them, and as the vat becomes about
one-third full the packing is still further assisted by turning in a
small supply of steam, which softens the plants. When the vat is
filled the tight cover is replaced and a full head of st^am turned on.
In the largest distilleries the vats have a capacity of from 2,000 to
3,000 pounds of dried plants each.

Fig. 3. — Peppermint still. (After Dewey, in Bailey's Cyclopedia of American

Horticulture.)

A, boiler ; B, steam pipes leading to vats ; G, valves for shutting off steam ; D, mint
packed in vat ready for distilling ; E, mint being lowered into vat ; F, tight-fitting cover
used alternately for both vats ; O, pipe from top of vat, joined at H so as to swing to
other vat ; J, perforated pipe, from which cold water drops over condensing tubes ; K,
supply pipe for cold water ; M, condensing pipes ; A', outlet for condensed oil and water ;
O and P, water and oil in separating can; R, outlet for water; 8, floor of distilling room.

Large tanks are used for storing the oil, and cans holding 20
pounds each are employed for shipj^ing, three of these cans being
placed in a wooden case.

The peppermint ha}^ which remains after distillation is used as a
fertilizer or is fed to stock.

PEPPERMINT OIL AND MENTHOL.

Peppermint leaves and flowering tops are official in the Eighth
Decennial Revision of the United States PharmacoiDoeia, as are like-
wise the following products and preparations derived from these
.parts: Oil of peppermint, menthol, spirit of peppermint, and pepper-
mint water.

PEPPEEMINT.

27

The United States Pharmacopoeia describes oil of peppermint as
" a colorless liquid, having the characteristic strong odor of pepper-
mint and a strongly aromatic pungent taste, followed by a sensation
of cold when air is drawn into the mouth." It is largely used in medi-
cine, internally as a stimulant and carminative, and externally to
relieve neuralgic and rheiunatic conditions. It is also used for flavor-
ing and scenting confectionery, cordials, and cosmetics. There is a
slight difference in the odor of white and black peppermint oil, the
black being more pungent and less agreeable in fragrance than the
white, which has a much finer odor, but, as already indicated, the
white mint is less hardy than the black and yields a smaller quantity
of oil.

The Japanese oil of peppermint, Avhich, as pointed out elsewhere in
these pages, is obtained from a different species of mint than that
which produces the true oil of peppermint, is very inferior to the last
named. It has a very unpleasant odor and a bitter, disagreeable
taste, but it is a heavy oil and contains a higher percentage of menthol
and, being a very much cheaper oil, it is liable to be used as an adul-
terant of true peppermint oil.

Menthol, formerly known as peppermint camphor, is the solid con-
stituent of oil of peppermint, obtained by subjecting the distilled oil
to an exceedingly low temperature by means of a freezing mixture.
Its properties are about the same as those of oil of peppermint, only
somewhat intensified. It is very largely made up into cones or pencils,
which furnish a popular remedy, to be applied externally or inhaled,
for the relief of headache, neuralgia, catarrh, asthma, and kindred
affections. It is also largely employed in other forms of medication.
The name " pipmenthol " has been applied to the menthol obtained
from the American oil, to distinguish it from the Japanese menthol.
Pipmenthol is said to have a distinct odor of peppermint, while the
Japanese menthol has but a slight peppermint odor.

EXPORT OF PEPPERMINT OIL.

The exports of peppermint oil during the fiscal year ended June 30,
1904, amounted to 42,930 pounds, valued at $124,728. Germany and
the United Kingdom were the largest consumers, the former receiving
22,372 pounds, valued at $65,505, and the latter 11,558 pounds, worth
$31,798.

The following tables show^ the export of peppermint oil, by coun-
tries, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1904, and the quantities and
values of peppermint oil exported for a period of ten years, from
July 1, 1894, to June 30, 1904, inclusive:

28

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.

Exports of peppermint oil, hy countries, for the fiscal year ended June 30, IDOJf.a

Country.

Belgrium

France

Germany

Italy...

Netherlands

United Kingdom

Dominion of Canada:

Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, etc
Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, etc...

Newfoundland and Labrador

West Indies:

British

Cuba

Danish

Dutch _

Argentina

British Guiana.

Peru

British Australasia

Total

42,939

Quan-
tity.

Value.

Pounds.

473

$1,585

3,054

10,a59

22,372

65,505

826

3,471

590

1,934

11,558

31,798

85

234

1,165

3,306

94

204

183

700

29

87

17

55

20

.61

1,237

3,504

10

81

50

175

1,176

3,019

124,728

"The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the year ending
June 30, 1904, vol. 1, p. 531, Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor.

Quantities and values of peppermint oil exported during the fiscal years 1895

to 1904, inclusive.^

Fiscal year.

Quan-
tity.

Value.

Fiscal year.

Quan-
tity.

Value.

1895 ' .

Pounds.

87.633

&5,290

162,493

145,375

117,462

1194,616
174,810
257,484
180,811
118,227

1900

Pounds.
89,558
60.166
36,301
13.033
43.939

S90,298

1896..

1901

1903

1903

1904

63,672

1897.

.54,898

1898

34,943

1899

124,728

" From The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the year ending
June 30, 1901!, vol. 2, p. 309. Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department ; and The
Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the year ending June 30,
1904, vol. 1, p. 192, Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor.

PRICES OF PEPPERMINT OIL.

The price of peppermint oil was very low for a few years j^rior to
1900, the enormous production of 1897 resulting in a great drop in
price. The lowest price paid for it was in 1899, when it brought
only 75 cents per pound. As a result of the low price a great many
mint farmers restricted the area of their mint plantations or alto-
gether abandoned peppermint cultivation. The smaller output of
the following seasons again sent prices up, and in 1902 the oil sold
as high as $4.75 a pound, which price was maintained until early in
1903, when it gradually declined, until toward the end of that year it
reached $2.20 per pound. . .

PEPPERMINT.

2\)

The following table" gives the highest and lowest prices of pepper-
mint oil in bulk from 1873 to September 16, 1905 :

Year.

Highest.

Lowest.

Year.

Hjghest.

Lowest.

Year.

Highest.

Lowest.

1873

S3. 15
5.25
5.50
3. 75
3.00
2.«)
2.65
2.87
2.85
2. .50
2.60

$3.15
3.75
3.20
2.40
1.75
1..50
1.45
2.60

2. :«

2.25

2.20

1884 _

1885

1886.

1887

1888

1889

1890

1891-

1893

1893

1894

$.3.00
4.37
3.60
2.75
2.40
2.30
2.40
2.50
2.50
2.45
2.45

$2.50;
2.75
2.75 1
1.90
L75
1.80
L80
2.45
2.15
2.15
1.70

1895

1896

1897.-

1898

1899

1900

1901

1902

1903

1904

1905*

$2.00
L86
1.25
.90
.90
1.10
1.80
4.75
4.75
3.75
3.45

$1.70

1874

1.20

1875

.90

1876

.80

1877

.75

1878_.

1879

1880

1881

1882

1883

.80
1.10
1.70
2.20
2.65
2.25

* To September 16.

The good prices of the j)ast few years have caused many farmers
to look again to peppermint as a profitable crop, as noted in increased
areas under cultivation in many localities. This is the case not only
in Michigan and Indiana, but also in New York, where for many
years the peppermint industry has been declining. Thus, if favor-
able conditions of growth prevail, an increased production maj^ be
looked for within the next few years, which will have the effect of
again depressing prices.

As is the case with other products the prices of which are subject
to great fluctuations, the condition of the market for peppermint oil
needs to be closely observed. The cost of cultivation per acre has
been stated at from $12 to $1-1, and, with a charge of 25 cents per
pound of oil for distillation, the market price may easily fall below
the cost of production.

a From Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter, September 18, 1905, p. 7.

B. P. I.— 194.

IV.-THE POISONOUS ACTION OF JOHNSON GRASS."

By A. C. Crawford, Phminacologisf, Poisonous- PI ant Investigations.

Johnson grass, which was introduced from Turkey into this countr^y
about 1830,^ has spread so that in many places it is considered as a
weed and pest/ Some farmers, however, have utilized the dried
grass as ha}' with advantage, either alone or combined with other
food material,'^ and chemical analyses have proved its value as feed.
Recently reports have come to this office from California of the death
of cattle under such circumstances as to point to Johnson grass as the
causative agent — the cattle dving in thirty minutes after eating the
grass. Johnson grass belongs to the same genus of the Gramineae as
sorghum. This group has been partially investigated chemically, and
it has been found that the fresh green plants of various members yield

"This office has from time to time received communications from stockmen,
especially in the lower part of California, Arizona, and adjacent territory, expressing
a suspicion that the eating of Johnson grass had caused the death of stock with
rather sudden and violent symptoms. There has seemed to be little ground in
poisonous-plant literature to support such an explanation. Last summer, however,
convincing observations were reported from California by a stockman who had lost
heavily, and a supply of the grass in question was obtained. The result of the study
of this material was so positive, and the possibility of damage due to this unsuspected
forage plant so clear, that this preliminary notice is put out in the hope of getting
observations and material for study from many sources, in order, if possible, to
determine the conditions under which the poisonous properties are developed and
over how wide an area they are likely to appear.

Rodney H. True, Physiologist.

Office of PoisoNors-PL.\NT Investigations,

]V(is}tliu/tnn, D. C ., Decemfter II, WO.'i.

^Ball, C. R. Johnson Grass. Bui; No. 1], Bureau of Plant Industry, United
States Department of Agriculture, 1902.

<^Spillman, W. J. Extermination of Johnson Grass. Bui. No. 72, Part 111,
Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1905.

f'North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Bui. 97, p. 92; Vasey, G.,
Grasses of the South, Bui. No. 3, Division of Botany, United States Department of
Agriculture, 1887; Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1881, pp. 281, 232,
239, 241; Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, 1890, p. 381.

31

32 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.

hydrocyanic acid as a result of the action of enzymes on more highly
complex bodies."

Ball* in 1902 stated that at that time there had been no official
reports to his office of cases of poisoning by Johnson grass, but that
there were some newspaper statements to that effect. He thought
these accounts were probably not authentic, but stated that "since
Johnson grass is closely related to sorghum, which is known to be
poisonous under some circumstances, it would not be surprising if
Johnson grass should also be poisonous under like conditions. * * *
In comparison with the great number of cattle fed or pastured in
Johnson grass, the reported cases of poisoning are extremely rare."

The first report of the poisonous action of Johnson grass which
reached the Department came from Miles City, Mont. Mr. William
Story reported that he and a neighbor had lost several head of cattle
after they had eaten small quantities of the grass, and that they had
died very suddenly. Mr. Story suggested that there was "something
peculiarly poisonous about the grass." The Commissioner of Agricul-
ture in publishing this report stated that " although the grass has been
cultivated in the South for forty or fifty years, no similar charges have
been made against it."'^

In India this plant is widely used as a fodder for cattle,^^ and the
natives make use of the seeds for food. It has been noted there that
deaths in cattle frequentl}^ occur when, on account of the failure of
rain, the plants which have reached a certain size become stunted and
withered. The toxic principle appears simultaneously over a wide
area, but soon disappears if a rainfall occurs.^ The deaths of cattle
have been attributed by some to an insect living upon the plant, and
in Australia it is the belief that Sorghum vulgcure^ which also yields
hydrocyanic acid, becomes more poisonous when attacked b}^ an insect
during a drought. A similar observation has been made with Scyr-
ghummdgare in the Sudan. Balfour-^ found that one specimen of the
plant which harbored aphids yielded more hydrocyanic acid than a

^Dunstan, W. R., and Henry, T. A., The Nature and Origin of the Poison of Lotus
Arabicus, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 1901, vol. 194, B., p. 515; Dunstan, W. R.,
and Henry, T. A., Cyanogenesis in Plants, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 1902,
vol. 199, A., p. 899; Slade, Henry B., Prussic Acid in Sorghum, Jour. Amer. Cheni.
Soc, 1903, vol. 25, pp. 55-59; Slade, Henry B., Study of the Enzymes of Green
Sorghum, Fifteenth Annual Report, Agricultural Experiment Station of Nebraska,
1902, pp. 55-62; Briinnich, J. C, Hydrocyanic Acid in Fodder-plants, Jour. Chem.
Soc, 1903, vol. 83, part 2, pp. 788-796.

&Bul. No. 11, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture,
p. 23.

c Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 1885, p. 74.

t^Duthie, J. F. Fodder Grasses of Northern India, 1888, p. 41.

« Pease, H. T. Poisoning of Cattle by Andropogon Sorghum. Jour. Compar. Med.
and Vet. Arch., vol. 18, 1897, p. 679. See also Agr. Ledger, 1896, No. 24.

/Balfour, Andrew. Cyanogenesis in Sorghum Yulgare. First Report, Wellcome
Research Laboratory, at Gordon Mem. College, Khartum, 1904, p. 47.

POISONOUS ACTION OF JOHNSON GRASS. 33

second one without parasites. Pease has lately claimed that the
deaths from Johnson grass in India were really cases of nitrate poison-
ing, as he found 25 per cent of nitrate of potassium in the stem of the
plant and was able to produce somewhat similar symptoms in animals
by feeding them this salt. Johnson grass is being introduced into
Australia as a fodder plant, but as yet no reports of its poisonous
action there have been noted by the writer.^

There has been some chemical study of Johnson grass, but not with
reference to any poisonous principle.^

A fresh, green, mature, nonllowering specimen of Johnson grass,
moistened with a little water and preserved with chloroform, was sent
from Santa Rosa, Cal., in sealed glass vessels, to this laboratory.
This was botanically identified here as Johnson grass. This specimen
was not immediately worked up, but remained in the jars for about a
month. At that time on opening the jars a marked odor of hydro-
cyanic acid, together with that of chloroform, was detected. The
ground-up plant, with the water in which it came, was distilled, and
the distillate was caught in sodium hydrate solution. This distillate,
on mixing with ferrous sulphate and acidulation with hydrochloric
acid, gave a heavy blue precipitate with ferric chlorid. Yellow ammo-
nium sulphid was added to the same filtrate, and the mixture was
evaporated to dryness on the bath. The dried residue was then taken
in hj'drochloric acid water, and on the addition of ferric chlorid the
fluid gave the characteristic red reaction for hydroc3^anic acid. The
nitro-prussid, picric acid, and silver nitrate reactions were all positive
for hj'drocyanic acid. The aqueous fluid in which the plant was
shipped was filtered off from the plant and gave on distillation all the
above reactions for hydrocyanic acid.

According to our California correspondent, this plant is poisonous
when grown on irrigated as well as on nonirrigated lands, but especially
so when grown on irrigated soil and the growth has become rank.

Recentl}^ Dunstan'' has shown that lima heans {Phaseolus Iwi aim),
which when grown wild in Mauritius yield sufficient hydrocyanic acid
to produce poisoning, when cultivated in Burma lose this toxicity
almost entirel}", although it may return most imexpectedly.'^^ He was
unable, however, to determine the condition which increased its
poisonous properties.

It is interesting to note, besides this production of hydrocyanic acid
from complex glucosids, that proteids, when subjected to oxidation

"Maiden, J. H. Useful Australian Plants. Department of Agriculture New
South Wales, Misc. Pub. No. 22, 1896.

^Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 1878, p. 168.

«Dunstan, W. R. Phaseolus Lunatus. Agricultural Ledger, 1905, No. 2.

^Church, A. H., Food-Grains of India, 1886, p. 155; Watt, George, Dictionary of
the Economic Products of India, vol. 6, part 1, 1892, p. 187.

34 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.

under certain conditions, also yield it/' In fact, hj'drocA^anic acid may-
exist in plants in two forms, either as the acid or as one of its salts, or
in the form of complex glucosids/ Under the circumstances, the
conclusions of Brimnich'' should be held in mind, viz,' that ""all fodder
plants related to sorghum must be used with discretion in either the
green or the dried state, and should not be given in large amounts to
animals which have fasted for some time."

In reference to other forage plants, Avery'' says that "Kafir-corn
leaves also contain this poison, but other forage plants — clover, alfalfa,
grasses, and corn — give no test for prussic acid," and Brilnnich also
found it in Guinea grass or Panicum maximum and P. mutlcwn.
Many facts have been collected relative to the distribution of hydro-
cyanic acid in plants, yet its exact significance in their metabolism is
unknown.^ The question as to the relationship of parasites-^ to the
production of hj^drocyanic acid remains to be solved.

Later investigations will be carried on to determine the nature of
this c3^anogenetic compound, to determine whether h3'drocyanic acid
is present in all stages of its growth, but disappears on drying the
plant, whether the hj^drocyanic acid production occurs under all con-
ditions or only when grown on certain soils, and the amount produced.
Hydrocyanic acid will also be looked for in other members of this
genus.

aPlummer, R. H. A. The Formation of Prussic Acid by the Oxidation of Albu-
mins. Jour. Physiol., vol. 31, 1904, p. 65; vol. 32, 1904, p. 50.

&Les Nouveaux Kemedes, vol. 14, 1898, p. 272.

<-Jour. Chem. Soc, 1903, vol. 83, part 2, p. 792.

<^ Avery, S. Laboratory Notes on Poison in Sorghum. Jour. Compar. Med. and
Vet. Arch., vol. 23, 1902, p. 705.

«Czapek, F. Biochemie d. Pflanzen, 1905, vol. 2, p. 259.

/Literature on some parasites of the sorghum family can be found in Bot. Gaz.,
vol. 28, 1899, p. 65. Also in Busse, W., Untersuch. u. d. Krank. der Sorghum Hirse,
Arb. a. d. biol. Abtheil. f. Land u. Forstw.-am kaiserl. Gesundheitsamt, 1904, vol. 4.

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