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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 189.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE SOURCE OF THE DRUG DIOSCOREA, WITH A

CONSIDERATION OF THE DIOSCOREil

FOUND IN THE UNITED STATES.

BY

HARLEY HARRIS BARTLETT,
Chemical Biologist, Drug-Plant Investigations.

Issued November 11, 1910.

WASHINGTON:
government printing office.

1910.

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[Continued on page 3 of cover.] i

180 I

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 189.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE SOURCE OF THE DRUG DIOSCOREA, WITH A

CONSIDERATION OF THE DIOSCOREJl

FOUND IN THE UNITED STATES.

BY

HARLEY HARRIS BARTLETT,
Chemical Biologist, Drug-Plant Investigations.

Issued November 11, 1910.

LIBRARY

NEW YORK
60TANICAL

qakden.

WASHINGTON:
government printing office.

1910.

V

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

Drug-Plant, Poisonous-Plant, Physiological, and Feementation Investigations.

scientific staff.

Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge.

A. B. Clawson, Heinrich Hasselbring, C. Dwight Marsh, and W. W. Stockberger,

Physiologists.
H. H. Bunzel and James Thompson, Experts.
Carl L. Alsberg, H. H. Bartlett, Otis F. Black, Frank Rabak, and A. F. Sievers,

Chemical Biologists.
W. W. Eggleston, Assistant Botanist.
.\lice Henkel, S. C. Hood, G. F. Klugh, Hadleigh Marsh, G. F. Mitchell, Ivar

Tidestrom, and T. B. Young, Assistants.
G. Archie Russell, Special Agent.

189
2

LETTER OE TRANSMITTAL

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,
Washington^ D. 6'., July 20, 1910.

Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for
publication as Bulletin No. 189 of the series of this Bureau, a manu-
script entitled " The Source of the Drug Dioscorea, with a Considera-
tion of the Dioscorere found in the United States," prepared b}^ Mr.
Harle}" Harris Bartlett, Chemical Biologist in the Office of Drug-
Plant Investigations, and submitted for publication by Dr. Rodney
H. True, Physiologist in Charge.

For many years there has been more or less confusion among crude-
drug dealers in regard to what plant should be considered the true
medicinal " Dioscorea." Although there is little real evidence that
our native species of Dioscorea differ much in their medicinal quali-
ties, some authors have expressed a marked preference for a rhizome
which is now very rare in the trade. It is here shown that there is
better historical precedent for the use of the rhizome now handled by
crude-drug dealers than for the form which of late has been preferred.

In carrying out this investigation Mr. Bartlett has found it neces-
sary to consult much material located in many herbaria, collections,
and museums. He was assisted very materially by drug specimens or
information furnished by Mr. Floyd Cole (Trade, Tenn.), Mr. H. E.
Ellis (St. Petersburg, Fla.). J. Q. McGuire & Co.' (Asheville, N. C),
Mr. Joseph Powell (Bristol, Tenn), Mr. E. W. Proctor (Cincinnati,
Ohio), and Vannoy & McXeill (North Wilkesboro, N. C). To the
following persons he is indebted for the use of herbarium specimens or
notes on geographic distribution: Mr. W. H. Aiken (Lloyd Library),
Prof. S. M. Bain (University of Tennessee), Mr. H. W. Barre (South
Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station), Mr. C. D. Beadle (Bilt-
more Herbarium), Prof. W, J. Beal (Michigan State Agricultural
College), Mr. Stewardson Brown (Philadelphia Academy of Natural
Sciences), Prof. W. A. Buckhout (Pennsylvania State College), Mr.
George H. Chapman (Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion), Prof. Mel. T. Cook (Agricultural Experiment Station, Dela-

189

3

4 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

ware College), Mr. C. C. Deam (Indiana State Board of Forestry),
Prof. R. J. H. De Loach (University of Georgia), Prof. K. H. Den-
niston (University of "Wisconsin), Mr. H. S. Fawcett (University of
Florida), Prof. E. M. Freeman (University of Minnesota), Prof.
H. Garman (University of Kentucky), Dr. H. A. Gleason (University
of Illinois), Prof. F. D. Heald (University of Texas), Mr. O. E. Jen-
nings (Carnegie Museum), Prof. F. E. Lloyd (Alabama Polytechnic
Institute), Mr. J. M. Macoun (Geological Survey of Canada), Prof.
L. H. Pammel (Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station), Mr. J. T.
Pennypacker (Delaware Natural History Society), Prof. G. M.
Eeed (University of Missouri), Prof. B. L. Robinson (Gray Her-
barium), Mr. A. D. Selby (Ohio Experiment Station), Prof. J. L.
Sheldon (University of West Virginia), Dr. J. K. Small (New York
Botanical Garden), Prof. E. A. Smith (Geological Survey of Ala-
bama), and Prof. William Trelease (Missouri Botanical Garden).
To all the above-named persons thanks are due for helpful coopera-
tion.

Respectfully, Wm. A. Taylor,

Acting Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

189

CONTENTS,

Page.

Taxonomic history of the Dioscorepe of the United States 7

Synopsis of the species of Dioscorea . 11

The drug Dioscorea 19

189 5

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page.
Fig. 1. Map of the southeastern portion of the United States, showing the

distribution of Dioscorea quaternata 12

2. Map of the eastern portion of the United States, showing the distribu-

tion of Dioscorea glauca 14

3. Map of the eastern portion of the United States, showing the dis-

tribution of Dioscorea paniculata and its variety glabrifolia 15

4. Reproduction of Plate 7, " Dioscorea villosa, " from King and Lloyd's

"Supplement to the American Dispensatory" 21

5. Rhizome of Dioscorea glauca. Mountain form from the summit of

House and Barn Mountain in Russell County, Va 22

6. Rhizomes of Dioscorea paniculata from Agricultural College, Ingham

Co., Mich 23

7. Rhizomes of Dioscorea paniculata, var. glabrifolia, from Glenndale,

Prince Georges Co., Md 24

8. Rhizome of Dioscorea glauca. Typical drug from South Portsmouth,

Greenup Co., Ky 25

189
6

B. P. I.— 591.

THE SOURCE OF THE DRUG DIOSCOREA, WITH A
CONSIDERATION OF THE DIOSCORE,^: FOUND IN
THE UNITED STATES.

TAXONOMIC HISTORY OF THE DIOSCOREiE OF THE UNITED STATES.

Dioscorea, an extensively, developed genus in the Tropics of both
hemispheres, is represented in the eastern and central United States
by five species. Of this number, two are described for the first time
in this paper; the others have had a long and involved bibliographic
history.

In 1705 Plukenet " published " Bryoniae nigrae similis floridana,
muscosis floribus quernis, foliis subtus lanugine villosis, medio nervo
in spinulam abeunte." In 1839 Gronovius '' referred Plukenet's
plant to Dioscorea, in the following account of a specimen which
Clayton had sent him from Virginia:

Dioscorea foliis cordatis acuminatis, nervis lateralibus ad medium folii
terminatis. Mas.

Bryoniae nigrae similis Floridana, etc. Plukn., Auialtb., p. 46, t. 375, f. 5.

Lupnli species late scandens, foliis cordiformilms venosis, alia tlore, alia
semine foecnnda, flores albos steriles in spica pendnla ferens, seminibns mem-
branis extantibus alatis, vasculo qnoque seminali membranaceo triquetro
inclusis, pluriniis in racemos ad modnm Lupulorum dense congestis. Clayt.
n. 94.

The only Dioscorea ascribed by Linnseus to the present area of
the United States Avas in part based upon the above citations from
Plukenet and Gronovius. He treated it as follows : "

7. Dioscorea [villosal foliis cordatis alternis opposltisque, caule laevi.

Dioscorea foliis cordatis acuminatis: nervis lateralibus ad medium folii
terminatis. Gron. Virg. 121.

Bryoniae nigrae similis floridana, muscosis floribus quernis, foliis subtus
lanugine villosis: medio nervo in spinulam abeunte. Pluk. Aim. 46, t. 375, f. 5.

Habitat in Virginia, Florida.

In attempting to decide upon the application of the name Dioscoi'ea
villosa, it was but natural to inquire whether there was any speci-
men so called in the herbarium of Linnaeus. Dr. B. Daydon Jackson,

« Amaltbeum, p. 46, t. 375, f. 5.
^ Flora Virginica, e<l. 1, p. 121.
"Species IMautarum, ed. 1 (1753), ii, p. 1033.

55838°— Bui. 189—10 2 7

8 THE SOUKCE OF THE DRUG DIOSCOKEA.

secretary of the Linna?an Society, very courteously looked into the
matter, and wrote as folloAvs:

On referring to the Linnsean lierbarium, I found only one American speci-
men. * * * At the bottom of the sheet is the note by Linne himself, " 6 K
sativa," to which Smith has added in pencil, " non est;" K = Kalm. I do- not
find any specimen named by Linne " villosa " in his herbarium, but as sativa
is an lOast Indian species, and the specimen is of Kalm's collection, it is patent
that there is a blunder.

Since Kalm is not mentioned in the treatment of Dioscorea villosa,
and since no localities but Virginia and Florida (these obviously
refer to the citations from Gronovius and Plukenet) are mentioned
by Linna'us, we can by no means typify D. villosa by the Kalm speci-
men." The species must therefore be interpreted in the light of the
diagnosis and synonymy given by Linnaeus.

Doctor Rendle, of the British Museum, has kindly sent a photo-
graph and description of the specimen which Clayton collected in
Virginia and sent to Gronovius. It is identical with the most widely
distributed Dioscorea of our range — not the most characteristic
species of Virginia, to be sure, but the one which would probably have
been collected in the coastal part of the State. In the matter of
pubescence the species varies considerably, but, according to Doctor
Rendle, the Gronovian specimen is glabrous except for puberulence
on the veins and venules of the lower leaf face. It can not, there-
fore, have been seen by Linnseus at the time he wrote the Species Plan-
tarum, for he would not have applied the adjective " villosa '" to an
almost glabrous plant. As a matter of fact, the specific name came
from Plukenet's " Bryoniae nigrae similis floridana, muscosis floribus
quernis, foliis subtus lanugine villosis, medio nervo in spinulam
abeunte." This characterization and the figure which accompanies
it are altogether vague, and in at least one point, the description of
the flowers as four parted, not even in accord with the generic
concept of Dioscorea. If we typify Dioscorea villosa by the
Gronovian specimen, as there is some warrant for doing because of
the fact that the first-cited locality in the Species Plantarum is
Virginia, we must call a widely distributed and abundant plant by
a name which is altogether inept. Richard'' found a way out of
this difficulty by renaming the northern plant, which is identical
with the Gronovian specimen. His treatment follows :

D. [paniculata] caule laevi foliis brevibus, cordatis, acuminatis, racemo masc.
e plurimis racemulis filiformibus quasi-paniculatim composite ; capsula rotun-
da ta glabra.

''A photograph of Kalm's specimen, kindly sent by Doctor Jackson, shows
that it should be referred to the species treated in this paper as Dioscorea
paniculata.

^Michaux, Flora Boreali-Americana (1803), ii, p. 239.
189

TAXONOMIC HISTORY OF THE DIOSCORE^ OF THE UNITED STATES. 9

D. villosa Liun.

D. quaieniata et quinata Gmel.
Obs. Cultura saepe fit glabra.
Hab. a Canada ad Cai'olinam.

There is no reason why the name Dioscorea panicvlata should not
be adopted, for the description and range implicitly exclude the
dubious jjlant of Plukenet.

The Vienna code provides for the rejection of names which are
likely to remain permanent sources of confusion and error. On this
ground the name Dioscorea villosa should surely be dropped. The
Linnanin diagnosis differs in only one word from that of Z>. saliva:

6. Dioscorea [sativa] foliis cordatis alternis, caule laevi.

7. Dioscorea [villosa] foliis cordatis alternis oppositisque, caule laevi.

Moreover, the single character which Linnaeus used to distinguish
his Dioscorea villosa from his D. sativa (leaves, in the former species,
alternate a>id opposite) did not apply either to Plukenet's plant or to
that of Gronovius. The Gronovian specimen at the British Museum
has all the leaves alternate. The sheet bears this annotation : " Hinc
inde folia fert opposita, unde potius dicenda Dioscorea foliis cordatis
alternis oppositisve." Plukenet's plate shows no opposite leaves. As
Lamarck" pointed out in the passage ouoted below, the character
" foliis oppositis '' had a bibliographic origin with Plumier and Rum-
phius, whose Polygonatum scandens cdtissinium^ foliis Tainni and
Uhium niimmidarium are included by Linna?us in Dioscorea villosa^
although he does not cite them.

Je crois qu'une Iguame dont les feuilles sont les unes alternes & les autres
opposees, est un etre de raison ; que Linne a'a etabli son Dioscorea villosa que
sur les livres, eu voulant faire regarder conime la meme plaute le Bnjoniae
nigrae siinilis Floridana de Phikenet. le Polygonafum scandens alfissi)ni(m . . .
de Plumier, enfin VUbiiim nummiUarimn de Rumplie, qui sont trois plantes
tres-differentes eutr'elles. Mais la plante de Plukenet n'a aucuues feuilles op-
posees, constatees par I'observation ; au contraire, celle de Plumier, que j'ai
vue. & que je decris ci-dessous, n'a aucunes feuilles alternes. Quelle est done
cette Iguame de la Virginie & de la Floride, qui a en meme temps des feuilles
opposees & des feuilles alternes? Je n'en trouve aucun indice, soit daus les
livres, soit dans les Herbiers que j'ai pu visiter. Au reste, la figure citee de
Plukenet (t. 375, f. 5), ressemble beaucoup a la plante que Ton cultive au Jardiu
du Roi sous le nom de Dioseorea sativa, plante qui y subsiste eu plelne terre,
sans que la gelee fasse perir sa racine, ce qui me fait presumer que cette meme
plante n'est point des Indes, mais qu'elle est reellement originaire de la
Virginie.

Wliile Linnaeus was writing the Species Plantarum, Burman was

engaged in editing works of Rumphius * and of Plumier.'" An ap-

° Encyclopedie Methodicpie P>otanique, iii (1789), p. 231.

^Rumpbli Herbarium Amboinense (1741-1755).

<^P]Mntarum Americanarum fasciculus (I, II . . . etc.), continens plautas
quas olim Carolus Plumierius detexit, eruitque atque in lusulis Antillis ipse
depiuxit (1757).
189

10 THE SOURCE OF THE DRUG DIOSCOREA.

pendix " to the Herbarium Amboinense contains an " Index univer-
salis," in Avhich Uhium nuTmnular'mm is referred to Dioscorea villosa.
In his preface Burman states that the Linnsean references were
taken from a dissertation published by Stickman under the direction
of Linnaeus in 1754, and therefore contemporaneous in preparation
with the Species Plantarum. The dissertation was reprinted in the
Amoenitates Academicae.''

The evidence that Plumier's Polygonatum scandens aUissimum^
foliis TaTYini is included in the Linna^an concept of Dioscorea mllosa
is not so convincing as in the case of Uhhim nummjulanKm. The two
plants are made synonyms in Burman's edition of Plumier, but
whether or not with the knowledge of Linnaeus it is impossible to say.
Plumier's plate is of an opposite-leaved Dioscorea from the West
Indies, a member of a section of the genus to which our species have
no resemblance.

As compared with Dioscorea villosa^ none of our other species are
difficult of interpretation. Walter'" published Anonymos (Dios-
coreae affinis?) quaternatus, foliis cordatis septemnerviis, nervorum
pari extimo bifido, acuminatis, infimis quaternis deinde ternis binis
alternisque, caule sinistrorsum volubili, racemis axillaribus pendulis,
floribus sursum assurgentibus, and Anonymos (Dioscoreae affinis?)
quinatus, foliis peltato-cordatis, 9-nerviis, foliis infimis quinis.
Gmelin** later copied the diagnoses and published the binomials
Dioscorea quaternata and D. quinata. Walter's herbarium, at the
British Museum, contains specimens of neither plant. Dioscorea
quaternata was accepted as a good species by Pursh,'' Nuttall,^
Elliott," Beck,'' and Kunth,^ and is interpreted in the traditional
way in this paper. D. quinata^ on the other hand, has always been
an enigma.

In 1813 Muhlenberg ■' published Dioscorea glauca^ a nomen subnu-
dum. Fortunately, however, his plant is as readily identified from
the descriptive name which he chose, and from tlie locality, as though

» Rnmphii Herbarii Amboinensis Auctuarium (1755).

^ Amoenitates Acacleuiicae, iv. Diss. Ivi, Herbarium Amboinense sub praesidio
D. D. Car. Liunaei proposuit Olavus Stickman. Upsaliae, 1754, ]Maj. 9.
c Flora CaroHniana (1788), p. 246.

•^ Linnaei Systema Yegetabiliuni, ed. 13 (1791), i, p. 581.
« Flora Americae Septentrional is (1814), i, p. 251.
f Genera of North American Plants (1818), ii, p. 238.
s' Botany of South Carolina and Cxeorgia (1824), ii, p. 704.
''Botany of the Northern and Middle States (1833), p. 355.
^ Enumeratio Plantarum (1850), v, p. 336.
i Catalogus Plantarum Americae Septentrionalis (1813), p. 92.

189

SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF DIOSCOKEA. 11

he had written a full description. He recognized two species, which
he treated as follows:

Dioscorea : (1) villosa 2/ bairy Pens. fl. Jim. Virg; (2) glauca 1/ glaucous
Peus. tl. Jun.

Only two species have been found in a large series of specimens
from Pennsylvania. One of them, Dioscorea paniculata, corresponds
to the D. villosa of Muhlenberg, and the other must therefore be
called D. gJauca. There is nothing to represent Muhlenberg's name
in his herbarium at the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences,
but there can not be the least doubt that it has been applied to the
correct plant.

Rafinesque " described four Dioscoreae in 1830. Two of them
D. megaptera and D. hexaphylla may be referred to D. glauca, and
one, D. repanda, may be divided between D. glaiica and D. quater-
nata. The other, D. longifolia^ described from leaves only, it is im-
possible to identify.

In 1850 Kuntli '' jDublished Dioscorea pruiiiosa. No specimen is
preserved at Berlin. From his full description, however, it seems
clear that the plant should be referred to D. glauca.

Between the years 1850 and 1909 all of our Dioscoreae were treated
in botanical works as one species under the name Dioscorea villosa.
In the seventh edition of Gray's Manual (1909) the editors departed
from current usage in taking up D. villosa var. glabra^ a name ob-
scurely published by Mr. C. G. Lloyd in 1880,"" and afterwards used
in various medical works.*^ Careful study of all the evidence available
has shown that this name is likewise a synonym of Dioscorea glauca.
Mr. Lloyd's very valuable observations on the medicinal rhizomes of
the two plants distinguished by him as D. villosa and D. villosa var.
glabra will be given due attention in another connection.

SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF DIOSCOREA.

Staminate inflorescences solitary and occurring only in the leaf axils.
Lower leaves verticillate in 4"s to 7's.

Leaf blades green below when mature, usually glabrous,

1. D. quatemata.
Leaf blades glaucous below when mature, generally hirtellous,

2. D. glauca.

"New Flora of North America, second part, Neophyton (1836), pp. 88-89.

^Enumeratio Plantaruni, v. (1850). p. 330.

'^ King, John, and Lloyd, John Uri, Supplement to the American Dispensatory
(1880), pp. 81-83.

^ Several editions of King's American Dispensatory, revised by H. W. Felter
and J. U. Lloyd.

A Treatise on Dioscorea and Sulphurous Acid. Drug Treatise No. 14, issued
by Lloyd Brothers (1905).
189

12

THE SOUECE OF THE DRUG DIOSCOREA.

Lower leaves all alternate, or the three lowest subapproximate or verticillate.
Internodes strictly glabrous. Fruiting racemes many fruited.

Leaves pubescent beneath 3. D. paniculata.

Leaves altogether glabrous 3. D. paniviilaia gUibrifoIia.

Internodes hairy. Fruiting racemes 1 to 4 fruited 4. D. hirticauUs.

Staminate inflorescences solitary or fasciculate in the leaf axils, and termi-
nating the stem 5. D. floHdana.

1. Dioscor(xi quaternata (Walt.) Gmel. Rhizomes about 1 cm. in
diameter, straight or sometimes forked, with few or no short lateral
branches. Stems 1 to 2 m. long, rigid and erect below the first node,
requiring support above. Lower leaves verticillate by 5's or 6's

Fig. 1.— Map of the southeastern portion of the United States, showing the distribution of

Dioscorca quaternata.

(rarely 4's or T's) ; upper leaves alternate. Petioles of the lower
leaves densely pubescent at base and apex, sometimes glabrate in age.
Leaf blades cordate, repand, green on both sides, usually strictly
glabrous except for the dense pubescence at the insertion of the
petiole. Staminate inflorescences paniculate, solitary in the leaf
axils, occuring even in the axils of the lower verticillate leaves.
Pistillate inflorescences few flowered. Fruit 2 to 3 cm. long, very
variable in shape.

The distribution of this species, as shown in figure 1, is based upon
the following material :

189

SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OP DIOSCOREA. 13

North Carolina. — Guilford County, Biltmore Herb., 364 a ; Orange County,
W. W. Ashe; Swain County, H. C. Beardslee and G. A. Kofoid, July 25, 1S91.

South Carolina. — Oconee County, H. D. House, 3470 and 2120 ; Pickens
County, //. D. House, 3079.

Georgia.— De Kalb County, H. Eggcrt, May 22, 1897, and W. W. Ashe, May,
1896; Floyd County, Chapman Herb.; McDuffie County, H. H. Bartlett, 1722
and 1733 ; Walker County, Percy Wilson, 197 ; Meriwether County, S. M. Tracy,
9208.

Alabama. — Bibb County, E. A. Smith, July 20, 1879 ; Cullman County. //.
Eggert, June 21, 1897, and C. P. Baker, May 18, 1897 ; Hale County, S. Watson,
in 1857 ; Lee County, F. S. Earle and C. F Baker, April 24, May 8, and October
2, 1897 ; Montgomery County, C. Mohr; Tuscaloosa County, E. A. Smith, 1287
and 1516 ; Wilcox County, 8. B. Buckley, May, 1839.

Florida. — Franklin County, Chapman.

Louisiana. — East Baton Eouge Parish, W. R. Dodson.

Mississippi. — Choctaw County (?), /. M. Cliite, 68; Jones County, 8. M. Tracy,
3355 ; Smith County, S. M Tracy, August 22, 1903.

Arkansas. — Garland County, William Trelease, October 3, 1898, and 8. E.
Meek, August 19, 1889 ; Independence County, F. V. Coville, ISO ; Pulaski
County, H. E. Hasse, April 11, 1886.

Missouri. — Jefferson County, H. Eggert, July 15, 1892.

Tennessee. — Franklin County, A. Gattinger; Hamilton County, F. Lamson-
Scribner, May 21, 1890; Haywood County, S. M. Bain, June 13, 1893; Knox
County, A. Ruth, 779 and 1200 a ; Monroe County, F. Lamson-Scribner, June 29,
1890.

Kentucky. — ^Lyon County, IF. W. Eggleston, 4674.

2. Dioscorea glauca Mulil. Rhizomes 1 cm. or more in diameter,
often forked and with many short lateral branches equal in diameter
to the rhizome, usually much contorted and forming dense masses.
Stems 1 to 3 m. long, rigid and erect below the first node, requir-
ing support above. Lower leaves verticillate in whorls of 5 to 7;
upper leaves alternate. Petioles densely pubescent at the apex.
Leaves larger than in D. quaternata.^ less markedly repand or not at
all so, usually sparsely hirtellous beneath, but often glabrous, always
glaucous when mature. Paniculately branched staminate inflores-
cences solitary, occurring in all the leaf axils. Pistillate inflores-
cences few flowered ; fruits 2 to 3 cm. long.

Dioscorea glauca is essentially a plant of the mountains, although
in the northern part of its range it is found near sea level. In the
lowlands southward it is replaced by the closely related D. quater-
nata. As will be seen from the map (fig. 2) the ranges of the two
species hardly overlap.

The following specimens have been examined:

Pennsylvania. — Allegheny County, J. .4. Shafer, 590, and C. C. Mellor, June
7, 1889 ; Fulton County, Witmer Stone, June 4, 1905 ; Huntingdon County, O. E.
Jennings, May 17, 1904 ; Lancaster County, J. J. Carter, May, 1870, and A. A.
Heller, June 5. 1900; Susquehanna County, A. Stengel, May 29, 1886; West-
moreland County. O. E. Jennings, May 19, 1904 ; York County, J. N. Rose and
J. H. Painter, 8123.
189

14

THE SOURCE OF THE DEUG DIOSCOEEA.

Delaware. — Newcastle County, William M. Canhy, July, 1893.

Maryland. — Garrett County, G. A. Eifrick, May. 1902; Montgomery County,
A. CJia.sc. 2313 and 2827*, and H. H. Bartlett, 1821 ; Prince Georges County, A.
Cliasic, 2215; District of Columbia, E. S. Steele, 67, and H. D. House, 709.

Virginia. — Alexandria County, A. 8. Hitchcock, September, 1904, and L. H.
Dewey, 239; Bedford County, A. H. Curtiss. 43953; Campbell Coimty, 8. B.
Buckley; Fairfax County. E. L. Morris, June. 1896, and L. H. Dewey, 232;
Loudoun County, A. Chase, 2244; Russell County, C. L. Alsberg, 54 and 120;
Smyth County, -/. K. Small, June 4, 1892.

West Virginia. — Barbour County, J. M. Oreenman, 93; Monongalia County,
O. E. Jcnmngs, July 4, 1909; Preston County, J. L. Sheldon, 1454, and E. S.
Steele, August 18, 1898; Upshur County, W. M. Pollock, May 30. 1895. and May
31 and June 12, 1897.

Fig. 2. — Map of the eastern portion of the United States, showing the distribution of

Dioscorca glauca.

Ohio. — Hamilton County, C. G. Lloyd.

Illinois— Vnion County, E. S. Earle, 763, and Mrs. C. Butler, August 13. 1880.

Kentucky. — Fayette County, W. A. Kellerman, in 1882; Greenup County, John
Butler, in 1909: Jessamine County, H. Garman; McCracken County, Biltmore
Herb., 364 c; Menifee County. //. Garnmn, May 8, 1893; Pulaski County, V. W.
Mathews, July 11. 1892; Warren County, S. F. Price, May 21, 1900; Wolfe
County. M. L. Didlake, June, 1898.

Missouri.— ^t. Louis County, 'N. M. Glatfelter (?), 517.

Tennessee. — Knox County, F. Lamson-Scribncr, May 14, 1SS9.

North Carolina. — Buncombe County, Biltmore Herb., 364, and F. Crayton and
W. W. Eggleston, 4398; Macon County. L. R. Gibbs, in 1881; Orange County,
W. W. Ashe, June, 1898; Polk County, J. R. Churchill, May 30, 1899, and E. C.
Townsend, April 29, 1897 ; Surry County, H. H. Rusby, June 18, 1909.

South Carolina.— AxiAavson County, L. R. Gibbs, In 1885; Oconee County,
A. P. Anderson, 1502.
189

SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF DIOSCOREA.

15

3. Dioscorea paiiiculata Michx. Rhizomes long and slender, simple
or rarely forked, less than 1 cm. in diameter, with a few short lateral
branches of less diameter. Stem 1 to 4 m. long, flexucns, glabrous.
Leaves all alternate, or two or three of the lowest subapproximate,
pubescent or puberulous beneath. Petioles glabrous at the insertion
of the blade, or, if pubescent, less densely so than the blades. Stami-
nate inflorescences solitary, borne only in the leaf axils of the upper
half of the stem, the three or four lowest less branched than those
higher up. Pistillate inflorescences densely many fruited. Capsules
2 cm. long or less.

Fig. 3. — Map of the eastern portion of the United States, showing the distribution of
Dioscorea paniculata (liy dots) and its variety glabrifolia (l\v crosses).

Var. glabrifolia Bartlett.*^ Leaves altogether glabrous. This va-
riety replaces the typical form of the species in the southwestern part
of the range. Various northeastern specimens are indistinguishable
from the southwestern plant, but may be genetically distinct from it.
In the distribution map (fig. 3) the range of the variety is shown by
crosses.

"• Dioscorea paniculata glabrifolia var. nov. Foliis glabris exceptis, forniae
specie! typicae omnino siniilis. A. 8. Hitchcock, 830 (pro parte) "Woods,
Cherokee Co., Kansas, 1896."
189

16 THE SOURCE OF THE DRUG DIOSCOREA.

The following specimens of Dioscorea paniculata have been ex-
amined : "

Connecticut. — Fairfield County, C. L. Pollard, 115; Middlesex County, J. II.
Redflchh 7952, and S. B. BncMcy, September, 1835; New Haven County, 0. II.
Bissell, 203, and A. L. Winton, July 8, 1886 ; New London County, G. R. Lums-
dcti, July 16, 1885.*

New York. — Chemung County, T. F. Lucy, 712; New York County, N. L.
Britton, July 22, 1879; Tioga County, F. V. Covillc. June 4, 1887, and F. E.'
Fenno, 401 ; Westchester County, G. V. Nash, July 2, 1896.

New Jersey. — Atlantic County, C. A. Gross; Bergen County, N. L. Britton,
September, 1883; Camden County, E. B. Bartram, August 3, 1907; Hudson
County, A. C. Hexamcr and F. W. Maier, August 17, 1852, and William M. Van
l^icMe, July 1, 1894; Ocean County, J. II. Grove, July 16 and August 21, 1908;
Passaic County, G. V. Nash, July, 1889; Warren County, Albrecht Jahn, Sep-
tember 14, 1895, Thomas C. Porter and A. A. Tyler, June 27, 1896.

Delaware. — Newcastle Countj% A. Commons, July, 1866.

Maryland. — Allegany County, Howard ^Iirirer, in 1894; District of Columbia,
F. Blanchard, September 17, 1890, L. F. Ward, July 8, 1878, and C. L.^Pollard,
G05.

Pennsylvania. — Bucks County, Bayard Long, July 6, 1909 ; Center County,
W. A. Buckhout, October, 1909; Crawford County, O. E. Jennings, August 19,
1904, and J. A. Shafer, July 23, 1901 ; Dauphin County, J. K. Small, July 18,
1888; Delaware County, >S'. S. Van Pelt, June 24, 1906; Franklin County, /. A.
Keller, July 28, 1895; Lebanon County, J. K. Small, December, 1891; Lehigh
County, A. F. K. Krout, June, 1878; Monroe County, Joseph Craivford, July 4,
1896; Montgomery County, Alexander MacElivee, June 26, 1892; Northampton
County, A. A. Tyler, 550, and Bayard Long, June 29, 1908; Philadelphia
County, J. II. Redfleld, 7951.

Ontario. — Essex County, Macoim, July 24, 1892; Lincoln County, IF. C.
McCalla, 244 ; Welland County, Cameron, August, 1892.

Ohio. — Franklin County, E. B. Williamson, June 22, 1897 ; Hamilton County,
C. G. Lloyd, June 25, 1890, and IF. H. Aiken, June 15, 1902: Lucas County,
Lewis Schults, 1705; Richland County, E. Wilkinson, 10214; Sandusky County,
M. J. Persing, July 10, 1897 ; Summit County, L. D. Stair, June 26, 1896; Wayne
County, -4. Russ, 435, and -1. D. Selby and J. W. T. Dnvel, 4.36.

Michigan.— V,Yi\\\Q\\ County, J. Shaddick, July 29, 1896; Cass County, //. S.
Pepoon, 452; Genesee County, D. Clark; Gratiot Countj-, C. A. Davis, July 10
and October, 1892; Ingham County, C. F. Wheeler, June 20, 1895; Ionia
County, F. P. Daniels, June, 1896; Jackson County, Houghton, July 13, 1S38;
Kalamazoo County, Houghton, August 2, 1838; Kent County, .4. A. Crozier,
July 11. 1886; Lenawee County, W. J. Beat, in 1886; Muskegon County, C. D.
McLouth, September 7, 1898; Shiawassee County, G. H. Hicks, July 13, 1889;
Washtenaw County, Houghton, July 2, 1838; Wayne County, William Boote,
June 26, 1871.

Wisconsin. — Dane County, H. L. Russell, June 20, 1887, and L. S. Cheney,
July 5, 1890; La Crosse County, L. II. Pammel, July, 1887; Lafayette County,
L. 8. Cheney, June 26, 1890; Wood County, B. M..Vaughan, July, 1883.

"The occurrence of Dioscorea paniculata in Middlesex County, Massachusetts,
shown in figure 3, is based upon Bigelow's report of tlie plant as "rare" in
"woods on the Concord turnpike." (Florula Bostoniensis, 2d ed., 1824, p. 369.)
It has not been reported since.

* Of all the specimens cited in this synopsis, only this one had branched
pistillate inflorescences.
189

SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF DIOSCOREA. 17

Minnesota. — Chisago County, B. C. Taylor, August, 1S92 ; Olmsted County,
Mrs. George AinsUe, May 28, 1895; Washington County, H. Eggert, July 12,
IS'92; Winona County, J. M. Holzinger, August 21, 1888.

Indiana. — Allen County, C. C. Deam, 1157; Blackford County, C. C Deam,
1101: Grant County. C. C. Deam, 2177; Huntington County, C. C. Deam, 2146;
Kosciusko County, C. C. Deam, 3205; Noble County, C. C. Deam, 316; Parke
County. H. H. Bartlett, June 25, 1903 ; Posey County. C. C. Deam, 910 ; Steuben
County, C. C. Deam. June 16, 1903; Tippecanoe County, //. B. Dorner, July 4,
1901 ; Wells County. C. C. Deam, 4.

/////iois.— Champaign County, M. B. Walte. June 28, 1886; Cook County. A.
Chase, June 1, 1896; Dupage County, L. M. Umhach, August 18, 1897, June 16
and July 2, 1898; Henderson County, H. N. Patterson. 439.14; Marshall County,
T'. H. Chase. 14SS; Peoria County, F. E. McDonald, July, 1893; St. Clair County,
H. Eggert, June 24, 1875, and August 28. 1878 ; Stark County, V. H. Chase, 623 ;
Rock Island County, C. C. Parry. July, 1865; Vermilion County, M. B. Waite,
June 24, 1886.

Iowa. — Fayette County. B. Fink, 472; Henry County, ./. //. Mills, 531; Johnson
County, F it z pat rick, June, 1896; Pottawattamie County, F. V. Hayden, July 5,
1853; Scott County, C. C. Parry; Story County, A. 8. Hitchcock; Winneshiek
County, E. W. D. Holway, June 30, 1882.

Missouri. — Boone Couuty, F. P. Daniels, June 13, 1903; Caldwell County,
J. E. Totvnsend. September, 1869 ; Cole County, 0. Kraiise, June. 1867 ; Greene
County, J. ir. Blankinshii). 2477; Jasper County, F. J. Palmer, 527; Jefferson
County, H. Eggert. June 26, 1892; St. I.ouis County, H. Eggert. June 14. 1893.

Kansas. — Cherokee County, A. 8. Hitchcock, 830 (pro parte) ; Miami County,
J. H. Oyster.

Oklahoma.— District 2. Indian Territory, B. F. Bu.sh. 11.37.

The following specimens of the variety glahrifoUa hcive been
examined :

Connecticut. — Middlesex County, Sf. B. Buckley, September, 1835; New Haven
County, Robbins.

PeH».s-///rf/»i(/.— Philadelphia County, S. 8. Van Pelt. July 10. 1908.

Maryland. — Prince Georges County, //. H. Bartlett, 1873.

Tennessee. — Playwood County. S. M. Bain, 321.

Missouri. — Boone County. F. P. Daniels, June, 1903; Cass County, O. C.
Broadhead, June, 1865; Jasper County, B. F. Lutman, August 1, 1901, and E. J.
Palmer, 832 ; Saline County. William Trelease, June 23, 1886.

Kansas. — Cherokee County, A. 8. Hitchcock. 830 {pro parte).

Arkansas. — St. Francis County, William Trelease, August 20, 1897; Sebastian
County, J. M. Bigelow, in 1853-54.

Texas. — Harris County, J. F. Joor, June 20, 1877; Upshur County, J. Rever-
shon, 2497 and 4033,

4. Dioscorea hirticaulis Bartlett." Rhizome less than 1 cm. in
diameter, simple or rarely forked, nearly straight, bearing short lat-

^Dioscorea hirticaulis sp. nov. Rhizoma horizoutale, plerumque simplex vel
raro furcatum, usque ad 50 cm. longum, crassitudine ca. 8 mm. ; ranuilis panels
lateralibus abortivis quam rhizomate multo tenuioribus, 0.5-2 cm. longis;
caulium cicatricibus saepe inter se 10-12 cm. distantilius saepe binis trinisve
approximatis. Caulis gracilis scandens flexuosus 2-3-nietralis, hirtellus. Folia
infima 3 verticillata vel propinqua. superne alterna. laniinis eordatis 7-9 nerviis,
supra glabris subtus griseo-pubescentibus, margine saepissime repaudis ; petiolis.
189

18 THE SOURCE OF THE DRUG DIOSCOREA.

eral branches of 2 to 3 mm. diameter. Stem 1 to 3 m. long, flexuoiis.
weak, pubescent. Leaves all alternate, or the three lowest verticillate
or SLibapp)roximate, griseous-pubescent beneath and also, though not
so densely, on the apex of the petiole. Staminate inflorescences soli-
tary in the leaf axils of the upper half of the stem, the lowest simple
or with one branch, the others increasingly paniculate. Pistillate in-
florescences developing from 1 to 4 fruits, which are about 2 cm. long.

Dioscorea hirticaalis is probably confined to the region of the fall
line and to the Coastal Plain, for no stations are known further
inland. As it occurs about Thomson, Ga., it is confined to the branch
swamps, where its long rhizomes run horizontally barely beneath the
surface of the black muck soil. The only other Dioscorea of the
region, />. quaternata^ with which it shows not the least intergrada-
tion, has a totally different habitat.

Specimens examined : *

'North Carolina. — Cumberland County, Biltmore Herh.. 3G4 b.
Houth Carolina. — Berkeley County, //. W. Rarencl.
Georgia.— McDuffie County, H. 11. Bartlett, 14G8.

5. Dioscorea floridana^nvtlett.'' Ehizomes unknown. Stem flexu-
ous, twining. Leaves alternate, entirely glabrous, green above, paler
beneath. Staminate inflorescences paniculate, terminating the stem
and also fasciculate by twos and threes in the upper leaf axils, the
larger axillary inflorescences sometimes 40 cm. long. Pistillate in-
florescences solitary, 5 to 7 flowered. Fruits about 2 cm. long, similar
in shape to those of D. panicidata.

This species is very clearly distinguished from our other species
by the position of the staminate inflorescences. In material collected
by Mr. Harper in Georgia the larger inflorescence of an axillary
fascicle exceptionally bears one or two leaf -like bracts. As at the end

praecipue ad apicem versus, hirtellis. Inflorescentiae masculae solum in
foliorum axillis superiorum positae, densiflorae, inferiores vix ramosae, su-
periores paniculatae; pedunculo perbrevi ramulisque sub lente pubescentibus,
alato-angulatis. Perigonium 6-partitum immaculatum. Stamina 6, filamentis
perbrevibus; antberis bifldo-didymis. Spicae femineae solitariae 1-4 florae;
capsulis circumscriptione obcordatis 2 cm. longis, aetate castaneis. Semina
fusca.— //. W. Ravenel, " Santee Canal, South Carolina " { $ ) ; II. H. Bartlett,
1468, " Branch swamp," McDufhe County, Georgia, September IS. 1908 ( 2 ).

<i Dioscorea floridana sp. nov. Rhizoma ignotum. Caulis scandens, flexuosus,
glaber. Folia cordata, alterna, utrinque glabra, supra viridia, subtus pallidiora,
7-uervia, nervis exterioribus biiurcatis. Inflorescentiae masculae paniculi-
formes et caulem terminantes et binis trinisve in folioi-um axillis superiorum
fasciculatae; floribus aut singulis aut binis sessilibus, valde flavis, maculatis;
staminibus hand didymis. Spicae femineae pendulae, solitariae, ca. 6-florae.
Capsulae foi-ma eis D. paniculatae similes, ca. 2 em. longae. — " Moist thickets,
Lake City, Fla.," P. H. Kolfs, 266 {$), June 18, 1894; Charleston, S. C, in
Herb. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. ( $ ) .
189

THE DEUG DIOSCOREA. 19

of the stem, however, the transition from leaves to subulate bracts is
not gradual but sharp.
Specimens examined :

Sorth Carolina. — CMiieston County (specimen in Herb. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.).

Georgia. — Jefferson County, M. II. Hopkins, 91 ; Sumter County, R. M. Harper,
13S9.

Florida. — Columbia County, P. H. Rolfs, 266; Escambia County, A. H. Curtiss,
in 1885.

THE DRUG DIOSCOREA.

According to Mr, C. G. Lloyd the rhizome of Dioscorea was first
brought to the attention of " botanic physicians " by Dr. J. L. Rid-
dell " in 1835, although before that time it had been used more or less
as a " secret remedy." ^ Riddell's account of the plant, which was
copied in part by most subsequent writers, was as follows :

1501. Dioscorea villosa, Linn. Yam root. China root. May-June. Yellow-
wliite. Climbing vine, G to 12 f. Koot woody, tortuous, echinate. Open woods.
Bottom lauds. Western States. An infusion of the powdered root is to be boiled
in a pint of water, and half of it given at once. * * * I have been informed
that Doctor Miller, of Neville, Ohio, values the tincture highly as an expectorant.
He says it is also diaphoretic, and, in large doses, emetic."

In 1836, a year later, William Hance'' published a much fuller
account of Dioscorea, which, on account of the evidence it affords
regarding the identity of the species used at that time, is here quoted
in full:

Dioscorea villosa. Common names — Yam root, China root. — This plant is a
twining and climbing vine, resembling in some respects the morning glory. The
i-oot is of a most singular tortuous form, of a woody consistence, with numerous
spiny protuberances. It is perennial, and doubtless endures a greater number of
years than the roots of most plants of similar habits. The sprangles are usually
near half an inch in thickness, and the whole root in favorable situations is
often found to weigh half a pound. The stem is a climbing annual vine, winding
around small shrubs, and insinuating itself among brambles, often attaining
the height of 6 or 8 feet. Near the ground the leaves usually appear in ver-
ticillate clusters, or whorls, varying in number from two to eight or more in a
bunch, dependent on the luxuriance of the soil. Higher up the leaves are alter-
nate. They are always on pretty long footstalks and of the form of a heart, with
the point acute and turned to one side ; commonly roundish as well as cordate
and nearly 2 inches across. Almost always you may count just nine nerves
or portions of framework, proceeding from the base toward the apex. The
flowers show themselves in May and June; they are very small and white,
arranged on little stems which come out just above the leaves. The seeds are
triangular, some like buckwheat, though four times as large, with wings at the
angles. The yam root grows plentifully in the Western States, delighting in
fertile hillsides, thickets, and open woods.

a A Synopsis of the Flora of the Western States (1835).

^ See Transactions, N. Y. State Eclectic Medical Society, for 1870. D. E. Smith,
" Dioscorea."

c Howard's Botanic Medicine, ed. 3 (1836), ii, p. 240.
189

20 THE SOUECE OF THE DEUG DIOSCOREA.

An infusion of the root is a valuable remedy in bilious colic. An ounce of the
powdered root must be boiled in a pint of water, and half of it given at a
dose. * * * I iiave been informed that Doctor INIiller, of Neville, Ohio, values
the tincture highly as an expectorant. He says it is also diaphoretic, and in
large doses emetic.

For the introduction of the dioscorea into this work we are indebted to the
kindness of our friend, Dr. J. L. Riddell. He has not informed us upon what
principle it is supposed to afford relief in bilious colic, whether as an anodyne,
cathartic, or some other. We have no doubt, however, of its value in this com-
plaint, and, at the same time, think it highly probable that further investigation
will disclose its usefulness in other diseases.

It will be observed that the plant described by both Kiddell and
Hance was Dioscorea glauca Muhl. The description of the rhizome as
" singularly tortuous, with numerous spiny protuberances " and
" sprangles usually near half an inch in thickness," and of the leaves
as " verticillate, from two to eight in a bunch," leaves no. doubt con-
cerning the plant which they used. In this connection it should be
observed (see fig. 2) that D. glauca occurs in southern Ohio, where
Riddell might have observed it. By the time King« published his
Dispensatory, however, one of the species with slender rhizomes had
come into use in eclectic medical practice. King's description in-
cluded characters of two or three species and was obviously compiled
from earlier authors. The rhizome, however, he undoubtedly de-
scribed from his own knowledge of it as " long, woody, contorted, from
an eighth to a fourth of an inch in diameter." He doubtless used D.
panicidata. This species was also used by W. S. Merrell in the prepa-
ration of his " dioscorein," and at that time (about 1850) was the
only plant recognized by the eclectic school as " Dioscorea viUosa^
It must be remembered, however, that the "Z>. villosa " of " Howard's
Botanic Medicine " was D. glauca. The history of dioscorea be-
tween 1850 and 1880 can not be better outlined than by quoting from
Mr, C. G. Lloyd's article in the Supplement to the eighth edition of
King's Dispensatory.'' In order to make the quotations intelligible the
" Plate VII," which is referred to, is here reproduced as figure 4 :

The rhizoma of Dioscorea villosa is a favorite tlierapeutical agent among
our eclectic physicians, who have advantageously used it for more than
forty years. It is known as wild yam and colic root. The first specimens
employed were from the Dioscorea villosa, with pubescent leaves (fig. 2,
PI. VII), now known as the "true wild yam." About tlie year 1850 botanic
druggists noticed the admixture by root diggers of the rhizomata represented
by figure 1, Plnte VII. and for a considerable time rejected it as an adulteration.
The diggers insisted, however, that both "roots" were obtained from vines
almost identical in appearance (although they can distinguish between them),
and finally purchasers were compelled to accept them, more especially as the

^American Eclectic Dispensatory (1854), p. 440.

& Supplement to the American Dispensatory, by John King and John Uri
Lloyd (1880), pp. 81-83.
189

THE DRUG DIOSCOREA.

21

true rliizomata became very scarce. Mr. H. M. Merrell, of Cincinnati, Ohio,
to whom we are indebted for this information, states that the first heavy ship-
ments of the false " wild yam root " to eas^tern houses were made about 1860,
whh?h article purchasers refused to accept, but after some correspondence,
■coupled with the fact that the true wild yam could not at that time be obtained,
the parties concluded to receive it. Since then the two rhizomata have been
sold indiscriminately, although but little of the original drug is to be found in
the market. Eclectic physicians are aware of the difference between these
rhizomata and refuse to use the "false" variety, insisting that it does not
possess the medicinal properties, and can not safely be substituted for the
" true." In this connec-
tion we invite attention
to the accurate engrav-
ings of each variety of
the rhizomata in Plate
VII. [See fig. 4.]

The rhizoma of Dios-
corca rillosa (PI. VII,
fig. 2) appears in market
in s 1 e n d e r contorted
pieces from one-fourth of
an inch to half an inch
in diameter, and often 2
feet in length. It is oval,
being flattened above and
below as it creeps in a
horizontal position be-
neath the surface of the
ground. It seldom throws
out branches, but occa-
sionally little protuber-
ances project from its
sides, being from one-
eighth of an inch to an
inch in length and about
one-third as large in
diameter as the primary
rhizoma. They are round-
ing at the extremity,
and seem to indicate an
abortive attempt of the
rhizoma to throw out
branches, but they do
not send up the vine. Along the upper side of the rhizoma are stem scars, which
are about three-fourths of an inch apart. The epidermis is brown, thin, and
scales off, more or less, upon drying, especially when the rhizoma is gathered in
the spring, but which is not the case with a good quality of it when dug in
autumn. The internal color of the dry rhizoma is whitish, or slightly straw
colored, when gathered in the autumn, but it is often brown when collected early
in the season ; there is no bark to it. Under a magnifying glass the texture of a
broken rhizoma apjiears mealy and perforated with numerous woody bundles.
Attached to the lower part of the rhizoma an abundance of strong, wirelike fibers
will be observed. * * * Dioscorea villosa has one of the firmest of rhizo-

189

Fig. 4. — Reproduction of Plate 7, " Dioscorea rillosa," from
King and Lloyd's " Siipplempnt to the American Dis-
pensatory." (Reduced one-third.)

22

THE SOURCE OF THE DRUG DIOSCOEEA.

mata, it being very difficult to powder or crush. It has no odor and but liUIe
taste beyond a slight acridity after prolonged chewing. The virtues appear to
reside in an acrid resin, almost insoluble in water, but readily extracted by
alcohol. The so-called dioscorein is not a definite principle of the rhizoma, but
is simply a dried solid extract, and to call it otherwise is a misnomer.

Dioscorea villosa var. gJahra. — This appears to us to be a distinct variety,
chiefly differing from the preceding in the entire dissimilarity of its rhizomata.

This plant closely resem-
bles the true wild yam
in its general shape, and
in the structure of its
leaves, flowers, and fruit.
The leaves, however, are
entirely glabrous and are
not covered with a short
pubescence underneath.
This distinction we have
invariably found in every
instance where we have
examined the growing
plants, hence the under-
surface of the leaf will
readily determine the
character of the rhizoma.
The two plants likewise
appear to differ in their
manner of growth, the
D. villosa often growing
in dense clumps while
the variety ylahra is gen-
erally found isolated.

The rhizoma (PI. VII,
fig. 1) of I>, villosa var.
glabra i-esembles that of
Colliiisonia Canadensis
more nearly than it does
the true D. villosa. It is
found as a rough clump
of a pound or more in
weight when fresh,
thickly branched, each
branch shooting from the
side of the main rhizoma
at an angle inclining
backward and upward.
The branches almost
touch each other, are as
large as the rhizoma, and
are from 1 inch to 3 inches in length. Along their upper surface are numerous
cup-shaped stem scars, which are about one-fourth of an inch or one-third of an
inch in diameter and so thickly inserted as to intrude upon each other. The
vine of the true D. villosa, upon the contrary, springs fi'om the main rhizoma.
The diameter of the rhizoma and of the ramifications is from half an inch to
three-fourths of an inch, and the length seldom mox'e than 6 inches. Internally
189

Fig. 5. — Rhizome of Dioscorea glaucu. Mountain form
from the summit of House and Barn Mountain in Russell
County, Virginia, collected by C. L. Alsberg. (Three-
fourths natural size.)

THE DEUG DIOSCOKEA.

23

the rhizoma resembles that of the true wild yam, while the lower portion is in
like manner covered with stout fibrous rootlets. The color is generally a very
much darker brown.

It will be observed that Mr. Lloyd's " true " Avild yam is Dioscorea
paniculata and that his " false " variety is D. glcvuca^ the species
first authoritatively introduced into eclectic practice. With regard to
his criterion for distinguishing "Z>. villosa " from "Z>. villosa var.

Fig. 6. — Rhizomes of Dioscorea paniculata from Agricultural College, Ingham Co., Mich.,
collected by W. .1. Deal. (Two-thirds natural size.)

glahra " (the pubescence of the lower leaf face), it must be said that
D. glauca^ the plant Avith the large, coarse rhizome, although some-
times glabrous, is oftener somewhat pubescent on the leaves beneath,
and that D. paniculata^ the species with slender rhizomes, has
a variety with the leaves entirely glabrous. To make this point
clear, the attention of the reader is directed to figure 5, which illus-
trates the rhizome of a specimen of D. glauca with the leaves slightly

189

24

THE SOURCE OF THE DRUG DIOSCOREA.

pubescent beneath, and figures 6 and 7, illustrating rhizomes of
D. paniculata and its variety glahrifolia.

"When Dioscorea glmica grows at Ioay altitudes its rhizome is less
branched and contorted than Avhen it grows in the mountains. In
the Aicinity of Washington. D. C, its rhizome is often as unbranched
as the rhizome of D. quatemata^ and might be mistaken for that

Fig. 7. — Rhizomes of Dioscorea paniculata var. ijlubrifulia from Gloundale, Prince Georges
Co., MfL, collected by H. H. Bartlett. (Two-thirds natural size.)

species, but its greater diameter still suffices to distinguish it from
D. paniculata. The form of rhizome which occurs most frequently
in the drug trade at the present time is well illustrated by figure 8.
This particular specimen was obtained through the kindness of
Mr. R. W. Proctor, of Cincinnati. Ohio. As a general rule, collectors
of Dioscorea who supply the drug market do not distinguish between

189

THE DEUG DIOSCOREA.

25

the different kinds. The same common names are used for all of the
species. Wild j^am is the name used over the largest area. The
following names have also been reported by correspondents of the

y-

FiG. 8.- — Kbizome of Dioscorea glauca. Typical drug from South Portsmouth, Greenup
Co., Ky., collected by John Butler. (Two-thirds natural size.)

Department of Agriculture: Colicroot, chinaroot, devil's-bones
(North Carolina) ; hobs-grub (Tennessee) ; rattlebox, cramproot
(Kentucky).

180

INDEX.

Page.

'Anonymos (Dioscoreae affinis?) quaternatus, " etc., reference 10

quinatus," etc.. reference 10

■'Bryoniae nigrae gimilis floridana," publication 7

Burman, editions of Rumpliius and Plumier 9

statement regarding '"Index Universalis" of ''Herl^arium Amboi-

nense " 10

Chinaroot, common name for Dioscorea 25

Clayton, collector of Dioscorea specimen in Gronovian herbarium 8

Colicroot, common name for Dioscorea 25

Cramproot, common name for Dioscorea 25

Devil 's-bones, common name for Dioscorea - - 25

. Dioscorea, common names 25

description by Riddell 19

floridana, description 18-19

distribution 18-19

specimens examined 18

glauca, a nomen sul>nudum 10-11

description 13

distribution 13-14

forms of rhizome 24

identity with D. villosa of Riddell and Hance 20

var. glabra of Lloyd 23-24

synonymy 11

hexaphylla, reference to D. glauca 11

hirticauliS: description 17-18

distribution 18

specimens examined IS

longifolia, reference 11

megaptera, reference to D. glauca 11

paniculata, abnormal pistillate inflorescence 16

description 15

distribution 15, 16-17

form of rhizome 23-24

identity with D. villosa of Lloyd 23-24

occurrence in Massachusetts, report 16

original publication 8

source of ' ' dioscorein " 20

var. glabrifolia, description 15

distribution 15, 17

form of rhizome 24

pruinosa, reference to D . glauca 11

189 27

28 THE SOURCE OF THE DRUG DIOSCOREA.

Page.

Dioscorea quatemata, acceptance by Pursh, Nuttall, Elliott, Beck, and Kunth. 10

description 12

distribution 12-13

form of rhizome 24

publication by Gmelin 10

synonymy 11

quinata, publication by Gmelin 10

repanda, reference to D. glauca and D. quaternata 11

sativa, identity of Linnsean specimen with D. paniculata 8

Linnsean diagnosis 9

synopsis of species occurring in United States 11-19

the drug, medical history 19-25

United States, taxonomic history 7-11

villosa, description by Hance 19-20

identity of drug described by King 20

Lloyd as "true" wild yam. . . 23-24

Riddell and Hance 20

inapplicability of name 9

Lloyd's description 21-22

opposite-leaved elements 9, 10

origin of specific name '. . 8

original publication 7

use as secret medicine, history by D. E. Smith 19

var. glabra, Lloyd's description 22-23

publication 11

reference to D . glauca 11, 23

Dioscorein, preparation by W. S . Merrell 20

Gmelin, publication of Dioscorea quaternata and D. quinata 10

"Gray's Manual, " seventh edition, treatment of Dioscorea 11

Hance, William, account of Dioscorea in Howard's "Botanic Medicine" 19-20

identity of drug described 19-20

Hobs-grub, common name for Dioscorea 25

Jackson, B. Daydon, Linnaean specimens, letter 7-8

Kalm, collector of Dioscorea specimen in Linnsean herbarium 8

King, John, identity of drug described 20

Kunth, publication of Dioscorea pruinosa 11

Lamarck, origin of Linnsean diagnosis of Dioscorea villosa 9

Linnseus, specimen of Dioscorea in herbarium 7

treatment of Dioscorea in ' ' Species Plantarum " 7,9

Lloyd, C. G., history of drug Dioscorea 19, 20-23

publication of Dioscorea villosa, var. glabra 11 , 22

Merrell, W. S., dioscorein, preparation 20

Muhlenberg, herbarium 11

publication of Dioscorea glauca 10-11

treatment of Dioscorea 11

Nomenclature, botanical, Vienna code, provision for rejection of certain names. . 9

" Polygonatum scandens altissimum," an element of Dioscorea villosa 9, 10

Rafinesque, description of Dioscorese 11

Rattlebox, common name for Dioscorea 25

Rendle, specimen of Dioscorea in Gronovian herbarium, description 8

Richard, description of Dioscorea paniculata 8-9

Riddell, J. L., description of Dioscorea 19

Rumphius, reference of Ubium nummularium to Dioscorea villosa 9, 10

189

INDEX. 29

Page.

Smith, D. E., history of use of Dioscorea as secret medicine 19

Stickman, Linntean references in "Herbarium Amboinense" 10

Ubium nummularium, an element of Discorea villosa 9, 10

United States, Dioscorea, synopsis of species 11-19

taxonomic history 7-11

Vienna code. See Nomenclature, botanical, Vienna code.

Walter, " Anonymos (Dioscoreae affinis?) quaternatus, " reference 10

quinatus, " reference 10

Wild yam. See Yam, wild.

Yam, wild, false, root 21, 23

most common name for Dioscorea 25

true, description 20, 23, 25

189

o

[Continued from page 2 of cover. ]

No. 102. Miscellaneous Tapers. 1907. Price, 1.5 cents.

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188. Dry Farming in Relation to Rainfall and Evaporation. [In press.] J

189 :

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 190. ^

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bnreav.

ORCHARD GREEN-MANURE CR0P8

IN CALIFORNIA.

BY

ROLAND MgKEE,

SriENTTFTO ASSLSTANT, OfFKE OF FoRAGE-CrOP

Investigations .

IwiKI) OcTOBEIi L'7. UUO.

.WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1910.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. ^

'I'lu; scientific and tt'chnical {(ublications vi Ihc Bureau of Plant Industry, which was orsjanizcd July 1, ' .!

I!t0l, are issued in a single series of bulletins, a list of which follows. - '•

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i;»0 ' [Contimied oupageaofcovcr.] -]

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 190.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

ORCHARD GREEN-MANURE CROPS

m CALIFORNIA.

BY

KOLAND McKEE,

Scientific Assistant, Office of Forage-Crop
Investigations.

Issued October 27, 1910.

LIBRARY
NEW YORI
BOTANICA

QARDBN.

WASHINGTON:

government printing office.

1910.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

Foeage-Ceop Investigations.

scientific staff.

C. V. Piper, Agrostologist in Charge.
J. M. Westgate, Agronomist.

R. A. Oakley and H. N. Vinall. Assistant Agrostologists.
S. M. Tracy, Special Agent.
A. B. Conner, A. B. Cron, M. W. Evans, Roland McKee, and W. J. Morse, Assistants.

190

2

LETTER OE TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,

Washington, D. C, July 2, 1910.
Sir : I have the honor to transmit and to recommend for pubHcation
the accompanying manuscript, entitled "Orchard Green-Manure Crops
in Cahfornia," by Mr. Roland McKee, Scientific Assistant in the
Office of Forage-Crop Investigations, and recommend its publication
as Bulletin No. 190 of the Bureau series.

Leguminous cover crops are now extensively used in California
citrus orchards, but only to a slight extent in deciduous orchards.
Owing to peculiar conditions certain legumes are especially adapted
for use in that State, while their usefulness elsewhere is limited.

The results presented in this bulletin are based on the investiga-
tions that have been conducted at Chico, Cal., and in cooperation
with many orchardists for the past five years.
Respectfully,

G. H. Powell,
Acting Chief of Bureau.

Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

190 Q

CONTENTS

Page.

Introduction 7

The orchard districts of California 8

Southern citrus section 8

Northern citrus section 9

Deciduous orchard sections ' 9

Conditions under which green-manure crops should not be used 10

Qualities desirable in a green-manure crop 10

Methods of handling green-manure crops 11

Preparation of the land 11

Seeding 12

Irrigation 12

Turning under a green-manure crop 12

Inoculation 14

Commercial fertilizers 15

Winter green-manure crops now used in California orchards 15

Common vetch 15

Canada field peas 17

Bur clover 19

Fenugreek 20

Adaptation 21

Comparative value 21

Planting 22

Seed production 23

Hairy vetch 23

Indian melilot 24

Summer green-manure crops 24

Results of green manuring in California 25

Results of tests with various legumes 25

Promising green-manure crops 27

Black-purple vetch 28

Black bitter vetch 29

Woolly-podded vetch 30

Horse bean 30

Tangier pea 32

Cost of seed of green-manure crops 32

Summary 34

Index 37

190 5

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.
Fig. 1. ViewinaCaliforniaorangegrove, showing the method employed in plow-
ing under a green-manure crop 13

2. Experimental plats of horse beans at Chico, Cal., showing the striking

superiority of the noduled plants 14

3. View in an orange orchard in southern California, showing common

vetch grown as a green-manure crop 16

4. View in an orange orchard in southern California, showing Canada field

peas grown as a green-manure crop ,. - - 18

5. An individual plant of fenugreek, showing its characteristics 20

6. View in a walnut orchard in Orange County, California, showing fenu-

greek grown as a green-manure crop 21

7. A field of black-purple vetch at Chico, Cal 28

8. A field of black bitter vetch at Chico, Cal 29

9. View in a citrus orchard in southern California, showing horse beans

grown as a green-manure crop 31

190
6

B. p. I.— 592,

ORCHARD GREEN-MANURE CROPS IN CALIFORNIA.

INTRODUCTION.

The use of green-manure crops for the maintenance of soil fertihty
is one of the oldest of agricultural practices. In California such
crops have been used in a limited way for a long time, yet it is only
within recent years that their practical value has become fully recog-
nized. The growing of these crops has attained its greatest develop-
ment in the citrus orchards of the southern part of the State, where
they have been longest used.

As far back as the early nineties some of the more progressive
orchardists were beginning to realize the necessity of some such prac-
tice as green manuring and to this end utilized the natural growth
of bur clover and other weeds, such as alfilaria,'* brome-gr asses, etc.
The Canada field pea was the first of the legumes to be used exten-
sively as a green-manure crop, and by 1900 it was bemg quite gen-
erally grown in the citrus orchards of the southern part of the State.
Common vetch and bur clover were also being utilized at this time.

In many parts of California, green-manure crops have not been used
to any extent, but not entirely without reason. That their use can
be made much more general than at present is quite certain, and as
their value is more fully appreciated and their adaptation to the
various sections demonstrated their use will be proportionately
increased.

For a number of years the Bureau of Plant Industry has been work-
ing to secure better crops for green manuring than the ones now used
and to aid in the demonstration of the adaptability of the ones now
being grown. The Agricultural Experiment Station of the Uni-
versity of California has also done extensive work in demonstratmg
the value of various green-manure crops in that State.

In California the work of the Bureau of Plant Industry has been
carried on in cooperation with orchardists and farmers throughout
the various sections and at the United States Plant Introduction
Garden at Chico, where extensive tests have been made. This work
has clearly indicated the superiority of certain crops over others and
their adaptation for varying purposes and conditions.

a Known also as alfilerilla and pin-grass.
190 7

I

8 OKCHAKD GEEEN-MANUEE CEOPS IN CALIFOENIA.

THE ORCHARD DISTRICTS OF CALIFORNIA.

The orchard districts of Cahfornia so far as green-manure crops
are concerned at once divide themselves into the citrus and the
deciduous fruit districts. These are again readily divided into the
northern and southern citrus districts and the irrigated and nonirri-
gated deciduous sections.

The two citrus districts have a definite geographical distinction,
while with the deciduous orchards water is the differentiating factor,
without reference to any geographical distinction. The citrus dis-
tricts are quite definite in area. The southern district is confined to
what is known as southern California proper and includes the territory
south of the Sierra Madre Mountains and north along the coast to
Santa Barbara. The northern district includes a narrow strip on the
east side of the San Joaquin VaUey from some distance south of
Porterville to Lemoncove, Tulare County, on the north; a similar
but smaller area in Fresno County; a small area in the Sacramento
Valley, centering about Oroville and Palermo; and various small
areas in other parts of the valleys and foothills.

Conditions with regard to water, soil, climatic or seasonal varia-
tions, etc., are quite different in these various sections, and the plant
best suited to a certain area must be carefully considered in deter-
mining the probability of success with a green-manure crop. Prac-
tices satisfactory in one locality may be unsuited to another, and the
crop best adapted to one section may not be adapted to another.

SOUTHERN CITRUS SECTION.

The seasonal conditions of the southern citrus section are such as
to maiie this the most favorable part of the State for growing green-
manure crops. The locahty and climatic conditions are such that
these crops are practically never injured by frosts, and the mild
winters favor vegetative growth at that time of the year.

In contrast with the deciduous sections, where there is usually a
heavy rainfall, here the rainfall is usually light. However, as irriga-
tion is given throughout the dry season the conditions are favorable
to the sowing of a green-manure crop early in the fall, thus giving
sufficient time for considerable growth before the cold weather of
winter.

The soils vary considerably in composition and mechanical texture,
but as a general rule are of such a nature as to permit working at
almost any time during the winter, except after heavy rains, thus
favoring the turning under of a green-manure crop. While some
soils in this section are a rich loam and contain considerable organic
matter, as a rule they are quite deficient in this respect. That green
manures need to be more extensively used is evident.

190

THE ORCHARD DISTRICTS OF CALIFORNIA. 9

NORTHERN CITRUS SECTION.

The northern citrus section, as previously stated, comprises a small
region in the San Joaquin Valley, centering about Porterville and
Exeter, and a smaller section in the Sacramento Valley, centering
about Oroville and Palermo, besides small areas in various parts of
the valleys and foothills of the State. The conditions in this district
differ very much from the conditions in the southern California dis-
trict, and in these differences is found the reason why green-manure
crops have been but little used.

The seasonal conditions at the north wliile favorable to the growth
of green-manure crops are less favorable for their handling. The
rainy season is quite definite, extending through January and Feb-
ruary, and sometimes into March. The soil, which is heavy, dries out
slowly during the winter season, often making it impossible to get
into the orchard to turn under a crop at the proper time. Thus, when
the season for turning under is delayed, a heavy vegetative growth is
objectionable in that it makes the land hard to work and at the same
time by shading prevents it from drying out to allow of cultivation
as early as otherwise would be the case. The soils throughout the
northern district are with few exceptions of the very heavy nature
referred to, and for this reason a heavy vegetative growth is often a
hindrance to proper handling. While the immediate effects of a
green-manure crop may be undesirable, there is but httle question
that these lands need to be made lighter by the addition of humus,
and results that appear at the time as unfavorable can well be toler-
ated when the ultimate effect will be an improved condition.

Green manures have been used but little in the northern citrus
section. However, the results from a few plantings, together with
the experimental work done, clearly show that by early seeding a
good green-manure crop can be grown and in most cases can be
profitably used.

DECIDUOUS ORCHARD SECTIONS.

While the deciduous orchards are scattered throughout the State
of California they are largely in the northern part and are mostly
located on the fertile lands of the various river valleys and the low
foothills. Green-manure crops have not been used to any extent in
these orchards, and practically the only thing approaching such a crop
is the volunteer growth of bur clover, which is usually sufficient by
the time the orchards are plowed in the spring to yield considerable
humus.

The problem of growing a green-manure crop in deciduous orchards
is quite different from that of growing the same crop ih citrus
orchards. This difference lies principally in the fact that the former
52810°— Bull. 190—10 2

10 OECHAKD GEEEN-MANUEE CEOPS IN CALIFOENIA.

are not irrigated, or if water is applied it is early in the summer, and
not in the fall when it could be utiUzed in starting the crop.

Winter rains must be depended upon to germinate seed sown in the
fall, and only in the most favorable seasons are they early enough to
allow much growth before cold weather. When the first rains come
late, but little growth is made by fall-sown seed until the warmer
weather of the latter part of winter or early spring. Thus, only in
the most favorable years will the growth be sufficiently early to
allow its utilization for green manure. Where water is available for
fall irrigation the question ceases to be one of the possibility of grow-
ing a good green-manure crop and becomes one of the returns justify-
ing the expense.

CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH GREEN-MANURE CROPS SHOULD NOT

BE USED.

There are some sections in which green-manure crops can be grown
satisfactorily, but their utility nevertheless seems questionable. This
is especially true in lemon orchards having a very heavy soil, and to
a less degree in orange orchards. By a heavy soil is not meant a
heavy loam, but an adobe or a soil approaching that texture. On
such soils the discontinuance of cultivation which is necessitated by
the growing of a green-manure crop allows the soil to become quite
hard and packed, thus permitting very imperfect aeration. This is
a most undesirable soil condition to maintain during a period of sev-
eral months, and its injurious effects may be seen in the unthrifty
appearance of the trees. Where this effect is very marked it is
undoubtedly best not to use a green manure, but to use stable manure
instead, if such is available.

In the Porterville and Oroville citrus districts, where the soils are
quite generally of a heavy type, the foregoing statement does not
apply as definitely as in the southern California districts. This is
due to seasonal differences. The trees in the two former sections
have a more nearly dormant period of growth during the early win-
ter than those in the latter, in which case the effect of noncultivation
is not so marked. Wliere on account of heavy soils it is not advisable
to grow a green-manure crop, stable manure, if available' should be
used in lightening the soil.

QUALITIES DESIRABLE IN A GREEN-MANURE CROP.

No one plant possesses all the desirable qualities of an ideal green-
manure crop. However, in the various crops used for such pur-
poses, practically all the desirable qualities are represented, though
varying in degree. The conditions under which a green manure is to
be grown determine to some extent whether a certain quality is

190

METHODS OP HANDLING GREEN-MANUEE CROPS. 11

desirable or objectionable and must be taken into consideration in
selecting the best crop to grow.

A green-manure crop should be a legume wherever possible, in
order to obtain the addition of nitrogen to the soil. It is also neces-
sary that a good growth be made, in order to have a large quantity of
organic matter to turn under and incorporate with the soil. Along
with good growth should be a heavy development of nodules on the
roots, as this is believed to indicate great ability to fix atmospheric
nitrogen.

The quality of being able to stand trampling with a minimum of
injury is very important where the crop will be subject to such injury,
as is the case in citrus orchards where the picking of fruit takes
place while the green-manure crop is yet growing. Uprightness and
nontwining stems are also desirable where an ordinary moldboard
plow is depended upon for turning under the crop. However, if a
disk plow is used or the crop is worked in with an ordinary disk
harrow, this does not make so much difference, and where the growth
is not allowed to become too rank little difficulty is experienced in
plowing it under.

The texture of the stem should be such as to decompose readily.
Practically all crops, however, if turned under at the right stage of
growth decay readily. Thus, the question of decomposition is one of
turning under the crop at the right time rather than one of selecting
a crop that will decay readily.

That the cost of a green manure may not be too great, it is neces-
sary that the price of seed be reasonable as compared with the results
to be obtained.

METHODS OF HANDLING GREEN-MANURE CROPS.

The methods of handling green-manure crops in California are
quite similar throughout the various sections. However, some vari-
ation in practice exists among orchardists in the same neighborhood, as
well as among those of different localities.

The following methods are practiced in the citrus and walnut
orchards of the southern part of the State, where green manures have
been most generally grown.

PREPARATION OF THE LAND.

Since clean culture is practiced throughout the year in citrus and
walnut orchards except when a green-manure crop is being grown,
the land can be prepared at any time for the seeding of such a crop.

The general practice is to prepare the land for seeding by plowing
or disking and harrowing immediately after an irrigation. This puts
the land in good condition for the seeding.

190

12 OKCHAED GEEEN-MANUEE CEOPS IN CALIFOENIA.

SEEDING.

The most successful growers of green-manure crops sow vetch and
bur clover in the first half of September, and peas during the latter
half of the same month. Early seeding is being much more generally-
practiced now than it was a few years ago, when the greater part of
the crop was sown in October. The time of irrigation of an orchard
determines to some extent when a green-manure crop shall be sowti,
as water is not always available at the time desired. However,
when water is available the time mentioned is that most generally
favored for irrigation.

The seed is sown either drilled or broadcast and harrowed in.

IRRIGATION.

After the seed is sown and before it germinates, the land is prepared
for fall or winter irrigation if necessary. The furrow method is the
one most commonly used. This consists in making a number of
shallow furrows between the rows in the direction the water is to
flow, the method varying in different sections and with the lay of the
land.

The basin method is used to quite an extent in the walnut orchards
of the southern part of the State and in the orchards of the Santa
Clara Valley."

Nothing further is done, with the exception of irrigating if neces-
sary, until the crop is ready to turn under. Wlien a crop is so^\ti in
September it can be plowed under during February.

TURNING UNDER A GREEN-MANURE CROP.

In turning under a green-manure crop the common moldboard
plow (see fig. 1), the disk plow, or the disk harrow is used. In using
the first a sharp colter is attached, and where the vine growth is
heavy a chain is also used. Sometimes the land is run over once
with a disk harrow before plowing. This enables a heavy growth to
be more completely turned under. During the past few years the
disk plow has been very generally used, and for turning under a heavy
vine growth it works more satisfactorily than the moldboard plow.

After plowing under a green-manure crop the land is harrowed,
and as the crop decays cultivation is given. This at first is shallow,
so as not to bring the vines to the surface, but later a deeper cultiva-
tion is given.

In sections having a very open soil or a sandy loam the disk harrow
has been used very successfully iti turning under a green-manure
crop. The use of this harrow has been taken up with the idea that
fewer surface-feeding roots of the trees are disturbed by its use than

a See Bulletin 145, Office of Experiment Stations, pp. 46-50.
190

METHODS OF HANDLING GREEN-MANURE CROPS.

13

is the case with the plow, for which reason it is thought by many to
be more desirable. In working a green-manure crop into the soil
wdth a disk harrow, four diskings are usually required, each disking,
where the planting of the orchard will permit, being made at an angle
with the previous one. On the heavier soils the disk harrow does not
work so well and the plow is used almost entirely.

After turning under a green manure the land is kept well cultivated
the remainder of the year.

For obtaining the best results a green-manure crop should be
turned under early enough in the season to allow perfect decomposi-

* V

9'<^-^~.

>-^

^ . X ,^ff^^-

Fig. 1.— view in a California orange grove, showing the method employed In plowing under a green-
manure crop.

tion. In orchards this can be quite definitely designated, as the
turning under should take place before the trees start growth in the
spring. This means, for citrus orchards in southern California, not
later than February. In northern California the season is of neces-
sity a little later on account of the generally wet condition of the soil
at that time. Where the factors relating to other crops and a season
favorable to decomposition do not have to be taken into considera-
tion, it perhaps is safe to say that to obtain the best results most
legumes should be turned under about the time the first pods form,
or a little earher.

190

14

ORCHARD GREEN-MANURE CROPS IN CALIFORNIA.

INOCULATION.

The question is often asked whether it is not advisable to inoculate
seed to be sown on land that has not previously growTi that crop. In
California it has been found that the bacteria necessary to nodule
formation on the more common leguminous crops are present in most
soils. The first seeding may not, however, be as abundantly inocu-
lated as desired, and in some sections the bacteria essential to certain
crops seem to be entirely lacking in the soil.

In northern California it has been observed that horse beans are
not inoculated the first year they are grown on soil that has not pre-

^ .--- --«rs;*^.

rj '}>-

'^ ^i

■'1. ■:« ';

Fig. 2.— Experimental plats of horse beans at Chlco, Cal., showing the striking superiority of the noduled

plants.

viously grown this crop. (See fig. 2.) Thus, to obtain the best
results, it is necessary to inoculate the crop the first year. The dif-
ference between an inoculated and an uninoculated crop of horse
beans in the Sacramento Valley is very marked and is practically
the difference between success and failure. In southern California
this crop does not require artificial inoculation, the soil being inocu-
lated.

In the inoculation of horse beans the surest results are obtained by
securing soil from an inoculated plat or field and mixing this with
the seed at the time of seeding. In this way but little soil will be
required to inoculate a large area, and practically no extra time or

190

WINTER GEEEN-MANUEE CEOPS. 15

labor is necessary. The inoculation of this crop may also be attained
by spreading inoculated soil over the field at the time of seeding and
working it in Avith the seed, or the seed may be inoculated with pure
cultures of the bacteria which form nodules on the roots of this plant.
Such cultures have been distributed by this Department for several
years, and the results obtained from their use have been favorable in
many cases.

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.

In the citrus orchards of California commercial fertilizers are quite
generally applied, while in few deciduous orchards are fertilizers used
in any form. "\A'liere fertilizers are used they are usually applied in
connection with a green-manure crop.

The value of a green-manure crop is largely due to the part it plays
in liberating plant food in the soil. In the deca}^ of organic matter
and the giving off of carbonic-acid gas, the action on phosphorus and
potassium compounds is such as to make them more available as
plant food. Vegetable acids, which are always more or less present
with a green-manure crop, also aid in liberating plant food. Thus,
elements present in a soil but not available as plant food may be
made so by the use of a green manure.'*

From the facts just stated it will be readily seen that a green-
manure crop may serve a useful purpose when used in connection
with commercial fertilizers, especially where the various plant-food
elements are only partially available in the soil.

WINTER GREEN-MANURE CROPS NOW USED IN CALIFORNIA

ORCHARDS.

The green-manure crops now used in California, in the order of
their importance, are as follows: Common vetch, Canada field peas,
bur clover, fenugreek, hairy vetch, and Indian melilot.

Common vetch and field peas are by far the most extensively
planted, while hairy vetch and melilot are very little used. Bur
clover and fenugreek are used to but a limited extent, although they
are of considerable importance.

COMMON VETCH.

The common or spring vetch (Vicia sativa) is the most exten-
sively grown green-manure crop in California. It is being grown
throughout the orchard sections wherever green-manure crops are
being used at all (see fig. 3). It is adapted to quite varied con-
ditions and succeeds in all sections of the State. In the coast sec-
tions, as well as inland, it makes a good growth and does well on both
the light and the heavy soils.

"See E. W. Hilo:ard. Soils, pp. 19-21, 63, 12fi, and 394-396.
190

16

OKCHAED nRT-IT^N-MANURK CROPS IN CALIFORNIA.

The qualities of common vetch are such as to make it well adapted
for green-manure purposes, especially in citrus orchards, and
orchardists in general are growing it in preference to field peas, which
were largely grown a few years since.

Common vetch makes a vinelike growth similar to that of peas, but
the vines are less succulent and so are able to stand considerable hard
usage without much injury. Thus, in orchards when picking fruit
and doing other work, the trampling which is unavoidable interferes
but little with the growth of the vetch. The root system, which is
quite extensive, lies largely near the surface and ordinarily is well
covered with nodules.

':LA^'J^ZjJ:

Fig. 3.— View in an orange orchard in southern California, showing common vetch grown as a green-
manure crop.

Wlien used for a green-manure in southern California common
vetch is usually sown during September and the first half of October.

However, better results are being secured with the earlier seedings,
and in most years to obtain the best results it is quite essential that
the crop be sown during the first half of September. Wlien thus
sown the plants make a good growth before cold weather and continue
to grow during the winter. But if the seed is sown late and the
plants have made but a small growth before the cold weather, they
then make little or practically no growth until the warmer weather
comes in the latter part of tJie winter.

190

WINTER GREEN-MANURE CROPS. 17

In February, 1908, at Redlaiids, Cal., which is representative of the
citrus sections, phmtings of vetch made in September, 1907, were from
12 to 15 inches high and in a fine condition to turn under. Plantings
made in October, 1907, from a month to six weeks Later, were but
6 inches higii. During the past season similar results were noted.

The rate of seeding varies from 40 to 60 pounds per acre. Forty
pounds per acre has been more generally recommended, but the
heavier seeding is giving much better crops and more than makes up
for the difference in the cost of the seed.

Early as well as heavy seeding is quite commonly recognized by
growers as necessary for obtaining the best results, and a deeper
seeding has also been found essential where the plantings are early.
In northern California under irrigation, vetches sliould be sown about
the first of October. They will then make sufficient growth to be
turned under in February or March. This later season of planting
in the northern part of the State is desirable in both citrus and
deciduous orchards on account of the heavy winter rainfall, which
does not permit turning under the crop as early as in the southern
section. Later planting in the deciduous-orchard sections is also
desirable on account of the possible injury from frosts when an early
succulent growth is made, as would be the case with earlier plantings.

Experiments and observations have shown that vetch will make
but little growth by February or March when sown in the fall without

irrigation.

CANADA FIELD PEAS.

The field pea was among the first crops tried in California for green
manuring and was the first one extensively used for this purpose.
Its early use was partly due to the fact that seed was readily obtain-
able. At the present time it still holds a prominent place as a green-
manure crop, and next to common vetch is most extensively used
(see fig. 4).

Like the common vetch the field pea is adapted to varied conditions
and has succeeded wherever green-manure crops have been grown.
For making a growth during cool weather there is no other crop
known that equals it; but it has other characteristics that make
it less desirable for green manuring, especially in citrus orchards.

The root s\^stem of the field pea, which is very extensive, consists
of a central or main taproot from which radiate the many finer
laterals. The roots extend (juite deep, and for this reason the crop is
favored by many orchardists for breaking up "plow sole."

The vines, which are succulent and tender, are greatly damaged by

the trampling necessitated during the harvesting of most citrus fruits;

and on account of their making so much new growth during cold

weather they are often severely injured by frost. Usually as the

52810°— Bull. 190—10 3

18

ORCHARD GREEN-MANURE CROPS iN CALIFORNIA.

plants approacli maturity the lower portions of the stems become
dry and wiry, making the turning under difficult.

Apliids, or plant lice, are very fond of peas and nearly ever}-^ year
their attacks occasion considerable damage. In the coast sections or
those having more humid conditions, the crops also suffer severely
from the attacks of mildew. Inland, however, there has been but
little injury from this cause.

Wliile field peas are in some ways objectionable they also have
certain qualities that make them serve special purposes. Their
ability to stand late fall planting and still produce a fair winter
growth makes them especially valuable for such use when for any

Fig. 4.— View in an orange orchard in southern California, showing Canada field peas grown as a green-
manure crop.

reason an earlier planting of other crops has not been accomplished,
but if sown late only a very ordinary crop can be expected. While
peas may be planted from the middle of September to the end of
November, in southern California the best results are secured from
September plantings. In the northern part of the State the middle
of October is better for planting because the winter rains prevent the
crop from being turned under until later in the winter. AVlien planted
early, peas in the north are also likely to suffer more severely from
winter frosts.

Seventy pounds of seed per acre is the usual rate of seeding.
This in some cases gives a very gootl crop but a thin stand, and
therefore a light yield has been very noticeable in all orchard

190

WINTER GREEN-MANURE CROPS. 19

sections. At least 80 pounds of seed per acre should be used, and
unless seeding conditions are very favorable more rather than less
is recommended.

During the past few winters the general crops of field peas and
vetch throughout the orchard sections of California have shown
that peas make a stronger individual plant growth than vetch, but
do not make as heavy a yield of green manure. When sown during
the latter part of September the peas have made a growth of from
24 to 36 inches, while common vetch made from 15 to 18 inches.
This is representative of the usual comparative stem growth of the
two crops. In the citrus orchards of southern California peas should
be turned under earl}^ in February, and in the northern part of the
State during the latter part of February or the first of March.

BUR CLOVER.

There are a number of kinds of bur clover, of which only two
are yet much grown in California, namely, the common or toothed
bur clover {Medicago hispida denticulata) and the spotted bur clover
(Medicago arahica). The toothed bur clover is the one most com-
monly seen, being thoroughly naturalized, but the spotted bur
clover, though less abundant, grows equally well. It differs from
common bur clover in having a brown spot on each leaflet and
longer and softer spines on the burs.

Bur clover makes a decumbent growth, the stems being rather
small and ciuite succulent when young, but it withstands considerable
trampling. The roots are shallow but numerous and usually have
many nodules. The crop has been grown to quite an extent for green
manure, but on account of its not making a good early-winter growth
its use will always be limited. In orchards where bur clover has
been once planted it will spring up for several years. This is due
to the hard seeds that do not germinate the first year. In the citrus
orchards of southern California bur clover is sown at the same time
as vetch, which is during September and early October. To obtain
the best results, seeding as early as possible in September is advised.
Twent\^ pounds of seed (hulled) per acre should be used, care being
taken to plant shallow, as deeply covered seed will not germinate
but will hold over in the soil. The sowing of seed in the bur is not
recommended, because the bur delays germination and occasions
very uneven stands, to say nothing of the greater difficulty in sowing.
However, there is no longer need of using seed in the bur, as clean
.seed can be secured in quantity from western seedsmen.

For use in deciduous orchards bur clover is of considerable import-
ance and if properly handled will serve a very useful purpose. At the
present time it is utilized only where it volunteers as a weed and
can be turned under at the regular spring plowing of the orchard.

190

20

OECHARD GREEN-MANURE CROPS IN CALIFORNIA,

On account of the light growth usually made by a green-manure
crop sown in the fall without irrigation, the expense of seeding a
crop each year in this way is hardly justified. Through the use of
bur clover this objection can be overcome by allowing the crop to
reseed itself from year to year. Tn this way with a little care bur
clover can be maintained in an orchard at small expense. If an
occasional late season prevents the crop from ripening its seed before
the orchard must be plowed, narrow strips can be left between the

rows to mature, and
in this way reseed-
ing be accomplished.
The fact that the
seeds of bur clover do-
not all germmate the
first 3"ear but hold
over in the soil imtil
the second or third
year, or even longer,
lends to the ease
of maintaining the
stand.

Bur clover is at
present most com-
monh" introduced
and maintained in
orchards by the use
of manure from old
sheep corrals, which
usually contains 1 arge
quantities of the seed.

FENUGREEK.

Fenugreek ( Trigo-
nellafoenum-graecum)
is an upright-growing

Fig. 5.— An indi\'ichial plant of fonugreek, showing Us characteristics. -, ., . ,i„„l

plant havmg a central
stem which is more or less })ranched. A somewhat open top is formed
when fenugreek is grown as an indivitlual j^Umt (see fig. 5). When
grown in plats with little chance for individual development, but
few branches are formed. The plants attain a height of 20 to 30
inches. The leaves, of which there is a medium number, are trifoliate,
with cuneate or obovate thickish leaflets. The seeds, wdiich are borne
in long, pointed pods, are quite small (one or two lines long) and of
a brownish-yellow color. The pods dehisce, or break open, tardily,
making the crop one that can be handled easily for seed.

190

WINTER GREEN-MANURE CROPS.

21

ADAPTATION.

Fenugreek is grown in quantity in California only in Ventura and
Orange counties. The recognition of its value as a green-manuro
crop dates back to 1903, it having been distributed the previous
year by the California experiment station. Since that time its use
has gradually increased, and while it is only in Orange and Ventura
counties that it has been used as a regular crop it has been tested
and grown in a small way in all the citrus sections of the State
(see fig. 6).

From tests and observations made during the past three years it
seems quite evident
that fenugreek is best
adapted to the citrus
sections of the State
having the imme-
diate coast influ-
ences. The climatic
conditions of such lo-
calities are very
favorable for fenu-
greek, and it is there-
fore in those sections
that it has attained
its best development .
In sections farther
from the coast, such
as at Riverside and
Redlands, and in the
interior valleys of the
State, quite g:oo(l

-4*:

'rm

'^T' TM'M\

Fig. G.— View in a walnut orchard in Orange County, California.
showin:; fenugreek grown as a green-manure crop.

te^

crops have been grown, but in such localities the crop is more exacting
in its requirements as to time of planting, etc.

COMPARATIVE VALUE.

In comparative tests made at Redlands, Cal., fenugreek sown
October 7, 1907, by the middle of February, 1908, had attained a
height of 10 inches. Common vetch made but 6 inches of growth in
the same time. At Pomona, Cal., fenugreek sown November 4.
1907, by the middle of February, 1908, had made a growth of
18 to 24 inches. Common vetch in comparison made but 8 inches
of growth during the same time. At Chico, in northern California,
fenugreek sown October 5, 1908, with irrigation, by the first of
March, 1909, had made a growth of 12 to 15 inches, and of 16 to
20 inches by the middle of March. In other te.sts the fenugreek did

100

22 ORCHARD GREEN-MANURE CROPS IN CALIFORNIA.

not make so good a showing, yet wherever sown early it has done
quite well.

As to the quantity of green manure produced by fenugreek in
comparison with other crops there are but limited data. At Santa
Paula, Cal., weights of vetch and fenugreek were taken the middle
of February, 1909, to determine the quantity of green manure pro-
duced. The plants growing in the space between four trees were
cut and weighed green, and the yield per acre was computed from these
weights. The fenugreek yielded 11,745 pounds per acre solid area,
or 8,432 pounds orchard area, while the common vetch yielded
19,140 pounds per acre solid area, or 13,742 pounds orchard area.
However, these figures do not justly represent the comparative yield
of organic matter, as the moisture content of the vetch was undoubt-
edly nmch greater than that of the fenugreek, and the yield of dry
matter of the two crops would have been much more nearly equal
than is indicated by the figures given. At Chico, in northern Cali-
fornia, fenugreek weighed green March 16, 1909, yielded at the rate
of 13,721 pounds per acre. This w^as from plantings made October 5,
1908. In comparison, at Chico, conunon vetch produced but 2,831
pounds per acre.

Considering the convenience and cost of handling, fenugreek is
superior to any other green-manure crop now being used. The
upright habit of the plant makes the crop easy to turn under. The
roots have many nodules and form a s^^stem similar to that of the
field pea.

Fenugreek is especialh" desirable for an orchard green-manure
crop, owing to the fact that no insect pests seem to be harbored by
it. This point has been especially noticeable in sections where the
army w^orm, harbored in such crops as vetch, bur clover, and field
peas, has done considerable damage to fruit. During the season of
1907, orchards in which fenugreek was being grown were noted as
being free from the army worm, while other orchards in the same
section were quite badly infested.

PLANTING.

No special preparation of the land is necessary for planting fenu-
greek. A seed bed such as is desirable for ordinary field crops is
all that is required. The best time for seeding varies somewhat in
the different parts of the State. For a winter green-manure crop in
southern California, in sections aw^ay from the coast, such as Pomona
and Redlands, plantings should be made as early in September as
possible. In sections near the coast plantings may be made later
with good results, but September planting is to be advised. In
northern California plantings for green manure should be made the
first of October.

100

WINTER GREEN-MANXJEE CROPS. 23

Fenugreek does best on a good, deep loamy soil, but such a soil is
not necessary for success, as the plant does quite well on a gravelly
or a sandy soil. It is not adapted, however, to a soil that will become
hard, like heavy clay or adobe. The cx'op should be sown either
broadcast or in close drills. Thirty pounds of seed per acre is neces-
sary for a green-manure crop, while less is best for a seed crop. Care
should be taken not to plant the seed too deep.

SEED PRODUCTION.

The fenugreek seed handled by American seedsmen is almost
entirely imported. The demand for it has been so slight that only
small stocks are handled. The imported seed comes from the Medi-
terranean countries, chiefly from Egypt and Palestine. The seed
of fenugreek used in the orchard green-manure work in California is
grown almost entirely in Orange and Ventura counties, in which
localities a good crop of fine seed can be produced.

Possibly the only sections where fenugreek can be grown profitably
as a seed crop are where the winters are ver}^ mild, having at most light
frosts, so that mth late fall seeding there will be a sufficient growth
made during the winter months. An ordinary grain drill is the best
implement to use in seeding. From 15 to 20 pounds of seed per acre
are sufficient. After seeding, nothing is done with the crop until it
is harvested. In the interior valleys an irrigation at the time of
seeding is necessar}-.

The crop can be cut with an ordinary mower, and after a short time
should be raked into windrows. Here it should be allowed to cure
for several days before thrashing, which can be done with an ordinary
thrashing machine. In so far as possible the crop should be taken
from the windrows in the early morning, there being less shattering
of the seed when handled at this time. The pods when very dry
drop from the stem and dehisce, or break open slighth^, although
the loss of seed from this cause is not great.

The quantity of seed produced per acre varies as with any other
crop, and while there are few definite figaires as to 3'ields, in Ventura
and Orange counties, where the best fenugreek seed crops are produced,
probably 1,500 pounds per acre is an average yield. At Chico, in
northern California, plantings in ^V-acre plats yielded at the rate
of 490 pounds of seed per acre, while one smaller plat yielded at the
rate of 1,315 pounds per acre. The Chico plantings were made with
irrigation the first half of October, 1908. The crop was harvested
the 1st of June, 1909.

HAIRY VETCH.

The hairy or winter vetch ( Vicia villosa) is not so well adapted for
green-manure purposes as is the common vetch, and it has not been
used except in a A^ery limited way. Under California conditions it

100

24 OKCHAKD GEEEN-MANUKE CROPS IN CALIFORNIA.

makes less growth during the winter season than the common vetch^
and this has prevented its larger use for green manuring. Extensive
experimental tests in comparison with common vetch, as well as
practical tests made by orchardists, show the same results.

While hairy vetch does not make a good winter growth, when the
warmer weather of the latter part of winter and early spring comes,
it makes a very vigorous start and, if left to develop fully, a heavier
growth than common vetch. It also stands more dry weather without
injury, and where a late spring crop is wanted it is very desirable.
The handling of the crop is the same as with common vetch. From
45 to 50 pounds of seed per acre should be used in seeding.

INDIAN MELILOT.

Indian melilot {Melilotus indica) is quite common in waste places
throughout the orchard sections of southern California and for a
number of years has received some attention as a green-manure
crop. However, it has never been used except in a very limited or
experimental way, and this experience indicates that it has but
very little value in orchard work in California.

The winter growth of melilot is about like that of bur clover, and,
like that crop, its best growth is not made until too late in the
winter to be turned under in February. The only place in California
where melilot seems likeh' to prove at all valuable is on the very
sandy soils, to which it is quite well adapted and on which it is often
hard to get a stand of other green-manure crops.

SUMMER GREEN-MANURE CROPS.

The question is sometimes asked whether it is advisable to grow a
summer green-manure crop as well as a winter crop, thus enabling
one to add two crops a year to the soil instead of one. Where water
for irrigation is available there is no difficulty in doing this. How-
ever, the practice is not to be advised except under very exceptional
conditions. The enormous quantity of water used by a green-manure
crop in its growth makes it decidedly objectionable for summer use
in an orchard, where all the water available is usually needed for the
orchard crop.

The growing of a summer green-manure crop also necessitates the
discontinuance of cultivation of the soil, which except on the most
open soils would be more or less detrimental if continued for a long
period. There may be instances, however, where it is desirable to
build a soil up as rapidly as possible. In such cases a summer green-
manure crop may be used to advantage. For this purpose the
Whippoorwill variety of cowpea has been found the best of any crop
tested.

190

KESULTS OF TESTS WITH VARIOUS LEGUMES. 25

RESULTS OF GREEN MANURING IN CALIFORNIA.

There have been no definite tests made in Cahfornia to determine
the results in an increased yield of fruit or improved quality of the
same from the use of green manures. The only evidence available
is that of general observation and the experience of the orchardists.

While orchardists differ to some extent in conclusions, they gener-
ally are favorable to the practice, as its continued and growing use
attests. Careful observations also show the beneficial results of
green-manure crops in a more thrifty appearance of the trees, an
improved condition of the soil, and a better quality of the fruit.
The belief is quite general that the yield, also, is increased. Orchards
in which a few years ago there were unthrifty trees with yellowish-
colored leaves now, after several years' use of green-manure crops,
show a decided improvement in color and general appearance. The
work of the California experiment station has demonstrated that
gummosis of citrus trees is brought on by unfavorable soil conditions
and that in remedying such conditions green manures serve a very
useful purpose.*^ Orchards in w^hich green manures have been used
for a long time are but little affected by this disease.

The improved condition of the soil when green manures have been
used for some time has been readily noticeable to those handling an
orchard. The heavier soils have become quite open and friable and
the sandier soils more loamy. Beneficial results in the conserving
of rainfall and the prevention of washing of the soil have also been
very apparent. Most soils that wash badly do so because they are
deficient in organic matter. Green manuring, by the improvement
of the mechanical condition of the soil, not only prevents washing,
but the presence of the growing crop on the land prevents gullying
during the rainy season. This is of particular importance on sloping
lands.

RESULTS OF TESTS WITH VARIOUS LEGUMES.

From the fact that the addition of humus to the soil is one of the
main objects in using a green manure, it necessarily follows that,
other things being equal, the crop producing the heaviest vegetative
growth is the most desirable. To determine the comparative
amount of vegetative growth made by various crops the green weight
per acre has been determined, as shown in Tables I, II, and III.
However, these figures can be taken only as indicating in a general
way the amount of organic matter returned to the soil, as no correc-
tions were made for the varying moisture content of the different
crops.

a Bulletin 200, California Agricultural Experiment Station. 1908.
190

26 OKCHAED GEEEN-MANURE CROPS IN CALIFORNIA.

In Table II the weight of the green material produced per acre is
presented, together with the weight of the same when dry. The
green material was weighed at the time of cutting, and for estimates
of the yield of dry matter was weighed again in thirty days. During
this period the various crops had become nearly dry, but undoubt-
edly the moisture content, even at this time, would vary to some
extent, although not nearly so much as in the green state.

That the yield of green material as shown by its weight may be
misleading without proper correction for the moisture it contains is
shown in Table II in the case of the two lots of black-purple vetch. The
first lot was quite succulent at the time of cutting, and consequently
was very heavy in the green state, while the other was a little older and
less succulent, and so was much lighter. The latter did not show the
heavy loss in drying that the former did, however, and thus the dif-
ference in the amount of organic matter of the two is not nearly so
great as the difference in the weights of the green matter would indi-
cate. In this connection it should also be noted that varying yields
are often due to a difference in the stands rather than to differences
in the growth of the crop. In the comparative data presented in
the tables this has been reduced to a minimum by selecting for this
purpose crops with as nearly uniform stands as possible.

From all data available it seems clear that of the commonly grown
green-manure crops, vetch, peas, bur clover, and fenugreek, the
vetch returns the most organic matter to the soil and the peas the
least. The light yield of peas is not due to a lack of stem growth,
which on the contrary is always good, but to the generally poorer
stand and more open habit of growth. Bur clover, while weighing
heavy green, is very succulent when young, and when compared with
an equal weight of green vetch represents much less organic matter.
Fenugreek yields well, but not so much as vetch.

In securing the yield of green manure per acre, as presented in
Table I, the plants growing on a plat 6 by 20 feet were cut and
weighed green and the yield per acre computed from these weights.
In Table II a plat 10 by 10 feet square of each crop was cut and
weighed green and the yield per acre thus calculated. The same
was weighed again in thirty days, as shown in the table, giving the
yields of the dry matter. In Table III the weights shown were
taken from crops being grown by orchardists during the winter of
1908-9 at the places mentioned in the table and are representative
of these crops as grown under actual orchard conditions. To obtain
the results the plants growing on a space between four trees were cut
and the yield per acre calculated from such weights.

190

PROMISING GEEEN-MANUEE CEOPS.

27

Table I.— Growth of plants and weight per acre of green-manure crops sown with irriga-
tion October 19, 1907, at Chico, Cal.

Name.

Black bitter vetch....

Black-purple vetch..

Woolly-podded vetch

Hairy vetch

Common vetch

Lathyrus sativus

Tangier pea

Field pea

Horse bean

Height of

Rate of

plants,

seeding.

March 18,

1908.

Pounds.

Inches.

1 130
\ 34

26

26

f 56
I 34

30

30

17

28

56

15

39

12

56

16

56
159

1(34

18
26

28

Weight of
green ma-
nure, March
28, 1908.

Pounds.
32,056
23, 236
24,042
15,609
18, 876
11,616
7,623
19, 239
13,794
15,944
10,890

Table II —Growth of plants and iveight per acre of green-manure crops sown with irriga-
tion October 5, 1908, at Chico, Cal.

Name.

Black-purple vetch..

Woolly-podded vetch

Black bitter vetch...

Horse bean

Fenugreek

Tangier pea

Bur clover

Hairy vetch

Common vetch

Rate of
seeding.

Pounds.

f 62

[ 45

48

f 76

[ 49

149

29

72

21

31

33

Height of

plants,

March 15,

1909.

Inches.

32-36

36-40

30-36

20-22

20-22

30-36

16

17

14-16

8-15

10-18

dry mat

ter, March

16, 1909.

Weight of Weight of

Pounds.
40, 565
14,374
25, 047
27,660
14,374
21,130
13,721
12, 840
11,980
5,880
2,831

dry mat
ter, April
10, 1909.

Pounds.
3, 075
2,321
2,933
3,776
2, 130
2,634
1,783
1,646
735
871

Propor-
tion of
dry to
green
matter.

Per cent.

9.0
1G.8
11.7
13.6
14.8
12.4
12.9
12.8

6.1
14.8

Table III.— Weight of green-manure crops growing in orange orchards in California.

Name.

Tangier pea

Common vetch

Malva rotundifolia.

Bur clover

Field pea

Fenugreek

Common vetch ....

Place.

Redlands

....do

....do

do

....do

Santa Paula.
do

Weight of
green mat-
ter per acre.

Pounds.
29,093
13, 578
19,800
16,347
7.260
11,745
19, 140

Weight of
green mat-
ter per 0.718
acre.o

Pounds.

20,888
9,749

14,216

11,737
5,212
8,432

13,742

a This equals the part of an acre usually covered by a green-manure crop in an orchard.

PROMISING GREEN-MANURE CROPS.

As shown by Tables I and II, giving comparative yields, there
are several plants very promising for green-manure purposes as com-
pared with common vetch and field peas. The claim of superiority
for these plants is largely due to their ability to make more growth

ivto

28

ORCHAED GREEN-MANURE CROPS IN CALIFORNIA.

during the cool weather of the winter, thus affording a heavier growth
to be turned under. This is an especially strong point where it is
desirable to turn the crop under as early as possible, as is the case in
the citrus orchards of southern California. The plants referred to
are the black-purple vetch, the black bitter vetch, the woolly-podded
vetch, the horse bean, and the Tangier pea.

BLACK-PURPLE VETCH.

The black-purple vetch (Vicia atrojmrjmrea) is one of the most
promising green-manure crops tested for California. Its general

Fig. 7.— a field of black-purple vetch at Chico, Cal.

appearance and habit of growth are about like those of the com-
mon vetch (fig. 7), although it is very distinct from that species.
The superior value of black-purple vetch when compared with com-
mon vetch lies in its ability to make a much stronger growth during
the cool weather of early winter. This, as noted elsewhere, is an
especially desirable quality in a green manure to be turned under in
February,

The root system of black-purple vetch, which is similar to that of
common vetch, is well covered with medium large nodules. The
stems, aside from making a strong growth, are of such a texture as

190

PROMISING GREEN-MANURE CROPS.

29

to enable them to stand much tramphng or other hard usage without
injury.

The time and manner of seeding tliis crop are much the same as
with common vetch. As the seed is a httle smaher, however, a
smaller quantity may be used in seeding. From 50 to 60 pounds per
acre is advised.

BLACK BITTER VETCH.

Black bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia), another very promising green-
manure crop for California, is different from most other vetches in
that it is upright in its habit of growth, rather than vinelike. Like

''A}-:'-^r^^^^:^:Ji:.

Fig. 8.— a field of black bitter vetch at Chico, Gal.

the black-purple vetch, it possesses the desirable quality of making a
good growth during the cool weather of early winter and is much
superior to common vetch in this respect. (See fig. 8.) In this
connection it should be noted that different strains of this vetch
have given different yields, so that some will doubtless be found
superior to others. ■'-'•'

Its upright habit of growth makes this crop very easy to turn under
with an ordinary moldboard plow. The viny growth of common
vetch makes it objectionable to some orchardists. The root system,
while quite well covered with nodules, is perhaps not so extensive as
that of some of the other vetches. The plant has a more definite

190

30 OECHARD GREEN-MANUEE CEOPS IN CALIFOENIA.

central root, or taproot, than common vetch, and the fibrous roots
tend to penetrate more deeply. The seeding habits are much better
than those of other vetches. The pods shatter but very little, which
much facilitates the harvesting of the seed.

Black bitter vetch is grown very extensively in the Mediterranean
region, where the seed is a commercial product. The fact that the
seed of this plant can be imported at a reasonable cost makes it pos-
sible to supply the trade at once. On account of the plant branch-
ing but little it is necessary to use a slightly larger quantity of seed
in seeding than with common vetch. Seventy pounds per acre is
recommended. Aside from the quantity of seed per acre used, the
crop should be handled like common vetch.

WOOLLY-PODDED VETCH.

Woolly -podded vetch (Vicia dasycarpa) resembles hairy vetch
quite closely, both in appearance and in agricultural value.

In comparative tests the woolly-podded vetch has made a stronger
growth during the cool weather of early winter than the common or
the hairy vetch, but not so strong as the black-purple vetch or the
black bitter vetch. As soon as the warmer weather of the latter part
of winter comes it is one of the most vigorous growers and its ultimate
yield is very heavy. Thus, while it will serve very well as a crop to
be turned under in early winter its special value is for conditions where
the crop can be allowed to remain a little later in the spring. For
sowing without irrigation in deciduous orchards it may be of special
value.

Woolly-podded vetch stands trampling well and for orchard use
is in this respect ec[ual, if not superior, to common vetch. The root
system is about like that of common vetch and is well covered with
medium large nodules.

In growing woolly-podded vetch it should be handled as common
vetch, except that a little less seed may be used in seeding. Fifty
pounds per acre is sufficient.

HORSE BEAN.

The horse bean (Vicia faba) has been but little grown in California.
The broad bean, however, which differs from the horse bean only in
having larger and broader seeds and pods, has been grown as a vege-
table for a number of years in a few localities.

Experimental tests in California during the past few years indicate
that the horse bean has considerable value as a green-manure crop,
especially in the southern part of the State. (See fig. 9.)

The plant has an upright stem which is quite leafy, but little
branched. The leaves, as well as the stems, are quite large, but com-

190

PROMISING GEEEN-MANUEE CEOPS.

31

paratively soft and succulent until well matured. The root system
consists of a strong taproot, with a fairly well-developed fibrous sys-
tem radiating from this. The roots penetrate quite deeply into ordi-
nary soils and aid in overcoming "plow sole." The taproot, as well
as the smaller roots, when well inoculated has many large nodules,
indicating that it is a good nitrogen gatherer. In southern California
horse beans are usually well inocvdated and have many large nodules.
In northern California, thus far, they have had very few or no nodules
the first year they have been grown. Consequently, when grown
without artificial inoculation they amount to but little, although when
inoculated they succeed quite well.

Fig. 9.— View in a citrus orchard in southern California, showing horse beans grown as a green-manure crop.

Although the stems of the horse bean are quite large they decom-
pose readily when turned under for green manure. In comparison
with other green-manure crops horse beans make a good growth, but
in an orchard will not withstand trampling like the vetches. As the
seeds are large a considerable quantity is required in seeding, unless
the field is planted in drills more than the ordinary distance apart. As
the individual plants make a comparatively large growth they will
stand this method of planting, and if sown in drills IS or 24 inches
apart a good yield will be secured. The season for planting is the
same as that of vetch.

190

32 OECHARD GKEEN-MANURE CROPS IN CALIFORNIA.

TANGIER PEA.

The Tangier pea {Lathyrus tingitanus) was originally introduced into
this country from northern Africa. It is an annual legume resembling
in general the garden sweet pea, to which it is related.

During the past few years considerable attention has been given to
the Tangier pea to determine its value as a green-manure crop, and
results thus far indicate that it is of considerable value for this pur-
pose. It makes a strong growth, yielding a heavier tonnage per acre
than the common vetch (see Tables I, II, and III). Its dense growth
enables it to overrun and smother out weeds, which is one of the very
noticeable qualities of this crop. Though the stems are quite large
they are not very succulent and stand considerable rough usage,
being well adapted for orchard use in this respect. The large growth
made by Tangier peas makes them somewhat difiicult to turn under
with an ordinary moldboard plow; with a disk plow but little trouble
in this respect will be experienced.

The root system is well developed. It has a more nearly definite
central root than vetch, and the roots penetrate the soil more deeply.
The nodules are large and numerous, indicating that the plant is a
good nitrogen gatherer.

For a green-manure crop Tangier peas should be handled like com-
mon vetch, except that the seeding should be heavier, from 70 to 75
pounds of seed per acre being required for obtaining the best results.

COST OF SEED OF GREEN-MANURE CROPS.

The cost of seed of green-manure crops is a factor of considerable
importance in determining their relative value. The high price of
seed may be the cause of the elimination from use of an otherwise
good crop. In most orchard sections it is hardly practicable for the
orchardist to attempt to raise his own seed, though with crops having
good seeding habits this could be readily done. The commercial seed
grower will very likely be depended upon for the supply of seed needed.
The price that growers will pay for any new crop will probably be
largely determined by the price of seed of common vetch and of field
peas. A slightly higher price for a superior crop would undoubtedly
be paid. However, a superior crop and cheap seed are what is
desired.

The practice of allowing enough seed to ripen in the orchard to
volunteer a crop from year to year is the cheapest method of seeding
a green-manure crop, but this is practicable only in deciduous orchards
without irrigation, where the returns will justify but very little
expense in connection with such a crop. Under such conditions bur
plover in particular can be effectively used.

190

COST OF SEED OF GREEN-MANURE CROPS.

33

Table IV. — Seed 'production per acre of various legumes at Chico, Cal., 1909. Plats

one-twentieth acre.

Name.

Tangier pea

Tangier pea

Fenugreelj;

Fenugreek

Black bitter vetch

Black bitter vetch

Black bitter vetch

Black-purple vetch...
Black-purple vetch...
Black-purple vetch...
Black-purple vetch. . .
Woolly-podded vetch

Rate of
seeding.

Pounds.
72
77
28
21
48
45
70
58
36
36
48
45

Yield
of seed.

Pounds.
210
630
490
490
600
1,800
1,980
300
380
580
400
290

In Table IV is presented the seed yield of various new green-manure
crops discussed in this bulletin. These yields were taken from g^o-acre
plats that had been sown primarily for a green-manure crop test
and not for seed production. So the yields in some instances are
much hghter than would have been the case had the crop been sown
for seed.

It is quite probable that at Chico, where these crops were grown,
conditions are not so favorable for the seed production of such plants
as the woolly-podded vetch and the black-purple vetch as are the
conditions in western Oregon, where seed of common vetch and hairy
vetch is grown commercially. This is probably also true of the Tan-
gier pea, though not so much so of the black bitter vetch, which
does well at Chico. The yields presented in the table and the gen-
eral character of the crops indicate that seed should be produced
as cheaply as that of common and of hairy vetch, and in the case of
black bitter vetch somewhat more cheaply. The seeding habits of
black bitter vetch are such that an orchardist could easily raise his
own seed if necessary, and where it is desirable to grow some crop
in a young orchard he might raise the seed with profit.

Of the crops mentioned, the production of seed will cost most
with the Tangier pea and the woolly-podded vetch, and least with
the black bitter vetch. The cost of seed of common vetch and field
peas varies from year to year. Seed of common vetch during the
past few years has varied from 3^ to 5 cents per pound. When
seeding at the rate of 60 pounds to the acre this woukl make the
cost of seed from $2.10 to $3 per acre.

Seed of field peas has been about the same price per pound as
that of common vetch, but as 80 pounds of seed per acre are needed
in seeding, this makes the cost from $2.80 to $4 per acre.

Bur clover seed is advertised at from 25 to 30 cents per pound,
hulled. When seeding at the rate of 20 pounds of seed per acre this
makes the cost of seed from $5 to $6 per acre.

190

34 OECHAED GEEEN-MANUEE CROPS IN CALIFOENIA.

The wholesale price of fenugreek seed in the European market is
from 2^ to 3 cents per pound. The price to the grower would of
course be somewhat in advance of this, but should not exceed 5 or
6 cents. Wlien 30 pounds of seed per acre are used, this would make
the cost of seeding from $1.50 to $1.80 per acre.

Black bitter vetch seed, though not handled in quantity by Ameri-
can seedsmen, can be secured m foreign markets and imported at a
cost that should make the price to the grower about the same or
less than that of common vetch. When seeding at the rate of 70
pounds of seed per acre, this would make the cost of seeding from
$2.40 to $3.50 per acre. As stated elsewhere, the fact that black
bitter vetch yields a heavy crop of seed in California and has excep-
tionally good seeding habits should make it possible to place Cali-
fornia-grown seed on the market at a much less cost than that of

common vetch.

SUMMARY.

California soils, though often very fertile, are generally deficient in
humus.

Within recent years green-manure crops in California have been
given special attention.

The only places where green manures are being used extensively
are the citrus and walnut orchards of the southern part of the State.

Deciduous orchard sections of the State are using practically no
green-manure crop.

By the use of green manures a generally improved condition of
orchards has been secured, as shown by a more healthy appearance
of the trees and more and better fruit.

The early seeding of green-manure crops is desirable for obtaining
the best results.

Green manures should be turned under before the trees start new
growth in the spring.

Heavier seeding than is ordinarily practiced is advised.

Common vetch and field peas are the most generally used green-
manure crops, the vetch being the most popular.

Peas or common vetch sown in the fall without irrigation will not,
except in the most favorable years, make sufficient growth to be
turned under early as a green manure, but when thus sown will
make a good growth later in the spring.

Field peas, common vetch, and bur clover are adapted to quite
varied conditions, and are being grown in a limited way throughout
the State.

In any part of the State having a mild winter a green-manure
crop of peas or common vetch will succeed if sown early in the fall
with irrigation.

190

SUMMARY. 35

Bur clover seems to be of most value for deciduous orchard con-
ditions, while the woolly-podded vetch promises to be of value for
the same conditions.

Fenugreek and bur clover are used to a limited extent, fenugreek
being especially adapted to the region near the coast.

Hairy vetch is not well adapted for use as a green-manure crop in
California.

Black bitter vetch, black-purple vetch, woolly-podded vetch, horse
beans, and the Tangier pea are promising new green-manure crops
in comparison with common vetch.

Green-manure crops need no inoculation in California, horse beans
in the northern portion being the only known exception.

The growmg of a summer green-manure crop in California orchards
is not advisable.

Local as well as sectional conditions in the various parts of the
State vary considerably, and must be taken into consideration in
determining the best crop for green manure as well as the best method
of handling the same.

190

INDEX.

Page.

Acids, vegetable, relation to availability of plant food 15

Alfilaria, use as green manure '. 7

Alfilerilla, synonym of alfilaria 7

Aphids, damage to green-manure crops 18

Army worm. See Worm, army.

Bean, horse, inoculation in green manuring 14, 35

nitrogen-gathering status 31

use as green-manure crop 26, 27, 30-31, 35

Black bitter vetch. See Vetch, black bitter,
purple vetch. See Vetch, black-purple.

Brome-grasses, use as green manure 7

Bur clover. See Clover, bur.

California, orchard districts 8-10

southern, inoculation with nitrogen-gathering bacteria 31

summary, green-manm-e crops 34-35

University, work with green-manure crops 7

Canada field peas. See Peas, Canada field.

Chico, Cal., Plant Introduction Garden, tests 7

results for green-manure crops 21, 22-23, 27, 33

Citrus orchards. See Orchards, citrus,
trees. See Trees, citrus.

Clover, bur, nitrogen-gathering status I9

use as green-manure crop 7, 9, 12, 15, 19-20, 26, 27, 32, 34, 35

Commercial fertilizers. See Fertilizers.

Cowpea, Whippoorwill, use as green-manure crop 24

Crops, green manure, conditions of use 10, 11

nitrogen-gathering status 16, 19, 22, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32

promising, discussion 27-32

qualities and methods 10-15

results of growing 25-27

summary for California orchards 34-35

summer, objections and suggestions 24, 35

turning under 12-13

winter, use in California orchards 15-24

Deciduous orchard sections. See Orchards, deciduous.

Drought, endurance by hairy vetch 24

Dry weather. See Drought.
Erosion. See Soil, erosion.

Exeter, Cal., center of citrus-fruit area g

Fenugreek, freedom from insects harmful to orchards 22

nitrogen-gathering status 22

seed 22, 23, 33, 34

use as green-manure crop 15, 20-23, 27, 35

190 37

38 ORCHAED GEEEN-MANUEE CEOPS IN CALTFOENIA.

Page.

Fertilizers, commercial, use with green manuring 15

Field peas, Canada. See Peas, Canada field.

Fresno County, Cal., area in northern citrus district .' 8

Frosts, danger to green-manure crops 8, 17

Green-manure crops. See Crops, green manure.

Gummosis, citrus disease, remedy by green manuring 25

Hairy vetch. See Vetch, hairy.

Harrow, disk, use with green-manure crop 11, 12

Horse beans. See Beans, horse.
Indian melilot. See Melilot, Indian.

Inoculation, use in green manuring 14-15, 31, 35

Insects, injurious, harbored in green-manure crops 22

Introduction to bulletin 7

Irrigation, use with green-manure crops 8, 9-10, 12, 17, 23, 27, 34

Land, preparation, green manuring in southern California 11-12

Lathyrus sativus, comparison as green-manure crop 27

tingitanus. See Pea, Tangier.

Legumes, seed production at Chico, Cal., table 331

use as green-manure crops 11, 13, 25, 27, 33

Lemon, orchard conditions unfavorable to green manuring 10

Lemoncove, Cal., relation to northern citrus district 8

Malva rotundifolia, yield of green manure 27

Manure, green, use in California 10-35

stable, usefulness on heavy soil 10

Medicago arabica. See Clover, bur.

hispida denticulata. See Clover, bur.

Melilot, Indian, use as a green-manure crop 15, 24

Melilotus indica. See Melilot, Indian.

Mildew, damage to green-manure crops 18

Nitrogen gathering. See Nodules.

Nodules, occurrence, on roots of nitrogen-gathering plants. . 16, 19, 22, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32

Northern citrus section. See Orchards, citrus.

Orange County, Cal., fenugreek as green-manure crop 21, 23

green-manure crops, results in orchards 27

Orchards, California, increasing use of green manure 25

citrus, green-manure crops 7, 34

southern section 8-9, 11-15, 34

deciduous, bur clover as green manure 19, 35

California, discussion 9-10, 34

geographic districts, California 8-10

walnut, southern California, green-manuring methods 11-15

Oroville, Cal., center of citrus fruit-growing area 8

Palermo, Cal., center of citrus fruit-growing area 8

Pea, Canada field, use as green-manure crop 7, 15, 17-19, 34

field, comparison as green-manure crop 26, 27, 34

seed, prices 33

time and rate of seeding for green manure 18-19

Tangier, nitrogen-gathering status 32

use as green-manure crop. 27, 32, 33, 35

Pin-grass, synonym of alfilaria 7

Plant food, availability, remarks 15

lice. See Aphids,
190

INDEX. ' 39

Page.
"Plow sole." See Roots, deeply penetrating.

Plow, use in turning under green-manure crops 11,12

Pomona, Cal., fenugreek, comparative tests 21

Porterville, Cal., relation to southern citrus district 8

Rainfall, California orchard districts, relation to green manuring 8-9, 10, 17

Rainy season. See Rainfall.

Redlands, Cal., plantings for green manure 17, 21

Roots, deeply penetrating, remedy for "jjlow sole" 17, 31

orchard tree, danger of disturbance in green-manure plowing 12

Sacramento Valley, area in northern California citrus district ' 8

San Joaquin Valley, relation to California citrus districts 8

Santa Clara Valley, irrigation for green-manure crops 12

Paula, Cal., fenugreek, comparative tests 22

Seed, cost for green-manure crops 32-34

green-manure crops, production 23, 32-34

Seeding, bur clover, time and rate 19

fenugreek, time and rate 22, 23

field peas, time and rate 18-19

methods in California 12, 32

recommendations 34

Tangier pea, time and rate 32

vetch, time and rate 17, 29, 30

Sierra Madre Mountains, relation to California citrus districts 8

Soil, California, lack of humus 34

orchard districts 8-9

erosion, prevention by green manuring 25

fenugreek 23

heavy, unfavorable to green manuring 10

improvement by green manuring 25

sandy, for Indian melilot 24

Southern citrus section. See Orchards, citrus.
Spring vetch. See Vetch, common.
Stable manure. See Manure, stable.

Summary, green-manure crops 34-35

Summer green manure. See Crops, green manure.
Tangier pea. See Pea, Tangier.

Trampling, relation to green manuring 11, 17, 19, 29, 30

Trees, citrus, cultivation, need, and effect of cessation 10

Trigonella foenum-graecum. See Fenugreek.

Turning under, time for green-manure crops 34

Vegetable acids. See Acids, vegetable.

Ventura County, Cal., fenugreek as green-manure crop 21, 23

Vetch, black bitter, nitrogen-gathering status 29

use as green-manure crop 26-27, 29-30, 33, 34, 35

purple, nitrogen-gathering status 28

use as green-manure crop 26-27, 28-29, 33, 35

common, nitrogen-gathering status 16

use as green-manure crop 12, 15-17, 22, 26-27, 34, 35

hairy, use as green-manure crop 15, 23-24, 26-27, 35

spring. See Vetch, common.

woolly-podded, nitrogen-gathering status 30

use as green-manure crop 26-27, 30, 33, 35

190

40 ORCHAED GREEN-MANUEE CROPS IN CALIFORNIA.

Vicia atropurpurea. See Vetch, black purple.

dasycarpa. See Vetch, woolly podded.

ervilia. See Vetch, black bitter.

faba. See Bean, horse. Page-

sativa, use as green-manure crop 15-17

villosa. See Vetch, hairy.
Walnut orchards. See Orchards, walnut.

Weather, southern citrus section, notes 8

Weeds, use in green manuring ^

Winter green-manure crops. See Crops, green manure, winter.

relation to vetch and peas for green manuring 34

Worm, army, harbored in green-manure crops 22

190

o

[Continued from page 2 of cover.] ;

No. HIT. Aiucririui Ivool l,)riij;s. Iyil7. J'riuc l.S cents. ^

108. The Cold Storage of Small Fruits. 1907. I'rice, 15 eonts. '

1(19. Anipriean Varieties of (iarden Beans. 1907. Priee, 25 eenls. ■ 1

1 10. Cranberry Diseases. 1907. Price, 20 centsT- j

112. U.soofSuiirareaal Glands in Testing of Drug I'lant.s. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 1

113. Tolerance of Plants for Salts Common in Alkali Soils. 1907. Price, 5 cents. j

114. Sap-Rot and Other Diseases of the Red Gum. 1907. Price, 2o cents. ■•
11.3. Disinfection of Sewage for Protection of Water Supplies. . 1907. Price, 10 cents. ;
110. The Tuna as Food for Man. 1907. Price, 2.5 cents. • ji
117. The Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pastures. 1907. Price, 10 cents. '
ll^i. Peruvian Alfalfa. 1907. Price, 10 cents. \

119. The Mulberry and Other Silkworm Food Plants. 1907. Price, 10 ceuls. ;

120. Production of Easter Lily Bulbs in the United Stales. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

121. Miscellaneous Papers. 190S. Price, 15 cents. :

122. Curly-Top, a Disease of Sugar Beats. 1908. Price, IB cents. '
12.3. The Decav of Oranges in Transit from California. 1908. Price, 20 cents '

124. The Prickly Pear as a Farm Crop 1908. Price, 10 cents. i

125. Dry-Land Olive Culture in Northern Africa. 190S. Price, 10 cents. "
120. Nomenclatm-e of t\ie Pear. 1908. Price, 30 cents. '
12,. The Improvement of Mountain Meadows. VJOS. . Price, 10 cents. i

128. Egyptian Cotton in the Southwestern United Slates. 1908. Price, 15 ceuls. '

129. Barium, a Cause of the Loco- Weed Disease. 1908. Price, 10 cents. ^

130. Dry-Land Agriculture. 1908. Price, 10 ceiats.

131. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 10 cents. ]

133. Peach, Apricot, and Prune Kernels as By-Products. 1908. Price, 5 cents. '

134. Influence of Soluble Salts, Principally Sodium Chlorid, upon Leaf Structure and Transpiration '

of \Yheat, Oats, and Barley. 1908. Price, 5 cents. '

135. Orchard Fruits in Piedmont and Blue Ridge Regions, etc. 1908. Price. 20 cents. \

136. Methods and Causes of Evolution. 1908. Price, 10 cents. ;
i 137. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 14. 1909. Price, 10 cents. '

138. The Production of Cigar-Wrapper Tobacco under Shade. 190.8. Price, IS cents. "*

1.39. American Medicinal Barks. 1909. Price, 15 cents. ■

140. "Spineless" Prickly Pears. 1909. Price, 10 cents. ^

141. Miscellaneous Papers. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

142. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 15. f909. Price, 10 cents.

143. Principles and Practical Methods of Curing Tobacco. 1909. Price, 10 cents. '

144. Apple Blotch, a Serious Disease of Southern Orchards. 1909. Price, 15 cents. .«

145. Vcgclation AtYecled bj' Agriculture in Central America. 1909. Price, 15 cents.

140. The Superiority of Line Breeding over Narrow Breeding. 1909. Price, 10 cents. ' i

147. Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids. 1909. Price, 5 cents. 'i

14S. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. Ki. 1909. I'rice, 10 cents. ■■

149. Diseases of Deciduous Forest Trees. 1909. Price, 15 cents. '

1.50. The Wild Alfalfas and Clovers of Siberia. 1909. Price, 10 cents. "^
151. Fruits Recommended for Cultivation. 1909. Price, 15 cents.

1.52. The Loose Smuts of Barley and Wheat. 1909. Price, 15 cents. '

153. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 17. 1909. Price, 10 cents. i

1.54. Farm Water Supplies of Minnesota. 1909. Price, 15 cents. t

1.55. The Control of Black-Rot of the Grape. 1909. Price, 15 cents.
1.50. .V Study of Diversity in Egvptian Cotton. 1909. Price, 15 cents.

157. The Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 'i

1.58. The Root-Rot of Tobacco Caused ))y Thielavia Basicola. 1909. Pri<'c, 15 cents. '

1.59. Local Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

liiO. Italian Lemons and Their Bv-Products. 1909. Price, 15 cents. - '.
Itil. A New Type of Indian Corn'from China. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

102. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventorv No. 18. 1909. Price, 10 cents. i

103. Varieties of American Upland Cotton. ' 1910. Price. 25 cents.

104. Promising Root Crops for the South. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ;

105. Applicalionof Some of (he Principles of Heredity to Plant Brecdiim. I'.do. I'rice, 10 cffnts ,
loii. The Mistletoe Pest in the Southwest. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ' '-'
107. New Methods of Plant llreeding. 1910. Price, 20 cents. '.
His. Seeds anti Plants ImiJorted. Inventory No. 19. 1900. Price, 5 cents. '
1(>9. V.T,riega1cd Alfalfa. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ^

170. Traction Plowing. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

171. Some Fungous Diseases of Economic Importance. 1910. Price, .'5 ceuls. '

172. Grape Investigations in N'inifera Regions. 1910. Price. 25 lents. 4

173. Seasonal Nitrification as Influenced by Crops anil Tillage. 1910. Price, 10 eenls.

174. The Conlrol of Peach Brown-Ivot and Scab. 1910. Price, 10 cents. "

175. The History and Distribution of Sorghum. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ;
170. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 20. 1910. Price, 5 cents. i

177. .\ I'rotected Slock Range in Arizona. 1910. Price, 15 cents. ;

178. Improvement of the Wheat Crop in California. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

179. The Florida Velvet Bean and Related Plants. 1910. Price, 10 cents. :

180. .'Vgricullural and Botanical E.xplorations in Palestine. 1910. Price, 15 cents. ;
IM. The Curly-Top of Beets. 1910. Price, 16 cents.

182. Ten Years' E.xperience with the Swedish Select Oat. 1910. Price, 10 cents. • '

183. Field Studies of the Crown-Gall of the Grape. 1910. Price. 10 cents.

184. Production of Vegetable Seeds: Sweet Corn ami Garden Peas and Beans. 1910. Price, 10 cents '

185. Cold Resistance of .\lfalfa and Some Factors Influencing It. 1910. Price, — cents.

]8f.. Field Studies of Crown-Gall and Hairy-Root of the .\pple Tree. [In press.] '

187. Study of Cultivation Methods and Crop Rotation for Great Plains Area. [In press.] ]

188. Dry Farming in Relation to Rainfall and Evaporation. [In press.] '

189. Source of Drug Dioscorea, etc. [In press.]

190 •

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 191.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE VALUE OF FIRST-GENERATION
HYBRIDS IN CORN.

BY

G. N. COLLINS,

Botanist, Crop Acclimatization and Adapta-
tion Investigations.

Issued October 22, 1910.

WASHINGTON;

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1910.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. ■

The scientific and technical publications of the Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July :

1, 1901, are issued in a single series of bulletins, a list of which follows. i

Attention is directed to the fact that the publications in this series are not for general distribution. The . j
Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing' Office, Washington, D. C, is authorized by law to
sell them at cost, and to him all applications for these bulletins should be made, accompanied by a postal

money order for the required amount or by cash. Numbers omitted from this list can not be furnished :

No. 2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents. \

' 3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents. :

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1901. Price, 10 cents. \

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distrilnition. 1902. Price, 10 cents. ;

9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents. ;

10. Records of Seed Distribution, et^. 1902. Price, 10 cents. -^

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents. '

13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price. 10 cents.

14. The Decay of Timlier and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents. .

15. Forage Conditions on Northern Border of Great Basin. 1902. Priee, 15 cents. •
17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents. ,-
20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents. \

22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents. " i

23. Berseem: The Great Forage and Soiling Crop of the Nile Valley. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 1

24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous Papers. 1903. Price, 15 cents. , ;
27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, Spain, and the Orient. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

29. The Effect of Black-Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.' '

31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Price, 10 cents. \

32. A Disease of the White Ash. 1903. Price, 10 cent^. >j

33. North American Species of Leptochloa. 1903. Price, 15 cents. >
35. Recent Foreign E.xplorations. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

3(i. The "Bluing" of the Western Yellow Pine, etc. 1903. Price, 30 cents.

37. Formation of Spores in Sporangia of Rhizopus Nigricans, etc. 1903. Price, 15 cents. -I

38. Forage Conditions in Eastern Washington, etc. 1903. Price, 15 cents. .i

39. The Propagation of the Easter Lily from Seed. 1903. Price, 10 cents. '

41. The Commercial Grading of Corn. 1903. I'rice, 10 cents.

42. Three New Plant Introductions from Japan. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

47. The Description of Wheat Varieties. 1903. Price, 10 cents. ,

48. The Apple in Cold Storage. 1903. Price, 15 cents. :>.

49. The Culture of the Central American Rubber Tree. 1903. Price, 25 cents. . :
60. Wild Rice: Its Uses and Propagation. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

51. Miscellaneous Papers. 1905. Price, 5 cents. ■

54. Persian Gulf Dates. 1903. Price, 10 cents. ;

59. Pasture, Meadow, and Forage Crops in Nebraska. 1904. Price, 10 cents. ■

60. A Soft Rot of the Calla Lily. 1904. Price, 10 cents. ''

61. The Avocado in Florida. 1904. Price, 5 cents. . •:

62. Notes on Egvptian Agriculture. 1904.- Price, 10 cents. i

67. Range Investigations in Arizona. 1904. Price, 15 cents. •

68. North American .Species of Agrostis. 1905. Price, 10 cents. . \

69. American Varieties of Lettuce. 1904. I'rice, 15 cents.

70. The Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. 1904. Price, 10 cents. "

71. Soil Inoculation for Legumes. 1905. Price, 15 cents. ''^

72. Miscellaneous Papers. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

73. The Development of Single-Germ Beet Seed. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

74. The Prickly Pear and Other Cacti as Food for Stock. 1905. Price, 5 cents. >,

75. Range Management in the State of Washington. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

76. Copper as an Algi<ide and Disinfectant in Water Supplies. 1905. Price, 5 cents. -,

77. The Avocado: A Salad Fruit from the Tropics. 1905. Price, 5 cents. . ■]

79. Variabilitv of Wheat Varieties in Resistance to Toxic Salts. 1905. Price, 5 cents. ;

80. Agriculiufal Explorations in Algeria. 1905. Price, 10 cents. '

81. Evolution of Cellular Structures. 1905. Price, 5 cents. \

82. Grass Lands of the South Alt^ska Coast. 1905. Price, 10 cents. :

83. The Vitality of Buried Seeds. 1905. Price, 5 cents. \

84. The Seed of the Bluegrasses. 1905. Price, 5 cents. ':

85. Principles of Mushroom Growing and Mushroom Spawn Making. 1905. Price, 10 cents. \
80. Agriculture without Irrigation iii the Sahara Desert. 1905. Price, 5 cents. ,

88. Weevil- Resisting Adaptations of the Cotton Plant. 1906. Price, 10 cents. 1

89. Wild Medicinal Plants of the United States. 1906. Price, 5 cents. :

90. Miscellaneous Papers. 1906. Price, 5 cents. * k

91. Varieties of Tobacco Seed Distributed, etc. 1906. Price, 5 cents. ■

94. Farm Practice with Forage Crops in Western Oregon, etc. 1906. Price, 10 cents,

95. A New Type of Red Clover. 1906. Price, 10 cents.

96. Tobacco Breeding. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 1

97. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 11. 1907. Price, 15 cents. ,

98. Sov Bean Varieties. 1907. Price, 15 cents. \

99. Quick Method for Determination of Moisture in Grain. 1907. Price, 5 cents. j

101. Contents of and Index to Bulletins Nos. 1 to 100. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

102. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Price. 15 cents. , \

103. Dry Farming in the Great Basin. 1907. Price, 10 cents.

104. The Use of Feldspathic Rocks as Fertilizers. 1907. Price, 5 cents. ;

105. Relation of Leaf to Burning Qualities of Tobacco. 1907. Price, 10 cents.

106. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 12. 1907. Price, 15 cents. V

(Continued on page 3 of cover.] \

191 ^

U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 191.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief oj Bureau.

THE VALUE OF FIRST-GENEKATION
HYBRIDS m CORN.

BY

G. N. COLLINS,

Botanist, Crop Acclimatization and Adapta-
tion Investigations.

Issued October 22, 1910.

WASHINCITON;

government printing office.

1910.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Burmu, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor, 3. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

Crop Acclimatization and Adaptation Investigations.

SCIENTIFIC staff.

O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge.
G. N. Collins, Botanist.
F. L. Lewton, Assistant Botanist.
H. Pittier, Special Field Agent.

E. B. Boykin, J. H. Kinsler, Argyle McLachlan, and D. A. Saunders, Agents.
E. C. Ewing and H. M. Meade, Assistants.
191
2

LETTER OF TRANSMITFAL

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,

Washington, D. C, July 5, 1910.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled ''The
Vahie of First-Generation Hybrids in Corn," by Mr. G. N. Colhns,
a Botanist of this Bureau, and recommend its piibhcation as Bulletin
No. 191 of the Bureau series.

This report shows how the vigor and fertility of hybrids may be
utilized to increase the yield of the corn crop, in addition to other
factors of adaptation and breeding.
Respectfully,

Wm. a. Taylor,

Acting Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

101 o

CONTENTS,

Page.

Introduction 7

Peculiar habits of the corn plant 8

First-generation hybrids confused with hybrid varieties 8

Vigor of hybrids a factor of production 9

Popular belief in the superiority of first-generation hybrids 9

Pre\dous experiments with first-generation hybrids 10

Experiments in Michigan 10

Experiments in Indiana 12

Experiments in Maine 13

Experiments in Illinois 13

Experiments in New York 17

Experiments in Connecticut 18

A new series of hybrids between diverse types 20

Hybrid Ah3, Maryland dent by Hopi 22

Hybrid Ah4, Tuscarora by Cinquantino 22

Hybrid Dhl, Kansas dent by Chinese 23

Hybrid Dh2, Chinese by Chihuahua 23

Hybrid Dh3, Hopi by Chinese 24

Hybrid l)h4, Chinese by Xupha 24

Hybrid Dh6, Brownsville by Chinese 25

Hybrid Ehl, Hopi by Algerian pop 25

Hybrid Gh2, Tom Thumb by Quezaltenango black 25

Hybrid Kh31, Brownsville by Guatemala red 26

Hybrid Kh62, Guatemala red by Salvador black 26

Hybrid Mhl3, Quarentano by Brownsville 27

Hybrid Mhl5, Huamamantla by Hairy Mexican 27

Hybrid MhKi, Arribeiio by Hairy Mexican 28

Hybrid Mhl7, Hairy Mexican by Chinese 28

Hybrid ]\Ih25, Mexican dent by Tom Thumb 28

Yields of first-generation hybrids 28

Extension of corn culture by first-generation hybrids 31

First-generation hybrids and centralized seed production 33

First-generation hybrids in sweet corn 34

Methods for testing corn hybrids 35

Different methods of producing hybrid seed 37

Conclusions 39

Index 41

101 5

B. P. 1.-593.

THE VALUE OF FIRST- GENERATION
HYBRIDS IN CORN.

INTRODUCTION.

The use of first-generation liybrids oflfers one of the most promising
methods of increasing the yield of corn. The evidence that crossing
can in general be relied upon to give an immediate increase of vigor
and productiveness appears conclusive, yet the practice seems never
to have been applied on a commercial scale. The plan of utilizing
first-generation hybrids involves the making of the cross anew each
year, and this is readily feasible with corn. Many efforts have been
made to develop hybrid varieties, but the increased vigor and pro-
ductiveness that result from hybridization appear to be confined
largely to the first generation and to disappear gradually in later
generations.

The present paper reports experiments with a series of first-
generation hybrids between widely different types of corn and brings
together the results of previous experiments. Investigations that
warrant the placing of confidence in this method of increasing the
yields of corn are scattered over a long period of years, and most of
them appear to have been made in ignorance of similar work pre-
viously reported. Individual experiments taken alone have not
made it perfectly clear that the results were not accidental, but the
assembled evidence forces the conclusion that the increases secured
in the first generation by crossing varieties can be made a factor of
production comparable in importance to breeding.

It was indicated more than three decades ago that seed pro-
duced by crossing two varieties of corn could be relied upon to pro-
duce larger crops than the parents, and that this increase was to a
great extent lost in following generations.

At about the tune when it was discovered that an increase in yield
and vigor followed the crossing of two varieties, the attention of
investigators was attracted to the possibility of the improvement of
corn through what then appeared the more scientific methods of
selection. The latter idea was in accord with the most advanced
ideas of evolution, while the former appeared as an isolated fact dis-
covered by accident.

52927°— Bull. 191—10 2 7

8 VALUE OF FIKST-GENEKATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

It was natural that investigators should follow out what appeared
to be the more logical and scientific method. The fact that yields
could be materially increased by simply crossing two varieties was
lost sight of. Great strides have been made in the knowledge and
possibilities of corn improvement by selection, but until the past-
few years the possibility of utilizing the vigor of first-generation
hybrids of corn has remained almost exactly where it was left by the
pioneer experimenters.

PECULIAR HABITS OF THE CORN PLANT.

Even after the increased vigor of first-generation hybrids became
recognized as a general principle it was not appreciated that the
peculiar habits of the corn plant made its commercial application
to this crop entirely feasible. Corn is peculiar among the important
crop plants in being wind-pollinated and in having the male and
female flowers on widely separated parts of the plant. This com-
bination of characters permits the production of crossed seed in
large quantities by the simple expedient of planting two varieties
together and removing the tassels from the plants of one variety,
which will then produce only hybrid seed. The importance of this
fundamental ditTerence between the flowering habits of corn and
those of other crops has not been sufficiently appreciated. Systems
of breeding developed for other plants have been applied to corn,
diverting attention from this more simple method of im})rovement
made possible by the peculiar habits of the plant. The use of first-
generation hybrids will doubtless be found applicable to other crops,
but in few will its utilization be so easily accomplished as with corn.

FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS CONFUSED WITH HYBRID

VARIETIES.

The utilization of crossing as a means of securing increased yields
was further retarded by the failure to realize that the high performance
of the generation immediately following a cross is not maintained in
subsequent generations. Much effort has been expended in attempt-
ing to establish hybritl varieties, overlooking the possibilities of the
direct use of hybrid seed of the first generation. The fact that few
of the hybrid varieties have been found to have permanent value
should not prevent the appreciation of the vigor that immediately
follows the crossing.

Until recently hybrids were usuafly made by hand-pollination and
the quantity of first-generation seed was necessarily small. That
the plants from this seed were especially vigorous and productive
aroused the hope that a happy combination of varieties had been
discovered, and attention was at once centered on the increase of the

191

BELIEF IN SUPEKIOKITY OF FIKST-GENEEATION HYBKIDS. 9

stock and its further improvejiient. In the succeeding generations
diversity appeared and before the desired uniformity could again
be secured through selection the increased vigor resulting from the
crossing had disappeared,

VIGOR OF HYBRIDS A FACTOR OF PRODUCTION.

Comparatively few recent experiments with a direct bearing on
the value of first-generation hybrids have been reported, but all
that have been made confirm the earlier results. Taken in connec-
tion with the experiments to be reported in the present paper they
establish beyond question that the vigor of first-generation corn
hybrids is a means of securing increased production that is capable
of a very wide application. As soon as the general public becomes
acquainted with such a simple and inexpensive means of increasing
the yield of this most important crop, a rapid extension of the
practice should follow. The great need is for detailed information
regarding the particular varietal combinations best adapted to the
different local conditions. At present the data are so meager that
experiments must proceed empirically, but the lack of detailed
information should not obscure the importance of the subject nor
stand in the way of utilizing the results already accomplished.

While it would appear safe to recommend this method to all corn
producers, the object of the present bulletin is rather to urge the
inauguration of experiments in as many parts of the country as
possible. It is much as though the possibilities of increased yields
through the application of commercial fertilizers were still unappre-
ciated by the general public and experiments to prove their efficacy
were being conducted in a few isolated localities. Indeed, the
utilization of first-generation hybrids appears to have more general
application than the use of commercial fertilizers, but the need for
experiments under a wide range of conditions is equally great. As
in the use of fertilizers, conditions may perhaps be found where the
increase from crossing will be slight or none at all, but even this
result should not detract from the fact that under most conditions
the increases are significant.

POPULAR BELIEF IN THE SUPERIORITY OF FIRST-GENERATION

HYBRIDS.

Though the possibility of utilizing the vigOr of first-generation
hybrids is only beginning to be appreciated from the scientific stand-
point, the increased yields that result from crossing have probably
been utilized unconsciously since prehistoric times. It is a regular
custom among many native American tribes to carefully plant seeds
of different varieties in each hill of corn. This is done for the purpose

191

10 VALUE OF FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

of increasing the yield. Though the expected increase is usually
associated in the minds of the natives with superstitious ideas
regarding sexuality in the plants, the vigor secured by such crosses
may well have been an important factor in establishing this custom
with primitive tribes.

The value of first-generation hybrids is further recognized in a
widespread belief among practical seed growers that the plants
produced by accidental crosses of pure strains are often exceptionally
vigorous. The following statement from Dr. W. W. Tracy, who
has had a wide experience in the practical breeding of plants and in
commercial seed production, voices this belief:

The. second step is the selection of a few plants which shall come as near to the ideal
as possible and the saving of the seed of each of these separately. I recommend this
instead of selecting the best one because it often happens that the very best plant is in
reality a crossed one which owes its superiority to a cross of some exceptionally vigor-
ous but otherwise inferior plant, and this "bar sinister " will be revealed in the inferior
quality of plants grown from its seed.o

PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTS WITH FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS.

EXPERIMENTS IN MICHIGAN.

That the immediate result of crossing two varieties is to increase
the jneld was shown by definite experiments as early as 1878 by
Dr. W. J. Beal, of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station.
The plan for such experiments had been outlined two years before,
in 1876, the same year that Darwin published his classical work on
self and cross fertilization in plants, but without knowledge of
Darwin's results. Doctor Beal's first statement was as follows:

To improve or infuse new vigor into varieties (or races I should more properly call
them) I propose in case of corn and some other seeds to get seeds from remote parts
where it has been grown for some years, and plant near each other and mix theni.&

Even at this early date Doctor Beal appreciated the fact that the
benefits were largely confined to the first generation.

The good results of such crossing will last for several years, though most apparent
the first year.c

The nature of the first experiment and its relation to the similar
experiments of Darwin are shown in the following quotation:

From several different sources in remote parts of our State I obtained white dent corn
and yellow dent corn for seed. So far as possible I obtained good seed from men who
had raised the corn for ten or more years in succession on the same farm.

a Tracy, W. W. Importance of Uniformity of Varietal Character in Vegetable
Seeds. Market Growers' Journal, October 30, 1909, p. 2.

6 Beal, W. J. Report, Michigan Board of Agriculture, 1876, p. 206.
c Loc. cit.
191

PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTS WITH FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS. 11

I crossed some white dent from one locality with pollen from white dent obtained in
a remote locality. This may add vigor to the race, though it will probably not other-
wise change the race. The plan was conceived by me about a year ago, and several
months afterwards the same kind of experiments were reported on many species of
plants by Mr. Charles Darwin, of England. The favorable results of many experiments
there given are quite remarkable. «

In 1880 the representatives of five dift'erent agricultural schools
entered into an agreement to test by a uniform experiment at their
several stations this method of corn improvement. Each experi-
menter was to report his experiment to the other parties to the
agreement.

The details of this agreement are given as follows:

Each man in his own State shall select two lots of seed corn which are essentially
alike in all respects. One should have been grown at least for five years (better ten
years or more) in one neighborhood and the other in another neighborhood about 100
miles distant. In alternate rows plant the kernels taken from one or two ears of each
lot. Before plowing, thin out all poor or inferior stalks. As soon as the tassels begin
to show themselves in all the rows of one lot, pull them out, that all the kernels on the
ears of those rows may certainly be crossed by pollen from the other rows. Save seed
thus crossed to plant the next year by the side of seeds of each parent. Seeds of one
parent can be obtained from the rows not topped. Seeds of the other parent should be
planted by themselves to get pure seeds of the same year.

For the second year, select two pieces of ground, each as even as possible, about 4
by 8 rods in extent. Manure it evenly as possible with barnyard manure if any fer-
tilizer is employed. Plow the ground without bed or ridge furrows or, if either occur,
plant so that a row of each comes at equal distance from the ridge or bed furrow.
Take no unusual pains to make the ground very rich or to cultivate better than usual.
Keep the cultivation alike on all parts of the plats as nearly as possible.

On one of these plats plant some of the cross seeds in alternate rows with seeds of one
of the parents. On the other plat plant the crossed seeds in alternate rows with the
other parent. Seeds of each parent raised the previous year will thus be tested with
seeds of the same age from the cross. Take notes of the time in which the plants in
each row come up and of the appearance from time to time. Make plats of the corn
and be careful to keep everything straight. Take notes of the time of maturing, and
when matured cut near the ground the hills of each row and shock separately. After
it is cured, husk and weigh the ears and the stalks separately of each row. It would
be well to weigh the dried shell corn of each row separately. In the report give the
weight of corn and stalks of each row separately, then a summary of the weights of each
parent and the crossed stalk. Each experimenter shall report his experiments thus
made to each of the other persons entering into this arrangement.

A similar experiment was made at the agricultural college in 1878. In this the
advantage shown by crossing of corn over that not crossed was as 151 exceeds 100, and
in the case of black wax beans it was as 236 exceeds 100. In a similar experiment
made during the past two years at the agricultural college, the corn from seed of
crossed stock exceeded that not so crossed as 109fVV exceeds 100, or nearly 10 per cent
in favor of crossed stock. The experiment was quite carefully made and I do not
consider this result as purely accidental. ^

« Beal, W. J. Report, Michigan Board of Agriculture, 1877, p. 56.
b Ibid., 1880, pp. 287-288.
I'Jl

12 VALUE OP FIEST-GENEEATION HYBRIDS IN COKN.

After a lapse of more than thirty years it is hardly possible to
improve or refine the method of experimentation as outlined by this
pioneer. His method of comparing yields by alternate-row plantings
was also more perfect than that of his successors and is again coming
into use as the best that has yet been devised.

In 1881 Doctor Beal made another cross, between two varieties
from Oakland and Allegan counties, respectively, and reported the
results of the cross as follows :

The Oakland County seed corn was the better of the two. Owing to an accident
we failed to raise any pure Allegan County seed in 1881. The "crossed corn" was only
compared with pure Oakland County seed raised last year at the college.

In the spring of 1882, on good soil in a portion of the vegetable garden, three rows of
"crossed seed " were planted in rows alternating with three other rows of pure Oakland
County seed of 1881. By an oversight each row af each lot was not kept separate.
The pure seed yielded 57] pounds in the ear; the "crossed seed" yielded 69J pounds
in the ear. In other words, the crossed stock exceeded the pure stock as 121 exceeds
100, nearly."

EXPERIMENTS IN INDIANA.

Of the five cooperators entering into the agreement with Doctor
Beal to test first-generation hybrids. Prof. C. L. Ingersoll, of Purdue
University, seems to have been the only one who reportetl results.
In this case it appears that seed of the variety detasseled was not saved,
so that the hybrid was compared with only the male parent. Since
in this case the cross was made between two strains of the same
variety, this failure does not entirely vitiate the results. The experi-
ment is reported as follows:

I took corn from Delaware County and also from Switzerland County, in this State,
and planted as in first year's directions.

The tassels were removed from the Delaware County corn, so that it was certainly
fertilized by pollen from the Switzerland County corn. Both were a white dent
variety. The result of corn raised was as follows:

Delaware County (hybrids), 122 pounds, 27.89 bushels per acre.

Switzerland County, 63 pounds, 14.40 bushels per acre.

Switzerland County (alone), 72 pounds, 16.46 bushels per acre.

These results, although small, seem to show that in this instance at least, and with
the experiment half completed, there is a marked difference in cross-fertilized and
self-fertilized corn when the seed from the crossing is obtained from widely sepa-
rated localities and is of the same variety .&

It seems that the experiment was again attempted two years later''
and hybrid seed was secured, but subsequent reports of the university
do not show that the experiment was ever completed, Professor
Ingersoll having left the institution.

oBeal, W. J. Report, Michigan Board of Agriculture, 1881-2, p. 136.
ft Seventh Annual Report of Purdue University for 1881, p. 87.
c Ninth Annual Report of Purdue University for 1883, p. 72.
191

PREVIOUS EXPEKIMEKTS WITH FlEST-GENERATION HYBRIDS. 13
EXPERIMENTS IN MAINE.

The only reference by subsequent workers to Doctor Beal's experi-
ments so far as we have ascertained is that of Prof. J. W. Sanborn in
reporting a similar experiment in ]\Iaine.

Professor Beal found that outcrossed corn, as the average of two years of trial, gave
as 1:51 is to 100 for inbred corn. I found the same result, or as 252 is to 179, and
for fodder as 490 is to 350. The facts have a deep significance to our farmers."

EXPERIMENTS IN ILLINOIS.

Nine years after the work of Doctor Beal and apparently in ignor-
ance of his results, Mr. G. W. McCluer reported the results of a series
of crosses made at the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. He
did not give actual yields, but noted the average size of the ear as
compared with that of the parents in 18 crosses comprising 14 differ-
ent combinations of dent, pop, soft, and sweet corn. In 16 of the 18
crosses, or 12 of the 14 different combinations (2 were duplicates and
2 reciprocals), the ears of the first-generation hybrid were larger than
an average of the parents, and in 4 of the crosses the hybrid ears
were larger than those of either parent. One of the exceptions is
stated to have been planted in an unfavorable location. The decrease
in the other case was 4.6 per cent. The average increase in weight
for the whole series was 14 per cent.

With respect to the uniformity of the first-generation hybrids,
McCluer says:

During the first growing season the uniformity of the crossed plats was very notice-
able. Of 142 plats planted with sweet corn, pop corn, and these crosses it is safe to
say there was as much uniformity in any one of the crossed plats as in any, and very
much more than was found in most, of the plats planted with pure varieties. &

The following year, 1891, a number of the ears from this crossbred
corn were again planted and Mr. ]\IcCluer says:

Nearly all the corn grown a second year from the crosses is smaller than that grown
the first year, though most of it is yet larger than the average size of the parent varie-
ties. The cause of this apparent decrease in size, as compared with the previous
year, can only be guessed at. It can not be attributed to the season, because the
Queen's Golden-Common Pearl pop corn and Gold Coin-Flour corn crosses grown
in 1891 show as large a proportionate increase in size of ear as is shown in any
of the crosses grown in 1890. There is probably a strong natural tendency in the
crosses to revert to the size as well as the form of the parent types. This is shown in
the Leaming sweet-corn crosses, in which the corn reverting to the dent is larger
than that reverting to the sweet types. Or the loss of size may be due to a diminu-
tion in some way of the vigor imparted by crossing."

"Sanborn, J. W. Indian Corn. Agriculture of Maine, Thirty-Third Annual Re-
port, Maine Board of Agriculture, 1889-90, p. 78.

6 McCluer, G. W. Corn ('rossing. Bulletin 21, Illinois Agricultural Experiment
Station, 1892, p. 85.

cOp. cit., p. 96.
191

14

VALUE OF FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

In view of the interest that attaches to these early experiments,
Mr. McCluer's tabuLated results are o;iven as follows:

Table I. — Results of Mr. G. W. McCluer's experiments with corn hybrids at the Illinois
Agricultural Experiment Station, showing the effect on the size of ear.

Cross.

—
s

OI

i-'C
o ^

o

o

o >

°S
■«^
Th

'53

O
C3-3

•si

n

-=1

a

Weight of 10 ears the second year after the
cross, ounces.

White dent— Queen's Golden 81

34.5

57.75

76

Ears like the dent type 64

Ears like the pop corn type 52.5

Queen's Golden— White dent 34. 5

81

57.75

64

Ears like flint corn 55

Ears like pop corn type 47.5

Black Mexican— Queen's Golden....

36

34.5

35.25

47.5

Types not separated 43. 5

Queen's Golden— Common Pearl
pop corn.

34.5

27.5

31

42

Not grown a second year.

Learning — Mammoth . ...

87.5

61.5

74.5

91

Corn grown from yellow dent kernels 86
Corn from white dent kernels 90

Corn from sweet kernels 74

LeaminsT — Mammoth

87.5

61.5

74.5

82

Not grown a second year.

Learning — Maminolh

87.5

6L5

74.5

80.5

Not grown a second year.

Leamin^ — TriuiriDh

87.5

46.5

67

83

Corn from dent kernels 86

Corn from sweet kernels 68

Learning — Eight-rowed

87.5

41

64.25

72

Corn from white dent kernels 80

Corn from yellow dent kernels 75

Corn from sweet kernels 58

Gold Coin — Flour corn

63

39

51

78

Has not yet been grown a second year.

" "

Black Mexican— White dent

36

81

58.5

51

From flint kernels of flinty ears 53

From flint kernels of sweet ears 40

From sweet kernels of flint ears 39

From sweet kernels of sweet ears .-. . 38. 25

Stowell's — Eight-rowed

57. 5

41

49.25

47

From selected ears 49

From self-fertilized ears 38

From cross-fertilized ears 43

Stowell's — Triumph

57.5

46.5

52

52.5

From self-fertilized seed 31

From cross-fertilized ear 48. 5

Do 41

Seed from selected ears 54

Seed from self-fertilized ears 39

Stowell's — Mammoth

57.5

61.5

59.5

61

Self-fertilized ear, plat 88 43

Self-fertiUzed ear, plat 76 52

From cross-fertilized ear, plat 86 — 55

From cross-fertilized ear, plat 87 45. 5

Seed from selected ears 55

Stowell's— Gold Coin

57.5

62.5

60

62.5

From self-fertilized ear, plat 89 48

From self-fertilized ear, plat 90 54

From self-fertilized ear, plat 91 54

Seed from selected ears 58

Seed from self-fertilized ear 48

Gold Coin — Triumph

62.5

46.5

54.5

58.5

From cross-fertilized ear, plat 93 — 56
From cross-fertilized ear, plat 92 50

Seed from selected ears 49

Gold Coin — Eight-rowed

62.5

41

51.75

56

Seed from selected ears 50

Gold Coin — Eight-rowed

62.5

41

51.75

58

Not grown a second year.

191

PREVIOUS EXPEEIMENTS WITH FIRST-GENEEATION HYBRIDS. 15

The table further shows the marked decrease in size of ear in the
hybrids that follows even one generation of self-fertilization. There
is, however, so much ''splitting" in the type of the ears in the second
year that their size, as compared with those of the second generation,
can not fairly be expressed in averages.

The following year, 1892, Morrow and Gardner, also at the Illinois
station, reported the results of tests of five first-generation hybrids
compared with their parent varieties." In all cases the yield of the
cross was greater than an average of the parents and in three cases it
exceeded that of either parent. Stated in bushels, the increases
above the average of the parents ranged from 1.2 bushels, or 1.9 per
cent, to 17.2 bushels, or 28 per cent, the average increase being 13.8
per cent. The average increase of the crosses over the highest yield-
ing parents was 4.66 bushels per acre, or 6.5 + per cent. The com-
parisons were apparently made in jL.acre plats. The results of the
experiment are shown in Table II.

Table II.— Results of experiments by Morrow and Gardner xviih corn hybrids at the Illinois
Agricultural Experiment Station in 1892.

Variety.

Burr's White

Cranberry

Average

Cross

Burr's White

Helm's Improved

Average

Cross

Learning

Golden Beauty

Average

Cross

Champion White Pearl
Leaming

Average

Cross

Burr's White

Edmonds

Average

Cross

Yield per acre.

Number
of ears.

9.960
9,200

9,580
7,080

9,960
10,880

Air-dry
corn.

Bushels.
64.2
61.6

62.9
64.1

64.2
79.2

10, 420
11,000

10.440

8,280

9,360
11,520

11,080
10,440

10, 760
8,760

9,960
9,040

9.500
10,400

71.7
73.1

73.6
65.1

69.3
86.2

60.6
73.6

67.1
76.2

64.2
58.4

61.3
78.5

It will be noted that the crosses in this experiment were all between
good-yielding varieties and apparently under favorable conditions.
The relatively uniform results also indicate a small experimental error.

a Morrow, G. E., and Gardner, F. D. Field Experiments with Com, 1892. Bulletin
25, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, 1893, pp. 179-180.
52927°— Bull. 191—10 3

16

VALUE OF PIEST-GENERATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

In the bulletin mentioned the practical possibilities of this method
of increasing yields were indicated, as follows:

The fact that increased yields can be obtained by crossing two varieties is pretty
certainly established, and a few farmers are changing their practice accordingly. This
is quite e^-sily done by planting in one row one variety and in the next another variety,
and removing the tassels of the one as soon as they appear. The ears forming on the
rows having the tassels removed will be fertilized with pollen from the other rows, thus
producing a direct cross between the two varieties. The seed should be selected from
the rows having the tassels removed, and the experiments indicate that it will pretty
certainly give a larger yield than the average of the parent varieties when planted
under like conditions. ^

The above quotation indicates that the authors considered the prin-
ciple as established and worthy of practical application. No expla-
nation has been offered why the matter was again allowed to rest at
this pomt, but so far as can be learned no one has since practiced the
growing of first-generation hybrids on a commercial scale.

In 1893 four additional crosses were planted, three of the four giving
increases over the average of the parents, the average increase being
9.5 bushels, or 7.7 per cent. The results are shown in Table III.^

Table III. — Results of experiments by Morrow and Gardner with corn hybrids at the Illi-
nois Agricultural Experiment Station in 1893.

Variety.

Yield per acre.

Number
of ears.

Air-dry
corn.

Champion White Pearl

Burr's White

Average

Champion White Pearl — Burr's White Cross

Leaming (average 4 plats)

Burr's White

Average

Leaming— Burr's White Cross

Edmonds

Murdock (average 4 plats)

Average

Edmonds — Murdoclc Cross

Edmonds

Burr's White

Average

Edmonds— Burr's White Cross

Bushels.

7.680
10,200

37.3
38.6

8,940
7,080

38
28.4

8,070
10,200

34.6
38.6

9, 1.35
9,480

36.6
41,7

7,740
9.600

28.3
35.7

8.670
9,840

32
41.4

7,740
10,200

28.3
38.6

8,970
9,360

33.5

37.8

The fluctuations in the yields of the different varieties and crosses
in this experiment are so wide that little confidence can be placed in

o Morrow, G. E., and Gardner, F. D., loc. cit.
b Morrow, G. E., and Gardner, F. D. Experiments with Corn.
Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 359-360.
191

Bulletin 31, Illinois

PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTS WITH FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS. 17 i

results. The omission of single members from the series would '

materially change the average. The lack of uniformity in the condi- i
tions is indicated by the great disparity between the yields of duplicate

varieties in this experiment, which ranged as high as 15 bushels per i

acre.'^ i

EXPERIMENTS IN NEW YORK.

After a further lapse of fifteen years, the subject was again '
approached from a somewhat different direction by Dr. G. H. Shull
of the Carnegie Biological Laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.
In his first paper he suggests the possible use of first-generation '
hybrids in the following statement:

The problem of getting the seed corn that shall produce the record crop, or which '

shall have any specific desirable characteristic combined with the greatest vigor, may
possibly find a solution, at least in certain cases, similar to that reached by Mr. Q. I.
Simpson in the breeding of hogs by the combination of two strains which are only at
the highest quality in the first generation, thus making it necessary to go back each '

year to the original combination, instead of selecting from among the hybrid offspring
the stock for continued breeding. 6

The following year Doctor Shull stated his views in greater detail
and reported on the result of crossing two closely related strains. <^
Before these results can be properly appreciated it will be necessary \
to briefly consider the problem from Slmll's standpoint. It is con- '

sidered that even the most nearly uniform varieties of corn consist of
numerous strains, ''elementary species" or ''biotypes," all more or
less mixed and hybridized. To this miscellaneous hybridizing I

Doctor Shull attributes the vigor and fertility of a variety. The >

method he suggests for the improvement of corn is to isolate the j

different strains and by making predetermined combinations to
ascertain which mil be the most favorable for agricultural purposes.
It is fully recognized that isolating the pure strains or biotypes will
very greatly reduce their vigor and yield, but by making a combina-
tion of the proper strains it is believed that the degree of fertility of i
the cross will reach that of the most productive plants in the original i
mixed strain and that an increase of the total yield can be obtained i
in this way. :

Two self-fertilized strains which were separated from a common
stock in 1904 and continuously self-fertilized since that time were i

reciprocally crossed in 1907. In 1908 the yields of these reciprocal
crosses were compared with each other, with the self-fertilized parents,

a Morrow, G. E., and Gardner, F. D., op. cit., p. 338.

b Shull, G. H. The Composition of a Field of Corn. Report, American Breeders'
Association, vol. 4, 1908, p. 300. '

c Shull, G.H. A Pure Line Method in Corn Breeding. Report, American Breeders' i

Association, vol. 5, 1909, p. 51.
191

18 VALUE OF FIKST-GENEEATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

and with crossbred stocks of the original variety. Reduced to bushels
per acre and placed in tabular form, the yields reported by Shull were
as follows:

Strain A, eelf-fertilized 23. 5 bushels.

Strain B, eelf-fertilized 25. 0 bushels (estimated).

AXB 74. 4 bushels.

BX A 78. 6 bushels.

General average of crossbred stock 75. 0 bushels.

From Doctor Shull's standpoint the important point in the above
comparison is the increase of 1.5 bushels per acre which the average
of the crossed pure strains shows over the average of the cross-pollinated
original stock, an increase of 2 per cent.

At the same time a comparison was also made between the yield of
self and cross pollinated ears of the same isolated strain. The yield
from the cross-pollinated seed was 30 per cent greater than that from
the self-pollinated ear. As an instance of the increased vigor of the
first-generation hybrid this example is of interest, since it indicates
that an increase in yield follows the crossing of even the most closely
related plants.

To many producers of corn it will appear hardly practicable to
apply this system on a commercial scale. Neither does it appear
reasonable on theoretical grounds to look on these anomalous self-
fertilized strains as representing the natural condition. It would
seem that even the most advantageous combinations might be found
without reducing the varieties to the verge of extinction before the
cross is made.

But no method of investigation should be rejected for purely theo-
retical reasons. Until other experimental data are available the
effect of previous breeding upon the vigor of the hybrids must remain
an open question. The importance of the subject demands that all
the phases shall be considered, and those who hold to the conception
of "bio types" and ''pure germ cells" will do well to experiment
along the lines suggested by Doctor Shull.

EXPERIMENTS IN CONNECTICUT.

A more extensive series of crosses was made by Dr. E. M. East at
the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. His results are
stated as follows:

The Fi generation of 30 maize crosses were grown in 1908 on well fertilized land in
Connecticut. They were planted 3 feet 6 inches each way, about foiu- stalks to the
hill. Seeds from the same parent earso which were used to make the crosses were
also grown for comparison. Only 50 hills of each of the crosses and of each parent
could be grown on account of limited space, but the soil conditions were such that a

a "The parent ears were, therefore, one year older, but their germination was good,
and their growth equal to inbred seed of the same ages as the hybrid seed."
191

PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTS WITH FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS. 19

very fair indication of the comparative vigor of each strain was obtained. Unfor-
tunately crows and chipmunks played havoc with the "stand " in a number of cases,
and accurate figures can not be given except in the following four cases where the
stand was perfect.

A white dent, No. 8, yielded 121 bushels per acre (at 70 pounds per bushel); a
yellow dent, No. 7, which had been inbred artificially for three years, yielded 62
bushels per acre; the cross between the two varieties, No. 7 X No. 8, yielded 142
bushels per acre.

Longfellow, No. 34, an 8-rowed, yellow flint, yielding 72 bushels per acre, was
crossed with the same No. 8 white dent, yielding 121 bushels per acre; the resulting
cross yielded 124 bushels per acre.

Sturges's hybrid, a 12-rowed, yellow flint with a tall, nonbranching stalk, partaking
of the characters of dent varieties, was also crossed with No. 8 white dent. The flint
parent yielded 48 bushels per acre, while the cross yielded 130 bushels per acre.

Two families of a yellow dent variety, which had each been inbred artificially for
three years, were the parents of the fourth cross. No. 12, yielding 65 bushels per
acre, was crossed with No. 7, yielding 62 bushels per acre. The Fj generation yielded
202 bushels per acre. This last result is somewhat distorted, as five stalks per hill of
the cross were allowed to grow, while of the parents only four seeds per hill were planted.
About 90 per cent of the seeds produced mature stalks. Notwithstanding the close-
ness of planting to which this cross was subjected, however, casual observation was
sufficient to show that it soared far beyond each parent in vigor of plant and size of ear .a

For ease in comparison Doctor East's results are here given in
tabular form:

White dent X yellow dent.
Yellow dent X white dent.
Yellow flint X white dent.
Yellow dent X yellow dent

Yield of
female
parent.

Bushels.

121

72

48

65

Yield of

male
parent.

Bushels.

62
121
121

62

Average
yield of
parents.

Bushels.
91.5
96.5
84.5
63.5

Yield of
hybrid.

Bushels.

142

124

130

*161

Percentage
of increase

over

average of

parents.

Per cent.

55

28.

54

154

* This is the cross of which Doctor East states that five stalks per hill were allowed to grow instead of
four, as in the case of the parents. The yield is here reduced by one-fifth from the original figure of 202
bushels to allow for the additional number of hybrid plants that were grown, although by this calcula-
tion the hybrid is placed at a disadvantage, due to the closeness of the planting.

It will be noted that the comparison with the parents was in this
case very accurate, the plants representing the parents being grown
from the identical ears that were used to make the crosses. The
yield of one of the parents in the first cross and both the parents in
the fourth had, how^ever, been depressed by self-fertilization for three
successive years. It is interesting to note in this connection that the
introduction into a cross of an inbred strain yielding only one-half
that of the other variety here results in increasing the yield above
that of the high-yielding parent by over 17 per cent. Furthermore,
the highest yield in the experiment was secured from a cross between

«East, E. M. The Distinction between Development and Heredity in Inbreeding.
The American Naturalist, vol. 43, no. 507, 1909, pp. 178-179.
191

20 VALUE OF FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

two inbred strains which without crossing were among those which
gave the lowest yields of any represented in the experiment.
Regarding other crosses, Doctor East states:

In the remainder of the field every possible combination of dent, flint, and sweet
maize was grown, and in every case an increase in vigor over the parents was shown
by the crosses. It is to be regretted that comparable yields could not be obtained
in every instance, but, as a matter of fact, the differences were so apparent to the
eye that it is almost unnecessary. The figures presented do not show the average
increase to be expected by a cross. The manuring was heavy, the cultivation inten-
sive, and the yields were beyond the ordinary. But they do show that in practically
every case a combination of two high-bred varieties, of seed corn is more vigorous
than either parent. a

A NEW SERIES OF HYBRIDS BETWEEN DIVERSE TYPES.

The crosses thus far considered have in all cases been between
strains that are comparatively closely related. The most violent
crosses are among those reported by McChier where varieties of
sweet and dent, pop and dent, and sweet and pop corns were included.
The diversity between these types may seem considerable, represent-
ing as they do the extremes of the types now cultivated in the United
States, but looked at botanically these varieties appear closely
related when compared with the very diverse types that exist in the
Tropics.

Over the whole of the United States the interchange of seed has
been so extensive and the culture is so nearly continuous that all
characters are to a great extent shared by the whole series of varie-
ties, even the most divergent types being distinguished by charac-
ters that differ in degree rather than in kind. Even before the advent
of the white man the nomadic tendencies of the North American
Indians must have operated against any complete isolation of types.

The sedentary habits of the Indians of tropical America are in
strong contrast with those of the more northern tribes, and together
with the great diversity of natural conditions have operated to
produce an enormous number of very distinct types, showing numer-
ous specialized adaptations to different conditions, the agricultural
significance of which is only beginning to be appreciated.

As an instance of one of these divergent groups there may be men-
tioned a type of corn cultivated in parts of the lower plateau of
Mexico in a region that receives such scanty rainfall that similar
regions in this country would be thought entirely unsuited for corn
growing. This corn is so different from the types with which we are
familiar that it was given specific rank by Bonafous and named
Zea Jiirta} The leaf sheaths are densely covered with long hairs

oOp. cit., pp. 179-180.

& Bonafous, M. Annales des Sciences Naturelles, vol. 17, 1829, p. 156.
191

A NEW SERIES OF HYBEIDS BETWEEN DIVERSE TYPES. 21

borne on tubercles, the leaves are few and very long and slender,
the tassel is frequently unbranched, the spikelets are in groups of
four or more instead of two, and the clusters are opposite each other
instead of alternate. Even the root system is distinct from that of
any of the common varieties of the United States, being spread out
near the surface of the ground where the only available water is to
be secured in the regions where this type is native. Many varieties
inside this type differ among themselves much as the classes of flint,
dent, and pop corns differ from each other. In fact, a closely similar
series exists in this tropical type, there being varieties which judged
by the ears, would be classed as flint and others as pop and dent corns.

Wliile this type is one of the most distinct, many other tropical
forms possess characters and habits that are entirely absent or only
faintly indicated in United States varieties. Peculiarities of other
tropical types will be, mentioned in connection with the different
crosses that are about to be described.

With a view to securing types adapted to sections of the country
where United States varieties are unsuccessful, a considerable series
of tropical types and varieties has been brought together. In the
season of 1908 about 75 crosses were made among these tropical
varieties, and also between them and several United States varieties.
A number of these hybrids were grown in the summer of 1909 at
Lanham, Md., a few miles from Washington, D. C. The parent
varieties of 16 of these crosses were included in the plat and their
behavior noted in comparison with the crosses. The experiment
was considered as merely preliminary and but 16 hills of each
variety were grown. Wliile this number is altogether too small to be
conclusive as a comparison of the values of the different crosses,
the results as a whole are very significant as an illustration of the
general value of first-generation hybrids. It becomes evident that
the increase in vigor that earlier experiments have proved to be the
rule with crosses of more or less closely related strains has also a very
wide application among even the most primitive, unselected, and
diverse types of corn. In 14 of the 16 crosses the yield exceeded
the average of the parents. In 12 cases it exceeded the yield of either
parent, the average increase for the whole series being about 53 per
cent.

In the following brief account of the hybrids and their parents,
the descriptions will for the most part be confined to the usually
recorded characters of height, yield, and character of the ear, which
data are sufficient to make the results of this experiment comparable
with those previously reported. Detailed observations of the behavior
of the parental characters in these and other hybrid combinations
have been made, but are not needed for the purpose of this report.

191

22 VALUE OF FIKST-GENERATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

Abnormalities will be briefly noted as a possible indication of the
violence of the cross.

HYBRID AH 3, MARYLAND DENT BY HOPI.

Female parent. — An imselected white dent grown in Maryland.
The particular plant used as the female parent was grown from the
seed of a red ear. This proved to be the most prolific of the uncrossed
strains; perhaps on account of its being the only locally grown variety
in the experiment. No abnormalities were discovered in any part
of the plant or in the* ears. Average height, 6 feet 10 inches. The
16 plants grown produced 21 ears and 2 nubbins, weighing 19
pounds.

Male parent. — A variety grown by the Hopi Indians of Arizona-
The most striking characteristics of the type are the very large male
spikelets and enormous ear stalks. The color of the particular ear
used in making the cross was a slatv blue. No abnormalities
appeared in the plants grown in this experiment, though in Kansas
this strain produced a number of ears with inverted grains, the
embryo on the lower side, toward the base of the ear, and also a
number of grains with double germs. Average height, 8 feet 10
inches. The 27 plants grown produced 21 ears and 2 nubbins, weigh-
ing 20 pounds.

Hybrid. — In spite of the fact that both of the parents yield pollen
very abundantly, 6 of the 16 h3^brid plants failed to produce pollen.
No other abnormalities were observed. The plants were rather
diverse, some resembling one parent and some the other. The ears,
however, were as imiform as those of either parent and partook of
the characters of both. Average height, 7 feet. The 16 plants
grown produced 21 ears and 2 nubbins, weighing 20.1 pounds."

HYBRID AH 4, TUSCARORA BY CINQUANTINO.

Female parent. — An 8-rowed soft variety, grown by the Tuscarora
Indians of New York. The variety is early and suckers profusely,
many of the suckers terminating in ears. Average height, 5 feet 8
inches. The 16 plants grown produced 14 ears and 10 nubbins,
weighing 8.5 pounds.

Male parent. — A variety imported from Hungary under the name
Pignoletto. A very small seeded, many-rowed type that would be
classed as a pop, though unlike any of the American varieties of pop
corn. This class of corn is known to the trade as "Cinquantino."
The variety is small, without suckers, and very early. No abnor-

o The yields of the hybrids and the parent varieties, reduced to pounds per plant,
are brought together for comparison in Table IV, p. 29.
191

A NEW SERIES OP HYBEIDS BETWEEN DIVERSE TYPES. 23

malities. Average height, 4 feet 4 inches. The 14 plants grown
produced 14 ears and 1 nubbin, weighing 3.3 pounds.

Hybrid. — Plants and ears intermediate. No abnormalities.
Average height, 6 feet 7 inches. The 15 plants grown produced 21
ears and 14 nubbins, weighing 11.3 pounds.

HYBRID DH 1, KANSAS DENT BY CHINESE.

Female iMrent. — A white dent developed by Mr. Elam Bartholo-
mew, of Stockton, Kans. The variety has never been closely bred,
but has been grown continuously^ for a number of years and kept up
by selection of ears. No abnormalities. Average height, 7 feet 11
inches. The 29 plants grown produced 26 ears and 4 nubbins^
weighing 28.6 pounds.

Male 'parent. — A vari^y of corn from China, \vith wa^xy endo-
sperm, leaf blades borne on one side of the stalk, and silks pro-
duced in the angle of the leaf blades.**

The parent plant was grown from white seed separated from the
imported mixture and had the erect monostichous leaf blades that
characterize this variety. The second-year plants fi'om American-
grown seed showed these characteristics in a much less marked
degree than those grown from imported seed. No abnormalities.
Average height, 4 feet 7 inches. The 32 plants grown produced 46
ears and 9 nubbins, weighing 12.4 pounds.

Hybrid. — In the early stages the plants resembled the Chinese
parent in having erect monostichous leaf blades, but this character
was less marked later in the season. The plants remained dark green
during a very dry season. The only indication of abnormality was
the frequent production of pistillate flowers on the terminal inflor-
escences of the suckers. The ears were intermediate in size and
appearance and as uniform as those of either parent. Average height,
6 feet 9 inches. The 16 plants grown produced 27 ears and 7 nub-
bins, weighing 17.5 pounds.

HYBRID DH 2, CHINESE BY CHIHUAHUA.

Female parent. — The same as the male parent of hybrid Dhl.

Male parent. — A starch variety from Chihuahua, Mexico. This
variety is peculiar in having the longest leaf sheath at the top of the
plant and in having the leaf sheaths covered with fine velvety hairs.
No abnormalities. Average height, 8 feet 9 inches. The 14 plants
grown produced 13 ears and 2 nubbins, weighing 9.7 pounds.

o This variety ia more fully described in Bulletin 161 of the Bureau of Plant Indus-
try, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909, entitled "A New Type of Indian Corn from
China."
191

24 VALUE OF FIKST-GENEKATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

Ilyhrid. — The plants of this cross exhibited greater diversity than
was shown in any other cross. Two of the plants "were so' exactly
like the female parent, both in plant and ear characters, as to arouse
the suspicion that the precautions against foreign pollination had
been imperfect and that the particular grains producing these plants
were self-pollinated. This appears the more probable from the
nature of the Chinese plants, which makes it especially difficult to
exclude pollen from the tips of the silks that appear directly in the
angles of the leaf blades. Wliile the plants showed the complete range
of the parental characters, the ears, with the exception of those
noted above, were fairly uniform. One interrupted ear was pro-
duced; that is, a portion of the ear near the middle produced only
staminate instead of pistillate flowers. Average height, 8 feet 3
inches. The 16 plants grown produced 25 ears and 18 nubbins,
weighing 15.25 pounds.

HYBRID DH 3, HOPI BY CHINESE.

Female imrent. — A plant from a white seed of the Hopi variety
described as the male parent of hybrid Ah3.

Male 'parent. — White Chinese. The same as the male parent of
hybrid Dhl.

Hyhrid. — Plants fairly uniform, showing characters of both par-
ents. Ears remarkably uniform, more nearly resembling the female
parent. The only abnormal feature was the frequent exsertion of
the ear beyond the husks. Average height, 8 feet 4 inches. The 16
plants grown produced 28 ears and 2 nubbins, weighing 20.4 pounds.

HYBRID DH 4, CHINESE BY XUPHA.

Female parent. — Plant from a white seed of Chinese similar to the
male parent of hybrid Dhl.

Male parent. — A black, semistarch variety from Salvador. No
abnormalities. Average height, 8 feet 8 inches. The 14 plants
grown produced 21 ears and 5 nubbins, weighing 8.8 pounds.

Hyhrid. — The hybrid ear from which these plants were grown was
poorly matured. Plants and ears exhibited a number of abnormali-
ties. Eight suckers and two main stalks bore small ears at the base
of the tassel, below which were a number of supernumerary leaves.
In two cases the margins of the leaf sheaths were grown together,
forming a cylinder. About half of the ears produced staminate
flowers; some were interrupted and many had a long staminal portion
at the tip. Average height, 7 feet 10 inches. The 16 plants grown
produced 18 ears and 18 nubbins, weighing 8.6 pounds.

191

A NEW SERIES OF HYBRIDS BETWEEN DIVERSE TYPES. 25

HYBRID DH 6, BROWNSVILLE BY CHINESE.

Female 'parent. — A many-eared variety of white dent from Browns-
ville, Tex. The most striking peculiarity of this variety is the length
of the husks, which extend far beyond the tip of the ear and arc
tightly closed. Although the ear from which these plants were
grown was cross-pollinated, 9 seedlings out of 48 were albinos. The
yield of this variety would have been slightly higher if the growing
season had been longer, lower ears on many of the stalks being
immature. The plants were rather weak rooted and fell badly
before high winds. Average height, 9 feet 9 inches. The 15 plants
grown produced 25 ears and 8 nubbins, weighing 11.6 pounds.

Male 'parent. — White Chinese similar to the male parent of hybrid
Dhl.

Hybrid. — The plants showed few traces of the Chinese characters.
The ears were not lacking in uniformity. Husk characters similar to
the female parent. The full yielding power of this hybrid was not
shown on account of early frosts. No abnormalities. Average
height, 9 feet 6 inches. The 16 plants grown produced 35 ears and
17 nubbins, weighing 18.6 pounds.

HYBRID EH 1, HOPI BY ALGERIAN POP.

Female parent. — Same as the male parent of hybrid Ah3.

Male parent. — A type from Algeria with beaked grains that must
be classed as pop corn. Its most pronounced peculiarities are the
position of the ears, which are only 2 or 3 nodes from the top of the
plant, and the nature of the pericarp, which is semiopaque but not
colored. No abnormalities. Average height, 5 feet. The 16 plants
grown produced 20 ears and 6 nubbins, weighing 5.5 pounds.

Hybrid. — Plants uniform and intermediate. The ears produced
were quite unlike either parent, as large or larger than those of the
female parent, but with very small grains. The only abnormalities
were the production of ears at the base of the tassel on a few of the
suckers, two "bears' foot" ears, and one branched ear. Average
height, 9 feet 6 inches. The 15 plants grown produced 21 ears and 5
nubbins, weighing 13.6 pounds.

HYBRID GH 2, TOM THUMB BY QUEZALTENANGO BLACK.

Female parent. — A very small variety of pop corn. The plants are
from 8 inches to 2 feet in height and bear diminutive ears about 2 or
3 inches long. No abnormalities. The 6 plants grown produced 7
ears, weighing O.G pound.

191

26 VALUE OF FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS IN CORN,

Male parent— A very tall variety from the high mountains of the
western part of Guatemala. The ears are borne very near the top of
the plants and are consequently late in maturing. Although appar-
ently an unproductive type the yield here given is little indication of
what the variety might do if the season permitted maturing. The
cross was made to test the possibility of making crosses between
varieties that represented the extremes in size. Average height, 9
feet 6 inches. The 15 plants grown produced 9 nubbins, weighing

1.5 pounds.

Hybrid.— Plants intermediate but exhibiting considerable irregu-
larity in size. Ears averaging 7 inches long, fairly uniform. The
principal abnormality was shown m the leaves, which were crumpled
and distorted m all the plants. The color was so dark as to be
abnormal. While this cross showed distinctly an increase in vigor
over that of the parents, the yield of both parents was so small that
the amount of the increase should not be considered. Average
height, 6 feet 7 inches. The 15 plants grown produced 16 ears and
6 nubbins, weighing 6.25 pounds.'^

HYBRID KH 31, BROWNSVILLE BY GUATEMALA RED.

Female parent. — The same as the female parent of hybrid Dh6.

Male parent. — A red flinty-seeded variety with 12 to 16 rowed
ears, from the lowlands of Guatemala. No abnormalities. Average
height, 8 feet 11 inches. The 14 plants grown produced 6 ears and
12 nubbms, weighing 4.31 pounds.

Hybrid. — Ears fairly uniform. Plants and ears without abnor-
malities. Average height, 10 feet 2 inches. The 32 plants grown
produced 29 ears and 10 nubbins, weighing 15.6 pounds.

HYBRID KH 62, GUATEMALA RED BY SALVADOR BLACK.

Female parent. — The same as the male parent of hybrid Kh31.

Male parent. — A black variety from Salvador not unlike the female
parent. Two plants of this variety produced branched ears. The
ear stalks also curved up instead of down, so that the ears crossed
the main stem. The 15 plants grown produced 3 ears and 12 nubbins,
weighing 4.1 pounds.

oEast states "I have repeatedly tried to cross Giant Missouri Cob Pipe maize (14
feet high) and Tom Thumb pop maize (2 feet high), but have always failed. They
both cross readily with varieties intermediate in size, but are sterile between them-
selves." (See East, E. M., A Mendelian Interpretation of Variation that is Appa-
rently Continuous, The American Naturalist, vol. 44, 1910, p. 82.

It may also be noted that this small variety was successfully crossed with a large
Mexican dent whose average height was 11 feet 7 inches. In these experiments the
Giant Missouri Cob Pipe corn averaged only 8 feet 4 inches.
191

A NEW SEEIES OF HYBRIDS BETWEEN DIVERSE TYPES. 27

Hybrid. — Ears very irregular. One plant produced 2 ears, both
of which were interrupted. In many others the ears exceeded the
husks. The 16 plants grown produced 8 ears and 8 nubbms, weighing
5.25 pounds.

HYBRID MH 13, QUARENTANO BY BROWNSVILLE.

Female 'parent. — A drought-resistant variety from Chiapas, Mexico.
Many of the plants of this variety have very wide leaf sheaths that
are closely wrapped around the weak stalk and are the chief support
of the upper part of the plant. Average height, 7 feet 6 inches. The
16 plants grown produced 8 ears and 7 nubbms, w^eighing 4.3 pounds.

Male parent. — The same as the female parent of Dh6.

Hyhrid. — Plants and ears very diverse, w^ithout the peculiarities of
the female parent. Nine of the plants produced ears exceedmg the
husks. In three cases the ears were interrupted. The inner husks
w^ere crumpled at the base of the ear, a not uncommon condition with
thick-husked varieties. Average height, 11 feet 5 inches. This is
one of the two cases where the yield of the hybrid was below the
average of the parents. With such disparity between the yields of
the two parents this may mean that the Iwbrid more nearly resem-
bled the lower yielding parent. The 16 plants grown produced 11
■ears and 7 nubbins, weighmg 7.6 pounds.

HYBRID MH 15, HUAMAMANTLA BY HAIRY MEXICAN.

Female parent. — A drought-resistant variety with shoe-peg grains,
from Mexico. A variety of the hairy Mexican series, though not a
pronounced type. The tassels have a few very long primary branches.
The season the cross was made this variety had 50 per cent of the
ears interrupted. Plants grown from the same original seed in the
season of 1909 had no interrupted ears. Average height, 8 feet. The
1.3 plants gro^vTi produced 4 ears and 7 nubbms, w^eighing 5.2 pounds.

Male parent. — A pronounced type of the hairy Mexican series, with
superficial roots, hairy leaf sheaths, and usually unbranched tassels.
The poorly protected ears usually decay in the moist fall weather.
Average height, 7 feet 11 inches. The 16 plants grown produced 5
ears and 4 nubbins, weighing 2.8 pounds.

Hyhrid. — Plants irregular, exhibiting nearly the full range of both
parents. The stalks were rather weak; the tassels with from 3 to 7
branches. One ear was produced with a staminate portion at the tip.
Average height, 9 feet 1 inch. The 15 plants grown produced 7 ears
and 9 nubbins, weighing 4.6 pounds.

191

28 VALUE OF FIKST-GENEEATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

HYBRID MH 16, ARRIBENO BY HAIRY MEXICAN.

Female parent. — Similar to the female parent of Mhl5, but a larger
variety. Average height, 9 feet. The 15 plants grown produced 10
ears and 7 nubbins, weighing 5.8 pounds.

Male imrent. — Same as the male parent of hybrid Mhl5.

Hyhrid. — Plants similar to hybrid Mhl5, but more robust and uni-
form. A striking characteristic of this cross was that the leaf blades,
though slightly shorter, were much broader than those of either
parent. The fifth blade of the hybrid averaged 31.3 by 5.6 inches.
The corresponding blade of the female parent averaged 35.4 by 4.1
and the male 31.5 by 4.7 inches. Average height, 9 feet. The 14
plants grown produced 9 ears and 7 nubbins, weighing 6.6 pounds.

HYBRID MH 17, HAIRY MEXICAN BY CHINESE.

Female parent. — The same as the male parent of hybrid Mill 5.

Male parent. — The same as the male parent of hybrid Dhl.

Hybrid. — Plants and ears fairly uniform. One difference between
the parent strains is that in the female parent when more than one
ear is produced at a node the secondary ear is borne directly in the
axil of the prophyllum. The male parent resembles the United States
varieties in havmg the first secondary ear borne in the axil of the first
husk. Of the hybrid plants that produce secondary ears one-half
resembled the male and one-half the female in this respect. The only
abnormalities noted were a tendency in a number of plants to have the
leaves on the upper part of the plant crowded and one ear with a
staminate spike at the tip. Average height, 7 feet 4 inches. The 16
plants grown produced 18 ears and 4 nubbins, w^eighing 9.8 pounds.

HYBRID MH 25, MEXICAN DENT BY TOM THUMB.

Female parent. — A large Mexican variety with a pronounced tend-
ency to produce large secondary ears. One interrupted ear was pro-
duced. Average height, 11 feet 7 inches. The 15 plants grown
produced 10 ears and 15 nubbms, weighing 7.8 pounds.

Male parent. — The same as the female parent of hybrid Gh2,
Hyhrid. — Plants resembling the female parent in most particulars.
About one-half the ears exceeded the husks. Average height, 6 feet
7 inches. The 16 plants grown produced 22 ears and 13 nubbins,
weighing 8.6 pounds. Though this cross would seem to have been
quite as violent as Gh2, no pronounced abnormalities were found.

YIELDS OF FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS.

The following table shows the behavior of the 16 crosses and their
parents. The yields are given as yield per plant and were calculated

191

YIELDS OF FIEST-GENEEATION HYBEIDS.

29

by dividing the total weight of the ears produced in the row by the
number of phmts. The plants w^ere started four in a hill and thinned
to one as soon as established.

Table IV. — Yields per plant of 16 corn hybrids compared with that of their parents.

Name of hybrid.

Ah3, Maryland dent by Hopi

Ah4, Tuscarora by Cinquantino

Dhl, Kansas dent by Chinese

Dh2, Chinese by Chihuahua

Dh3, Hopi by Chinese

Dh4, Chinese by Xupha

Dh6, Brownsville by Chinese

Ehl, Hopi by Algerian pop

Gh2, Tom Thumb by Quezaltenango black.

Kh31, Brownsville by Guatemala red

Kh62, Guatemala red" by Salvador black . . .

Mhl3, Quarentano by Brownsville

Mhl5, Huamamantla by Hairy Me.xican. . .

MhKi, Arribeiio by Hairy Mexican

Mhl7, Hairy Mexican by Chinese

Mh25, Mexican dent by Tom Thumb

Average percentage of increase of hy-
brids over average of parents

Yield of
female
parent.

Pounds.
1.19
.53
.99
.39
.74
.39
.77
.74
.10
. 77
.31
.27
.40
.39
.18
.52

Yield of

male
parent.

Average
yield of
parents.

Pound.
0.74
.24
.39
.69
.39
.63
.39
.34
.10
.31
.27
.77
.18
.18
.39
.10

Pound.
0.965
..385
.690
.540
.565
.510
.580
.540
.100
.540
.290
.520
.290
.285
.285
.310

Yield of
hvbrid.

Pounds.

1.25
.75

1.09
.95

1.28
.54

1.16
.91
.42
.49
.33
.48
.31
.47
.61
.54

Percentage
of increase
of hybrid

over

average of

parents.

Per cent.

29

95

58

76

126

6

100

69

C)

(a)

-9
14

-8

7

65

114

53

a Where the yield of either parent fell as low as 0.10 pound per plant the percentage of increase of the
hybrid is omitted. In dealmg with these small quantities it is believed that percentages would be
misleading.

Before leaving the subject of increased yields in firet-generation
hybrids it may be well to summarize the results of the experiments
bearing on this question.

To carefully canvass the literature of agriculture for all references
to the yield of first-generation hybrids would be a large undertaking,
and it is not pretended that the present summary is complete. It is
believed, however, that the experiments cited, which are all that have
come to the writer's attention, establish the wide application of the
principle and give a fair indication of its importance.

Beal (Michigan, 1878-80) in two crosses very carefully compared with the parent
varieties secured an increase in both cases, the average increase being 31 per cent.

Another cross by Beal (1882) compared with the best parent exceeded that parent
by 21 per cent.

Ingersoll (Indiana, 1881) in a cross between two strains of the same variety secured
an increase over the male parent of 95 per cent.

Sanborn (Maine, 1889) in one cross secured an increase over the average of the
parents of 41 per cent.

Morrow and Gardner (Illinois, 1892) secured increases in eight out of nine crosses,
the average increase being 11 per cent.

Shall (New York, 1908) by first inbreeding and then crossing got an increase over
the original mixed stock of 2 per cent.

East (Connecticut, 1908) secured increases in all of four crosses, the average increase
being 73 per cent.
191

30 VALUE or FIBST-GE^'EKATIO^' HYBEIDS IN CORN.

Experiments by the writer with primitive tj-pes crossed with one another and with
United States varieties, first reported in the present paper, gave increased yields in 1-4
out of 16 cases, the average increase being 53 per cent.

Though the average of the yields of the parent varieties may be
considered as a fair standard for judging the increased yields of the
hybrids from the standpoint of heredity, the practical value of
hybrids must be determined by comparing their yields with those of
the more productive parents. To secure evidence on this point it \s-ill
be necessary to consider the crosses wliich have been made between
good-yielding varieties gro^vn under favorable conditions, excluding
those in which there is great disparity in the yields of the parents.

The following table includes all the crosses here reported in which
the parents appear to have been fair-yielding standard varieties
giving approximately the same yields.

Table V. — Increased yield of hybrid corn over the more productive parent.

Percentage

of increase

of hybrid

over better

parent.

Beal (p. 11). ''Varieties essentially alite"

Beal (p. 11). "Varieties essentially alike"

Beal (p. 12). Hybrid compared only with, better parent

IngersoU (p. 12). Strains of the same variety

Morrow and Gardner (p. 15). Parents differed by 2.6 bushels per acre. .
Morrow and Gardner (p. 15). Parents differed by 15.0 bushels per acre.
Morrow and Gardner (p. 15). Parents differed by 8.5 bushels per acre. .
Morrow and Gardner (p. 15). Parents differed by 13.0 bushels per acre.
Morrow and Gardner (p. 15). Parents differed by 5.8 bushels per acre..

51

10
21
95

0

—8

17

4
18

It will be seen fi-om Table V that in six of the nine crosses signifi-
cant increases were obtained over the yield of either parent, and two of
the tlu'ee exceptions should, perhaps, have been excluded, since the
differences between the }4elds of the parents were 15 and 13 bushels,
respectively.

The experiments thus far reported are too few to warrant any
conclusions regardins: the nature of the crosses wliich mav be rehed
upon to yield the greatest increase. It is naturally to be expected
that the percentage of increase will be greatest between low-yieldmg
strains, but the greatest increase in bushels per acre may follow the
crossing of the more highly developed strains.

Probably none of the crosses here considered were between care-
fully bred and locally adjusted strains, ^liat the results of such
crosses will be is yet to be determined.. Since the most carefuUy
selected strains are more or less inbred, a substantial increase would
be expected from crossing two such unrelated inbred strains unless
they have already approached the limit of production of the com
plant.

191

EXTENSION OF COEN CULTURE BY HYBRIDS. 31

Experiments similar to those conducted by Sliull may have a
special bearing in this connection. The reduction in vigor which
accompanies the inbreeding to which his strains are subjected would
have an effect similar to growing the plants under adverse conditions
and would tend to eliminate all but the strongest individuals. This
would, in fact, constitute an effective form of selection, and with
such strains thrown into the vigorous condition of first-generation
hybrids a maximum performance might be expected.

While the best results may in general be expected from crossing
two varieties both of which are productive, crossing with a low-
yielding variety may operate to increase the yield above that of a
much higher yielding variety with which it is crossed. The Chinese
variety mentioned on page 23 is a small variety producing only 0..39
pound per plant in the experiments reported. Yet in four of the
five cases where this variety was crossed with higher yielding varieties
the yield of the hybrid exceeded that of the variety with wliich it was
crossed. The average yield of the five varieties with which the
Chinese corn was crossed was 0.764 pound per plant, nearly double
that of the Chinese, yet the average yield of the five hybrids was 1 .004
pounds per plant, an increase over the highest yielding parent of
nearly 33 per cent. If the increased vigor of hybrids is in any way
associated with the distinctness of the parent types, the remarkable
behavior of this series of crosses may perhaps be understood. This
Chinese variety is one of the most divergent types and must have
been isolated from all ordinary types of corn for a very long time.
Evidence was presented in a former publication " that the introduc-
tion of corn in China was probably pre-Columbian. In these and
other crosses where low-yielding varieties producing more than one
ear to the plant operated to increase the yield of larger-eared types,
the greater yields appeared to have been brought about by an
increase in the number of ears with only a slight reduction in their
size.

EXTENSION OF CORN CULTURE BY FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS.

In addition to increased vield in corn-growing regions the vigor of
first-generation hybrids may also allow of an extension of corn grow-
ing beyond the present area of production.

Even a slight increase in the drought resistance of corn would
make possible the extension of corn culture into large regions where
the growing of this crop is now too precarious to justify the effort.
The subject is of such importance as to warrant the investigation of
every possibility.

«A New Type of Indian Corn from China, Bulletin l(jl, Bureau uf Plant Industry,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909, pp. 20-24.
191

32 VALUE OF FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

That the utihzation of first-generation hybrids will be found of
special value in the drier parts of the country was clearly indicated
by the behavior of the hybrids described in these pages.

The season during which these hybrids were grown was one of
exceptional drought, affording an excellent opportunity for observing
the (Irought-resisting ability of the different strains and their hvbrids.
The rainfall at Washington, D. C, for April, May, and June was
slightly below the average, and for July and August it was 4.07
inches, less than one-half the normal.

The series included varieties from localities with such extremes of
climate as obtain in the plateau region of Mexico and the moist
Tropics of the lowlands of Central America. While the differences
between the varieties in their ability to withstand drought were
obvious, the most striking differences of this kind were between the
hybrids and the pure strains. Almost without regard to the nature
of the parents the hybrids remained dark green and vigorous when
nearly all of the pure strains were giving evidence of the lack of mois-
ture by their curled leaves and yellow color. This ability to with-
stand drought may have been a factor in the increased yields which
the hybrids produced.

Experiments are being made with a series of hybrids in western
Kansas and the dry Southwest with the idea of learning which crosses
will prove best suited to these extreme conditions.

Experiments at the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station
indicate that first-generation hybrids may be found to withstand
excessive moisture as well as drought. Wliile the crosses were
apparently inidertaken with the idea of establishing hybrid varieties,
the results so far as reported apply only to the first generation.

The native varieties that were crossed with the western corns have developed, three
or four good strains, and out of some 350 samples tested here this j^ear none have stood
the wet season and made as good yields as the improved strains obtained by crossing
pure-bred western corn with our best native varieties. o

Associated with the general increase in vigor in first-generation
hybrids a certain measure of disease resistance may naturally be
expected. Many plant diseases that are unable to attack vigorous
plants are able to do serious damage to weaker varieties or to plants
that are weakened by adverse conditions. The ability of the hybrids
to resist drought might at the same time ])rotect them against disease.

In the case of the corn smut, which was the only disease that
affected any of the experiments, this factor of disease resistance does
not appear to apply^ for the attacks of the smut do not seem to

« Vanatter, Phares O. Annual Report, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station,
1906, p. 55.
191

HYBRIDS AND CENTRALIZED SEED PRODUCTION. 33

depend upon the vigor of the phmts; Nothing approaching immunity
to this disease lias been observed in any of the varieties or the hybrids.'^

FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS AND CENTRALIZED SEED

PRODUCTION.

It is coming to be generally recognized that in corn culture the use
of seed not produced locally is a bad practice, and this is especially
true of the most carefully selected varieties. The stimulus to the
production of high-grade strains of corn is seriously weakened by the
extremely circumscribed area in which such strains can be grown
advantageously without further selection. Men of exceptional skill
and experience who devote their whole time to the development of
improved strains can, without doubt, do more effective work in selec-
tion than the farmer who is pressed with other work. But as soon as
a carefully selected strain is placed under conditions different from
those under which it was developed it behaves in a more or less
abnormal manner, and appears at a disadvantage when compared with
locally adjusted varieties. This factor of local adjustment is so
important that if carefully selected strains are to be directly utilized
in commercial production the centralization of seed growing must be
discouraged. Farmers must be urged to select their own seed or to
secure it from a local breeder.

That first-generation hybrids are relatively free from the new-place
effects that so seriously interfere with the spread of varieties has not
been demonstrated in corn, but may confidently be expected from the
analogy of first-generation hybrids in other crops.'' This does not
mean that a given cross will do equally well in all parts of the country,
but that it will make little difference whether the crossing is done in
one part of the country or another. When it is once ascertained which
combination of varieties is best adapted to a particular locality, pure
seed of these varieties may be maintained and the crosses made under
the supervision of a trained plant breeder at a central station.

« It was repeatedly observed that plants affected with smut were darker green and
more vigorous than neighboring plants not affected. This difference was noticed
especially in a strain that had been reduced in vigor by self-fertilization. In this case
but one plant in the row was affected with smut, and the stalk of this plant measured
3.82 inches in circumference, while the largest of the healthy plants measured only
3.15 inches. The leaves were also broader and dark green, while all the other plants
were yellow and spotted.

Except for the deformed parts where the fungus fruited, the smutted jilant appeared
more nearly normal than any of the others. The presence of the fungus seems in some
way to restore the vigor lost through self-fertilization.

b Cook, O. F. Local Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. Bulletin 159, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909.
191

34 VALUE OF FIRST-GENEBATION HYBRIDS IX CORN.

Careful seedsmen who wish to extend the range of territory to which
they can supply seed that will be equal or superior to the best locally
selected seed should be willmg to give careful consideration to the
possibility of establishing regular supplies of first-generation hvt)rid
seed for their customers. "^

FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS IN SWEET CORN. ^g_

While the production of sweet corn is influenced b}' very difTerent
considerations from the production of field corn, the evidence at hand
indicates that the advantages of first-generation hybrids apply to
sweet corn with even greater force than to field corn.

In sweet corn, as with field corn, the yield is an important item, and
the experimental data here presented warrant the statement that the
yield can be very materially increased by means of first-generation
hybrids.

With sweet corn, however, the }'ield is not the only consideration;
quality and uniformity are important factors that must be taken
into consideration. As regards quality, the evidence indicates that
in most cases it wall be intermediate between that of the parents. If
parents of good quality are chosen, the quality of the hybrid will be
satisfactory. The proof of this rests not alone on the few cases
where the quality of the first generation of crosses of sweet-corn
varieties has been recorded, but on the general fact that the morpho-
logical characters of the first generation of crosses in corn are almost
always intermediate between those of the parents. With respect to
uniformity it may be said that experiments in crossing sweet varieties
have not been recorded in such a way as to give direct evidence.
On the other hand, experiments in the crossing of field corns make
it certain that in this class, with properly chosen varieties, a perfectly
satisfactors' degree of uniformity can be secured. The first genera-
tion of a cross is usually quite as uniform as the parent strains, a
condition natural!}' to be expected in view of the general tendency
for all morphological characters to appear intermediate in the first
generation. While the strict uniformity requii-ed in score-card rat-
ings may not be assured, it is altogether probable that the uniformity
of size, color, shape, and time of maturing required by the market
will be fully met if reasonabh-^ uniform strains are selected as parents.

The important differences between sweet and field corn in the
commercial methods of producing and handling seed are all of a
nature to make the application of this })rinciple more effective with
sweet corn than with field corn. A much larger percentage of sweet-
corn than of field-corn growers buy their seed, a practice that is
much to be regretted where pure strains are used, since the lack of

191

METHODS FOR TESTING COEN HYBRIDS. 35

local adjiistinent interferes with the proper performance of superior
and carefully selected strains, even when the seed is carried only a
short distance. First-generation hybrids are to a great extent inde-
pendent of this delicate adjustment to local conditions. The utili-
sation of first-generation hybrids would tend to obviate the neces-
sit}' of urging each farmer to breed his own sweet corn, a practice
which must surely follow if the highest performance of pure strains
Is to be secured.

The possibility of growing combinations of highly bred strains over
wide areas would enable the work of the few really skilled breeders
of sweet corn to be much more effective. While the general ])rinciple
is very simple and of wide application, its fidlest utilization will
require a large amount of experimentation to determine the best
combinations for each locality and market. A thorough knowledge
of the existing varieties would be of the greatest value to anyone
undertaking this work, and, as the cross has to be made anew each
year, the inventor of a new and superior combination could much
more effectively guard his discovery and secure a more adecjuate
reward for his work than is possible to the breeder of a pure strain.

While further experiments are needed to establish the assumption
that crosses of sweet-corn varieties will behave essentially the same
as crosses of varieties of field corn, the following possibihties of first-
generation hybrids are defuiitely indicated: (1) Increased yield, (2)
uniformity equal to that of the parents, (3) quahty intermediate
between the parents, (4) increased immunity from disease, (5) exten-
sion of the industry into new territory, (6) less localization of highly
bred strains, (7) increased utilization of the work of experienced
breeders, and (S) stimulus to the work of improvement through the
possibility of protecting new productions.

METHODS FOR TESTING CORN HYBRIDS.

It is lioped that the present summary of facts and possibilities
regarding first-generation hybrids will assist in stimulating experi-
ments, especially by those who are in a ])osition to keep careful rec-
ords and report the results.

The ex})eriments are of such a simi)le nature and results nuiy be
expected in such a relatively short time that those interested in
increased yields should be concerned to learn the possibilities of this
method for their particular localities and varieties and to report the
results of their experiments as a contribution to the better under-
standing of the principles involved. Exceptions are to be expected,
though none that may not be ascribed to experimental error have
yet been reported.

191

36 VALUE OF FIKST-GENEEATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

From the standpoint of the investigation the faihn-es of such
experiments are often of even greater interest than the successes,
since they may lead to better understandings of the factors involved-

In reporting results it would seem desirable to state the facts
bearing upon as many of the following points as ])ossible:

(1) Names and descriptions of varieties crossed. — While the names
of commercial varieties are almost hopelessly confused, some desig-
nations are necessary for purposes of reference, and if these are accom-
panied by careful descriptions many errors may be avoided, as well
as a needless duplication of work.

(2) History of the varieties. — This should be traced as far back as
possible to throw light on the degree of relationship that exists between
the varieties crossed.

(3) Sources of seed and previous methods of breeding. — Important
differences may be expected even where the same varieties are used,
depending on whether the seed has been self-pollinated or cross-
pollinated; also whether it was the result of mass selection in the
field or crib or was derived from a single ear.

(4) Size of the hybridizing plat and the plats or rows in which the
yields are tested. — The ratio between the area devoted to each variety
in the breeding plat and that in which the yield test of the same
variety is made should be recorded, since it is a measure of the oppor-
tunity for selection. If the breeding or hybridizing plat is small in
proportion to the area to be planted, it will be necessary to save a
large part of the seed for planting and the opportunity for selection
will be correspondingly small. The failure to take this fact into
consideration is one of the reasons why large field plantings of pure-
bred varieties so frequently fail to meet expectations of high yields
indicated in the breeding ])lats, where a more rigid selection was
practiced.

(5) Extent of self-pollination in the parent varieties. — Many varieties
produce pollen so little in advance of the silks that a considerable
proportion of the seed is self-pollinated, and this operates to diminish
the yield of the resulting plants. In such cases a part of the increase
that might be ascribed to the crossing of two varieties would in
reality be due to the depressed yields of the })arent varieties with
which the cross is compared. To determine the increase actually
due to the crossing, seed from detasseled plants of the parent varie-
ties should be included in the yield test, together with ordinary wind-
pollinated seed of the same varieties.

(6) The method by whicli the yields are compared and the precautions
against experimental error. — In this connection it should be borne in
mind that large })lats do not insure greater accuracy. The larger
the ])lat the greater the difliculty of obtaining equal conditions.

191

DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRODUCING HYBRID SEED. 37

Much greater accuracy can be secured by a comparison of a series of
single rows or narrow plats and repeating the series as many times
as space or seed will permit.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRODUCING HYBRID SEED.

While the process of securing hybrid seed is very simple, it is pos-
sible to vary the details of the method to suit different objects and
conditions. Those wishing to experiment with a considerable
series of hybrids will find it convenient to select what is considered
the most promising variety for the male parent and plant this variety
in every other row. Any number of other varieties can then be
planted in the alternate rows and carefully detasseled. Hybrids
will then be secured between the variety selected as a male parent
and each of the others, and the seed will be in sufficient quantity to
make accurate yield tests the following season.

If it is desired to keep accurate pedigrees of individual j)lants,
resort must be had to hand pollination.

The production of hybrid seed on a commercial scale also permits
of considerable variety in the details of the method. Whatever
method is followed it would seem desirable that the plat in which the
hybrid is made be large enough to afford opportunity for selection.
The actual size of the seed plat should be governed by the size of the
field planting to be made the following season and the ratio should
not be greater than 1 to 100. Thus, if the contemplated field plant-
ing is to be 50 acres the hybridizing plat should not be less than half
an acre.

Perhaps the most sim])le method for the farmer is to purchase each
year a small quantity of seed of two varieties that are known to be
well adapted to the particullar section and plant in alternate rows in a
hybridizing plat, as recentlji recommended by Doctor East."

The varieties must, of course, be of nearly the same length of sea-
son, and in case of any difference in this respect the variety that
flowers early should be chosen for detassehng. If the farmer wishes
to grow his own parent varieties he can do so by alternating the male
and female parents each succeeding year and selecting enough seed
from the variety not detasseled to supply the hybridizing plat for two
years, the first year as the female parent and the following year as the
male. The same result could be approximated by detassehng one of
the varieties in one half of the field and the other variety in the other
half of the field. By this method seed of both varieties would be
secured each year, but considerable indiscriminate crossing would
take place.

a The Rural New Yorker, May 1 and 8, 1909.
101

38 VALUE OF FIRST-GEXERATIOX HYBRIDS IX CORX.

One difficulty, however, with this reciprocal use of male and female
parents would arise unless the varieties agree in length of season.
Xo difficulty would be experienced in securing perfect pollination in a
short-season variety used as the female parent, but if such a variety
were expected to serve as the male parent the tendency to the early
shedding of the pollen might leave little or none available for ferti-
lizing a later variety used as a female parent.

The following directions, which have been sent out to several
cooperative experimenters, give a concrete example of one of the
ways in which the value of first-generation hybrids may be deter-
mined :

Experiments as outlined below involve the use of tw'o varieties and two separate
plats. Varieties may be designated as Xo. 1 and Xo. 2, the plats as A and B. The
plats should be sufficiently separated to prevent cross-pollination between them.

It should be kept in mind that the increased \-ield can be expected only for the one
year immediately following that in which the cross is made.

Plat A is planted with alternate rows of Xo. 1 and Xo. 2. The rows planted with Xo.
2 are to have all plants detasseled. The crop of Xo. 1 and Xo. 2 is to be saved sepa-
rately.

Plat B is planted entirely with variety Xo. 2 and has alternate rows detasseled.
The crop from the tasseled and detasseled rows is to be saved separately.

At harvesting there will be the following lots of seed:

(1) Plat A. Variety No. 1, field-pollinated.

(2) Plat A. Hybrid between Xo. 1 and Xo. 2.

(3) Plat B. Variety Xo. 2, field-pollinated.

(4) Plat B. Variety Xo. 2, cross-pollinated.

The yields in the year the cross is made should show the comparative value of the
two varieties and the effect, if any, of detasseling on the immediate j-ield.

A comparison of the j-ield from these four lots of seed the following year should show
the }-ield of the first -generation hybrid as compared with the pure varieties and to what
extent the increase, if any, is due to the elimination of self-pollinated seed.

If plat B can not be proWded, seed of variety Xo. 2 should be held for planting the
following year in comparison with variety Xo. 1 and the hybrid seed.

If it is considered important to have the crop of a uniform color, yel-
low and white varieties should not be crossed, for the grains will be of
different colors in the year foUowing the cross. Crosses between dent
and flint or between these and sweet corn would also result in a lack of
uniformity with respect to the character of the seed. That such differ-
ences should occur while the other characters remain so nearly uni-
form may appear remarkable, but is explained by another of the
pecuhar habits of the corn plant. UnUke most other plants the seeds
of corn show an immediate effect of pollen (xenia).* If a white-
seeded varietv is crossed bv one with vellow or black seeds, the new
seeds that are produced show the color of the male parent.

" For a discussion of xenia, see Webber, H. J., Bulletin 22, Division of Vegetable
Physiology and Pathology, U. vS. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900.
191

COXCLUSIOXS. 39

The embiyo that forms as a result of a cross-pollmation is, of
course, hybrid in nature and may differ from the female parent.
Owing to a peculiar double fertilization that obtauis m corn the
developing endosperm as well as the embryo is contributed to by
the pollen and may resemble the male parent. With respect to the
characters of the endosperm we are already dealing with the first
generation of a hybrid and the general law of uniformity in the fii-st
generation seems to hold in most instances. There may be no pre-
dicting what the nature of the grain will be, but those plants resulting
from the same cross may usually be depended upon to be alike.

The diversity that appeare in the seed color of fu"st-generation
hybrids is only an apparent exception to the general iiile of uniform-
ity in first-generation hybrids. The endosperm in which this diver-
sity appeal's is in reality the second generation of the hybrid and
may consequently show the diversity characteristic of second-genera-
tion hybrids.

CONCLUSIONS.

The com plant is naturally cross-fertilized and requires the stimulus
of crossing to produce maximum yields. Methods of close breeding
that can be applied to other crops with advantage do violence to
the nature of the plant and tend to reduce the vigor of growth and
the yield of grain.

As a result of the peculiar habits of reproduction of the corn plant,
the raising of hybrid seed does not require any special skill or any
large increase of labor. The cost involved is insignificant in com-
parison with the increased yields that are obtamed.

Xo reason is apparent why the vigor of hybrids may not be regularly
utilized to increase the yields of the corn crop. A refusal to take
this factor mto account would be like rejectmg the use of commercial
fertilizers or failing to take advantage of the increase that may be
obtained by selective breedmg.

The plantmg of fu-st-generation hybrid seed as a method of secur-
ing a larger crop is to be considered as entirely distinct from the idea
that superior varieties can be bred by hybridizmg or crossing. Crosses
between distinct varieties or strains at once increase the yield, but to
maintain this high performance the cross must be made anew each year.

Experiments to determme the value of fii-st-generation hybrids
have been made at various times since 1878, but in an isolated and
disconnected manner and usually without any adec[uate apprecia-
tion of the possibilities of this method as a regidar element of farm
practice.

In the literature which has thus far been examined, 19 crosses have
been reported. With a single exception these hybrids gave larger

191

40 VALUE OF FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

yields than the average of the parents, the amount rangmg as high
as 95 per cent. The series inckides experiments in six different States
and embraces a wide range of varieties.

Similar increases are here reported in crosses between the mem-
bers of a new series of types of corn from China, Africa, and the
American Tropics, very different from United States varieties and
very unlike among themselves. These experiments show that a very
wide application of this principle is possible.

In addition to increased yields there is reason to believe that the
increased vigor of first-generation hybrids may become an important
factor of adaptation to different conditions of growth. Tlie hyl)rids
appear not to require the delicate adjustment to local conditions
necessary to the pro])er performance of pure strains. The utiliza-
tion of hybrids may be expected to extend the range of utility of the
high-yielding types beyond the present range of adaptation of such
varieties.

First-generation hybrids are a distinct factor in the problem of
securing varieties of corn with adaptations that fit them for special
conditions. The increased vigor which these hybrids possess should
make possible their growth in regions where pure strains fail and
should also provide some measure of disease resistance.

The advantage of crossing distinct varieties is equally ap{)licable to
the improvement of sweet corn and affords a measure of protection
to those discovering new and valuable combinations.

191

INDEX

Algerian pop com. See Corn, pop, Algerian.

Arribeno corn. >Sfe Corn, Arribeiio. Page.

Bartholomew , Elam, development of Kansas dent corn 23

Beal, W. J., experiments with first-generation corn hybrids in Michigan. 10-12, 29, 30

Beans, black wax, crossing, experiments in ^lichigan 11

Black Mexican X Queen's Golden corn. See Corn, Black Mexican X Queen's
Golden.
White dent corn. See Corn, Black Mexican X \Miite dent,
wax beans. See Beans, black wax.

"Bonafous, M., description of drought-resistant corn in Mexico 20

Brownsville corn. See Corn, Brownsville.

Burr's ^^^^ite X Cranberry corn. See Corn, Burr's White X Cranberry.
Edmonds corn. See Corn, Burr's ^Miite X Edmonds.
Helm's Improved corn. See Corn, Burr's AMiite X Helm's
Improved.
Champion WTiite Pearl X Burr's White corn. -See Corn, Champion "WTiite Pearl

X Burr's Wliite.
Leamingcorn. See Corn, Champion Wliite Pearl X
Leaming.
Chihuahua corn. See Corn, Chihuahua.

China, pre-Columbian corn introduction 31

Chinese com. See Corn, Chinese.

Cinquantino corn. See Com, Cinquantino.

Common Pearl pop corn. See Corn, pop. Common Pearl.

Conclusions of bulletin 39-40

Connecticut, experiments with first-generation corn hybrids 18-20, 29

Cook, O. F., on first-generation hybrids in various crops 33

Corn, Arribeno, crossing, experiments 28, 29

Black ]\Iexican X Queen's Golden, crossing, experiments 14-15

WTiite dent, crossing, experiments 14-15

Brownsville, crossing, experiments 25, 26, 27, 29

Burr's ^\'hite X Cranberry, crossing, experiments 15-16

Edmonds, crossing, experiments 15-16

Helm's Improved, crossing, experiments 15-16

('hampion Wliite Pearl X Burr's AMiite, comparison with parent varieties. 16-17

Leaming, crossing, experiments 15-16

Chihuahua, crossing, experiments 23-24, 29

Chinese, crossing, experiments 23-24, 24, 25, 28, 29

pre-Columbian introduction 31

Cinquantino, crossiug, experiments 22-23, 29

cross-fertilized and self- fertilized, experiments in Indiana 12

crossing, experiments in Connecticut 18-20, 29

Illinois 13-17, 29, 30

Indiana 12, 29, 30

191

41

42 . VALUE OF FIKST-GENERATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

Page.

Corn, crossing, experiments in Michigan, early 10-12, 29, 30

New York 17-18, 29

closely related strains 17-18, 29

self-fertilized strains 17-18

studies, value, etc 9, 15-17

two varieties, benefits and methods 15-17

increasing yields 8, 10-20

culture, extension by first-generation hybrids 31-33

importance of locally produced seed 33-34

value of first-generation hybrid seed 3.3-34

dent, crossing, experiments in Illinois 13-15

diverse types, crossing, experiments 20-28, 29

drought resistance, increase, experiments 31-33

resistant type developed in Mexico 20-21

value in extension of corn culture 31-33

Edmonds X Burr's White, comparison with parent varieties 16-17

Murdock, comparison with parent varieties 16-17

Flour, second-year crossing 13-15

flowering habits, studies 8

Giant Missouri Cob Pipe, crossing, experiments 26

Gold Coin X Eight-rowed, crossing, experiments 14-15

Flour, crossing, experiments 14-15

Triumph, crossing, experiments 14-15

second-year crossing 13-15

Guatemala red, crossing, experiments 26-27, 29

Hairy Mexican, crossing, experiments 27, 28, 29

Hopi, crossing, experiments 22, 24, 25, 29

Huamamantla, crossing, experiments 27, 29

hybrid Ah 3, Maryland dent X Hopi, crossing, experiments 22, 29

4, Tuscarora X Cinquantino, crossing, experiments 22-23,29

Dh 1, Kansas dent X Chinese, crossing, experiments 23,29

2, Chinese X Chihuahua, crossing, experiments 23-24, 29

3, Hopi X Chinese, crossing, experiments 24, 29

4, Chinese X Xupha , ... 24, 29

6, Brownsville X Chinese, crossing, experiments 25, 29

Eh 1, Hopi X Algerian pop, crossing, experiments 25, 29

Gh 2, Tom Thumb X Quezaltenango black, crossing, experi-
ments 25-26, 29

Kh 31, Brownsville X Guatemala red, crossing, experiments 26, 29

62, Guatemala redx Salvador black, crossing, experiments. 26-27, 29
Mh 13, Quarentano X Brownsville, crossing, experiments 27,29

15, Huamamantla X Hairy Mexican, crossing, experiments. . 27, 29

16, Arribeiio X Hairy Mexican, crossing, experiments 28, 29

17, Hairy Mexican X Chinese, crossing, experiments 28, 29

25, Mexican dent X Tom Thumb, crossing, experiments 28, 29

hybrids, diverse types, new series 20-28, 29

first-generation, and centralized seed production 33-34

comparison with parent varieties 15-16, 28-31

confusion with hybrid varieties 8-9

disease resistance 32-33

effect of vigor on production 9, 39-40

experiments, previous 10-20

191

I

INDEX. 43

Page.

Corn, hybrids, first-generation, production, number, value, etc 7, 8, 28-31, 39-40

superiority, popular belief 9-10

use in extension of corn culture 31-33

value, statement of W. W. Tracy 10

yields 28-31, 39-40

hand-pollinated, production and value 8-9

in New York 17-18, 29

seed, methods of production 37-39

" ! I . self-fertilization, results on size of ear 14-15

testing, methods 35-37

vigor a factor of production 9, 39-40

yield, increase over better parent 30-31

See also Corn, sweet, hybrids,
improvement, cooperative crossing experiments at various agricultural

schools 11

in Indiana 12

Maine 13

isolation of pure strains, experiments in New York 17-18

Kansas Dent, crossing, experiments 23, 29

Leaming X Burr's White, comparison with parent varieties 16-17

Eight-rowed, crossing, experiments 14-15

Golden Beauty, crossing, experiments 15-16

Mammoth, crossing, experiments 14-15

Triumph, crossing, experiments 14-15

Longfellow, crossing, experiments in Connecticut 18-20

Maryland Dent, crossing, experiments 22, 29

Mexican Dent, crossing, experiments 26, 28, 29

Pignoletto, importation from Hungary, description 22-23

plant, habits 8, 39

pop, Algerian, crossing, experiments 25, 29

Common Pearl, second-year crossing 13-15

crossing, experiments in Illinois 13-15

Queen's Golden X Common Pearl, crossing, experiments 14-15

second-year crossing 13-15

pre-Columbian, introduction in China 31

Quarentano, crossing, experiments 27, 29

Queen's Golden X White Dent, crossing, exj^eriments 14-15

Quezaltenango black, crossing, experiments 25-26, 29

Salvador black, crossing, experiments 26-27, 29

second-year crossing, experiments in Illinois 13-15

seed, hybrid, methods of production 37-39

production, centralized, and first-generation hybrids. 33-34

local, importance 33-34

self-pollinated and cross-pollinated seed, comparison of yield in New

York 18

smut. Sec Smut, corn.

soft, crossing, experiments in Illinois 13-15

Stowell's X Eight-rowed, crossing, experirrients 14-15

Gold Coin, crossing, experiments 14-15

Mammolh, crossing, experimonls 14-15

Triumph, crossing, experiments 14-15

Sturges's hybrid, crossing, experiments in Connecticut 18-20

191

44 VALUE OF FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS IN CORN.

Page.

Corn, susceptibility of plant to hybridization 8, 39

sweet, crossing, experiments in Illinois 13-15

hybrids, first-generation, influence on yield and quality 34-35

possibilities 35

Learning, second-year crossing 13-15

seed selection, value and method 34-35

Tom Thumb, crossing, experiments 25-26, 26, 28, 29

Tuscarora, crossing, experiments 22-23, 29

White Dent X Queen's Golden, crossing, experiments 14-15

Yellow Dent, crossing, experiments in Connecticut 18-20

crossing, experiments in Connecticut 18-20, 29

Indiana 12

Michigan 10-11

wind pollinated 8, 39

Xujiha, crossing, experiments 24-25, 29

Yellow dent X White dent, crossing, experiments in Connecticut 18-20

crossing, experiments in Connecticut 18-20

Michigan 10-11

flint X White dent, crossing, experiments in Connecticut 18-20

yield, increasing, use of first-generation hybrids 9, 39-40

East, E. M., experiments with first-generation corn hybrids in Connecticut. 18-20, 29

statement of corn-crossing experiment 26

Edmunds X Burr's white corn. See Corn, Edmonds X Burr's white.

Murdock corn. See Corn, Edmonds X Murdock.
Flour corn. Sec Corn, Flour.
Gardner, F. D., and Morrow, G. E., experiments with first-generation hybrids

in Illinois 15-17,29,30

Giant Missouri Cob Pipe corn. See Corn, Giant Missouri <'(ib Pipe.
Gold Coin X Eight-rowed corn. See Corn, Gold Com X Eight rowed.
Flour corn. See Corn, Gold Coin X Flour.
Triumph corn. -See Corn, Gold Coin X Triumph,
corn. See Corn, Gold Coin.
Guatemala red corn. See Corn, Guatemala red.
Hairy Mexican corn. See Corn, Hairy Mexican.
Hopi corn. See Corn, Hopi.
Huamamantla corn. Sec Corn, Iluamamantla.
Hybrids, corn. See Corn, hybrids.

Illinois, experiments with first-generation corn hybrids 13-17, 29, 30

Indiana, experiments with first-generation corn hybrids 12, 29, 30

IngersoU, C. L., experiments with first-generation corn hybrids in Indiana.. 12, 29, 30

Introduction to bulletin 7 8

Kansas dent corn. See Corn, Kansas dent.

Learning X Burr's White corn. See Corn, Leaming X Burrs ^^^lite.
Eight-rowed corn. Sec Corn, Leaming X Eight-rowed.
Golden Beauty corn. See Corn, Leaming X Golden Beauty.
Mammoth corn. See Corn, Leaming X Mammoth.
Triumph corn. See Corn, Leaming X Triumph.
sweet corn. See Corn, sweet, Leaming.
Longfellow corn. See Corn, Longfellow.

McCluer, G. W., experiments with first-generation corn hybrids in Illinois 13-17

Maine, experiments with first -generation corn hybrids 13, 29

Maryland, corn-crossing experiments - 21-28, 29

191 -.

INDEX. 45

Page.
Maryland dent corn. See Corn, Maryland dent.
Mexican dent corn. See Corn, Mexican dent.

Mexico, development of drought-resistant corn 20-21

Michigan, experiments with first-generation corn hybrids 10-12, 29, 30

Morrow, G. E., and Gardner, F. D., experiments with first-generation corn

hybrids in Illinois 15-17,29,30

New York, experiments with first-generation corn hybrids 17-18, 29

Pignoletto corn. See Corn, Pignoletto.
Pop corn. See Corn, pop.
Quarentano corn. See Corn, Quarentano.

Queen's Golden X Common Pearl pop corn. See Corn, pop. Queen's Golden
X Common Pearl.
White dent corn. See Corn, Queen's Golden X White dent,
pop corn. See Corn, pop, Queen's Golden.
Quezaltenango black corn. See Corn, Quezaltenango black.
Salvador black corn. See Corn, Salvador black.

Sanborn, J. W., -experiments with first-generation corn hybrids in Maine 13, 2!)

Seed, corn. See Corn, seed.

Shull, G. II., experiments with first-generation corn hybrids in New York . 17-18, 29

Smut, corn, effect on first-generation hybrids 32-33

Stowell's X Eight-rowed corn. See Corn, Stowell's X Eight rowed.
Gold Coin corn. See Com, Stowell's X Gold Coin.
Mammoth com. See Corn, Stowell's X Mammoth.
Triumph corn. See Corn, Stowell's X Triumph.
Sturges's hybrid corn. See Corn, Sturges's hybrid.

Summary of bulletin 39-41

Sweet corn. See Corn, sweet.

Tom Thumb corn. See Com, Tom Thumb.

Tracy, W. W., statement regarding value of first-generation hybrids 10

Tuscarora corn. See Corn, Tuscarora.

Vanatter, P. O., on corn crossing 32

Webber, II. J., corn crossing, reference 38

White dent X Queen's Golden corn. See Com, White dent X Queen's Golden.
Yellow dent corn. See Com, White dent X Yellow dent,
com. See Corn, White dent.
Xupha corn. See Corn, Xupha.

Yellow dent X White dent corn. See Corn, Yellow dent X White dent,
corn. See Corn, Yellow dent.
flint X White dent corn. See Corn, Yellow flint X White dent.

Zea hirta, drought-resistant type of corn in Mexico 20-21

11)1

o

[Continued from page 2 of cover.] "i

No. 107. American Root Drugs. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

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19J

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 192.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF THE OLIVE
IN THE SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

BY

SILAS C. MASON,

Arboricultueist, Crop Physiology and

Breeding Investigations.

Issued January 17, 1911.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1911.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Thescientific and technical publications of the Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1,
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192 [Continued on page 3 of cover.]

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 192.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF THE OLIVE
IN THE SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

BT

SILAS C. MASON,

Arboriculturist, Crop Physiology and
Breeding Investigations.

QHieo

^/v.

Issued January 17, 1911.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1911 .

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations.

SCIENTIFIC staff.

Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge.
S. C. Mason, Arboriculturist.
G. P. Rixford, Expert.
E. M. Savage, Assistant Plant Breeder.

Bruce Drummond, W. L. Flanery, E. W. Hudson, M. A. Downes, and Henry H. Boyle,
Assistants.
192

i

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,

Washington, D. C, July 30, 1910.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend
for piibhcation as Bidletin No. 192 of the special series of this
Bureau the accompanying manuscript, entitled ''Drought Resistance
of the Olive in the Southwestern States." This paper was prepared
by Prof. Silas C. Mason, Arboriculturist in Crop Physiology and
Breeding Investigations, and has been submitted by Mr. Walter T.
Swingle, Physiologist in Charge, with a view to its publication.

The data upon which the paper is based were obtained from the
study of olive plantations made in Arizona and California, started
under irrigation, but afterwards, through the failure of the water
supply, left to their fate.

While most fruit trees and vines planted under similar conditions
soon perished, the olive trees have survived and made considerable
growth, showing themselves to be true desert plants having marked
drought-resistant characters.

So strong is this characteristic in the case of some of the varieties
of olives grown for oil that it is considered desirable to investigate
the possibility of olive culture for oil production in those areas in
the Southwest having favorable conditions as to temperature and
soil, but with a rainfall not heretofore believed to be sufficient for
crop production. At the same time those who desire to experiment
should be warned not to plant extensively until the possibilities of
fruit ])roduction in an}^ particular region have been thoroughly
investigated.

With the enactment and enforcement of the Pure Food Law the
production of olive oil in the Western States is now on a much
different footing from that of a few years ago. Where large ({uan-
tities of cheap adulterants and substitutes were then sold as pure
olive oil, now the olive grower has a market for his prochict on its
merits. With the better prices now prevailing, there seems to be
encouragement for a considerable extension of the oil-olive industry.
192 3

4 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

Mr, Thomas H. Kearney has pubhshed a bulletin in this series,

entitled "Dry-Land Olive Culture in Northern Africa," describing

the methods pursued in dry-land olive culture in southern Tunis,

methods which are now being tested in this country by Prof. S. C.

Mason and Mr. Kearney in cooperation.

Respectfully, G. H. Powell,

Acting Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

192

i

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction 9

Dry-land olive investigations 10

Examples of drought resistance of the olive in the United States 10

An abandoned olive grove at Casa Grande, Ariz 10

The Bogart-Degolia olive grove 13

Dry-land olive grove near Florence, Ariz 15

Dry-land olive trees near Phoenix, Ariz 16

The Pope olive plantation, near Palm Springs, Cal 17

Description 17

Climate of Palm Springs 18

Soil at Palm Springs 20

History of the grove 23

Present condition of the grove 24

Olive root systems adapted to utilize limited rainfall 27

Moisture economy aided by the structure of the olive leaf and stem 30

Successful dry-land olive culture in California 31

Area of possible dry-land olive culture in the United States 34

Area limited by the minimum temperature 34

Area limited by heat requirements 37

Area limited by rainfall 41

Summary 42

APPENDIX.

Anatomical structure of the olive {Olea europea), by Dr. Theo. Holm 47

Root structure of the olive 47

Leaf and stem structure of the olive 49

Description of plates 56

Index 57

192 5

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

Page.
Plate I. Fi^. 1. — One of the larger olive trees on the Bogart-Degolia planta-
tion, near Casa Grande, Ariz. Fig. 2. — Olive tree at" Las Palmas,"

near Phoenix, Ariz., after six years of neglect 56

II. Fig. 1. — View in the olive grove at Florence, Ariz., showing dead
apricot and almond trees in contrast with flourishing olives after
six years without irrigation. Fig. 2. — Interior view in the grove
shown in figure 1, the foliage, on account of crowding, having
become thinner than that of the outer row 56

III. Fig. 1. — View in the Pope olive plantation, near Palm Springs, Cal.,

after six years of neglect. Fig. 2. — One of the larger trees in the
Pope olive plantation, showing the low habit of growth of the
trees 56

IV. Fig. 1. — Characteristic burl at the base of an olive tree on the Pope

plantation, near Palm Springs, Cal. Fig. 2. — Feeding rootlets

^-^ from 6 inches in depth, on the Pope olive plantation 56

V. Fig. 1. — Cross section of the midrib of the leaf of Oleaeuropea (Mis-
sion variety) . Fig. 2 . — Cross section of one of the apical interned es

of the stem of Olea europea (Mission variety) 56

VI. Fig. 1. — View in a 500-acre olive plantation near La Mirada, Cal.
Fig. 2. — View in a different part of the plantation shown in
figure 1, where the trees have been thinned by removing alternate
diagonal rows 56

TEXT FIGURES.

Fig. 1. Map showing the points in Arizona and southern California where dry-
land olive growth was studied 11

2. Diagram showing the mean monthly rainfall at Casa Grande, Maricopa,

Phoenix, and Mesa, Ariz., as presented in Table 1 12

3. Diagram showing the mean monthly relative humidity at Phoenix,

Ariz., as presented in Table II 12

4. Diagram showing the mean monthly rainfall at Palm Springs station,

Cal., as presented in Table III 19

5. Diagram showing the relative percentages of fine gravel, coarse sand,

medium sand, fine sand, very fine sand, silt, and clay in dry-land
olive plantations in northern Africa and in Arizona and southern
California 21

6. Olive trees which have died through competition with a row of cotton-

wood trees on the Pope olive plantation, near Palm Springs, Cal 26

7. Diagram showing the distribution of superficial roots and deep roots of

a Manzanillo olive tree on the Pojx' olive plantation 29

192 7

8 ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.
Fig . 8 . Diagram showing the root system of a typical dry-land olive tree on the
Pope olive plantation, showing the position and distribution of the

roots in the soil 29

9. Diagram showing the annual rainfall at Los Angeles, Cal., as presented

in Table VI - ----- 31

10. Diagram showing the monthly means and summation of heat units of

places in the olive-growing regions, illustrating the seasonal activ-
ity and heat requirements of the olive, arranged from Table IX 40

11. Transverse section of a young lateral root of the third order of an olive

tree from Palm Springs, Cal., showing a very hairy epidermis and
cortex '* '

12. Inner portion of the same transverse section of the olive root shown in

figure 11 "^^

13. Transverse section of a lateral root of the first or second order of an

olive tree, showing the development of phellogen and cork 48

14. The same transverse section shown in figure 13 of the root of an olive

tree, showing the development of a secondary cortex and paren-
chyma rays from the cambial strata 48

15. Diagram of the root of an olive tree, showing the general arrangement

of tissues described in figures 11 to 14, inclusive 48

16. One of the peltate hairs from the surface of an olive leaf - - 50

17. A sunken stoma and the uneven dorsal surface of an olive leaf 50

18. Ventral face of an olive leaf, showing the thickened walls of epidermal

cells and palisade cells 51

19. Pneumatic tissue of the dorsal side of a blade traversed by stereome

cells ^1

20. Development of cork layers in the cortex of an olive stem 52

192

i

J

B. p. I.— 596.

DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF THE OLIVE IN
THE SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

INTRODUCTION.

Olive culture in the United States has passed through many vicis-
situdes. Hence, for the fullest knowledge of this industry to-day
we should study not only those cases where olive planting has been
a financial success, but the frequent instances where a more or less
successful growth of olive trees has been obtained without a remuner-
ative production of fruit. The olive tree may maintain life and even
make considerable growth under conditions of drought and heat so
severe that only the most hardy types of desert trees are able to survive
them, yet the margin between such a purely vegetative growth and the
production of fruit in remunerative quantities may be a very wide
one, so wide that to invest money in the planting and care of olive
trees on a commercial scale under such conditions would be sheer

folly.

Again, it may occur that one olive grove is producing bountifully
while another near by, under substantially the same conditions as to
temperature, rainfall, and soil may give but a scant return. Here the
choice of varieties, the distance of planting, and the methods of cul-
ture and pruning, factors all within the control of the grower, may be
quite sufficient to explain the difference between success and failure.

In fact with any given example of olive trees which do not fruit,
especially if they are distant from productive trees for comparison,
only the closest study and thorough experimentation can determine
how narrow the margin may be between thpir present conditions and
those of profitable fruit production.

When any plant of economic value is found to possess great ability
to resist drought or heat that fact in itself becomes a matter worth
close investigation. How does it obtain its supply of moisture ? By
means of deeply penetrating roots or of superficial roots exploring
great areas? Has it some provision for the storage of moisture in
time of surplus? Does it possess peculiarities of stem or leaf struc-
ture by which the small moisture su])ply is conserved to the utmost
and the living cells insulatetl and protected in the most effective
192 9

10 DROUGHT KESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

manner against the desiccating effects of dry air and intense heat?
We may even inquire whether its cycle of growth in rehition to the
seasons does not undergo an adjustment adapting itself to periods of
drought and rainfall.

The present bulletin is an attempt to answer such questions in
relation to the olive, and the material upon which it is based has been
furnished by a number of plantations of olives made in the more arid
parts of Arizona and California, where through failure of the irriga-
tion systems the trees were thrown on their own resources. It is
noteworthy that in all such cases where besides olives other fruit
trees were planted, few of the olives died and almost without excep-
tion all other fruit trees perished.

DRY-LAND OLIVE INVESTIGATIONS.

In the writer's study of the possibilities in dry-land tree growth in
southern Arizona and southern California his attention has been
called to several cases of abandoned plantations where, along with
other fruit and ornamental trees, considerable blocks of olives had been
planted. With the failure of the irrigation canals and the consequent
cessation of care and culture of the trees, almost all kinds died.

The survival of the olives, and not only their survival but continued
growth and luxuriant appearance, was so notable a feature as to
attract the attention of observing ranchmen of the vicinity, for it must
be kept in mind that these were localities where irrigation was not
simply a convenience, but an absolute necessity to the growing of
every crop at present known to them.

The examples given below showing not the results of careful test
and experimentation but results obtained unwittingly and in the face
of disaster seem worthy of careful record when studied in the light
of the remarkable dry-land olive culture in Tunis, for the first time
brought to the attention of this country by Mr. Thomas H. Kearney,*^
of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

EXAMPLES OF DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF THE OLIVE IN THE

UNITED STATES.

AN ABANDONED O^IVE GROVE AT CASA GRANDE, ARIZ.

The first of the abandoned plantations noted was that known as
the Bogart-Degoha ranch, 2 miles south of Casa Grande station in
Pinal County, Ariz. (See fig. 1.) The altitude of the station is
about 1,396 feet, and the olive orchard is only a few feet higher.
The mean annual temperature for the twenty-three years recorded is
72° F., and the average annual rainfall is 6.88 inches.

"Roo " Dry-land Olive Ciiltnro in Northern Afrira," Bnllotin 12,5, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1908.
192

EXAMPLES OF DEOUGHT RESISTANCE.

11

Table I. — Average rainfall by months and annual average for Casa Grande, Phoenix,
Maricopa, and Mesa, Ariz., for the years from 1897 to 1908, inclusive.^'

Station.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year.

Casa Grande

In.

61.04

1.10

.78

1.11

In.

0. 80
.90
.72

1.02

In.
60. 36
.51
.38
.80

In.

0.25
.51
.33
.49

In.

0.03
.05
.04
.08

In.

60.19
.11
.16
.12

In.

60.97

1.03

.91

.83

In.

1.03
.98
.83

1.31

In.

60.37
.98
.52
.59

In.
60.13
.32
.25
.35

In.

0.88
.89
.72
.861

In.

0.78
.72
.78
.01

In.

6 6. 88

Phoenix

8.11

Maricopa

6.41

Mesa

8.60

Average

1.01

0.87

0.51

0.39

0.05

0.14

0.93

1.04

0.62

0.26

0.84

0.82

7.52

a The figures of this table were kindly furnished by Mr. L. N. Jesunofsky, section director, Weather
Bureau, Phoenix, Ariz.

6 Ttiese means were obtained by substituting the mean of the month specified in places where the record
was wanting.

Figure 2 shows graj^hically the average rainfall by months for Casa
Grande, Ariz., and adjacent stations, from 1897 to 1908, inclusive.
The two periods of greater rainfall each year, one culminating in

Soefre^fr ar/

Fig. 1.— Map showing the points in Arizona and southern California where dry-land olive growth was

studied.

August and one in November, with ^May aiul June nearly rainless,
are characteristic of the region.

The range of temperature during the year is from a minimum of
25° or 28° F., with occasional years as low as 17°, to a maximum of
117° to 122° F. The mean relative humidity recorded for Phoenix
in Table II and grai)hically illustrated in figure 3 wall not be far
from correct for the Casa Grande region.

Table II. — Mean monthly and mean annual relative humidity of Phoenix, Ariz., for

the years 1905, 1906, and 1907.

Year.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year.

1905

P.ct.
61
50
66

P.ct.
71

60

58

P.ct.
67
48
51

P.ct.
58
40
30

P.ct.
35
31

28

P.ct.
25
20
24

P.ct.
29
34
36

P. ct.
42

47
44

P.ct.
41
30
36

P.ct.

40
31
55

P.ct.
65
45
55

P.ct.
59
65
42

P.ct.
49

1906

42

1907

44

192

12 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

I

' 1

nil

Fig. 2.— Diagram showing the mean monthly rainfall
at Casa Grande, Maricopa, Phoenix, and Mesa, Ariz.,
as presented in Table I.

The country around Casa Grande is a wide plain, through the
level of which the mountains appear to be thrust up, so abruptly
do the scattering groups and single low peaks break the surface.

These mountains are largely
composed of a soft, rapidly dis-
integrating granite, with much
feldspar in its composition, and
their decay determines the char-
acter of the soil, which is coarse
and gravelly around the moun-
tain base, sandy with more of
clay a little farther awa}^, and
of a stiff clay nature mingled
with bars of sand and gravel
along the drainage courses,
scarcely as 3^et marked as stream
channels, which serve to carry
away the run-off from the occa-
sional torrential rains so char-
acteristic of the region.

The most important of these
water courses, sometimes digni-
fied on the maps by being called the Santa Cruz River, is locally given
the more appropriate name "Santa Cruz Wash." While along its
upper course, from the Mexican boundary down to Tucson, there is
a pretty well-marked channel and a
more or less continuous flow of water,
in the neighborhood of Casa Grande a
slightly cut channel, a broad, well-
marked flood area, and a still broader
belt of mesquite growth mark the course
of the so-called river.

The popular idea that there is a
strong underflow of water the entire
length of this valley is given support by
the heavy belt of mesquite which occurs
with more or less regularity along the
course. This tree is well known through-
out the desert regions of the South-
west as possessing a remarkable root
system, able to penetrate to water-
bearing strata at depths of 30 to 50
feet. The further fact that the railroad wells along the line of
the Southern Pacific Company, particularly those at ]\Iaricopa
and Casa Grande, 2 or 3 miles away from the main channel, afford

192

1 /«=£>? cvr/v7- 1

I 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 i 1 1 1 ;

1 1 1 1 1 rj

■

- — 1 1 1— — 1

I

1 1 1

/V«4>fH^H^HV^H

1

-^^^'^flHHHB

'^'^ *^ Hl^HH^HHH

I

.s-iT/^^rMH^BJ^HH^H

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 \ 1

Fig. 3.— Diagram showing the mean
monthly relative humidity at Phoenix,
Ariz., as presented in Table II.

EXAMPLES OF DROUGHT RESISTANCE. 13

an abundant flow of water from deep borings, in which the water
rises to within 40 to 50 feet of the surface, seems to confirm the
impression.

The ranch of which the olive orchard forms a part Hes fully 3
miles south of the main Santa Cruz channel, with a gentle slope
toward it. A heavy mesquite growth had first to be removed as a
preparation for planting, and much growth of the same nature is
still to be found adjacent, indicating the presence of a water supply
at a depth of 30 to 50 feet. The soil contains a large percentage of
coarse granitic sand, but with enough clay to give it considerable
body and cause it to bake when dry. (See Tables IV and V.)

THE BOGART-DEGOLIA OLIVE GROVE.

According to the best testimony available, the Bogart-Degolia
ranch was planted in 1S93. It was at the time of the highest pros-
perity of the so-called Florence canal, which took water from the
Gila River near the town of Florence. About 20 acres of the ranch
were set to Muscat and Thompson seedless grapes, figs, apricots,
prunes, and olives, there being perhaps 5 acres of olives. The sup-
ply of water, while never abundant, was adequate for several years,
and the enterprise gave every promise of success.

Owing to the partial failure of the water for the past seven or
eio-ht vears, the trees have had no water save the rainfall and a little
local run-off that the otherwise dry ditches carried to the orchard.

We have no record of the exact order in which the trees began to
perish. When examined in March, 1907, all the trees planted were
dead except the olives, a few Arizona ash {Fraxinus velutina) which
had been set along the main ditch where they could profit by the
run-off which it could collect, and a few fig trees which still sent
feeble sprouts from the base. Appearances would indicate, however,
that the apricots and prunes were the first to succumb, followed by

the figs.

After the place was deserted, cattle and horses dependent on the
scanty desert herbage broke into the inclosure and attacked the
olive trees, browsing off all of the tender growth within reach. This
fact in itself bears testimony to the scantiness of forage on this plain,
for of all the forms of vegetation brt)Ught forward as forage jjlants
the olive has not so far been considered in the United States." Many
of these trees were browsed and broken till mere prongs and stubs,
3 or 4 feet high, were all that was left of theuL None of the trees
seem to have been pruned from the first, and the greater number of
them had formed several divergent stems from the ground. It was

a Mr. Thomas H. Kearney states that during dry years in Algeria branches cut
from olive trees are a regular forage supply. See Bulletin 80, Bureau of Plant Industry,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 80.
192

14 DROUGHT EESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTEBN STATES.

usually where the outer stems had formed a sufficient barrier against
the stock that the central ones had attained an adequate growth to
enable them to resist attack. Man}^ of these have reached a height
of 12 to 15 feet, and a few exceptionally strong specimens are 18 to
20 feet high. (See PI. I, fig. 1.)

The foliage is a dark, luxuriant green, and vigorous new growth is
being made, even on those trees that have been most severely cropped
back by cattle. The whole plantation is a notable landmark on the
desert plain and can be seen for a long distance. In fact, unculti-
vated and abandoned to struggle for itself, the olive has made a
winning fight in fair competition with the mesquite of the surround-
ing desert, even though it has lacked the thorny defense against
grazing animals which nature has supplied to the desert tree.

The uniform distance in setting out this entire plantation was in
squares 24 feet apart. This would prove to be rather too close
planting even in an orchard having an abundant supply of water,
but where the supply is as scant as this plain affords experience has
shown that this spacing, which provides for 75 trees to the acre, is
much too close. The luxuriant growth of a portion of these trees
was doubtless made possible by the weakened competition of those
closely cropped by stock. The olive tree has the ability to produce
a system of shallow roots, fully occupying the ground for a wide
radius around each tree. But a few 3 ears are needed for a tree to
completely take possession of the soil over a radius of 12 feet, after
which the struggle must begin with neighboring trees for the avail-
able moisture.

A detailed study of the roots of a typical tree was made — a tree
with a trunk diameter of only 5 inches, enlarged just below the sur-
face of the ground into a burl 12 inches in diameter and 14 inches
in depth, from which radiated 12 roots from a half inch to 2 inches
in diameter. Some of these roots had a length of 12 to 14 feet. So
numerous were the branches and small feeding rootlets originating
from these roots that the soil from a depth of 2 or 3 inches to more
than a foot was filled with them.

The description of "Olive root systems" in this bulletin will afford
details applicable to all of these plantations.

At the remote areas penetrated by branches from the large roots
the ground was contested by feeding roots from the adjacent trees,
so that it was hardly possible to turn up a shovelful of earth in the
orchard without finding evidence of this reaching out for moisture.
Yet there was no taproot and no penetrating to great depths for
water, as is so characteristic of the mesquite, which had been the
natural occupant of this land. It was a most complete and perfect
system for appropriating the moisture in the first 15 or 18 inches of
the soil, just that which would be penetrated by the normal rainfall.

192

EXAMPLES OF DROUGHT RESISTANCE. 15

The soil, greatly deficient in humus, contains clay enough to make
it very hard when dry, and the tramping of grazing stock still further
compacted the surface, preventing the ready absorbing of water
when a rainfall came. Application of the now well-known principles
of thorough cultivation and light furrowing across the slope to secure
water storage and the retarding of evaporation by a dust mulch
would have aided these trees greatly in utilizing the rain which fell.

DRY-LAND OLIVE GROVE NEAR FLORENCE, ARIZ.

Not far from the Casa Grande and Florence road, in the valley of
the Gila River and about 5 miles southwest of Florence (see map,
fig. 1), a ranch was developed and a plantation of olives and other
fruits was made, probabl}^ at about the same time as that at Casa
Grande. An area of about 8 acres was set in olives, the trees being
arranged in squares 20 feet apart each way. This tract has been
kept securely fenced, so that no damage from live stock has occurred.
From the scant information that can be gathered these trees have
received no irrigation for six years.

The soil is a much stiffer clay than that at Casa Grande. A well
near the orchard, now caved in, shows no water for a depth of more
than 40 feet. An inspection of this grove shows that while possibly
5 per cent of the original setting of trees failed to grow, but a very
few died later. The average height of these trees is about 20 feet.
A majority of them grow in the form of stools, sending out several
minor stems from near the ground. Some single trunks from 8 to
12 inches in diameter were noted. The formation of a much en-
larged burl at the surface of the ground was a very common feature.

A most significant fact was that the trees around the borders of
the grove were much larger and of more vigorous and healthy growth
than those where there was a perfect stand in the interior. While
few of the interior trees are dying, the scantier and less healthy foliage
and more slender growth of the branches all testify to the severity
of the struggle for moisture which is taking place. (See PI. II, fig. 2.)

No systematic study of the root development was made, but a
number of holes dug in various parts of the grove showed that, as in
the Casa Grande grove, the extent of roots was such as to occuj^y
the entire area, fine rootlets being disclosed wherever the soil was
turned. Even where missing trees gave a diagonal distance of more
than 45 feet between those standing, the roots hatl extended so as to
occupy this space.

A most significant fact concerning this planting is shown in Plate

II, from photographs taken in March, 1909. A blo(^k of about 3

acres of apricots and almonds ])lanted by the side of the olives is

shown in Plate II, figure 1, on the left. The trees had made an

57054°— Bui. 192—11 2

16 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

excellent growth, but with the failure of the water every one of them
has died. On the right are seen the olive trees still making a good
growth. A few pomegranate bushes and pepper trees planted in the
dooryard adjacent to the olives, while nearly all living, have appar-
ently suffered more seriously from drought than the olives.

DRY-LAND OLIVE TREES NEAR PHOENIX, ARIZ."

A few miles northeast of Phoenix, Ariz., a tract of land was laid off
into a sort of residence park under the name of "Las Palmas."''
Numerous avenues and drives were planted with Canary Island
palms, pepper trees, and other ornamentals, and at the same time a
considerable number of olive trees was set out, a row along the south
side of the southeast quarter being half a mile long. Owing to diffi-
culties about the water supply, cultivation and care ceased over all
but a small part of the tract, so that for the past six years no irriga-
tion has been given the olives and peppers on the south side of the
section and only a small amount to some of the palms.

The soil here, though gravelly, is much richer in clay and fine silt
than that of the Casa Grande tract. This portion of section 22 has
for several years been heavily pastured by horses, cattle, and sheep,
the trampling of this stock being sufficient to render the ground
around the row of olives smooth and compact, so that much of the
rainfall would be turned off instead of being caught and allowed to
percolate to the roots. A much better supply of forage seems to have
prevented the stock in this pasture from browsing the olives as
severely as was done at Casa Grande, though apparently sheep have
fed off the leaves and small twigs to a height of about 4 feet.

We find this to be a case of growth under decidedly adverse condi-
tions, though not the most extreme. The row of olive trees along the
south side of the section is uneven in growth, but many are 12 to
15 feet high, with trunks from 5 to 7 inches in diameter. Here,
as in other droughty situations, the olive has a strong tendency to
put out sprouts from near the base, thus protecting the trunk from
the heat of the sun. This universal habit of olive trees in dry locali-
ties, even those that have been headed high enough to expose the
trunk, points clearly to the desirability of a method of pruning which
will provide a low, spreading head, thoroughly protecting the trunk
and main branches.

That several of the trees in this south row should have fruited in
1907 in the face of such privation and neglect, though producing only
a light crop, is strong evidence of the hardiness and drought resistance
of the olive.

« See map, figure 1. b Comprising section 22, in township 2 north, range 3 east.
192

EXAMPLES OF DROUGHT RESISTANCE. 17

In the northern portion of the ranch oHve trees which had received
a httle irrigation and less tramphng and hardening of the ground
produced fair crops of fruit, thus demonstrating that a small differ-
ence in conditions may be sufficient to decide between a mere holding
on to life and a fair commercial success. The climatic conditions
indicated in Table I for Phoenix will be a close approximation to
those prevailing at this place. Plate I, figure 2, shows a character-
istic tree of the south row in fruit.

THE POPE OLIVE PLANTATION, NEAR PALM SPRINGS, CAL.

DESCRIPTION.

In traveling over the Southern Pacific Railway from Los Angeles
to the east, one leaves the orange groves of Colton and Redlands to
ascend into a cooler region, an altitude of nearly 3,000 feet being
reached in the San Gorgonio Pass. Here, around Beaumont and
Banning, are flourishing orchards of prunes, peaches, and apricots,
watered from the perpetual snows of the San Bernardino Range, and
extensive barley fields moistened by the winter rains. A descent of
2,000 feet in 30 miles to Palm Springs station then brings one seem-
ingly into another country. A sparse growth of desert shrubs and
herbs in torrent-washed gravel and among bowlders replaces the
orchards and harvest fields, and instead of the refreshing breezes
from the snow-capped peaks there is much of the time a sand-laden
gale blowing so steadily down the valley that all the desert shrubs lie
prostrate and the drift of sand to the leeward of each makes it seem
to be marking a nameless grave. Just ahead lies a low range of hills,
their original rock formation barely suggested beneath the mantle of
sand that centuries of winds have heaped upon them. No landscape
could be in more striking contrast with that left behind at Colton and
Beaumont.

Taking the trail to the southward from Palm Springs station for a
few miles carries one out of the sweep of the winds to a sheltered sec-
tion containing the picturesque little village of Palm Springs at the
site of the old Agua Caliente. (See map, fig. 1.) The Mission
Indian village lies on the east side of ''Inclian avenue" and a little
group of homes of the white settlers on the west, all nestling under
the shelter of the towering San Jacinto Mountain, whose two peaks,
San Jacinto and Cornell, are among the highest in southern Cali-
fornia. From a jagged rent in the eastern base of the mountain
issues an ice-cold stream of water, a brawling torrent when the
mountain showers are heavy or the snows are melting rapidly, but
sinking to a tiny rivulet at the end of the long desert summer, barely
sustaining life in the little oasis dependent upon it. In fact, during

192

18 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

a series of extremely dry years it has happened that the flow of 9 or
10 miner's inches, or about 120 gaUons, per minute from the hot
spring pool has been all there was to sustain plant or animal life for
months at a time.

A little way out on the desert one notices rows of pepper trees
(Schiniis moUe), their rich, dark green in sharp contrast with the
desert herbs and shrubs, while a nearer approach shows, perhaps, a
half-dismantled house and a broken fence inclosing a small field.
Gaunt rows of cottonwood trees, a few still keeping up the struggle,
the greater part standing stiff and white, seem ghostlike sentinels
keeping watch along the line of a ditch that has long since ceased to
convey the life-giving water. Acres of grapevine stumps, blocks of
dead a})ricot trees, skeleton branches of bleaching fig trees, a few
green sprouts struggling from their bases — all give eloquent testimony
to the energy and capital invested in the Palmdale settlement in 1889,
when the granite-lined canal brought a supply of water from the
Whitewater River across 7 miles of blowing sand to irrigate this
sheltered spot at the foot of the San Jacinto Range.^

In striking contrast to the impression of desolation offered by the
majority of these abandoned fields is that of a tract lying a mile
northeast of Palm Springs, Cal.,'' where, if one ascends to a little
elevation above the plain, the check rows in dark, rich green of an
olive plantation of 26 acres shows in striking contrast to the brownish
green of the creosote bush (Covillea tridenta), which forms the natural
growth. Here in 1891 was set an olive grove of approximately 3,000
trees, together with some 6 or 7 acres of figs. (See PI. Ill, fig. 1.)

CLIMATE OF PALM SPRINGS.

Palm Springs has the typical desert climate, modified somewhat
by its proximity to the San Jacinto Range, which cuts off the fierce
sweep of the winds which come down through the San Gorgonio Pass
and spread out over the country above the Salton Sea. The summer's
heat is intense and prolonged, maximum temperatures of 100° F. and
over being leached every month from May to September, inclusive,
and occasionally even in April and October. The absolute yearly
maximum for the ten years from 1897 to 1906, inclusive, ranges from
1 13° to 122° F., only 1904 failing to reach 1 16° F. The lowest recorded
winter temperature is 28°, but more often 32° F. is the record, and
sometimes winters ])ass with scarcely a trace of frost. Although
within 12 miles of the snow-capped San Jacinto peaks, the mean

a Since the studies herein described were made, much of the canal stock and a con-
siderable acreage of land have been acquired by persons who have repaired the canal
and begun again the approi)riation of water from the Whitewater River.

b A portion of section 11, in township 4 south, range 4 east.
192

EXAMPLES or DROUGHT RESISTANCE.

19

annual precipitation is a scant 3^ inches, with a total of only 0.70
inch for 1903 and a maximum of 9.36 inches for 1905. (See Table III.)

Scant as this rainfall is it nearly all occurs in the six months
from October to March, inclusive. During the six summer months
when a temperature of 100° F. is reached almost daily there is
scarcely a trace of rain. (See
fig. 4.) That any vegetation
should be able to pass through
this terrible period of heat and
drought seems beyond belief t o
one accustomed to the behavior
of plant growths of the regions
having abundant rainfall; yet
many species of shrubs and
three species of trees are native
in these hot sands.

That the olive, whose beauti-
ful groves are typical of the most

favored portions of France and Italy, should be able to survive and
even successfully compete with these desert shrubs in their own
habitat, when planted among them and then abandoned, gives us a
new insight into the real character of this tree that makes it worthy
of careful study.

Table HI.— Maximum and viinimum temperatures and preci-pitation at Palm Springs
station, four miles north of the Pope olive plantation, California, elevation 584 feet, for
the years 1897 to 1907, inclusive.

MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).

ft

1

1

n
1 1
1 1

n

1 1
1 1

t

n m

m ■

\

5 T

1

1

V

^

1

1

^

Fig. 4.— Diagram showing the mean monthly rain-
fall at I'alm Springs station, Gal., as presented in
Table III.

Year.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual.

1897

68
73
82
81
78
98
70
78
72
70
74

74
88
84
86
98
105
72
86
70

"'84'

83
95
84
97
96
105
85
92
81
88
91

103

108

102

94

95

98

97

106

78

101

100

108
102

92
106

98
101
111
103
110
102

95

Ill
110
116
111
118
121
112
112
110
112
115

120
116
116
118
111
110
117
113
122
116
118

118
115
114
110
114
106
110
111
115
116

104
112
113
107
106
112
112
107
110
106
102

97

102

96

104

98

95

98

102

98

104

100

89
92
90
90
90
85
88
96
82
94
88

78
78
86
78
82
75
81
81
74
75
78

120
116
110
118
118
121
117
113
122
116

1898

1899

1900

1901

1902

1903

1904

190.5

1906

1907

MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).

1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.

38
30
30
34
30
32
40
32
45
33
30

32

48
28
38
44
30
32
39
28

'■io'

37

42
46
50
50
42
4(i
49
50
42
42

40
54
56
42
58
50
50
53
46
50
55

39

58
60
52
04
62
54
53
50
58

65
70
66
60
61
59
60
69
60
62
70

77
78
8.5
69
75
66
05
75
75
84
72

81
78
70
70
80
68
68
79
80
70

68
64
70
64
05
(iO
58
61
70
62
60

55
62
50
54

(i5

m

58
62
60
47
60

42
42
50
48
47
.35
50
56
40
32
46

30
32
32
44
30
40
34
48
30
40
35

30
32

28
34
30
30
32
32
28

'30

192

20 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

Table III. — Maximum and minimum temperatures and precipitation at Palm Springs

station — Continued.
PRECIPITATION (INCHES).

Year.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

0
T.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.48
0
0

Jiiiie.

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual.

1897

0

0
0

0.12
0

3.50

0

0

T.

3.95

'".'47"

0

0.60

0

0

0

.50

.70

'i.'ee'

3.05
1.27

0

0

0

0

0

0.50

0

0

T.

.20

.15

0
0
0
T.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0

0.62
0
0
0
0

1.00

0

.10

0
0
T.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.05
0

0
0
0

1.29
0
0
0
.10
/ 0
0

1.64

0

0

0.50

T.

0

.70

0

T.

1.11

.70

0

1.09

.70

2.86

0

0

.70

0

0

0

.56

T.

1.09

1KQR

1899

1.21

.80

T.

.50

0

T.

2.16

.46

1.27

5.31

1900

2 09

1901

3.50

1902

2.90

1903

.70

1904

1905

9.36

1906

1907

T.=trace.
SOIL AT PALM SPRINGS.

The soil of the oUve orchard is typical of this district. The rock
formation is coarse sandstone and granite. The southern face of the
mountains is broken by canyons of various widths and depths, origi-
nating as rents and fissures in the uplifted rock, but enlarged by the
erosion of the mountain torrents, which were apparently during
glacial times of vastly greater volume than at present. The result
has been an enormous talus of water-worn liowlders from each of the
main canyons extending out into the basin to an unknown distance
and depth and spreading laterally along the mountain base. Over
this is a varying depth of coarse sandy and gravelly soil, in places
mixed with a considerable quantity of finer material from the sorting
action of wind and water. Several square miles in the Palm Springs
and Palmdale region have thus a fair quality of sandy soil, which is
lacking in sufficient clay or fine binding material and because of the
scanty rainfall and sparse vegetation is low in organic matter. Judg-
ing from the quantity of feldspar in the original granitic rock, there
is doubtless a good deal of available potash in this soil.

On the particular 40 acres in the olive orchard there is rather less
of the finer material in the soil than in that of the Indian reservation
lands adjoining on the south. Layers of coarse gravel and cobble-
stones are often encountered at depths of 3 to 4 feet. The longest
winter rains sink so quickly into the soil that there is no trace of
stickiness or mud on the following day.

Table IV. — Mechanical analyses of soils frovi olive orchards at Casa Grande, Ariz.,
and Pcdm Springs, Cal., made by the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, from samples collected by Mr. S. C. Mason.

Locality.

Depth

taken.

Fine

gravel,

2tol

mm.

Coarse
sand,

1 to 0.5
mm.

Me-
dium
sand,
0.5 to

0.25
mm.

Fine

sand,

0.25 to

0.1 mm.

Very
fine

sand,

0.1 to
0.05

mm.

Silt,

0.05 to

0.005

mm.

Clav,
0.005 to
0 mm.

Casa Grande, .Vriz

Inches.
Oto 6
6 to 12

12 to 18
Oto 6
6 to 12

12 to 18

P.ct.
4.0
3.7
4.4
4.0
4.0
3.4

P.ct.
15.1
13.5
14.0
15.2
15.0
14.1

P.ct.
10.4
9.1
9.4
42.0
15.4
14.0

P.ct.
25.0
26.0
2.5.0
17.7
43.4
40.2

P.ct.
11.1
10.0
9.1
13.2
1.3.1
14.9

P.ct.
27.1
32.3
32.1
7.2
8.0
11.3

P.ct.
8.0

Do

,5.0

Do

6.6

Palm Springs, Cal

.8

Do

.9

Do

1.6

192

EXAMPLES OF DKOUGHT RESISTANCE.

21

/

30

20

10

S FAX

OLIVE ORCHARD

OLIVE ORCHARD 20
MILES F ROM SFAX

■ ■ I I

S PAX

OLIVE ORCHARD

xll

1

f

> n:

^ 'o ^: «o ^. s ,

k- U ^ i< S (0 ^

?^-

ID "o 5" «d ;^

«) <o" ^. h i^.

Uj

v

0 rO/2 / INCHES DE£P

y \

^*.- ^ ^ k ^ <oji/ A- t> ^" V: S <o ^

/2 INCHES DEEP

/ <Z

z/

/3 TO Z^ /NCNES OE£P

50

^0

30

20

I 0

BOGART OLIVE GROVE

CASA GRANDE ARIZONA

nm

> \

^ "Q. < .
•< ^ i^ (0

\j

O TO 6 /A/Cf^ES DEEP

tTntpr

/ ^k- ^ ^ k;^ ^- <o o.

Ml

/

to" "o
.k C5

"9 (o I?:

^ k ^-

J

i^

o.

y

6 TO /2 WCf^ES OEEP

/2 TO /S //I/C//EJ- OEEP

60

5 0

^0

30

20

10

POPE OLIVE GROVE

PALM SPRINGS CALIFORNIA

zt

It

U

ill

tn

\ to

\

k-

I

^ ^

"\^

/

to- H !3'
\k ^ ^

b- 1^: s:
k-Jjo O
•\y

Ml

to- Id; 'q lo- {^^ .

/ \

to ^6 *^ ^-

M^. Cj ^ k- ^ «oO

A/-

y

O TO S /NCHES 0££P S TO /Z /A/CHES OEEP /Z TO /S /NC^ES DEEP

Fig. 5.— Diagram showing the relative percentages of fine gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand,
very fine sand, silt, and clay in dry-land olive plantations in northern Africa (Sfax) and in Arizona
and southern California.
192

22 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OE OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

Table V. — Analyses for potash, phosphoric acid, calcium, and organic matter in soils
from olive orchards at Casa Grande, Ariz., and Palm Springs, Cal., made by the Bureau
of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture, from samples collected by Mr. S. C. Mason.

Locality.

Casa Grande, Ariz

Do

Do

Palm Springs, Cal

Do

Do

Depth
taken.

Inches.
Oto 6
6 to 12

12 to 18
Oto 6
G tol2

12 to 18

CaO.

Per cent.
1.18
.53
1.86
1.58
1.58
1.75

KtO.

Per cent.
0.98
1.00
1.00
.81
1.02

PjOs

Per cent.
0.03
.22
.32
.52
.38
.41

Organic
matter.

Per cent.
0.15
.46
.66
.19
.12
.17

Figure 5 shows in a graphic manner the resuUs of a mechanical
analysis of this soil by the Bureau of Soils, as presented in Table IV.
This is placed for comparison below a diagram showing the results
of a similar analysis of the soil from the Casa Grande olive grove and
one from the olive orchards of Sfax. '^ The small quantity of clay
and silt and the large proportion of medium and fine sand distinguish

« See "Dry-land Olive Culture in Northern Africa," by Thomas H. Kearney, Bulle-
tin 125, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1908, pp. IS-l'J, as
follows :

Mechanical analyses of soil samples from the olive orchards ofSfax.

Locality.

Olive orchard, Sfax

Do

Do

Do

Olive orchard, 20 miles north of
Sfax

Me-

Very

Fine

Coarse

dium

Fine

fine

Silt,

Depth

gravel,

sand,

sand,

sand,

sand,

0.05 to

taken.

2 to 1

1 to 0.5

0.5 to

0.25 to

0.1 to

0.005

mm.

mm.

0.25
mm.

0.1 mm.

0.05
mm.

mm.

Inches.

P.ct.

P.ct.

P.ct.

P.ct.

P.ct.

P.ct.

Oto 12

0.2

4.3

7.1

24.1

20.9

14.1

13 to 24

.4

7.7

9.7

33.9

24.0

9.1

25 to 36

.5

7.9

10.3

34.3

24.6

7.1

Oto 12

.2

4.6

6.8

26.4

22.5

13.4

(a)

.3

2.7

3.3

14.9

27.0

22.9

Clay,
0.005 to
0 mm.

P.ct.
30.0
16.0
15.7
26.2

29.3

a Adhering to olive truncheons, probably about 12 inches.

Chemical analyses of a large number of samples of the Sfax olive soils by the chemist
of the Tunisian government show them to be very rich in lime (calcium carbonate),
of which there is an average of from 5 to 10 per cent. The potash content is also good,
the average being 0.1 to 0.2 per cent. On the other hand, they are rather poor in
nitrogen (0.03 to 0.05 per cent) and in phosphoric acid (0.04 to 0.05 per cent). Accord-
ing to Trabut, a high lime content is a very favorable factor in growing olives for oil
production, as olives produced in limestone regions are richer in oil and the oil is of
better quality then where the soils are deficient in this component. It should be
noted that while the nitrogen and phosphoric acid content of the vSfax soils would be
considered low for most crops, the high yields and good quality of the oil produced at
Sfax are sufficient evidence that the supply of these two elements of plant food must
be amply vsufficient for the requirements of the olive. This can perhaps be explained
by Ihe fact that the roots of this tree occupy so great an area of soil (one-seventh to
one-tenth acre) that, while the percentage of these elements to weight of soil is every-
where low, the total amount available to the roots is actually rather high.
192

EXAMPLES OF DROUGHT RESISTANCE. 23

this Palm Springs soil in a very marked way from that of the Casa
Grande. Both are in striking contrast with samples from the dry-
land olive district of Sfax, in northern Africa, described in Mr.
Kearney's bulletin previously referred to. The much higher per-
centage of clay in the Sfax samples gives a very distinct character to
that soil, which as it exists in nature impresses one as sandy, owing
doubtless to the clay and silt particles being cemented together.

In chemical composition these soils (Table V") show a striking
similarity in the lime content, having only one-eighth to one-fourth
as much of that element as is found at Sfax.

In the amount of potash the Casa Grande and Palm Springs sam-
ples are also very much alike, being five to ten times richer than the
Sfax samples. In the amount of phosphoric acid it is interesting to
note that the Palm Springs soil, though seemingly a desert sand,
contains more than twice as much of this important element as is
found in the Casa Grande samples. In the potash and phosphoric
acid contents either of these samples compares favorably with aver-
age agricultural soils ; for instance, with the soils of the famous Michi-
gan peach belt, ^ while in phosphoric acid the Palm Springs samples,
averaging 0.436 per cent for the entire 18 inches in depth, are ahead
of all but the very richest farm lands of the eastern United States.
This richness of desert soils in phosphoric acid and potash is espe-
cially advantageous to olive culture, as investigations by the Cali-
fornia Agricultural Experiment Station have shown that the olive
makes mucli higher demands upon the soil for these elements than
do grapes, plums, apricots, or oranges. •=

HISTORY OF THE GROVE.

As nearly as can be gathered the greater part of the Pope olive
orchard was set in 1890 and 1891. There was at that time an ade-
quate supply of water available from the Whitewater ditch, which
was conveyed to each block of land by box conduits. Along these
conduits and across the north side of the blocks rows of cottonwood
trees were set 20 feet apart. Their influence on the olive plantation
will be referred to later.

The olive trees were planted 21 feet apart on the hexagonal system,
giving 116 trees to the acre. For the first seven or eight 3'ears there
was a fair supply of water. No Bermuda grass or other serious weed
gained a foothold and the work of irrigating the trees was the chief

a From analyses by Mr. Joseph G. Smith, of the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture.

6 See Roberts, I. P., "The Fertility of the Land."

c Report of the Director of the California Agricultural Experiment Station, 1894-95,
p. 124.
192

24 DROUGHT KESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

labor. It can not be learned that during that time any fruit was
produced. A resident of Palm Springs who came there in 1896
recalls that they were "expecting the trees to come into bearing
the next year." About this time difficulties with the water supply
began, and as nearly as can be ascertained no irrigation at all has
been given the orchard since 1900.

PRESENT CONDITION OP THE GROVE.

The first fact with which one is impressed on seeing this plantation
is the small size of the trees considering their age. Some trees are
scarcely 4 feet high, and very few more than 7 or 8 feet. Taking
two average rows, the range in height was found to be from 41 inches
to 98 inches, the average for 50 trees being 63.5 inches. The high-
est tree in the 20-acre block was found to be 9 feet, while only 10
trees could be found measuring 8 feet and upward. (See PI. Ill,

fig. 2.)

It is to be noticed that on these trees the branches are retained

clear to the ground and that the breadth of the top exceeds the

height in almost every case, so that in the 50 trees examined only one

was found in which the height was greater than the breadth of top.

The average breadth for the two rows is 79.5 inches as against 63.5

inches of height. These tops, too, are much branched and very

compact. In nearly every case the trunk is concealed. A leafy

canopy protects the trunk and main branches from the dry air and

fierce heat of the desert sun.

In doing battle for their lives in the desert they have sliowTi their
ability to adapt themselves to desert methods of defense. The mes-
quite and paloverde,"^ the largest native trees, may attain a spread
of top of 40 or 60 feet with a height of only 20 or 30 feet. The
desert willow (Chilopsis) and the Dalea spinosa, two species somewhat
less resistant to drought and heat, attain a treelike size by throwing
out a defense of sprouts and low branches, or, failing in this, they are
apt to show scars of severe sun scalding.

The so-called "wild apricot" (Prunus fremontii) , venturmg out a
little way along the bowlder talus from the canyon's mouth, has a
top so densely branched, angled, and interlocked as to well merit the
name Emplectocladus, signifying interlocked branches, which now
applies to the whole subgenus to which it belongs.

Similar proportions of height to spread of top will be found in
nearly all of the characteristic desert shrubs, the effort seeming to be
to throw as much shade and insulation as possible around the trunk
and main branches.

o-Cercidium torreyanum (Wats.) Sargent.
192

EXAMPLES OF DROUGHT EESISTANCE. " 25

This purpose is accomplished most effectively and in the most
characteristic way of all by that typical desert tree, the majestic
palm ( Washingtonia filifera) , whose dying lower leaves suspended by
their long petioles form a dense thatch, completely insulating the
tall, columnar, branchless trunk against both the direct and reflected
heat of the sun and the drying winds. Wliere some vandal hand
does not apply a torch, this splendid protection is retained for many
years, perhaps for life.

It is probable that in the case of the olive, as well as of many native
desert plants, this low, spreading canopy of top serves another purpose.
Of the total precipitation for the year in these regions a considerable
proportion is in the form of small showers, so that the monthly record
will often be indicated by such fractions of an inch as 0.12, 0.09, 0.32,
0.06, trace, etc., these usually representing a single precipitation.
Such an amount falling upon the parched soil in the open is so soon
evaporated as to afford little aid to the thirsty plant. Arrested by
the leaves or fine branches and carried to the ground at the base of
the stem, it is so shaded and conserved as to be allowed to sink into
the surface soil, where a system of short, finely branched supei-ficial
roots is ready to appropriate it. In Plate IV, figure 2, such rootlets of
the olive tree are shown in natural size.

Inspection of the whole 26 acres of the plantation shows that sev-
eral varieties were set, just what they were being difficult to decide
with accuracy, no plat or planting list so far having been discovered.
The block in which the most trees are alive and in the best condition,
though not making the largest growth, has the dense, compact habit
and broad top most completely developed, and here any exposure of
trunk or main branches to the sun is hard to find. These trees are
noticeable for the complete absence of any sun scald on the bark.

The northern seventeen rows of this block are ranker in growth and
more coarsely branched, and while the leaves are larger the whole
canopy is much thinner. Of this variety, probably Manzanillo, a
quarter of the trees are dead and others have suffered severe sun scald.
In other cases a portion of the top has died back, to be followed by a
vigorous sprouting from below. Of a block of four rows adjacent to
this, not 10 per cent of the trees are alive, but these appear to be of a
variety little adapted to these conditions.

The cottonwoods already referred to, bounding the 20-acre block
on the west and north sides, are all dead, but so also are the olive
trees next to them. Of the Manzanillo olives, the two rows on the
north and next to the cottonwoods are two-thirds dead, while the
third row is in bad condition. 01" the trees on the west ends of the
rows next to the cottonwoods in the larger block not so large a propor-
192

26 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

tion is dead, but those alive are small and in bad condition. Figure
6 shows very distinctly the effect of the cottonwood growth on the
olives. The struggle has been so intense for a bare survival on the
part of the whole plantation that the competition with a powerful
feeder like the cottonwood has proved fatal, though the cottonwoods
probably, survived the olives but a few years.

Crossing the conduit to the next 20-acre block, only half of which
was set, are two small blocks of olives, 6 acres in all, with 4 acres of
figs between them. Here the contrast between the green of the olives
on either side and the figs, which are dead save a few struggling
sprouts, illustrates in a most marked way the comparative drought
resistance of the two. Indeed, of exotic trees on this ranch only the

Fig. 6.— Olive trees which have died through competition with a row of cottonwood trees on the Pope
olive plantation, near Palm Springs, Cal. (From a photograph.)

pepper trees bordering one field show an ability to endure these
extreme conditions equal to that of the olive.'*

While trees of this slow growth and evergreen nature are conse-
quently slow in forming what the foresters call dominant and sup-
pressed classes, a close inspection of this grove shows such a work to
be in progress, not as is generally the case in a forest by the process
of dominant trees overtopping and shading the weaker ones, but by
means of dominating root systems by which once a tree has gained

n A visit was made to this plantation on April 13, 1908, at which time about 20 per
cent of the trees of the more resistant variety of olives was in blossom, but at a later
visit, June 11, not a single fruit could be found to have set. On the same date two
olive trees in Dr. Wcllwood Murray's irrigated garden in Palm Springs village were
carrj'ing fair crops of fruit.
192

OLIVE BOOT SYSTEMS. 27

the ascendancy in water appropriation it will sooner or later have
three or four adjacent trees in the suppressed class. This suppression
of the weak trees by the stronger rooted dominant ones begins as soon
as the roots meet in the intermediate territory, which has happened
in many instances in this grove and seems to account for the death of
many of these trees and the weak condition of others. This affords
conclusive proof that olive trees can not be grown successfully 2 1 feet
apart under light rainfall without ample irrigation, and, what is more
significant, that when given wide planting they are capable of extend-
ing their root systems and collecting their water supply from a very
wide area.

OLIVE ROOT SYSTEMS ADAPTED TO UTILIZE LIMITED RAINFALL.

The remarkable endurance of drought displayed by the olive trees
of which an account is given in this paper, but especially by those at
Palm Springs, Cal., must be explained (1) by unusual ability to collect
moisture from a soil supply normally deficient and (2) by an ability
to conserve that moisture and perform their physiological work on a
supply that would prove totally insufficient for ordinary trees. For
the first we must look to the roots, and as these were uncovered and
plotted it became evident that the deeply penetrating system pos-
sessed by the mesquite for bringing up water from a subterranean
source was not possessed by the olive, nor would it have availed much,
as on near-by land a well had been sunk to a depth of 80 feet, disclos-
ing only dry cobblestone and gravel. No penetrating taproots were
found, but usually each tree had a deeply-seated burl or swelling two
or three times the diameter of the trunk above ground, from which
radiated evenly in all directions a strong set of roots running off nearly
horizontally. Plate IV, figure 1, shows the trunk, burl, and main
roots of a tree which was selected for study from the most resistant
variety of the Pope plantation.

This tree was barely 6 feet in height, with a top spread of 7 feet and
a trunk diameter of 3f inches ; yet we find a root system radiating to
10 and 1 1 feet in nearly all directions and having a total length of
roots of one-eighth of an inch in diameter and upward of about 185
feet. The length of roots was at least double that of the twigs and
branches of similar diameter, while the area occupied by the roots was
nine thnes that of the spread of the branches.

The strongly gnarled burl was a foot in depth, and from this the roots
issue at depths of 2 to 10 inches. With but a few exceptions they
all break up into fine rootlets at depths of 5 to 8 inches, the greatest
number being at 6 inches. In two cases small laterals penetrate to
18 inches in depth, and there was a curious case of branches from
two separate roots going down at the same ])oint — possibly an old
burrow of some rodent affording a more mellow soil — to 3G and 42

192

28 DROUGHT EESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

inches, respectively, beyond which point they were not excavated
and were still one-eighth of an inch in diameter.

The block of the Manzanillo variety at the north end of the 20
acres showed a different behavior from that of the main body of the
grove. The wood growth averaged much ranker, but the branches
were coarser and the tops more open to the sun. Far less adapta-
bility to conditions is evident. Dead trees, trees with dead tops but
with live sprouts from below, dead branches, and sun-scalded spots
on exposed places are to be seen on every side. In this block the tree
selected for study was 8 feet high, with 8 feet spread of top and a
trunk 5 inches in diameter. A still stronger root system was found
here, there being ten roots of from three-fourths of an inch to 1^
inches in diameter springing from the burl at the following depths
below the surface: Two at 2 inches, one at 3 inches, one at 12 inches,
three at 14 inches, two at 16 inches, and one at 18 inches. It being
evidently impossible to keep track of all of these at one excavation
the surface roots were excavated by themselves. These comprised
three strong roots, issuing at 2 and 3 inches below the surface, and a
circle of short fine roots, which the writer called the shade roots from
the fact that they occupy the space immediately beneath the spread
to the top.

Figure 7 shows these superficial roots represented in solid lines,
while the deeper roots are shown by dotted lines, but it should be
noticed that a number of the shallow roots figured came up to join
this class from roots of deep origin. These shallow roots taken
together may be regarded as a very important part of the equipment
of the tree. Their rootlets reach to quite near the surface, so that
they are prepared to gather moisture from a small rainfall. The shade
roots appear to collect also the water which is arrested by the top
and runs oft' to the ground from the trunk. It must be remembered
that the medium in which these trees grow is so nearly pure sand as
scarcely to be called a soil. There is a good deal of fine material in it,
but it does not bake or pack, and cracks never occur. It is very doubt-
ful whether any method of soil culture, dust mulch, or subsurface
packing would be of value here. All that such treatment is expected
to accomplish is already insured by the nature of this soil, and,
furthermore, any cultivation would only destroy these delicate root-
lets so nicely adapted to taking advantage of the lightest rainfall.
Referring to the deeper roots in figure 8, we notice first the large area
occupied by them as compared with the spread of the top. The roots
of this tree over one-eighth of an inch in diameter have a total length,
including the upper layer, of approximately 376 feet. The area of
the root spread, as compared with the spread of the top, would be a
little more than 7 to 1.

192

OLIVE ROOT SYSTEMS.

29

9

The depth of the course followed by these large roots of 12 to 18
inches is a very marked feature. Most interesting is the deep pene-

24\ ; 12'

S.

Fig. 7.— Diagram showing the distribution of superficial roots (solid lines) and deep roots (dotted lines)
of a Manzanillo olive tree on the Pope olive plantation, near Palm Springs, Cal.

tration, almost vertically, of branches from many of these roots to
depths of 2, 3, 4, and even 5 feet, where they were left, owing to the

mm

Fig. 8.— Diagram showing the root system of a typical dry-land olive tree on the Pope olive plaiitat
near Palm Springs, Cal., showing the jjosition and distribution of the roots in the soil.

difficult nature of the digging. In most cases gi-avel and cobb
stones of considerable size were encountered at these depths, and

192

ion,

le-
as

30 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

these were all okl, hard roots it seems probable that they had gone
down to these depths during the years when the orchard was still
irrigated. The rootlets branching from these and all the deeper
lying roots were much fewer than those nearer the surface.

A point previously referred to of special interest in this study is
that of a number of deep-lying roots at points several feet from the
tree sending off branches which rise suddenly to the level of 4 to 8
inches, along which levels they make a growth of several feet, sending
off numerous branchlets and small feeding rootlets. These ascending
laterals were found to show but three or four rings of annual growth
while the main root (though it was impossible to count the rings accu-
rately) was several years older. Evidently the upper growth had been
made since irrigation ceased in an efiort to reach the more favorable
conditions for moisture and air at the upper level. In both trees
studied, as well as in many others where small excavations were made,
fine-feeding rootlets were found in considerable numbers at 2 to 24
inches in depth, Init the zone of their greatest abundance was at
4 to 10 inches. Plate IV, figure 2, shows a section of a long root
from a depth of 6 inches, with lateral branches and feeding rootlets,
from a photograph of exactly natural size.

MOISTURE ECONOMY AIDED BY THE STRUCTURE OF THE OLIVE

LEAF AND STEM.

In addition to the elaborate arrangement of olive roots for collecting
the last particle of moisture possible from a sandy desert soil, there
must still exist a remarkable economy in tissues and functions to
enable a tree to survive, not to say to make growth, under such con-
ditions.

It is to the leaves that we must look chiefly for this work. Their
narrow form, reflexcd margins, thickness, and tough leathery texture,
as well as the densely hairy, almost felted under surface, all indicate
that they are prepared to resist to the extreme the drying influence
of the desert air. The minute anatomy of the leaf and stem of the
olive has received considerable attention from botanists, but ap-
parently no attempt has hitherto been made to ascertain to what
extent difl'erent environments aft'ect modifications of structure. That
some light might be had on this most interesting point, material was
procured by the writer of this bulletin from olive groves of California
and Arizona, the samples being obtained from such widely diverse
environments as the moist, fog-laden air and ample irrigation of
Niles, near the San Francisco Bay, and the extreme of desert dryness
and heat of Palm Springs, Cal. These were placed in the hands of
Dr. Theodore Holm, whose study of them, illustrated in Plate V,
figures 1 and 2, and five text cuts, is given in the Appendix to this
bulletin.

192

DKY-LAND OLIVE CULTURE IN C'ALIFOKNIA.

31

SUCCESSFUL DRY-LAND OLIVE CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA.

In contrast with the mere endurance test of wliich the preceding
examples are very instructive ilhistrations, there is in the so-called
''inside" region of southern California, between the ocean and the
mountains, an ohve industry based on the local rainfall on lands above
canal lines or lacking a sufficient water supply. Excellent examples
of this type of ohve culture may be found in the neighborhood of
Beaumont, Riverside County; La Mirada, Orange County; Chats-
worth and San Fernando, Los Angeles County; in Santa Barbara
County; and also in the more northerly part of th(^ State near Oroville.

■^5
JO

'O

o

■

-

•■

\

1

1

1

1

-

1

1

1

-

1

1

1

1

Fig. 9. — Diagram showing the annual rainfall at Los Angeles, Cal., as presented in Table VI.

While varying considerably in their climatic conditions they all
agree in these general features: A minimum temperature never below
20° and seldom lower than 28° or 30° F. ; a maximum summer temper-
ature of 105° in cooler seasons to 114° F. in extremely hot years,
but with a monthly mean temperature not below 48° in winter and
seldom exceeding 80° ¥. in summer. From a study of Table VI,
represented graphically in figure 9, we may see that the annual
rainfall at Los Angeles has exceeded 12 inches during more than half
of the years recorded, occasionally rising to 22 or 23 inches, or even
higher, and only in rare years of drought falling as low as 7^ inches,
with the minimum of 4.83 inches during the thirty years recorded.

57054=— BuL 192—11 3

32 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.
Taijlk VI. — Annual rain/all at Los Angeles, Cal., 187S to 1907, inclusive.^

Year.

Inches.

Year.

Inches.

1878

20.86
17.41
18.65
5.53
10.74
14.14
40.29
10.53
16.72
16.02
20.82
33.26
12.69
12. 84
18.72

1893

21 96

1879

1894

7.51

1880 .

1895

12 55

1881

1896

11 80

1882

1897

14 28

1883.

1898

4 83

1884

1899. . ..

8 69

1885 .

1900

11 30

1886

1901

11 96

1887

1902

13.12

INSS

1903

14 77

1SX9

1904

11.88

1893

1905.

19 19

1891

1906

21 31

1892

1907

15.30

a For the data usel on the c-limale of California, the writer is indebted to Mr. A. 15. Wallaber, jf the
Climate and Crop Service of the United Stites Weather Riireau at Lo.s .Vnjieles. Cal.

Table V'II. — Mean relative humidity at Los Angeles, Cal."

Month.

January.
February
March . . .
April...

May

Julie

July

5 a.

m.

5 p. m.

67

64

73

C3

80

65

82

13

87

(5

87

61

90

C2

Month.

August

September
October. . .
November.
December.

Year

5 a. m.

o p. m.

82
78
64
61

78

63
63
68
65
64

64

a For the data used on the climate of California, the writer is indebted to Mr. A. B. Wallaber, of the
Climate and Crop Service of the United States Weather Bureau at Los .Vngeles, Cal.

The rainfall of this region is enhanced by frequent coast fogs. The
mean relative humidity from month to month is an important factor
in all such cultural problems, but this is obtainable only for Los
Angeles, with which point we may fairly compare Los Angeles County
and Orange County. This, it will be seen from Table VII, ranges
from 61 to 90 per cent for the 5 a. m. observation, and from 61 to 68
per cent for the 5 j). m. observation. This condition of atmospheric
moisture would give orchards in these locahties a great advantage,
for instance, over the one studied at Palm Springs in the edge of the
Colorado Desert, except that the trees suffer more from the attacks
of parasites in the more humid climate.

One of the most extensive examples of olive culture without irriga-
tion in this region is to be found on a large ranch in the southern part
of Los Angeles County, near La Mirada, Cal. Here are 500 acres in
olives, the oldest set sixteen years ago and others as recently as seven
or eight years ago. The planting distance was only 20 feet, giving
108 trees to the acre. The olives occupy rolling hillside land for the
most part, difficult of irrigation even if a water supply were at hand.
The soil is as a rule a rather strong adobe, with some admixture of
sand in i)arts of it. The nature of the hills nearest would indicate an
abundance of lime in this soil, wdiich is so important for olive produc-
tion. Some degree of cultivation is given between the rows, but with

10-2

DKY-LAND OLIVE CULTURE IN CALIFOENIA. 33

the older trees the spread of the branches prevents reacliing all of the
surface.

The original plan was to remove half of the trees as they began to
crowd by cutting out every other row on the diagonal. The effect of
this is to leave one-half, or 54 trees to the acre, in rows 20 feet apart,
and trees 40 feet apart in the row alternating. This has been done
with some blocks of the older trees and is a very evident gam. Wliere
the original stand of the older trees still remains there is evidence of
crowding and lack of thrift in many cases, and the writer is convinced
that a stand of only 27 trees to the acre, or 40 by 40 feet, would be
still better as the trees advance in age. The great vigor and pro-
ductiveness of the trees along the draws and low places where any
surplus of rain would flow give evidence that water famine had been
felt by the small trees.

A notable feature of this orchard was the prevalence of the common
black scale, a parasite found on olive trees all along the range of the
ocean fogs unless vigorously combated, and not found to a harmful
extent in the interior valleys of California or Arizona. How seriously
this scale interferes with the functions of the tree is a matter upon
which olive growers differ widely, but there is no difference of opinion
as to the scale preventing the production of an olive of good pickling
qualities.

Of the varieties planted, the Mission is the most prominent and
satisfactory, though considerable blocks of the Nevadillo, the Pendu-
lina, and the Columbella are also grown.

Plate VI, figure 1, shows a general view across a small valley in
this orchard, and figure 2 a view among the rows of older trees thinned
by removing alternate diagonal rows.

In comparison with this orchard stands the case of a ranch 2 or 3
miles away, the soil and location being practically the same. Here
400 or more acres of olives, probably differing little at the start, have
for several years been in absolute neglect. Many of the trees v>-ere
never properly headed up, being mere stools of several shoots from
the ground. No evidence of cultivation could be seen, but grass,
weeds, and small shrubs robbed the trees of the needed moisture.
This, with the close planting, had reduced the problem to one of
existence instead of profitable production. There was some fruit,
and occasional trees enjoying some little advantage in space and
moisture were bearing fair crops. These only helped to j)rove the
fallacy of the idea that the olive is a tree that may be planted ujion
dry and barren soil, given absolute neglect, and yet produce profitable
crops of fruit. Here in these contrasted orchards, with soil, rainfall,
and temperature similar, the difference between pruning and culture
on one hand and neglect on the other made the difference between
a profitable industry with a fine product and a poor and scant crop
not worth going over the ground to gather.

192

34 DROUGHT KESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTEKN STATES.

AREA OF POSSIBLE DRY-LAND OLIVE CULTURE IN THE UNITED

STATES.

AREA LIMITED BY THE MINIMUM TEMPERATURE.

Of the factors defining the area of ohve culture in the United wStates,
that of minimum temperature is the most important.

It has been claimed by some authors ® and by many olive growers
that an actual minimum temperature of 14° or 15° F. will prove fatal
to the olive tree. It is undoubtedly true, however, that the olive
will endure considerably more cold than this if it is in a thoroughly
dormant condition. This is especially true where the atmosphere
is dry and where the low temperature persists for only a short time,
possibly a few minutes at near daylight, as is so often the case in the
southwestern sections.

As an illustration of these ideas, in 1899,'' from February 11 to 13,
a cold wave of unusual intensity swept over a great portion of the
Southwest, temperatures of -6° to —23° F. being recorded in north-
ern Texas, and as low as 8° F. in the southwest border.

At San Antonio two stations gave minimum records of 4° F. At
Fort Mcintosh, on the Rio Grande near Laredo, a minimum tem-
perature of 5° F., probably for only a brief period, was recorded
on the morning of February 12, and at Fort Ringgold, 90 miles dowQ
the river, a temperature of 7° F. was recorded on the morning of
February 13.

An olive grove of an acre or more about 2 miles from Fort Mcin-
tosh suffered some killing back, though the trees were not seriously
injured and may be seen to-day looking as vigorous as any in the
olive-^rowdno; districts of California or Arizona.

At the dry-land experiment station of the Bureau of Plant Industry,
near San Antonio, Tex., young olive trees of the Chemlali variety
endured a minimum temperature during the winter of 1907-8 of 18°
F., with but a slight killing back at the tips. Yet in 1909 these olive

a A temperature of 5° C. below zero (or 23° F.), followed by a sudden thaw operated
by the sun's rays, is sufficient to kill it totally at the base. With a lower temperature
not followed by sunny days the plant does not suffer as much, as it can stand a cold
of 10° C. below zero (or 14° F.). — Olive Culture, Italy, Annual Report of the State Board
of Horticulture, California, 1890, p. 449.

"A low temperature, say 14° F., is fatal to the tree."— 5. M. Lelong, Investigation
Made by the State Board of Horticulture of California Olive Industry, Sacramento, 1900,
p. 8.

"The olive can grow in all regions where the minimum temperature does not fall
below —7° or —8° C. and does not last more than eight days." — Translation from
Hidalgo Tahlada.

b Annual Summary, 1899, Texas Section, Climate, and Crop Service, Weather
Bureau, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,
192

AREA OF POSSIBLE DRY-LAND OLIVE CULTURE. 35

trees and trees of several varieties i)laiite(l in 1908 were with one
exception killed to the ground under conditions where the minimum
temperature reached was only 18° F. After mild weather during
the latter part of December and the early part of January, with
maximum temperatures of 76° and 77° on January 9 and 10 and 63°
F. on the following day, a "norther" brought the temperature to
20*^ at 3 p. m. on January 11, with a minimum of 18° F. at night.
On January 12 the minimum was 18° with a maximum of only 22°,
and there was a minimum of 22° on the morning of January 13, the
temperature thus being maintained about forty hours at from 10° to
14° below freezing. These trees were in a plat which in accordance
with the general cultural policy of the farm had been kept under
fine surface tillage, enabling the soil to store abundant moisture from
the season's rains. This arrangement prevented the olive trees from
entering the dormant condition necessary to their resisting the low
temperatures, and the freezing sap burst the bark of most of them
and killed all to the crown, from which they sprouted again freely.

At Boerne, 30 miles northwest of San Antonio and 700 feet higher
in altitude, the temperatures registered were 1° lower each day of this
cold spell than those at the San Antonio farm, yet the olive trees
there sustained much less injury.

A region may have monthly mean temperatures and an annual
mean sufficient to place it high in the scale when compared with well-
known olive regions, yet where high winter means include sudden
drops and low minima the trees will suffer all the more severely. As
an example, the monthly mean temperatures at San Antonio are
higher throughout the year than those of Fresno, Cal., or of Catania,
in Italy, and excepting only the autumn months, liigher than those
of Sfax, in Tunis, three representative olive-producing regions.
Yet the liabihty to the sudden advance of cold waves may upon
experimentation be found to exclude this portion of Texas entirely
from the olive-growing belt.

It seems probable also that there is a considerable difference in
olive varieties in resistance to cold, and an inviting. field for experi-
mentation is here offered.

The high altitudes of the greater portion of New Mexico will
doubtless exclude the olive on account of too severe cold. However,
it seems probable that favored mesa sites may be found in the south-
western portion of the Territory, particularly in Grant and Dona
Ana counties, where the olive may be grown.

French authorities "^ give the maximum range in altitude for the
olive as from 500 meters (1,600 feet) in France and northern Italy to

a Investigation Made by the State Board of Horticulture of the California Olive
Industry, Report to Governor Gage, 1900, p. 8.

192

36 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

700 meters (2,300 feet) in Sicily, it being even affirmed that it ascends
as high as 800 meters (2,600 feet) on that island.

Simmonds, in his "Tropical Agriculture," states that the olive
grows at Quito, under the equator, at a height of 8,000 feet above sea

level."

According to the reports of the Cahfornia State Board of Horti-
culture'' the olive does well at an altitude of 3,000 feet at 37 degrees
latitude in the Sierra Nevadas. In the southern part of Arizona it
is probable that it may thrive at still higher altitudes, possibly at
5,000 feet. Nor could a safety hne of altitude alone be defined, for
some higher spots favorably situated will be found to be more reliable
than lower locations adjacent.

In California the ohve grows well around San Diego, and from
there along the coast northward to the upper end of the State and
up into small valleys of the Coast Range. Farther inland the suc-
cess would be limited by altitude, but it can be depended upon
throughout upland portions of the greater area of the interior val-
leys and to altitudes of about 3,000 feet in the foothills. In Arizona
areas of olive territory may be looked for as far north as the Gila
River in Pinal County and farther west to the north hne of Maricopa
County, with probably the western limit at about the meridian of
Gila Bend, on account of reduced rainfall. (See Table VIII.)

Table YIIl .—Localities in Arizona where dry-land olive culture may be possible, ivith

meteorological record, c

station

Length
of record.

Altitude.

Mean an-
nual tem-
perature.

Mini-
mum for
1908.

Date of killing frost,
1908.

Precipi-
tation,

Spring.

Fall.

1908.

Congress

Years.

12

10

7

12

9

6

19

14

18

28

25

16

10

Feet.
3,668
1,900
3,362
4,743
2,300
3,525
2,456
1,108
2,360
2,390
3,523
4,500
4,550

" F.

67.2
68.2
61.2
60.8
63.9
62.9

° F.
29
29
22
22
23
24
23
30
24
22
21
10
25

Feb. 4
Feb. 16
June 4
Apr. 17
Apr. 9
Mar. 28
Apr. 4
Mar. 8
Mar. 23
...do....
..do

Nov. 9
Nov. 25
Oct. 18
Sept. 29
Oct. 24
Oct. 19
Oct. 21
Dec. 21
Oct. 22
Oct. 19
...do....

Inches.
13.15

Columbia

15.40

Kingman

11.77

Jerome

18.32

Cline

15.94

Globe

16.51

San Carlos

12. 78

Phoenix

Dudley ville

Tucson

69.5
65.0
67.5
66.1
62.0
62.1

d7.88

14.00

10.69

9.03

Oracle «

Tombstone

Mar. 29
Feb. 28

Dec. 4
Nov. 18

25.90
14.00

a " In the neighborhood of Quito, situated under the equator, at a height of 8,000 feet above the level
of the sea, where the temperature varies even less than in the island climates of the temperate zone, the
olive attains the magnitude of the oak, yet never produces fruit."— P. L. Simmonds, Tropical Agricul-

tUT€ 7). 39-i •

b Investigation Made by the State Board of Horticulture of the California Olive Industry, Report to
Governor Gage, 1900, p. 8.
c Annual Summary, 1908, Arizona Section of the Climatological Service of the Weather Bureau.
d Mean annual, Weather liureau, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
e Climatology of the United States, Bulletin ",Q," Weather Bureau, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

192

AREA OF POSSIBLE DRY-LAND OLIVE CULTURE. 37

AREA LIMITED BY HEAT REQUIREMENTS.

While the Pope ohve grove has been studied as a case of survival
without fruiting in spite of extreme adverse conditions, yet in the
garden of Dr. Wellwood Murray at Palm Springs Hotel, with an
ample shelter belt of trees around the border, two trees. of the Pendu-
lina variety have made a good growth and ripen fair crops of fruit
with only scant irrigation, though there is scarcely a summer when
a temperature of 120° to 122° F. is not recorded.

As to the maximum temperature which the olive will withstand, it
is hard to find a locality in the United States where a fair degree of
success may not be met with.

Contrary to the often-expressed opinion that it is only successfully
grown in regions adjacent to the seacoast " the olive thrives and
produces abundantly in such hot interior locahties as Biskra, Algeria;
Fresno, Cal.; and Phoenix, Ariz.

At Phoenix, Ariz., maximum summer temperatures of 112° to 116°
F. are matters of record, with a July mean of 90° F. The mean
temperatures for the months of June, July, August, and September
are 6 to 9 degrees higher than those of Catania, the warmest olive-
growing station of Italy,* and compare quite closely throughout the
year with the mean of Biskra, Algeria. (See fig. 10.)

There is near Phoenix a small but flourishing olive industry under
irrigation, the trees making a rapid, healthy growth and bearing good
crops of olives, yielding oil of an excellent quality. This affords
proof of the high temperature which the olive will sustain when that
factor alone is taken into account.

There is an area through the more wind-exposed portions of the
Colorado Desert where it is possible that the hot, dry winds of the
early spring prevent, as a rule, the setting of the fruit, though the few
trees to be found there make a fair growth with a minimum of
irrigation.

For the development of the olive fruit a rather constant number of
heat units above the dormant or zero point of the olive tree is needed
during the active or growing season. For convenience in transcrib-
ing the data from weather records, however, these heat units are here
assumed in degrees above zero, Fahrenheit. Thus, as the mean tem-
perature of Phoenix, Ariz., has been determined after a number of
years of recorded observations to be 52° F. for the month of January,
multiplying 52 by 31, the number of days, gives 1,612, representing
the number of heat units for that month. Computing each month
in the same manner, their sum amounts to 25,607, the number of
heat units for the year.

tt Caruso, G. Dell' Olivo, Turin, 1883, p. 34.
192

DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

Tabic IX shows the mean nioiilhly and mean annual temperatures,
with the sums of heat units for twelve localities of the olive-growing
regions of Europe, Africa, and the United States, selected to show a
range of temperatures from that at Bologna, Italy, with an annual
mean of 57.16° F. and 20,895 heat units, which is slightly too cool, to
that of Palm Springs, Cal., where there is probably about the extreme
of heat which the olive will endure, it having an annual mean of
72.1° F. and a summation of 26,349 heat units.

Table IX. — Mean temperatures and summation oj temperatures, by months, at points
in Algeria, Tunis, Sicibj, Italy, Arizona, and California.

Month.

January

February

March..!

April

May

June

July

August

September. .

October

November. .
December. . .

Year..

Palm
Springs, Cal.

03

°F.
56.20
57. i:0
63.96
68.02
74.19
85.06
91.55
88. 23
83.73
76. 48
63.93
55.88

72.10

c
2

03
g

3
m

°F.
1,742
1,010
1,983
2,059
2,300
2,552
2,838
2,735
2,512
2,371
1,918
1,729

26, 349

Biskra.
Algeria."

a

C3

"F.
50.5
53.0
60.5
68.0
75.0
82.0
93.2
90.0
87.5
75.0
61.0
53.0

70.7

02

°F.
1,565.5
1,584.0
1,875.5
2,040.0
2,325.0
2, 460. 0
2,889.0
2,790.0
2,625.0
2,325.0
1,830.0
1,643.0

25,952.0

Phoenix,
Ariz.

°F.

52

56

60

67

75

85

90

89

83

71

61

52

"F.
1,612
1,568
1,860
2,010
2, 325
2,550
2,790
2,759
2, 490
2,201
1,830
1,612

25,607

Tucson,
.'Vriz.

°F.

50

54

59

66

74

82

88

86

81

70

59

52

08

a
o

B
E

°F.
1,550
1,512
1,829
1.980
2,294
2,460
2,728
2, 666
2,430
2,170
1,-770
1,612

25,001

Sfax,
Tunis. h

C3

°F.
51.3
54.4
59.1
03.2
68.8
72.8
78.5
79.3
78.4
72.8
61.8
54.0

66.2

c
_o

E
S

3

°F.
1,590.3
1,523.2
1,832.1
1,896.0
2,132.8
2,184.0
2,433.5
2,458.3
2,352.0
2, 256. 0
1,854.0
1,674.0

24, 186. 2

Catania,
Sicily. c

c
o

c3

°F.

50

52

56

60

68

76

81

82

77

68

60

54

66

°F.

1,550

1,456

1,736

1,800

2,108

2,280

2,511

2.542

2,310

2,108

1,800

1.074

23.875

Month.

January

Fresno,
Cal.

Los Angeles,
Cal.d

"F.
45

I'"ebruarv : 51

March.

April

May

June

July

August

September.

October

November.
December..

Year .

c
2

E
E

c

cS

"f

'F.
1,359
1,428
1,674
1,800
2,077
2,250
2,542
2,511
2,220
1,984
1,650
1,426

63 22,921

°F.

54.2

55 .'5

56

59

62

66

68

71

69

64

60

56.5

62.3

3
M

"F.
1,070.
1,554.
1,703.
1,782.
1,937.
2,001.
2,135.
2,213.
2,085.
2,005.
1,812.
1,751.

22, 712. 1

San Diego,
Cal.

°F.

54

55

56

00

02

65

OS

70

66

64

59

56

61

c

a
E
E

3

"F.
1,074
1,540
1, '36
1,800
1,922
1,950
2, i08
2,170
1,980
1,984
1,770
1,736

22,370

Pisa, Italy. f^

a

C3

°F.

44
49
52
00
05
71

62
52
50

60.75

a
o
'^

C3

E
g

3

o jp

1,364

1,.372
1,012
1,800
2,015
2, 1,30
2, 387
2,325
2,100
1,^82
1,.500
1,550

22,257

San Jose,
Cal.

Bologna,
Italv.c

°F.

48"

51

54

50

60

66

07

67

65

60

54

50

a

03

E
E

3
W

o jp

1,488
1.508
1,674
1,680
1,860
1,980
2,077
2,077
1,950
1,860
1,020
1,550

58 21,384

°F.

36
42
48
58
65
72
78
74
69
58
46
40

57.16

■d

03

E
S

3
02

o jp

1,110
1,176
1,488
1,740
2.015
2,160
2,418
2,294
2,070
1,798
1,380
1,240

20,895

a From Bulletin 53, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 64.

bFrom Bulletin 125, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 14.

cFrom "The Olive, Its Culture in Theory and Practice," by A. T. Marvin, San Francisco, 1888.

d Computed from data furnished by Mr. A, B. Wallaber, United States Weather Bureau, Los .\ngeles,
Cal.

eMean temperatures from "Climatology of the United States," Bulletin "Q", Weather Bureau, U. S.
Dept. of .Vgriculture.

192

Akea of possible dey-land olive culture. 30

Caruso" states that the olive sap begins to stir at a temperature
of 10.50° to 11° C. (which is equivalent to 51° to 52° F.) and flowers
at 18° to 19° C. (equivalent to 64.4° to 66.2° F.). Accor(hng to this
author, we must regard the zero point of the olive as about 51° to 52°
F., but the temperature figures in Table IX indicate that for such
localities as Palm Springs and Los Angeles in California and Phoenix
and Tucson in Arizona the zero point must be somewhat higher,
probably 55° to 56° F.

To ripen the fruit within a period of safety from autumn frosts,
there must be a sum of about 16,400 heat units within six or seven
months from the starting of vegetation. Allowing seven months
this would be equivalent to about 16,400 units from, say, the middle
of March. In order to correlate this seasonal estimate with the
summation of average annual heat units, as shown in Table IX,
we will add to the above sum the number of heat units from January
1 to March 15 for Pisa, Italy, a typical olive locality, and we have a
summation of 20,070 units, which would throw the olive ripening at
Pisa to about November 20.

Hidalgo Tablada '' gives the temperature for the flowering of the
olive at 19° C. (66.2° F.) and states that at Seville this is reached about
]\Iay 1. From that statement, the accumulation of 3,978 units C.
(12,376 F., allowing one hundred and sixty-three days) is sufficient to
mature the fruit, which will be accomplished early in October, after a
growing season of 27.3° C. (81.14° F.) mean temperature. These
dates of seasonal activity of the olive can be regarded only as
approximations, there being variations due to localities as well as to
varieties of fruit.

Data regarding the olive in relation to climate in the United
States are rather meager, but wduit we have coincide in a very inter-
esting way with the European observations.

Figure 10 is a graphical showing of the data of Table IX, summing
up the heat units in columns for each locality, the monthl}^ sumrna-
tions being carried between the heavy black lines across the chart.
The heavy dotted horizontal lines show approximately the seasonal
activity of the olive as it relates to these summations.

The phenological records for the olive at Phoenix, Ariz.,'^ for the
year 1907-8 show the average date of full bloom of the olive to be

a Caruso, G. Dell' Olivo, Turin, 1883, p. 34.

& Hidalgo Tablada, Jose de. Tratado del Cultivo del Olivo en Espana y Modo de
Mejorarlo, Madrid, 1899, p. 74.

cSee the phenological records for Phoenix, Ariz., for December, 1907 and 1908,
in the Arizona section of the Climatological Service of the Weather Bureau, U.S. Dept.
of Agriculture.
192

to

40 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

about May 1, at mean temperatures of 66° to 71° F., shown by line
(7, figure ]0.

The ohve harvest is noted as beginning from October 8 to 10 and
as completed during the latter part of December. The growing
period from flower to earliest ripe fruit averages one hundred and
sixty-three days at a mean temperature of 81.6° F., giving a sum-
mation of 13,314 units, which corresponds very closely with the fig-
ures of Caruso and Tablada. Adding the means, 7,050 units from
January 1 to May 1, we have a total of 20,364 units.

For the full maturing of the crop of medium varieties, 24,000 to
25,000 units will be needed at this station, while late-maturing sorts
will not ripen till well into the winter. Ileferring to the diagram
(fig. 10) the line I) indicates 20,364 units, which occur early in October

sefloo

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Fig. 10.— Diagram showing the monthly means and summation of heat units of places in the olive-growing
regions, illustrating the seasonal activity and heat requirements of the olive, arranged from Table IX.

for Phoenix, late in November for Los Angeles and Fresno, and barely
within the year at Bologna, Italy. Caruso states that the latter place
is too cool for the olive, on account of the frosts of December and Jan-
uary, but that the fruit matures in sunny localities on the hillsides not
far from the town. In localities having low summer means but with
little or no frost in the winter months, such as San Jose and Santa
Barbara, Cal., where the re([uisite number of heat units for the first
ripening of the fruits will barely be accumulated b}^ the end of
December, the olives may remain on the trees throughout the suc-
ceeding winter months. Where the summation of about 21,000 de-
grees can not be reached before such low autumn temperatures prevail
as will injure the fruit, olive growing should not be undertaken.

192

AREA OF POSSIBLE DRY-LAND OLIVE CULTURE. 41

AREA LIMITED BY RAINFALL.

Taking up the consideration of rainfall, the industry must be con-
sidered from a different standpoint from that in which olive growing
has been viewed in this country in the past. The usual planting dis-
tance has been from 20 to 24 feet. With abundant water the trees
might prosper and produce remunerative crops with this area to draw
from. Wlien dependent upon local rainfall they have shown signs
of failure.

In the valuable pamphlet on olive culture entitled "Investigation
Made by the State Board of Horticulture of the California Olive
Industry, Report to Governor Gage," 1900, page 29, is found a very
significant discussion of the water problem by the Hon. Frank A.
Kimball, the substance of which is as follows: Olive trees set at the
ordinary orchard distance in this region, usually about 116 trees to
the acre, gave during their earlier years very excellent results with-
out irrigation. The growth was vigorous and the fruit large and
fine.

Mr. Kimball gives a graphic account of their condition a few years
later, as follows:

The trees on becoming large required the necessary moisture to develop their growth,
which had now assumed immense proportions. The soil could not furnish the require-
ments of the trees, and in the summer they lost the larger portion of their leaves. They
remained in this semidormant condition until the rainy season set in or moisture
from the soil began to rise. Most of the fruit dropped, and what did not fall did not
attain a size suitable for picking. This condition of affairs continued until the growers
resolved to apply water. After a season or more of demonstration they found irri-
gation to be one of the essential means through which a crop of fruit can be assured.

The reason why we do not get olives is, the trees are starved, if want of water can
be called starvation. For lack of water the soil can not furnish the material from which
the olive is made.

The idea that the olive trees need a certain minimum volume of
water for the performance of their physiological work is a fundamental
one, but it does not seem to have occurred to these growers that by
reducing the number of trees to the acre, thereby giving to each tree
a sufficient area to afford the needed moisture, the same results
might be secured as by irrigation. The olive has shown its ability to
send out a root system that will secure the needed moisture from the
larger area of soil and maintain a high productiveness. This has
been shown by Mr. T. H. Kearney's study of the dry-land culture of
the olive in Tunis, now accessible in Bulletin 125 of the Bureaii of
Plant Industry. From this publication we learn that a great olive-oil
industry is carried on in Africa on lands receiving normally only
from 9.3 to 15 inches of rainfall annually, while several good cro})s
were produced during a period of seven years when the rainfall
averaged only 6 inches, according to the French records.

192

42 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

The secret of this Hes in wide planting, not nioi-c than 11 trees to
the acre, and in clean cultivation, keeping the soil in a condition
to receive every drop of rainfall and to conserve it to the utmost, the
varieties used, chiefly Chemlali, being especially adapted to such
conditions and affording a high percentage of oil.

The examples presented in this paper are those of the endurance
of extremes of drought and neglect by varieties of the olive com-
monly grown in the south of Europe under conditions of sufficient,
if not abundant, moisture. Their growth as trees in these arid
situations in Arizona and California, interesting and suggestive as
it is, would not warrant their maintenance as a commercial oil-
producing enterprise. But the Chemlali and other varieties of the
olive are profitably grown for oil production in the north of Africa
without irrigation, and under conditions of soil and climate fairly
comparable with those endured by the Arizona groves herein described.
Whether the Chemlali variety will make the profitable growth in
Arizona, California, and other sections of the Southwest that it has
in Tunis can only be determined by careful experimentation.

The possibility that large areas of land within the proper tempera-
ture limits and having an ideal soil for the olive, yet without the
rainfall or irrigation water necessary for ordinary crops, may be
utilized for an olive-oil industry makes it worth while to institute
experiments of sufficient extent to thoroughly test the matter. Plant-
ings of more than an experimental character are not warranted by
the present extent of our information, and the production of pickling
olives is not contemplated.

In each of the instances cited where olive trees have remained
alive and growing in spite of the failure of water it is necessary to
remember that the plantation was established under irrigation.
Likewise, in Tunis the truncheons by which the orchards are propa-
gated are carefully watered by a supply carried from wells until
sufficiently rooted to maintain themselves, three waterings usually
being sufficient during the first summer. In making selections of
tracts for olive culture over the drier areas indicated in Texas,
Arizona, and California it inust be a further condition, of success that
a small supply of water from some source can be assured to establish
the young trees, after which a local rainfall of 7 to 12 or 15 inches
annually may be expected to support the plantation and enable
it to produce fair yields of fruit — perhaps enough to render dry-land
olive culture profitable on a commercial scale.

SUMMARY.

In several localities in southern California and Arizona olive groves
have been planted along with apricots, figs, grapes, and some other
fruits. The irrigation projects under which these plantings were

102

SUMMARY. 43

made subsequently failed, leaving the fruit trees without any water
other than the rainfall.

The local rainfall of 3^ to 8 or 10 inches annually has proved
insufficient to maintain life in any of these plants except the olive,
which has been found in many instances green and flourishing after
six or eight 3'ears of abandonment and lack of irrigation.

Under these conditions the olive has shown the characteristics of a
desert plant, competing with the mesquite, cat's-claw, and grease-
wood in their own territory. The plantations which have been
studied are the Bogart-Degolia grove near Casa Grande, Ariz., a grove
near Florence, Ariz., and "Las Palmas" trees in the olive belt north-
east of Phoenix, localities having a mean annual rainfall of 7 to 9
inches; and in California, the Pope olive grove near Palm Springs,
in the upper end of the Colorado Desert, where, with an annual
average rainfall of only 3^ inches, 20 acres of olives have survived six
years without irrigation and are still growing.

The soils of the localities are sandy and gravelly clays derived
from the disintegration of the soft granitic rocks of the adjacent
mountains. They are low in organic matter, but fairly rich in avail-
able phosphoric acid and potash. The soil at Palm Springs is a
nearly pure granitic sand and gravel, very low in silt, clay, and
humus, but showing by analysis percentages of potash and phos-
phoric acid equal to the better agricultural soils of the Mississippi
Valley.

A study of the olive trees growing under these conditions has
shown that unlike the mesquite and some other desert trees they do
not survive by sending roots down to subterranean supplies of mois-
ture, but develop instead a very elaborate system of roots occupying
the soil at from 2 or 3 to 18 inches in depth and adapted to gathering
moisture from the lightest rainfall.

The remarkable drought resistance of the olive is made possible
(1) by the power these trees possess of extending their roots so as to
gather moisture from a large area; (2) by their habit of growth in
forming low spreading tops which protect the trunk and main branches
from the burning heat of the sun; and (3) by the character of their
leaves, which are constructed in a manner calculated to check evap-
oration and conserve the moisture obtained by the roots.

The plantations studied were made according to irrigation stand-
ards and contained originally from 75 to 114 trees to the acre. These
plantings have proved too thick for successful growth without
irrigation.

The varieties usetl in these orchards are the ones commonly grown
under conditions of sufficient rainfall in France and Italy or with an
abundance of irrigation in California.

192

44 DEOUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTEEN STATES.

The publication in 1908 of Bulletin 125 of the Bureau of Plant
Industry, entitled "Dry-Land Olive Culture in Northern Africa,"
by Mr. Thomas H. Kearney, has brought to our attention the existence
of a great oil-olive industry many centuries old, in the north of
Africa, dependent on an average annual rainfall of 9.3 inches. The
principal varieties grown are probably of local origin, adapted to
these conditions through years of selection.

Very wide planting allows a great spread of roots for moisture
gathering, while a system of clean cultivation and dust-mulch form-
ing in vogue in that country before it was occupied by Europeans
conserves to the utmost the meager rainfall.

The most drought resistant of these varieties, the Chemlali, has
been imported by the Bureau of Plant Industry, and is being tested
at a number of localities in the Southwestern States.

In view of the remarkable drought resistance shown by European
olive varieties accustomed to abundant moisture, as shown in this
bulletin, it is believed that with the planting of this desert-bred
variety from Africa and the adaptation to our conditions of the
Tunisian methods of planting and culture, large areas of land in
the Southwestern States possessing a suitable soil and climate but
now undeveloped from lack of irrigation water are adapted to pro-
duce olive oil.

Trial plantations are now being made at various points in this
region to determine whether such dry-land olive culture will prove
profitable on a commercial scale under American conditions.

192

APPENDIX.

192

45

ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE OLIVE

(OLEA EUROPEA)."

By Dr. Theo. Holm.

Fig. 11.— Transverse section of a young
lateral root of the third order of an olive
tree from Palm Springs, Cal., showing
a hairy epidermis(Ep.) and cortex(C.).

ROOT STRUCTURE OF THE OLIVE.

Characteristic of the root structure of the genus Olea is the presence
of stereome on the inner face of the pericambium and the prevalence
of cambial cell divisions on the inner face
of the leptome. Otherwise, the arrange-
ment and development of the various tis-
sues is not different from that of many
other dicotyledons.

The structure is as follows: In the
young lateral roots of the third order (figs.
11 and 12) the epidermis (Ep.) is very
hairy and covers an exodermis (Ex.) of
thin-walled cells in a single layer; this
exodermis is not contractile. The cortex
(C.) is compact and thin walled; it con-
sists of eight layers, more or less filled
with starch; a thin-walled endodermis (End.) is plainly visible, bor-
dering on the pericambium (P.) which shows isolated strands of
St. stereome (St.) outside the leptome. The

stele is tetrarch, there being four strands of
leptome (L.) alternating with four rays of
hadrome (H.), which extend to the center
of the stele. Increase in thickness begins
even in these thin roots, since cambial
(Camb.) divisions are noticeable on the inner
face of the leptome, although the increase
does not extend beyond the formation of
these few layers.

In lateral roots of the first or second order, on the other hand, the
increase in thickness attains mucli larger dimensions, due to the

a This description of the anatomy of olive roots, leaves, and stems, with ten illus-
trations, was prepared at the writer's request by Dr. Theo. Holm, of Brookland,
D. C, from material collected from several California groves.

57054°— Bui. 192 11 4 47

Fig. 12.— Inner i)ortion of the same
transverse section of the olive root
shown in figure 11, (X210.)

48

ANATOMICAL STEUCTUEE OF THE OLIVE.

activity of the pericambium in developing phellogen (Ph.) and cork
(Co.) (fig. 13), besides a secondary cortex (C*) (fig. 14), to say
notliing of the continued cambial cell divisions on the inner face of
the leptome, as observed already in the much thinner lateral roots.

The result of these various in-
creases (fig. 14) is the develop-
ment of a broad zone of cork, the
development of a secondary cor-
tex (C*), the development of a
closed sheath of pericambial
stereome (St.), and finally from
the cambial strata the develop-
ment of secondary leptome and
hadrome (L. and H.) with rays
of parenchyma (P.).

The diagram (fig. 15) shows
the arrangement of all these tissues except the epidermis and the
exodermis, which have, of course, been thrown off before this stage is
reached. The center of the root possesses remnants of the primitive
root stele, from which rays of parenchyma extend toward the sec-

FiG. 13.— Transverse section of a lateral root of the first
or second order of an olive tree, showing the develop-
ment of phellogen (Ph.) and cork (Co.). (X 120.)

Camb^

Fig. 14.— The same transverse section shown
in figure 13 of the root of an olive tree,
showing the development of a SM-ondary
cortex (C*) and parenchyma ( F . ) rays from
the cambial (Camb.) strata, (x 120.)

Fig. 15.— Diagram of the root of an olive tree, showing
the general arrangement of tissues described in figures
11 to 14, inclusive. (X 22.\.)

ondary cortex (C*). The I'oot of the genus Olea shows the arrange-
ment of the several tissues in a remarkably regular way, and the
presence of pericambial stereome is interesting.

192

LEAF AND STEM STRUCTURE OF THE OLIVE. 49

LEAF AND STEM STRUCTURE OF THE OLIVE.

The structure of the olive leaf is that of a xerophyte; in other
words, it shows in a high degree pecuharities of structure that char-
acterize most woody plants that grow in situations where both air
and soil normally contain a relatively small amount of moisture.
On the upper surface of the leaf the cuticle and outer walls of the
epidermis cells are greatly thickened, stomata are absent, and shield-
shaped hairs are scattered over the surface. On the lower face the
outer walls of the epidermis cells are very thick (though less so than
on the upper surface), the stomata are placed at the bottom of nar-
row pits, and shield-shaped hairs form a dense continuous covering.
The interior, chlorophyll-bearing tissue (chlorenchyma) consists of
three or four very compact layers of palisade cells (i. e., narrow cells,
elongated at right angles to the epidermis) beneath the upper epi-
dermis, and between the palisades and the lower epidermis many
layers of so-called pneumatic tissue, the cells of which are very irreg-
ular in shape, not much longer than wide, and inclose numerous air
spaces. Prosenchymatic cells with very thick walls (the stereome),
either singly or in groups, are scattered through the mesophyll and
occur here and there directly beneath the epidermis, as well as in
several continuous layers adjoining the midrib. Between the mid-
rib and the sheath of stereome there is no chlorenchyma, but extend-
ing to the epidermis on both sides are several layers of collenchyma,
of which the cells contain no chlorophyll and have their walls greatly
thickened, especially at the angles.

Of the foregoing characters, those which may be pointed out as
especially xerophytic are: Thickness of the cuticle and outer cell
walls of the epidermis, absence of stomata on the upper surface and
their situation in pits on the lower face, and the dense covering of
flat, shield-shaped hairs on the lower face. These characters are
supposed to be especially useful to plants that inhabit dry climates
or that grow in soils from which their roots obtain moisture with
difficulty, by protecting the leaves from excessive loss of water
through transpiration. The development of the chlorenchyma be-
neath the upper face of the leaf into several layers of compact pali-
sade tissue is also characteristic of many xerophytes.

In leaves of the olive developed in the shade or in a moist atmos-
phere, the cell walls of the epidermis are much thinner, the stomata are
level with the surface instead of being situated in pits, and the midrib
is embedded in chlorenchyma, with a much smaller development of
collenchyma.

Leaves and young twigs of olive trees were collected in abandoned
orchards at Phoenix, Ariz., and at Palm Springs, Cal. In the former
case the tree had been without irrigation for six years and in the latter
193

50

ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE OLIVE.

Fig. 16.— Ofle of the peltate hairs
from the surface of an olive leaf.
(X 150.)

case seven years. Since in both cases the ground water was out of
reach of the roots and since the average yearly rainfall in Phoenix is
but 8.11 inches and at Palm Springs only 3.5 inches, it is evident that
these leaves were produced under extremely arid conditions. In fact,
the conditions at Palm Springs probably represent the extreme of
drought that the olive tree can endure. In both cases the varieties
were not identified. For purposes of comparison, similar material of
the Mission olive, the variety most widely grown in California, was

obtained at Niles, Cal., where the trees are
irrigated at least once during the season
and where the average yearly rainfall is
14.8 inches, with a low evaporation due to
the cool summer climate. The leaf and
stem structure of the last, which may be
regarded as typical of Olea europea in the
western United States, is as follows:

On the upjjer (ventral) face the cuticle
is smooth and thick; the lateral walls of
the epidermis cells, viewed superficially,
are straight and very much thickened; stomata are wanting and
peltate hairs (fig. 16) are scattered over the surface. On the lower
(dorsal) face the cuticle is similar; the radial walls of the epidermis
cells are almost straight, but not so much thickened as on the upper
face; the numerous stomata (fig. 17) are sunken, with narrow and
not very deep air chambers, and are surrounded by a variable
number of undifferentiated epidermis cells; peltate hairs (fig. 16) are
abundant, forming a continuous covering over the blade. The outer
walls of the epidermis cells (figs. 17 and 18) are very thick on both
faces of the leaf and show an increase in
thickening very plainly. On the dorsal
face they show many deepenings caused
by the irregular thickening of the cell
wall (fig. 17). The inner and radial cell
walls of the epidermis are rather thin as
compared with the outer walls. The
unicellular stalks of the lai-ge shield-shaped hairs are located in cir-
cular cavities, the peltate part of the hair, which consists of numerous
radially arranged cells, resting upon the outer wall of the epidermis.
The chlorenchyma is difi'erentiated into palisade and pneumatic
tissues. The former (fig. 18) consists of three compact layers of very
high cells containing chlorophyll and small needle-shaped crystals of
calcium oxalate. It extends from the margins of the blade to the
midril), where it ceases, being broken by the hypodermal collenchyma.
On the dorsal side of the blade there is a thick pneumatic tissue of
many layers. The cells which, like those of the palisade, contain

eq...

Fig. 17.— a sunken stoma and the un-
even dorsal surface of an olive leaf.

LEAF AND STEM STRUCTUKE OF THE OLIVE.

51

Fig. 18.— Ventral face of an olive leaf, showing the
thickened waUs of epidermal cells and palisade cells,
(X 150.)

numerous needle-shaped crystals of calcium oxalate, are of a very
irregular shape and the intercellular spaces are very wide (fig. 19).
The pneumatic tissue, like the palisade tissue, is broken at the midrib
by hypodermal collenchyma.

The stereome is thick walled and very unequally distributed. It
occurs hypodermally (immediately beneath the epidermis) as single
cells or a few cells together on
both faces of the blade (fig. 18),
as scattered cells in the col-
lenchyma (PL V, fig. 1), and as
a pericycle of several continuous
layers in the midrib (PI. V, fig.
1). It is characteristic of the
genus Olea that the stereome
cells traverse the pneumatic
tissue in all directions (fig. 19).
The pericylic stereome is thick
walled only on the hadrome side
of the midrib; on the leptome
side it is thin walled with a very

few thick-walled cells interspersed. The collenchyma (PI. V, fig. 1) is
hypodermal above and below the midrib and extends to the pericycle;
it is generally thick walled, especially near the epidermis.

The mestome strands are, with the exception of the midrib (PI. V,
fig. 1), embedded in the chlorenchyma, and all the lateral strands
are surrounded by thin-walled parenchyma sheaths, sometimes with

a few adjoining stereome cells.
The midrib has no parenchyma
sheath and no endodermis, but, as
previously described, it is surround-
ed by a thick sheath of stereome.
All the mestome strands are col-
lateral. The leptome forms an
arch underneath the shorter but
broader arch of hadrome. In the
latter, each double row of vessels is
separated from the next by a single
row of parenchyma cells (parencliy-
matic ray).
The petiole, examined at the characteristic point (where the mes-
tome strands enter the leaf blade), shows a hemicylindric outline in
cross section. It is covered with shield-shaped hairs, as is the blade,
and the outer walls of the epidermis cells are extremely thick. The
cortex is a solid mass of collenchymatic tissue and contains an arch-
shaped collateral mestome strand in the center. This mestome

192 X

FiG. 19.— Pneumatic tissue of the dorsal side of a
blade traversed by stereome cells. From a leaf
of the Mission olive. (X 150.)

52 ANATOMICAL STKUCTUKE OF THE OLIVE.

strand has no support of stereome in the stricter sense of the word,
but is simply surrounded by a small collenchymatic tissue. Lep-
tome and hadrome show the same structure as in the midrib of the
blade.

The arrangement of the tissues of the stem is shown in Plate V,
figure 2. The cross section of the young twig is quadrangular and
/minutely four winged. The thin, smooth cuticle covers an epidermis
with hairs similar to those of the leaf, and the outer cell walls are
very thick; inside the epidermis are about twelve layers of cortical
parenchyma, collenchymatic in the peripheral layers but more thin
walled around the stele. Phellogen appears in the outermost layer
of the cortex and soon develops several layers of cork, of which about
three develop during the first summer. (Fig. 20.)

There is no endodermis, but a stereomatic and very thick-walled
pericycle surrounds the stele. This pericycle, however, is not con-
tinuous, but consists of many strands of
stereome separated by a few parenchy-
matic cells. The leptome presents a
circular zone bordering on the pericycle,
and is separated by cambium from the
^ ^^ hadrome. The vessels (the scalariform

^oOdor^^O^P^ ones especially) are thick walled and

"^Ooo^j-^^^QO ^°"' separated from each other by paren-
^ ^'^^-^ ^--^ chymatic rays, each of a single row of

Fig. 20.-Development of cork layers in rather tllin-Wallcd Cclls. The Cells of
thecortexof an olive stem. (X 150.)

the pith (which is solid) have thick
porous walls and contain much starch.

As compared with the preceding (the Mission variety from Niles,
Cal.), the unknown variety of olive of which material was collected
in the orchard at Phoenix, Ariz., is noteworthy for the extremely
thick-walled epidermis on both faces of the leaf; thick- walled collen-
chyma extending from the epidermis to the pericycle of the midrib;
more stereome in the pericycle; palisade and pneumatic tissues more
compact but containing less stereome. In the petiole all the tissues
are extremely thick walled. Cork develops very early in the stem,
since even in the apical internode there are seven layers. The epi-
dermis of the apical internode is extremely thick walled.

The two unidentified varieties collected in the abandoned orchard
at Palm Springs appear to be identical in anatomical structure.
From the variety growing at Phoenix they differ only in the much
narrower midrib.

192

LEAP AND STEM STEUCTUKE OF THE OLIVE. 53

To summarize: The leaf and stem structure of the ohve are such
as to protect it admirably against excessive loss of water by trans-
piration and hence adapt it to growing in very dry soils and climates.
The scanty evidence here presented would seem to indicate that the
considerable difference in aridity represented by the two environ-
ments at Niles (where the average yearly rainfall is 14.8 inches, where
moisture-laden winds blow in from the ocean, and where occasional
irrigation is given) and of Palm Springs (where the average yearly
rainfall is only 3.5 inches, where the air is excessively dry, and where
the trees had received no irrigation for seven years) has a distinct,
though comparatively slight, effect upon the anatomical structure
of this plant, for even at Niles the olive exhibits in a high degree the
characteristics of a xerophytic plant.

192

P L AT E S.

192

55

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I. Fig. 1. — One of the larger olive trees on the Bogart-Degolia plantation
near Casa Grande, Ariz. Fig. 2. — Olive trees in the "Las Palmas" section, near
Phoenix, Ariz., after six years of neglect and lack of water.

Plate II. Fig. 1.— View in the Florence, Ariz., olive grove, about 16 years old, which
has had no irrigation for the past six years. At the left, dead apricot and almond
trees of the same age; at the right, olive trees in vigorous condition. Fig. 2. —
Interior view in the grove shown in figure 1, showing a fine growth but thinner
foliage than in the outer row shown in figure 1, due to the crowding of the trees.

Plate III. Fig. 1. — Viewin the Pope olive plantation, near Palm Springs, Cal., after
six years of neglect. Mean annual rainfall only 3 J inches. Fig. 2. — One of the
larger trees, 8 feet high, in the Pope olive plantation, showing the low habit of
growth and the protection of the trunk and main branches from heat by a canopy
of foliage.

Plate IV. Fig. 1. — Characteristic burl at the base of an olive tree on the Pope olive
plantation, near Palm Springs, Cal. Fig. 2.— Feeding rootlets, natural size, from
6 inches in depth, on the same plantation shown in figure 1.

Plate V. Fig. 1. — Cross section of the midrib of the leaf of Olea europea (Mission
variety), showing the epidermis, palisade tissue, massively developed coUen-
chyma, pericyclic stereome, hadrome, leptome, and pneumatic tissue. Mag-
nified 180 times. Fig. 2. — Cross section of one of the apical internodes of the
stem, showing the epidermis, hypodermal collenchyma, stereome ring, leptome,
hadrome, and pith. Magnified 112 times.

Plate VI. Fig. 1. — View in a 500-acre olive plantation in southern Los Angeles
County, near La Mirada, Cal., grown without irrigation. The planting distance
of 20 feet each way is much too close for the full development of the trees.
Fig. 2. — View in a different part of the plantation shown in figure 1, where the
trees have been thinned by removing alternate diagonal rows. The conditions
are consequently much improved.
192
56

Bui. 192, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

Fig. 1.— One of the Larger Olive Trees on the Bogart-
Degolia Plantation, near Gasa Grande, Ariz.

Fig. 2.— Olive Tree at "Las Palmas," near Phoenix, Ariz., After Six

Years of Neglect.

Bui. 192, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Bui. 192, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate III

Fig. 1.— View in the Pope Olive Plantation, near Palm Springs, Cal., After Six

Years of Neglect.

>

K

,

B^JH^KfllP

^

--

HR^i

^:

,

t

K

1/ .■' '■

-

Fig. 2.— One of the Larger Trees in the Pope Olive Plantation, Showing the
Low Habit of Growth of the Trees.

Bui. 192, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agiiculture.

Plate IV.

Fig. 1 .—Characteristic Burl at the Base of an Olive Tree on the Pope Plan-
tation, NEAR Palm Springs, Cal.

■«^*'; i. j^

Fig. 2.— Feeding Rootlets, from 6 Inches in Depth, on the Pope Olive Plan-
tation. 'Natural Size.)

Bui. 192, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate V.

Coll.

Ep.

W~

1^ -I

■■;:-.; 'x'^^JU.

Ep:..(

;o-y^®oT)oOg^059^

^O-oo.

^\-'

m

Coll.- ■

Fig. 1.— Cross Section of the Midrib of the Leaf of Olea europea (Mission

Variety).

Coll.

..St.

-Cross Section of One of the Apical Internodes of the Stem of Olea
europea (Mission Variety).

Bui. 192, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. 5. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VI.

Fig. 1.— View in the 500-acre Olive Plantation near La Mirada, Cal.

Fig. 2.-VIEW in a Different Part of the Plantation Shown in Figure 1, where
THE Trees have been Thinned by Removing Alternate Diagonal Rows.

INDEX.

' Page.

Africa, olive culture 10, 13, 21-22, 37, 38, 41, 42,44

Algeria, factors relating to olive culture 13, 37, 38

Almond, behavior under arid conditions 15-16, 56

Altitude, relation to olive culture 10, 17, 19, 35-36

Appendix, anatomical structure of the olive 47-53

Apricot, cultivated, behavior under arid conditions 13, 15, 17, 18, 23, 42-43, 56

wild, adaptation to arid conditions 24

Arizona, climatic records 11-12, 36, 37-40, 50

olive culture 10, 17, 30, 33, 36-38, 39, 42

Asb, Arizona, behavior under arid conditions 13

Beaumont, Cal., dry-land olive culture 17, 31

Benson, Ariz., climatic record 36

Black scale. See Insects.

Boerne, Tex., altitude and temperatures 35

Bogart-Degolia olive grove. See Olive, abandoned grove at Casa Grande.
California Agricultural Experiment Station. See Soils, tests in California.

olive culture 10,17-27,29^3

State Board of Horticulture, report 34, 35, 36, 41

Caruso, G., on effect of temperature on the olive 37, 39, 40

Casa Grande, Ariz., dry-land olive culture 10-13, 15, 16, 20-23, 56

Cercidium torreyanum, adaptation to arid conditions 24

Chatsworth, Cal., dry-land olive culture 31

Chemlali olive. See Olive, varieties.

Chilopsis, adaptation to arid conditions 24

Climate, relation to olive culture. . 9, 10-13, 16, 18-19, 24-25, 31-32, 34-42,43-44, 50, 53

Cline, Ariz., climatic record 36

Colorado Desert, possibility of olive growing 38

Columbella olive. See Olive, varieties.

Columbia, Ariz., climatic record 36

Congress, Ariz., climatic record 36

Cottonwood, behavior under arid conditions 18, 25-26

Covillea tridenta, natural desert growth 18

Creosote bush. See Covillea tridenta.

Culture and neglect, contrast of effects 33, 56

Dalea spinosa, adaptation to arid conditions 24

Distance of planting. See Olive, trees, spacing in orchard.

Drought, power of resistance, factors of investigation 9-10, 43

Dry-land olive grove, abandoned. See Olive, abandoned grove.

Dudleyville, Ariz., climatic record 36

Emplectocladus, subgeneric name of wild apricot 24

Environment, effect upon modifications of structure 30, 43, 47-53

192 57

58 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

Page.

Fig, behavior under arid conditions 13, 18, 26, 42

Florence, Ariz., abandoned dry-land olive grove 15-16, 56

irrigation canal 13

Flowers. See Olive, flowers.

Foliage of the olive, browsing by live stock. See Stock, live.

Forage, use of foliage and twigs of the olive 13-14, 16

Fort Mcintosh, Tex., climatic record 34

Fort Ringgold, Tex., climatic record 34

France, factors relating to olive culture 19, 35, 43

P^axinus velutina, behavior under arid conditions 13

Fresno, Cal., climatic data ^ 35, 37, 39

Fruit. See Olive, fruit.

Gila River, diversion of water for irrigation 13

Globe, Ariz., climatic record 36

Grape, behavior under arid conditions 13, 18, 23, 42

Heat. See Temperature.

Hidalgo Tablada, Jose de, on factors of temperature in olive culture 34, 39, 40

Holm, Theodore, study of anatomy of leaf and stem 30, 47-53

Humidity, relative, relation to olive culture 11-12, 32

Insects, occurrence on the olive 33

Introduction to bulletin 9-10

Irrigation, relation to dry-land olive culture 10,

13, 15-18, 23, 24, 26, 27, 30, 32, 37, 38, 41, 42-44, 49-50, 53, 56

Italy, factors relating to olive culture 19, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43

Jerome, Ariz., climatic record 36

Jesunofsky, L. N., on rainfall at places in Arizona 11

Kearney, T. H., on features of dry-land olive culture 10, 13, 22, 41, 44

Kimball, F. A., on relation of water supply to successful olive culture 41

Kingman, Ariz., climatic record 36

La Mirada, Cal . , dry-land olive culture 31-32, 56

Las Palmas, dry-land olive grove in Arizona 16, 43, 56

Leaves of the olive. See Olive, anatomical structure.

Lelong, B. M., on cold endurance of the olive 34

Los Angeles, Cal., climatic features 31-32, 37, 39, 40

Manzanillo olive. See Olive, varieties.

Maricopa, Ariz., climatic records 11-12

Marvin, A. T., on climatic features 38, 39

Mason, S. C, collection of soil samples for analysis 20-22

Mesa, Ariz., climatic records 11-12

Mesquite, adaptation to arid conditions 12, 13, 14, 24, 27, 43

Mission olive. See Olive, varieties.

Moisture, conservation features. . . . 9-10, 14, 15, 16, 24-25, 26, 27-30, 33, 41, 43-44, 49, 53

Murray, Wellwood, irrigated garden at Palm Springs 26, 37

Nevadillo olive. See Olive, varieties.

Niles,.Cal., material obtained for study of structure 30, 50, 52, 53

Olea europea, anatomical structure 47-53, 56

Olive, abandoned grove at Casa Grande 10, 13-15, 43, 56

Palm Springs 17-27, 29, 43, 49-50, 52-53, 56

near Florence, Ariz 15-16, 43

Phoenix, Ariz 16-17, 49

adaptation to arid conditions 10, 13-15, 16, 24-25, 27-30, 43, 49-53

anatomical structure 30, 47-53, 56

192

INDEX. 59

Page.

Olive, competition with desert shrubs 14, 19

culture, at a distance from the seacoast 37

dry-land area in United States, limitations 34-42

in California 31-33

flowers, temperature requirements for development 26, 39, 40

fruit, factors in profitable production 9, 16, 17, 26, 33, 36-38, 40-42

leaves, roots, and stem. See Olive, anatomical structure.

root systems 9-10, 14, 15, 25, 27-30, 41-42, 43-44

trees, shape of top modified for desert life 13-14, 24

spacing in' orchard 9, 14, 23, 26-27, 32-33, 41-44, 56

varieties, Chemlali 34, 42, 44

Columbella 33

Manzanillo 25, 28, 29

Mission 33, 50, 52, 56

Nevadillo 33

Pendulina 33,37

xerophytic characters 13-14, 15, 16, 24, 27-30, 33, 37, 41, 43, 49-53, 56

See also Climate, Drought, Irrigation, Moisture, Pruning, Soils, and Weeds.

Oracle, Ariz., climatic record 36

Orange, demands upon soil 23

Oroville, Cal., dry-land olive culture 31

Palm, behavior under arid conditions 16, 24

Palm Springs, Cal., dry-land olive culture 17-27, 32, 37-38, 49-50, 52-53, 56

Palmdale, Cal., olive culture 18, 20

Paloverde, adaptation to arid conditions 24

Peach, growth in Michigan, comparison of soils 23

Pendulina olive. See Olive, varieties.

Pepper, behavior of tree under arid conditions 16, 18, 26

Phoenix, Ariz., climatic records 11-12, 37-39, 50

dry-land olive culture 16-17, 49, 52, 56

phenological records for the olive 39, 40

Plates, description 56

Plum, demands upon soil 23

Pomegranate, behavior under arid conditions 16

Pope olive plantation. See Olive, abandoned grove at Palm Springs.

Prune, behavior under arid and other conditions 13, 17

Pruning, methods under arid conditions 9, 13-14, 16, 24, 33

Prunus fremontii, adaptation to arid conditions 24

Quito, Ecuador, South America, growth of olive 36

Rainfall, relation to olive culture 9-12, 13, 19, 25, 31-32, 33, 40-42, 43, 44, 50, 53, 56

Relative-humidity. See Humidity, relative.

Roberts, I. P., on fertility of soils 23

Roots of the olive. See Olive, anatomical structure.

San Antonio, Tex., climatic data 34-35

San Carlos, Ariz., climatic record 36

San Diego, Cal., climatic data 30, 37, 39

San Fernando, Cal., dry-land olive culture 31

San Gorgonio Pass, relation to olive-culture projects 17, 18

San Jose, Cal., temperature data 37, 39, 40

Santa Barbara, Cal., temperature data 40

Santa Cruz River (Wash.), character of watercourse 12

Schinus molle, behavior under arid conditions .,.,,,., 18

J92

60 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF OLIVE IN SOUTHWESTERN STATES.

Page.

Seville, Spain, date of blossoming of olive 39

Sfax, Africa, factors relating to olive culture 21-22, 35, 37, 38

Sicily, factors relating to olive culture 36-38

Simmonds, P. L., on altitude of growth of olive at Quito 36

Smith, J. G., on analyses of soils. 22

Soils, analyses 20-23

relation to olive culture 9, 12, 13, 15, 16, 20-23, 27, 32, 33, 43

tests in California 23

Spacing of trees. See Olive, trees, spacing.

Spain, cultivation of olive 39

Stem of the olive. See Olive, anatomical structure.

Stock, live, relation of browsing habits to olive culture.'. 13-14, 15, 16

Summary of bulletin 42-44

Temperature, relation to olive culture 9-10, 16, 18-19, 24-25, 31, 33, 34^0, 43, 56

Texas, dry-land olive culture 34-35, 42

Tombstone, Ariz., climatic record 36

Topography, typical localities 12, 13, 17, 32

Trabut, L., on soils favorable to olive growth 22

Tucson, Ariz., climatic record 36, 37, 38, 39

Tunis, factors relating to olive culture 10, 35, 38, 42, 44

Underground water. See Water.

Varieties of the olive. See Olive, varieties.

Wallaber, A. B., on climatic data 32, 39

Washingtonia filifera, adaptation to arid conditions 24

Water, underground, relation to olive culture 12-13

Weather Bureau, on climatological data 32, 34, 36, 39, 40

Weeds, relation to olive culture 23, 33

Whitewater River, diversion of water for irrigation 18

192

o

(Continued from page 2 of cover.)

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107. American Root Drugs. 1907. Price, 15 cents. !

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109. American Varieties of Garden Beans. 1907. Price, 25 cents.

110. Cranberry Diseases. 1907. Price, 20 cents. \
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119 The Mulberry and Other Silkworm Food Plants. 1907. Price, 10 cents. \

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136. Methods and Causes of Evolution. 1908. Price, 10 cents. ;

137. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 14. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

138. Production of Cigar-Wrapper Tobacco in Connecticut Valley. 1908. Price, 15 cents. ,;

139. American Medicinal Barks. 1909. Price, 15 cents.

140. "Spineless" Prickly Pears. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

141. Miscellaneous Papers. 1909. Price, 10 cents. ,„„„„,„, ;

142. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 15. 1909. Price, lOcents.

143. Principles and Practical Methods of Curing Tobacco. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

144. Apple Blotch, a Serious Disease of Southern Orchards. 1909. Price, 15 cents. ?

145. Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America. 1909. Price, 15 cents.

146. The Superiority of Line Breeding over Narrow Breeding. 1909. Price, 10 cents. ■<

147. Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids. 1909. Price, 5 cents. i

148. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 16. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

149. Diseases of Deciduous Forest Trees. 1909. Price, 15 cents.

150. Wild Alfalfas and Clovers of Siberia. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

151. Fruits Recommended for Cultivation. 1909. Price, 15 cents. ;;

152. The Loose Smuts of Barley and Wheat. 1909. Price, 15 cents. •;

153. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 17. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

154. Farm Water Supplies of Minnesota. 1909. Price, 15 cents. s

155. The Control of Black-Rot of the Grape. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 1

156. A Study of Diversity in EgM)tian Cotton. 1909. Price, 15 cents.

157. The Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

158. The Root-Rot of Tobacco Caused bv Thielavia Basicola. 1909. Price, 15 cents. ■

159. Local Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. 1909. Price, 10 cents. .;

160. Italian Lemons and Their By-Products. 1909. Price, 15 cents. ;
16L A New Tvpe of Indian Corn from China. 1910. Price, 10 cents. j

162. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 18. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ;

163. Varieties of American Upland Cotton. 1910. Price, 25 cents.

164. Promising Root Crops for the South. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ,„,„ t, . ,n ♦

165. Application of Some of the Principles of Heredity to Plant Breeding. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

166. The Mistletoe Pest in the Southwest. 1910. Price, 10 cents. j

167. New Methods of Plant Breeding. 1910. Price, 20 cents. ,

168. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 19. 1909. Price, 5 cents. ;j

169. Variegated Alfalfa. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

170. Traction Plowine. 1910. Price, 10 cents. . or *

171. Some Fungous Diseases of Economic Importance. 1910. Price, 25 cents. !

172. Grape Investigations in Vinifera Regions. 1910. Price, 25 cents.

173. Seasonal Nitriflcation as Influenced by Crops and Tillage. 1910. Price, 10 cents. *

174. The Cx)ntrol of Peach Brown-Rot and Scab. 1910. Price, 10 cents. :

175. The Historv and Distribution of Sorghum. 1910. Price, 10 cents. •;

176. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 20. 1910. Price, 5 cents.

177. A Protected Stock Range in Arizona. 1910. Price, 10 cents. i

178. Improvement of the Wheat Crop in California. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ;

179. The Florida Velvet Bean and Related Plants. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

180. Agricultural and Botanical Explorations in Palestine. 1910. Price, 15 cents.

181. The Curly-Top of Beets. 1910. Price, 15 cents. ,..„.,„ 4. '

182. Ten Years' Experience with the Swedish Select Oat. 1910. Price, 10 cents. :

183. Field Studies of the Crown-Gall of the Grape. 1910. Price 10 cents. x,,.^ m -

184. The Production of Vegetable Seeds: Sweet Corn and Garden Peas and Beans. 1910. Price, 10

Cents

185. Cold Resistance of Alfalfa and Some Factors Influencing it. 1910. Price, 15 cents. ;

186. Field Studies of the Crown-Gall and Hairy-Root of the Apple Tree. 1910. Price, —cents. ;

187. A Study of Cultivation Methods and Crop Rotation for the Great Plains Area. 1910. Price, 15 ,

cGnts

188. Dry Farming in Relation to Rainfall and Evaporation. 1910. Price, 15 cents. ,,,,.,,,. I
1.89. The Source of the Drug Dioscorea, with a Consideration of the Dioscorea Found in the Unilea ,

States. 1910. Price, — cents. \

190. Orchard Green-Manure Crops in California. 1910. Price, 10 cents. 1

191. The Value of First-Generation Hybrids In Corn. 1910. Price, 10 cents. i

192 ■

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 193.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bttreau.

EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

BY

FREDERICK Y. COVILLE,
Botanist in Charge of Taxonomic and Range Investigations.

Issued NovEjrBRR 15, 1910.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1910.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

^

The scientific aud technical iniblications of tlic Bureau of Plant Industry, which was i

organized July 1, 1901, arc issued in a single series of bulletins, a list of which. follows. :

Attention is directed to the fact that the publications in this series are not for general i
distribution. The Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, /i
I). C, is authorized by law to sell them at cost, and to him all applications for these bul- ]
letins should be made, accompanied by -a postal money order for the required amount or

by cash. Numbers omitted from this list can not be furnished. ^

No. 2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. . TPrice,- 20 cents,
y. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

4. Range Improvement, in Arizona. I'JOl. Price, 10 cents. .i

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared: for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents. '
0. The North American Species of Spartiua. ' 1902. Price, 10 cents.- ,,

10. Records of Seed Distribution, etc. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

11. .lohnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents. •;
IS. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents. *■

14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, .55 cents. *

15. Forage Conditions ^>n Northern Border of Great Basin. 1902. Pri'ce, 15 cents. i
17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. I'rice, 10 cents. ,1
20. Manufacture of Semolina aud Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents. i
22. Injurious Effects of Premature I'ollinktion. 1902. Pi'ice, 10 cents. '-i
2o. Berseem : The Great Forage and Soiling Crop of Nile Valley. 1902. Pi-ice, 15

cents. '

24. T'nfei-mented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous I'apers. 1903. Price. 15 cents. ■
27. Letters on .\griculture in the West Indies, Spain, etc. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

29. The Effect of Black-Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents. ':

31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Pricey. 10. Cents.

32. .\ Disease of the White Ash. 1903. Rriee, 10 cents. : -■ "^ ' i

33. North American Species of Leptochloa. 1903. Price, 15 cents. ■ ',1
35. Itecent Foreign Explorations. 1903. Price, 15 cents; i

30. The "Bluing" of the Western Yellow Pine, etc. 1903. Price, 30 cents.

37. Formation of Spores in Sporangia of- Rhizopus N'lgricans. etc. 190.3. Price, 15 cents.

38. Forage Conditions in Eastern Washington, etc. 1903. Price, 15 cents. J

39. The Propagation of the Easter Lily from Seed. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

41. The Commercial Grading of Corn. 1903. -Price, 10 cents. '

42. Three New Plant Introductions from Japan. 1903. Price, 10 cents. ■■'.^

47. The Description of Wheat Varieties. 1903. Price, 10 cents. ,

48. The Apple in Cold Storage. 1903." Price, 15 cents. '- 1

49. Culture' of the Central American Rubber Ti;ee. 1903. Price, 25 cents. '

50. Wild Rice : Its Uses and Propagation. 1903. Price, 10 cents. ]

51. Miscellaneous Papers. 1005. Price. 5 cents. ;
54. Persian (iulf Dates. 1903. Price, ,10 cents.

59. Pasture, Meadow, and Forage Crops in Nebraska.' 1904. Price, 10 cents. j

00. -V Soft Rot of the Calhi Lily. 1904. Price, 10 cents. . -

61. The Avocado in Florida. 1D04. Price, -5 cents. . ,

62. Notes on Egyptian Agriculture. 1904. Price, 10 'cents. ■'

67. Range Invosllgations in .irizona. 1904. Price. 15 cents. \

68. North American Species of .\gr6stis. 1905. I'rice. 10 cents. '

69. American Varieties of Lettuce. 1904. Price, 15 cents.

7l>. The Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. 1904. Price, 10 cents. :;

71. Soil Inoculation for Legumes. 1905. Price, 15 cents. ;

72. Miscellaneous I'apers. 1905. Price. 5 cents. j

73. The Development of Single-Germ Beet "Seed. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

74. I'rickly Pear and Other Cacti as Food for Stock. 1905. I*i-rce, 5 cents. ;

75. Range Management in the State of Washington. 1905. I'rice. 5, cents. .•

76. Copper as an Algicide and Disinfectant in Water Supplies. 1905. Price, .5 cents. , ,;

77. The .\vocado : .V Salad Fruit from the Ti-opics. 1905. Price, 5 cents. ' 'J

79. Variability of Wheat Varieties In Resistance to Toxic Salts. 1905. Price, 5 cents, "v

80. Agricultural Explorations in Algeria. 1905. Price, 10 cents. j

81. Evolution of Cellular Structures. 1905. Price', 5 cents. -

82. (irass Lands of the South Alaska Coast. 1905. Price, 10 Gen;ts. 1

83. The Vitality of Buried Seeds. 1905. Price. 5 cents.

84. The- Seeds of the Bluegrassos. 1905. I'rice. 5 cents. :

85. Principles of Mushroom Growing and Spawn Making. 1905. Price, 10 cents. i

86. Agriculture without Irrigation in the Sahara De.sert. 1905. Price, 5 cents. '

88. Weevil-Resisting Adaptations of the Cotton Plant. 1906. Price, 10 cents. |

89. Wild Medicinal Plants of the United States. 1906. PWce, 5 cents.

90. Miscellaneous Papers. 1906. Price, 5 cents. '■ • ;

91. Varieties of Tobacco Seed Distributed, etc. 1900.* Price, 5 cents. .;

94. I'^arra Practice with Forage Crops in Western Oregon, etc. 190G. I'rice, 10 cents. '

95. .\ New Type of Red Clover. 1906. Price, 10 cents. !

96. Tobacco Breeding. 1907. Price. L5 cents. .

97. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 11. 1907. Price, 15 cents. ^

98. Soy Bean Varieties. 1907. I'rice, 15 cents. i

99. Quick .Method for Determination of Moisture in Grain. 1007. Price, 5 cents. ^
lOL Contenis of and Index to Bulletins Nos. 1 to 100. 1907. I'rite, 15 cents. •*
102. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907, Price, 15 cents. -
lO;'.. Dry Farming in the Gn'at Basin. 1J)07. Price, 10 cents. ^

104. The I^se of Feldspathic Rocks as Fertilizers. 1907. Price, 5 cents. '■

105. Relation of I'omposition of Leaf to Burning of Tobacco. 1907. Price, 10 eenls. J

106. Seeds and I'lants Imported. Inventory No. 12. 1907. I'rice, 15 cents. . :

[Continued on page 3 of cover.] •/

193 J

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 193.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

BY

FREDERICK V. COVILLE,
Botanist in Charge of Taxonomic and Range Investigations.

Issued Xove-M1',ek .15, 1910.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

GARDEN.

WASHINGTON:

government printing office.

1910.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

193
2

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

Taxoxomic and Range Ixvestioations.

SCIEXTIFIC staff.

Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge.
A. S. Hitchcock, Systematic A(jrostolo(jist.
W. F. Wight, Botanist.

A. H. Moore and P. L. Ricker, Assistant Botanii
W. E. SaCford, Assistant Curator.
Agnes Chase, Assistant.
E. L. Greene, Expert.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,
Washington, D. C, July 19, 1910.

Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for
publication as Bulletin No, 193 of the series of this Bureau a manu-
script by Mr. Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge of Taxonomic
and Range Investigations, entitled " Experiments in Blueberry Cul-
ture." Mr. Coville has found by experiment how blueberries differ
from ordinary plants in their method of nutrition and in their soil
requirements, and by means of this knowledge he has worked out a
system of pot culture under which these plants attain a development
beyond all previous expectations. There is good prospect that the
application of the knowledge thus gained will establish the blue-
berry in field culture and that ultimately improved varieties of these
plants will be grov>'n successfully on a commercial scale.

A particularly interesting and significant feature of these experi-
ments is the light they shed on the possible utilization of the natu-
rally acid lands that occupy extensive areas in the eastern United
States. These lands are generally valued at a low price, and the
chief expense involved in their utilization for ordinary agricultural
crops is the cost of correcting their acidity and its effects by liming,
fertilizing, and cultural manipulation. The question presents itself,
'' May we not more effectively utilize such lands by growing on them
crops which, like the blueberry, thrive in acid soils ? "

Some of the experimental methods and equipment utilized by Mr.
Coville are commended to other plant experimenters, especially the
use of darkened and drained glass pots for the intimate observation
of the behavior of roots, and the plunging of pots in moist sand to
maintain equable moisture and aeration conditions.
Respectfully,

Wm. a. Taylor,
Acting Chief of Bureau.

Hon. James "Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

193 3

CONTENTS.

Page.
Introduction 11

Peculiarities of growth in the blueberry plant 14

Soil requirements 14

(1) The swamp blueberry does not thrive in a rich garden soil of the

ordinary type 14

(2) The swamp blueberry does not thrive in a heavily manured soil . 17

(3) The swamp blueberry does not thrive in a soil made sweet by

lime 19

(4) The swamp blueberry does not thrive in a heavy clay soil 24

(5) The swamp blueberry does not thrive in a thoroughly decomposed

leaf mold, such as has a neutral reaction 24

(6) The swamp blueberry does not thrive in soils having a neutral or

alkaline reaction, but for vigorous growth it requires an acid

soil 26

(7) The favorite type of acid soil for the swamp blueberry is peat. . . 31

(8) Peat suitable for the swamp blueberry may be found either in

bogs or on the surface of the ground in sandy oak or pine woods. 32

(9) For active growth the swamp blueberry requires a well-aerated

soil. Conversely, the swamp blueberry does not continue in
active growth in a soil saturated with water 35

(10) Aeration conditions satisfactory for the swamp blueberry are

prevalent in sandy soils 36

(11) Aeration conditions satisfactory for the swamp blueberry are

found in drained fibrous peat 37

(12) Aeration conditions satisfactory for the swamp blueberry are

found in masses of live, moist, but not submerged, sphagnum.. 38
Peculiarities of nutrition 40

(13) The swamp blueberry is devoid of root hairs, the minute organs

through which the ordinary plants of agriculture absorb their
moisture and food 40

(14) The rootlets of healthy plants of the swamp blueberry are in-

habited by a fungus, of the sort known technically as an endo-
trophic mycorrhiza 42

(15) The mycorrhizal fungus of the swamp blueberry appears to have

no injurious effect, but rather a beneficial effect, upon the
blueberry plant 44

(16) The acid peaty soils in which the swamp blueberry thrives are

deficient in "available" nitrogen, although containing large
amounts of "nonavailable" nitrogen 45

(17) The deficiency of available nitrogen in the acid peaty soil in

which the swamp blueberry grows best is due to the inability
of the nitrifying bacteria to thrive in such a soil because of its

acidity 46

193 5

CONTENTS.

Peculiarities of growth in the blueberry plant — Continued.
Peculiarities of nutrition — Continued.

Page.

(18

(19

A method o

(20

(21
(22
(23
(24

(25

(26

(27

(28

(29

(30
(31

(32

(33

(34

(35
(36

193

From the evidence at hand the presumption is that the mycor-
rhizal fungus of the swamp blueberry transsforms the nonavail-
able nitrogen of peaty soils into a form of nitrogen available
for the nourishment of the blueberry plant 48

It is possible that the mycorrhizal fungus of the swamp blue-
berry transforms the free nitrogen of the atmosphere into a
form of nitrogen suited to the use of the blueberry plant 48

pot culture 51

Seeds of the swamp blueberry sown in August from fresli berries
germinate in about 5 weeks 51

The seedlings are first transplanted at the age of about 6 weeks,

when they are approaching an inch in height 54

When about 10 weeks old and nearly 2 inches in height the
seedlings begin to send out basal branches 57

When the seedlings are about 4 months old and about 3 inches
in height the growth of the original stem terminates 58

When the plants are about 5 months old and 4 to 6 inches in
height they are potted in 4-inch pots in the best peat or peat
mixture - - - 59

Blueberry plants potted in peat may be made to grow more rap-
idly if they are watered occasionally during the growing season
with water from a manure pit 62

Pots containing blueberry plants should be plunged in sand or
other material that will furnish constant moisture and good
aeration 65

Plants of the swamp blueberry sometimes lay down flowering
buds at the age of 7 months 67

In the spring after the danger of frost was past the plants were
repotted and placed out of doors, in half shade, plunged in
sand 67

By the use of the cultural methods already described, seedlings
of the swamp blueberry have been grown into robust plants
of a maximum height of 27 inches at 12 months from germi-
nation 68

The flowering buds of the blueberry are produced l)y the trans-
formation of dormant leaf buds in the latter part of the season . 71

At the end of their first year 70 per cent of the blueberry plants
had laid down flowering buds for the next spring's blossoming. 73

Plants of the swamp blueberry are exceedingly hardy and pass
the winter in good condition outdoors when the soil is covered
merely with an oak-leaf mulch, but when not exposed to out-
door conditions they do not begin their growth in spring in a
normal manner 74

Dormant plants make their early spring twig growth before new
roots begin to develop 76

Unless pollinated by an outside agency, such as insects, the
flowers produce little or no fruit 76

The fruit matures about 2 months after the flowering 78

So far as observed, the swamp blueberry when grown in acid
soils is little subject to fungous diseases or insect pests 79

CONTENTS. 7

* Page.

Improvement and propagation 80

(37) The parent plant of the swamp blueberry seedlings, the culture

of which has been described, bore berries over half an inch in
diameter 80

(38) There is every reason to believe that the blueberry can be

improved by breeding and by selection 82

(39) The swamp blueberry has b?en propagated by grafting, by bud-

ding, by layering, by twig cuttings, and by root cuttings 83

(•10) The most desirable method of propagating the swamp blueberry

is by cuttings 84

Field culture 86

(41) Experiments have been begun in the field culture of the swamp

blueberry - 86

Conclusion -■ 88

Index 91

193

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES.

Page.
Plate I. Fio. 1. — Root growth of a blueberry plant in clay mulched with

leaves. Fig. 2. — Root growth of a blueberry plant in peat 24

II. Blueberry seedlings in peat and leaf mold 26

III. Fig. 1.— Formation of kalmia peat, top layer. Fig. 2.— Formation

of kalmia peat, second layer 34

IV. Fig. 1.— Formation of kalmia peat, third layer. Fig. 2.— Formation

of kalmia peat, fourth layer - - - 34

V. Fig. 1.— Formation of kalmia peat, fifth layer. Fig. 2.— Formation

of kalmia peat, sixth layer 34

VI. Fig. 1. — Swamp blueberries from the parent bush of the seedlings of

1908. Fig. 2. — Seeds of the swamp blueberry 52

VII. Blueberry seedling four and a half months old 60

VIII. Cold frames containing one-year-old blueberry seedlings 68

IX. Large one-year-old seedlings of the swamp blueberry 70

X. Fig. 1. — Flow'eringbudsandleaf buds on blueberry twigs. Fig. 2. —
Flowering buds on a blueberry cutting. Fig. 3. — Flowering buds

on blueberry cuttings 72

XI. Yearling blueberry plant with 42 flowering buds 74

XII. Fig. 1. — Blueberry plant which was wintered indoors beginning
growth in the spring. Fig. 2.— Blueberry plant which w'as win-
tered outdoors beginning growth in the spring 76

XIII. Fig. 1. — Blueberry plant which was wintered indoors continuing

growth in the spring. Fig. 2. — Blueberry plant which was win-
tered outdoors continuing growth in the spring 76

XIV. Irregular flowering of a blueberry plant wintered indoors 78

XV. Berry ripened on a blueberry seedling at the age of 19 months 80

XVI. Fig. 1. — Grafted blueberry. Fig. 2. — Blueberry seedling success-
fully budded 84

XVII. Blueberry plants from twig cuttings 86

XVIII. Blueberry plant from a twig cutting 88

TEXT FIGURES.

Fig. 1. Rose cutting in rich garden soil 16

2. Rose cutting in peat mixture 16

3. Alfalfa seedlings in rich garden soil 17

4. Alfalfa seedlings in peat mixture 17

5. Blueberry seedling in rich garden soil 18

6. Blueberry seedling in peat mixture 18

7. Blueberry seedling in peat mixture limed » 23

8. Blueberry seedling in peat mixture unlimed 23

9. Blueberry seedling fed with alkaline nutrient solution 30

10. Blueberry seedling fed with acid nutrient solution 31

193 9

10 ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.

Fig. 11. Root of a wheat plant, showing the root hairs 40

12. Portion of a wheat root, with root hairs 40

13. Tip of the root hair of a wheat plant 40

14. Root of a blueberry plant 41

15. Root of a blueberry plant, enlarged 41

16. Blueberry rootlet 41

17. Mycorrhizal fungus of a blueberry plant densely crowded in two

epidermal cells of the root 43

18. Mycorrhizal fungus of Kalmia latifolia in an epiilermal cell of the root. 44

19. Section of a blueberry seed 53

20. Blueberry seedlings in the cotyledon stage 53

21. Blueberry seedling about 6 weeks old, with five foliage leaves 54

22. Normal tip of stem in a blueberry seedling 57

23. Bract and young leaf at the end of the original stem in a blueberry

seedling 58

24. Blueberry seedling with diffuse type of branching 59

25. Blueberry seedling of the type with few branches 59

26. Spores of a supposedly injurious fungus in the epidermal cells of blue-

berry roots 64

27. Flowers of the blueberry, from 1908 seedlings of the large-berried

New Hampshire bush of Vaccinium corymbosum 77

28. Stamens of the blueberry 77

29. Compound pollen grain of the blueberry 78

30. Pistil and calyx of the blueberry, sh6wing the style and stigma 78

31. Blueberry plant grown from a root cutting 86

193

B. P. I. — 598.

EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

INTHODUCTION.

In the grounds of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington are
two blueberry bushes of large size and great age. The taller is about
9 feet high. The largest stem is nearly 3 inches in diameter. It is
known that these bushes were growing prior to 1871, thirty-nine years
ago, and all the evidence indicates that they were planted at a much
earlier date. They are probably over 50 years old." In the Arnold
Arboretum, near Boston, are many blueberry bushes 30 years old
or more, grown from the seed by Mr. Jackson Dawson or trans-
planted from their wild habitats prior to 1880.

The two cases here cited demonstrate the fallacy of the popular
idea that the blueberry can not be transplanted or cultivated. This
idea rests on the unsuccessful experience of those who have taken up
Avild bushes and set them in a rich, well-manured garden soil. These
are exactly the conditions, as shown by experiments described in this
publication, under which blueberry plants become feeble and unpro-
ductive.

Four agricultural experiment stations, those of Maine, Rhode
Island, New York, and Michigan, have attempted to grow the blue-
berry as a fruit, but none of these attempts has resulted in the com-
mercial success of blueberry culture, and the experimental results
have been chiefly of a negative character. This outcome appeiirs to
have been due to a misunderstanding of the soil requirements of the
blueberry, which, as will be shown later, are radically different from
those of our common cultivated plants.

"The plants are Vaccinium atrococcum, a species closely related to Vaccinium
corymhosum, the well-known swamp or high bnsh blueberry of the Northern
States. In a list of the trees and shrubs of the Smithsonian crrounds prepared
by Arthur Schott in 1871, these bushes are included, but identified, however,
as Vaccinium fuscatum. The late Mr. George H. Brown, for more than a gen-
eration the superintendent of planting in the parks of Washington, also as-
sured the writer that these plants were not set out since he first became
responsible for the Smithsonian grounds, in 1871. The present plan of the
grounds was made by Mr. Andrew J. Downing, but the actual planting was not
done until after his death, in 1S52. It is possible that tlie I)lueberry bushes
may have been set out as early as 1848, in which year a partial planting of the
Smithsonian grounds was made by Mr. John Douglass.

193 " 11

12

EXPEEIMENTS IN BLUEBEEEY CULTURE.

In the Boston market there is a wide variation in the wholesale
price of blueberries. Shipments begin in early June from North
Carolina, followed in the latter part of the month by blueberries from
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York. In early July, or in
some years in the last days of June, Massachusetts and New Hamp-
shire shii^ments begin to arrive, succeeded in late July or early
August by berries from Maine, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.
Receipts from these last two localities continue until late September.
The blueberries that bring the highest price are those from Massa-
chusetts and New Hampshire. At the time when other berries are
selling at 8 to 15 cents per quart wholesale, the first shipments of
New Hampshire berries often bring 20 to 23 cents.

The owner of a blueberry pasture in southern New Hampshire
who superintended the picking of his own berries and shipped
them to one of the secondary New England cities has courteously
shown his shipment records, from which the following data have
been compiled :

Records of shipments from a blnchcrry pasture in southern New Hampsliire,

1905-1909.

Year.

Date of shipment.

Total
ship-
ments.

Highest and
lowest price
per quart, a

Average

price per

quart, a

1905

July 1 to Aug. 14

July 17 to Aug. 15

July 20 to Aug. 15....

June 29 to Aug. 15

July 15 to Aug. 16....

Quarts.
2,233

2,756
2,538
3,602
1,255

Cents.
12i to 8

15 to 8
141 to 11

16 to 9i
14 to 9

Cents.
10 7

1906

9.6

1907

12 2

1908

10 8

1909

10 7

« This is the net price that the shipper received after deducting express charges.

The average net price for the five years was 10.8 cents per quart.
The record indicates the substantial returns that are secured from
ordinary wild berries picked and sent to market in rather better than
ordinary condition.

That the market would gladly pay a high price for a cultivated
blueberry of superior quality there can be no doubt. From the
market standpoint the features of superiority in a blueberry are large
size; light-blue color, due to the presence of a dense bloom over the
dark-purple or almost black skin ; " dryness," or freedom from super-
ficial moisture, especially the fermenting juice of broken berries;
and plumpness, that is, freedom from the withered or wrinkled ap-
pearance that the berries begin to acquire several days after picking.
While the connoisseur in blueberries who picks his own fruit knows
the widely varying flavors in the berries of different bushes, the buyer
in the city market is content to select his fruit according to its ap-
pearance, knowing that the flavor will be good enough in any event.

193

THE PICKING OF BLUEBEEEIES. 13

The size of the seed gives the buyer in New Enghmd markets very
little concern, for there the name blueberry is restricted to plants of
the genus Vaccinium, all of which have seeds so small as to be unno-
ticeable when the berry is eaten, while the name huckleberry is applied
with nearly the same precision to the species of the genus Gaj'lus-
sacia, in wliich the seed is surrounded b}^ a bony covering like a
minute peach pit, which crackles between the teeth. In southern cities
the fruits of both Vaccinium and Gaylussacia are called huckleberries,
and it is i^robable that the low estimation in which the fruit of Vac-
cinium is there held is largely due to the lack of a distinctive popular
name. To distinguish the two berries by their appearance is difficult
for any but an expert, for while huckleberries are mostly black and
blueberries mostly blue, some of the blueberries, or species of Vac-
cinium, are black, and some of the huckleberries are blue, notably
Gaylussacia frondosa., a species often abundant in the sandy soils of
the Atlantic Coastal Plain, which has a large, handsome berry of a
beautiful light-blue color and passable flavor, but with the disagree-
ably crackling seed pits characteristic of the other true huckleberries.

The blueberry withstands the rough treatment incident to ship-
ment so much better than most other berries that with proper han-
dling it should always reach the market in first-class condition.
But its good shipping qualities are often abused, and the fruit not
infrequently is exposed for sale partly crushed and the berries cov-
ered with soured juice and made further olfensive by the presence of
flies. This is the prevailing condition of blueberries and huckle-
berries in the markets of Washington, in striking contrast with the
dry, plump berries of the Boston market. This bad condition is due
usually to improper picking.

The small size of the blueberry, compared with other berries, ren-
ders the picking of it expensive. The owners of blueberry pastures
commonly pay two-thirds the net price of the berries to their pickers.
In order to reduce the cost of picking, various devices have been
employed. The most widely used of these is an implement known
as a blueberry rake, a scoop shaped somewhat like a deep dustpan,
provided in front with a series of long, pointed fingers of heavy wire.
With this implement an ordinary picker in the blueberry canning
districts of Maine, for example, gathers 3 to 5 bushels a day, for
which he receives If to 2 cents per quart. Blueberries can be picked
with a rake at about a fourth the cost of picking by hand. For this
reason many of the berries that go to market are picked with a
rake, and it is these berries Avhich, broken and fermenting, make
up the greater part of the low-grade stock so otfensive to the eye
and the taste. Blueberries intended for the market should never be
picked with a rake.

193

14 EXPEEIMENTS IN BLUEBEREY CULTURE.

AVliat has been said regarding the high cost of picking ordinary
bhieberries by hand indicates the importance of securing a berry of
large size if the plant is to be cultivated. Large size and abundance
mean a great reduction in the cost of picking. Large size means
also a higher market price, and when taken in connection with good
color and good market condition it means a much higher price.

The writer's interest was attracted to the subject of blueberry cul-
ture in 1906. In the autumn of that year some experiments were
made for him by Mr. George W. Oliver to ascertain a suitable method
of wrminatine: the seeds. In the autumn of 1907 special cultural ex-
periments were taken up. In 1908 experiments were begiui in the
propagation of bushes bearing berries of large size, the most satis-
factory of these being a Xew Hampshire bush of the swamp blueberry
{Vaccinium corymbosum) having berries a little more than half an
inch in diameter. The largest berries tried, a little more than five-
eighths of an inch in diameter, were from Oregon bushes of Vac-
cinium membranaceum. Except where otherwise stated, the experi-
ments described in this paper were made with Yaccinium corym-
hosurw. The principal results of the experiments are given under
brief numbered statements, each followed by a detailed explanation.

PECULIARITIES OF GROWTH IN THE BLUEBERRY PLANT.

SOIL REQUIREMENTS.

(1) The swamp blueberry does not thrive in a rich garden soil of the
ordinary type.

Although the statement just made might well rest on the direct
observation of experimenters who have failed to make blueberries
grow luxuriantly, or sometimes even remain alive, in rich garden
soils, nevertheless the citation of one of the writer's experiments may
serve to accentuate the fact. The soil chosen for the purpose was the
one used at the United States Department of Agriculture for grow-
ing roses. A sample of this soil, as mixed by the rose gardener, con-
sisted, according to his specifications, of " five shovelfuls of loam, one
shovelful of cow manure, and a handful of lime." The loam used
was a rotted grass turf grown on a rather clayey soil. The cow
manure was well rotted, having lain in the pile for several months,
with almost no admixture of straw. The lime was of the ordinary
air-slaked sort.

The pots used in the experimei*t were of glass, small 5-ounce drink-
ing glasses, about 2 inches in diameter at the bottom, 2^ at the top,
and 25 inches deep. A small hole bored through the bottom gave the
necessary drainage to the soil in the pot. Since the walls of these
pots were transparent, the normal growth of the roots and the pre-

193

THE USE OF GLASS POTS. 15

vention of an obscuring green growth of microscopic algse required
some arrangement for keeping the light away. This was accom-
plished either by sinking, or, as gardeners say, " plunging," the pots
nearly to the rim in sand, moss, or soil, or, when the pots were not
plunged, by fitting closely to the outside of each a removable cuff, as
it were, made of the opaque gray blotting paper used in pressing
specimens of plants. The use of a pot with transparent walls was
found to be of very great importance in the study of these plants, for
plants identical in appearance so far as the parts above ground were
concerned sometimes showed the most pronounced differences in the
growth and behavior of the roots, differences which otherwise would
not have been observed but which were in reality responsible for the
conspicuous changes that later took place in the growth of the stems
and leaves. The use of such glass pots, drained and darkened, is
strongly recommended to plant experimenters who use pot cultures,
as they afford a means of acquiring easily an intimate knowledge of
the great variations in the behavior of the feeding organs, the roots,
under different conditions.

On December 22, 1908, six glass pots were filled with the garden
soil described above, and a seedling blueberry about an inch in height
was transplanted into each. The seed bed from which the seedlings
were taken had been allowed to become partially dry before the
transplanting was done. In this condition there was no difficulty in
removing all of the sandy soil adhering to the roots of a seedling, so
that after it was transplanted it must derive its soil nourishment
from the new soil exclusively. In potting, the roots of the plant
were laid against the glass on one side of the pot so that their
behavior could be observed from the very first.

A transplanting of six other plants was then made, similar in all
respects to the first except that the soil used was a peat mixture known
from earlier experiments to be productive of vigorous growth in
blueberry plants. The exact character of this soil will be discussed
later in this publication.

This peaty blueberry soil is ill suited to the growth of ordinary
plants, while in the garden soil ordinary plants flourish luxuriantly.
In order to bring out this fact clearly by an experiment six glass pots
containing this garden soil were planted with five alfalfa seeds each,
and six more with one rooted rose cutting each. An identical
planting was made in twelve pots of blueberry soil.

Average examples of the growth that took place in these plantings
are shown in figures 1 to 6, reproduced from drawings carefully made
from actual photographs. In the garden soil the rooted rose cut-
ting, which was of the variety known as Cardinal, made vigorous
growth of both root and stem, and in forty-four days, when the

193

16

EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

photograph was taken, had about quadrupled its leaf surface. In the
blueberr}^ soil the cutting was barely alive, the roots it had at the
time it was potted were nearly all dead, no new stem growth had been
made, and the leaflets it bore were only those still persisting from
the parent plant.

The alfalfa seeds began to germinate in both soils in three days.
At the end of a week a distinct difference in the color of the plants
was discernible. In the blueberry soil the seed leaves were darker
green in color, the midrib, which shows on the back of the leaf, was

Fir.. 1. — Rose cutting in rich garden soil.
(One-lialf natural size.)

Fig. 2. — Rose cutting in peat mix-
ture. (One-half natural size.)

purple, the stem was purple, and in some of the seed leaves the whole
under surface was purple. In the garden soil the seed leaves were
lighter green in color, and in only a few were the stems, and in still
fewer the midribs, somewhat purplish. At the end of forty-four days,
when the photographs reproduced in figures 3 and 4 were taken, the
alfalfa plants in the garden soil were 3 inches in height and vigorous,
Avhile the soil was crowded with roots on which nitrogen tubercles
had already begun to develop. In the blueberry soil the plants were
small leaved and sickly, about a third the height of the others, and

193

INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF RICH GARDEN SOIL.

17

the roots though long were slender and otherwise weak and bore no
tubercles.

In the case of the blueberry plants the relative growth in the two
soils took exactly the opposite course. At the end of the first week new
root growth had begun in all the pots containing blueberry soil, while
in those containing garden soil new root growth was apparent in only
one. At the end of forty-four days vigorous root growth had taken
place in the blueberry soil pots, and stem growth, which had been
interrupted at the time of transplanting, was well under way again.
In the garden soil, however, almost no root growth Avas discernible,
the old leaves were strongly purpled and stem and leaf growth had
not been resumed. Little attention was paid to these cultures during
the summer of 1909, but the relative condition of the two is fairly

Fig. 3. — Alfalfa seedlinjrs in rich garden soil.
(Oue-lialf natural size.)

Fig. 4.

-Alfalfa seedlings in peat mixture.
(One-half natural size.)

illustrated in figures 5 and G, from photographs taken November 22,
1909, after the leaves had fallen. The garden-soil pot contained only
a few stray roots, and the slender stems were only 2 inches high.
The pot containing blueberry soil was filled with a dense mass of
roots, and although the plant had not been repotted when it needed
repotting, the largest stem was nevertheless 11 inches long and the
weight of that part of the plant above ground was fifty-one times
that of the corresponding part of the garden-soil plant.

(2) The swamp blueberry does not thrive in a heavily manured soil.

In May, 1909, two healthy and vigorous blueberry seedlings were

sent for trial to one of the agricultural experiment stations. They

were set out in a soil that was known to be suitable for these plants,

for old blueberry bushes had been growing there for several years.

54708°— Bull. 193—10 2

18

EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

The man who put the bhieberry seedlings in
the ground, however, misunderstanding the
directions sent him, filled in the holes in which
he set the plants with alternate layers of soil
and Avell-rotted stable manure. The writer ex-
amined the plants on August 27, 1900. when
they should have been either growing vigor-
ously or, with mature foliage, ripening their
Avood for the winter. Instead they had lost
nearly all their older leaves though still main-
taining a feeble and spindling growth at the
ends of the larger stems. The adjacent old
bushes growing in precisely the same soil, ex-
cept that it had not received the heavy appli-
cation of manure, bore at the same time vigor-
ous dark-green foliage and were ripening the
wood of their stout twigs and laying down
their flowering buds for the following year.
The manured plants when dug up and exam-
ined showed no new root growth whatever in
the manured soil outside the old earth ball, and
most of the roots on the surface of the ball
itself were dead.

Another experiment may be cited to show
the injurious eifect of heavy manuring. On
December 22, 1908, six blueberry seedlings were
transplanted into as many glass pots in a good
blueberry soil, and six
other seedlings w^ere
potted in the same
manner, except that to
each two parts of blue-
berry soil one part of
well-rotted but un-
leached cow manure
was added. At first
the manured plants
appeared, superficially,
to be doing better than
those not manured, for
in the former the pro-
duction of ncAv leaves
and the continued
growth of the stem tip

193

f¥^\M^::-'

D

Fig. 5. — Bhieherry seedling
in rich garden soil. (One-
half natural size.)

//

Fig. 0. — Blnolu'rry seedling
in peat mixture. (One-
half natural size.)

BLUEBEREIES WANTING IN LIMESTONE SOILS. 19

were not interrupted by the potting, while in the plants not mamired
there was a temporary but definite stopping of stem growth imme-
diately after the potting. The apparent superiority of growth in the
manured plants, above ground, continued for about three weeks. Be-
low ground, the roots of the two cultures shoAved directly opposite
results. In the plants without manure, new root growth began a few
dnjs after potting. At the end of three weeks the development of an
extensive root system was well under way and the plants were nearly
ready for a period of vigorous stem growth. In the manured plants,
however, either no root groAvth took place or only a slight amount,
the new rootlets being fewer, shorter, and stouter than in normal
plants. The old rootlets turned brown and appeared to be dead or
dying. (See p. 64.) At the end of five weeks the growth of the
tops was very sIoav. About ten days later, on February 6, a bright
Avarm day, the loAver lea\'es on three plants Avithered, and Avithin a
feAv Aveeks all six of the manured plants Avere dead.

(3) The swamp blueberry does not thrive in a soil made sweet by lime.

In its natural distribution the blueberry, like almost all plants
of this and the heather family, aA'oids limestone soils. The fertile
limestone areas of western Xew York, of Ohio, of Kentuclns and
of Tennessee lack the blueberry, the huckleberry, the laurel {Kalmia
JatifoUa), and the trailing arbutus {Epigaea repens). The State
of Alabama, as described by Charles Mohr in volume 6 of Contri-
butions from the United States National Herbarium, is traversed
from east to west in the general latitude of Montgomerj^ by a strip
of dark calcareous soil, 35 to 45 miles in Avidth, the so-called " black
belt," Avhich constitutes the great agricultural region of the State.
The noncalcareous areas north and south of this strip have in their
forests a characteristic undergrowth of blueberries and closely re-
lated plants, including huckleberries, farkleberries, and deerberries.
In the intermediate belt of black limestone soil, just described, the
plants of blueberry relationship are almost wholly wanting.

In an article entitled " The Soil Preferences of Certain Alpine
and Subalpine Plants," "' Mr. M. L. Fernald discusses the natural
distribution of over 250 species of plants found in the cold parts
of the northeastern United States and Canada. All the blueberries
he enumerates, five species, avoided calcareous soils, and the other
l)lants of the blueberry and heather families almost without excep-
tion occurred likewise on noncalcareous formations.

The Avriter's own experiments in groAving blueberries in limed
soils haA^e not proceeded Avith the same smoothness as some of his
other experiments, but the results, though at first misleading, have
uniformlv been exceedingly instructive, though not ahvaA's in the

^Rhodora, vol. 9, 1907, pp. 149-193.
193

20 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

direction originally contemjjlated, and in the end have been fully
conclusive.

On May 26, 1908, six blueberry seedlings were potted in six 14-
ounce drinking glasses in a good i^eaty blueberry soil, in which,
however, 1 per cent of air-slaked lime ° had been mixed immediately
before the potting was done. Six other plants were similarly potted,
but without the addition of lime. The unlimed plants grew
normally. The younger leaves of the limed j^lants, however, began
to wilt the same day on which they were potted. On June 1 all
the leaves on all six plants were withered, though parts of the stems
were still green and i^lump. Tlie leaves did not turn purplish or
yellowish, as is usual with sickly blueberr}' plants, but either re-
tained their green color after withering or turned brown. No new
root growth took place in any of the limed pots, and by July 10 all
the plants were dead.

Another series of six plants, also potted on May 26, 1908, but m
a sterile soil containing no peat, by accident received a very small
amount of lime. Most of the leaves on these plants withered during
the first few days, but the plants subsequently recovered and made
as good growth as could have been expected from the general char-
acter of their soil.

From these experiments the writer concluded that the blueberry
was exceedingly sensitive to lime and that the slightest admixture
of it in the soil would be immediately fatal to the life or at least
the health of a blueberry plant. This conclusion, however, was
erroneous, as subsequent experience showed. This first experiment
may therefore be dismissed with tlie explanation that in all proba-
bility the immediate collapse of the plants was due to a caustic effect
of the lime used. In none of the later lime experiments did this
immediate collapse occur and in none was the lime so applied that
it came into contact with the blueberry roots while in a caustic
condition.

Still laboring under an erroneous conception of the supersensi-
tiveness of the blueberry plant to minute quantities of lime, the
writer, desiring to produce fresh examples of this phenomenon, in
November, 1908, placed a very small quantity, a few milligrams, of
air-slaked lime on the surface of the soil in each of three 2-inch
pots containing a small blueberry plant. No effect was produced
either at first or for several weeks. On December 19, 1908, a large
surface application of carbonate of lime was made to the same three
plants, a gram to each pot, and the lime was washed down with
water. The expected collapse did not occur. The limed plants con-
tinued to grow as luxuriantly as their unlimed neighbors. The con-

° Computed ou the dry weight of the soil.

193

SLOW PERCOLATION OF LIME THROUGH PEAT. 21

elusion was reached that the reason why the growth of the plants had
not been affected was because the lime had not penetrated sufficiently
into the soil. Another and more drastic experiment was therefore
determined upon.

On March 10, 1909, six blueberry plants in 4-inch pots containing
a good blueberry soil were set apart from their fellows and watered
^Yith ordinary limewater, a saturated solution of calcium oxid, 1.25
grams per liter of water. The af)plications made*were of such an
amoimt that the soil in the pot was thoroughly wetted each time, and
usually a small excess quantity ran through the hole in the bottom
of the pot.

For more than seven months, until October 22, 1909, these pots
received no other water than limewater. During this period the
plants continued to grow in a normal manner, their average height
increasing from 4| to 14 inches. The lime appeared to have no
deterrent etfect whatever on the growth of the plants. A computation
based on the total amount of limewater used showed that each pot
must have received about 18 grams of lime. An analysis of the soil
in one of the pots after the limewater applications had ceased gave
14 grams. This amount was enormous, considered from the stand-
point of agricultural usage. The soil, which had about one-third
the weight of a*i ordinary soil, was over 8 per cent lime. This is the
equivalent of about 25 tons of lime per acre mixed into the upper
6 inches of the soil.

Now, it was already known from the experiment described on page
23 that in this soil when containing as much as 1 per cent of lime
blueberry plants should either die or barel}^ remain alive. As a
matter of fact these limewater plants were making excellent growth.
A careful examination of the contents of one of the pots was then
made. The surface of the soil was covered with a hard gray crust
of lime. Immediately underneath for a depth of about half an inch
the soil was black and contained no live blueberry roots. There was
a zone of the same black rootless soil along the wooden label that
reached from the top to the bottom of the pot. In all other parts
of the dark-brown peaty soil there was a dense mass of healthy
roots, which reached down also into the open spaces among the
broken crocks in the bottom of the pot. The lime appeared to have
penetrated only into the superficial portions of the soil. A chemical
test showed that the black rootless layer was densely impregnated
with liuie, while the brown peaty portion containing the growing
roots still o'ave the acid reaction that was characteristic of the whole
potful of soil before the limewater applications began.

Since all the water that the limeless root-bearing portion of the
soil had received during the preceding seven months had come from
the limewater applications, it was evident that the lime contained

193

22 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

in the limewater had been deposited in the upper laj'ers of the soil.
The following laboratory experiment confirmed this. A small quan-
tity of the acid peaty soil used in growing blueberries was placed
in a o-lass vessel and moistened. Then dilute limewater reddened by
the addition of phenolphthalein, a substance giving a delicate color
test for alkalies such as lime, was stirred into the soil and the mixture
poured into an ordinary paper filter. The water came through the
filter without a trace of red color, showed none after boiling, to drive
off any possible carbonic acid, and when tested with ammonia and
ammonium oxalate showed not a trace of lime. The precipitation
of the lime had been complete and practically instantaneous. Only
ten seconds had elapsed between the time when the limewater was
added to the soil and the time when the liquid entirely free from lime
began to drop through the filter.

In order to ascertain whether a large part of the lime in the lime-
water used on the plants may not have passed through the pots by
running down the partially open channel along the label, some lime-
water was poured upon the surface of one of the pots. The excess
water that soon began to drip through tlie bottom of the pot was
tested for lime. It was found that while the limewater poured into
the pot contained 0.1014 per cent of lime, the water that came
through contained only 0.004(3 per cent. In other w:ords a pot of soil
that for over seven months had been used essentially as a limewater
filter still continued to extract over 95 per cent of the lime contained
in the limewater that was passed through it, notwithstanding the
fact that there was a partially open channel down one side of the
pot. It is believed that had the soil been evenly compacted in the
pot no lime whatever would have been able to pass through, bu.t that
all would have been precipitated in the uppermost layers.

While the experiment has no important bearing on the subject of
blueberry culture it is of very great significance in its bearing on the
method of applying lime to acid soils in ordinary agricultural prac-
tice. A surface application of lime would have no appreciable effect
in neutralizing the acidity of a soil unless the soil was so sandy or
gravelly or otherwise open that the rain water containing the dis-
solved lime could run down through it practically without obstruc-
tion. A surface dressing of lime would have little effect in neutraliz-
ing the acidity of an old meadow or pasture. To secure full action
of the lime, as now generally recognized in the best agricultural
practice, requires its intimate mixing with the soil, such as can be
accomplished by thorough harrowing, especially after joutting the
lime beneath the surface Avith a drill. A full discussion of the phys-
ical reasons for the deposition of the lime in the upper layers of the
soil, when not worked into it mechanically, is given in Bulletin 52 of
the Bureau of Soils, published in 1008.

193

INJURIOUS EFFECT OF LIME.

23

Among the experiments with bhieberry seedlings in different soil
mixtures started on December 22, 1908, was one in which six plants
were set in glass pots in a peaty soil thoroughly intermixed with
1 per cent ofcarbonate of lime. The first difference that showed be-
tween these and unlimed plants in the same soil was the much feebler
root growth of the limed plants. This w^as followed by an evident
tendency toward feebler stem growth. The relative condition of the
two cultures on April 13, 1009. is shown by photographs of represent-
ative plants reproduced as figures T and 8. The later progress of this

Fig. 7. — Bhielien-y seedling in peat mixture Fig. 8. — Blueberry seedling in peat mixture
limed. (One-half natural size.) unlimed. (Oue-half natural size.)

experiment was interrupted, hoAvever, and its average results vitiated
because the roots of some of the limed plants found their way through
the holes in the bottom of the pots and obtained nourishment from
the unlimed material in which the pots were plunged. Such plants
made nearly as good growth as the unlimed plants. On November
27, 1009, there remained only one of the limed plants whose roots
Avere all inside the pot. This plant was feeble and small, its stem
being only 2^ inches high. Its inferiority to the unlimed plants was
almost as conspicuous as that of the garden-soil plants described on
page IT and illustrated in figure 5.

193

24 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

(4) The swamp blueberry does not thrive in a heavy clay soil.

In its natural geographic distribution the blueberry shows an
aversion to clay soils. Its favorite situations are swamps, sandy
lands, or porous, often gravelly loams. When a blueberry plant
grows upon a clay soil it is usually found that its finer feeding roots
rest in a layer of half-rotted vegetable matter overlying the clay.
Often in such situations the dense covering of interwoven rootlets
and dark peatlike soil may be ripped from the surface in a layer
little thicker than a door mat and of much the same texture. The
roots of the blueberry do not penetrate freely into the underlying clay.

In greenhouse cultures the blueberry shows the same aversion to
clay soils. Various series of blueberry seedlings were potted on May
26, 1908, in different soils in ordinary large drinking glasses. For
one set of six plants a stiff clayey soil was used, such as is common
in the neighborhood of Washington, D. C. The soil in the glass was
mulched to the depth of nearly an inch with half-rotted leaves. In
another six glasses were set six similar plants in a peat soil, the sur-
face mulched in the same way as the others.

In other experiments with this clay soil in earthen pots, the growth
of the plants had always been poor. The present experiment was no
exception. But the feature of greatest interest was the behavior of
the roots. Plate I, from photographs taken October 5, 1908, shows
the root systems of typical plants in the two soils. In the clay soil
almost no root development took place, and in the illustration no
roots are visible. The interrupted black lines in the clay are tunnels
made by larvae or other animals. In the moist leaf mulch covering
the clay, however, the plant developed its roots extensively. Some of
the plants, probably because they were set too deeply in the clay
when the potting was done, failed to send their roots up into the
mulch, and such plants were much inferior in their growth to those
that found the rotted leaves. In the other glass is shown the normal
root growth of a blueberry in a soil suited to it.

(5) The swamp blueberry does not thrive in a thoroughly decomposed leaf

mold, such as has a neutral reaction.

It had been found in earlier experiments that certain soils com-
posed in part of imperfectly rotted oak leaves were good for growing
blueberries. On the supposition that the more thoroughl}^ rotted this
material was the better suited it would be for blueberry growing, a
quantity of old leaf mold was secured for an experiment. The mold
was black, mellow, and of fine texture. The mixed oak and maple
leaves from which it was derived had been rotting for about five
years, until all evidences of leaf structure had disappeared. It had
the same appearance as the black vegetable mold that forms in rich
woods where trilliums, spring beauty, and bloodroot delight to grow.

193

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

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INJUEIOUS EFFECT OF LEAF MOLD. 25

On February 20, 1909, 25 blueberry seedlings were potted in 3-inch
earthenware pots in a mixture consisting of eight parts by bulk of
the leaf mold just described, one part of clean sand, and one part of
clayey loam derived from rotted grass turf. Fifty other plants were
potted in the same manner except that in place of the mold a peat
was used known from earlier experiments to be well suited to blue-
berry growing. The plants were kept in the greenhouse until warm
weather when they were placed outdoors. All were given the same
treatment, a treatment favorable to good growth.

It had been expected that the plants in the leaf mold would show a
vigorous growth, and it was hoped that the mold might prove even
superior to the peat for blueberry soil mixtures. The experiment as
it progressed, however, showed that such was not the case. The leaf
mold proved to be not merely not a good soil for blueberries but an
extremely poor one, as the following particulars will show.

A\Tien the plants were potted they averaged about 2^ inches in
height. On May 29 the peat-soil plants had an average height of 7{
inches, while the leaf -mold plants averaged 4j inches. At this time
the herbage of the leaf -mold plants was decidedly purpled and yel-
lowish, a coloration which they had taken on soon after they were
potted and from which they never fully recovered. At the end of the
season, after the leaves were shed, the peat-soil plants averaged 13;^
inches in height and the leaf-mold plants Tf inches. On November 29,
1909, five average plants from each lot were cut otf at the surface of
the ground and weighed. The weight of the stems from the leaf -mold
plants was less than one-fifth that from the plants in the good blue-
berry soil.

When these plants were removed from their original seed bed to
be transplanted to the 3-inch pots, such of the original soil as clung
to their roots Avas not shaken off. It is believed that the leaf-mold
plants fed in part on this original soil in making their new growth,
and that without it they would have shown still less increase in
height than they did. The peat-soil plants, moreover, were badly in
need of repotting, even in early summer, and had they been placed in
larger pots the difference in the growth of the plants in the two soils
w^ould have been much greater than it was.

That the influence of the leaf mold was directly deleterious and
that the poor growth of the blueberry plants in it was not due to the
lack of some element that might have been furnished b}^ the addition
of a small amount of the good blueberry soil is show^n by certain inter-
mediate experiments. Along with the cultures described above were
carried two others in which the soil mixtures contained both peat and
leaf mold. In the first, in which the proportion was peat 5, mold 3,
sand 1, and loam 1, the average height of the plants on May 29

193

26 EXPERIMENTS IX BLUEBEEEY CULTUEE.

was 6 inches, and at the end of the season 12^ inches. In the second
lot, in which the proportion was peat 3. mold 5. sand 1, and loam 1,
the average height on ]May 29 was 44 inches, and at the end of the
season llf inches. It will be observed that these two lots of plants
are intermediate in their growth between the first two and that in all
four lots the povert}" of growth is roughly proportional to the amount
of leaf mold used in the soil.

That the weak growth of the plants in leaf mold was not caused by
a compacting of the soil and a lack of aeration, due to too small a
proportion of sand in the mixture, is shown by still another lot of 25
plants which were potted in a soil mixture having the proportion of
mold 6, sand 3. and loam 1. These plants averaged only 4 inches in
height on May 29 and 6^ inches at the end of the season. They grew
even less, therefore, than the plants with only 1 part of sand and 8
parts of mold.

In Plate II. from a photograph made in the winter of 1909-10. is
shown a flat divided into three parts and set on February 10, 1909,
with blueberr}' seedlings of uniform size. The soil in the middle
compartment is a mixture of leaf mold 8 parts, sand 1 part, and loam
1 part. In the compartment to the left the soil is in the proportion
of kalmia peat 8. sand 1. and loam 1: and in the right-hand com-
partment, kalmia peat 4. leaf mold 4, sand 1. and loam 1. It will be
observed that the greater the amount of leaf mold the poorer the
growth of the blueberry plants.

The reason for the unexpected deleterious effect of leaf mold, as
shown by these experiments, is given on page 29 and further discussed
on page 35.

(6) The swamp blueberry does ^*0T thrive in soils having a neutral or

ALKALINE REACTION, JiVT FOE VIGOROUS GROWTH IT REQUIRES AN ACID SOIL.

The consideration of this statement requires first an understanding
of the means used to determine whether a soil is acid or alkaline.
The simplest means is the litmus test.

While one may become sufficiently expert in the use of the litmus
test to form a fair judgment of the degree of alkalinity or acidity in
a soil, an exact determination requires some different method. It
was found that for the weak acids prevalent in the peat soils to the
examination of which the present experiments led. the phenol-
phthalein test was the most satisfactory. If a few drops of phe-
nolphthalein indicator be added to a solution, the solution, if
alkaline, turns instantly pink, and if acid or neutral its color does
not change. The application of this phenomenon to the determina-
tion of the degree of acidity of an acid solution is as follows: A
definite amount of the solution, usually 100 cubic centimeters, is
placed in a beaker, a few drops of an alcoholic solution of phenol-

193

Bui. 1 93, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

CD

r
c
rn

CD

in
3)

<

CO

m
m
o

r_
^

o
en

X
m
>

>

z

D

m
>

o

r
o

METHOD OF TESTING SOIL ACIDITY. 27

phthalein are added, and into this is stirred drop by drop from a
graduated glass tube provided with a stopcock, known as a burette,
a measured amount of some alkaline solution of known strength,
commonly a one-twentieth normal solution, as it is known to chem-
ists, of sodium hydrate. When a sufficient amount of the sodium-
hydrate solution has been dropped into the beaker, the acidity of the
acid solution becomes neutralized and it turns pink. A reading is
made on the burette showing the exact amount of the sodium-hydrate
solution used in elfecting the neutralization. From this reading is
computed the degree of acidity expressed in fractions of a normal
acid solution. Now 100 c. c. of a normal acid solution would require
for its neutralization 100 c. c. of a normal solution of sodium hydrate,
or 2,000 c. c. of a one-twentieth or 0.05 normal solution. In a test of
one of the acid nutrient solutions used in the blueberry cultures,
18 c. c. of a 0.05 normal solution was required to neutralize the acidity
of 100 c. c. of the acid solution. Since 18 c. c. of a 0.05 normal
solution is the equivalent of one-twentieth that amount, or 0.9 c. c. of
a normal solution, the degree of acidity of this acid solution is 0.009
normal. It requires an equal amount of a 0.009 normal alkaline
solution to neutralize it.

In applying this phenolphthalein test to soils the same scale is
used. A soil is regarded as having normal acidity when the acid ex-
isting in a gram of the soil if dissolved in 1 c. c, of water gives a nor-
mal acid solution. If a soil were described as having an acidity of
0.02 normal, it would mean that the extract of 100 grams of it in 100
c. c. of water would be a 0.02 normal acid solution ; that is, that 100
c. c. of the solution would contain 2 c. c. of a normal acid solution.

The method of extraction followed for all the soil acidity tests
given in this paper is as follows : The soil is first air dried at an ordi-
narj'^ room temperature. Ten grams are then weighed out, shaken thor-
oughly with 200 c. c. of hot water, and allowed to stand over night.
In the morning 100 c. c. is filtered otf and boiled to drive away any
carbon dioxid present. The solution is then titrated with a 0.05 nor-
mal solution of sodium hydrate, using phenolphthalein as an indi-
cator. All the tests were made by Mr. J. F. Breazeale. of the Bureau
of Chemistry, to whom the writer is greatly indebted for many cour-
tesies and suggestions on the chemical side of the experiments.

The expression " normal solution " used in this paper, it must be
understood, is the normal solution of chemists, not of surgeons.
Surgeons use the expression " normal salt solution " to describe a cer-
tain weak solution of common salt in water which has the same
osmotic pressure as the blood. A normal solution in chemistry is a
solution of certain fixed strength, or concentration, based on the
molecular Aveight of the substance under consideration. Normal solu-

193

28 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

tions of the various acids have the same degree of acidity. Normal
sohitions of alkaline substances are equal to each other in alkalinity.
A measured amount of a normal solution of an acid will exactly
neutralize an equal amount of a normal solution of an alkaline sub-
stance.

In considering the degree of acidity from the standpoint of the
sense of taste it is convenient to remember that the juice of an ordi-
nary lemon is very nearly a normal solution of citric acid. The juice
of the lemon contains usually from 6 to 7 per cent of citric acid. A
normal solution of citric acid is 6.4 per cent. When the juice of a
lemon is diluted to about ten times its original bulk, as in a large
drinking glass, one has approximately a 0.1 normal acid solution.
When diluted to 100 times, making about a 0.01 normal solution,
there remains only a faint taste of acidity. The acidity of water
after standing long in contact with peat in a barrel sometimes reached
0.005 normal. Bog water, or peat water, is sometimes appreciably
acid to the taste.

Returning now to a consideration of the statement that the swamp
blueberry does not thrive in a neutral or alkaline soil an experiment
in this direction may first be cited. The experiment was made with
twelve small glass pots, each containing a blueberry seedling. The
soil in the pots was a clean river sand. The plants had been in these
pots for eight weeks, watered with tap water. The amount of
nourishment they had received during this time was therefore very
small, especially since, when transplanted into the pots, all the soil
of the original seed bed had been carefully removed from the roots.
Nevertheless during these eight weeks all the plants had made exten-
sive, even luxuriant, root growth. The tops, however, had made no
growth. There had been complete stagnation or withering of the
youngest leaf rudiments, and the mature leaves became and remained
deeply purpled.

Beginning on February 17, 1909, eight weeks after the plants had
been potted in the sand, as already stated, five of the pots were wa-
tered with an acid nutrient solution made up, in accordance Avith the
advice of Mr. Karl F. Kellerman, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, as
follows :

Potassium nitrate (KNO3) 1. 0 gram.

Magnesium sulphate (MgS04) 0.4 gram.

Calcium sulphate (CaS04) 0. 5 gram.

Calcium monophosphate (CaH4P20s) 0.5 gram.

Sodium chlorid (NaCl) 0. 5 gram.

Ferric chlorid (FeCU) Trace.

Water 1' <500 c. c.

This solution gave an acidity test of 0.012 normal.

193

INJURIOUS EFFECT OF ALKALINE SOILS. 29

Five other plants from the same twelve were watered with an alka-
line nutritive solution of the following composition :

-Potassium nitrate (KNO3) 1. 0 gram.

Magnesium sulphate (MgSOi) 0.4 gram.

Calcium sulphate (CaS04) 0. 5 gram.

Potassium diphosphate (KH2PO4) 0. 4 gram.

Sodium chlorid (NaCl) 0. 5 gram.

Ferric chlorid (FeCla) Trace.

Water 1, 000 c. c.

By the addition of a sufficient quantity of sodium hydrate the re-
action of this solution was made alkaline to the degree of 0.006
normal.

Two of the twelve plants were left as checks, being still watered
with tap water.

On March 25, thirty-six days after the watering began, the five
plants fed with the acid nutritive solution were restored to a nearly
normal green color, and all had begun to put out healthy new growth.
The two check plants watered with tap water were still red-purple
and stagnant. Of the five plants watered with the alkaline nutrient
solution, three were stagnant and somewhat purplish, one was dying,
and one was dead.

Figures 9 and 10, from photographs taken on April 15, 1009,
show a typical stagnant plant that had been watered with the alka-
line solution, and a typical plant watered with the acid solution which
had begun to make new growth from the summit of the old stem and
was pushing out a vigorous new shoot from the base. The experi-
ment was terminated not long afterwards, but there was every pros-
pect that had it been continued the acid-fed plants would soon have
made growth comparable with that shown in figure 8 (p. 23).

Looking toward the aciditv or alkalinitv of the other cultures thus
far cited, it may be stated that the rich garden soil described on
page 14, which was so remarkably deleterious to blueberry seedlings,
was alkaline. The rose cuttings and the alfalfa, which grew so well
in that mixture, much prefer a somewhat alkaline soil. Indeed,
alfalfa can not be grown with any degree of success in any soil
except one with an alkaline reaction. AAlien grown in the humid
eastern United States alfalfa is rarely successful, except on calcareous
soils, unless the natural acidity of the soil has been neutralized by
suitable applications of lime.

The limed soil, deleterious to blueberry plants, described on page
23, gave a neutral reaction with phenolphthalein.

The heavy clay soil described on page 24, in which blueberry plants
made very little growth, Avas neutral.

The thoroughly decomposed leaf mold described on pages 24 to 2G,
which was shown by experiment to be markedly deleterious to the

193

30

EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

blneberr}^, was distinctly alkaline. A chemical analysis of this mold
showed that it contained 2.86 per cent of calcium oxid.

The good blueberry soils in all the experiments were acid, the acidity
at times of active growth varying from 0.025 normal down to 0.005
normal.

It is of interest and suggestive of utility in indicating the acid or
nonacicl character of soils to record that in the case of the alkaline
leaf mold described on page 24 the surface of the soil in all the pots
became covered in a few months with a growth of a small moss iden-

tified through the courtesy of Mrs. N. L.

Britton as Physcomitrium
iminersum. On the sur-
face of acid kalmia-peat
soils the characteristic
green growth consisted of
microscopic alga^, accom-
l^anied often by fern pro-
thallia and other mosses,
but never Physcomi-
trium.

The natural distribu-
tion of blueberries and
their relatives indicates
their close adherence to
acid soils. They occur in
abundance throughout the
sandy Coastal Plain of the
Atlantic seaboard. They
occur generally through
the cool humid hill lands
of New England. They
occur in sandy pine bar-
rens and peat bogs
throughout the eastern
United States. They are absent, on the contrary, from limestone
soils, rich bottom lands, and rich woods, where the soils are neutral
or alkaline. In the lower elevations of the whole subarid West, where
acid soils are almost unknown, these plants do not occur. Within
reach of the fogs and heavv rainfall of the Pacific coast or on the
higher mountains of the interior, where conditions favor the devel-
opment of acid soils, blueberries occur again m characteristic abun-
dance.

From an examination of the reports of those who have attempted
at the agricultural experiment stations to domesticate and improve
the blueberry, it is evident in the light of the present experiments
that the primary reason for these failures was that they did not recog-

193

Fig. 9. — Blueberry seedlins fed with alkaline nutrient
solution. (Natural size. )

BENEFICIAL EFFECT OF PEAT.

31

nize soil acidity as a fundamental requirement of these plants. It
was perhaps natural to give the blueberry the same garden culture
that when applied to other bush fruits has resulted in their distinct
improvement. But the ordinary garden operations tend to make even
an acid soil neutral or alkaline, and in such a soil the blueberry does
not thrive.

The death and decay of blueberry roots, with which the injurious
effect of alkaline soils is associated, are discussed on pages 64 and 05.

(7) The favorite type of acid soil for the swamp blueberry is peat.

Although the swamp blueberrj^ sometimes grows on upland soils
its typical habitat, as its name implies, is in swamps or bogs. The
cranberry, it is well
known, is cultivated al-
most exclusively in bogs.
In clearing bog land pre-
paratory to the planting
of cranberries one of the
necessary precautions is to
remove all roots of the
SAvaniiD blueberry. If the
roots are allowed to re-
nuiin in the ground, they
send u]) vigorous shoots,
and these, unless pulled,
develop into robust plants
which occupy the ground
to the great injury of
the cranberries. Large,
healthy, and productive
bushes of the swamp blue-
berry are frequent, almost
characteristic, inhabitants
of the uncultivated bor-
ders of cranberrv boo:s.

Peat bogs, in the con-
ception of geologists, are
incipient coal beds. The
transformation of peat
into coal occupies very
long periods, perhaps some
uiillions of years. Peat is made np chiefly of vegetable matter,
the dead leaves, stems, and roots, of bog plants which are only
partly decayed. Their full decay is prevented primarily by
the presence of w^ater, which keeps away the air. The bacteria,

193

Fig. 10. — Blueberry seedling fed with acid nutrient
solution. ( Natural size. I

32 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

fungi, and other organisms by which ordinary decomposition pro-
gresses can not live under this condition and decay is suspended.
The acids developed by this vegetable matter in the early stages of
its decomposition are also destructive to some of the organisms of
deca}^, especially bacteria. These acids act therefore as preserva-
tives and greatly assist in preventing decomposition. So effective
are these conditions of acidity and lack of oxygen, assisted in north-
ern latitudes by low temperature, which is also inimical to the organ-
isms of decay, that bogs sometimes preserve for thousands of years
the most delicate structures of ferns and mosses.

Tests have been made of the acidity of typical peat bogs in New
England where swamp blueberries are growing. These peats were
always found to be acid and the degree of acidity was within the
range found satisfactory for blueberr}^ plants in pot cultures.

The reason why peat is a particularly satisfactory type of acid soil
for blueberries is, apjjarentW , because the acidity of peat is of a mild
type, yet continually maintained.

Not all peats are acid. About the larger alkaline (but not destruc-
tiveh^ alkaline) springs of our southwestern desert region are
deep deposits of rather well-decayed vegetable matter that must
be classed as peat. The characteristic vegetation growing on these
peats is tule {Scirpns occidentalis and S. olneyi). The water of
one of the great tule swamps of the West (Lower Klamath Lake in
southern Oregon), which contains thick beds of peat formed chiefly
from Scirpus occidentalis, has been examined recently by Mr. J. F.
Breazeale, at the request of Mr. C. S. Scofield. It was found to con-
tain sodium carbonate, and the peat gave a distinctly alkaline reaction.

The peat formed about marl ponds in the eastern United States
is also, in all probability, alkaline unless formed at a sufficient dis-
tance from the lime-laden water to be beyond the reach of its acid-
neutralizing influence.

Such alkaline peat-s, while not actually tried, are believed from
other experiments to be quite useless for groAving blueberries. Cer-
tain it is that neither blueberries nor any of their immediate relatives
are found on these soils in a wild state. In the eastern United
States, however, such alkaline peats are comparatively rare, and the
use of the word " peat " conveys ordinarily the idea of acidity. All
the soils used by gardeners under the name of peat are acid.

(8) Peat suitable for thf swamp blueberry may be found either in bocs or
ON the surface of the ground in sandy oak or pine woods.

In the vicinity of Washington deposits of bog peat are few and of
limited extent, and the peat is thin. As a matter of fact no bog peat
of local origin is used by the gardeners and florists of AA^ashington.
For growing orchids, ferns, azaleas, and other peat-loving plants,
either peat shipped from New Jersey is used or a local product some-

193

FORMATION OF KALMIA PEAT. 33

times known as " Maryland peat." This material is not a bog peat at
all, and since it is of very great interest in connection with these blue-
berry experiments, for it was the principal ingredient in a majority
of the successful soil mixtures used, it is desirable that the reader
have a comprehensive idea of its character.

Maryland peat, as brought to the greenhouses of the United States
Department of Agriculture, consists of dark-brown turfs or mats, 2 to
4 inches thick, made up of partially decomposed leaves interlaced with
fine roots. It is found in thickets of the American laurel {Kalmia
latifol'id) where the leaves of this shrub, usually mixed with those of
various species of oak, have lodged year after year and the ac-
cumulated layers have become partly decayed.

The nature of the deposit may be easily comprehended by means
of the accompanying illustrations. The photographs from which the
illustrations were made were secured through the courtesy and skill
of Mr. G. N. Collins, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The photo-
graphs were made in the month of April, 1908, in a laurel thicket at
Lanham, Md. After one photograph was made, the layer of leaves
represented by it was removed and another photograph was taken
showing the layer immediately underneath.

In Plate III, figure 1, is shown the top layer of the leaf deposit aS
it appeared in April, 1908, consisting of oak leaves of various species
which fell to the ground in the autumn of 1907. The next under-
lying layer is shown in Plate III, figure 2. The laurel leaves here
shown are those that fell in the summer of 1907. Laurel being an
evergreen, its leaves are not shed in the autumn like those of the oaks.
They remain on the bush until the new leaves of the following spring
are fully developed and then the old leaves begin to fall. It is this
circumstance of the fall of the oak and laurel leaves at different
periods of the year that enables one to recognize the different layers
and know their exact age. The third layer, shown in Plate IV, figure
1, consists of oak leaves of the autumn of 1906. This layer was moist
and decomposition was well started. The presence of fungous growth
is evident, as is also the excrement of various small animals. Myria-
pods, or thousand-legged worms, and the larvfe of insects must play a
very important part under some conditions in hastening the de-
composition of leaves. The fourth layer, Plate IV, figure 2, consist-
ing of laurel leaves shed in the summer of 1906, is in about the same
condition as the preceding layer. In the fifth layer, Plate V, figure 1,
are shown the leaves of 1905, but the layer of oak leaves is not readily
separable from the laurel. The rotted leaves crumble readily and
decomposition has so far progressed that a few oak rootlets are found
spread out betAveen the flattened leaves. Plate V, figure 2, shows the
rotted leaf layers of 1904 interlaced with the rootlets of laurel and oak.
It is this root-bearing layer, 2 inches or more in thickness, of which
54708°— Bull. 193—10 3

34 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

Maryland peat is composed. The lower portions of it reach a some-
what greater degree of decomposition than is here shown.

In a rich woods of the trillium-producing type, such as a fertile
sugar-maple forest, one may observe that the leaves in rotting sel-
dom retain their form longer than two years and that the line of de-
marcation between the thin leaf litter of the forest and the underlying
w^oods mold is sharp and clear.

In the sugar-maple woods the decomposition of the leaves is rapid.
In the Maryland or kalmia peat, as it ma}" be called with more exact-
ness, the decomposition is slow. The cause of this difference in the
rate of decomposition is the difference of acidity in the two cases, and
this in turn is dependent on the nature of the leaves and of the under-
lying soil, particularly whether the soil is acid or alkaline. A slight
alkalinity in a soil greatly favors the decomposition of the leaves
overlying it. An acidity as strong as that shown to occur in newly
fallen oak leaves (see p. 62) can not help having a pronounced effect
in maintaining the aciditv of the lower leaf lavers; for it must be
remembered that these acids are soluble in rain water, and are there-
fore continually leaching down from the upper through the lower
layers of rotting leaves.

These upland leaf deposits, in which decomposition is retarded for
many years, the writer regards as essentiall}^ peat, and to distinguish
them from bog peats he would call them upland peats. An upland
peat may be described as a nonpaludose deposit of organic matter,
chiefly leaves, in a condition of suspended and imperfect decompo-
sition and still showing its original leaf structure, the suspension of
decomposition being due to the development and maintenance of an
acid condition which is inimical to the growth of the micro-organisms
of decay.

The use of the name '' leaf mold," sometimes applied to this upland
peat, should be restricted to the advanced stages in the decomposition
of leaves, in which leaf structure has disappeared. True leaf mold,
furthermore, is neutral or alkaline, so far as tested.

When kalmia peat is to be used for growing blueberries it should
be piled and rotted for several months. An experience which empha-
sizes the need of this treatment is given on page 60. If stacked
as soon as it is dug it usually retains sufficient moisture to carry the
rotting forward, even if the stack is under cover.

Kalmia peat has proved to be a highly successful soil for grownng
blueberries. It has been tried both pure and in many mixtures, as
will be described in the paragraphs beginning on page 51.

An upland peat formed of the leaves of scrub pine {Pinus virgin-
iana)has also been tried for blueberry seedlings. They grow well in it.

Oak leaves, it is believed, rotted for one or two years would make a
good blueberry soil. In the Arlington National Cemetery is a ravine

193

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Plate III.

Fig. 1.— Formation of Kalmia Peat, Top Layer.
Oak leaves of the preceding autumn. (Natural size.)

Fig. 2.— Formation of Kalmia Peat, Second Layer.
Kiilinia leaves of the preceding summer. (Natural size.)

Bui, 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IV,

Fig. 1.— Formation of Kalmia Peat, Third Layer.
Oak leaves 2 years old. (Nattiral size.)

Fig. 2.— Formation of Kalmia Peat, Fourth Layer.

Kalmia leaves '2 years old. (Natural size.)

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate V.

Fig. 1.— Formation of Kalmia Peat, Fifth Layer.
Mixed oak and kalmia leaves 3 years old. A few live rootlets of oak are shown. (Natural size.)

Fig. 2. -Formation of Kalmia Peat, Sixth Layer.

Mixed oak and kalmia leaves 4 years or more old interlaced with live rootlets of oak and kalmia

(Natural size.)

ACIDITY OF BOGS AND SANDY UPLANDS. 35

in whicli large quantities of leaves, chiefl}- oak, have been clumped
for many years. Samples taken there in late November, 1909, show
an acidity in the case of freshly fallen leaves of 0.4 normal; in leaves
apparently 1 year old, 0.006 ; and in leaves about 2 years old, 0.002.

A condition of great interest was found in one of these piles of
leaf mold which was several years old. It was mellow and black, and
the evidence of leaf structure had disappeared. When submitted to
the phenolphthalein test it proved to be alkaline, and upon chemical
examination it was found to contain 3.55 per cent of lime (CaO).
In this case decomposition had progressed so far, it is suggested, that
the lime in the leaves, remaining constant in amount and probably
having been changed to a more soluble state, had neutralized the
remaining acidity. The material, then becoming alkaline, had pro-
ceeded to decompose with greater rapidity, until a real mold had been
formed.

The condition here observed is doubtless the same as that which
occurs in the drained bog, or so-called " muck," lands of Michigan.
When first plowed they will grow only certain acid-resistant crops,
such as buckwheat or potatoes, but later, as their acidity disappears,
they come to attain a very high degree of fertility. It is probably a
phenomenon of similar character Avhich is taking place in the drained
swamp lands of the lower Sacramento River in California, where the
soil, which is already in a state of remarkable fertility, is becoming
increasingly alkaline.

Here allusion may be made to another phenomenon, that of the
occurrence of the swamp blueberry and certain other plants, such
as the purple lady's-slipper {Cypripedivm acaide) and the swamp
honeysuckle {Azalea nndifora)^ in two kinds of situations — one a
peat bog, the other a sandy, well-drained, and often dry upland. The
favorite explanation of this phenomenon among botanists is that these
plants are naturally adapted to the drier situation and that in the bog
they find a situation of " physiological dryness," or vice versa.
While the existence of physiological dryness in peat bogs is not
questioned, the explanation that a bog plant finds an upland situation
congenial because it is dry certainly will not answer for the blue-
berry. Its occurrence in these two habitats is dependent on the
acidity of both situations. These experiments have shown that no
amount of dryness will make a blueberry flourish in an upland soil
if that soil is not acid.

(9) Fob active growth the swamp blueberry requires a well-aerated soil.
Conversely, the swamp blueberry does not continue in active growth
IN a soil saturated with water.

In its natural distribution the swamp blueberry does not grow in
the lower, wetter tyj^e of bog. In a typical leatherleaf {Chamae-
daphne calycidata) bog, for example, the swamp blueberry is found

193

36 EXPERIMENTS IX BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

either about the margin of the bog or on hummocks. In both these
situations most of the roots of the bhieberry bushes stand above the
summer level of the water. ^Vlien a bog has l)een built up bv the
growth of vegetation and the accumulation of the debris until the
surface is above the summer water level, the swamp blueberry' will
occur ofenerallv over the bog.

An examination of blueberry plants occurring on hummocks and
bog margins has shown that such roots as extend beneath the per-
manent summer water level bear few feeding rootlets or none at all.

In one experiment it was attempted to grow blueberry seedlings
in water cultures containing various dissolved nutrients. It was
found that the roots made no new gi'owth. that the new leaves were
few and small, and that the general health of the plants was not
good, whatever the character of the nutrient substances in the solu-
tions. It was frequently observed also in the various soil cultures,
particularly those in undrained glass pots, that the continued satu-
ration of the soil with water reduced the root growth and enfeebled
the Avhole plant. Continued excessive watering of potted blueberry
plants Avas always found injurious.

The observations just recorded must not be understood to mean
that submergence of the roots is always injurious to the swamp blue-
berry. In winter and early spring the water level of bogs containing
blueberries often remains high enough for several months to com-
IDletely submerge the Avhole root system of the plants. On the lower
end of the AVankinco cranberry bog near Wareham, Mass., are some
native bushes of the swamp blueberry, the roots of which have been
submerged in 3 feet of water from December to ^lay each year for
about twenty years. These bushes when observed in September. 1909,
gave every evidence of vigor. Their twig growth was of gcK)d length
and thickness, their foliage was dense and of a healthy color, their
flowering buds for the next vear were fairlv numerous, and the bushes
were said to be as productive of fruit as neighboring bushes on higher
ground.

It would appear from these facts that, while submergence during
the dormant period is not injurious to the swamp blueberry, its roots
during their actively growing period must be kept above the water
level so as to be well aerated.

(10) .^XRATION CONDITIONS S.\TISFACTORY FOB THE SWAMP BLUEBKRBY ARE PREVA-
LENT IN SANDY SOILS.

The experiment cited above on this page showed that blueberry
seedlings having their roots suspended in nutrient solutions failed to
make a normal growth even though the solutions were suitably acidu-
lated. This failure was ascribed to lack of aeration. In another
experiment, described on pages 28 and 29, it was shown that a similar
nutrient solution when used to water a blueberry plant potted in sand
produced a normal growth of both roots and stems. The sand fur-

AERATION CONDITIONS IN SAND AND PEAT. 37

nished no appreciable nourislinient and the only essential difference
in the two cases was the abundant root aeration afforded by the sand
culture. Sand is therefore regarded as having been shown experi-
mentally to furnish conditions suitable for soil aeration.

In all the experiments in which blueberry seedlings were grown in
sard cultures suitably acidulated, the root growth was good, even
when very little nourishment was given the plant, and when fed with
a weakly acid nutrient solution or with peat water the sand-potted
plants always made a luxuriant root growtii.

In their wild state blueberries are especially prevalent on the sandy
soils of the Atlantic Coastal I*lain, as well as on sandy plains and i)ine
barrens in the inlci'ior. The drainage of such soils is good and their
aeration is excellent.

(11) Aeration conditions satisfactokv kou tuk swamp 1!luebekky akk found
in drained emjkous peat.

Kalmia peat when in the original turfs or mats is full of small
roots of oak, kalmia, and other plants. In that condition it is remark-
ably porous and w^ell aerated. Pieces of these turfs were used with
great success in the bottoms of pots, in place of crocks, to afford drain-
age. For a potting soil, however, kalmia peat can not easily be used
until the soil has been shaken from the mass of roots or has been
rulibed through a screen. Even in that condition the fragments of
leaves and rootlets make the whole mass porous. A ])()t containing
pure kalmia peat prepared by such rubbing often remains moist, yet
well aerated, for days at a time wnthout watering. This moisture con-
dition is due to two remarkable properties of peat, its ability to hold a
large amount of water, and the tenacity with which it clings to it.

Kalmia peat taken from the interior of a stack after it has remained
several months under cover ordinarily contains 100 ])er cent of
water, comj)uted on the dry weight of the peat. Even with this very
high water content a i:)eat soil is in a beautiful condition of tilth,
mellow, well aerated, and to the sight and touch apparently only
moderately moist. Ordinary loam in a similar condition contains
only about 18 per cent of water, and sand about .'^ per cent. When
saturated with water the moistui'e content of kalmia peat is about
500 i)er cent of its dry weight.

The ability of peat to retain its moisture depends in part on the
gi-adual drying of the superlicial layers and the consequent formation
of a nudch, but more i)articularly is it dependent on a certain phys-
ical affinity that peat possesses for water. The comparative strength
of this water-holding power in different soils may be tested by sub-
jecting them to a powerful centrifugal force, which tends to throw
the moisture out of the soil. The standard centrifugal force used
is a thousand times the force of gravity. The percentage of moisture

193

38 EXPEETMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE,

remaining in the soil after this treatment is known as the moisture
equivalent of that soil. A test of kalmia peat made by Dr. Lyman
J. Briggs, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, the originator of this
method of measurement, showed a moisture equivalent of 142 per
cent, as compared with about 30 per cent for clay, 18 per cent for
loam, and 2 to 4 per cent for sand.

From Avhat has been said it is evident that fibrous kalmia peat
has physical characteristics that allow the soil to be amply aerated,
while at the same time holding abundant moisture for the supporting
of plant growth.

In this connection reference may be made to the influence of earth-
worms on potted blueberry plants. Late in the winter of 1908-9
it was noted that among the blueberry seedlings of 190T, which had
been brought into the greenhouse, were several in which the growth
was feeble, although others of the same lot were growing vigorously.
It was noted also that the soil in the pots in which the feeble plants
were growing contained earthworms, as evidenced by the excre-
ment or casts deposited b}^ them on the surface. The worms
themselves were easily found by knocking the earth ball out of the
pot, and the soil was seen to have been thoroughly worked over by
the worms.

It was supposed at first that the soil (a mixture of peat 8, sand 1,
loam 1) in the process of digestion to which it had been subjected
in passing through the alimentary canal of the earthworms might
have become alkaline and for this reason injurious to the blueberry
plants. When tested with phenolphthalein, however, the soil in the
pots containing earthworms and feeble plants was found to be of the
same acidity as that in the pots containing no earthworms and with
vigorously growing plants. Furthermore the fresh casts themselves
were of a similar degree of acidity.

The texture of the soil, however, in the pots containing worms was
very different from that in the others. It was plastic, very fine
grained, almost clayey, the organic portion having been very finely
ground evidently in passing through the gizzard and other digestive
apparatus of the eartliAvorms. The aeration of the soil in this condi-
tion must have been far poorer than in the coarser soil containing a
large amount of leaf fragments not worked over by worms, and it
may be that the difference in growth of the blueberry plants was due
to the difference in aeration. It is not by any means certain, however,
that the plants in the pots containing earthworms may not have been
injured directly through the eating of their rootlets by the worms.

(12) Aeration conditions satisfactory for the swamp blueberry are found
in masses of live, moist, but not submerged sphagnum.

In some swamps the water level remains permanently above the
general surface of the ground. AMien the swamp blueberry occurs

193

AERATION CONDITIONS IN SPHAGNUM, 39

in puch situations it grows on hummocks the summits of which stand
above the water during the growing season. Unless the water level
is extremely variable or the ground is densely shaded, these hum-
mocks are usually covered with a cushion of live sphagnum moss. It
is a peculiarity of this moss that it absorbs water with great avidity;
indeed, sj^hagnum is one of the most absorbent substances known. If
one end of a nearly dry branch of sphagnum is brought into contact
with a little water, the whole branch becomes wet almost instantly.
The water rushes along with marvelous rapidity through the cells
of the plant and especialh' through the interstices between the minute
overlapping leaves. The white air spaces between the half dry leaves
flash out of existence one after the other like candle flames in a gust of
wind. The same ability to absorb water is characteristic of masses of
this plant. If the lower part of a cushion of sphagnum is in contact
Avith free water the fluid is conve^'ed from stem to branch and from
plant to plant in sufficient amount to render the whole mass as wet as
a sponge. When one squeezes a handful of such moss taken perhaps
a foot or more above the source of moisture the water runs out in
streams. A sample of live sphagnum with less moisture than usual
but still with enough to maintain itself in a growing condition was
found to contain 991 per cent of water, computed on the dry weight
of the sphagnum, while saturated live sphagnum carried 4,005 per
cent of water. On the basis of its dry weight, therefore, sphagnum
contains about ten times as much water as peat, which itself contains
about six times as much as ordinary loam and about thirty-five times
as much as sand.

The innumerable extracapillary air spaces between the branches of
sphagnum plants and between the plants themselves furnish good
aeration, even when the individual branches are saturated with water.
AYhen the moisture is less the aeration is still better. The cushion of
sphagnum on a hummock tends to build itself up by the gradual
process of growth and decay to the maximum height to which it can
convey the large amount of water required for its growth, and an
increasing degree of aeration is found from the water line upward.

If the sphagnum cushion on a blueberry hummock is examined the
whole mass will be found interlaced w^th the minute rootlets of the
])lueberry, far above the level of the underlying soil. The conditions
of permanent moisture and thorough aeration found in these sphag-
num cushions seem to be almost ideal for the development of blueberry
roots.

It must not be assumed that the vigorous growth of blueberry
roots in sphagnum is due to any high nutritive quality of the sphag-
num itself. Such a conclusion would be erroneous. Allien set out
in sphagnum and watered with tap water, blueberry plants remain
healthy and develop a very large root system, but the stems do not
193

40

EXPEEIMEKTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

grow as luxuriantly as when the plants are in a peat soil. From
experiments with the growing of blueberries in sand watered with
peat water it is known that such water furnishes the food materials
necessary for vigorous growth. It is reasonable to conclude, there-
fore, that the chief nourishment of a blueberry plant growing on a
pure sjihagnum himnnock comes from the bog water sucked up by
the sphagnum and not from the sphagnum itself.

PECULIARITIES OF NUTRITION.

(13) The swamp blueberry is devoid of root hairs, the minute organs
through which the ordinary plants of agriculture absorb their

moisture AND FOOD.

The structure of the rootlets of ordinary agricultural plants may
be understood by reference to figures 11 to 13, which illustrate these
organs as they occur in a wheat seedling germinated between layers
of moist blotting paper. Attention is directed particularly to the

Pig. 11. — Root of a wheat plant, showing the root hairs. (Natiu-al size.)
Fig. 12. — Portion of a wheat root, with root hairs. (Enlarged 10 diameters.).
Fig. 13. — Tip of the root hair of a wheat plant. (Enlarged 1,000 diameters.)

root hairs. It will be observed that the wall of the root hair is very
thin, appearing in optical section as a mere line with barely measur-
able thickness, even when highly magnified. Furthermore, the sur-
face area of the root hairs is many times greater than that of the root
itself. The chief function of these root hairs is to absorb for the
use of the plant the soil moisture and the plant-food materials dis-
solved in it, a function which the root hairs are enabled to perform
with great efficiency because of the two characteristics just men-
tioned— their large surface area and the thinness of their walls.

The rootlets of the blueberry are remarkable in having no root
hairs whatever, as may be seen by reference to figures 14 to IG. The
w^alls of the superficial, or epidermal, cells of the rootlets are thick,
measuring 0.00005 to 0.0001 of an inch (1.3 to 2.5 fi), while the walls
of the root hairs of Avheat are one-fourth to one-sixth as thick,
so thin, in fact, that they could be measured only with difficulty

193

REDUCED ABSORPTIVE SURFACE OF BLUEBERRY ROOTS.

41

even when enlarged 5,000 diameters. Notwithstanding the fact,
therefore, that the blueberrj^ roots are fine and numerous, their
actual absorptive capacity would appear
to be small, in consequence of the absence
of root hairs.

It is found by a computation that a sec-
tion of a blueberry rootlet having no root
hairs presents about one-tenth the absorp-
tive surface of an equal area of a wheat
rootlet bearing root hairs, and the thick-
ness of the surface membranes in the
wheat is certainly not more than a quarter
that in the blueberry. Furthermore, the
blueberry rootlet grows only about 0.04 inch (1 mm.) a day under
favorable conditions, while the wheat rootlet often grows twenty
times as fast. In all this provision for rapid food absorption in the
one plant and retarded absorption in the other we find a reason for

Fig. 14. — Root of a blueberry
plant. (Natural size.)

Fig. 1.5. — Rant of a blueberry plant.
10 diameters.)

(Enlarged

Fig. 1G. — Blueberry rootlet.
(Enlarged 100 diameters.)

the comparatively very slow rate of stem growth that characterizes
the blueberry plant. The importance of slow root absorption and
the danger to which these plants would be subjected if their roots
absorbed water rapidly are discussed on page 50.

193

42 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

The young rootlets of the blueberry before they branch are ex-
ceedino-ly slender, varying from 0.002 to 0.003 of an inch (50 to 75 fi)
in diameter. This makes them very susceptible to actual drying and
they are easily killed by it. This characteristic has an important
bearing on the treatment of these plants when in pots. The matter
is discussed on pages 65 to 67.

(14) The rootlets of healthy plants of the swamp blueberry are inhab-
ited BY A FUNGUS, OF THE SORT KNOWN TECHNICALLY AS AN ENDOTROPHIC
WYCORRHIZA."

As already stated, the ultimate rootlets of the blueberry are very
fine, their diameter varying from 0.002 to 0.003 of an inch (50 to 75 fi).
In rootlets of the smaller size about three rows of epidermal cells are
visible in a lateral view, in the larger rootlets about five rows. In a
newly grown rootlet not contaminated with soil particles these epi-
dermal cells, and, indeed, all the underlying cells as well, are as trans-
parent as glass, and were it not for the difficulties due to the refrac-
tion of light the examination of the contents of the cells would not be
difficult. As a matter of fact the study of the contents of the live
cells is difficult, their intelligent examination requiring the use of an
oil immersion objective and microscopic enlargements of 1,000 to
1,500 diameters. The darkened window installation for a microscope,
devised by Dr. N. A. Cobb, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and
used in his laboratory, has been found almost indispensable in this
work.

Clean rootlets may be procured readil}^ from active blueberrj^
plants in the open spaces between half-rotted leaf blades, in clean
sand, in live sphagnum, or at the outer surface of the ball of soil in
earthen pots. Rootlets taken from live sphagnum are especially clean.
They are conveniently studied when simply placed in water on a
microscope slide under a thin cover glass held in place by a ring of
paraffin.

Ordinarily the only thing visible in one of the live epidermal cells is
the minute cell nucleus lying close to the cell w^all. The protoj^lasmic
membrane lining the cell is very thin and is invisible except where it
is thickened to envelop the nucleus. The remainder of the cell is
filled with the colorless cell sap. An examination with medium en-
largements will show some of the cells faintly clouded in appearance.
A higher poAver, such as is afforded by a 2-mm. oil immersion objec-
tive and a 12-mm. eyepiece, with proper illumination, will resolve the
cloudiness into a mass of fungous threads, or hyphcT?. These may be
few, making only two or three irregular turns about the interior of
the cell, as occasionally found, or they may be more numerous, even
occupying the whole sap space, as shown in figure 17, in a dense knot

"The spelling rnyrorhlzn is also in jrood standing and is used in many (lermau,
English, and American botanical works.
193

ROOT FUNGUS OF THE BLUEBERRY.

43

of interwoven and irregular snakelike coils. These liypha^ are about
O.OOOOG to 0.00012 of an inch (1.5 to 3 fi) in diameter.

On the outer surface of the cells containing these fungous threads
others of similar or a little greater thickness may be observed. Some-
times they are transparent and their detection requires the same high
power of the microscope as do those in the interior of the cells.
Sometimes, however, these exterior threads have a pale-brown color
and are then readily seen. Their t;urface is smooth, devoid of mark-
ings of any kind. Ordinarily the
thread wanders loosely along the sur-
face of the root giving olf an occa-
sional branch and having an occa-
sion a 1 septum. Sometimes the
threads and their branches may form
an open network about the rootlet,
but they never form a dense sheath of
hyphte such as is characteristic of the
mycorrhiza of the oak.

The connection between the exter-
nal and the internal hypha^ is not
easy to see at a single observation,
for the passage of the hyphse through
the cell wall is rarely caught in op-
tical section, and even then a clear
observation is usually rendered diffi-
cult because of refraction. A very
clear case, however, was observed in a
rootlet of laurel {Kalmia JatifoUa), a
shrub which has a mycorrhizal fun-
gus similar to that of the blueberry.
A drawing of that specimen is shown
in figure 18.

The passage of the fungus through
the cell wall may frequently be ob-
served in the blueberry by first focus-
ing on the external hypha at a point
where it appears to have a lateral hump or a very short branch, and
then focusing slowly downward. In this way one passes from the
external to the internal part of the fungus, having had some portion
of the intervening hypha continuously in view. The hypha always
appears much constricted at the point where it goes through the
cell wall.

This fungus is of the type named by Frank in 1887 an endotrophic
mycorrhiza to distinguish it from an ectotrophic mycorrhiza, such

193

Fig. 17. — Mycorrhizal fungus of a blue-
berry plant densely crowded in two
epidermal cells of the root. (En-
larged about 1,200 diameters.)

44

EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

as occurs on the roots of oaks. In the latter type of mycorrhiza the
hypha^ of the fungus form a dense sheath around the rootlet, com-
pletely shutting it off from direct contact with the surrounding soil.
The loose hypha' on the outside of the sheath resemble root hairs
and it is supposed to be a part of their function to absorb soil mois-
ture and transmit it to the oak rootlet just as root hairs do.

It has not yet been possible, for want of time, to study the life
history of this mycorrhizal fungus of the blueberry. There is, how-
ever, a clew to its identity in the work
of Miss Charlotte Ternetz, Ph. T).,
described on page 49.

The experiments thus far made do
not warrant a supposition that any
good peat soil requires inoculation
with the mycorrhizal fungus before
blueberry plants will grow well in it.
The fungus appears either to be al-
ready in the soil or to accompany the
seeds when they are soayu in it.

(15) The mycorrhizal fungus of the
swamp blueberry appears to have
no in.)urious effect, but rather a
beneficial effect, upon the blue-
berry plant.

The epidermal cells in which the
mycorrhizal fungus occurs are not
swollen nor distorted, nor do their
contents collapse or show any of the
other effects usually produced by
pathological fungi. They appear to
differ in no respect from other epi-
dermal ceHs of the blueberry rootlets,
hyphse of the mycorrhizal fungus; j^^ rai)idlv prowing rootlets the fun-

c, internal hyphje ; d, point of pene- ^ ■ '^^ i i i i. i

tratiou of the cell wall by the gus scems uot to be able to Keep pace

mycorrhizal fungus. (Enlarged ^^,-^|^ ^^^^ rootlet itself and mav not
about 1,000 diameters.) . ^ , , -,. ^ ' , ,

occur for a considerable distance back
from the growing tip. The fungus-filled cells ordinarily are most
numerous on certain small, short, and crooked lateral rootlets the
growth of which is slow. When root growth of a vigorous plant is
retarded or becomes even stagnated, the fungus may invade the epi-
dermal cells to the very apex. Sometimes half the cells in such a
rootlet are gorged with fungi, yet the delicate cell walls show no
displacement or distortion. There is no indication whatever that
the fungus causes any pathological disturbance or is in any way
obnoxious to the plant. On the contrary, the uniformity with

193

Fig. is. — -Mycorrhizal fungus of Knl-
mia latifolia in an epidermal cell of
the root : a, Cell walls ; h, external

DEFICIENCY OF NITKATES IN BLUEBERRY SOILS. 45

which it has been found to occur on healthy phmts and its frequent
absence or scarcity on sickly plants are facts suggestive of a bene-
ficial influence. The nature. of this beneficial influence is discussed
on pages 48 to 50.

(16) The acid peaty soils in which the swamp blueberry thrives are de-
ficient IN "available" nitrogen, although containing large amounts

or " NONAVAILABLE '" NITROGEN.

Ordinary agricultural plants absorb their nitrogen from the soil
in the form of nitrates. Whether any are able to utilize directly
other forms of nitrogen, particularly ammonia nitrogen, has been the
subject of much experiment and of discussion by many authors. It
is true in general, however, that the common plants of agriculture
when their other food requirements are satisfactory make their
growth in direct proportion to their ability to secure their nitrogen
in the form of nitrates. For this reason the processes of agriculture
are largely devoted to the securing and maintenance of conditions
that will bring about the transformation of nonavailable nitrogen
into nitrates. Soils in which this can not be done without gi-eat
expense in proportion to their productiveness are generally con-
sidered poor.

The acid soils in which wild blueberries thrive are always looked
upon as infertile in their natural state, and unless these soils are
extensively manipulated cultivated plants do not do well in them.
AVhether or not a part of this infertility is due to the directly injuri-
ous effect of acid or other poisonous substances, it is known that the
conditions existing in these soils are directly antagonistic to the for-
mation of nitrates. (See p. 47.)

That kalmia peat, the soil found in these cultures to be most suc-
cessful for blueberries, is deficient in nitrates, although containing an
abundance of nitrogen in other forms, is shown by the following
nitrogen determinations :

TOTAL NITROGEN IN KALMIA PEAT.

(Deteniiiiiatioiis uiadi' by Mr. T. C. Tre(<L-ott.)

Sample. Per cent.

1 : 0. 95

2 1. 4(5

3 1. IS

4 1. in

5 1.40

G 1. 12

Average of total nitrogen 1.21

46 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

NITROGEN IN KALMIA PEAT IN THE FOKM OF NITRATES.

(Deteriuiuiitious made by Mr. Karl F. Kellermaii.)
Sample. Per cent.

7 0. 0012

8 . 0022

9 . OOOS

10 . 0013

11 . 0025

12 . OOOS

Average of nitrate nitrogen .0015

(17) The deficiency of available nitrogen in the acid peaty soil in which
the swamp blueberry grows best is due to the inability of the nitri-
FYING bacteria TO THRIVE IN SUCH A SOIL BECAUSE OF ITS ACIDITY.

In order to understand the conditions antagonistic to nitrification
which exist in good bhieberry soils it is necessary first to discuss the
source and transformation of nitrogen in ordinary soils.

The available nitrogen in the soil, such as is absorbed by an ordi-
nary plant, is commonly derived, unless fertilizers have been ap-
plied, from the decomposition of the hunnis contained in the soil,
and the humus is itself a product of the decomposition of plant and
animal remains. These remains consist ordinarily and chiefly of the
partially rotted leaves, stems, and roots of i^lants.

In the older agricultural literature the name humus was applied
to a particular kind of soil which is more properly covered by the
terms vegetable mold, leaf mold, and woods mold. (See p. 2-i.)
Later the application of the word humus was restricted to that por-
tion of a soil consisting of the plant and animal remains, in whatever
stage of decomposition. The proper designation of these remains is,
however, organic matter. In the sense just described the word humus
is still frequently used, but not with correctness and precision.
Humus, as now understood by agricultural chemists, represents a
stage in the decomposition of organic matter in which the cellular
structure has wholly disappeared and the original substance is or at
some stage has been entirely dissolved.

Since it is often necessary to allude to organic matter in the earlier
stage, as distinguished from organic matter as a whole, which in-
cludes the humus stage as well, the term cellular organic matter, or.
more simply still, cellular matter, is suggested as a convenient desig-
nation. In cellular matter the cellular structure of the animals or
plants still remains and may be detected either by the eye or by the
mici'oscope.

Humus, which is a complex mixture of diverse substances, does not
ordinarily exist in the soil in a dissolved condition, but is usually
combined with lime or magnesium. The resultant compounds, often
indiscriminately blanketed under the names calcium and magnesium

193

HUMUS THE USUAL SOURCE OP NITRATES. 47

hamate, are not soluble in water, but form a usually black precipitate,
Avhich gives a dark color to the soil.

To extract its humus a soil is first washed with dilute acid, by
which the lime, magnesium, or other humus-precipitating substance is
dissolved and leached away. The humus itself is then removed from
the soil by long-continued washing with a weak solution, commonly
4 per cent, of ammonia. Upon the application of this treatment to
kalmia peat an inky-black extract is secured. When this is evap-
orated to dryness the residue is a black substance which when scraped
from the dish resembles coal dust or, even more closely, burned sugar.
This substance is one of the forms of humus. It absorbs water read-
11}^, assuming the texture of thin jelly. It has a somewhat sooty odor
and taste. It dissolves in water, the solution being acid in reaction.
A liter of water in which had been dissolved a gram of humus ex-
tracted from kalmia peat showed Avhen tested a 0.002 normal acidit}".
Such a solution is black unless viewed in a thin layer, and when
diluted to 10,000 c. c. it has a brown color similar to that of ordinary
cider vinegar. If lime is added to the solution the humus unites with
it and is thrown down as a black precipitate, leaving the liquid clear.
As stated in the preceding paragraph, it is in such a precipitated and
neutral or alkaline form that humus ordinarily occurs. The charac-
teristic brown color of the water in bogs indicates an acid condition,
the presence of humus in solution, and the absence of soluble lime.

The process of decomposition by which cellular matter is trans-
formed into humus, in which the cellular structure has entirely dis-
appeared, is known as humification.

Humns contains nitrogen, but the nitrogen is not in the form of
nitrates and therefore can not be assimilated by ordinary plants.
The transformation of humus nitrogen into nitrates occurs during a
further process of decomposition known as nitrification.

The nitrification of humus is brought about by certain bacteria
which, growing in the humus-laden soil under suitable conditions,
produce first ammonia, then nitrites, and then nitrates. In artificial
cultures, in addition to proper conditions of temperature, moisture,
and good aeration, these nitrifying bacteria require for vigorous
growth a neutral or slightly alkaline medium. In a distinctly acid
medium the nitrifying bacteria grow little or not at all.

In order to ascertain the degree of nitrification, if any, taking place
in kalmia peat, a series of nitrification tests of this material was made
by Mr. Karl F. Kellerman. These tests showed that neither in fresh
peat nor in peat rotted for three months was nitrification in progress,
but when the acidity of the peat was neutralized by the addition of
lime niti'ification began.

103

48 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

(18) From tke evidence at hand the presumption is that the mycorrhizal

FUNGUS of the SWAMP BLUEBERRY TRANSFORMS THE NONAVAILABLE NITRO-
GEN OF PEATY SOILS INTO A FORM OF NITROGEN AVAILABLE FOR THE NOUR-
ISHMENT OF THE BLUEBERRY PLANT.

It is a well-established principle of plant physiology that (with the
possible exception of a few bacteria) those plants which contain no
chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of leaves, are unable to grow
Avith mineral nutrients alone, since they are unable to manufacture
their own carbohydrates. Plants without chlorophyll, including the
fungi, are dependent for the fundamental part of their nourishment
on the starch or other related carbohydrates originally elaborated
from carbon dioxid and water by the chlorophyll-bearing plants.
They also differ from the higher plants in being able to supply their
nitrogen requirements directly from organic nitrogen compounds.

Fungi may be directly parasitic on a chlorophyll-bearing plant, as
in the case of the mildew fungus of rose leaves, or they may grow on
substances derived from chlorophyll-bearing plants, such as bread
or jelly.

Fungi are particularly^ abundant in the decaying vegetable matter
forming the leaf litter of a forest, even though this litter may be
distinctly acid in its chemical reaction. They are known, indeed,
to grow luxuriantly on vegetable remains containing no nitrates and
of such acidity that nitrification, or the conversion of the humus
nitrogen into nitrates by means of bacteria, can not take place.

That the mycorrhizal fungi, like other fungi, are able to extract
nitrogenous food from the nonnitrified organic matter with which
their external portions are in contact is a reasonable supposition. It
is furthermore a reasonable supposition that the blueberry plant is
able to absorb nitrogenous -material from the internal portion of its
mycorrhiza ; for we know that the clover plant is able to absorb nitro-
gen under essentially the same conditions from the nitrogen-fixing
bacteria growing in its root tubercles.

To establish by direct experiment the ability of the mycorrhizal
fungus of the blueberry to act it. accordance with the supposition
outlined above, the fungus should be separated from the plant and
grown by itself in suitable nutrient media. Preliminary trials were
made to isolate the fungus, but without success, and a lack of time
has prevented thus far the pursuit of that branch of the experiments.

(19) It is POSSIBLE that THE MYCORRHIZAL FUNGUS OF THE SWAMP BLUEBERRY

TRANSFORMS THE FREE NITROGEN OF THE ATMOSPHERE INTO A FORM OF
NITROGEN SUITED TO THE USE OF THE BLUEBERRY PLANT.

The fact of the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by the bacteria
inhabiting the root tubercles of clovers is now well known, and we
are able to understand how the abundant nitrogen of the air, unavail-

193

THE ATMOSPHERE AS A SOURCE OF NITROGEN. 49

able for the direct nutrition of ordinary plants, is made available for
the use of leguminous crops.

It is not so generally knoAvn that there are in soils certain species
of bacteria not connected with the roots of plants which also possess
the facult}^ of taking up the nitrogen of the air and making it over
into plant food. The extent of the distribution of these organisms and
the amount of nitrogen fixation effected by them are not fully known,
but the fact that such action does take place and that the bacteria
causing it occur in many localities has been well established by the
experiments cf several investigators. The bacteria of this class most
fully investigated are Clostridium pasteurianum-^ Azotohacter chro-
ococciim^ and several other species of this latter genus.

It has been shown also that certain fungi, such as Penicillium
glaucum., possess this same power of assimilating atmospheric
nitrogen.

After the writer had discovered the mycorrhizal fungus of the
swamp blueberry in December, 1907, and while he was making obser-
vations on it, his attention was called to the work of Miss Charlotte
Ternetz on the mycorrhizal fungi of certain related European plants.
Miss Ternetz published in 1904 a paper ° in which she made the pre-
liminary announcement that a fungus isolated from the roots of the
European cranberry {Oxy coccus oxy coccus) had developed pycnidia
and that the mycelium produced from spores from these pycnidia when
grown in a nitrogen-free nutritive solution, but with full access to air,
showed upon analysis that it had assimilated free atmospheric nitro-
gen to the extent of O.G per cent of the dry weight of the mycelium.
The fungus consumed only one-eighth as much dextrose in assimi-
lating a given amount of nitrogen as was consumed by Clostridium
pnstevriajami. Similar but not identical fungi were isolated from
other related plants.

In 1907, in a more detailed account of her investigations,^ Miss
Ternetz described, as new species of Phoma, five pycnidia-bearing
fungi bred from the roots of the European cranberry {Oxy coccus
oxycoccus) ^ the marsh rosemary {Andromeda polifolia), two species
of heather {Erica tetrcdix and E. cariiea)^ and the mountain cranberry
{Vacciniiim vitisidaea). She was unable to demonstrate absolutely
that these fungi were identical with the endotrophic mycorrhiza of
the host plants because (1) it was extremely difficult to observe the
fungous threads of the internal mycorrhiza grow through the cell
wall of the rootlets into the culture medium without, and (2) be-

° Teruetz, Charlotte, Ph. D. Assimilation des atmospharischeu Stickstoffs
durch einen torfbewohnenden Pilz. Berichte der Deutschen Botanischeu
Gesellschaft, vol. 22, 1904, pp. 267-274.

* Ternetz, Charlotte, Ph. D. Ueber die Assimilation des atmosphiirischen
Stickstoffes durch Pilze. Jahrbiicher fiir Wisseoschaftliche Botanlk, vol. 44,
1907, pp. 353^08.

54708°— Bull. 193—10 4

50 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

cause when she proposed to iiiocuhite mycorrhiza-free seedlings of
the host plants with spores from the p^x'nidia that fonned in her
cultures she was unable to grow any seedlings that were free from
mycorrhiza.

Notwithstanding the lack of an absolute demonstration that the
nitrogen-fixing fungi grown by Miss Ternetz were identical with
the mycorrhizal fungi of their hosts, it is regarded as quite possible
that the mycorrhizal fungi that occur in perhaps all plants of the
iieather and blueberry families, including the swamp blueberry, are
nitrogen fixers, and that the host plants absorb this nitrogen, giving
in exchange, for the use of the fungus, sugar or some other carbo-
hydrate.

The experiments thus far described in the present paper, and the
accompanying discussions, appear to warrant the following theory
of the method of nutrition of the swamp Ijlueberrv:

(a) The sAvamp blueberry grows in peaty soils which contain
acid or other substances poisonous to plants.

(b) As a protection ngainst the absorption of amounts of these
poisons great enough to prove fatal. thij< plant, like many other bog
and acid-soil plants, is devoid of root hairs and consequently has a
restricted capacity for absorbing soil moisture. This low absorptive
capacity is correlated with a low rate of transpiration. Many bog
shrubs, although living with an abundant supply of moisture at their
roots, have been recognized as showing adaptations for retarded
transpiration similar to desert plants.

(c) The special danger to which the swamp blueberry is exposed
by reason of its low transpiration and its corresponding reduced
capacity for absorption is insufficient nutrition. The danger of
nitrogen starvation is particularly great since these soils contain very
little nitrates.

(d) Some bog plants similarly threatened with insufficient nutri-
tion, such as the sundews (Drosera), the bladderworts (Utricularia),
and the pitcher plants (Sarracenia), possess means of securing the
requisite nitrogen by catching insects and digesting and absorbing
their nutritive parts.

(e) In the swamp blueberry the required nitrogen is secured in
a different way. The plant associates with itself a mycorrhizal
fungus which is able to assimilate nitrogen from the surrounding
organic matter, and perhaps from the atmosphere also, and to convey
it into the plant without taking along with it a large amount of
the poisonous soil moisture.

Whether this theory of the luitrition of the swamp blueberry is or
is not substantiated in all its details by future investigation, it has
afforded a useful basis for cultural experimentation, as will be evident
from the results about to be described.

193

THE RAISING OF BLUEBERRY SEEDLINGS. 51

A METHOD OF POT CULTURE.

(20) Seeds ok the swamp blueberry 80\va' in august from fresh berries
germinate in about five weeks.

The experiments in the raising of blueberry seedlings have covered
such a great diversity of soil mixtures, methods of potting, manner
of watering, amount of shade, and day and night temperatures that
an account of all of them is out of the question. The more impor-
tant results of these experiments may be presented, however, in an
account of the seedlings of 1008, the latest that have been grown
for an entire year, with allusions to the experiments of other years
whenever additionally useful. The parent plant of the seedlings of
1908 is described on page 80.

The method followed in germinating the seed w-as that developed
by Mr. George W. Oliver, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, in 190:2.
All other experimenters, apparently, have considered it necessary
to keep the seeds dornuint by stratificatii)n or some equivalent means,
until late winter or early spring and then to give them the warmth
necessar}^ for germination. By Mr. (Oliver's method, however, the
seeds are sown in August, soon after the maturity of the berries; they
begin to germinate in about five weeks, and by proper handling in
the greenhouse they are robust plants by the beginning of summer
instead of tiny seedlings.

Pursuing this method the detailed operations Avere as follows:
The berries (PI. VI, fig. 1) when fully matured and slightly fer-
mented were mashed to a pulp and rubbed thoroughly under water.
The juice and floating pulp Avere washed awa}', and the heavy seeds,
Avhich sank to the bottom, were taken out and their superficial mois-
ture dried off by exposure to the air for a few hours. When thus
ju-epared and placed in a closed bottle blueberry seeds Avill retain
their vitality for ssveral weeks, probably for several months.

From the 2 quarts of berries were secured 12.5 grams of dry seeds.
The seeds numbered about 9,000 per gram, of which about thi-ee-
fourths were small and contained no embryos. About 11 grams were
used to raise seedlings, computed to contain about 2r).000 germinable'
seeds. It furnished an abundant amount for seeding four ordinarv
gardener's flats, and from these over 1,000 seedlings were actually
transplanted and as many more might easily have been utilized.

The mature seeds (PI. VI. fig. 2) ^ire roughly orbicular to nar-
rowly oblong in outline, strongly flattened, with a deeply pitted seed
coat. They vary in lengtli from 0.04 to O.OC) of an inch (1 to 1.5
unn.).

The seeds were sown in shalloAv wooden flats 10 by 34 by 3 inches,
inside measurement. After crocks had been placed over the drain-
age holes the bottom was covered to a depth of about an inch with

193

52 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBEEEY CULTURE.

kalmia peat in fibrous form to insure good drainage. Over this was
placed the finely sifted soil of the seed bed. trodden down with the
whole weight of the body, the total thickness of the soil and drain-
age being 2.5 inches.

The soil of the seed bed in this instance was a mixture of the
following, each rubbed througli a wire sieve with ,V;-inch square
openings:

Kalmia peat 8 parts by bulk.

Sand 2 parts by bulk.

Live sphagnum 2 parts by bulk.

Loam 1 part by bulk.

AMiile this mixture gave good results, certain modifications in the
direction of simplicity have been found equally satisfactory so far
as growth is concerned, and more satisfactory with regard to the ease
of transplanting. These changes involve the omission of the loam,
which from other experiments is now regarded as never advanta-
geous and sometimes actually injurious, and the omission of the sphag-
num, which, although a good moisture-holding and aerating me-
dium, appears to be superfluous in a peat and sand mixture. The
sphagnum also interferes somewhat Avith the clean pricking out of
the seedlings in the first transplanting. From experience with vari-
ous other seedlings of blueberries a mixture of 2 parts of finely
sifted kalmia peat to 1 part of sand is regarded as satisfactory and
preferable. The peat should be well rotted and the sand clean and
free from lime. This matter is more fully discussed on page GO.

After the seed bed had been prepared, as already described, the dry
seeds were scattered upon it and covered with about an eighth of an
inch of the same soil lightly sifted over it. The surface was then
sprinkled with water from a sprinkling pot provided with a very
fine rose.

So far as moisture is concerned the ideal condition of the seed bed
is that the soil should be just damp enough so that it shall not be-
come dry on the surface. The drying of this peat is indicated by a
conspicuous color change, from dark brown to light browm. If ex-
posed directly to an ordinary greenhouse atmosphere, the tendency
of the seed-bed surface to become dry will necessitate frequent ap-
plications of w^ater, and the bed will be in danger of repeated periods
of sogginess. These conditions may be very much improved by cov-
ering the flat Avith panes of glass. An opening about an inch wide
should be left at either end to permit the circulation of air over the
seed bed. This ventilation will prevent the excessive accumulation
of moisture in a stagnant atmosphere and will also prevent over-
heating on sunny days, both of Avhich conditions are injurious to
seedlings. A flat thus covered may not require watering for inter-
vals of several days. The advantages of the glass covering are par-

193

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VI.

Fig. 1.— Swamp Blueberries from the Parent Bush of the Seedlings of 1908.

The berries were photographed after remaining nearly a year in formalin, and the illustration
does not show their maximum size and plumpness. (Natural size.)

Fig. 2.— Seeds of the Swamp Blueberry.

( Enlarged 10 diaineters.)

GERMINATION OF BLUEBERRY SEEDS.

53

Fig. 19. — Section of a blue-
berry seed : a, Embryo ; h,
endosperm : c, outer seed
coat. (Enlarged 18 diame-
ters.)

ticularly evident when germination begins, for many of the seeds
have been washed to the surface in the process of watering and have
germinated Avithout any soil covering. It may be several days before
the root penetrates the soil, but the moisture maintained in the air
underneath the glass keeps these naked seedlings from death by dry-
ing. After germination has progressed so far that a good stand
of seedlings is assured the glass should be
gradualh^ removed.

Tlie flats seeded on August 12, 1908, were
kept in a greenhouse as cool as practicable
and shaded from the sunlight. "When
started in winter, seed flats should be kept
at a temperature not less than 50° to 60° F,
at night and about 15 degrees higher in the
daytime. Under such conditions sunlight
during the whole day seems to benefit them.
Germination began on September 18,
thirty-seven days after seeding, and con-
tinued for more than two months. In other seedings of this and the
closely related blueberries known as Vacciniiim atrococeum and F.
pallichim^ germination has begun in as short a period as twenty-five
days. This slowness of germination might be considered merely a
feature of the general sluggishness of growth in these plants. It is
in fact, however, due to a much more specific cause. The food stored
in the seed for the nourishment of the plantlet is not located in the

cotyledons, as in the bean or pea.
for example, but it lies in a mass
called the endosperm, quite outside
the embryo. (See fig. 19.) It re-
quires several weeks for the minute
embryo, feeding on the large mass
of surrounding endosperm, to grow
to sufficient size to burst open the
seed coats. Until the embryo has
attained such size it is physically
impossible for the seed to ger-
minate.

When the seedlings had straightened themselves out they were
about 0.2 to 0.3 of an inch (5 to 8 mm.) high and the newly expanded
cotyledons about O.OG of an inch (1.5 mm.) long. (See fig. 20.)
Within a few days the first foliage leaf began to appear between the
cotyledons about 0.06 of an inch (1.5 mm.) long. (See fig. 20.)
inch (10 to 15 mm.) high, the erect unbranched stem bearing four
or five foliage leaves, and the cotyledons having expanded to a length
of 0.12 of ail incli {?> mm.). (See fig. 21.)

Fig. 20. — Blueberry seedlings in the coty-
ledon stage : a. Before the expansion of
the cotyledons ; b. at the beginning of
the development of the first foliage
leaf. (Enlarged 2 diameters.)

54

EXPEEIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

Although the leaves of the parent plant had entire margins, the
leaves of the young seedlings were invariably serrulate. It was only
after the plants were several months old that any of the branches
began to produce leaves with entire margins, and some of the seedlings
from this parent give promise of permanently retaining the serrulate
leaf character. (See p. 82.)

(21) The seedlings are first transplanted at the age of about six weeks,

WHEN they are APPROACHING AN INCH IN HEIGHT.

On October 24 the first transplanting was done from tlie seed flats
of 1908. A neAv flat was filled to a depth of 2 inches, trodden down
hard, wnth the following mixture :

Knlmia peat, rotted for several months and

rubbed through a quarter-inch sieve 8 parts by bulk.

Sand, coarse, washed 1 part by bulk.

Loam, clayey, finely sifted 1 part by bulk.

This soil mixture Avas used as the result of experience of the two
preceding years. From a few experiments made in the winter of

1906-7 it had been found that a mixture of
equal parts, by bulk, of peat, sand, and
loam was decidedly superior to loam and
manure or to sand, sphagnum, and loam.
In tlie winter of 1907-8 it was found that
the amount of sand and loam could be re-
duced Avith distinct advantage, and as a
result of the experiments then made many
of the cultures of 1908-9 were groAvn in
the mixture described aboA'e (peat 8, sand
1, loam 1). The retention of the loam Avas
due to an idea that this ingredient Avoiild
furnish some necessary mineral nutrient
not furnished by the peat. From an ex-
periment made in the summer of 1909,
howcA-er (p. 69), it Avas found that under
the system of handling the pots descril)ed
on page 67 large plants repotted in a peat
soil Avith no loam AAdiatever made a better
groAvth than those potted in a peat con-
taining a tenth part of loam. There is some reason, therefore, to
susj^eet that loam, even in such a small quantity, may be slightly
injurious, and more reason to suspect that it may be superfluous.
Exi^eriments intended to throAv light on this question are noAv in
progress.

In the soil of the flat, prepared as described aboA^e, 80 plants Avere
set 2 inches apart. They Avere pricked out of the seed bed and set

193

Fig. 21. — Blueberry seedling
about six weeks old, with five
foliage leaves. (Enlarged i!
diameters. )

TREATMENT OF THE YOUNG SEEDLINGS. 55

in the new soil by means of a small dibble. These plants were half
to three- fourths of an inch high and had three to six true leaves.

It is believed that a spacing of 2.5 inches in the flat is better than
2 inches, as the plants have a little more room and the 2.5-inch square
of earth is a very convenient size when the next transfer is made
into 4-inch pots.

From this time on during the winter the plants were kept in a cool
greenhouse in which the night temperature was 55° to 60° F., and
which was given a large amount of ventilation. The day tempera-
ture reached ordinarily G5° to 70° F. It was found that a house
with a night temperature of 40" F. and a day temperature of (J0° F.
was too cold for such seedlings, as they made almost no growth at
all. In a warm house, 65° to 70° at night and 80° to 90° F. in the
da3^time, blueberries grow fairly well, but they are much subject to
injury by red spider {Tetranychiis hhnaculatus) , and their new-
growth while sufficiently extensive does not appear so robust as in the
60° to 70° F. house.

For the first fcAv days the newly transplanted seedlings were shel-
tered from direct sunlight. Later, however, they were given all the
sunlight possible. It w-as found that during the winter, when well
established in a suitable soil and under proper moisture conditions,
the plants grew better when they received the fullest sunlight that
the greenhouse afforded. This statement applies to the plants in all
stages, whether in a seed bed or after the first transplanting or in
larger pots.

In watering, the plants should be kept " on the dry side," as gar-
deners say. Water may advantageously be withheld until the surface
of the soil is dry, but this condition should not be allowed to extend
to a depth of more than about an eighth of an inch. Then a rather
thorough watering should be given, wdiich will carry moisture to the
bottom of the soil, but not run through. Such a watering at infre-
quent intervals is preferable to frequent light sprinklings that moisten
the surface only. Except for the brief period of percolation imme-
diately after w^atering, the movement of water in the soil should be a
capillary one, and from the bottom upward. Under such conditions,
if the soil is of proper texture, good aeration is insured.

The shock of transplanting checks the growth of the seedlings for
several days. This checking of growth may manifest itself in one or
more of three ways: {a) The withering of the stem tip; {h) the
*' stagnation," or stoppage of expansion of the uppermost leaf rudi-
ment; and {(') the purpling of the older leaves. As these phenomena
when persistent have been much utilized in these experiments as
warnings of the existence of conditions antagonistic to growth and
as they may be of similar assistance to other experimenters, a de-
scription of them will be given.

193

\

56 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

The withering of the tip inchides the uppermost leaf rudiment and
the growing point of the stem inclosed within its folded base. The
tissues turn brown and become dry, and the growth of that axis is
terminated. The resumption of growth from such a stem, if it
occurs, takes place through the formation and expansion of a bud in
the axil of the leaf next below the withered one. This withering of
the tip is readily distinguishable by its color from a partial blacken-
ing of the uppermost tender leaves which sometimes occurs, appar-
ently a pathological disturbance of a temporary character and usually
not affecting the growing point of the stem itself. The brown wither-
ing of the tip seldom takes place when the leaf rudiment involved in
the withering is more than 0.1 inch (2.5 nnn.) in length. ^Yhen longer
than that it usually keeps on expanding. This withering of the tips
has been almost wholly prevented when the shock of transplanting
was rendered as light as possible by suitable precautions, including
(a) a soil in perfect condition for the nutrition of the plants, espe-
cially that in wliich the peat is well rotted (p. 61) ; {h) the transfer
of the plants to their new bed without injury, especially without
destroying any part of the roots; (c) the shading of the plants
from direct sunlight for tAvo weeks or more, until their new root
growth is well established, and their subsequent gradual adjustment
to full sunlight; and [d) the holding of the transplanted plants in
a warmer, moister atmosphere, about 65° at night and 80" F. in
the daytime. ^A^iether or not this last condition had a real influence
on the prevention of the tip withering is not definitely known.

The stagnation of the uppermost leaf rudiment does not attract the
inexperienced observer's attention so readily as its withering. With
a little experience, however, it is easily detected. Ordinarily the
leaves of a growing stem follow each other at a rather close interval,
so that by the time a half-grown leaf is ready to flatten out, from its
boat-shaped folding in the younger stage, the succeeding leaf is com-
monly a third or more the length of the one that is flattening (fig.
22). A^Hien stagnation occurs, however, the uppermost leaf rudiment
promptly stops growing, usually at a length of 0.04^ inch (1 mm.) or
less, while the young leaf next below it goes on flattening and grow-
ing to nearly its normal size. The end of the stem, therefore, shows a
nearly full-grown flat leaf with a minute leaf rudiment at its base
seldom more than a fifth and often not more than a tenth its own
length.

The purpling of leaves, to which allusion has been made, does not
refer to the reddish translucent appearance of the growing twig tips.
That is the normal coloration in the blueberry, as it is, for example,
in the rose. The purpling now under consideration occurs in the
mature leaves, which are normally green, and is of a dark shade. It
is commonly accompanied by a conspicuous reddening of the leaf

193

PREVENTION OF INJURY IN TRANSPLANTING.

57

veins. This purpling of tlie old leaves is evidence of a severe stop-
page of growth and in these experiments has been observed to be
caused by low temperature, about 40° F. or lower, or by lack of
nutrition from any cause, or, apparently, by poisoning.

If the soil into which j^oung blueberry seedlings are transplanted
is suited to their growth, purpling of the old leaves seldom occurs,
the evidence of the shock of transplanting being confined to the pos-
sible withering of a few of the stem tips and the temporary stagna-
tion of others. In some transplantings no withering of tips occurs.

During the period of cessation of stem growth after transplanting,
the plant is by no means idle, for the roots, as shown in glass-pot
cultures, continue to make new growth, and when this has sufficiently
progressed stem growth is resumed.

(22) When about ten weeks old and nearly two inches in height the
seedlings begin to send out basal branches.

An important phase in the development of the seedlings of 1908
began on November 25, when one of the" plants commenced to send
out a branch from the axil of a cotyledon.
At the expiration of another month 75 per
cent of the ])lants in the flat had put out
similar basal branches, and the remaining
25 per cent ultimately did the same.

These basal shoots are of the highest im-
portance in the economy of the blueberry
plant, for the}^ soon far outstrip the first
stem and become the principal seat of
growth, until they themselves are over-
shadowed by later and still more vigorous
basal shoots. The original stem of the seed-
ling never develops into an ultimate main
stem or trunk, but, as will be seen later
(p. 58), stops growing while the plant is

still young, and afterward dies. It is this habit of sending up basal
shoots that makes the SAvamp blueberry a many-stemmed bush, not a
miniature tree with a single trunk.

The development of basal shoots began when the seedlings had
about 12 leaves and were about 1.5 to 2 inches high. In this first
basal branching the number of branches varied from 1 to 3. Out of
73 plants on which the branching was recorded 30 had 1 branch, 30
had 2 branches, and 4 had 3 branches. The branches occurred in
the axils of the cotyledons or of one of the first four leaves. Of the
39 plants with 1 branch, 11 had the branch in the axil of a cotyledon,
17 in the axil of the first leaf, 8 the second, 2 the third, and 1 the
fourth. Of the 30 plants with 2 branches, 11 had both branches in

193

Fig. 22. — Normal tip of stem
in a blueberry seedling.
(Enlarged 4 diameters;
ttie smaller figure natural
size. )

58

EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

the axils of the cotyledons, 13 had neither branch so situated, and 0
had 1 branch from a cotyledon axil and 1 from a leaf axil. Of
the 4 plants with 3 branches, 3 had all 3 branches in the axils of the
cotyledons and the first leaf, 1 had a branch in the axil of a cotyledon
and of the first and second leaf. Of the total 111 branches 46 were
in the axil of one of the two cotyledons, an average of 23 to each, 30
in the axil of the first leaf, 20 the second, 7 the third, and 2 the
fourth. In the order of the frequency of production of a basal shoot,
therefore, the first leaf stands first, a cotyledon next, then the second,
third, and fourth leaves, in order.

AVTiile the exact location of the basal branches appears to have no
special significance, the number of the branches does, for the habit of
producing two or more branches is a persistent one and such seedlings
tend to produce diffuse plants with many and small stems and small
stature, while the plants with the single-branch tendency are taller
and have fewer and more robust stems. The differences in general
appearance caused by the two types of branching are well illustrated
in figures 24 and 25, from photographs of two seedlings of 1907 made
at the age of 10 months.

(23) When the seedlings are about four months old and about three

INCHES IN height THE GROWTH OF THE ORIGINAL STEM TERMINATES.

On January 5, 1909, the growing tip on the original stem of one of the
plants withered. At that time this stem was about 2.5 inches high, had

14 leaves, and had 2 vigorous basal shoots about
an inch in length. This withering differed in
one important respect from the withering due
to shock, described on page 56. In that case it
was an ordinary leaf rudiment that withered.
In the present case the withering was fore-
shadowed by the development of a minute bract
(fig. 23). This differed from the ordinary leaf
rudiment in the absence of the glandular hairs
characteristic of young leaves, and it remained
small until the leaf next below it had become
more than ten times as long. Then the bract
Avithered and the growth of the original stem
was permanently terminated. The same de-
velopment Avent on in the other plants until
at the end of a month 65 per cent and in two
months 95 per cent of the plants had terminated
the growth of their original stems.

In the individual plant the termination of growth on the original
stem took place after the basal shoot or shoots had reached a stage of

193

Fig. 23. — Bract and young
leaf at the end of the
original stem in a blue-
berry seedling. (En-
larged 4 diameters ; the
smaller figure natural
size.)

BKANCHING OF THE SEEDLINGS.

59

vigorous development. Out of fifty-nine normal cases observed prior
to the second transplanting of the seedlings, the length of the new
shoot, or when more than one the longest of them, at the time of
termination of growth on the old stem varied from 0.4 of an inch to
5 inches, with an average of 1.8 inches. It would appear that the

Fig. 24. — Blueberry seedling with diffuse
type of branching. This will become a
low; many-branched bush. (One-third
natural size.)

Fic. 2't. — Blueberry seedling of the type
with few branches. The branch is more
than twice as tall as the original main
stem. (One-third natural size. 1

immediate cause of the termination of growth on the old stem is the
diversion of food materials into the new vigorous growth.

(24) WlIKN THE PLANTS AEE ABOUT FIVE MONTHS OLD AND FOUR TO SIX INCHES IN
HEIGHT THEY ARE POTTED IN FOUR-INCH POTS IN THE BEST PEAT OR PEAT
.MIXTURE.

On February 17, when the plants Avere 4 to 0 inches high, they were
transplanted into 4-inch pots in the same soil mixture as was used in
the transplanting of October 24 (peat 8, sand 1, loam 1). As stated
19:5

60 EXPEEIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

in the discussion of that transplanting, the plants would probably
have done somewhat better without the loam. In addition to the
crock over the drainage hole, a mass of fibrous kalmia peat was placed
in the bottom of the pot, filling it, when pressed down, to the depth
of an inch or more. After cutting the soil in the flats into rectangular
cakes, the plants were lifted and transferred to the pots with the least
possible disturbance of the roots.

Several experiments had been made earlier to ascertain whether
at the first transplanting from the seed bed it is better to set the
plants in flats or to put them in 2-inch pots, or thumb pots as they
are more commonly called. It was found that when the plants in
thumb pots were set on a greenhouse bench they tended to dry out
so rapidly that it was impracticable to keep them in the right con-
dition of moisture. They became so frequently too wet or too dry
that their growth was interrupted and they were much inferior
to the plants in the flats. Other plants in thumb pots (PI. VII),
plunged in either sand, peat, or sphagnum, made about the same
growth as the plants in the flats, but showed no uniform advantage
over them, either while they were in the thumb pots or after a
second transplanting. The labor of transplanting and of maintain-
ing uniform moisture is somewhat greater in the case of the potted
plants. All things considered, in the original transplanting the
use of flats is regarded as preferable to 2-inch pots.

It is desirable to consider at this time the exact qualities of the
soils used in the potting mixtures. As already stated, it is regarded
as preferable to omit the loam.

The sand should be free from lime, as most sand is, in fact. It
should also be as clean as possible. If the only sand obtainable is
mixed with clay, this should be removed by repeated Avashing- in
water.

The condition of the peat should also ho carefully considered, as
shown by the following experience during the progress of these
experiments. From the seedlings of 1908 many series of trans-
plantings were made, on various days in October, November, and
December. In the latter part of December it was noticed that while
in some of the transplantings the seedlings were growing vigorously,
other cultures were not doing well at all. Many of the tips were
withered, over 25 per cent in some of the cultures; the rest became
stagnated and dark purple, and remained so for nearly two months.
All possible causes of the trouble having been eliminated except
those due to the soil, the characteristics of the various soils used
were considered with care. At this time the writer was possessed
of the erroneous idea that liuie in the minutest quantities was very
injurious to the blueberry (p. 20). and consequently it was sus-

193

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VII.

EXCESSIVE ACIDITY OF FRESH PEAT. 61

pected that the sand was impure and contained lime. An exami-
nation of the sources of the different kinds of sand used showed
that lime could not have caused the trouble. Finally, however, the
various cultures were arranged by the dates of potting, and it was
then found that the purpled plants had all been potted after a
certain date, on which a new lot of peat had been received at the
greenhouses. The peat in the earlier cultures had been received
in June and at the time of the first transplantings had been rotting
for four months at a Avarm summer temperature. The seedlings
transplanted into this peat did not lose their tips, and growth was
resumed almost immediately. The peat used after the middle of
November Avas freshly gathered, and it was in this fresh peat that
the seedlings suffered as already described. It should be stated
here, however, that by the end of two months these seedlings, which
meauAvhile had been making good root growth, began to make
rapid top growth also and later overtook their competitors.

Acidity tests of peat from the various cultures and in different
stages of decomposition showed a remarkable correlation between the
acidity of the peat and the behavior of the seedlings. In the fresh
deleterious peat the acidity was excessive, varying from 0.03 to 0.046
normal. In the older peat in which the plants grew well the acidity
was usually not in excess of 0.02 normal, in one case 0.024. Fresh
peat rubbed through a quarter-inch sieve and showing an acidity of
0.034 normal had lessened its acidity to 0.02 normal after remaining
in a moist well-aerated condition for three weeks in the warm air of
a greenhouse. In view of these facts the conclusion was reached that
the deleterious effect of fresh peat is due to its excessive acidity.

In the undisturbed peat of a kalmia thicket wild blueberry plants
are often found growing luxuriantly. After this peat is stripped
from the ground it becomes injurious, as has been shown, to blue-
berry plants that are potted in it, this injurious quality being cor-
related with an excessive acidity. The question arises. What causes
this increase in acidity and in what particular part of the soil does
it reside? It was at first suspected that the excessive acidity was
located in the less decomposed upper layers of leaves which the roots
of the blueberry plants in a wild state do not reach, but which, when
the peat is rubbed through a sieve, go into the resulting mixture. The
leaf layers to which reference is here made are not the uppermost,
nearly dry layers a year or less old, for these are removed in gather-
ing the peat, but the partially rotted layers one to two years old, such
as those shown in Plate IV. An examination of such material showed
that it was not excessively acid, but came well within the range of
acidity beneficial to blueberry plants.

An acidity determination was then made of the roots in the peat.
These are the roots, chiefly of oak and kalmia, that interlace the

193

62 EXPERIMENTS IX BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

partly decomposed portions of the peat into mats or tnrfs. Their
appearance in the upper part of these tnrfs is shown in Plate V,
figure '2. Taking some of these turfs, freshly gathered, the soil was
ail shaken from them, leaving onh' the '" fiber," consisting entirely of
these fine live roots. This fiber was allowed to rot for a few days,
and an acidity test was then made. It proved to be 0.07 normal, an
acidity far in excess of that which had proved injurious to the blue-
berry seedlings. The excessive temporary acidity of freshly gathered
kalmia-peat turf and its consequent temporary injuriousness to blue-
berrv plants are therefore attributed to the diffusion through the
peat of the acids originating in the roots killed in the process of
gathering the turfs.

It rshould be added here that the acidity of the uppermost layer
of undecomposed leaves a 3'ear or less old is very great, and that
care should consequently be exercised to keep these out of the soil
used, A test of dry, brown. ncAvly fallen sugar-maple leaves showed
an acidity of 0.22 normal, and a mixture of the leaves of various
species of oak in a similar condition, 0.4. Incidentally, attention
may be called to the presumable efficiency of a mulch of such leaves
in maintaining, by means of its leachings, under the infiuence of the
natural rainfall, the acidity of the un.derlying more fully decom-
posed lavers, which Avithout the addition of fresh organic matter
would ultimately become alkaline. (See the account of an alkaline
oak-leaf mold on p. 35.)
(2.5) Blueberry plants potted in peat may be made to grow more rapidly if

THEY are watered OCCASIONALLY DURING THE GROWING SEASON WITH
WATER FROM A MANURE PIT.

In the Avinter of 1907-8 pottings of seedling blueberries from seeds
sown in August, 1907, were grown in various greenhouses of the
Department. The most successful of these pottings consisted of 89
plants in a mixture of peat, sand, and loam in 3-inch pots. Two of
these plants are illustrated in figures 24 and 25, It had been sup-
posed that the superior growth of these plants was the result of
specially favorable conditions of light, temperature, and watering, as
indeed it was in part ; but in the following winter, during an inquiry
about certain details of the handling of this culture, the gardener
in charge of the greenhouse in which the plants were grown admitted
that during a portion of the spring, Avithout consultation, he had
given the pots an occasional watering with manure water. As
manure Avhen used with loam in (he winter of 1906-7 had proved
pobitively injurious to blueberry plants, its possible beneficial effect
when used in conjunction with peat seemed Avorth testing further.
In the spring of 1909. therefore, various cultures Avere watered Avith
manure Avater once a AAcek. the amoimt applied being the same as
that giA^en in an ordinary watering Avith tap water, about 50 c. c. for

USE OF MANURE, 63

each 4-inch pot. The application was made to six cultures, contain-
ing altogether 156 plants, exactly comparable with a similar number
of plants receiving no manure Avater. The a implications were made
in April and May and varied in number from five to eight.

In all six cultures the plants to which manure w\ater had been
applied made a more vigorous growth, temporarily at least, than
those that received none.

Similar results were secured by the use of one-tenth cow manure,
freshly rotted, in the peat mixture in which the plants were potted.

It was after the beneficial eftect of this manuring had begun to
show itself that a statement of similar results nearly a century old,
in the culture of heaths, came to the writer's attention. It is con-
tained in a book by AVilliam McNab entitled "A Treatise on the
Propagation. Cultivation, and General Treatment of Cape Heaths."
published in 1832. The original is now rare, but a reprint was pub-
lished in 1908 in Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh,
volume 3. pages 351 to 374. McNab, who was the superintendent
of the Edinburgh garden from 1810 to 1848, was undoubtedly the
most intelligently successful grower of Cape heaths at the period
of their greatest popularity. His treatise is original and practical
and delightfully written. ^^Ith reference to the manuring of lieaths
he states:

I may mention that i have used a small quantity of manure in tlie foregoing
compost with very good eftect, about one-eighth part of cow dung. This should
be well rotted before it is used. The way that I have always prepared this
dung before using it is to take a barrow load of it and place it in thin layers
between layers of peat earth, and after it has lain for some time, chop the
whole up together, and turn it over at intervals till the dung disappears and
the whole mass assumes the appearance of black peat earth and sand: and
where this manure is applied about an equal quantity of sand should be added
(that is, about one-eighth part of the whole) iu addition to the sand that I
have before recommended to be mixed up with the earth. This, I know, can be
used with very good effect, but for all ordinary purposes I consider it quite
unnecessary, as there is no difficulty in growing heaths very soon too large for
the accommodation that is generally allotted for them, with the compost that
I have mentioned witliout maniu'e. T merely mention this because I know it
is the opinion of some that heaths will not thrive with manure added to the
peat earth in which they are grown.

I know, however, that some heaths may be grown to a larger size, in the same
space of time, with manure than without it; but, as I have already mentioned,
I consider it quite unnecessary for all ordinary purjioses. and any person who
wislies to try its effects ishould do so very sparingly at first, till he is enabled
to judge of the eftect produced l\v it. as a little excess of manure is sure to
injure the ])Iants. I*erliai)s liquid manure might be used with very good effect
for growing some kinds of heaths, bvit I am unable to give any particular direc-
tions in what projiortion it should be used, as. from what trials I have made, I
can not come to any certain conclusion. But this much I know, that whoever
wishes to try it should do so at first with great caution, with quite as much as
in using an excess of manui'e in its solid state.
193

64

EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

McNab's conclusion that manure, while beneficial in small quan-
tities, should be used with caution or not at all agrees with the
conclusion reached from these blueberry experiments. On page 18
of this paper is described the disastrous results of the heavy manur-
ing of blueberry plants, and in view of the fact that the blueberry
makes satisfactory' growth without manure and that we are not
sufficiently informed of the exact conditions under which manure
may become injurious, the use of even small amounts for blueberries
is not now recommended.

A suggestion may be made, however, as to a possible reason for the
injury of blueberry plants by manure. In the glass-pot experiment
described on page 18, in which plants grown in a mixture containing
half as much manure as peat made exceptionally good growth at first
but soon died, the death of the plants was preceded by a rotting of
the roots. Now, manure is alive with myriads of bacteria, while peat
contains few. An examination of the two made by Mr. Karl F. Kel-
lerman, from samples taken from the kalmia peat and the cow manure
used in these experiments, showed 2,500 bacteria per plate in the

't'lG. 26. — Spores of a supposedly injurious fungus in the epidermal cells of blueberry roots.

(Enlarged 600 diameters.)

manure and TO to 150 in the rotted peat, each plate representing
0.0004 of a gram of material. The bacteria in the peat were chiefly
of two species, while the manure contained many. It is a reasonable
supposition that the rotting of the blueberry roots may have been
caused or aided b}'^ the bacteria in the manure or by some of the
fungi with which manure is also abundantly charged. In mixtures
like those recommended by McXab, however, containing much peat
and little manure, the injurious bacteria and fungi in the manure may
have been killed or held in check by the acids that exist in the peat
and keep such organisms in control. If experiments show this theory
to be correct, the application of manure to blueberries may then be
made intelligently.

In this connection it may be well to call attention to a peculiar spore
found in the roots of feeble blueberry plants grown in unfavorable
soils, such as the limed peat and the claj^ey loam described on pages
23 and 24, and mixtures containing a large proportion of manure. In
some of the epidermal cells of the rootlets were found large spherical
bodies, as illustrated in figure 26. They usually occurred singly,

193

3

J

A SUPPOSEDLY INJURIOUS FUNGUS. 65

though occasionally two and rarely three were found together in the
same cell. They were 0.0007 to 0.0008 of an inch (18 to 20 /x) in
diameter, and in optical section showed an outer ring and an inner
ring, with G, 7, 8, 9, or 10 introrse scallops in the hj^aline zone be-
tween them, the space within the inner ring being granular. These
are evidently spores with a very thick wall, marked with a few large
pits or depressions, and granular contents in the cell cavity. In what
appeared to be later stages of development of these spores, the diam-
eter was slightly larger, the wall was thin, the pits had disappeared,
and the granular contents had become organized into minute spher-
ical bodies, apparently incipient swarm spores, about 0.0001 of an
inch (2 /x) in diameter, approximately one-tenth the diameter of the
spore itself. Several pf these large, thin-walled spores had put out a
short germination tube and lost their contents, the spore remaining
entirel}' hyaline and empty.

It was thought at first that these might be the reproductive bodies
of the mycorrhizal fungus of the blueberry, but a careful search
failed to shoW' any connection between the two. It was observed,
however, that in the rootlets containing the spores the interior cells
usuallj^ presented a diseased appearance, the whole rootlet sometimes
showing a brown streak down its middle, due to the decomposition of
the vessels and wood cells. The inquiry into the nature of the spores
was not pursued further, but the conditions strongly suggested that
the spores Avere those of a parasitic fungus occupying the interior of
the roots and causing, or associated with, their death and decomposi-
tion. The spores themselves bear a strong resemblance to the resting
spores of Asteroeystis radieh, a parasitic fungus of the family Chytri-
diacese. This fungus occurs in Europe in the roots of various plants,
particularly flax, in which it is the cause of a serious disease."

If an explanation is sought for the injurious effect of lime on
the growth of the blueberry, the observations already made indicate
the propriety of a careful study of this large-spored fungus, with
special reference to the effect of lime in stimulating its growth and
the growth of the other organisms of decay associated with it.

<26) Pots containing blieberry plants should be plunged in sand or other
material that will furnish constant moisture and good aeration.

Although the plunging of earthen pots nearly to the rim in some
moisture-holding material, such as sand, sphagnum, or peat, had been
practiced for various purposes in several of the earlier cultures,
and had been found essential (as stated on p. 60) for 2-inch pot
cultures if rapid and uniform growth was to be secured, nevertheless
the importance of applying the same jiractice to larger pots was not

"Marehal, Eniile. Recherehes Biologiques sur une Chytriclinee Parasite
du Lin. Bulletin de I'Agricnltnre, Brussels, vol. 16, 1900, pp. 511-554.

54708°— Bull. 193—10- 5

66 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

appreciated until the best culture from the 1908 seedlings had re-
mained almost stagnant in 4-incli pais for over a month. The con-
dition of the plants was first attributed to an excess of acidity in
some of the peat used for potting, and next to the necessity of a
period of rest from active growth. Neither of these reasons, how-
ever, it was ascertained from observation of other cultures, could
account except in part for the distressed condition that these plants
finally reached.

When one of the plants was knocked out of its pot it was in-
variably found that a large part of the roots at the sides of the
earth ball were dead. It was at the period of the year, April and
May, when the advent of warm sunny days made the control of
temperature in the greenhouse somewhat difficult, and this, together
with the previous rapid growth of the plants and the consequent
increase of their water consumption, had brought about considerable
irregularity in the moisture content of the pots. The conclusion was
reached that the walls of the j^ots had become dry on one or more
occasions, and that this had killed the delicate roots that came in
contact with them. The roots of the blueberry, as described on
page 42, are exceedingly slender, the smallest being about two-
thousandths of an inch in diameter. They are very quickly killed
by drying.

On the basis of this conclusion the general practice of plunging
blueberry pots was adopted. If the plants are to be exposed to a
very warm, dry atmosphere the plunging should be done before any
considerable quantity of roots has groAvn through the soil to the wall
of the pot. It is probably still better to do the plunging imme-
diately after the potting, for then uniform moisture conditions can
be secured throughout the soil in the pot.

Besides the avoidance of injury to the plants by the drying of their
roots, the practice of plunging has another marked advantage, the
maintenance of a moderate but adequate and even optimum degree of
moisture in the soil with infrequent waterings. A series of pots
plunged in live sphagnum in a cool greenhouse during the winter of
1908-9 frequently went for a week at a time without requiring water
and then most of the water was applied between instead of in the pots.
The moisture evidently moves freely in or out through the wall of
the pot, which is of cour.se not glazed, and an excess or deficiency in
any one place is soon adjusted.

Sand has been found a convenient and satisfactory plunging ma-
terial. The surface of the sand should come to the same level as the
soil in the pot, or a little above it. A little sand on the surface of the
soil does no harm, and indeed is probably advantageous. AVlien a
single pot is to be plunged it may be done by placing it within another

193

METHOD OF OUTDOOK CULTURE IN POTS. 67

pot of 2 inches larger diameter, the space between the Avails of the
two pots being then filled with sand. (See PI. XVIII.)

The practice of plunging has proved to be of the greatest im-
portance in securing a large growth in potted blueberry plants, as
will be appreciated from the description of the development made
under such conditions out of doors in the summer of 1909. (See p.
68.) In that description special attention is drawn to the superior
conditions of aeration in plunged pots.

(27) Plants of thk swamp blueberry sometimes lay down flowering buds
at the age of seven months.

The laying down of flowering buds is discussed in detail on pages
71 to 73, where a description is given of the general occurrence of this
phenomenon in vigorous plants one year old. The first flowering
buds, however, appeared much earlier. They were observed on April
8, 1909, on plants which were 10 days less than 7 months old. At the
end of the 7 months 24 plants out of 258, which constituted seven of
the most advanced cultures from the seedlings of 1908, had laid down
flowering buds. A small percentage of the seedlings of 1907 had also
laid down flowering buds at about the same age. The phenomenon
may therefore be regarded as not rare in vigorous plants of this age.

These flowering buds, which contain the rudiments of about 7 to 12
flowers each, are not adapted to development into clusters of flowers
until they have been subjected to a period of cold. Most of the buds,
therefore, forming just as warm weather was approaching, withered
and dried on the bushes. A few flowered in 1908 and in 1909, and in
this latter year one plant boie ripe fruit on August 25. at the age of a
little more than 11 months.

(2S) In the spring after the danger of frost was past the plants were

REPOTTED AND PLACED OUT OF DOORS, IN HALF SHADE, PLUNGED IN SAND.

On May 19 to 22, 1909, the seedlings of 1908 were repotted in G-inch
pots, in a mixture in most cases of peat 8, sand 1. and loam 1, and
placed outdoors. The plants in the principal cultures had at this time
an average height of about 9 inches, with a maximum of 15 inches.
The pots were plunged in sand. They were in a situation where they
were exposed to simlight from about 8 o'clock in the morning to 5
o'clock in the afternoon, and to protect them from too great heat they
were partially sheltered by a slat shade. The slats were 2 inches
wide, with 2-inch openings between. As the sun struck the slats
somewhat diagonally and they were half an inch thick, the plants
when covered by the shades received a little less than half sunlight.
On clear days the shades were kept over the plants from 9 o'clock
to 4 o'clm-k. At other hours and on cloudy days the shades were
removed. On August 25 the time of shading was shortened to the
19a

68 EXPEKIME]SITS IN BLUEBKRRY CULTURE.

period between 10 and 8 o'clock, and after September 12 the shades
were left off altogether.

The plants were watered with a swift spray from a hose, the water
being applied only when necessary to keep the soil from actually
drying out. The sand between the pots w^as seldom allowed to become
dry to the depth of more than half an inch. A sand mulch of about
a quarter of an inch on the top of the soil in the pot was found useful
in preventing the rapid drying of the soil by direct evajioration.

(29) By the use of the cultural methods already described, seedlings ok
the swamp blueberry have been grown into robust plants of a maxi-
mum height of twenty-seven inches at twelve months from germina-
TION.

The grow^th of the plants out of doors during the summer was
remarkably vigorous. Hitherto experimenters with seedling blue-
berries have been able to produce only comparatively small plants at
the end of the first season, as shown by the following citation from a
publication of the best-known experimenter:"

The blueberry makes much less growth the first two years from seed than
the huckleberry, but grows faster afterward. The third year I have had them
make a growth of G to 8 inches. The low blueberry and huckleberry begin to
bear at 3 or 4 years, while the high-bush blueberry requires 4 to 6 years.
P'rohi 1 to .3 inches growth the first year is about all you can expect.

Under the system of treatment described in the present bulletin
seedlings have been grown to a height of 27 inches at twelve months
from germination. Out of the seedlings of 1908, 250 w^ere carried
through to the close of the season of 1909 in (i-inch pots. Of these. 15
were stunted plants. The remaining 235 had an average height at
the end of the season of exactly IS inches. The larger stems were
often a quarter of an inch in thickness, and the main trunk, half sub-
merged in the ground, sometimes reached a diameter of half an inch.
The general appearance of these plants is shown in Plate VIII.

The principal features of cultural treatment which have contributed
to this development are {a) the autumn germination of the seeds,
{h) the use of suitable acid soils, (c) the plunging of the pots, and
{d) the partial shading of the plants during the heat of summer, the
application of these cultural methods having been guided throughout
by the discovery of the existence of a mycorrhizal fungus in these
plants and its treatment as essential to their nutrition. The system
of germination and the character of the soils used have already been
described in detail. The exact effects of the plunging and the shading
remain to be considered.

It has already been shown (p. (MS) that when a j)lant is not
plunged, the minute rootlets that lie against the sides of the pot

a Dawson. .Tncksnu. ruitixator and Country Gentleman, vol. .50, 1.S85, p. 660.

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agricultur

Plate VIII.

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EFFECT OF PUEE PEAT IX PLUNGED POTS. 69

are very liable to death from dryness. When the pot is plunged in
sand and the sand is kept moist these rootlets can* not die from
drought. They keep on growing until, in the case of vigorous plants,
when the earth ball is knocked from the pot, the soil can not be seen
because of the dense mat of live roots that line the pot. The same
thick mass of live roots was developed in a series of 1907 seedlings
carried over the Avinter of 1908-9 in the greenhouse in pots plunged
in sphagnum. When the pot is surrounded by the moist plunging
material these roots continue to luxuriate for months longer than
they otherwise would. They evidently find the aeration conditions,
as well as the moisture conditions, at the wall of the pot very satis-
factor}^, for the development of roots there is far greater than within
the ball itself.

The highly efficient aeration at the wall of plunged pots may
explain one use of soils in which the results of the present investiga-
tions do not agree with the practice of the old heath growers. In
one culture of 25 plants the soil used in the first potting was pure
rotted kalmia peat rubbed through a quarter-inch screen. This first
potting, in 4-inch pots, was done on March 20. 1909. The repotting,
in (i-inch pots, was done on May 22, 1909, in the same kind of soil,
pure coarsely sifted kalmia peat. These j^lants grew to be the
largest of any of the seedlings of 1908, their average height at the
close of the season being 20.5 inches. The three plants shown in
Plate IX, all over 24 inches in height and one of them 27 inches.
^^ ere from this culture.

The use of pure peat was not advocated by the old heath growers.
McXab recommended a mixture of 4 or 5 parts of peat, by bulk, to
1 of sand, and an even larger proportion of sand, 2 parts out of 5,
has been reconnnended by Dawson for blueberries. When the pots
are not plunged and do not therefore have the advantage of the
superb aeration conditions found at the wall of the pot when sur-
rounded by moist sand, it is probable that the presence of consider-
able sand in the soil is necessary to secure adequate aeration of the
interior of the earth ball, for unless the pot is plunged most of the
rootlets that lie against the sides of the pot will be killed and the
plant nuist rely for its chief nourishment on the roots in the interior
of the ball.

That the necessity for interior aer-ation in the pots is great in the
case of heaths, if the plants are not plunged or are not frequently
repotted, is shown by a peculiai- and interesting cultural practice
long tried and highly reconnnended by McNab. This practice is
the distribution of broken crocks or pieces of sandstone through the
soil at the time of I'epotting. He found by experience that the prac-
tice was highly advantageous to the plants, and although he did not
directly explain his success in such a way, there is little doubt that

193

70 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

his method, which may be regarded as a substitute for plunging, was ^

advantageous Tbecause it gave large aeration surfaces about the stones i

in the interior of the earth ball and provided a place there for a large j

development of roots which could not take place at the wall of the J

pot. McXab's description of his method of repotting is as follows: 1

Id shifting heaths I never reduce the old hall of earth more tlian hy rnl)liing i
the sides and bottom with the hand, so as to loosen the outside fibers a little.
I have often shifted heatlis twice, and even three times, in the course of the !
spring and summer, with the greatest success. It is, however, quite unnecessary '
to shift a heath until tlie young fibers have come througli the fresh earth given j
to it at its previous shifting, and begun to extend themselves round the inne)-
edge of the pot or tub : but as soon as this takes place, they may then be shifted
with advantage. This frequent shifting, however, is quite unnecessary, unless it
be to encourage a favorite specimen; for in all ordinary cases, particularly !
when the plant is large, I consider one good shifting in two or three years quite j
sufficient. * * * ,

Besides the compost and draining which I have already mentioned, when I
begin to shift heaths I have always at hand a quantity of coarse, soft free-
stone, broken into pieces, from an inch to 4 or 5 inches in diameter. Of these '
I always introduce a quantity among the fresh earth as it is put into the pot or \
tub, round the old ball of earth about the plant, and press them well down
among fresh earth as it is put in. This I consider of great advantage to all
sorts of heaths, but more particularly so to those that may have been shifted
into a much larger pot or tub at once than what it had been grown in before, or ■
in what I would call biennial or triennial shifting. These pieces of stone may
be put in as large as the opening will admit between the old ball and the edge
of the pot. In some of our largest tubs this opening is full 4 inches wide, and
where much earth is required to be put in the bottom over the draining before j
the plant is put in. a quantity of these stones should be mixed with the earth i
also. I likewise use occasionally large pieces of soft burnt bi-oken pots, put
among the earth in the same way as the stones; but I prefer stones when I can
procure them soft and free of iron. The quantity of stones which I introduce
along with a large-sized heath at shifting, will, in most cases, if broken down
into sand, and added to the sand previously in the soil, form about one-third. |
part of the whole mass. When stones are introduced among the earth in the I
way I have recommended, heaths will never suffer so much in the summer from
occasional neglect to water them as they would do if the stones were not intro-
duced, because these stones retain the moisture longer than the earth, and in
the winter they allow a freer circulation of any superabundant moisture which \
may be given through the mass.

The effect of the half shade used over the blueberries during the
summer of 1909 was to make the growth of the plants continuous ,
instead of confining it to a brief period in the early part of the season, i
In a wild state the twigs of blueberry plants stop growing in early j
summer, the stoppage being indicated by the withering of the upper-
most leaf rudiment. The less vigorous twigs stop first, the more
vigorous ones next, and the shoots last. Stoppage of growth is has-
tened by hot dry weather and is deferred by cloudy humid weather.
In the latitude of Washington stoppage of ordinary twig growth in
wild plants of Vaccinium atrococcum begins in May and is usually

193

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IX.

X!

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o

m

<
>

I
o

O

CD

m
m

D

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O
-n

X
m

CO
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■D

w

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m

DO

m

3)
3J

-<

PARTIAL SHADE ADVANTAGEOUS. 71

completed, except on vigorous shoots, in June. In some of the culti-
vated plants which were not shaded growth was similarly stopped by
the advent of hot weather. In the plants under the slat shades, how-
ever, vigorous stems did not wither their tips until their normal
grov;^th had run its course, and as new shoots were continually start-
ing there was no general stoppage of growth until September, and
many of the plants continued to grow throughout that month.

The shade was not great enough to "draw" the plants; that is,
to make their growth spindling through a stretching up for light.
It was merely sufficient to prevent excessive heat and destructive
transpiration.

(30) The flowering buds of the blueberry are produced by the transforma-
tion OF DORMANT LEAF BUDS IN THE LATTER PART OF THE SEASON.

The flowers and leaves of the swamp blueberry are produced in
the spring from separate buds, and these buds are formed in the
preceding year. The two kinds of buds are conspicuously different,
as may be seen by the accompanying illustration. (PL X, fig. 1.)
The leaf buds occupy the low^er part of the twig. They are small,
conical, about 0.08 to 0.12 of an inch (2 to 3 mm.) long, with 2 to 4
external scales about equaling each other in length and each ending
in a sharp point. The points only of the interior scales, which are
of similar length, are visible. When a leaf bud develops in the
spring it produces a leafy twig.

The flowering buds are borne along the upper part of the twig.
They are fat, ovoid structures, commonly 0.15 to 0.3 of an inch
(3.5 to 7 mm.) long, several times larger than the leaf buds. They
show ordinarily 10 to 15 external, broad, overlapping scales. Each
flowering bud contains the rudiments of a raceme of usually 7 to 12
flowers, the bud of each of these flowers lying in the axil of a bract
and bearing two bractlets below the middle of its short pedicel.
When a flowering bud develops it produces a raceme of flowers, but
no accompanying twig or leaves.

Leaf buds are always axillary and flowering buds almost always
so. The bud at the summit of a twig is in reality situated in the
axil of the uppermost leaf, except in the rare cases in which the twig
tip does not wither when it stops its growth. In such cases a true ter-
minal bud is formed, surrounded by a group of lateral buds in the
axils of bracts. So far as observed these buds are always flowering
buds and are produced on the ends of vigorous shoots.

The manner in which the plants lay down their flowering buds,
through the transformation of leaf buds, is very interesting, and it
may prove to have a bearing of some importance on the method and
time of pruning the bushes. The form of the leaf buds has already
been described. They appear singly in the axils of the leaves almost

193

72 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

as soon as the leaf is fully developed. After a few weeks the external
scales of the bud turn brown and the bud then goes into a condition
of dormancy, unless it is forced into growth through an injury to the
twig or some other unusual circumstance. In most of the buds this
dormant condition continues through the summer, fall, and winter.
If the plant is in condition to lay down flowering buds, however, a
new sort of activity appears in the late summer or autumn. One or
uiore of the leaf buds near the end of a twig start to grow. The two
brown scales are spread apart, new green scales appear between them,
and a large, fat, flowering bud is formed. The bud does not, how-
ever, continue its growth at this time, but its green new scales turn
brown and the condition of dormancy is again resumed before cold
weather comes on.

The flowering buds thus develop out of buds which are in no way
distinguishable from leaf buds. They are, in fact, leaf buds until
their transformation takes place, and except for such transformation
they would remain leaf buds. Furthermore, it has been found ex-
perimentally that after the formation of flowering buds has been
completed, leaf buds still lower on the twig can be forced by suitable
treatment to transform themselves into flowering buds. Such an ex-
periment was made, as follows :

On August 24, 1909, at Lanham, Md., a vigorous bush of Vdrciriiimi
atroeoccniin was selected, which had already laid down its flowering
buds for the succeeding year. Two branches of nearly equal size,
about 16 inches long, one with 14 twigs and 53 flowering buds, the
other with 16 twigs and 48 flowering buds, were chosen for the ex-
periment. On the branch containing the 48 flowering buds each twig-
was cut otf at a point between its lowermost flowei'ing bud and its
uppermost leaf bucl, with the object of ascertaining whether any of
the leaf buds on the stub of the twig would transform themselves
into flowering buds. The other branch was left unpruned as a check,
to show whether the normal laying down of flower buds had in reality
been completed on August 24. On October 1. 1909, the two twigs were
again examined. The pruned branch had laid down 31 new flowering
buds, which in all cases were the transformed upper leaf buds on the
stubs of the twigs. On the check branch only 1 new flowering bud
had been laid down.

The best method of pruning the swamp blueberry is yet to be
devised, but if a superficial jjruning, like that of a hedge, proves to
be a good method of stimulating vigorous growth, it is evident from
this experiment that the most advantageous time to do the prun-
ing, if a crop is to be secured the next year, is after the berries are
gathered and about the time when the bush is forming its next year's
flowering buds. It will then lay down new flowering buds on the
cut stubs. If the pruning were done in late autumn, in the winter,
19a

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate X.

FLOWERING BUDS FORMED IN LATE SUMMER. 73

or in the spring, no new flowering buds would be formed to replace
those removed by the pruning.

The time of laying down flowering buds seems to be correlated with
the length of the growing season. About Washington Vaccinium
atrococcum begins to form its flowering buds in the latter part of Au-
gust, one to two months after its berries are matured. In Vaccinium
pallidum^ on the high mountain summits of North Carolina, where
the growing season is short, the transformation of leaf buds into
flowering buds begins as early as the last week in July while some
of the berries are still green. In the cultivated plants at Washing-
ton the formation of flowering buds did not begin in 1009 until Sep-
tember, and it continued on some plants until cold weather stopped
their growth.

The laying down of flowering buds appears to be a phenomenon
local within the twig. Cuttings of the swamp blueberry made in
New Hampshire on July 9, 1909, transformed their leaf buds into
flowering buds in the cutting bed after reaching Washington, as
shown in Plate X, figure 2, but whether the transformation in this?
case was made before or after the cutting had rooted was not observed.
In another case, how^ever, that of cuttings made in New Hampshire
September 11, 1909, from long late shoots bearing only leaf buds,
the transformation into flowering buds began to occur in the cutting
bed October 12 and was completed before any roots had formed.
(See PL X. fig. 3.)

(31) At the end of their first year seventy per cent of the blueberry
plants had laid down flowering bxtds for the next spring's blossomino.

At the end of the season of 1909, 177, or 70 per cent, of the 250
seedlings of 1908 that had been put in 6-inch pots had developed
flowering buds. In Plate XI is shown one of these seedlings, pho-
tograj^hed on November 2, 1909, which had laid down 42 flowering
buds. One plant produced 58 flowering buds. At the end of the
preceding season, 1908, at least 25 per cent of the seedlings of 1907
that were still kept in pots had produced flowering buds. Therefore,
notwithstanding the statements of earlier experimenters that the
seedlings of this species do not fruit until they are several years
old (p. 08), it is regarded as established that under the culture system
w^orked out by these experiments a substantial percentage wnll \Q.y
down flowering buds at the end of the first year and will bear fruit
the second year.

Attention has already been called (p. G7) to the occasional laying
down of flowering buds when the seedlings were only 7 months old^
followed rarely by flowering and fruiting at the age of less than
a year.

193

74 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

(32) Plants of the swamp blueberry are' exceedingly hardy and pass the
winter in good condition outdoors when the soil is covered merely
with an oak-leaf mulch, but when not exposed to outdoor condi-
tions they do not begin their growth in spring in a normal manner.

During the fall, winter, and early spring of 1908-9 a series of blue-
berry seedlings of 1907 was kept outdoors on a south window sill to
ascertain whether repeated freezing and thawing would kill them.
Most of the plants were in thin glass 3-inch pots, covered at the sides
with one thickness of gray blotting paper. One plant (to which
reference is again made on pp. 75 and 76) was in a 5-inch earthen
pot. None of the plants were mulched or covered in any way. They
were watered ^^'henever necessary to keep the soil from drying. In
cold weather the air circulated freely about the pots and the soil was
repeatedly frozen solid. On warm, sunny days the melting of the ice
took place rapidly. Hard freezing followed by quick thawing was
many times repeated, and the conditions of exposure were such that
the plants undoubtedly were subjected to a severer test for hardiness
than they would ever receive under cultural conditions.

The plants passed the winter without losing any of their twigs.
The wood was plump and in excellent condition when spring came,
as was evidenced further by the remarkable uniformity with which
every dormant bud started to grow after the first few warm days.

For the roots of some of the plants in glass pots, however, the
exposure was too severe. In some of the glass pots no root growth
followed the starting of the twigs, and the plants finally died. In
others the root growth at first was feeble and the plants lost some of
their newly started twigs by withering. Most of the plants, however,
including the one in the 5-inch earthen pot, made normal growth of
both twigs and roots, notwithstanding the extraordinarily severe
treatment to which they had been subjected. No difficulty is antici-
pated, therefore, in wintering blueberry plants successfully out of
doors under any ordinary cultural conditions. The seedlings of 1908
covered with oak leaves in their outdoor plunging bed of sand passed
the winter of 1909-10 in good condition.

That blueberry plants must be subjected to some sort of exposure,
if they are to start satisfactorily in the spring, is indicated by the
behavior of certain seedlings of 1907 which were carried through the
winter of 1908-9 in a rose house, where the temperature at night was
about 60° F. and during the day about 10 degrees higher. These
plants, although subjected to most persistent coaxing, absolutely
refused to grow during the the five months from November to March,
although newly germinated seedlings grew luxuriantly under exactly
the same conditions.

The comparison of these indoor plants with outdoor plants may
best be made by an examination of the buds shown in the accompany-

193

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XI.

PLANTS TO BE WINTERED OUTDOORS. 75

ing illustrations, made from typical indoor and outdoor specimens.
The photographs reproduced in Plate XII were made on March 27,
1909. The plant shown in figure 1 of this plate was a seedling of
September, 1907, which had been kept in a greenhouse all its life at
a temperature suited to the growing of roses. The plant shown in
Plate XII, figure 2, was identical in history with the other until
October 20, 1908, when it was placed outdoors and exposed to the
vseverest winter conditions. It was one of the window-sill plants de-
scribed on page 74. The leaves shown on the indoor plant (PI. XII,
fig. 1) are those formed in the summer of 1908, which by reason of
the warm temperature of the greenhouse in which the plant was
wintered had never fallen off, although the plant had made no growth
later than October, 1908. Neither a flowering bud nor a leaf bud
has started on this plant. On the outdoor plant (PL XII, fig. 2)
the 4 flowering buds and 62 leaf buds which had lain dormant dur-
ing the winter had begun to push a few days before the picture was
taken.

Plate XIII, from photographs taken on April 24, 1909, shows the
same two plants nearly a month later. The leaf buds on the outdoor
plant (PI. XIII, fig. 2) have grown into leafy twigs and the flower-
ing -buds are fully opened. Of the dormant buds on the indoor
plant (PI. XIII, fig. 1) only two have started to grow. Of these
two new twigs, one on the stem to the left, in the axil of the third
leaf from the top, has withered its tip and stopped developing before
making a full-sized leaf. The other new twig, on the stem to the
right, developed abnormally from the axil of a basal bract of a
flowering bud. It later made good growth and became a very vigor-
ous shoot. All the flowering buds on this plant dried up and pro-
duced no flowers.

The erratic starting of dormant plants which have not been sub-
jected to the conditions necessary to bring them out of their dor-
mancy in a normal manner is well shown also in Plate XIV. This
illustration is from a photograph taken February 18, 1909. The
plant was a seedling of September, 1907, which was brought into the
greenhouse in early December, 1908, and remained there during the
winter. The illustration shows that only one of the two flowering
buds on the upper twig has started, one of the four on the lower
twig, and none of the leaf buds.

There can be no question that for ordinary purposes blueberry
plants should be wintered outdoors. If it is desired in experimental
work to force blueberry plants to fruit in a greenhouse during their
second winter, it will be necessary either to etherize them or to find
out some other method of treatment by which the starch in their
twigs can be transformed into other carbohydrates available for the
building up of new plant tissues. The writer believes that in the

193

76 EXPERIMENTS TN BLUEBERBY CULTURE.

hard-Avooded deciduous-leaved trees and shrubs of cold countries this
transformation of starch will be found to be caused normally by the
changes. i)robably enzymatic, that follow exposure to an alternation
of high and low temperatures rather tlian exDosiire to a single low
temperature.

(33) Dormant plants make their early spkinc twic, <;kowth reeore new

roots begin to develop

The root growth of blueberry plants in early spring is very slug-
gish, in strong contrast to the activity of theii- stems. In the j^lant
illustrated in Plate XIII, figure 2, no new root groAvth had taken
place up to the time the photograph was made. For their early
spring growth blueberry plants seem to depend on the food stored in
their twigs the year before. A microscopical examination has shown
that the pith and medullary rays of winter twigs are gorged with
starch.

It ma}" be of interest to state here, as bearing on the difficulty of
making stem growth exhibited by an improperly wintered blueberry,
that the indoor plant shown in iigure 1 of Plates XII and XITI had
made considerable new root growth at the stage shown in Plate XII
and abundant root groAvth in Plate XIII. The starting of dormant
buds appears from this and many other similar cases not to be inthi-
enced by the presence or absence of new I'oot growth.

A practical suggestion based on the late spring root development of
the blueberry is that transplanting may ])erhaps be done up to the
time of flowering with little injury to the plant.

(34) T'NLESS pollinated by an outside agency. .SVCII as insects. Tfll. ELOWEKS

PRODUCE little OR NO FRUIT.

Many blueberry plants, from seed germinated in September. 11)07.
were brought into flower in one of the Department greenhouses dur-
ing: the Avinter of 1908-9. When left to themselves the floAvers rareh'
])roduced fruit. The greenhouse contained few pollen-carrying in-
sects, a few ants and flies merely, no bees. It was found that the
flowers were so constructed as to be unable ordinarily to pollinate
themselves. The lack of fruit was evidently due to lack of pollina-
tion. "When i^ollinated artificially the floAvers usually produced fruit.

In its natural position the floAver (fig. 27) is not erect but in-
A'erted, the narroAv orifice of the corolla being loAvermost. the nectar
Avelling up from the surface of the disk betAveen the base of the style
and the base of the filaments. The ten stamens and the style hang
downAvard Avithin the corolla, the stpinens being shorter than the
style. The pollen Avhen mature drops down fi'om the tAvo anther
sacs through the two anther tubes which the stamens of these plants
possess and out at the terminal pores. (See fig. 28.)

193

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XII.

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Fndustry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XIII.

Tl

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i

POLLINATION OF THE BLUEBERRY ELOWER.

77

Fig. 27. — Flowers of the blueberry, from 1908 seed-
lings of tbe large-berried New Hampshire hush of
Vdcciniuni cortpnhosiim : a. Flower of the cori/m-
bosum type of plant ; h, flower of tbe amocniini type
of plant : c, same as b, but part of tbe corolla re-
moved to show the stamens, style, and stigma.
(Enlarged .''. diameters.)

The operation of the mechanism for releasing the pollen may be
observed with a high-power hand lens. The stamens hang in a close
circle about the style. The filaments are broad and laced into a tight
tube by the interweaving of their marginal hairs, the anther sacs
press close together, and
therefore the only con-
venient way of access to
the nectar is through the
slits between the anther
tubes. The anther tubes
are stiff and when one of
them is pushed to one
side the movement is
communicated to the an-
ther sac. The pollen if
mature is dislodged and
falls down the tube and
out at the orifice.

The pollen does not
come out of the anthers
readily on a cloudy, humid da}^, but on a warm, sunny, dry day it
accumulates in the tubes and when they are moved it runs out like
grain from a grain chute. The pollen grains (fig. 29) do not stick
to the sides of the parchment-like anther tubes when these are dry,
but they have the faculty of adhering to hard surfaces, such as glass

or the lead of a lead pencil, and
they doubtless would adhere also to
the hard shell of an insect whether
it was covered with hairs or not.

The pores of the anther tubes do
not open squarely across the ends
of the tubes, but they are set on a
long bevel facing inward. The
j)ollen when released would there-
fore fall upon the stigma Avere it
not for a peculiarity in the struc-
ture of that organ. The sticky
stigmatic surface, which the pollen
must reach to eftect pollination,
is at the apex of the globular or top-shaped stigma, while the sides
of the stigma as far up as the middle have a dry surface ending in a
short collar a little wider, during the earlv maturitv of the stisnia,
than the widest part of the stigmatic surface. (See fig. 30.) In the
inverted position of the flower the falling pollen strikes this dry

193

Fig. 28. — Stamens of the blueberry, from
the flower shown in fig. 27, c : a, View
from the inner face : b, side view.
Both views show the broad filament
with hairy margins and the anther
sacs, tubes, and pores. (Enlarged .'■
diameters. )

78

EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

Fig. 29. — Compound pollen grain of the

blueberry, consisting of four simple

grains permanently cohering. (En-
larged 200 diameters.)

surface, like the outside of an inverted funnel, and drops off the rim
or remains on it, without reaching the stigmatic surface which lies
protected beneath.

Ordinarily i3ollination is effected by some insect which, pushing
into the orifice of the corolla from beneath in search of nectar, releases
the pollen, as already described. In continuing its quest for nectar
the insect brushes against the stigma with some portion of its body,

which is covered with pollen, either
from the same flower or from some
other flower previously visited.

In pollinating the flowers by
hand it was found impracticable to
collect sufficient pollen to apply
with a brush. The following sim-
ple and convenient method of pol-
lination was devised : A wide opening was torn in a corolla with a
pair of forceps, so that the stamens and stigma could be aj^proached
from the side. Then the lead of a lead pencil, flattened on one side
and held horizontally, was brought up against the open ends of the
anther tubes from below\ A portion of the falling pollen was caught
on the flat lead, w^iere it could be seen easily because of the blackness
of the background. Pollination was then completed by touching the
stigmatic surface gently two or
three times with the pollen-laden
lead. A pollinated flower may be
marked readily by pinching off
with forceps one or jnore of the
calyx lobes. Fruit was produced
from flowers pollinated either with
their own pollen or with pollen
from another flower.

The self-pollination of a blue-
berry flower, without insect aid, ap-
pears to occur, but only occasion-
ally. On greenhouse plants fruit
is rarely produced when the flowers
are not artificially pollinated, and
the same is true of outdoor plants ^n-otected from insects by a
covering of gauze. The conditions of these observations Avere not
such as to obviate all possibility of the accidental visit of some insect,
but it is believed that real self-pollination occurred in some cases.
(.35) The fruit matures about two months after the flowering.

A few days after pollination the corolla, with the stamens, falls
off. The stigma at this tiiii(> has turned brown, and Avithin a day or
19:5

>

4^
Fig. 30. — Pistil and calyx of the blue-
berry, showing the style and stigma.
(Enlarged 5 diameters.)

Bui. 193, Bureau of "'lant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XIV,

RIPENING OF THE FRUIT. 79

two the style also falls. The calyx remains permanently attached to
the ovary and berry. About a Aveek after the opening of the corolla,
the ovar3^ which at first was much narrower than the expanded calyx,
begins to swell and grow. This growth continues for about a month,
and then for about another month the green berry makes little in-
crease in size. A few days before the time of ripening the calyx
turns purplish, next the green color of the berry takes on a trans-
lucent appearance, the next day it turns to a light purple, and the
following day to a dark purple or whatever its permanent color may
be. During these few days the berr3^ makes a very rapid growth, its
diameter often increasing 50 per cent. After reaching its permanent
color the berry changes little in size, but for several days continues
to improve in sweetness and flavor.

It is a characteristic of blueberries, important from the standpoint
of picking, that after ripening they will remain on the bush a long
time, often a month or more, without losing their plumpness or their
flavor. This makes possible the removal of all the berries from a
bush at one clean picking, unless to catch a fancy market a partial
early picking is desired.

It is of interest to record that although the largest berry observed
on the parent bush of the seedlings of September, 1907, was 0.46 of
an inch in diameter, a berry ripened in the greenhouse on one of these
seedlings measured on April 24, 1909 (PI. XV). 0.49 of an inch in
diameter, and August 2, 1909. one of the same seedlings had a ripe
berry 0.5 of an inch in diameter.

(36) So FAR AS OBSERVED THE SWAMP BLUEBERRY WHEN GROWN IN ACID SOILS IS
LITTLE SUBJECT TO FUNGOUS DISEASES OR INSECT PESTS.

Like all plants grown in greenhouses, blueberry seedlings need to
be watched in order to detect and stop promptly any fungous or
insect pests that may appear.

With the exception of the Asterocystis-like root fungus described
on page 65 as occurring on sickly plants in alkaline soils, the only
parasitic fungus found on an^^ of the plants was a mildew identified
by Mrs. Flora "W. Patterson as Microsphaera alni vae&inii, which ap-
peared sparingl}' when the atmosphere of the greenhouse was too
moist. This mildew is abundant on Vaccinium rariUans, both wild
and cultivated, but the swamp blueberry is very little subject to its
attacks, an important characteristic. This fungus would doubtless
respond readily to the ordinary treatment for mildew with pulverized
sulphur.

Among insects a green aphis sometimes threatened to damage the
growing twigs, but it was easily destroyed by tobacco fumigation.

The greenhouse red spider ( Trfivnif/rhns hrmaryldtns) infested
some of the cultures, especially in the warmer greenhouses, occurring
chiefly on the backs of the leaves, and serioush' injured the plants

193

80 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

unless promptly checked. The most satisfactory treatment was to
syringe the j^lants once or more a day with a swift spray of water,
repeating the treatment until the animals were cleared off.

A pathological condition observed in the summers of both 1908 and
1909, at first supposed to be physiological in cause, has now been
traced to an insect. The young leaves of tender shoots become semi-
transparent or " watery " in appearance, remain small, develop a
faintly rusty color on the lower surface, tend to become slightly
cockled, and sometimes turn brown and wither. It was finally ob-
served that these leaves were infested with a very minute animal,
much smaller than a red spider and when not in motion difficult to
distinguish with a strong hand lens. Specimens submitted to Mr.
Nathan Banks, of the Bureau of Entomology, were identified by him
as a mite of the genus Tarsonemus and belonging probably to an
undescribed species.

A similar and perhaps identical mite had done considerable dam-
age to young seedlings in the greenhouse during the wanter of 1908-9,
its presence being indicated by the conspicuous cockling of the
leaves. The difficulty had then been met by the pruning of the
affected twigs. It was obsei-^^ed, however, in the summer of 1909
that the mite producing the watery appearance of the leaves did not
occur on outdoor plants fully exposed to rain and dew, but only on
plants partly or wholly protected by glass. It is suggested, therefore,
that frequent syringing w^ith water m'ay be the proper means to

control this mite.

On the whole, this species of blueberry when properly grown may
be regarded as unusually free from the depredations of fungi and
insects.

IMPROVEMENT AND PROPAGATION.

(37) The parent plant of the swamp blueberry seedlings, the culture of

WHICH has been described, BORE BERRIES OVER HALF AN INCH IN

diameter.
The parent of the blueberry seedlings of 1908 was a bush of
Vaccinium eorymhosvm selected at Greenfield, N. H., in July, 1908,
after three summers of cursory observation in the mountains of
southern New^ Hampshire and three wrecks of diligent search in
the summer of 1908. The bush grew at an elevation of 950 feet
above the sea. It stood with many other blueberry bushes in an
old, brushy, mountain pasture, in permanently moist but not swampy
soil. It was about 7 feet in height, and the largest of the several
stems was about 2 inches in diameter. The plant was old and some-
what decrepit, the tops on some of the stems being partially dead.
Some parts of the bush, however, w^ere in full vigor, with robust
foliage and twigs. The leaves were dark green above and pale
glaucous green beneath, with entire margins, and smooth on both
sides except for a slight pubescence on the midrib and principal

19?.

.J

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XV.

Berry Ripened on a Blueberry Seedling at the Age of Nineteen Monthj

(Natural size.)

A LARGE-BERRIED BUSH. 81

veins of the upper surface. They were of hirge size, on tlie fruiting
twigs reaching a length of 2 inches and a breadth of 1 inch and on
vigorous shoots having the corresponding measurements 2.5 and 1.5
inches. The character of the leaves is mentioned in detail because
of the remarkable variation shown in the leaves of the seedlings,
particularly in size, toothing, color, and pubescence. The large
flowers produced in the spring of 1909 were 0.4 of an inch (10 mm.)
long from the base of the ovary to the tip of the corolla; the sepals
were very short, and the corolla white and nearly cylindrical.

The berries were of large size, reaching a diameter of over half
an inch. The color Avas an unusually pale blue, due to a dense
bloom or glaucousness over the nearly black surface. In form the
berry was not spherical, but somewhat depressed or tomato shaped.
The calyx in the ripe berry (PI. VI, fig. 1) was almost obliterated,
because it was small in the beginning and because of lateral stretch-
ing of the berry in acquiring its depressed form. Tliis smallness of
calyx is of importance, because in such a berry no shelter is aiforded
beneath the sepals for insects, and also because the amount of " rag,"
or indigestible skin, is much less than in a berry with a large calyx.
In flavor the berry was exceptionally good. It was sufficiently acid
to be decidedly superior to the mild, sweet berry of Vaccinium penn-
sylvanicum^ yet not sour like the berry of V. canadense. It repre-
sents one of the best types of flavor in the variable T". corymhosum.

The only unfavorable feature of this bush was the lateness in
the maturity of its berries, a characteristic of the species to which
it belongs. The earliest New England berries, which bring the fancy
wholesale price of 20 cents or more per quart for the first few days,
as described on page 12, are those of the dwarf Vaccinium penn-
sylvanicrim, which mature about two weeks earlier than those of
V. corymhosum.

The size of the berry is of such importance as to warrant an exact
record of the measurement, not only of the largest berries but of all
the berries from an average picking. On August 2, 1908, an average
pint of berries was taken out of a clean picking of this bush and each
berry was measured. The measuring was done by means of a metal
plate containing a series of circular holes 5, 6, 7 nun., etc., in diam-
eter The pint of berries shoAved the following sizes :

Diameter of berry. Number of berries.

7 to 8 mm 2

8 to 0 mm 50

9 to 10 mm 191

10 to 11 mm 278

11 to 12 mm 137

12 to 13 mm 10

13 to 14 mm 3

671

54708°— Bull. 10.3—10 0

82 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

The largest berry measured on this bush was 14.02 mm. (0.552 of an
inch) in diameter.

Three quarts of berries were picked from the bush; all those less
than 10 mm. in diameter were discarded, and the remainder, about 2
quarts, were carried to Washington for seed purposes.

(38) There is every reason to beiieve that tjie blueberry can be improved

• BY breeding and BY SELECTION.

The swamp blueberry {Vaccininm corymhosum) is an exceedingly
variable bush. There are three especially well-marked forms, called
V. cnnoenum, V. atrococcum^ and V. follkhnn^ by some authors
regarded as distinct species, by others as forms of F. cori/mbosiim.
"Within the limits of these forms variation is also extensive. There is
great opportunity for selection among wild varieties in the size, color,
flavor, and time of ripening of the berries and in the productiveness
and vigor of the bushes.

That types possessing desirable qualities can be crossed there is no
question. A method of pollination has already been described (see
p. 78), Avhich, supplemented by the removal of the stamens on the
female parent before they have matured their pollen and also by the
protection of the pollinated flowers from insects, would insure a
genuine cross.

The possibility of securing valuable varieties is accentuated by the
marked variation observed in the character of the offspring of the
large-berried bush from which the seedlings of 1908 were grown. Be-
sides minor variations, these seedlings show three forms which may
be regarded as types. One of these, characterized by its low stature
and leaves tending to be conduplicate and by its long persistence into
the winter in a green state, is perhaps the result of some pathological
difficulty. Two of the types, however, appear in every way to be
normal. One has its leaves large, obovate-elliptical, glaucous on the
back, and with entire margins, such as are possessed by the parent
and are typical of true Yacclniwn corymhosam^ and it develops only
a few though very robust stpms, with few flowering buds. The other
has smaller, narrower leaves, green on both surfaces, and with mar-
gins closely and evenly serrulate. It produces many stems smaller
than those of the other, and more numerous flowering buds. It is
strongly suggestive of the plant called Vaccinium amoenum. It is
much larger and more robust than V. peniisylvanicwn, and may pos-
sibly be a hybrid between that species and V. corymhosum.

The characters of bush and foliage in these two types have not yet
been correlated with any ditferences the}' may show in flower and
fruit. It is, however, of great interest that these same two types
occur among the seedlings of 1907, as well as those of 1908, which
came from a different though similar bush growing about 2 miles
from the other.

193

METHODS OF PKOPAGATION. 83

(39) The swamp blueberry has been propagated by grafting, by budding, by
layering, by twig cuttings, and by root cuttings.

On March 2, 1909, a few scions of the hirge-berried bush from New
Hampshire, dormant winter twigs, were grafted on seedlings of 1907
Avhich had been started into growth in the greenhouse. The actual
Avork of grafting was done by Mr. Edward Goucher. All were
simple splice grafts, the diagonal cut being about 0.75 of an inch in
length, the diameter of stock and scion at the point of contact about
0.15 of an inch, and the length of the scion about 2.5 inches after it
was cut ofi' at the tip just below the lowest flowering bud. The
splice was wrapped tightly and completely with raffia, but no wax was
applied except to the cut tip of the scion. In order to prevent a pos-
sible injurious degree of evaporation from the scion, the Avhole graft,
which was near the base of the plant, was surrounded nearly to the
tip of the scion with a loose mass of sphagnum, which was kept
slightly moist though well aerated.

All the scions put out new growth from their buds in about ten days.
In half the grafts union did not take place, the new growth finally
collapsed, and the scion died. In the others the surfaces united
satisfactorily and the wrapping was removed. By the end of the
season of 1909 the grafts had made a growth of 5 to 8 inches and
had laid down flowering buds. (See PL XVI, fig. 1.)

The first experiments in budding were begun on August 13, 1909,
the work being done by Mr. Henry H. Boyle. Seven seedlings of
1900 and 1907 Avere budded with summer leaf buds of the large-
berried Vacciniuni corymhosum bush from NeAv Hampshire. On
August 10, 0 other seedlings of 1900 and 1907 were budded with buds
from large-berried plants of F. pallidum from North Carolina. On
September 2 and 3, 1909, 20 more seedlings, of 1907 and 1908, were
budded with buds from the New Hampshire bush. The buds were
inserted near the base of the plant on stems 0.25 to 0.5 of an inch in
diameter. The method of procedure was that used in ordinary bud-
ding, as of peaches, the same T-shaped cut being made in the bark of
the stock, the bud wood cut to the length of half an inch or a little
more, and the bud after insertion wrapped tightl}^ Avith raffia.

The percentage of success in the budding was small. Out of the 39
plants budded only 10 retained their bud alive and in apparently
good condition at the end of the season, and the following s})ring
onl\' 5 Avere alive and in condition to o;roAv. Plate XVI, figure 2,
is a reproduction of a photograph of one of the successful buds from
the large-berried New Hampshire bush, taken in the Avinter of 1909-
10 after union had taken place, the Avrapping had been removed, and
the stock had been cut oif abo\^e the bud.

Comments on some of the features of these budding experiments
may be useful to other experimenters. The groAvth of the stems

to'
103

84 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

during the portion of the season remaining after the budding was
sufficient to strain the wrappings and, unless the bud wood was hekl
tightly for its Avhole length, to push the bud out of place. It was
found best to leave the bud tightly wrapped to'the end of the season,
notwithstanding the fact that the stock might become deeply creased
and choked.

An examination of the buds that failed shoAved that in most cases
bark or callus from the stock had intruded between the stock wood
and the bud wood, sometimes covering the entire surface. While
the bud wood in some such cases was in part still alive and green, it
was of course doomed.

As late as August 30 in New Hampshire, and September 3 in
Massachusetts, bushes of the swamp blueberry were found in Avhich the
bark would peel and buds could be inserted. On September 2 no wild
bushes of V accinium atrococcuTn coidd be found at AVashington in
condition to bud. Even in Massachusetts and New Hampshire, on
the dates mentioned, most of the bark on all the bushes and all of it
on many bushes would not peel. Bark still in good condition oc-
curred mostly on vigorous shoots of the season and in some cases of
the preceding season. Sometimes the bark on the north side of an
erect shoot would peel when that on the south side would not. Bark
still green and whole would peel when near-by bark which from age
and exposure had begun to turn brown and split on the surface would
not peel.

Propagation by layering was carried on in 1908 and 1900, In
the greenhouse experiments moist live sphagnum proved to be a more
successful material than peat and sand in vrhich to root a layered
branch. When the branch laid down was one which was hardening
its wood but still bearing leaves, it callused and rooted readily in the
sphagnum at the point Avhere the bark Avas sliced, but when a young
soft-Avooded branch Avas used it usually began to decay at the cut
and finally died. Although several times tried it Avas ncA^er found
practicable to se\'er a layered and rooted branch from the parent
plant successfully except at the period of Avinter dormancy after the
leaves had been shed.

(40) The most desirable method of propagating the swamp blueberry is by
cuttings.

While the surest method of propagating a selected blueberry bush
is by layering, and the most rapid method of securing fruiting plants
from it is by grafting, both these methods haA^e certain objections
Avhich do not apply to the method of propagation by cuttings. j

Propagation by grafting is objectionable because of the habit the !
blueberry plant has of continually sending up ncAv shoots to replace ]
the old stems. These shoots come from the root or from the base of \

103 ';

\

A

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XVI

Fig. 1.— Grafted Blueberry.

Fig. 2.— Blueberry Seedling Successfully
Budded.

The line of union between the stock and the .scion in figure 1 is clearly shown. Two twigs had
grown from the scion, a short one near t lie tipanda vigorou.sone from' the lower part. In fig-ure
2 is shown aTi inserted bud wliich has united successfully with the stock, but has not yet begun
to grow. The inset figure is about three times natural size. The two main figures are natural
size.

PEOPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 85

the stem just below the surface of the ground. Originating below
the graft the}^ would not bear fruit of the variety desired, and such
a grafted plant Avould always be liable to serious depreciation in
value. It is suggested, however, for the benefit of any who may
desire to follow up this method of propagation, that a plant produced
by root grafting would be somewhat less liable than a stem graft to
the production of shoots from the stock.

Propagation by layering is not open to the objection just raised
against propagation by grafting. The difficulty with layering is
that only a few plants can be propagated from a parent in this way
at one time. The method of layering is slow and therefore, from a
commercial point of view, faulty.

Propagation by cuttings, whether of the root or the stem, is subject
to neither of the objections raised to grafting and to layering. In
a plant raised from a cutting the whole plant body, including the
root, is of the variety desired, and alien shoots can never be pro-
duced. Furthermore, hundreds or even thousands of cuttings may
be taken at one time from a valuable plant and a large stock of off-
spring can soon be accumulated.

The present objection to the propagation of the swamp blueberry
by cuttings is the difficulty of making a high percentage of the cut-
tings grow. In this respect the experience of the last two years may
be characterized as a series of frequent alternations of high hopes and
disappointing failures. The intimate knowledge, hoAvever, acquired
from these experiments regarding the behavior of cuttings under
many different conditions gives ground for confidence in ultimate
success; but as we are only in the middle of things in this matter a
full description of the experiments with cuttings must be deferred
until satisfactory results shall confirm our confidence in the methods
used.

For the present it may suffice to show an illustration of a plant from
a root cutting (fig. 81) and another of plants from twig cuttings
(PL XVII) of the big-berried bush from Greenfield,' N. H. In Plate
XVIII is illustrated, from a photograph taken in the winter of 1009-10,
a plant grown from a cutting taken on October 15, 1908, from a seed-
ling of September. 1907. Although itself only a year old, and even
then taken from a seedling only a year old, the plant after passing
the winter of 1908-9 in the greenhouse and the summer of 1909 out-
doors, had laid down 156 flowering buds at the time it was photo-
graphed.

AVhile these cases show that swamp blueberry plants can be pro-
duced successfully from root cuttings and stem cuttings, the successes
have been so erratically distributed that the recommendation of any
particular method is hardly warranted at the present time.

193

86

EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

It should be stated here that those species of bhieberry which
spread by rootstocks, such as Vaccinium pennsylvanicum^ and other
related plants having the same habit, like the deerberry {Polycodium
stamineum) and the dwarf huckleberry {Gaylussacia dumosa), have

Fig. 31. — Blueberry plant grown from a root cutting. (Natural size.)

been reproduced without difficulty by rootstock cuttings. This
method is not generally applicable to the swamp blueberry, however,
as large plants of this species seldom produce rootstocks.

FIELD CULTURE.

(41 ) Experiments have been begun in the field culture of the swamp blue-
berry.

While the results of the pot culture experiments are regarded
as highly successful and satisfactory, the experimental field plant-
ings made in 1908 and 1909 can not be said to have given more than

193 •

Bui. 1 93, Bureau of Plant industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XVII.

, I

FIELD PLANTINGS. 8*7

promising results. It is true that out of one planting of 179 seed-
lings of 1907 made in a partially moist natural meadow at Green-
field, N. H., in early July, 1908, 97 per cent outlived the severe
drought of that summer and the rigors of the following winter,
and 6 per cent flowered and set fruit. The plants were not observed
during the ripening season. AMiile this record of flowering and
fruiting in plants 2 years of age may be regarded as satisfactory
in comparison with the several years supposed by the earlier experi-
menters to be required before fruiting, it nevertheless can not be
regarded as satisfactory in comparison with the pot cultures from
the seedlings of 1908, of which, as stated on page 73, 70 per cent
were prepared to flower in 1910, their second year.

While the results of the field exi^eriments thus far made are re-
garded as in no wise approaching Avhat may confidently and reason-
ably be expected, they nevertheless may serve even at this early stage
to convey some useful lessons.

The field planting of 179 plants already referred to contained
84 plants which had never been potted but were torn apart out
of their original seed flat while in full growth 'and set outdoors in
the place indicated. These plants after such severe treatment never
grew to be robust and none of them flowered. It was among them
that all but two of the deaths in the field occurred. That any of
the plants should survive such rough usage is of interest experi-
mentally, but in actual practice such a method should never of course
be followed.

Most of the field plantings were made in areas where the natural
soil had been chopped with a mattock to the diameter of about 18
inches and the depth of about 8 inches immediately before the plant-
ing. It is evident from the comparison of certain plantings made
in 1909 that a growing plant when set out in such freshly chopped
soil receives a serious setback. On June 4, 1909, 216 seedlings of
1908 were set out in new holes prepared as described above, and 48
other seedlings of 1908 were used at the same time to* replace dead
or feeble plants set out in the preceding year. These 48 plants there-
fore went into soil that had rotted for a year, although it was in
part penetrated again by new roots from the surrounding native
vegetation. When next examined, on June 30, the two groups of
plants showed the most marked difference in growth. The plants
in the new holes showed the same purpling of the leaves and cessa-
tion of growth as did plants in the greenhouse when suffering from
excessive acidity due to potting in raw peat. (See p. (50.) The
plants in the old holes, on the contrary, were nearly all of good color
and growing well. It is inferred from this observation that blue-
berry plants will do better if the holes in which they are set are

193

88 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

filled with peat or j^eat mixture the acidity of which has been
tempered by several months of decomposition.

In all the field plantings thus far made the plants were set out
while in full growth. Although most of them were in pots when
transplanted, and therefore carried their entire root system with
them, nevertheless it is regarded as highly probable that a better
plan would be to set the plants out when dormant, in the early spring
of their second year. Such a plan would offer several advantages
Avhich it is hardly necessary to recount.

For several days after transi^lanting, the plants were partially
shaded. Paper and the branches of various trees and bushes were
tried for this purpose. Pine branches stuck in the ground on the
south side of the plants were found b}' far the best of the shades used.

The soil about the plants was mulched in most cases with dead
leaves, held in place when necessary by a little earth thrown over
them.

CONCLUSION.

In conclusion, to those desiring to experiment with the field culture
of the swamp blueberry, whether with wild plants, seedlings, or
plants grown from cuttings, two modes of treatment are suggested,
both deduced from the experiments already made. The first method,
suited to upland soils, is to set the plants in trenches or separate
holes in well-rotted peat at least a foot in depth, and mulch the sur-
face well either with leaves or with clean sand. The excavations
should provide ample space for new growth of the roots, not less
than a foot each way from the surface of the old root ball. The peat
used may be of either the bog or upland type, as described on pages
32 to 35 of this publication, and should have been rotted for several
months before using. The soil in which the holes or trenches are
situated should be such as to provide good drainage, the ideal condi-
tion of the peat about the roots of the plant being one of continued
moisture during the growing season, but with all the free water drain-
ing away readily so that thorough aeration of the mass of peat is
assured. If the surrounding soil is sufficiently porous to insure the
maintenance of such a moist and aerated condition, without the neces-
sity of mixing sand with the peat, better growth, it is believed, will
be secured than when such a mixture is used.

The second method of field culture suggested is to set out the plants
in a peat bog after the bog has been drained, turfed, and deeply
mulched with sand. The treatment proposed is the same as that
employed in cranberry culture, except that no special provision need
be made for rapid flooding of the bog for winter. The ground water
in the bog may probably be kept with advantage a little lower than
is usual with cranberries. This method of culture is suggested not

193

Bui. 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XVIII.

ADVICE TO EXPERIMENTERS. 89

only because of the close botanical relationship of the swamp blue-
berry and the cranberry and the known similarity of their physiolog-
ical requirements in the matter of peat and moisture, as well as the
presence of a mycorrhizal fungus in the roots of both, but also and
especially because the most robust growth in all the pot experiments
occurred Avhen the roots of the plant were feeding on pure peat and
the pots were surrounded by moist sand. The important elfects of
these conditions are discussed on pages 08 to 71. Essentially the same
effects, it is believed, are secured by the system of culture used for the
cranberry.

This publication closes with no special summary of results. The
mmibered statements which form its framework are in themselves a
sufficient summary for the general reader, and one who is led by these
experiments to undertake the culture of the blueberry will find it
profitable not to begin his work until he has read the whole of the
publication. These plants differ in their soil requirements so funda-
mentally from all our common cultivated crops that it is useless to
expect to succeed with their culture without a thorough understand-
ing of the principles governing their growth.

Those desiring to look into the work of earlier experimenters can
find a key to the literature in F. W. Card's book entitled "• Bush
Fruits," or in the article by W. M. Munson on Vaccinium, in Bailey's
Cyclopedia of American Horticulture.

INDEX.

Page.

Acid, citric, normal solution, relation to pure lemon juice 28

nutrient solution. See Solution, nutrient,
soil. See Soil, acid.

Acidity, phenolphthalein test 26-28

tests, peat, roots, leaves, etc 22, 35, 61-62

Aeration, conditions satisfactory for blueberry 35-36, 36-37, 37-39, 55

necessity in interior of pots 69-70

promoted by plunging potted plants 65-67, 69

Agricultural experiment stations. See Stations, agricultural experiment.

Alabama, absence of blueberry and related plants in ' ' black belt' ' 19

Alfalfa, pot cultures in garden soil and in peat, comparison 15-17

preference for alkaline soils 29

Algae, darkening of glass pots necessary to prevent growth 15

Alkali, determination by phenolphthalein test 22, 26-28

Alkaline nutrient solution. See Solution, nutrient.

soil. See Soil, alkaline.
Alpine blueberry. See Blueberry, alpine.

Ammonia derived from humus 47

solution used to extract humus 47

Andromeda polifolia, root fungus, study 49

Aphis, green, destruction by tobacco fumigation 79

Arboretum, Arnold, blueberry bushes 11

Arbutus, trailing, avoidance of limeslone soils 19

Asterocystis radicis, resemblance to injurious fungus of blueberry root 65

Atlantic Coastal Plain. See Plain, Atlantic Coastal.
Atmospheric nitrogen. See Nitrogen, atmospheric.

Azalea nudiflora, occurrence in bogs and on sandy uplands 35

use of kalmia peat for growing 32

Azotobacter chroococcum, nitrogen-fixing bacterium in soil 49

Bacteria, in clover roots, fixation of atmospheric nitrogen 48-49

kalmia peat and cow manure, comparison 64

nitrifying, inability to thrive in acid soil 46, 47

of ordinary leaf decay, conditions of inability to thrive 31-32

Banks, Nathan, identification of mite 80

Bark, condition for budding " 84

Basal branches. See Branches, basal,
shoots. See Shoots, basal.

"Belt, black," Alabama, absence of blueberry and related plants 19

Berry, size, flavor, etc., in various species 12, 79, 81

importance as market feature 12, 14

on parent plant 81, 82

See also Fruit.
"Black belt." -S^'e "Belt, black."

Blackening, leaves, a pathological disturbance 56

Bladderworts, insect food for suj^ply of nitrogen 50

Bloodroot, soil not suitable for blueberry 24

Blueberries, prices in Boston market 12, 81

Blueberry, alpine, soil preferences 19

and huckleberry, means of distinguishing 13

related plants, occurrence, adherence to acid soils 30

bog. See Bog, blueberry.

branching types, description 58, 59

bush habit, cause 57

caustic effect of lime on plants 20

cockling of leaves due to a mite 80

conclusions, summary, statement 88-89

cotyledons, description and development of branches from axils. 53, 57-58

193 91

92 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

, Page.

Blueberry, cultivation, possibility, erroneous popular idea 11

cultural features contributing to rapid growth 68-71

flowers, description 76-78

growth, peculiarities ,. 14-50

improvement and propagation 80-86

insect pests 79-80

market price and requirements 12, 81

name usually restricted to plants of the genus Vaccinium 13

nutrition, peculiarities 40-50

peculiarities of growth 14-50

nutrition 40-50

picking methods 13

possible hybrid ' 82

pot culture, methods 51-80

roots, epidermal cells 42-44

soil deleterious to roses and alfalfa 15-17

requirements 14-40

subalpine, soil preferences 19

swamp, or high bush 11, 14

theory of nutrition 50

variability 82

See also Berry, Fruit, Fruiting, and Market.

Bog, blueberry, water level 36, 38-39

cranberry, near Wareham, Mass., growth of blueberry 36

leatherleaf, typical, growth of blueberry in drained areas 35

peat, formation, causes of acidity 31-32

suitability for growing blueberries ■ 88-89

plants. See Plants, bog.

sphagnum, growth of cushions 39

water. See Water, bog, and Water, peat.

Boston, price of blueberries in market 12, 81

Boyle, H. H., budding of swamp blueberry 83

Bract, formation prior to termination of stem growth ^ 58

Branches, basal, commencement, location and importance 57-58

pine, use as shade for blueberry plants 88

Branching types of blueberry. See Blueberry, branching types.

Breazeale, J. F., assistance in experiments 27, 32

Breeding, use in improvement of blueberries 82

Briggs, L. J., test of kalmia peat 38

Britton, Mrs. N . L., identification of moss on leaf mold 30

Brown, G. H., on plants in Smithsonian grounds 11

Budding, method of propagation of swamp blueberry 83-84

Buds, changing by pruning, experiment 72

flowering, method of production 67, 71-73

leaf, transformation into flowering buds 71-73

Calcareous soil. See Soil, calcareous.

Calcium humate, occurrence in soils 46-47

oxid in leaf mold, amount 30

Calyx, coloration before ripening of berry 79

relation to quality of berry 81

Canada, relation of blueberries to calcareous soils 19

Cape heaths. See Heaths.

Carbonate, lime, use in pot cultures of blueberry 23

Card, F. W., on bUieberry cultivation 89

Cells, epidermal, of blueberry rootlets, microscopic study 42

Cellular matter. See Matter, cellular and organic.
Centrifugal method. See Soil, moisture measurement.

Chamaedaphne calyculata, bog, growth of blueberry 35

Chlorophyll, presence essential to development of carbohydrates 48

Citric acid. See Acid, citric.
Clay soil. See Soil, clay.
See also Loam, clayey.

Clostridium pasteurianum, nitrogen-fixing bacterium in soil 49

Clover, nitrogen absorption by plant 48-49

Coastal Plain. See Plain, Atlantic Coastal.

193

INDEX. 93

Page.

Cobb, N. A., method of installing microscope 42

Cockling of blueberry leaves due to a mite 80

Collins, G. N., photographs illustrating peat formation 33

Color, importance as market feature 12

Coloration. See Purpling.

Conclusions, summary statement 88-89

Cotyledons. See Blueberry, cotyledons.
Cranberry bog. See Bog, cranberry.

culture system, adaptability to blueberry growing 88-89

European, root fungus, study 49

Crocks, broken, use in soil for repotting heath plants 69-70

Crossing, use in improvement of blueberry 82

Cultivation, blueberry, possibility, erroneous popular idea 11

Culture, conclusions, summary statement 88-89

field, of the blueberry 86-88

pot, methods, swamp blueberry 51-80

water, experiment 36

Cushions, sphagnum, growth in peat bogs 39

Cuttings, development of flowering buds on 73

use in propagation, advantages and objection 84-85, 86

Cypripedium acaule, occurrence in bogs and on sandy uplands 35

Darkening of glass pots, method 15

Dawson, Jackson, on growth of blueberry 11, 68, 69

Deerberry, propagation by rootstock cuttings 86

undergrowth on noncalcareous soils, Alabama 19

Dormant plants. See Plants, dormant.

Douglass, John, partial planting of Smithsonian grounds 11

Downing, A. J., plan of Smithsonian grounds 11

Drainage, necessity in field culture 88

of glass pots. 14

See also Watering.

Drosera, insect food for supply of nitrogen 50

Dryness, importance as market feature 12

physiological, discussion 35

soil, injury to blueberry plants 66, 69

Earthworms, injurious effects on blueberry plants 38

Ectotrophic mycorrhiza. See Mycorrhiza.

Embryo, blueberry seed, development 53

Endosperm, blueberry seed 53

Endotrophic mycorrhiza. See Mycorrhiza.
Enzymatic transformation. See Starch, transformation.
Epidermal colls. See Blueberry, rot)ts.

Epigaea repens, avoidance of limestone soils 19

Erica spp., root fungus, study 49

See also Heaths and Heather.
Experiment stations. See Stations, agricultural experiment.

Extraction, method for soil-acidity tests 27

Farkleberries, undergrowth on noncalcareous soils, Alabama 19

Fernald, M. L., on soil preferences of alpine and subalpine plants 19

Ferns, use of Maryland peat for growing 32

Field culture. See Culture, field.

Flats, use for seedlings 51-54, 60

Flavor, excellence in parent plant 81

importance as market feature 12, 81

Flax, injurious fungus in root 65

Flooding of blueberries in winter 36, 88

Flowering buds. See Buds.

of seedlings 73, 87

Flowers, description 76-78, 81

Formulas, acid and alkaline nutrient soluti<ms 28-29

Frank, A. B., naming of fungus endotrophic mycorrhiza 43

Freestone, pieces, use in soil for repotting heath plants 70

Freezing, effect on blueberry plants 74-76

Fruit, on a plant eleven months old 67

193

94 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBEERY CULTURE.

Page.

Fruit, pollination necessary for production 76

ripening process, description 78-79

See also Berry.

Fruiting of swamp blueberry 68, 81, 87

Fungi, growth on organic matter containing no nitrates.. 48

mycorrhizal, study by Charlotte Ternetz 49-50

Fungus, beneficial in rootlets'. 42-45, 48-50, 89

injurious, found in roots of feeble blueberry plants 64-65

Garden soil. See Soil, garden.

Gaylussacia dumosa, reproduction by rootstock cuttings 86

frondosa, a blue-fruited huckleberry 13

Germination of seeds 14, 51, 53

Glass for covering seed flat, advantages 52-53

pots. See Pots, glass.

Goucher, Edward, grafting of swamp blueberry 83

Grafting, use in propagation 83, 84-85

Greenfield, N. H., field plantings of blueberries 80, 87

Growth, check after transplanting, forms and causes 55-57

large, attained in pot culture 68-71

peculiarities, in the blueberry plant 14-50

root, under various conditions 15, 17-21, 23, 24, 28, 36, 41, 57, 66, 76

spring, in blueberry plants after wintering outdoors 74-76

stem, termination 58-59

twig, under various conditions 70, 76

vigorous under certain cultural methods 68-71

Hairs, root, absence from blueberry 40^1, 50

ordinary agricultural plants, description and function 40-41

Hardiness of blueberry plants, winter exposure 74-76

Heather, avoidance of limestone soils 19

root fungus, study 49

Heaths, propagation, cultivation etc., citations from William McNab 63, 69, 70

Honeysuckle, swamp, occurrence in bogs and on sandy uplands 35

Huckleberry and blueberry, means of distinguishing 13

avoidance of limestone soils 19

dwarf, reproduction by rootstock cuttings ; 86

name applied in New England to genus Gaylussacia 13

Humate. See Calcium humate and Magnesium humate.

Humification, definition 47

Hummocks in peat bogs 36, 39, 40

Humus, definition, source of nitrates, extraction 46-47

Improvement of blueberry, discussion of methods. 80-86

Indoor plants. See Plants, outdoor.

Inoculation with the mycorrhizal fungus not necessary 44

Insects, capture by bog* plants, nitrogen supply _ 50

injurious to blueberry -" 79-Sp

larvae, hastening decomposition of leaves 33,

making tunnels in clay soil ^ 24

pollen-carrying, in pollination of blueberry 76-78, 82

Introduction to bulletin 11-14

Kalmia latifolia, avoidance of limestone soils 19

See also Laurel,
peat. See Peat, kalmia.

Kellerman, K. F., on bacteria content of peat and manure 64

formulas for nutrient solutions 28-29

kalmia peat, nitrates and nitrification 46, 47

Kentucky limestone soil. See Soil, Kentucky limestone.
Klamath Lake, Lower. See Lower Klamath Lake.

Lady's-slipper, occurrence in bogs and on sandy uplands 35

Larvae. See Insects, larvae.

Laurel, avoidance of limestone soils Ip

leaf deposits in formation of Maryland peat 33

root fungus similar to blueberry fungus 43, 44

See also Kalmia.

Layering, method of propagation of swamp blueberry 84-85

Leaf buds. See Buds, leaf,
mold. See Mold, leaf.

193

INDEX. 95

Page.
Leatherleaf bog. See Bog, leatherleaf.

Leaves, character on parent plant 80-81

deposits in peat formation, description 33

maple, effect on growth of blueberry 24-25, 62

oak, acidity tests 35, 62

useful in formation of kalmia peat 34

fully rotted, deleterious to blueberry plants 24-25

partly rotted, suited for blueberry soil 24, 34

purpling, description and cause 56-57

occurrence and prevention 17, 25, 28, 29, 60-61, 87

seedling, size and shape 54

uppermost, withering and stagnation, causes 55-56, 60

watery appearance caused by mite 80

Lemon, yields nearly normal solution of citric acid 28

Lime, injurious effects on blueberry 20, 23, 64-65

use in blueberry experiments 14, 20-23, 47, 64-65

Limed soil. See Soil, limed.
Limestone soil. See Soil, calcareous.

Limewater, experiments in pot cultures of blueberry 21-22

Litter, forest, abundance of fungi present 48

Loam, clayey, mixture with sand and leaf mold, use in pot cultures 25

use in pot cultures 14, 25, 52, 54, 60

Lower Klamath Lake, peat with alkaline reaction 32

McNab, William, on culture of heaths 63, 69, 70

Magnesium humate, occurrence in soils 46-47

Maine, blueberries in Boston market 12

experiments in blueberry culture 11

Manure, cow, use in growing plants 14, 63

injurious effect on blueberry 18-19, 64

use in growing heaths and blueberry 62-64

water, use in growing blueberry 62-63

Maple leaves. See Leaves, maple, and Woods, sugar-maple.
Market requirements. See Blueberry, market price and requirements.
Marsh rosemary. See Rosemary, marsh.
Maryland peat. See Peat, kalmia.

Massachusetts, blueberries, growth in cranberry bog 36

in Boston market 12

Matter, cellular and organic, definitions 46

Medullary rays. See Rays, medullary.

Michigan, experiments in blueberry culture 11

muck lands, loss of acidity after drainage 35

Microscope, use in studying blueberry rootlets 42

Microsphaera alni vaccinii, mildew injurious to blueberry 79

Mildew, injurious to blueberry, identification 79

Mite infesting the blueberry 80

Mixtures, soil, used in pot cultures 25, 52, 54, 59-62

Mohr, Charles, on Alabama soils 19

Moisture, absorption, low rate in bog plants 50

equivalent. See Soil, moisture measurement.

freedom from outside, importance as market feature 12

measurement. SeeSoil, moisture measurement.

requirements of seed flats 52

See also Watering.

Mold, leaf, cause of alkalinity 35

formed after long decomposition 24, 35

not suited to the blueberry 24-26

proper application of name 34

relation to leaf litter 34

Moss, Physcomitrium immersum, occurrence on alkaline leaf mold 30

sphagnum, aeration conditions satisfactory for blueberry 38-40

uses in blueberry culture 39-40, 52, 66, 84

Muck, loss of acidity after drainage 35

Mulch, leaves or sand, for field plantings 88

moist leaf, effect on growth of blueberry 24

oak-leaf, sufficient winter cover for blueberry plants 74

sand, for plunged pots 68

193

96 EXPEEIMENTS IN BLUEBEKRY CULTURE.

Page.

Munson, W. M., on blueberry cultivation 89

Mycorrhiza in blueberry rootlets, description and effects 42-45, 48-50, 89

ectotrophic 43-44

Myriapods, hastening decomposition of leaves 33

Nectar of the blueberry 76, 78

Neutral soil. See Soil, neutral.

New Brunswick, blueberries in Boston market 12

England, occurrence of blueberry and related plants 30

Hampshire, blueberry shipments, prices received 12

Jersey, blueberries in Boston market 12

York, absence of blueberry and related plants in limestone soils 19

blueberries in Boston market 12

experiments in blueberry culture 11

Nitrates, deficiency in peaty soils 45, 50

determination in kalmia peat 46

usually derived from humus 47

Nitrification, action of bacteria, nonoccurrence in acid forest litter 47, 48

Nitrifying bacteria. See Bacteria, nitrifying.

Nitrites, production 47

Nitrogen, absorption from soil in form of nitrates 45

atmospheric, fixation, by bacteria 48-49

leguminous plants 48-49

root fungi 48-50

available, deficiency in peaty soil due to lack of nitrifying bacteria . 46-47

relation of blueberry fungus 48-50

determinations in kalmia j^eat 45, 46

organic, used by fungi -. 48

tubercles, development on alfalfa roots 16-17

Noncalcareous soil. See Soil, noncalcareous.
Normal solution. See Solution, normal.

North Carolina, blueberries in Boston market 12

Nova Scotia, blueberries in Boston market 12

Nutrient solution. iSee Solution, nutrient.

Nutrition of the blueberry, theory 50

peculiarities of the blueberry 40-50

Oak leaves and oak-leaf mold. See Leaves, oak.

root mycorrhiza, description 44

roots, acidity test 61-62

sandy woods, presence of peat suitable to blueberry 32-35

Ohio, absence of blueberry and related plant in limestone soils 19

Oliver, G. W., method of "germinating blueberry seeds 14, 51

Orchids, use of Maryland peat in growing 32

Oregon, tule swamps, alkaline character of peat. 32

Organic matter. See Matter, cellular and organic.

nitrogen. See Nitrogen, organic.
Outdoor plants. See Plants, outdoor.
Oxid, calcium. See Calcium oxid.

Oxvcoccus oxycoccus, root fungus, study 49

Pacific, humid coast sections, occurrence of blueberry and related plants 30

Parent plant. See Plant, parent.

Patterson, Mrs. F. W., identification of blueberry mildew ,-■■•: ^^

Peat, acidity, causes and characteristics 31-35, 61-62

alkaline, not suited for growing blueberry 32

bacterial content, comparison with cow manure 64

bog. See Bog, peat.

favorite type of acid soil for blueberry 31-32

fibrous drained, aeration conditions satisfactory for blueberry 37-38

fresh, effect on field growth of blueberry 87

excessive acidity - ^^ q^

kalmia, description, process of formation - - - 32-34

determinations of nitrogen and' nitrates 45, 46

extraciion of humus ^^

moisture conditions 37-38

nitrification not taking place ^^' co

roots, acidity test 61-6-

J93

INDEX, 97

Page.

Peat, mixture, experiments with roses, alfalfa, and blueberries 15-17

for potting plants 25, 52, 54, 59-62

of the bog type, suitability for blueberry culture 31-32

pure, largest plants grown by use 69

suitable for blueberry, sources 32-35

upland, definition 34

used in pot cultures, discussion 52, 54, 56, 60-62

water. See Water, peat.
Peaty soils. See Soil^ peaty.
Peculiarities of blueberry. See Blueberry, peculiarities.

Peeling, bark of blueberry 84

Penicillium glaucum, nitrogen fixation 49

Pennsylvania, blueberries in Boston market 12

Phenolphthalein, use in testing soil acidity 22, 26-27

Phoma, occurrence on roots of plants related to the blueberry 49-50

Physcomitrium immersum, occurrence on alkaline leaf mold 30

Physiological dryness. See Dryness, physiological.

Picking, methods in use with blueberry 13-14

Pine branches. See Branches, pine.

sandy woods, presence of peat suitable to blueberry 32, 34-35

Pitcher plants. See Plants, pitcher.

Pith of blueberry twigs gorged with starch 76

Plain, Atlantic Coastal, occurrence of blueberries and related plants 30, 37

Plant, parent, of cultivated seedlings 80-82

Plants, bog, nitrogen assimilation, methods 50

occurrence on sandy uplands, causes 35

preservation from decay, causes 31-32

dormant, erratic starting when wintered indoors 75-76

use in field plantings 88

heath, repotting directions 70

outdoor, compared with indoor plants 74-75

pitcher, insect food for supply of nitrogen 50

Plumpness, importance as market feature 12

Plunging, use of method 15, 65-67, 67-68, 68-70

Poisonous character of acid soils. See Soil, acid.

Pollination, blueberry 76-78, 82

Polycodium stamineum, reproduction by rootstock cuttings 86

Pot culture. See Culture, pot.

Pots, glass, use in blueberry experiments 14, 15

plunging, advantages 15, 65-67, 67-68, 68-70

thumb, use for seedlings, comparison with flats 60

Potting, method with seedlings of five months 59-62

Price of blueberries 12, 81

Propagation, blueberry, discussion of methods 83-86

Pruning blueberry, relation to method of laying down buds 71-72

Purpling of blueberry leaves, occurrence, causes, etc 17, 25, 28, 29, 56-57, 60-61, 87

Rake, use for picking blueberry 13

Rays, medullary, gorged with starch in blueberry twigs 76

Red spider. See Spider, red.

Repotting, in spring 67-68, 70

See also Transplanting.
Resting spores. See Spores, resting.

Rhode Island, experiments in blueberry culture I ]

Ripening, fruit, description 7fi

Root grafting. See Grafting.

growth. See Growth, root,
hairs. See Hairs, root.

Rootlets, blueberry and other plants, description 40-42

Roots, blueberrv. growth under various conditions 15, 17-21,

23, 24, 28, 36, 41, 57, 66, 76

in peat, acidity determination 61-62

inhabited by a raycorrhizal fungus 42, 45

use of cuttings in propagation 85

Rootstocks, blueberry, propagation of blueberry and related plants 86

54708°— Bpl. 193—10 7

98 EXPERIMENTS TN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

Page.

Rose, culture in garden soil and in peat 14, 15-16, 29

Rosemary, marsh, root fungus, study 49

Rotting of peat in blueberry culture 34, 52, 56, 60-61, 87-88

Sand, use in field plantings 88

pot cultures _. 25, 28, 52, 54, 60-61, 66

Sandstone, broken pieces, use in soil for repotting heath plants 69-70

Sandy soil. See Soil, sandy.

woods. See Woods, sandy.

San-acenia, insect food for supply of nitrogen 50 .

Saturation, soil, effect on blueberry growth 35-36

Schott, Arthur, on shrubs in Smithsonian grounds 11

Scirpus occidentalis, forming an alkaline peat 32

Seed flats. See Flats, use for seedlings.

Seedlings, blueberry, transplanting details 15, 54-57, 59-60, 67, 88

Seeds, blueberry, description and care 13, 51-54

germination 14, 51, 53

Selection, use in improvement of blueberries 80, 82

Shade, effect on growth of plants 55, 56, 67-68, 70-71, 88

Shipping, adaptation of the blueberry 13

Shoots, basal, development 57, 58

Smithsonian Institution, blueberry bushes in grounds 11

Soil, acid, poisonous character 45, 50

preference of blueberry and related plants 15, 17, 19, 26, 28-30, 31-32

acidity tests 22,26-28

alkaline, deleterious to blueberry plants 26-31

phenolphthalein'test, discussion and directions 26-28

bacteria. See Bacteria.

blueberry, deleterious to roses and alfalfa 15-17

calcareous, absence of blueberries and related plants 19

clay, effect on growth of blueberry 24

freshly chopped, deleterious to growth of blueberries 87

garden, not suited to blueberry cultivation 11, 14-17

Kentucky limestone, absence of blueberry and related plants 19

limed, unfavorable to the blueberry 19-23

mixtures used in pot cultures 25, 52, 54, 59-62

moisture measurement 37-38

muck, loss of acidity by drainage 35

neutral, deleterious to blueberry plants 26-31

noncalcareous, occurrence of blueberry and related plants 19, 30

peaty, acid, deficiency in available nitrogen •. 45-46

requirements of the blueberry 11, 14-40

rich, absence of blueberry and related plants 14-17, 17-19, 30

sandy, aeration conditions satisfactory for blueberry 36-37

water-saturated, deleterious to blueberry growth 35-36

See also Loam.

Solution, acid and alkaline, effect on growth of blueberry, experiments 28-29

acidity determination 26-28

normal, definition 27

nutrient, acid and alkaline, effect on growth of blueberry 28-29

Sowing, seed of blueberry, directions 51-52

Sphagnum moss. See Moss, sphagnum.

Spider, red, occurrence and control 55, 79-80

Spores, injurious, found in roots of feeble blueberry plants 64-65

resting, Asterocystis radicis 65

Spring beauty, soil not good for blueberry ■ 24

Stagnation, leaf rudiment 28, 29, 55-56, 60

Stamens of the blueberry 76-78

Starch in blueberry twigs, transformation, etc 75. 76

Starvation, danger to blueberry from lack of nitrates in soil 45-46, 50

Stations, agricultural experiment, attempts at blueberry culture 11

Stem growth. See Growth, stem.

withering at tip, cause and prevention 28, 55-56, 60, 70, 71

Stigma of the blueberry 77-78

Stone, broken, use in soil for reporting heath plants 69-70

Subalpine blueberry. xSee Blueberry, subalpinc
Sugar-maple woods. See Woods, sugar-maple. .

19.S

INDEX. 99

Page.

Sundews, insect food far supply of nitrogen 50

Swamp blueberry. See Blueberry, swamp.
Swarm spores. See Spores, injurious..

Tarsonemus, mite infesting the blueberry 80

Temperature during pot-culture experiments 53, 55, 57. 74-76

Tennessee, absence of blueberry and related plants in limestone soils 19

Termination of stem growth 58-59

Ternetz, Charlotte, on mycorrhizal fungi 44, 49-50

Tetranychus bimaculatus. See Spider, red.

Theory of nutrition, blueberry 50

Thumb pots. See Pots, thumb.

Transpiration, bog plants, retarded as protection against poison in soil 50

Transplanting, possibility, erroneous popular idea U

seedlings, details. 15, 54-57, 59-60, 67, 88

Trescott, T. C, determinations of nitrogen in kalmia peat 45

Trillium, soil not good for blueberry 24, 34

Tubercles, nitrogen, development on alfalfa roots 16-17

Tule, forming an alkaline peat 32

Twiggi'owth. iSfe Growth, twig.

Twigs, blueberry plant, growth stoppage in early summer 70

winter, starch content large 76

Upland peat. See Peat, upland.

[ ' plands, sandy, occurrence of bog plants, causes 35

Utricularia, insect food for supply of nitrogen 50

Vaccinium amoenum, relation to V. corymbosum 82

atrococcum forcing for flowering buds, experiment 72

germination of seeds. : 53

m Smithsonian grounds 11

laying down of flowering buds 73

relation to V. corymbosum 82

September too late for budding 84

stoppage of twig growth 70

canadense, sourness of berry 81

corymbosum, experiments made principally with this species 14

parent plant , description 80-82

related to V. atrococcum 11

variability " SI, 82

fuscatum, identification of plant 11

membranaceum , produced largest berry 14

pallidum, germination of seeds 53

laying down of flowering buds 73

relation to V. corymbosum 82

use in budding 83

penn.-^ylvanicum, fancy price for early berries 81

relation to possible blueberry hybrid 82

reproduction by root-stock cuttings 86

sweetness of berry 81

vacillans, mildew abundant on 79

vitisidaea, root fungus, study 49

Variation, swamp blueberry seedlings 82

Varieties, blueberry, valuable, prospects 82

Ventilation, control, for blueberries 52, 55

Wankinco, cranberry bog near Wareham, Mass., growth of blueberry 36

Wareham, Mass., growth of blueberries in cranberry bog 36

Water, bog, brown color due to acid humus 17

content. See Moss, sphagnum, and Soil, moisture moasurcnicnl .

culture. Sec Culture, water.

level. See Bog, blueberry, water level.

peat, acidity 2S

satisfactory nutritive material in sand cultures 37

source of nourishment to bog blueberries 40

saturation of soil injurious to growth of blueberry 35-3(i

Watering, excessive, injurious to potted blueberries 3(5

infrequent for plunged pots 66

100 EXPERIMENTS IN BLUEBERRY CULTURE.

Page.

Watering of blueberries in pots 55

seed bed 52

Wheat, description of root hairs 40-41

Winter, effect on young plants 74-76

Withering, stem tips, cause and prevention 55-56

occurrence 28, 60, 70, 71

Woods, sandy, oak or pine, source of peat suitable for blueberry 32-35

sugar-maple, rotting of leaves 34

Worms, thousand-legged, hastening decomposition of leaves 33

See also Earthworms.

193

o

[Continued from page 2 of cover.]

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179. The Florida Velvet Bean and Related Plants. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ;
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181. The Curlv-Top of Beets. 1910. Price, 15 cents. 1

182. Ten Years' Experience with the Swedish Select Oat. 1010. Price, 10 cents. 'i
1S3. Field Studies of the Crown-Gall of the (Uape. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

184. Production of Vegetable Seeds. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ■

185. Cold Jiesistance of Alfalfa and Some Factors Influencing It. 1910. I'lie.'. .

15 cents. •

186. IMeld Studies of the Crown-(iall and Hairy-Root of the .Vpi>le Tree. [In press.] .
1.S7. Study of Cultivation Methods and Crop Rotation for (Jreat Plains Area. [In.press.J i
IKS. Dry Fanning,' in Relation to Rainfall and Evaporation. [Hi press.] .r •;

189. Source of the DruK Dioscorea. with a Consideration of the Dioscorem Found In tli« -

United States. | In press.] -

190. Orchard Green-Manure Crops in California. I In press.] :

191. Value of First-Generation Hybrids in Corn. [In press.] 'j

192. Drought Resistance of the Olive in the Southwestern States. [In press.] ^

193 1

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 194.

R. T. (CALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE
ATLANTIC STATES.

BY

II. P. GOITLD,

POMOLOGIST IN ChAEGE OF FrUIT DISTRICT

Investigations.

Issued Febrttary 16, 1911.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERN INIE NT PRINTING OFFICE,

1911.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The Bclentinc and technical publications of the Bureau of I'lant In<kistry, which was organized July 1, %
1901, are issued in a single series of bulletins, a list of which follows: ,<

Attention is directed to the fact that the publications in this series are not for general distribution. The .
Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C, is authorized by law to ;
sell them at cost, and to him all applications for these bulletins should be made, accompanied by a postal "'
money order for the required amount or by cash. Numbers omitted from this list can not be furnished, i
No. 2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamla. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents. '

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1901. Price, 10 cents.

8 A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents.
9, The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

10. Records of Seed Distribution, etc. 1902. Price, 10 cents. ' ;

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents. t
13. Range Improvement In CentralTexas. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

14 The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing it. 1902. Price, 55 cents,
is' Forage Conditions on Northern Border of Great Basin. 1902. Price, 15 cents.
17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price. 10 cents. j

20 Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents. ;

" 22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents. „. ,. ^ i

23. Berseem: The Great Forage and Soiling Crop of Nile Valley. 1902. I rice, lo cents. ^

24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

. 25. Miscellaneous Papers. 1903. Price, 15 cents. , ,, ^ . ^ ,,„>■> ij i .. i .; ^<.„f=

27 Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, Spam, and the Orient. 1002. Price, 15 cents.

29. The Effect of Black-Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents. . ,„ , -

31 Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

32. A Disease of the While Ash. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 1

33. North American Species of Leptochloa. 1903. Price, 15 cents. ,
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39 The Propagation of the Easter Lily from Seed. 1903. Price, 10 cents. i

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4'. Three New Plant Introductions from Japan. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

43. Japanese Bamboos. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

47. The Description of Wheat Varieties. 1903. Price, 10 cents. ■

48. The Apple In Cold Storage. 1903. Price, 15 cents. ,,„.„,, ''

49 The Culture of the Central American Rubber Tree. 1903. Price, 25 cents.

50 Wild Rice: Its Uses and Propagation. 1903. Price, 10 cents.
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54. Persian Gulf Dates. 1903. Price, 10 cents. inor,t=

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60. A Soft Rot of the Calla Lily. 1904. Price, 10 cents. ';

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67. Range Investigations in Arizona. 1904. Price, lo cents. ^

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75! Range Management in the Stale of Washington. 1905. Price, .5 cents. ;

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89 Wild Medicinal Plants of the United States. 1906. Price, 5 cents.- .

90. Miscellaneous Papers. 1900. Price, 5 cents. ,

91. Varieties of Toljacco Seed Distributed, etc. 1906. Price, 5 cents. ,„„„„,„ ^
94 Farm Practice with Forage Crops In Western Oregon, etc. 1900. 1 rice, 10 cents.

95. A New Type of Red Clover. 1900. Price, 10 cents. ;

90. Tobacco Breeding. 1907. Price, 15cents •n,„on„„n,„ J

97. Seeds and Plants Imported. InventoryNo.il. 1907. Price, 30 cents. -^

98. Soy Bean Varieties. 1907. Price, 1.5 cents. v,i,.„ rppnto
99 Quick Method for Determination of Moisture In Grain. 1907. 1 nee, 5 cents.

101 Contents of and Index to Bulletins Nos. 1 to 100. 1907. Price, 15 cents. \

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104. The Use of Feldspathlc Rocks as Fertilizers. 1907. Pnce, 5 cents.

[Continued on page 3 of cover.l
194 }

Bui. 194, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate 1.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 194.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE
ATLANTIC STATES.

BY

H. P. GOULD,

POMOLOGIST IN ChARGE OF FrUIT DISTRICT

Investigations.

LIBRARY

NEW YORK

BOTANICAL

OARDBN.

Issued February 16, 1911.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1911.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, Wtluxm A. Taylor.
Editor, 3. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones..

Field Investigations in Pomology,
scientific staff.

A. V. Stubenrauch, Expert Acting in Charge.

A. V. Stubenrauch, Expert in Charge of Fruit Transportation and Storage Investigations.

G. C. Husmann and H. P. Gould, Pomologists.

A. D. Shamel, Physiologist.

S. J. Dennis, H. J. Ramsey, C. S. Pomeroy, A. W. McKay, Richard Schmidt, Gilbert H. Crawford, Jr..

and C. G. Patten, Experts.
W. F. Fletcher, B. B. Pratt, C. W. Mann, Charles Dearing, and K. B. Lewis, Scientific Assistants.
C. A. Reed, Special Agent.
F. L. Husmann, Viticultural Superintendent.
194

LETTER OE TRANSMriTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,
Washington, D. C, July 25, 1910.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled
"Summer Apples in the Middle Atlantic States" and to recommend
that it be published as Bulletin No. 194 of the series of this Bureau.
This bulletin was prepared by Mr. H. P. Gould, Pomologist in
Charge of Fruit District Investigations, and is coordinate \n. char-
acter with Bulletin No. 135 of the Bureau series, entitled "Orchard
Fruits in the Piedmont and Blue Ridge Regions of Virginia and the
South Atlantic States." It has been submitted by Mr. A. V. Stuben-
rauch, Expert Acting in Charge of Field Investigations in Pomologj^,
with a view to its publication.

The information contained in this bulletin results from a sys-
tematic investigation which is now in progress by this Bureau in
different fruit-growing regions of the country. The object of this
work is to determine as far as possible the adaptability of fruit
varieties to different conditions and the particular climatic and
other requirements of different varieties. •

The growing importance of early-apple culture and the increasing
demand for fruit of this character have warranted the giving of spe-
cial attention to this phase of fruit growing. In certain sections of
the region referred to in this bulletin early-apple culture is of great
importance not only because of its present degree of profitableness,
but because of the fact that it has developed largely in the place of
a declining peach industry.

While the varietal data and other information are based on the
conditions which exist in this region and hence are not directly
applicable elsewhere, it is expected that fruit growers in other
regions who may be interested in the growing of summer apples will
find the discussions of value to them.

The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the many
fruit growers in this region who have without reserve given him the
freedom of their orchards and the benefits of their experience in the

104 o

4 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

course of the field work connected with these investigations. The
assistance of his office associates in the identification of varieties
and in other ways has also aided the writer very materially in the
preparation of this bulletin.

Respectfully, Wm. A. Taylor,

Acting Chief of Bureau.

Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

194

CONTENTS

Page.

Introduction 7

Description of the Coastal Plain region 8

Geographical location 8

Topography and elevation 10

Soil 10

Climate H

The summer-apple industry of this region 16

Development 16

Present status and extent 17

Natural advantages and possibilities of this region for summer-apple produc-
tion 18

Growing the fruit 19

Handling the fruit 19

Methods and conditions 19

Harvesting 20

Grading and packing 20

Packages 21

Methods of selling the fruit .21

Markets and the place held by summer apples 22

The problem of varieties 22

Considerations governing selection 22

Discussion of important varieties 23

Promising varieties for trial 49

Other varieties 50

Summary of varieties 51

Phonological records 53

Character of data 53

Phenological observers 54

Description of plates - 90

Index 91

194 5

ILLUSTRATIONS,

PLATES.

Pagp.
Plate I. A well-kept Yellow Transparent apple orchard in Delaware, about 10

years old Frontispiece.

II. Wagons and packages used in handling summer apples. Fig. 1. —
Wagon loaded with half-bushel baskets of summer apples grown
in New Jersey for the Philadelphia market. Fig. 2. — Wagon
loaded with |-bushel baskets of summer apples grown in Delaware,

ready to be hauled to the shipping station 90

III. Packing-house views in Delaware. Fig. 1. — Exterior view of a pack-
ing house. Fig. 2. — Interior view of a packing house, showing a
common method of handling the fruit in grading and packing

summer apples 90

IV. Typical summer-apple orchards. Fig. 1. — A Maiden Blush orchard
in New Jersey, about 30 years old. Fig. 2. — A Red Astrachan
orchard in Delaware, about 25 years old 90

TEXT FIGURES.

Fig. 1. Map of the Middle and Southern Atlantic States, showing the location

and extent of the regions discussed in this bulletin 9

2. An Early Ripe apple tree in Delaware, about 15 years old 29

3. An Early Strawberry apple tree in Delaware, about 50 years old 30

4. A July apple tree in Delaware, 12 years old 35

5. A Starr apple tree in Nev/ Jersey, 8 years old 43

6. A Summer Hagloe apple tree in New Jersey, 48 years old 44

7. A Williams apple tree in Delaware, about 10 years old 47

194
6

B. P. I.— fiOl.

SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC

STATES.

INTRODUCTION.

The extensive and s^^stematic growing of early-ripening or "sum-
mer" varieties of apples for commercial purposes is one of the com-
paratively recent developments of the fruit industry. Such varieties
have always had a place in the family orchard, and in seasons of
abundant crops the fruit from these trees has often been sold in the
local markets. Occasional commercial orchards, since the early days
of the fruit industr\^, have contained a few trees of early varieties,
the fruit of which has been shipped by express or otherwise to more
or less distant markets, but in most commercial apple-growing sec-
tions early varieties have not been considered worth including in
extensive fruit-growing projects. In some sections, however, during
the past ten or twenty years, and especially during the last decade,
the attention of fruit growers has been directed more and more to
the possibilities in this direction.

A considerable demand has developed for summer apples. This
demand is growing; new markets are being reached. During the
past few seasons fruit growers and shippers have received an increas-
ing number of requests from commission houses and fruit dealers for
fruit of this class. Though this demand may in a measure be vari-
ously influenced from year to year by the abundance of peaches and
other fruit in the market during the early-apple season, it shows an
increasing appreciation of the important place which summer ap])les
may be made to fill.

In the Middle Atlantic States, and especially in the Coastal Plain
or "tidewater" region, there are several sections in which the growing
of summer apples has already become an important feature of fruit
growing. This j)hase of the fruit industry has been greatly extended
here in recent years and is being still further developed. It is believed
that other sections of these States, where little or no fruit is now
grown, are also capable of being developed along this line. This bul-
letin describes the region mentioned — its conditions, advantages, and
possibilities in relation to the production of early apples — and contains

194 7

8 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

a discussion of the principal varieties now grown there, with a view
to indicating their relative value in the further development of the
early-apple industry in this region.

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTAL PLAIN REGION.

On account of the relative importance of the early-apple industry
in the Coastal Plain region, in comparison with other sections in the
Middle Atlantic States, it is a matter of convenience to adopt this
region as a geographical unit of territory in this bulletin and to base
comparisons and discussions on the observations made there. Its
location and extent are indicated below.

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION.

In a general way, the division line in the Middle Atlantic States
between the region commonly termed the Coastal Plain and the
adjacent territory is indicated on the map shown as figure 1 by a con-
spicuous unbroken line. This line may be said to start in New Jersey
at the mouth of the Raritan River where it empties into the bay of
that name, extending in a southwesterly direction to Trenton. The
Delaware River forms the division between New Jersey and Pennsyl-
vania south of Trenton. The dividing line then continues in a south-
westerly direction across northern Delaware and the eastern shore
of Maryland, passing in the vicinity of Chestertown. Crossing the
Chesapeake Bay, it reaches Anne Arundel County a few miles north
of Annapolis and continues in the same direction to the District of
Columbia. In Virginia the direction of this boundary is slightly
southwest from Alexandria to the vicinity of Fredericksburg and
includes a narrow strip of land along the Potomac River between
these two cities. From the latter a southerly direction is followed,
passing near Richmond and Emporia. A southwesterly direction is
followed in crossing North Carolina, passing near Raleigh and reach-
ing the South Carolina line at a point nearly south of Rockingham,
the county seat of Richmond County, N. C. In the same arbitrary
way the state line between North and South Carolina is taken as
the southern limit of the region under discussion.

From a purely geographical standpoint the corresponding area of
South Carolina and Georgia should be included in this unit of terri-
■ tory, but as practically no apples are grown in these sections they are
not specifically included in the present discussion. And further, it
is generally conceded that these sections are not well adapted to
apple culture on account of the climatic conditions which result from
their low elevation and low latitude.

It is believed, however, that the development of the early-apple
industry is practicable in that part of the area of the Middle Atlantic
States which lies between the Coastal Plain and the 500-foot contour

194

CESCRIPTION OF THE COASTAL PLAIN REGION.

(this being largely an arbitrar}^ boundary line). The approximate
position of this contour is indicated on the map (fig. 1) by a broken
Ime. The conditions of this section are such that the discussions

Fig. 1.— Map of the Middle and Southern Atlantic States, showing the location and extent of the regions
discussed in this bulletin. The Coastal Plain is shown on the map by continuous lines, the inland
boundary being to some extent arbitrary. The region between the Coastal Plain and the approximate
course of the 500-foot contour Is shown by broken lines.

which follow, though based on the Coastal Plam, would doubtless be
applicable, with only minor modifications, to this area.

194

10 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

TOPOGRAPHY AND ELEVATION.

The topography of the C-oastal Phxin is unmarked by any special
characteristics. The surface is generally level, rising slightly and
gradually from the coast westward. A large number of rivers and
smaller streams and their tributaries traverse the region in their
course to the sea. They constitute an important factor in tlie soil
drainage.

The elevation above sea level is comparatively slight, a large pro-
portion of the region being less than 100 feet. Most of the remaining
portions have considerably less than 200 feet elevation.

While the relative and actual elevations are practically identical
and only a few feet, comparatively, above sea level, the character of
the soil and subsoil and the natural water drainage provided by the
streams which flow through this region insure as a rule good soil
drainage. The atmospheric drainage is not so perfect as it is in
regions where there is an alternation of ridges and valleys with con-
siderable differences in relative elevations.

SOIL.

Wliile several types of soil are represented in the Coastal Plain, the
extreme characteristics of the different types which need to be con-
sidered in the present connection are not wide in so far as they have
a bearing on commercial orcharding. In fact, it is evident that the
mfluence of different methods of management in orchards located on
the same type of soil could be made to exert decidedly more influence
upon the behavior of varieties than would any inherent differences
in the types themselves.

A large pro})ortion of the soil is a light sand to sandy loam. The
subsoil underlying much of this is of the same general character as
the surface. In places, the subsoil is slightl}^ heavier, having a small
content of clay.

Small areas exist where there is sufficient clay in the surface to
make a light clay loam, but it is very easily pulverized when culti-
vated. The subsoil of this is also heavier than that underlying the
lighter types, but it is not compact. Small sections having this type
of soil contain more or less gravel, from a quarter of an inch to an
inch in diameter. This soil is somewhat ''stronger" than the more
sandy types.

Several other types might be distinguished by drawing very fine
distinctions, but it is sufficient for the present purpose to consider
them as variations of those already mentioned. Generally speaking,
the soil is free from rocks and is easily worked.

The characteristics of the sid^soil which have been described are
known to extend to a great depth in many instances, as shown by
wells and other excavations.

194

DESCRIPTIOiSr OF THE COASTAL PLAIN REGION. 11

While these soils may not contain as large a supply of reserve plant
food as some other types the}^ are generally productive. Their
physical ju-operties are such as to favor deep penetration by the roots
of growing plants, thus giving the plants a relatively large feeding
area. The soil also responds readily to the application of com-
mercial plant foods. It may be said in comparison with the average
growth made by trees in other apple-growing sections that in the more
important sections of this region they develop a good amount of wood
growth and are relatively long lived.

The capillarity of the soil is strong, and the character of the sub-
soil makes it a deep reservoir for the storing of moisture. Wliile
this may pass off readily through surface evaporation under some
conditions, it can be largely conserved by thorough cultivation. It
is seldom that crops suffer more from lack of moisture here, under
proper management, tlian in other sections having a similar amount
of precipitation but more compact types of soil.

CLIMATE.

The climate of a place affects the plant life growing therein in many
ways. In some one or more of its elements it is the most potent
determinant of plant growth. Climate is an exceedingly complex
influence, and the numerous combinations of the factors which con-
stitute it render its effect upon plant life difficult in the extreme to
interpret.

Each of these factors, as it is manifested in the climate of a place,
acts in a particular way upon the varieties of apples, as of other
forms of plant life, which may be grown there. The manner in which
a variety responds to the influence of these factors, singly or in com-
bination with one another, determines what the effect of the climate
is upon that variety, and therefore its relative adaptability to partic-
ular purposes in that region so far as the climatic factor is concerned.

In its influence upon vegetation of all kinds, climate may be
resolved into a number of elements of wdiich the following are the
most important : "

(1) Precipitation (rain and snow).

(2) Temperature (from day to day, and the mean).

(3) Extremes of heat and cold.

(4) Time and frequency of frost.

(5) Amount and intensity of sunshine.

(6) Humidity and transparency of the atmosphere.

(7) Direction and velocity of wind.

(8) Perhaps the electrification of the atmosphere.

It will thus be seen that climate is more than a matter of tempera-
ture and moisture, as popularly applied, though these factors are

« See Encyclopedia Americana, under "Climate."
194

12 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

doubtless the most potent of any in their effects upon plant growth.
It is not intended, however, within the limits of this paper to discuss
at length what these effects are, even if it were possible to do so.
There is an unfortunate lack of adequate means for measuring some
of these elements, which doubtless are of great importance, and of
interpreting them in terms of their influence upon plant life. Records
of precipitation and temperature are abundant, but they seldom
represent actual orchard conditions, being taken usually at points
more or less distant from fruit plantations and often with instruments
attached to buildings many feet above the surface of the ground.
This is true, at least, of many of the records which are continuous
for any considerable period of time.

In general it may be stated that in order for a plant or a variety to
succeed without irrigation there must be sufficient precipitation to
maintain growth adequate to the end for which the plant is intended.
As regards temperature, the extremes must be within certain more or
less definite limits, and the mean, especially for the more critical
periods in the fife of the plant, must accord with the particular
requirements of each individual. The mere matter of late spring
frosts — an unfavorable extreme at a critical period — may indicate the
impossibility of successfully growing certain fruits in some locafities.
As applied to the region now being considered, it is sufficient to state
that with certain general exceptions, noted elsewhere, the climatic
conditions are favorable for the cultivation of early apples in most
sections of the region. The orchards now in bearing testify to this
fact. The extremes of temperature in most parts of the region are
not severe, the precipitation is usually sufficient to meet the rec(uire-
ments, and the other climatic factors in most sections are equally
favorable to the end in view.

The following tables, taken from the Monthly Weather Review for
the years 1902 to 1907, inclusive, are composed of clmiatological
records at three different stations located respectively in the southern,
central, and northern sections of tliis region. They represent to some
extent the climatic conditions wliich prevailed during the years men-
tioned and furnish one of the best available means for comparing the
cfimate of tliis region with that of other sections where smiilar data
are to be had. Such a comparison should assist in correctly fore-
casting for other sections the behavior of the varieties considered, so
far as the climatic factors are concerned. These climatological data
are also inserted for use in connection mth the phenological records
that appear on later pages.

As will be noted, the following table gives the monthly maximum,
minimum, and mean temperatures and the precipitation. The
geographical arrangement of the stations as they appear in the tables
is from south to north.
_____ 194

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTAL. PLAIN REGION.

13

Table I. — Records of temperature and precipitation for Kinston, N. C, Seaford, Del,
and Moorestown, N. J., for the years 1902 to 1907, inclitsive.

Place and month.

Kinston, N. C, elevation, 40 feet.
(United States Geological Survey):

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

January

February..

March

April

May

June

July

August

September.

October

November.
December..

1902.

Temperature.

Maxi-
mum.

January...
February.

March

April

May

June

July

August

September
October. . .
November.
December.

'F.

73
76
83
89
97
100
104
99
91
84
81
71

Mini-
mum.

67
75
79
88
93
99
101
98
90
86
72
69

79
74
80
94
98
100
100
96
96
87
85
77

"F.
15
19
22
30
44
50
60
52
46
31
31
16

Mean.

'F.
41.3

38.4
54.9
61.2
72.8
77.5
82.6
78.6
72.6
62.9
57.2
45.5

Precipi-
tation.

Inches.
1.01
6.70
3.04
2.34
2.64
3.92
2.69
8.91
2.76
5.13
4.14
1.82

45.10

1904.

1903.

Temperature.

Maxi-
mum.

'F.

71
74
81
86
95
90
97
97
88
86
71
61

Mini-
mum.

10
17
27
28
43
51
62
57
44
33
24
20

35.6

38.2
51.8
58.6
68.8
77.6
80.4
78.2
71.6
59.7
48.6
41.0

4.12
4.10
5.04
.82
3.78
1.29
5.00
3.58
4.75
1.73
2.30
2.82

39.33

1906.

21

17-

22

30

37

61

64

67

57

28

22

17

48.0
44.1
50.4
63.8
70.0
78.8
79.2
81.5
78.0
64.4
52.3
46.7

3.68
4.C3
7.53

.52

3.41

4.37

9.16

13.08

.59
4.13

.84
1.34

53.28

76
65
88
90
92
96
98
99
96
92
80
70

80
72
98
83
95
98
102
96
97
93
79

'F.
18
16
34
30
45
51
60
62
41
27
14
15

Mean.

°F.

43.0

48.4

60.0

56.7

67.6

79.4
79.6
71.5
57.4

36.2

Precipi-
tation.

1905.

11
15
25
29
49
49
62
53
45
33
23
20

40.2
38.1
56.6
61.2
73.0
77.2
79.4
77.2
74.2
62.4
52.1
45.2

1907.

17
9
25
28
40
49
58
58
51
29
25
19

51.4
42.6
59.2
54.6
68.7
73.4
81.3
78.6
77.0
59.0
51.2
46.0

Inches.
2.96
5.91
8.05
2.99
3.91

8.07
6.93

.89
3.28

.60
1.99

0 45.58

0.85
5.06
2.52
4.06
5.57
3.90
4.38
4.22
1.70
3.12
1.58
4.75

41.71

1.13
2.39
2.39
4.05
5.56
9.07
9.11
5.02
3.83
.89
3.19
3.08

49.71

194

o This total covers eleven months only.

14

SUMMER APPLES IK THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

Table I. — Records of temperature and precipitation for Kinston, N. C, Seaford, Del.,
and Moorestovn, N. J., for the years 1902 to 1907, inclusive — ('ontinued.

1902.

1903.

Place and mouth.

Temperature.

Precipi-
tation.

Temperature.

Precipi-
tation.

Maxi-
mum.

Mini-
mum.

Mean.

Maxi-
mum.

Mini-
mum.

Mean.

Seaford, Del., elevation, 40 feet.
(Estimated):
January

"F.
52
62
75
87
88
96
100
93
89
79
74
63

'F.
12
8
20
31
40
50
57
52
45
31
30
17

"F.

32.0

30.0

47.1

53.5

64.6

72.8

78.1

73.8

68.6

60.2

53.2

37.0

Inches.
3.73
5.01
2.98
3.79
2.29
6.86
5.55
1.69
5.91
4.23
3.16
4.79

'F.

56
69
76
86
91
88
100
96
89
83
79
54

°F.
12
6
25
28
37
50
52
56
37
32
17
11

'F.
34.3

38. 4
51.1
52.6
64.6
66.6
78.0
73.4
67.5
57.5
42.6
31.8

Inches.
3. 46

February . .

6.90

March

April

5. 67
3.98

May

2.51

June

3.46

July .

3.91

4.38

September

4.15

October

8.44

November

1.71

December

3.70

49.99

52. 27

1

i

1904.

1905.

January . .

62
59

68
77
82
94
94
88
90
83
66
60

2
3

19
26
41
44
54
49
35
29
21
2

29.2

28.5
41.2
48.4
62.2
69.5
73.5
71.4
66.6
52.6
42.4
30.4

1.73
2.32
3.39
1.95
1.52
2.02
7.74
1.32
2.08
2.73
2.01
6.07

60
50

77
81
82
89
95
89
82
80
72
62

- 4

- 2
19
27
40
45
57
53
40
31
16
17

29.8
26.8
44.8
62.2
(B.4
69.2
74.4
72.2
66.7
57.0
44.6
38.3

4.48

February

3.83

March

2.20

April - .

2.89

May

5.50

June

4.02

6. 73

August

5.69

September

6.19

October

1.45

.66

December

4.58

34.88

1 1

48.22

1

1 1

1906.

1907.

January

73

60
61
84
92
92
89
91
91
76
68
62

40.7

2.53
4.61
5.88
1.44
4.86
12.30
11.56
7.86
2.28
4.70
1.45
3.45

71
54

88
79
84
87
91
91
90
76
64
62

8
5
19
23
36
46
55
52
40
30
28
20

37.8
29.4
46.6
47.1
58.0
65.0
74.8
71.8
69.1
51.7
45.4
39.3

2.53

9
15
27
33
55
57
64
51
30
27
12

34.8
38.4
53.0
63.0
71.4
73.2
75. 6
70.8
57.0
45.4
37.5

2.60

March

2. 72

April . .

3.90

May

6.97

4.50

July . . ..

3.92

August

2.46

September . .

3.95

October . .

3.06

November

5.62

December . .

3.65

i

62.92

45.88

1

194

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTAL PLAIN EEGION.

15

Table I. — Records of temperature and precipitation for Kinston, N. C, Seaford, Del.,
and Moorestown, N. J., for the years 1902 to 1907, inclusive — Continued.

Place and month.

Moorestown, N. J., elevation, 71 feet
(Weather Bureau):

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

January...
February.

March

April

May

June

July

August

September
October...
November,
December.

January...
February .

March

April

May

June

July

August

September
October. . .
November
December.

194

1902.

Temperature.

Maxi-
mum.

'F.
53
57
75
87
87
91
92

76
76
60

56
59
68
79
92
94
92
89
88
84
63
53

72
61
58
81
90
92
90
92
89
75
68
65

Mini-
mum.

'F.
11
9
19
31
38
48
55
49
43
27
27
12

Mean.

°F.

29.8

28.0

45.3

51.4

61.2

68.3

73.6

70.6

65.4

56.7

50.4

32.9

Precipi-
tation.

1903.

Temperature.

Maxi-
mum.

Inches.
2.95
6.45
4.22
3.63
2.45
7.30
7.05
8.44
5.29
7.59
2.50
7.34

65.21

1904.

0
15
25
40
46
52
48
32
25
18

1

24.0
25.6
38.4
48.2
63.6
69.0
72.4
71.1
65.8
52.6
40.9
27.0

3.02
2.40
3.83
2.61
3.23
3.07
5.69
7.08
5.84
4.00
2.04
2.93

45.74

1906.

4
13
26
35
48
53
62
45
29
22

37.2
32. 2
35.4
52.4
62.1
71.5
73.8
75.2
69.2
55.1
44.2
34.2

2.85
2.00
5.37
2.71
2.66
7.33
4.11
9.43
3.99
4.20
1.70
3.34

49.75

'F.
53

68
76
90
93
85
94
92
88
80
73
54

Mini-
mum.

Mean.

9
0
24
28
31
45
50
49
36
31
14
9

"F.

31.8

34.6

48.8

51.0

64.2

65.0

73.4

69.2

65.8

57.0

41.4

30.0

Precipi-
tation.

Inches.
3.69
4.71
5.28
5.33
.44
5.65
5.44
5.49
4.42
8.79
1.18
4.48

1905.

54
45
81
80
84
91
96
90
84
87
67
61

67
48
86
79
85
91
90
90
88
76
62
62

0
- 1

9
26
34
45
55
50
37
29
15
15

27.7
24.2
41.0
50.8
62.2
68.9
75.2
71.6
66.0
56.3
42.7
36.6

1907.

0
0
11
23
32
41
53
51
39
26
21
17

32.6
24.1
42.0
46.0
55.8
64.8
73.3
69.8
67.4
50.8
43.8
37.2

16

SUMMEE APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

The following data regarding the occurrence of spring frosts at
various points in this region are of particular value when considered
with the blossoming dates that constitute a part of the phenological
data given on later pages. These data have been furnished by the
United States Weather Bureau.

Table II. — Average dates of the latest spring frosts at different localities in the Middle

Atlantic States.

Location.

Central and Southern New Jersey:

Asbury Park

Moorestown

Vineland

Atlantic City

Chesapeake peninsula:

Chestertown, Md

Easton, Md

Millsboro, Del

Princess Anne, Md

Maryland, west of Chesapeake Bay:

Baltimore

Laurel

College Park

Solomons

District of Coliunbia:

Washington

Virginia:

Warsaw

Hampton

Norfolk

Average

date of

latest

frost.

Apr.
Apr.
Apr.
Apr.

Apr.
Apr.
Apr.
Apr.

Apr.
Apr.
Apr.
Apr.

19
23
17
11

19

12
17
23

4
21
29

8

Apr. 7

Apr.
Mar.
...do.

Date of

latest

frost

recorded.

Number
of years
recorded.

May 29
May 15
May 22
Apr. 25

May 11

Apr. 28

Apr. 30

May 12

May 3
May 11
May 12
Apr. 27

May 11

Apr. 28
Apr. 6
Apr. 26

n

41
36
20

10
11
14
10

33
10
10
11

37

11
11
33

THE SUMMER-APPLE INDUSTRY OF THIS REGION.

DEVELOPMENT.

In the sections of this region where there now exist large summer-
apple interests, there were formerly very extensive peach orchards.
The summer-apple industry, as a commercial feature, has been devel-
oped largely since the destruction of many of the peach orchards by
yellows. In fact, apple culture has to some extent taken the place
of peach growing, many apple orchards now occupying land formerly
devoted to peaches.

Some of the United States census figures relating to the peach
interests of Delaware and New Jersey are of interest in this connec-
tion. Unfortunately these figures are not given in sufficient detail
prior to the census for 1890 to admit of any comparison, but those
for the year named and for 1900 stating the number of peach trees
of bearing age in the States mentioned show the trend during that

decade, as follows:

1890. 1900.

Delaware 4, 521, 623 2, 441, 650

New Jersey 4,413, 568 2, 746, 607

Similar data for Kent County, Del., are also suggestive, since very
heavy plantings of peaches formerly existed in this county, and at

194

THE SUMMER- APPLE INDUSTRY OF THIS REGION. 17

the present time it is the center of the most extensive summer-
apple interests of any section in this region.

Census data relating to apples in this section are of little signifi-
cance, as" they include the trees of bearing age of all seasons of ripen-
ing, and many fall and winter sorts are grown as well as summer
varieties, yet the recent extension of apple culture, especially in
Kent County, Del., has been quite largely of early varieties. Data
regarding the number of peach and apple trees of bearing age in this
county are therefore of interest for comparison with the data as to
peach trees just presented, as follows:

1890. 1900.

Peach trees 2, 335, 740 824, 430

Apple trees , 114,371 186,457

The period of most rapid extension of the early-apple interests, how-
ever, has been during the past eight or ten years; hence, it is not
shown in any available census figures.

PRESENT STATUS AND EXTENT.

A general statement as to the distribution of the orchards in this
region, giving the more important centers of early-apple production,
will give the reader some conception of the extent and importance of
this phase of fruit culture.

In New Jersey, the principal early-apple interests are witliin a
radius of 18 to 20 miles of Philadelphia. Large quantities of fruit
are grown in this section, nearly all of which is hauled in wagons to
the Pliiladelphia markets. A common type of wagon used for this
purpose is shown in Plate II, figure 1.

There are numerous other orchards in central and southern New
Jersey in which early apples are an important factor, but they are
considerably isolated in their location with regard to one another,
and the fruit from them is handled quite differently from that which
is grown near Philadelphia.

In Delaware the important section is the central part of the State,
the commercial orchards being well distributed over Kent County
within a distance of 8 or 10 miles of the railroad.

In the other sections of Delaware, and in the Maryland, Virginia, and
North Carolina sections of this region, early apples are grown in much
the same way that they are in southern New Jersey. Family orchards
and many gardens contain such varieties, and occasionally isolated
orchards of commercial size are to be found, but the industry is not
centralized in particular sections, though in the aggregate the amount
of fruit grown is considerable.

In the sections of this region where the fruit interests have already
been well developed a good system of orchard management is gener-
56682°— Bui. 194—11 2

18 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

ally practiced. However, in many of the other sections, where fruit
growing at present is only a secondary matter, the orchards are gener-
ally greatly neglected. Little or no cultivation is given, unless in
connection wdth the growing of interplanted crops ; usually no pruning
and no spraying. Under these conditions many of the orchards are
sorely attacked by insects and fungous diseases. There is no reason to
suppose, however, that these difficulties may not be readily overcome
by the application of the usual methods in such cases.

With relation to the last statement, however, it should be noted
that in the southern section of this region certain fungous diseases of
the apple appear to be unusually prevalent, and should any extensive
commercial development of apple culture be considered, this feature
should have full consideration. However, while the climatic condi-
tions may have some influence in the extent to which these diseases
have appeared in the past, it is not assumed that the more common
diseases which are now noticeable could not be readily controlled by
the use of certain precautions and the application of proper spray
mixtures. In fact, a few orchards in this section which have been
properly attended to demonstrate that this is the case, especially
when varieties adapted to the region are planted.

NATURAL ADVANTAGES AND POSSIBILITIES OF THIS REGION
FOR SUMMER-APPLE PRODUCTION.

The extent to which successful summer-apple culture in certain
sections of New Jersey and the Chesapeake peninsula has been devel-
oped is good evidence of the natural advantages of these sections, but
some of the other sections require notice in this connection.

Earliness of maturity is an important consideration, and the light
sandy and sandy loam, soils, which are characteristic of nearly the
entire region, doubtless contribute toward this end. The tempera-
ture is usually relatively high during the period when the fruit is
making its growth, without which the other factors, however favor-
able, would fail to produce early ripening.

The location of the region with reference to the larger markets and
distributing centers of the East is likewise a favorable factor. The
relationship between the points of production and distribution is
always an important matter, and especially so in the handling of any
quickly perishable product. In case there should be developed in
the future a demand in the foreign markets for early apples, the com-
paratively close proximit}^ of a large portion of this region to the
eastern seaports, and the readiness with which the fruit grown therein
could be landed on the docks, renders this region particularly^ adapted
from this point of view for the supplying of such demands. Shipping
facilities are likewise good. Many points in this region have access

194

HANDLING THE FRUIT. 19

both to rail and water transportation, a condition always considered
favorable to the fruit grower.

In general, the climatic conditions are favorable for the end in view.
The only exceptions that call for special notice are the late spring
frosts and cold periods following unseasonably high temperatures in
winter, during which the fruit buds advance to a tender stage. If
these unfavorable temperatures occur during the blossoming period,
serious damage is likely to result. On account of the low elevation
of this region it is more subject to these conditions than regions
having higher relative altitudes. In selecting orchard locations,
places where late spring frosts are known to occur to a serious extent
should be avoided.

GROWING THE FRUIT.

As the subject-matter of this bulletin is primarily a description of
the conditions that prevail in the Coastal Plain region and an account
of the different varieties of early apples grown therein and their
behavior, only passing mention is made of cultural and fruit-handling
methods.

In general, it may be said that the orchard management requisite
for the production of this class of fruit does not dift'er materially
from the usual methods employed in growing winter apples. The
same pruning, cultivating, fertilizing, spraying, etc., are recpiired
in the one case as in the other. The later sprayings commonly
recommended for late varieties are not so necessary for the earlier
sorts for obvious reasons, though the early applications should be
made with the same thoroughness that is required for winter sorts.
It is a question worthy of consideration, however, whether later
applications made after the fruit has been harvested would not be
worth while, at least in the case of varieties especially susceptible
to fungous diseases, in order to protect the foliage during the long
period between harvesting and the end of the season. The vigor
and healthfulness of the trees might thus be insured and the crop
the following season perhaps improved thereby.

HANDLING THE FRUIT.
METHODS AND CONDITIONS.

The methods employed in handling early apples are much more
closely allied to those used in marketing peaches than to the usual
manner of caring for winter varieties. This results naturally from the
character of the fruit.

As a rule the fruit is intended for immediate consumption and is
not usually marketed until fully ripe, or, at least, in suitable condition
to use without delay. As its period of duration is short when edible

194

20 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

maturity is reached, it must of necessity be used within a compara-
tively few days after it is put on the market. Some varieties, how-
ever, intended only for cooking, are shipped as soon as they are
large enough for this purpose, without much regard to the degree
of maturity which they may have reached. Although such varieties
may be held longer than those marketed in a thoroughly ripened
condition, they soon begin to deteriorate if held for any consider-
able length of time.

HARVESTING.

In harvesting early apples carefid hand picking is practiced by
a majority of the most successful growers. A few firm-fleshed
varieties, the fruit of which r'pens irregidarly and drops as soon as
it is well colored and fully ripe, are sometimes allowed to drop their
fruit. If there is danger of the apples being bruised by striking
the ground, a heavy mulch of straw is spread beneath the trees.
But many of the most particular growers prefer to hand pick even
these sorts, though it is rather laborious to do so on account of the
ripe fruits being much scattered over the trees.

Some of the less exacting growers shake the fruit from the trees
or beat it off with poles, claiming that the difference in price between
the carefully handled fruit and the fruit handled by their method
is not enough to justify the extra expense of hand picking. It
should be noted, however, in this connection, that careless or rough
handling of fruit in harvesting often accompanies indifferent methods
of culture. The grade of the fruit grown frequently determines the
expense that is justifiable in preparing it for market.

The period of growth from blossoming to maturity is relatively
short, and the changes which occur in the development of the fruit
take place with corresponding rapidity. It may be only a very
short time, as measured by days, between a date when an apple is
too immature to pick and the period when it becomes overripe.
Because of this, several pickings of most varieties are usually made,
as in picldng peaches. The specimens which are small and imma-
ture when the first picldng is made will commonly develop with
increased rapidity, attaining a degree of perfection not reached by
the more advanced specimens.

GRADING AND PACKING.

In the marketing of early apples the details of grading and ])acking
require the same painstaldng attention that the successful marketing
of other quickly perishable fruits demand. Fruit that is bruised
should be discarded. Though it may not appear to be defective
when it is packed, bruises and other similar blemishes, especially in

194

METHODS OF SELLING THE FRUIT, 21

case of certain varieties, become very conspicuous after the fruit has
been picked a short time. Even if it looks well when ]>acked, such
fruit is likely to deteriorate greatly before it reaches the market.

Some of the early apples grown in tliis region are prepared for
market in the orchards, but most of them are taken to packing
houses, where they can be more conveniently handled. Plate III,
figure 1, shows a convenient packing house. The upper portion of
the building is used for storing packages, etc. There is a door on
each side, thus making it convenient to receive or discharge fruit at
any point on the floor. A common method of handling early apples
in the packing houses in grading and packing is shown in Plate III,
figure 2.

PACKAGES.

Several different styles of packages are used in tliis region for
early apples, of which the following are the most important. In
some sections the |-busliel crate, formerly much used in Delaware
for sliipping peaches, was commonl}^ used in the earlier years and
is still seen occasionally, though it has passed out of general use.

The growers in the New Jerse}^ section wdio market their fruit in
Pliiladelphia use the half -bushel peach basket, usually without covers.
These are shown in Plate II, figure 1. In other important sections
a |-bushel basket wdth cover has been used for several years with
excellent satisfaction. These baskets may be seen on the wagon
shown in Plate II, figure 2. This figure also shows the manner in
which these packages are loaded for hauling to the shipping station.

A few growers pack their fancy fruit in six-basket carriers and
find that for some markets it pays to incur the additional expense
which tliis style of package makes necessary. Twenty-pound
CHmax baskets are also used occasionall}^.

METHODS OF SELLING THE FRUIT.

Several methods of selling the early apples grown in this region
are practiced. Perhaps the most simple one is that employed by
the growers who are located in the New Jersey section witliin 15 to
20 miles of Philadelpliia. The fruit is packed in half-bushel baskets
as above mentioned, loaded on large wagons built for the purpose
(PL II, fig. 1), and hauled directly to the commission houses or other
markets. In some cases the grower runs his own stand in the
market, perhaps handling truck and other farm produce at the same
time. By either of these methods the packages are returned to the
grower.

At the more important shipping centers the growers sell f. o. b. as
much as possible, thus avoiding all risk in transit and the possi-

194

22 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

bility of loss from poor market conditions. This method makes it
possible to ship in car lots, as the buyer fills his cars ordinarily with
fruit purchased of different growers.

MARKETS AND THE PLACE HELD BY SUMMER APPLES.

Very naturally, large and relatively near-by distributing centers, such
as Philadelphia and New York, receive large quantities of summer
apples from this region. To a less extent, some of the New England
markets, principally Providence, K,. I., and Boston, Mass., receive more
or less fruit, especially of certain varieties. During the past few years,
however, new and more distant markets have been sought. As a
result, considerable cjuantities of fruit from the Chesapeake peninsula
section are shipped to such points as Pittsburg, Pa.; Cincinnati, Ohio;
Detroit, Mich. ; Chicago, 111. ; and to even other more distant western
and northwestern points.

Foreign markets also offer an outlet for considerable quantities of
early apples, especially when the European crop is light. The results
of the experimental export shipments made by the Bureau of Plant
Industry indicate that for fruit of good grade properly handled and
when the markets are not overstocked with home-grown fruit, good
returns may be expected from London, Liverpool, and some of the
other leading foreign markets.

As an important commercial product, summer apples are a com-
paratively new commodity in many markets and their use has been
limited. They have not filled a place comparable with that held by
peaches, winter apples, and some other fruits. Hence, in the past the
period of real demand for them has usually been during a scarcity of
other fruits. There is evidence, however, that a very large number
of consumers have now come to think of summer apples as filling a
definite place in their food supply. Wliile the demand is naturally
more or less influenced by the abundance of other fruit in the markets
during the summer-apple season, it is not so much dependent upon
the availability of other fruit as in the earlier years and it is becoming
more constant as the regularity and abundance of the supply of early
apples increases.

THE PROBLEM OF VARIETIES.
CONSIDERATIONS GOVERNING SELECTION.

There are several fundamental features which should always be
considered in selecting the varieties of any kind of fruit to be grown in
a given region or under particular conditions. The purpose for which
it is to be grown, whether dessert or cooking, home consumption or
market, should be given due weight. A variety may behave in a
certain manner, ripen its fruit during a particular period, and show

194

DISCUSSIOISr OF VARIETIES. 23

other habitual characteristics when growing under a certain com-
bination of conditions of soil, climate, elevation, and cultural methods.
When the variety is grown under other combinations of conditions it
may behave in a very different manner. In other words, a variety is
subject to the influence of the conditions under which it is grown.
In those conditions there may be involved both natural factors, such
as soil and climate, and factors which are more or less artificial, such
as are imposed by man in his methods of culture.

It will now be understood how the subject-matter of the preceding
pages has application to the notes which follow regarding the varieties
that are being grown in tliis region. The fact is here emphasized that
the statements made in the following discussion of varieties have
specific application only to the fruit grown under the conditions that
prevail in this region. It is hoped, however, that the information
presented regarding existing conditions, and the behavior of the
varieties referred to under those conditions, may be of some assistance
in selecting varieties for other localities.

In the scope of tliis bulletin it has been the intention to include only
varieties which reach maturity in some section of this region not later
than the middle of September.

DISCUSSION OF IMPORTANT VARIETIES.

The follo^\dng varietal list includes the most important early
varieties which are grown in tliis region, and a considerable number
of others which are known only in a limited way. No attempt,
except in a few cases, has been made to give a detailed description of
the varieties mentioned. Usually a few of the more prominent varietal
characteristics are named in order that the reader who is unacquainted
with a variety may be able to obtain readily a general idea of its
appearance and quality.

Alexander.

This is a very old variety, probably of Russian origin. Its history is briefly indi-
cated in the following:

"The evidence is reliable that Red Astrachan, with Duchess of Oldenburg [Olden-
burg] and Alexander, were introduced into England by the Royal Horticultural
Society from Sweden, as Russian apples about the year 1816. Wm. Kenrick in his
catalogue in 1832 speaks of them as promising. In 1834 The Massachusetts Horti-
cultural Society imported them, adding Tetofsky [Tetofski]. In 1839 the elder
Manning of Salem exhibited them as home grown. Since then they have been
widely distributed." »

The Alexander apple has become quite widely distributed in many parts of the
country, though not grown in large quantities. In this region a few trees of it have
been found at widely separated points. The tree is a fairly strong grower on the
light soil where it has been observed. It comes into bearing quite young, but fruits
mostly on alternate years. The fruit is roundish conic; usually large to very large;
greenish yellow, heavily striped with red when well colored; acid; quality good; of
value primarily for cooking. Its season begins the last of June in eastern North

a Letter of Mr. William C. Strong, Waban, Mass., April 2, 1906.
194

24 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

Carolina; in central New Jersey, about one month later. The variety is considered
desirable as a commercial sort by some of the growers. In some sections the fruit
is inclined to drop prematurely, but this characteristic has not been reported from
this region in the present connection.

Bachelor Blush.

This variety is said to be of New Jersey origin, but details of its history are not
obtainable. It is not widely disseminated and in this region is known only to a very
small number of growers. The rather meager information obtainable concerning its
behavior indicates that it may possess considerable merit.

The tree is said to be prolific, bearing more or less fruit annually. The fruit resem-
bles the Maiden Blush apple considerably but is rather larger than that variety;
frequently more highly colored and of better dessert quality. In central New Jersey
ripening begins the last of August.

Benoni.

This variety originated in Massachusetts many years ago. The first published
reference to it appeared in the New England Farmer in 1831. It is growing in a few
orchards in central New Jersey and in at least one tide-water orchard in Virginia.

The tree grows with sufiicient vigor and bears heavy crops on alternate years,
though under some conditions nearly annual crops are produced. The fruit pos-
sesses high dessert quality and is of attractive appearance; color yellowish, over-
spread with red and striped with crimson. It is too small, howe^^er, for general
commercial piu-poses, though for a special trade some demand might be created for
it on account of its high dessert quality. This also commends it for home use.

In the Virginia orchard, above mentioned, which is located in close proximity to
the coast, this variety has done especially well in recent years. The trees bear
heavily and the fruit reaches a good size for the variety, obtaining a high degree of
perfection. In this orchard good cultiual conditions are maintained. The fruit
begins ripening early in July in Virginia; in central New Jersey it is two weeks or so
later.

Bibbing.

So far as information at present available indicates, this variety was first propa-
gated and distributed in this region sometime prior to 1875, by the late Mr. Randolph
Peters, whose nursery was not far from Wilmington, Del. It does not appear, how-
ever, to have been planted extensively, as only an occasional orchard in this region
now contains it. On account of its very close resemblance to the Oldenburg apple,
and the danger of confusion with that variety, attention is here directed to it.

In habit of growth, the tree makes a rather flat, broad top, moderately dense, and
with heavy dark-green foliage. In contrast with this habit the top of Oldenburg is
usually more roundish and less dense and the foliage somewhat lighter. The fruit
of these two varieties is hardly distinguishable one from the other. Bibbing is per-
haps less sharply acid and may be slightly earlier than Oldenbm-g. Otherwise it is
scarcely possible to distinguish any constant points of difference between them, and
even those noted as distinguishable may be so influenced by conditions as to be of
little value for piu-poses of identification.

Bietigheimer. Synonym: Red Bietigheimer .

This variety is of German origin. It is growing in a small number of orchards in
central New Jersey and Delaware, bott on the very light sandy soils and the more
loamy types.

The tree is a fairly vigorous, upright grower under these conditions, but the variety

is not proving thus far to be of any special value. It is late in coming into bearing,

trees 10 to 15 years old having borne very sparingly. Older trees in other regions

indicate that heavy bearing is unusual. Under favorable conditions the fruit is very

194

DISCUSSIOISr OF VARIETIES. 25

large in size; skin yellowish, nearly covered with a pinkish-red blush, often with a
more or less marbled effect; subacid in flavor. The fruit thus far produced in this
region has been rather inferior in appearance and quality. Its season in New Jersey
and Delaware begins the last of July to the first of August.
Bonum. Synonym: Magnum Bonum.

The Bonum apple is supposed to have originated in Davidson County, N. C,
and has been in cultivation many years. It is quite widely distributed throughout
the South. In this region it is growing in many places in North Carolina, largely
in the older orchards, and to some extent in Virginia. It is rarely found at more
northern points.

The tree is fairly vigorous and generally healthy, with dark heavy foliage. -In the
sections above mentioned, it is a regular bearer. The fruit is small to medium in
size, occasionally large; its under color is yellow, overlaid with dark crimson; mild
subacid flavor and of excellent dessert quality. In the sections referred to, its season
begins early in September and continues through the greater part of October. It is
even said by some growers that it can be kejjt all winter without special care.

For home use, a personal market, or even for general commercial purposes this
variety appears to be worthy of more extensive planting in these sections. Indica-
tions point also to a range of adaptability extending as far north as central Delaware.
The high dessert quality and fine appearance of the fruit make it particularly attract-
ive. It is admirably suited for hotel or other trade where a highly colored apple of
fine quality and not over large size is desired.

Bough. Synonym: Sweet Bough, Large Yellow Bough.

The first mentioned synonym is the name under which this variety is generally
known, but it is reduced to Bough under the rules of nomenclature of the American
Pomological Society. This is also the name under which it was described in 1817 by
Coxe, this being the earliest published description. Its origin is obscure, except the
mere fact that it is a native variety.

The Bough apple is widely distributed in many sections of the country, and in this
region it is in many orchards tln-oughout the Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey
sections, though not produced in large quantities.

The tree is only moderately vigorous under the conditions in these sections. Some
complaint of its being short lived is made. A few instances of rather serious twig
blight liave been observed, but this does not appear to be common. Shy bearing is
reported by some, but, as a rule, fairly regular and abundant crops are produced.
The fruit is medium to large, greenish yellow, tender, crisp, and of a rich, sweet flavor.
Its season usually lasts about two weeks in individual orchards, though occasionally
the fruit is all harvested at a single picking. It may be had at some point in the
sections mentioned during most of July, the exact date of maturity depending upon
the location and local conditions.

Experiences differ as to the profitableness of this variety. Its principal use, on
account of its flavor, is for eating out of hand or for baking. It is the one sweet
early variety that is commonly grown, hence it may be of particular importance
for this reason. It is probably better adapted to a special trade or a personal market
than it is for general commercial purposes. It is said to sell well at some of the seashore
resorts along the New Jersey and Delaware coast.

Buckinghain. Synonyms: Fall Queen, Equinetely, Byers' Red. Nearly thirty other
synonyms have beeii applied less generally than the ones here mentioned.

The history of this variety traces back with fairly definite records to 1777 to the
garden of Col. John Byers, of revolutionary fame, who lived in Louisa County, Va.
The Buckingham is quite widely distributed in many sections of the South, but is
not grown in large quantities. It is in a few orchards in the Virginia and North
Carolina sections of thia region, but is relatively unimportant.
194

26 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

The tree in a large proportion of the orchards in these sections where it is found
is a weak grower and more or less subject to certain diseases. The fruit, when well
grown, is large; under color yellow, heavily washed over most of the siirface with
crimson and rather indistinctly striped; subacid, very pleasant; good to very good.
In these sections its season begins early in September, but continues for several weeks
so that it may be considered an early fall rather than a summer variety.

It is of doubtful value in the Virginia and North Carolina sections of this region.
Even in the orchards where the trees are in good condition the fruit does not matiu-e
well and is apt to rot, indicating a lack of adaptability to these conditions. As the
variety is well adapted to the conditions existing in the Piedmont and Blue Ridge
regions of Virginia and North Carolina where the altitude is higher than in the Coastal
Plain, it is possible that it would do relatively better in the northern portion of this
region than it does in the southern.

Celestia.

This variety originated in Miami County, Ohio. The original tree is said to have
been a seedling of Stillwater. It has been in cultivation for forty years or more
though it has never come into general cultivation. It has been found in only two or
three orchards in this region and in the adjacent areas. These are in Delaware and
Virginia.

The tree is a fine, thrifty, upright grower and a prolific, nearly annual, bearer. Fruit
large; roundish conical; pale yellow, moderately sprinkled with gray or brown dots;
flavor rich, mild, subacid, very pleasant; quality very good. It reaches edible
matiu"ity in the Virginia location about the first of September and is slightly later
farther north in the Chesapeake peninsula.

Though the trial of this variety in this region has not been sufficient to warrant
definite conclusions, it is promising for its season and highly prized by the few growers
who have had experience with it.
Champlain. Synonyms: Nyack, Nyack Pippin.

In this region this variety is known as Nyack or Nyack Pippin. It is supposed to
have originated in Vermont or New York, but historical data are lacking. It is grown
to a limited extent in some sections of the North, but is not generally known to fruit
growers. It is in quite a large number of orchards in New Jersey and Delaware, but
as in the North very many of the growers are unacquainted with it.

The tree is a fairly vigorous, somewhat upright grower, apparently long lived. It
is generally productive, bearing nearly annual crops in some orchards. The fruit
is medium to large; greenish yellow, sometimes with blush on exposed side when
fully ripe; pleasant subacid flavor. It is usually shipped from these sections during
the last week or ten days of July and early August. The fruit holds to the tree fairly
well, so that it may be handled dm-ing a rather long period of tune.

While of minor importance, relatively, in the sections of this region where it is grown,
it is usually considered a desirable commercial variety, though perhaps less profitable
than some other sorts.
Chenango. Synonyms: Chenango Strawberry, Strawberry, Sherwood's Favorite.

This variety probably originated in New York, though some accounts suggest Con-
necticut. It is grown sparingly in many sections of the North; in this region it is not
being grown commercially and is to be found in but very few orchards.

The tree is fairly satisfactory in its habit of growth. Fruit is oblong, conic, above
medium size; whitish yellow, striped and splashed with crimson; pleasant subacid;
very good. In the New Jersey section the season begins about the first of August.

The locations where the variety has been reported are on light, sandy soil. It does
not appear to be well adapted to this region. At one place in central New Jersey, imder
rather indifferent cultural conditions, the fruit is said to decay usually before it ripens,

194

DISCUSSION OF VAEIETIES. 27

and it seldom, if ever, colors well. Besides this it does not develop properly. This has
been the continuous record of trees which are from 35 to 40 years old. Younger
trees in southern Delaware have perhaps been slightly more satisfactory, but it is
apparently of little, if any, value here.
Colton. Synonym: Early Colton.

This variety is said to have originated in Franklin County, Mass., on the farm
of a Mr. Colton. It has been propagated more or less for nearly seventy years
usually under the synonym mentioned. It has some prominence in the Delaware
and Maryland sections of this region, where it is grown more or less on the light sandy
soils characteristic of these sections.

The tree is moderately vigorous, healthy, and fairly prolific, but in many instances,
even under good care, the fruit fails to develop satisfactorily and many culls result.
It bears with a good degree of regularity, producing some fruit nearly every year.
The apple is of medium size, greenish yellow, sometimes blushed on exposed side,
and of subacid flavor. The normal season of ripening in these sections is about the
middle of July. The fruit is sometimes handled in a rather immature condition as
early as the first week in July. It matures quite evenly, so that frequently the most
of the crop can be gathered at a single picking.

In the experience of some growers, this variety is not as good for shipping as some
other sorts, especially when marketed in a fully ripe condition. It is inclined to
turn dark under the skin if bruised, rendering it unattractive in appearance. At
present it is not of great value in this region and as there are one or two other more
desirable varieties, especially Early Ripe, of nearly the same season, it is doubtful
if it will become of any special importance here, though possessing some merit
Cornell. Synonyms: CornelVs Fancy, Cornell's Favorite.

The original tree of this variety is said to have stood on a farm owned by Mr. Gilman
Cornell and situated in Southampton township, Bucks County, Pa. It is not much
grown in this region, being confined mostly to a few orchards in the New Jersey section.
Light sandy soils characterize the locations where it has been observed. Some
complaint is made that the trees lack vigor and are short lived.

The fruit is medium size or above, much resembling Chenango, with which it is
doubtless sometimes confused. It is of better dessert quality than that variety.
It appears to be better adapted to the section above mentioned where it is being
grown than Chenango, since it develops to a good degree of perfection without
manifesting the defects referred to under that variety. It begins to ripen about the
middle of August in central New Jersey.

Cross.

The Cross apple originated near Fair Play, Washington County, Md., but has not
become widely known. So far as observed in this region, it is growing in only one
orchard, which is located in Caroline County, Md.

The tree is a strong, vigorous grower and an abundant bearer. The fruit is large;
roundish oblate; greenish yellow, striped and splashed with light red; slightly sub-
acid; good to very good in dessert quality; also recommended for culinary purposes.
In the section above mentioned it ripens from the middle to the last of August. It
has not been sufficiently tested in this region to demonstrate its value, but is con-
sidered very promising for its season by the one grower interviewed who has it under
observation .

There is a Russian variety grown under this name which \a a late-keepiag sort.

Da-wes. Synonym: Dawes Porter.

Origin, Massachusetts. This variety is known only to one or two growers in this
region, hence it has not been tested sufficiently to determine its value. It is a large
apple; light yellow, shading to a darker color with a suggestion of red; mild subacid,
194

28 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

rich; very good. It ripens during August in the central part of the Chesapeake
peninsula.

Early Edward. Synonym: Edward Early.

Aside from the fact that this variety is of American origin, its history is obscure.
It was mentioned by James Mease in the first American edition of "The Domestic
Encyclopedia," which was published in Philadelphia in 1804. It is grown to a very
limited extent, and in this region it is to be found in only a small number of the older
orchards.

The tree is fairly vigorous and productive. AMiere the San Jose scale is a serious
pest it appears to be peculiarly resistant to this insect. It has been observed that
when certain other varieties are even destroyed by it, this one remains nearly free
from attack. The fruit is of medium size or above; yellow, washed and striped with
red and crimson; subacid, pleasant; very good in dessert quality. In the central
and northern sections of this region, ripening occurs the last of July and the first of
August. "WTien fully ripe, rotting at the core is frequently serious. For this reason
its value for market purposes is doubtful, but it may have a place for home use on
account of its high dessert quality.

Early Harvest. Synonym: Prince's Harvest.

This apple was first mentioned in American pomological writings in 180G. It is
therefore a very old variety and supposed to be of American origin. Few varieties
have become so widely disseminated over a large portion of the country as this one.
Throughout this region it is probably the most widely grown of any sort. How-
ever, it is to be found more generally in the older orchards, having been planted l^ut
little in recent years.

Generally the tree is fairly vigorous and healthy, though in some sections of this
region, especially in the North Carolina portion, it is often badly affected with stem
or trunk tumors or knots « and certain other fungous diseases. The fruit is, typically,
medium to large in size; pale-yellow color; pleasant subacid flavor; dessert quality,
very good. Ripening begins at southern points in this region by the middle of June;
in the northern portion it is about three weeks later.

As ordinarily grown, the fruit is very irregular in size and grade, many poor, knotty
specimens being produced. It is much subject to injury from the plum curculio.
Hence a considerable proportion of the crop is usually of low grade, which renders
it less profitiible commercially than some other varieties of the same season. As a
market sort, therefore, it is not popular. Its high dessert quality, however, gives it
a place in the home orchard. It is probable that it is better adapted to the climatic
conditions in the northern or New Jersey portion of this region than at southern
points. Here the tree is generally less subject to disease and as a rule the fruit
develops to a higher degree of perfection.

Early Joe.

This variety originated many years ago at East Bloomfield, Ontario County, N. Y.,
in the same orchard with Northern Spy and Melon. It is said to have received its
name from the fact that a man by the name of Joe was for a time accustomed to steal
the fruit early in the morning before he was in danger of being observed. It is not
much cultivated in any section. In this region, it exists in only an occasional
orchard. The trees which have been observed here are making a rather poor, unsatis-
factory growth. The fruit is small to medium; oblate, conic; dull greenish -white
undercolor, A\dth dull red washing and striping; tender, juicy, mild siibacid,
and of high dessert quality. Its season in the central portion of this region is the
last of July and early August. Its high quality commends it for home use, but it

a See Circular 3, Bureau oi Plant Industry. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
104

DISCUSSION OF VARIETIES.

29

is too small for market purposes. On account of the weakness of the tree, however,
it is of doubtful value in this region for any purpose.

Early Ripe.

This variety is supposed to have come originally from Adams County, Pa., but
the point is open to question. It is evidently not generally known over a wide range
of country, but in this region it is one of the most important of the early commercial
sorts of the white or yellow skinned varieties. It is grown extensively, however,
only in the Chesapeake peninsula sections. There appears to be no well-defined
reason why it has not become kno\vn and generally planted in New Jersey, but it

Fig. 2.— An Early liipc apple tree in Delaware, al)out 15 years old.

is practically unknown in that section; the same is true in the Virginia section. In
North Carolina it is to l)e found in a small number of orchards.

The tree is rather upright in habit of growth, with strong tough limbs not easily
broken. (Fig. 2.) It bears early and in most cases abundantly, with nearly annual
crops. The fruit is medium or above in size, yellow, subacid, of firm texture, good
quality, and less subject to insect injury, especially the plum curculio, than many
other varieties.

In season, it is one of the earliest. In some places it is the first variety to be shipped
from the section where it is extensively grown. It cooks well before it is fully ripe,
194

30

SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

and this fact is often taken advantage of by the growers, who market it earlier, by a few
days, than could otherwise be the case. The first pickings are often made in central
Delaware during the last days of June; it is usually all marketed by the middle of
July. In the North Carolina section it is about two weeks earlier. The fruit holds to
the trees well, however, so that its market period, including the period of full maturity,
is longer than that of most early sorts, extending over nearly a month, if desirable to
hold the fruit that length of time. On the other hand, the fruit matures quite uni-
formly and it may generally all be gathered in two pickings if desired. Its texture
remains firm when fully ripe; hence, it is possible to handle the fruit largely in accord-

FiG. 3.— An Early Strawberry apple tree in Delaware, about 50 years old.

ance with market conditions. It appears probable that it would be a satisfactory
variety for its season throughout the region. It has been planted extensively in recent
years in the Chesapeake peninsula section instc-ad of Early Harvest. In one or two
instances, this variety has not given its accustomed satisfaction, being late in coming
into bearing and otherwise faulty. Such experiences, however, are exceptional.

Early Strawberry.

This variety is supposed to have originated in New York. It was referred to in
pomological literature prior to 1840, and is widely disseminated though not exten-
194

DISCUSSION OF VARIETIES. 31

sively grown. It is quite widely distributed in the New Jersey and Chesapeake
peninsula sections, but is seldom seen in other portions of this region.

The tree is a strong upright grower and apparently long lived. (See fig. 3.) It is
slow in coming into bearing. As a rule, only very light crops are borne before the trees
are 10 or 12 years old, or even considerably older in some cases. The fruit is small to
medium; roundish conic; yellowish undercolor, frequently almost entirely overspread
with red, sometimes striped with darker red; texture rather firm; very good to best in
dessert quality. The season of ripening begins about the middle of July in central
Delaware and lasts for two or three weeks, the fruit ripening very gradually. Several
pickings are therefore necessary.

Opinions differ widely in regard to the value of this sort. It is considered one of
the most profitable by some; others regard it as practically worthless commercially.
The late-bearing habits of the tree have already been mentioned. This is a serious
objection to many growers. Unless thoroughly sprayed, the fruit usually scabs very
badly. It is too small for ordinary commercial purposes, but on account of its attrac-
tive appearance- and high dessert quality it is well suited to a personal market or some
special trade. It is said to bring fancy prices at some of the summer resorts along the
coast of New Jersey and Delaware. It is thus evident that satisfactory results can be
realized only when the fruit is grown under high culture and is skillfully marketed.

English Codlin.

As the name suggests, this variety is of English origin. It is cultivated very little
in this country. In this region it is confined almost exclusively to the New Jersey
section.

The tree is a good grower. Fruit roundish oblate; large; yellowish green, with
bronzing on exposed side; subacid; quality good, especially desirable for cooking.

The place which this sort fills in the early-apple growing industry of the New Jersey
section is rather distinct from that held by most other early varieties. As indicated
elsewhere most of the early apples are marketed in baskets or other small packages,
but this variety is generally shipped in barrels. It meets with special favor in the
Boston markets, where very satisfactory prices are usually realized. It does not reach
maturity in this section until the last of August or first of September, but it develops to
a good size for culinary purposes, for which it is especially valued a month previous to
this time, and as soon as it is large enough to cook harvesting and shipping are generally
begun. Wliile in some sections it may be held until fully matured, the above method
is said to be one of the most satisfactory ways of handling it in New Jersey.

The variety is particularly well adapted to the heavier soils in this section, and when
the trees are well cared for, nearly annual crops are produced. A single grower in the
Virginia section of this region has reported this variety. In this case it is highly
prized.
Fanny.

The Fanny apple originated in Lancaster County, Pa. It is referred to in the
revision of Downing's "Fruits and Fruit Trees of America" for 1869 as "a new
apple of great promise as a market sort." It is not, however, very much grown in any
section. It is in a few orchards in the New Jersey and Chesapeake peninsula sections,
but is relatively unimportant at present.

The tree is a fine grower in the nursery, of upright habit, and good vigor. In the
orchard it is only moderately productive. In fact, some growers offer this as one objec-
tion to it. The fruit is medium or above in size; clear yellow undercolor, overspread
with bright red, showing some stripes of a darker shade; pleasant subacid flavor; good
to very good.

Its season in central Delaware is the last of July and early August, though it fre-
quently extends over a considerable period. As a commercial variety for this region
it is of doubtful value. In at least one orchard which is in a good state of cultivation,
the fruit nearly all drops soon after it sets. Some growers speak of it as quite irregular
194

32 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

in the degree of perfection which it attains from year to year. On the other hand,
other growers state that it gives satisfactory results under their conditions, though in
some of these instances it is not considered of much value commercially. It is evi-
dently more easily influenced by conditions than many varieties.
Garrettson. Synonyms: Garrettson's Early, Somerset Harvest.

This variety originated at Somerset, N.J. It has never been much disseminated
and hence is but little known in any section.

The tree is a spreading grower, and is reported to be prolific. Fruit medium to large;
bright greenish yellow ; mild subacid ; not of high dessert quality, but good for cooking.
It ripens during the last of July and early August in the central part of the Chesapeake
peninsula. The variety has not been sufficiently tested to determine its value in this
region. It is doubtful if it is in any way superior to other better known sorts of the
same season.

Glowing CoaL

This variety was disseminated some years ago by a New Jersey nursery, but it has
not become generally known in this region. By some it is considered identical with
Ohio Nonpareil, but available evidence does not support this opinion. It has been
observed in but a single orchard, which is located in west-central New Jersey. The
trees in this case are but 10 or 12 years old, hence it is not possible at the present time
to draw any very definite conclusions about the mer'ts of the variety. They have
made a strong healthy growth. Light crops have been produced thus far, though the
trees have blossomed full several times.

The fruit is large; roundish; greenish yellow, washed and splashed with crimson
and with a slight overspread of gray; pleasant subacid ; good to very good. Its season
in west-central New Jersey is the last of August to the first of September. The tree
characteristics and the quality of the fruit would make this variety a desirable one for
its season, but it can not be generally recommended on account of its fruit-bearing
proclivities.

Golden Sweet.

This variety is of Connecticut origin. It is not much grown in any section, but
widely disseminated. In this region it is in a few orchards at widely separated points.

The tree is a strong grower and a good bearer. The fruit is large; roundish; yellow;
rich, sweet; good to very good. It is considered by those who have it in this region a
desirable variety for a sweet summer apple. As there is but small demand for sweet
apples, however, it is doubtful if this would be a profitable market sort here. Its sea-
son is the last of July to the first of August in the middle sections of this region.

Grand Sultan. .

This variety is of Russian origin; it is but little grown in this country. In this
region it is in but a very few orchards. The one in which it has been under close
observation for several years is located in the central part of the Chesapeake peninsula.
The chief point of interest concerning it is its similarity both in tree and fruit to the
Yellow Transparent apple. Its resemblance to Thaler is also close enough to be a
source of considerable confusion. The best distinguishing difference between the
Grand Sultan and these other two varieties, as grown in the section mentioned, is its
relatively short, thick stem, which is a fairly constant characteristic.

There are perhaps more marked differences between this variety and the Yellow
Transparent in some other regions. It is claimed in one section, at least, that the
Grand Sultan tree is more vigorous and more upright in habit of growth than the
Yellow Transparent and that it is more subject to twig-blight and less productive.
These differences, however, as already noted, do not appear under the conditions
existing where these varieties have been critically observed for a number of years.
The Grand Sultan apple bears early and abundantly. Its season is the same as
that of the Yellow Transparent.
194

DISCUSSION OF VARIETIES. 33

Gravenstein.

This is a German introduction, but when it was first brought to this country is a
matter of doubt. It appears quite certain that two trees were imported and planted
in a garden in Boston in the spring of 1826. There is some evidence that scions were
imported at another time; this may or may not have been at an earlier date. The
variety is widely distributed throughout the country. In this region it is one of
the most common and important varieties of its season, except in the North Carolina
section, where it is rarely found.

The tree is a strong, vigorous, spreading grower, producing a large bearing surface.
It comes into bearing fairly young, but not so early as some others. Under high
culture it produces nearly annual crops, but as ordinarily grown the "off-year" crop
is usually small. It is, however, a heavy bearer in full crop years. The fruit is
medium to large; roundish oblate, angular; yellow, striped and splashed with bright
red; subacid, aromatic; very good.

It is primarily an August apple in New Jersey and the Chesapeake peninsula,
though the "drops" are frequently shipped the last of July. Most of the fruit is
usually shipped from points as far south as central Delaware by the middle or 20th
of August, while it is frequently held in some of the New Jersey orchards until some
days into September.

The characteristics of the fruit make it an excellent general-purpose variety. It
is excellent for cooking, for dessert, and likewise a good shipping variety. Its long
season of ripening commends it for the home orchard where only a few trees can be
grown. It is said to be a satisfactory variety to put in cold storage. While there
has been very limited experience in handling it in this way, as is true of all early
varieties, the possibility of holding it when desirable to do so may be worthy of
consideration by growers in this region.

Hawthornden.

This is a Scotch variety which was brought to this country many years ago and
which has been disseminated to a slight extent in some sections. So far as observed
it is confined in this region to a very small number of orchards in the New Jersey and
Chesapeake peninsula sections. It is unknown to most growers.

The tree is said to be a slow grower in these sections and is improved by top-working
on some other vigorous sort. It bears annually and abundantly. The fruit resembles
that of Maiden Blush somewhat; there appears to have been some confusion between
these two varieties. Fruit medium to large; roundish oblate; pale yellow, with
blush on exposed side. It ripens early in August, the same season as Maiden Blush,
and is considered superior to that variety by the small number of growers who have
expressed an estimate of its value. The general reputation of the variety, however,
places it as inferior to Maiden Blush in flavor.

Horse.

Much confusion exists in regard to the application of the name Horse, as several
Borts of doubtful identity are known more or less locally by it. In some sections the
name has nearly the significance of a type name, any large, yellow apple ripening
early in the season being called a Horse apple. The variety to which the name ia
properly applied has been in cultivation many years. Its place of origin is obscure,
but it is commonly credited to North Carolina. It is found in many of the older
orchards throughout the South. At one time it was considerably planted in Indiana,
but it is rarely found in the North. In this region it is common in the North Carolina
section, occasionally in Virginia, but rarely elsewhere.

As observed in the North Carolina section, the tree is considerably subject to twig-
blight; trunk or stem tximors are also common. However, the trees are given very
little attention here, so that in comparison with the standard varieties in other sections
of this regioil this fact should be considered.
56682<^— Bui. 194—11 3

34 SUMMEE APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

For the purpose of aiding to establish the correct identity of this variety a detailed
description of it follows: Form roundish; size large; cavity regular, medium size,
deep, abrupt with some russet markings extending over base; stem short, medium
stout; basin regular, medium size, slope gradual, furrowed and russeted; eye very
large, open; surface moderately smooth except ribbing; color yellow, with delicate
blush on some specimens, sometimes small patches of russet; dots variable, mostly
small; flesh yellow, medium-fine texture, juicy; core round, conic, clasping, medium
size, partially open; flavor subacid, rather rich; quality good to very good. Its
ripening season extends over a considerable period, beginning in the North Carolina
section by the middle of July and continuing through August.

Under good conditions this would doubtless be a satisfactory sort for southern lati-
tudes of low elevation, both for home use and local markets.

Jeflferis.

This is a native variety of Pennsylvania, having originated with Mr. Isaac Jefferis,
Newlin Township, Chester County. It was awarded a premium offered by the Pennsyl-
vania Horticultural Society for the best seedling exhibited in 1848. It is quite
widely distributed through the North, but is to be found mostly in the older orchards.
It is almost unknown in this region, having been observed in only two or three orchards
which are widely separated from one another.

The fruit is medium in size, oblate; greenish yellow with broken stripes of crimson;
sprightly subacid; quality, very good. It has a comparatively long season, which
in the Virginia section of this region begins about July 20. Its high dessert quality
commends it for home use and a fancy retail trade, but it is too small for general
commercial purposes. It would apparently do well in the central and northern
sections of this region under good cultural conditions.

Jersey Sweet.

The origin of this variety is doubtful, but New Jersey is commonly supposed to
be the section whence it came. It is quite widely distributed in the North,
though it is not extensively grown. It exists in a few orchards in the central sections
of this region, but is unknown to most of the growers.

The fruit is medium to large, roundish; yellow undercolor washed with mixed
light red, splashed and striped with bright crimson; sweet, rich; of very good dessert
quality. In the Virginia section it usually begins to ripen from the 10th to the middle
of August. It may be worthy of consideration as a sweet variety for this region and
is referred to here primarily to call attention to its possible value.

July. Synonym: Fourth of July .

This variety, which is of the Tetofski type, is said to have reached this country
from Cassel, Germany, and to have been introduced by Mr. C. F. Jaeger, Columbus,
Ohio. On the other hand, another account states that it was introduced into Eng-
land from Russia during the lifetime of Mr. Thomas Andrew Knight, and thence
found its way into Virginia. From this section it was disseminated northward and
westward under the name Fourth of July, its original name having been lost. Though
apparently more or less distributed in various sections of the country, it remains
unknown to most fruit growers. In this region it is confined primarily to the Chesa-
peake peninsula section.

The tree makes a vigorous upright growth, with large, glossy, rather coarse foliage.
(See fig. 4.) It begins to bear young, trees 3 and 4 years old frequently producing
some fniit, but it does not reach full bearing as young as some varieties do, neither
has it proved as uniformly productive. Some orchards which have been planted
10 to 12 years have not yet borne much fruit, though light crops have been produced
for several years. The general conditions, however, in the particular orchards in
question are not materially different, so far as can be determined, from those of other
orchards in which more satisfactory results have been obtained. The fruit is above
194

DISCUSSION OP VARIETIES.

35

medium in size; conic; dull yellowish, lightly washed and striped with red; sub-
acid; good.

In the commercial orchards of the Chesapeake peninsula this variety ranks as one
of the important market sorts, yet it is not held in universal favor, even in different
orchards which are under practically uniform conditions. Perhaps its strongest
claim to an important place is its early season of ripening. In many orchards in
this section it is often nearly all marketed by July 10, though in such cases it is usually

Fig. 4.— a July apple tree in Delaware, 12 years old.

picked in a rather immature condition. From the middle to the 25th of July, as a
rule, may be considered its normal season. It appears to be rather more susceptible
to the influence of relatively slight cultural differences than many varieties are.
^ If the fruit is bruised it quickly turns dark; it also discolors badly if slightly over-
ripe, and sometimes cracks. 'WTiile fairly heavy crops are frequently produced,
there is usually a larger percentage of culls than in many varieties. The fruit is
borne largely in clusters, especially if the trees are heavily loaded. It will thus be
seen that this variety possesses rather serious faults, yet it is considered a fairly profit-
able variety by many on account of its sequence in ripening and the time at which it
can be marketed.
194

36 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

Kane. Synonyms: Cain, Cane, Red Cain.

This variety originated in Kent County, Del. It has been disseminated but very
little; even in the section where it originated very few growers have any knowledge
of it.

The tree makes a good growth and apparently bears fairly well. The fruit is
medium to above in size; oblate conical, regular; whitish yellow with waxy appear-
ance, heavily shaded with crimson; crisp, juicy; good. In the Chesapeake peninsula
section its season is about the middle of September or before, but the fruit will keep
several weeks. ^Tiile not strictly a summer sort, it apparently has some merit for its
season, though not sufficiently tested to determine its full value.
Keswick. Synonyms: Codlin, Keswick Codlin.

This is an English variety which has been grown more or less in this country for
many years, but not extensively in any section. It is in a few orchards in the New
Jersey section of this region.

The tree is moderately vigorous. The fruit is medium to large; roundish oblong,
conic; greenish yellow; acid; good. Its season of ripening is about the same as
that of the English Codlin, but as in case of that variety it is frequently shipped before
it is fully mature. On some of the heavier soils of this region, which are to be found
in the section from which this report comes, the fruit is said to have a soft texture,
does not mature well, and is of little commercial value. It is reported to have been
substituted frequently by nurserymen in filling orders for the English Codlin, to
which it is claimed to be very much inferior in the section above named .
Kirkbridge. Synonym: Kirkhridge White.

The place of origin of this variety is unknown. Many years ago it was planted
considerably in the Middle West, especially in Indiana, being brought there from
New Jersey by Quakers when going to that State for their yearly meeting. At the
present time it is almost unknown in this region, being reported from only one or
two points.

The tree is a slow upright grower and an early abundant bearer. The fruit is
roundish; medium size; color, greenish white, sometimes with slight bronzing on
exposed side; tender, juicy, subacid; good. In Delaware it ripens about the middle
of July.
Lowell. Synonyms: Greasy Pippin, Tallow Apple.

This variety is of unknown origin, aside from the fact that it is a native sort. It is
quite widely distributed in numerous sections of the countrj% especially in the older
orchards. It is rarely found in this region, but occurs occasionally in orchards in
the northern sections.

The tree is a vigorous, spreading grower, and produces nearly annual crops. The
fruit is above medium size, yellow, brisk acid flavor, and good to very good in quality.
In the New Jei-sey section it begins to ripen about August 1. It is rather perishable,
decaying soon after mature, or in some cases even before; its period of ripening
extends over a space of 2 or 3 weeks. The premature decay of the fruit renders it
less desirable than some other sorts of the same season.

Maiden Blush.

I The Maiden Blush apple originated in New Jersey many years ago. It was fu^t
described in 1817 by Coxe, who then stated that it was esteemed in the Philadelphia
markets. It is grown and still being planted over a wade range of territorj^ and is
remarkable in the fact that it is successful in so large a number of the apple-
growing districts of the country. In this region it has been widely planted, though
relatively of much greater commercial importance in the New Jersey section than
elsewhere. It is, however, a standard sort for its season In the Chesapeake penin-
sula section. At southern points in the region it is found much less frequently,
but is a variety known to many who have orchards.
194

DISCUSSION OF VARIETIES. 37

The tree is a strong grower, as a rule, seldom showing defects of any kind. (PI. IV,
fig. 1.) With good culture, nearly annual crops are produced. The fruit is above
medium size; pale yellow with blush, sometimes becoming a brilliant red on exposed
side.

In some locations in Delaware shipments usually begin the last of July, but in
New Jersey, where it has become of most importance, its shipping period is usually
from the middle to the last of August. It is a valuable market sort, though it does
not ripen at the season of highest prices. It is considered one of the standard sorts
for the sections in this region where it is most grown.

A few growers who have this variety report adversely concerning it, but such expe-
riences are rare. No explanation for such results is apparent. It may require higher
cultural conditions than some varieties.

A few growers have put the fruit in cold storage for a period of two to four weeks
with gratifying results. It is said to hold well in storage for the time named, and this
permits placing it on the market in some seasons, at least, when prices are better than
they frequently are during August.

Metz.

This variety is said to have originated in Jones County, N. C. It has apparently
been distributed to a small extent locally, but is not widely known, even to those
who have orchards in the tide-water section of this State.

The tree makes a fine, healthy growth, noticeably free from fungous diseases. The
fruit is good size, oblate, smooth, more or less striped with red. It ripens in North
Carolina the last of July and early in August. It is said to be excellent for cooking,
and especially good for cider, producing a much larger quantity of juice than most
varieties. It is recommended by some for growing near the coast.

No matm-e specimens of this variety have been seen by the writer. Its merits,
aside from the tree characteristics noted above, are given here as reported by parties
who are growing it.

Muster.

Aside from the fact that this variety was introduced many years ago, having been
described by Warder in "American Pomology," published in 1867, nothing appears
to be known relative to the history of this sort. It is likewise almost unknown to fruit
growers. As far as observed, it is confined to a single orchard in this region, which is
located in Caroline Coimty, Md.

The tree makes a good growth with noticeably healthy foliage. The fruit is medium
or above in size; oblate; yellow, covered with mixed red and crimson; finegrained,
juicy; subacid, aromatic, rich; best quality. Its season is from the middle to the
last of August in the section above mentioned. It is considered a valuable variety by
the one grower who is acquainted with its merits, with whom it is pro^'ing nearly an
annual bearer. Its high dessert quality commends it for home use, though for com-
mercial piu-poses its season of ripening may be such that it would not be regularly
profitable.

Oldenburg. Synonyms: Duchess of Oldenburg, Dutchess, Borovitsly.

This variety is of Russian origin. It is commonly supposed to have been first
introduced into this country in 1834 by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society «
at the same time that Alexander, Red Astrachan, and Tetofski were imported from the
Royal Horticultural Society, London, England. However, unless the synonym
Borovitsky was applied at a very early date to some other variety, it was introduced
prior to 1833. b

a See the quotation under Alexander for further historical information.

6 Genesee Farmer, vol. 3, no. 24, 1833, p. 188.

194

38 SXJMMEE APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

The Oldenburg apple has become widely disseminated in many States, especially in
the upper Mississippi Valley, where it is of value on account of the hardiness of the
tree. It is not extensively grown in the Middle Atlantic States, though it is well
represented in the sections where commercial orcharding has been developed.
Occasional trees of it are also found in the more southern sections of this region.

The tree is a good grower, fairly vigorous, with dark, healthy foliage, though evidently
not making a large tree. Some twig-blight has been observed, but it is not common.
The tree forms a roundish, though spreading head. It bears nearly annually, usually
producing abundant crops. The fruit is medium in size or above; yellow undercolor,
wellstreaked with red when ripe; subacid; good. Its market period varies somewhat
from year to year and with different growers. About the middle to the last of July,
however, appears to be an average date for marketing in the New Jersey and Chesa-
peake peninsula section, but the fruit can be cooked satisfactorily before it is mature.
It ripens quite evenly; the entire crop can frequently be gathered in two pickings.
It keeps well after it is picked, having a tendency to shrivel instead of decaying,
especially if picked before fully ripe. Its use is for culinary pmposes rather than for
dessert.

This is proving one of the most satisfactory varieties among the earlier sorts for
growing near the coast at southern points. It would apparently be a profitable sort to
grow more extensively in this region than is being done at present.

In this connection attention should be directed to the fact that there are several
Russian varieties of the Oldenburg type which are very similar to that variety both
in appearance and in season of ripening. Due care should be taken not to confuse
any of these sorts with Oldenburg.

Orange Pippin (New Jersey).

This is a very old variety of unknown origin. The earliest records trace it to Genesee,
N. Y., though it is not assumed that this was the place where it originated. It is
commonly supposed to have come in the first place from New Jersey, where it is now
cultivated to a limited extent in some of the older orchards. It evidently is rarely
found elsewhere in any of the other fruit-growing sections of the country.

The tree is thrifty and long lived. The fruit is medium to large ; yellow; subacid;
and good to very good. It reaches maturity from the first to the middle of August,
though as with so many of the early sorts it is frequently shipped at an earlier period,
before it is fully ripe. It is said to hold well in cold storage for a short period, but it
has not often been handled in this way.

There is a French variety by this name, but it is a later apple.

Parry White. Synonym: White Wax.

The origin of this variety is uncertain, but it probably came either from Pennsyl-
vania or New Jersey.

So far as observed, it is grown commercially only in the New Jersey section of this
region, and even here it is not an important sort. WTiile the trees tend to bear annual
crops under the best care and very heavy crops on alternate years under ordinary
culture, the fruit is too small to be profitable, especially as it possesses no characteris-
tics which make it particularly desirable in any way. It is a small, rather sprightly
subacid apple with a white skin, beginning to ripen the latter part of July in New
Jersey, but extending over a relatively long season.

Porter.

Porter is a New England apple which originated on the groimds of Rev. Samuel
Porter, Sherbom, Mass., about 1798. It is found in many sections of the North in the
older orchards. In this region it is quite common in the New Jersey section, but
practically unknown to growers in other sections. The tree is long lived and noi
possessed of any serious faults.
194

DiSCUSSIOlSr OF VARIETIES. 39

The fruit is medium to large; oblong conic; yellow, in some cases having consid-
erable blush on the side exposed to the sun ; very good to best quality. Its season is
about August 1 to 15.

It bears fairly well in New Jersey, though not as regularly as many other sorts. The
fruit does not "take" well on the market, even though of good size and attractive
appearance. It is therefore not a profitable apple to grow. It is a variety primarily
for home use, either for dessert or culinary purposes.

Primate.

Until quite recently the origin of this variety was obscure-, but investigations made
within the past few years have apparently been successful in tracing it to its original
source. In this connection the following quotation is of interest:

"The first tablet in New York State in memory of any apple was erected in the
town of Camillus, Onondaga County, on the original site of the Primate apple tree.
John T. Roberts, Syracuse, N. Y., on the 11th of September, 1903, caused a bronze
tablet to be erected there. On this tablet is the following inscription:

On this farm Calvin D. Bingham, about 1840, produced the marvelous

Primate Apple.

Named by Charles P. Cowles,

God's earth is full of love to man.

"The ceremony called together a goodly number of people. It was a beautiful
thing thus to commemorate an apple that is famous throughout New York State. "«

This variety is quite common through the North and East, though not grown
extensively. So far as observed, it is confined to the New Jersey section of this region.
It is, however, in only a small niuuber of orchards. Here the tree is not a strong
grower, being considered somewhat tender and rather short lived. It is only moder-
ately productive.

The fruit is medium in size or above; greenish white with slight blush on exposed
side; subacid; and good to very good in dessert quality. Its season is about the
middle of July, but it frequently extends considerably later as the fruit does not
mature uniformly. The fruit is tender fleshed, hence not considered a good sort for
shipping to distant markets, though good prices are reported when it is well handled.
Its high dessert quality recommends it, however, for home use.

Randolph. Synonym: Unknown.

Though the exact origin of this variety is not known, a single tree, or at most, two
trees of it, standing on a farm in Newcastle County, Del., were the first to receive
recognition. This occurred in 1869. What was the soiurce of this tree or trees, if
there were more than one, has never been determined.?*

The variety has been distributed in a limited way in the middle latitudes in the
East and Middle West, but is not grown extensively. In this region, so far as observed,
it is confined to orchards in Kent County, Del. But here it is not considered an
important variety at the present time.

The tree is a vigorous grower, but in most orchards where it has been observed it
is inclined to be less prolific than is desirable, and the foliage is often injured by some
of the leaf-blight fungi. The fruit is small to medium in size; white, washed with
crimson and striped with darker crimson; firm textxire; mild subacid flavor, but not
of high quality. Its season begins about the middle of July, continuing for about
two weeks.

« Proceedings of the Fifty-third Annual Meeting of the Western New York Horti-
cultural Society, 1908, p. 151.

& For further historical information and detailed description of this fruit, see Year-
book for 1902, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 472.

194

40 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

While the Randolph apple possesses some good qualities, particularly firmness of
texture and attractiveness of appearance, and ripens at a fairly good time, yet, on
account of its small size and light, irregular bearing proclivities, it is not considered
of special value by most of the growers in this section. The fact that it ripens prac-
tically with Williams, which is a finer ana larger apple, has also had an influence in
the matter, the latter being considered superior in essential particulars. In certain
sections of the country, where it is being grown in a limited way, greater value is
attached to it than by the growers in Delaware.
Red Astrachan.

Though this variety is of Russian origin, doubtless from the province of Astrachan,
it evidently fin'st reached this country through England, being introduced by the
Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1834. « It was also introduced direct from
Russia in the large collection of varieties imported in 1871 by this Department.

This variety is generally distributed throughout the North, and is also one of the
most important early varieties in this region. It is grown more at southern points in
the region than most other early varieties. It is reported as doing fairly well in close
proximity to the salt water at points along the Virginia coast, as well as at other places
farther south.

The fruit is medium to large; under color greenish yellow, almost entirely covered
with deep crimson, in some cases showing more or less striping; flavor a sprightly
acid, too sour to be pleasant for dessert purposes, but excellent for cooking. In season
it is essentially a July apple in the central and northern sections of this region. The
characteristics of the tree are shown in Plate IV, figure 2. It is a strong grower, with
heavy dark foliage. It is late in coming into bearing, seldom producing much fruit
before it is 8 to 10 years old. Heavy crops are generally borne every other year,
with light ones on the "off" year.

In the New Jersey section but few are marketed before the 10th to the 15th of July.
In the North Carolina section its season begins by the middle of June. As the fruit
matures unevenly, the ripening period extends over a space of two or three weeks.
It should be picked as soon as the fruit is fully ripe, or slightly before, else it soon
becomes mealy and often cracks.

The fruit is borne largely in clusters, the individual specimens of which ripen
irregularly, one at a time. It is difficult to gather the ripe apples without at the
same time removing large quantities of fruit which have not reached a desirable
stage of maturity. When the fruit is shipped as soon as it reaches a desirable size, as
is frequently done, without special regard to color, the proportion of poorly colored
specimens in a picking is of little or no consequence; but when highly colored fruit
is desired, this characteristic is objectionable in the variety.

The fruit is somewhat inclined to decay in some orchards before it is ready for
market, but this is not a general experience in this region under good cultural methods.
There are apt to be a good many small and otherwise unmarketable apples, so that in
close grading there is a heavy percentage of low-grade fruit and culls.

While this variety has some rather serious faults in this region, it also has many
points of merit, and there appears to be no other red sort to substitute for it, especially
in i^oint of season.

Red June. Synonyms: Carolina Red June, Carolina Red, North Carolina Red June.

The place of origin of this variety is in doubt, but it is generally assumed to be
North Carolina. It has long been in cultivation and has become very widely dis-
seminated, especially in middle latitudes and the South. In this region it is quite
common in the Chesapeake peninsula and Virginia sections, and in the North Caro-
lina section it is perhaps grown in more orchards than any other early sort.

a See the quotation under Alexander for further historical information.
194

DISCUSSION OP VARIETIES. 4l

The tree is of fairly vigorous, upright growth and generally productive. The fruit
is small to medium in size; oval, somewhat irregular, inclined to be conic; when fully
colored nearly the entire surface is deep red, with a light bloom; tender, juicy, with
brisk subacid flavor; quality good to very good. Its season of maturity usually begins
from June 10 to 15 in the North Carolina section; in Delaware it averages about three
weeks later, continuing for about two weeks.

Under good cultural conditions it bears more or less annually, with a good propor-
tion of fairly heavy crops. It probably does not withstand neglect as well as some
varieties do, but it responds readily to good cultiu-e. The foliage is somewhat subject
to some of the leaf-spot fungi. Apple scab is frequently serious on the fruit if not well
sprayed, but with proper attention to these details excellent fruit of the variety is
grown. There are some indications that rather finer fruit is produced on the heavier
soil in this region than on the very light sandy types.

The small size of the fruit is the most serious defect as a commercial variety. Some
seasons, however, it is profitable as a market sort and is always desirable as a dessert
apple for home use.

In some sections of this region, especially in North Carolina where this sort has
been widely grown for many years, there is a considerable number of varieties, mostly
unnamed and of local distribution, that very closely resemble Red June in appearance
and in other ways. They may be seedlings of this variety, though as a rule little or
nothing is known of their origin. The most of them ripen about with Red June and
are similar to it in size, color, and flavor. Others are larger in size, some are distinctly
more acid, while still others are sweet in flavor.
Roadstown. Synonym: Roadstown Pippin.

This is a local variety which originated in southern New Jersey near a place by the
name of Roadstown, and, so far as observed, its cultivation has not extended much
beyond the region of its origin.

The tree is a strong upright grower. It produces very heavy crops and tends to bear
annually. The fruit is large; greenish yellow, frequently bronzed on the exposed side;
subacid; rather oblate in shape; good dessert quality, and especially fine for cooking.
It does not reach full maturity until about September 1, but it is a large apple and de-
velops to a good size for culinary purposes relatively early in the season, so that ship-
ping begins by the latter part of July. In this respect it is similar to English Codlin,
and like this variety it usually meets with a ready sale in the Boston markets at more
satisfactory prices than most other varieties with which it comes into competition.
In this section of New Jersey , where the soil is heavier than in most places in this region,
the fruit apparently possesses much merit as a commercial sort. It is suggested for
careful testing in other sections.

Sandbrook.

This variety originated near Sergeantsville, N.J. It was introduced about twenty
years ago, but it has not been much disseminated. It is growing in a very small num-
ber of orchards in the Chesapeake peninsula and New Jersey sections of this region.

The tree is a strong grower in the nursery, but of moderate growth as it becomes older.
It is prolific when full bearing age is reached. The fruit is small to medium; prettily
washed with red and striped with bright crimson; subacid; good to very good. It
ripens from the last of July to the middle of August in the central part of the Chesa-
peake peninsula. The small size of the fruit renders it undesirable for market, but it
is considered valuable for home use by some growers.

Smokehouse. Synonyms: Gibson's Vandevere, Mill Creek Vandevere, Red Vandevere.
This is a very old variety which apparently originated during the latter part of the
eighteenth century on the farm of Mr. A\'illiam Gibson near Lampeter, Lancaster
County, Pa. It was called Smokehouse because the tree stood near the building used
for smoking meats. It is widely known in the middle latitudes south of and including
194

42 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

Pennsylvania and east of the Mississippi River, though not grown in large quantities.
Occasionally it is grown farther west, but not commonly. In this region it is more of
a fall apple than a summer variety, although at southern points it should be grouped
with the early sorts. It is more often found in the New Jersey section than elsewhere,
but it holds relatively an unimportant place.

The tree makes a large, spreading top; it probably does not come into bearing quite
as early as many varieties do, though not considered particularly late in reaching bear-
ing age. The fruit is medium to large; greenish yellow, washed and mottled with red
or crimson, sometimes more or less overspread with gray; prominent russet clots; sub-
acid; good to very good. In the New Jersey section, as above indicated, it is a fall
apple, ripening about the middle of September, and it may be kept for several weeks
or even months, but at southern points it reaches maturity the first of September.

For a large portion of this region this appears to be a good general-purpose variety
for its season. The trees bear well; it is a good market variety of sufficiently high des-
sert quality to have a place in home orchards.

Sops-of-Wine.

This is an old Eiu"opean sort which has become more or less disseminated in this
country, but it has never been extensively grown. It is seldom included in recently
planted orchards. It is rarely grow;n commercially in this region, but an occasional tree
of it is found in a few orchards in the central and northern sections.

The tree makes a good growth and bears at an early age. The fruit is roundish,
medium size, yellow, shaded and splashed with deep red, frequently becoming so com-
pletely shaded that the striping is obscured. Flesh is rather dry, subacid, and pos-
sesses a peculiar characteristic flavor which is exceedingly pleasant to some, but less
agreeable to others. The fruit ripens about the middle of July. It often decays
rather badly about the calyx before it is ripe, and drops considerably. Under
neglected conditions the fruit is very irregular in size; also scabs badly if not sprayed.
So far as observed, and in the opinion of those who know the variety in this region,
there is little to recommend it for planting here.

Starr.

The best available records indicate that this variety originated near Woodbury,
Gloucester County, N. J., on the grounds of Judge John Moore White, which were later
owned by a Mrs. Starr. A son of Mrs. Starr is said to have been in the legislature about
1865 with the late William Parry. lie gave Mr. Parry some scions of this variety, who
propagated it under this name. The Starr has remained comi^aratively unknown in
most sections, and in this region it is confined almost entirely to the New Jersey section,
where it is grown to a considerable extent.

The tree makes a strong upright growth; bears early and abundantly, giving nearly
annual crops under good cultural conditions. (See fig. 5.) The apple is large;
roundish oblate; greenish white; subacid; good. It matures somewhat irregularly,
but it is essentially a July apple in season, usually beginning to ripen by the 10th to
the 15th of the month though not fully ripe until about the first of August. A good
size is reached comparatively early, and as it cooks well before it is ripe, it is generally
marketed accordingly. In fact, it should not be allowed to become too ripe before
picking as it soon becomes mealy. Picking may thus be governed in a measure by
market conditions, and if desirable its season may be made to extend over a consider-
able period. It is essentially a cooking apple, for which it is much sought after by
those who know its qualities for this purpose.

In a few instances the trees have twig-blighted badly, but this is not a usual expe-
rience. The fruit shows bruises rather badly, which necessitates careful handling.

This variety possesses qualities which would appear to recommend it for more general
planting in a large portion of this region. It is growing in importance.
194

DISCUSSION OF VARIETIES.

43

Summer Hagloe. Synonym: Hagloe.

This is a very old variety supposed to be of American origin, though at one time ap-
parently confused with an English cider crab apple called "Hagloe" and attributed
to an English or European origin. Details of its early history, however, are obscure.
It is not known to fruit growers generally, but in this region it is of considerable im-
portance in the New Jersey and Delaware sections, though rarely grown in any of the
other sections. The tree is a slow grower; the terminals are rather thick and blunt,
thus making a tree of quite distinctive appearance. (See fig. 6.) Under good condi-
tions of culture, very heavy crops may be expected in these sections on alternate years,
and usually considerable fruit in "off years." It usually bears at 5 or 6 years of age.

Fig. 5.— a Starr apple tree in New Jersey, s years old.

The fruit is medium to large; oblate; whitish yellow, lightly striped and splashed with
red on the exposed side, rarely becoming more highly colored; flesh rather tender,
juicy, subacid; quality good; valuable for cooking rather than for dessert purposes.
In the sections above mentioned ripening begins from the 15th to the 25th of July and
continues about two weeks. The fruit is not generally marketed until it is nearly
mature.

In most of th<^ commercial orchards in these sections where this variety is grown it
is considered an important and a profitable sort to grow, selling well in the markets.
An occasional exception to this experience occurs, however, even in orchards that
have received unusual attention, the variety being unproductive and unsatisfactory
in nearly every essential particular. No explanation of such failures is apparent.
194

44

SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

The tree is noticeably susceptible to serious injury from the San Jose scale, even
when most other varieties are damaged but slightly.
Summer King.

The place of origin of this variety is in doubt, but it is generally supposed to be
North Carolina. It is not grown in any section extensively and is comparatively
unknown. This applies also to this region, as it has been located in only two or
three orchards.

The tree is upright in growth, A-igorous, and fairly productive. The fruit is medium
to large; yellowish green, striped with crimson and red; mild subacid; very good in
dessert quality. The season of ripening is comparatively long, extending through
August in the Chesapeake peninsula section or even longer in some cases. In the

Fig. C— a Summer Hagloe apple tree in New Jersey, 48 years old.

North Carolina section the fruit is ripe about the middle of July. It is highly rec-
ommended by some for this region, especially in the central and northern sections,
for dessert and also for market. The fruit reaches a good size early, so that it could
be shipped over a long season, as is StaiT, Wealthy, and some others. It is not widely
enough tested, however, to warrant making hea\'^" plantings of it.

Summier Hose. Synonyms: Lippincott, Woolman's Harvest.

This variety originated in New Jersey. Tt is an old variety, being referred to in
the earliest American literature (Domestic Encyclopedia, 1804) relating to pomology.
Though quite %\'idely grown in this region it is not produced in large quantities.

The tree is a good grower, somewhat spreading, productive, bearing nearly annual
crops. The fruit is small; roundish oblate; whitish, striped and blotched with red^
194

DISCUSSION OF VARIETIES. 45

tender, juicy, sprightly subacid; quality is excellent as a dessert fruit. Not only
the flesh, but the skin also, is so tender that bruising results from any other than the
most careful handling. The small size of the fruit also further renders it of little value
for commercial purposes, but its high dessert quality recommends it for home use.
It is in the height of its season about the middle of July or a little later at central
points in this region.
Tetofski. Synonym: TetofsJcy.

This is another one of the Russian introductions which was brought to this country
through England. Further historical details appear in a quotation under Alexander.
The dissemination of this variety has been quite extensive, though it is not grown
in large quantities in any section. It is in a few quite widely separated orchards in
the Chesapeake peninsula and New Jersey sections of this region but it is of quite
secondary importance.

The tree is a very upright fairly strong grower and a prolific bearer. The fruit is
medium in size; roundish, oblate conic; juicy, sprightly acid; of good quality. It
is more desirable for market and for cooking than as a dessert apple. Its season in
the central part of the Chesapeake peninsula begins usually from July 10 to 15, with
a rather short period of duration.

Several growers variously located in the Chesapeake peninsula and New Jersey
consider this a fairly good variety for its season, though perhaps not of sufficient
value to take the place of other better-known varieties of the same season of ripening.

The tree is especially hardy and is probably rather better adapted to sections far-
ther north than it is to this region.
Thaler. Synonym: Charlottenthaler, Government List No. 342.

This is one of a large number of varieties introduced from Russia in 1870 by the
United States Department of Agriculture. It has never become widely known, at
least not under its correct name or either of its synonyms. So far as observed it is
confined in this region to a single orchard which is located in Caroline County, Md.

In the present connection the chief point of interest is the similarity of the fruit
to Yellow Transparent, which is one of the most important commercial varieties
grown in this region. It is also very similar to Grand Sultan, previously mentioned.

Comparing this variety with the Yellow Transparent, the fruit of the two sorts is
practically identical so far as any constant distinguishable characters of individual
specimens are concerned. Thaler is claimed by some to be a very few days later in
ripening the bulk of its crop, though this is open to question. The owner of the one
orchard in Caroline County, Md., in which these two varieties, also Grand Sultan,
are growing, after a considerable number of years of close observation, is convinced
that as they grow in his orchard, these two — Thaler and Yellow Transparent — are
not distinguishable from each other in season, productiveness, or fruit characteristics,
but that there is a marked difference between the trees. Thaler being a more vig-
orous grower, which is readily noticeable even in the nursery, and being much less
subject to twig-blight than Yellow Transparent.

In some sections of the country the Thaler tree is reported to be less vigorous and
productive than the Yellow Transparent. The limited range of observation in this
region does not warrant definite conclusions regarding the relative merits of these
two varieties for this region, but a thorough test of Thaler in the different sections
appears desirable.

Townsend.

This is a very old variety, the origin of which traces to Bucks County, Pa., where
it was discovered by Mr. Stephen Townsend nearly a century and a half ago in an
old Indian clearing. While grown more or less in various sections in the older orchards,
it is unknown to most fruit growers. It has been observed in but a single orchard
in this region, located in west-central New Jersey.
194

46 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

The tree is a vigorous, spreading grower, fairly productive, but the crops are mostly
alternate. The fruit is medium size or above; oblate conic; pale yellow, striped with
red; subacid; good to very good in quality. The fruit usually is well colored by the
last of July or the first of August in this section and drops as soon as colored. The
ripening period lasts for a month or six weeks. By those who know the variety the
fruit is esteemed for home use on account of its high dessert quality, but it ripens
too irregularly to make it a desirable market sort.

Trenton Early.

The early history of this apple is obsciire; it is known, however, to have been in
cultivation for a long time. It was listed by Heikes & Wharton, a Pennsylvania
nursery firm, in their catalogue for 1823. It is quite widely disseminated, but, as is
the case with so many varieties, it is in comparatively few orchards. It would seem
probable that it is in some of the older orchards in the New Jersey section of this
reo-ion, though in the course of these investigations no trees of it have been found in
this section. One or two orchards in the Chesapeake peninsula section contain it,
but it is not common.

The fruit is large; conical; greenish yellow, sometimes with bronzed blush; pleas-
ant subacid; good to very good. Its season in the sections named would probably
begin the last of July or early in August.

Wealthy.

The exact date of origin of this variety is uncertain, but it was about the year 1861.
The fruit was first described in 1869. The original tree is stated to have been grown
from a collection of crab-apple seed which Mr. Peter M. Gideon, of Excelsior, Minn.,
obtained from Bangor, Me. There is very little about the variety, however, either
in tree or fruit to suggest that it is of crab parentage. On the other hand, it is said
that some of its seedlings show crab characteristics. This would appear to give some
support to the claim regarding its parentage.

It is one of the most important late fall and early winter varieties in the upper
Mississippi Valley, where cold endurance of the tree is of paramount importance.
In recent years it has become quite widely disseminated. It has been planted con-
siderably in the New Jersey section, though rarely elsewhere in this region. It is
becoming an important variety here to supplement the earliest ripening sorts.

The tree grows well, with rather long slender branches when young. The foli-
age is sometimes rather small and weak, though apparently not especially subject
to fungous diseases. The fruit is medium to large; roundish oblate; yellowish white
under color, heavily striped and splashed with red when well colored; flesh tender,
juicy, subacid; quality very good; desirable either for cooking or dessert. In the
New Jersey section it is fully ripe from the latter part of August to the first of September,
but the variety usually bears heavily and the fruit develops to a sufficiently large size
for culinary purposes relatively early. Hence marketing of the green fruit begins
frequently the last of July or the first of August, the picking being so done as tothin
the fruit on the overloaded trees. By such methods the green fruit is made a source of
some revenue, and that which is allowed to remain until later is improved as a result
of the thinning. In this way the fruit may be handled throughout the month of
August. The variety is generally regarded by those who have it in the New Jersey
section as a very desirable and profitable sort to grow.

Williams. Synonyms: Williams Early, Williams Red, Williav^s Early Red, Williams
Favorite.

This variety has been in cultivation since about the middle or latter part of the
eighteenth centvu-y. It originated at Roxbury, Mass., and was first exhibited in 1830
at a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. It is growm considerably in
the North and East and to a lesser extent in some other sections.^

«For further historical information and a detailed description of this variety, see
the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1908, p. 476,
194

J

DISCUSSION OF VARIETIES.

47

Its distribution is general throughout the sections of this region in which the com-
mercial growing of early apples has become important, particularly in Delaware and
New Jersey. In the North Carolina section it is occasionally found, but is not of
special importance at present.

The tree is rather a poor grower in the nursery as well as in the orchard, making a
spreading, often rather irregular, top. (See fig. 7.) Probably top workingon some
vigorous upright grower such as the Northern Spy would be an advantage. Early and
abundant crops are generally produced. The crops are more or less alternate under
indifferent cultural conditions, but with good attention considerable fruit may be
expected nearly every year. The fruit is above medium in size; roundish oblong,
conic; when well colored, heavily striped with dark red or crimson, becoming nearly a
solid color; subacid; quality good. The season in the New Jersey and Chesapeake

I; ^.'^u

Fig. 7.— a Williams apple tree in Delaware, about 10 years old.

peninsula sections usually begins about July 20, varying from this date a few days
in different years, according to climatic and other conditions. The market period
generally lasts about two weeks.

Some varieties, as noted elsewhere, are handled as .soon a^s they are large enough to
cook, but this one though it develops to a fairly good size is not marketed, as a general
practice, until it is well colored. In fact, its fine color is one of its most attractive
features. Ripening is quite Irregular, so that picking is rather difficult, especially
from large trees. As the fruit drops soon after attaining full color, some growers allow
it to remain on the trees until it matures and droi:)s instead of picking it by hand.
(See Harvesting, p. 20.)

On account of its season of ripening, the fruit sometimes reaches the markets when
they are well stocked with peaches, cantaloupes, and other fresh fruits. The prices
of apples are more or less influenced thereby. Yet because of the many desirable
194

48 SUMMEE APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

market qualities which this variety possesses it is very satisfactory as a rule and more
profitable than most of the second early sorts. It is one of the comparatively few-
varieties that are grown in large quantities. An occasional adverse report is heard
relative to its behavior in these sections, but they are so exceptional that they do not
materially affect the general standing of the variety.

There is apparently confusion in some sections of this region in connection with this
variety. In the above-mentioned sections where it is commercially important it is
perhaps better known by its synonyms Williams Early or Williams Early Red than
by its approved name. In other sections it is commonly called by another synonym,
Williams Favorite. Occasional statements are made in this region, however, that
Williams Early Red and Williams Favorite are distinct varieties, 'the former being a
scraggly, poor grower, but a good bearer; the latter, a strong, vigorous upright tree, but
a shy bearer and not commonly grown.

Since the apple known to the growers of this region as Williams Early or Williams
Early Red is undoubtedly Williams, as above described, considerable effort has been
made to determine the identity of the variety known in this region as Williams Favor-
ite. Though the latter variety is commonly spoken of, few growers are actually
familiar with it, and it has been difficult to locate bearing trees. It appears probable,
however, that the Williams Favorite of some, at least, is the Sops-of-Wine, as it has
recently been determined that the latter variety has been disseminated somewhat
under the name Williams Favorite, which name has been erroneously used as a
synonym of that variety. Some young trees planted for Williams Favorite (of this
region) and which correspond in tree characters to this variety, as above described,
have been identified as Sops-of-Wine. While this still leaves the matter open to some
doubt, it at least is a partial clearing up of the confusion. There may be still other
varieties not yet examined in this connection which are being grown under the name
Williams Favorite.
Yellow Transparent. Synonym: Government List No. S34.

As the synonym of this variety implies, this is one of the importations from Russia
made by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1870. It has been widely
disseminated, being now grown in many parts of the country. It possesses an unusu-
ally wide range of adaptability, as is evident from the high degree of success with
which it is grown in many sections.

In this region it is one of the most important early varieties. It is more extensively
grown in Delaware than in any other section, but it is being planted throughout the

region.

Under high culture the tree makes a fairly strong upright growth for the first few
years (PI. I), but in many orchards the growth is rather short and stubby. This gives
the tree a somewhat stunted appearance. Closer planting is possible than with most
varieties on account of the small size of the tree. Frequently a few apples are borne
the first year after the trees are planted, and often when 2 and 3 years old considerable
fruit will set. Full bearing is reached at an early age. Nearly annual and fairly
abundant crops may be expected in this region under good cultural conditions.

The tree sometimes twig-blights rather badly, though in some orchards it seldom
appears. It is considered short lived, but because of its early-bearing proclivities
and abundant crops, longevity is not so important a matter as with some other varieties.
The fruit is above medium size; roundish conic; beautiful, clear yellowish white, the
skin having a waxy appearance; subacid; good to very good.

In the Chesapeake peninsula section shipments frequently are made the latter part
of June, often as early as the 20th to the 25th of the month. But at this time the fruit is
rather immature and small. By the first week in July it is usually in prime condition
for shipping from this section, and by the 10th to the 15th of July it is generally all
marketed. Some growers, however, ship the fruit in a more immature condition thatt
194

DISCUSSION OF VARIETIES. 49

others, and this makes the shipping dates of one orchard differ accordingly from those
of another in the same locality. In the New Jersey section the tendency is to let the
fruit reach a somewhat more mature condition than is customary in the Chesapeake
peninsula section, hence shipping dates are relatively later in the former section. In
the Virginia and North Carolina sections the season begins from the 10th to the 20th of
June. Ripening is quite uniform, so that the entire crop can usually be harvested in
two pickings. If conditions are favorable for growth after the first picking is made, the
fruit which is allowed to remain on the trees will develop rapidly in size so that
the second picking usually comprises the best grade of fruit produced. Formerly the
Yellow Transparent was considered too tender for a market variety, but experience has
demonstrated that with reasonable care in handling, especially if the fruit is picked
while it is still firm, fairly long-distance shipments can be safely made if the packing is
well done. In some of the experimental export shipments made by the Bureau of
Plant Industry this variety carried in good condition, in cold storage, to the English
markets.

As mentioned under Thaler, the fruit of Yellow Transparent very closely resembles
that variety. Thaler possibly being a few days later, and the tree rather more vigorous
than Yellow Transparent.

PROMISING VARIETIES FOR TRIAL.

There are a number of varieties of summer apples of considerable
prominence in other sections that, so far as observed, are not being
grown in this region but which would doubtless be of value both com-
mercially and for home use. Some of the more promising of these are
the following:

Coffman.

This variety has been known for many years in some sections of Tennessee, particu-
larly in Lauderdale County. It was named for the owner of the farm on which one of
the first trees of it to attract attention stood. It was propagated and introduced to the
trade in 1888. It is not widely known among fruit growers. «

It is a vigorous, upright grower and produces regular annual crojjs. The fruit is of
the Red June type and it may be a seedling of that variety; medium or above in size;
roundish; under color yellow, washed with mixed red and stripes of purplish red,
turning to almost a black-red when highly colored; subacid; good to very good. It is
said to ripen about with Red June.

On account of the value of the Red June apple and others of its type in some sections
of this region, and the similarity of Coffman to that variety, it is considered worthy of
extended trial here.

Early Cooper. Synonym: Cooper's Early White.

There is much uncertainty in regard to the place of origin of this variety. By some
it is thought to have come from Iowa, but the evidence is not conclusive. It is grown
to a considerable extent in some parts of the Middle West. In some sections of Kansas
and Oklahoma it is very successful.

The tree is an exceptionally fine stocky grower, bears early, and is productive.
The fruit is medium size; round or roundish oblate; clear greenish yellow; quality good.
It is considered especially desirable for cooking, while its firm texture makes it a satis-
factory sort for shipping. Probal)ly it could bo marketed from the central sections of
this region by the last of July.

a For further historical information and a detailed description of this variety, see
the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1909, p. 377.
56682°— Bui. 194—11 4

50 SUMMEE APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

Summer Extra.

This variety probably originated as a chance seedling near Quincy, Ky. It is not
known generally to fruit growers.

The tree is a strong, handsome grower, bears early, and is prolific in sections where it
is in cultivation. The fruit is medium to large in size; roundish; yellow with blush on
exposed side; pleasant subacid; dessert quality good to very good. For cooking it is
said to be especially fine. It would probably ripen at central points in this region
during the last of July or early August.

Summer Rambo.

The origin of this variety is uncertain, though it is commonly supposed to have
come from southeastern Pennsylvania, but no definite information appears to be
obtainable.

Several other varieties, notably Summer Rambour, or Rambour d'Ete, an old
French variety that was formerly grown more or less in this country, Grosh, and
Western Beauty have been confused with this one. But it is pretty definitely deter-
mined that these are all distinct varieties, though possessing some rather strong points
of similarity.

Though not found growing in this region in the present connection, the Summer
Rambo is often sold in local markets from orchards in the Maryland and Virginia
sections of the adjacent region.

The tree is a strong vigorous grower and an early and abundant bearer. The fruit is
described in considerable detail as follows: Form oblate; size large; cavity wide,
large, deep, slope gradual; basin regular, medium, slope gradual; surface moderately
smooth, some erupted russet dots; color yellow, lightly washed with pale mixed red, a
few bright-crimson splashes and broken stripes; dots numerous, russet, many erupted;
skin thick, tenacious; flesh yellowish, texture fine grained, breaking, juicy; core
oblate, clasping, medium to small in size; flavor subacid, rich; quality good to very
good. In the vicinity of Washington, D. C, the fruit is ripe soon after the middle of
August. It is apparently worthy of attention in the Coastal Plain region both for
commercial purposes and for home use.

Wilson June.

The Wilson June variety, as nearly as its history can be traced, came from a nursery
in Washington County, Ark., that was abandoned during a portion of the civil war
period. The trees were subsequently dug and planted in local orchards. The original
tree was probably one that was obtained from this source.

The fruit is distinctly of the Red June type, though considerably larger than that
variety and sweet in flavor. The tree is thrifty and apparently a good bearer. For
many years it has been grown locally to a very limited extent, but during the past few
years it has been attracting some attention and has been propagated more extensively
than formerly.

Though the range of its adaptability has not been determined, it is likely that where-
ever the Red June can be grown successfully this variety may prove to be of value
when a sweet apple is desired.

OTHER VARIETIES.

In the course of these investigations a considerable number of
other varieties than those mentioned have come under observation
or have been reported by growers in the interviews had with them
by the writer. For various reasons it is not practicable to discuss
each of these separately. In some cases the varieties are practically
unknown in the region and apparently are not well adapted to the

194

SUMMARY OF VARIETIES. 51

conditions or possess such characteristics as to render them of no
apparent vahie to the fruit interests of this region. In still other
cases the varieties are local and relatively unimportant. For these
and other similar reasons it has seemed best to confine the discussion
largely to varieties which are of value and to certain other varieties
that apparently possess little or no merit but which sooner or later
are likely to come to the attention of fruit growers in this region
for consideration. A few other sorts not now in cultivation in this
region so far as known but which are considered promising are also
discussed.

In this connection there are one or two varieties, or possibly more,
grown largely in a local way in the North Carolina section of this
region which should be mentioned here. These are variously known
as ''Early May," ''White May," "June Apple," etc., and ripen the
last part of May or early in June.

It is possible that some of these very early sorts may prove to be
White Juneating, an old English variety that was more or less grown
in the South in the early years under various names.

SUMMARY OF VARIETIES.

As a means of indicating the relative importance of the different
varieties referred to in the foregoing pages in the different sections of
this region and the approximate time when the season o'f use begins,
the following table has been prepared. In the column which follows
the varietal names the use to which each sort is adapted is indicated
by the initial letters d, Tc, and m, either singly or in combination, as is
required. Varietieg of special value for eating in a fresh state are
designated by d for "dessert;" Ic signifies "kitchen" or culinary use;
m, that the variety is suited for market purposes.

In the columns headed "Relative importance" the comparative
extent to which the several varieties are grown in the different sections
is shown. The varieties rated 1 are those which are grown the most
extensively in the sections so designated; varieties marked 2 are
grown to some extent in the sections so marked, but not so extensively
as those rated as 1 ; varieties which are found only occasionally, hence
relatively unimportant at present, are rated as 3.

Promising varieties which are at present grown but little and the
value of which is not yet fully determined are grouped together and
follow Table III. It should be further stated that where a variety is
rated the same in a section in which early-apple culture is an impor-
tant industry and one in which it is still undeveloped commercially
it does not mean that that variety is of equal importance in the two
sections on the basis of the quantity of fruit produced, but rather
that in comparison with other varieties grown in the respective sec-
tions the relative proportions are approximately the same,

194

52

SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

The dates given in the columns headed "Season begins about"
refer to the approximate periods -when the different sorts are fit for
use or can be marketed, and not necessarily to the date of full maturity.
Where the 15th of a month is stated, it should be broadly interpreted
to mean the middle of the month ; likewise the 25th refers to the last
of a month rather than to an exact date. A similar interpretation
should be given to other dates mentioned.

Table III. — Use, relative importance, and season of edible maturity of summer-afple
varieties suited to growing in the Middle Atlantic States.

Use.

New Jersey sec-
tion.

Chesapeake pen-
insula section.

Virginia section.

North Carolina
section.

Variety.

Rela-
tive
im-
por-
tance.

Season

begins

about—

Rela-
tive
im-
por-
tance.

Season

begins

about —

Rela-
tive
im-
por-
tance.

Season
begins
about—

Rela-
tive
im-
por-
tance.

Season

begins

about—

Alexander

km

km

d

i

dkm
km
km

d

d
dk

d
km

d
km

k

dk
dkm

k

d

d

km
km
dk
km

k

km
km

d

km
km
dm
km
dkm
km
km

d

km
dkm
dkm
dkm

3
3

3

July 25
Aug. 25
Aug. 20

Bachelor Blush

Benoni

3
3

July 10
Sept. 1

1

Bonum

1

Aug. 25

Bough

2

July 10

2
3
2
2

July 10
Sept. 5
July 25
July 10

Celestia

3

Sept. 1

Cham plain

2

July 25

Colton

Cornell

3
3

2

3

Aug. 15
July 25
July 5
July 25

Early Edward

3
2
3
1
2

July 25
July 5
Julv 25
Julv 1
July 15

Early Harvest

1

June 25

1

June 15

Early Joe

Early Ripe

3

June 15

Early Strawberry

2
2
3

July 15
July 25
...do

English Codlin.."

Fanny

3
3

1

July 25
. .do

Golden Sweet

3

July 15

Gravenstein

1

Aug. 5

Aug. 5

1

July 25

Horse

1

July 15

Jefleris

3
3
1

Aug. 1
Aug. 15
July 10

3
3

Juiv 25
Aug. 10

Jersey Sweet

July

Keswick

3
3

1

July 25
Aug. 1
Aug. 15

»

Lowell

Maiden Blush

1

Aug. 10

1

Aug. 1

Metz

2

July 25

Oldenburg

2
3
3

Julv 20
July 25
July 15

2

July 20

3 j July 15

Orange Pippin

Primate

Randolph

2
1
2

Julv 20
Julv 5
July 10

Red Astrachan

1

July 10

1
1

July 1
...do

1

1

June 25

Red June

June 15

Roadstown

2
3
1
1
3
3
2
1
1

Aug. 1
Sept. 10
July 15
July 20
July 15

...do

Aug. 1
Julv 20
July 5

Smokehouse

1

Sept. 1

Starr

Summer Hagloe. .

1
2
3

July 20
July 10
July 15

Summer Rose

Tetofski

Wealthy

Williams

1
1

Julv 20
July 1

3
1

July 1

Yellow Transparent

1

June 20

June 10

In Table III several varieties are rated as of first importance in
either the New Jersey or the Chesapeake peninsula section, but are
not mentioned as being grown at all in either of the other sections.
The conditions in each section are sufficiently similar to suggest the
probability that a variety which can be grown with a high degree of
success in any one of them is at least a promising sort for trial in
all of the others. The varieties referred to in this connection can be
readily determined by reference to the above table.
194

PHENOLOGICAL RECOEDS. 53

Several sorts rated as 2 or 3 in the sections in which they are grown
appear to possess sufficient merit for tlieir season of ripening to war-
rant a more general i)lanting of them. The more important of these
varieties are Bachelor Blush, Celestia, English Codlin, Oldenburg,
Primate, Roadstown, Smokehouse, and Wealthy.

In the discussion of varieties a number of sorts are mentioned
which appear to be promising, but which are not sufficiently well
known in these sections for them to have any particular rating in
comparison with other varieties. A number of varieties are also
included in the varietal discussion which are not in cultivation in any
section of this region so far as is known, but which are sufficiently
promising in other sections to suggest the probability of their being
successfully grown in this region. These two groups of varieties
comprise the follomng: Coffman, Cross, Dawes, Early Cooper,
Glowing Coal, Hawthornden, Kane, Muster, Sandbrook, Summer
Extra, Summer King, Thaler, Townsend, and Trenton Early.

PHENOLOGICAL RECORDS.
CHARACTER OF DATA.

Exact dates of the blossoming of varieties, the opening of the
leaves, the ripening periods of the fruit, and its keeping qualities in
different sections furnish valuable means for studpng the adapta-
bility of varieties when such data are accompanied by sufficient
information concerning the age and condition of the trees or plants
in question and the conditions under which they are grown. The
latter should include climatological data.

Information regarding environment is essential to a correct inter-
pretation of the varietal data just mentioned and also in order to
make the data from one section fully comparable with those from
another. The correlation of climatic and varietal data constitutes
one feature of the science of phenology (a contraction of the word
phenomenology). This science treats of the relationships of local
climatic conditions and the periodical recurrence of the phenomena
of plant life or, in a broader sense, of all living things, both plants
and animals.

The phenological data presented in Table IV, relating to apples in
New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and North Carolina,
recorded under the direction of the Bureau of Plant Industry by
a large number of fruit growers located in different sections of these
States, are appended for the purpose not only of disseminating the
specific varietal information which has thus been recorded, but also
because such data make possible comparisons with other sections
from which important deductions may be made.

That these comparisons and deductions may be as complete and
far-reaching as possible, the important varieties of apples of all

194

54

SUMMEK APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

seasons grown in these States are included, as well as the early-
ripening ones to which the subject-matter of the foregoing pages
relates. For a similar reason, the range of observations includes
the entire States, of which the region under discussion in the earlier
pages forms a part.

The climatological tables on pages 13 to 15, for the years 1902 to
1907, inclusive, which correspond to the years covered by the pheno-
logical data below, should be carefully consulted in studying these
data, since the latter are governed largely by the prevailing cHmatic
conditions.

A list of the names and addresses of those who have contributed
the data presented in Table IV is given below. Each observer is
assigned a number. These appear in the first column in the list
in numerical order. For convenience in indicatmg the approximate
geographical location where the different records were made, the
number representing the observer who made each one is placed
before it in Table IV in the column headed ''Observer's No."

The sequence of arrangement in Table IV is by States, from south
to north; under each State, it is alphabetically by counties, as are
also the names of the post-offices and observers in each county. The
order of the observations on each variety is also from south to north,
in accordance with the approximate latitude at which each observa-
tion was made.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

In the followmg list are included the names and post-office ad-
dresses of the fruit growers who have furnished the phenological
data presented in this bulletin:

List of observers ivho have furnished the phenological data included in tJiis bulletin.

NORTH CAROLINA.

Observ-
er's No.

Grower.

Post-office.

County.

1

J. C. Cowan

Asheville

Buncombe.

2

T. P. Gaston

Candler

Do.

3

F. B. Earnhardt

Concord...

Cabarrus. >

4

J. A. Dula

Lenoir

Caldwell. .'.'

5

J. Hatlev

Sawmill

Do.

6

J. S. Breece .

Favetteville

Cumberland.

7

M. L. Furr

Mount Holly..

Gaston.

8

J. J. Phoenix

Greensboro

Guilford.

9

John f arrior

Waynesville

Haywood.

10

G. D. Green

- . do . . . ... ....

"Do.

10a

do

do

Do.

106

do... .

do

Do.

10c

do

do .

Do.

lOd

do '.

.. . do

Do.

11

C. Oates..

Bear Wallow

Henderson.

12

J.F.Livingston.. . .

Fletcher

Do.

13

Mark Moore

Horseshoe

Do.

14

J. D. Woodv

Wilmington

New Hanover.

15

W. T. Lindsev

Trvon.. . ... . ...

Polk.

)^

J. F. Davenport

Cherry

Washington.

IC.

J. L. Kinoaid

Boone

Watauga.

Do. ;

17

C. G. Hodges

Sands

1

94

I

PHENOLOGICAL EECOEDS.

55

List of observers who have furnished the phenological data included in this bulletin — Con.

VIRGINIA.

Observ-
er's No.

18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33

34
35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

44rt

45

46

47

48

49

60

51

52

53

54

55

56

Grower.

Post-office.

County.

J. E. Smith

Walter Whately

J. W. Apperson

T. J. Cunningham

W. F. Gilkeson

H. F. Deffenbaugh

J. D. Keeler....r

J. D. lyQwrv

J. F. Deboe

W. H. Tavlor

T. J. Holdren

M. L. Hatcher

R. L. Dearing

C. E. Lavman

E. W. Byrd

Hampton Agricultural and Nor-
mal Institute.

E. B. Whaley

J. A. McLaughlin

Joseph Wetsel

A. B. Davis

H. L. Price

J. C. Carmody

J.J. Shoemaker

W. B. MacGregor

Withers Massie

R. L. Hughes

J. E. Purvis

W.M. Boyd

James Dickie

E. W. Rogers

Geo. W. Via

J. B. Johnson

R. C. Booth

C. H. Constable

J. Coles Terry

E. L. Wright

W. J. Covvger

G. A. Copp

J. H. Pifpi

L. B. Moore

Cismont

Crozet

Yancey Mills

Amherst

Fishers ville

Staunton

Bedford Citv, R. F. D .

do "

Bodycamp

Colemans Falls

Thaxton, R. F. D

Penicks, R. F. D

Stewartsville

Troutville

Berry ville

Hairipton

Pender

Morrisville

Wetsels

Purcellville

Blacksburg. . ..
Christiansburg .

do

Avon

Massies Mill

Nellysford

Oakridge

Roseland, R. F.

do

Jennings

Woolwme

Manassas

Dublin

Warsaw

Bent Mountain.

Vinton

Dayton

Strasbure

do...

Arco

D.

Albemarle.

Do.

Do.
Amherst.
Augusta.

Do.
Bedford.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Botetourt.
Clarke.
Elizabeth City.

Fairfax.

Fauquier.

Greene.

Loudon.

Montgomery.

Do.

Do.
Nelson.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Nottoway.
Patrick.
Prince William.
Pnlask!.
Richmond.
Roanoke.

Do.
Rockingham.
Shenandoah.

Do.
Warren.

MARYLAND.

57

Saml. Garner.

Annapolis

.Vime Arundel.

Carroll.

Cecil.

Do.

Do.
Dorchester.
Harford.

Do.

Do.
Kent.

Do.

Do.
Montgomery.
Queen Anne.
Washington.
Worcester.

58

Jesse Smith

I/inwood

59

Geo. Balderston

Colora

60

W. R. Grosh

Elkton

60o

do..

do

61

J. M. Andrews

Hurlock

62

C. L. Vail

Forest Hill. . .

63

Thomas Tobin

Harford Furnace

64

L. E. HoUingsn'orlh

Joppa

65

J. S. Harris

V/orton, R. F. D

Stillpond

66

F. H. Harper

67

W.S. Maxwell

68

R. B. Thomas

Ednor . .

69

W. I. Walker

Millington

70

Frisby Smith

Hancock

71

F. E. Matthews

Pocomoke Citv

DELAWARE.

72

F. C. Bancroft

Camden

Kent.

73

C. G. Brown

do

Do.

74

E. G. Packard

John Hevd

Dover

Do.

75

Felton

Do.

76

F. M. Soper

Magnolia

Do.

77

S. H. Derby

Woodside

Do

78

G. B. Graefl

Bridgeville

Sussex.

194

56

SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES,

List of observers who have furnished the phenological data included in this bulletin — ^Con.

NEW JERSEY.

Observ-
er's No.

Grower.

Post-office.

79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104

T. Chalmers

A. Hansel!

W. P. Prav

J. S. Colliris

S. C. De Cou

G. L. Gillinsham

A. L. Ritchie

H. G. Taylor

H. L. Sabsovich

G. W. Gould

A. T. Repp

C. G. Kirbv

S. S. BiKld

.T. F. Brown

H. E. Hale

I.J. Blaekwcll

J. T. Robhins

W. H. Reid

C. M. Rorer

W. H. Skillman

A. F. Randolph

W. J. Loean

W. S. Little

A. A. Miller

H. B. De Kay & Son.
M. E. Vass

Folsom

Burlington...

Dobbins

Moorestown. .

....do

....do

Riverton

....do

Woodbine. . .
Montplair . . . .

Glassboro

Mullica Hill. .

Thorofare

Princeton

do

Titusville

AUentown . . .

Tennet

Cassville

Bellemead...
Bouudbrook .
Somerville . . .

Sussex

do

Vernon ,

Blairstown. . .

County.

Atlantic.
Burlington.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Cape May.
Essex.
Gloucester.

Do.

Do.
Mercer.

Do.

Do.
Monmouth.

Do.
Ocean.
Somerset.

Do.

Do.
Sussex.

Do.

Do.
Warren.

194

PHENOLOGICAL RECORDS.

57

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PHEKOLOGICAL RECORDS.

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PLATES.

194 89

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I. (Frontispiece.) A well-kept Yellow Transparent orchard about 10 years
old. Good cultivation has been given and the trees have made an excellent
growth.

Plate II. Wagons and packages used in handling summer apples. Fig. 1.— Wagon
loaded with half-bushel baskets of summer apples for the Philadelphia market.
This load consists of 149 baskets. The wagon is a common type used in New
Jersey in the vicinity of Philadelphia for hauling apples, tomatoes, and other
truck to market. Fig. 2.— Wagon loaded with seventy-three |-bushel baskets
of summer apples ready for hauling to the railroad station. The wagon is a com-
mon type used in Delaware for this purpose. The manner of loading the baskets
on the wagon is also shown.

Plate III. Packing-house views. Fig. 1. — Exterior view of a packing house in
Delaware. There are four doors, one on either side. Each door is numbered to
facilitate in giving directions in regard to receiving and discharging fruit. A
truck used in hauling fruit from the orchard to the packing house is also shown.
Fig. 2. — Interior view of a packing house in Delaware showing a common
method of handling the fruit in grading and packing summer apples. Covers are
attached to the baskets before they leave the packing house.

Plate IV. Typical summer-apple orchards. Fig. 1.— A Maiden Blush orchard in
New Jersey, about 30 years old. The props under the trees are suggestive of the
productiveness of this variety in this section. The orchard receives thorough
cultivation and spraying. Fig. 2.— A Red Astrachan orchard in Delaware,
about 25 years old. It has been well maintained. The trees are 36 feet apart.
The branches nearly interlock in both directions.
194

90

Bui. 194, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Fig. 1.— Wagon Loaded with Half-bushel Baskets of Summer Apples Grown in
New Jersey for the Philadelphia Market.

Fig. 2.— Wagon Loaded with Seven-eighths-bushel Baskets of Summer Apples
Grown in Delaware, Ready to be Hauled to the Shipping Station.

WAGON AND PACKAGES USED IN HANDLING SUMMER APPLES.

Bui. 194, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Aarnculture

Plate III.

i^ 1.1)^ '***^-

Fig. 1 .—Exterior View of a Packing House.

Fig. 2.— Interior View of a Packing House, Showing a Common Method of
Handling the Fruit in Grading and Packing Summer Apples.

PACKING-HOUSE VIEWS IN DELAWARE.

J

Bui. 1 94, Bureau of Plant Industry, U S. Dect of Agriculture,

Plate IV.

v'„

.

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Fig. 1.— a Maiden Blush Orchard in New Jersey, about 30 Years Old.

Fig. 2.— a Red Astrachan Orchard in Delaware, about 25 Years Old.
TYPICAL SUMMER-APPLE ORCHARDS.

J

INDEX

[Synonyms of apples are distingnishod from the leading varietal names by the use of italic type.]

Page.

Altitude, factor in early-apple industry 23, 57-87

Apples, cooking, conditions of handling for market " 20

dates of blossoming of different varieties 57-87

early, definition as to season of maturity 23

development of industry 7, lG-17

discussion of important varieties 23-48

factors affecting season of maturity Ig

grading and packing for market 20-21, 9o

growing for use 18, 19

handling the fruit 19-21

industry of the Coastal Plain region 16-18

less important varieties 50-51

markets 18-19, 22

methods of handling 19-20, 90

marketing 21-22, 90

problem of varieties 22-51

production, possibilities of the Coastal Plain region 18-19

promising varieties for trial 49-50, 51, 53

selection of varieties 22-23

selling the fruit 21-22

status and extent of industry 17-18

styles of packages 21, 90

summary of varieties 51-53

observers of phenological data 54-56

phenology, character of data 53-54

records 53-87

varieties, Albemarle Pippin 84

Alexander 23-24, 37, 52

Arkansas 57

Bachelor Blush 24, 52, 53

Baldwin 57-59

Ben Davis 59-61

Benoni 24, 52

Bibbing 24

Bietigheimer 24-25

Bonum 25, 52, 62

Borovitslcy 37

Bough 25, 52, 62

Buckingham 25-26

Byers' Red 25

Cain 36

Cane ; 36

Carolina Red June 40

Celestia 26, 52, 53

Champlain 26, 52

194 91

92 SUMMER APPLES IX THE MIDDLE ATI. AX TIC STATES.

Page.

Apples, varieties, ChnrlottoithnJn- 45

Chenango 26-27, 62

Codlin 36

C'offman 49, 53

Colton 27,52,02

Cooper's Earli/ WliiU 49

Cornell 27, 52

Cross 27, 53

Dawes 27-28, 53

J>iiclicss of Oldoiburcj 23

Early Colton 27

Cooper 49, 53

Edward 28, 52

Harvest 28, 52, 63-65

Joe - 28-29,52

Mav 51

Ripe 29-30, 52, 65

Strawberry 30-31, 52

Edward Earhj 28

English Codiin 31, 52, 53

Equ inetehj 25

Fall Pipi)in 65

Queen 25

Fanieiisc 66

Fanny 31-32, 52, 66

Fourth of Juhj 34

Gano 66

Garrettson 32

Cen iton 73

Gibson's ^'andevrrc 41

Glowing Coal 32, 53

Golden Sweet 32, 52

Goveni went List No. 334 ^^S

342 -15

Grand Siiltan 32

Gravenstein 33, 52, 67

Greasy Pippin 36

Grimes 67-68

Ifayloe 43

llawthornden 33, 53

Horse 33-34, 52

Jefferis 34, 52

Jersey Sweet 34, 52, 68

Johnson 's Fine Winter 86

Jonathan 68

Jul> 34-35, 52, 69

June 51

Kane 30, 53

Keswick 36, 52

King 79

Kirkbridge 36

Large Yellotr Bough 25

194

I

INDEX. 93

I'agc.

Apples, varieties, Limbertwig 69

Lippincotl 44

London Sweet 69

Lowell 36, 52

Magnum Bonum 25

Maiden Blush 36-37, 52, 70, 90

Mammoth Black Twig 57

Metz 37, 52

Milam 70

Mill Creek Vandevere 41

Muster 37, 53

Nero 71

Never/ail 73

North Carolina Red June 40

Northern Spy 71-72

Nyack 26

Pippin 26

Oldenburg 23, 37-38, 52, 53, 72

Orange Pippin 38, 52

Parry White 38

Porter 38-39

Primate 39, 52, 53, 73

Princess Harvest 28

Ralls 73

Rawles Genet 73

Randolph 39-40, 52

Red Astrarhan 23, 37, 40, 52, 74-75, 88

Bietigheimcr 24

Cain 36

June 40^1, 52, 75

Vandevere 41

Roadstown 41, 52, 53

Rome Beauty 76

Roxbury 76

Sandbrook 41, 53

Shervjood^ s Favorite 26

Shockley 77

Smith rider 77-78

Smokehouse 4 1-42, 52, 53, 78

Somerset Harvest 32

Sops-of-Wine 42

Starr 42, 52

Stayman Winesap 79

Stravjberry 26

Summer Extra 50, 53

Ilagloe 43-44, 52, 79

King 44, 53

Rambo 50

Rose 44-45, 52

Sweet Bough 2,5

Wilder I'aradise 83

Tallow 36

194

94 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

Poge.

Apples, varieties, Tetofski 23, 37, 45, 52

Thaler 45, 53

Tompkins King ■ 79

Townsend 45-46, 53

Trenton Early 46, 53

Unknown 39-40

Virginia Beauty 80

Wealthy 46, 52, 53, 80

White Juneating 51

May 51

Wax 38

Williams 46-48,52,80

Wilson June 50

Winesap 81-83

Winter Paradise 83

Woolman''s Harvest 44

Yellow Newtown 84

Transjmrent 48^9, 52, 84-85, 90

York Imperial 86-87

Asbury Park, N. J., dates of spring frosts 16

Atlantic City, N. J., dates of spring frosts 16

Coastal Plain. See Plain, Atlantic Coastal.

Atmosphere, electrification and transparency, factors in plant growth 11

Baltimore, Md., dates of spring frosts . 16

Blossoming of apple trees, phenological records 57-87

Boston, Mass., relation of market to early-apple industry 22

Chesapeake Bay, dates of spring frosts in region 16

early apples locally grown in region 52

Chestertown, Md., dates of spring frosts 16

Chicago, 111., relation of market to early-apple industry 22

Cincinnati, Ohio, relation of market to early-apple industry 22

Climate, factors in growth of plants • 11-12, 23, 57-87

College Park, Md., dates of spring frosts 16

Cooking apples. See Apples, cooking.

Cultivating, factor in growing apples 19

Delaware, dates of frosts 16, 58-78

features of apple industry ■- 16-17, 53, 55, 58-78, 90

location of tidewater boundary line 8

Detroit, Mich., relation of market to early-apple industry 22

Diseases, fungous, methods of control in apple orchards 18, 19

District of Columbia, dates of spring frosts 16

location of tidewater boundary line 8

Drainage of the Coastal Plain region. See Plain, Atlantic Coastal, topography.
Early apples. See Apples, early.

Easton, Md., dates of spring frosts 16

Elevations in the Coastal Plain region. See Plain, Atlantic Coastal, altitudes.

England, markets for early apples 22

Evaporation, surface, relation to character of soil H

Fertilizers, use as factor in growing apples 19

Foreign markets for apples. See Apples, early, markets.

Frost, factor in apple industry H-l-. 16. 19. 57-87

Fruit. See Apples.
194

INDEX. 95

Page.
Fungous diseases. See Diseases, fungous.
Geographical location of the Coastal Plain region. See Plain, Atlantic Coastal,

geography.
Grading the fruit. See Apples, early, grading.

Hampton, Va., dates of spring frosts 16

Harvesting of early apples, methods 20

Hillsboro, Del., dates of spring frosts 16

Humidity, factor in growth of plants 11

Insects, methods of control in apple orchards 18

Introduction to bulletin 7-8

Kinston, N. C, climatological records 13

Latitude, approximate, locations of orchardists contributing phenological

data 54,57-87

Laurel, Md., dates of spring frosts 16

Liverpool, England, market for early apples 22

London, England, market for early apples 22

Markets for early apples. See Apples, early, markets.

Maryland, dates of frosts 16, 57-87

features of apple industry 17, 52, 53, 55, 57-87

location of tidewater boundary line 8

Maturity, factor in apple industry 18. 20, 57-87

Middle Atlantic States. See names of the several States.

Moisture, conservation, relation to character of soil 11

Moorestown, N. J., climatological records 15, 16

New England, relation of markets to early-apple industry 22

New Jersey, dates of frosts 16, 57-87

early apples locally grown 52

features of apple industry 1 7, 21, 53, 56, 57-87, 90

location of tidewater boundary line 8

peach trees of bearing age 16

Norfolk, Va., dates of spring frosts 16

North Carolina, dates of frosts 57-87

early apples locally grown 51, 52

features of apple industry 17, 53, 54, 57-87

location of tidewater boundary line 8

Observers of phenological data. See Apples, observers.
Orchard management. See Apples, early, growing for use.
Packing the fruit. See Apples, early, grading and packing.

Peaches, growing for market, relation to early-apple industry 7, 16, 19, 20

trees of bearing age in certain sections 16-17

Pennsylvania, location of tidewater boundary line 8

Phenological observers. See Apples, observers of phenological data,
records. See Apples, phenology.

Phenology, definition of term 53

Philadelphia, Pa., relation of market to early-apple industry 17, 21-22, 90

Picking by hand, method of harvesting apples 20

Pittsburg, Pa., relation of market to early-apple industry 22

Plain, Atlantic Coastal, adaptability of region to apple industry 18-19

altitudes 8-9, 10, 57-87

climate of the region 1 1-16, 57-87

description of the region 8-16

early-apple industry 16-19

194

96 SUMMER APPLES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

Page.

Plain, Atlantic (Joastal, geography of the region 8-9

soil of the region JO-ll, 57-87

topography of the region 10

Plates, description 90

Precipitation, factor in growth of plants 11-12

records for typical stations 13-15

Princess Anne, Md., dates of spring frosts 16

Providence, R. I., relation of market to early-apple industry 22

Pruning of apple orchards, factor in culture 18, 19

Rainfall. See Precipitation.

Seaford, Del., climatological records 14

Slope of ground, apple orchards, phenological data 57-87

Soil, factor in early-apple industry 18, 23, 57-87

of the Coastal Plain region. See Plain, Atlantic Coastal, soil.

Solomons, Md., dates of spring frosts 16

Spraying, factor in growing summer apples 18, 19

Straw, use as mulch in apple orchards 20

Strong, W. C, on history of certain varieties of apple ' 23

Summer apples. See Apples, early.

Sunshine, factor in growth of plants 11

Temperature, factor in growth of trees 1 1-12, 57-87

records for typical stations 13-15

relation to earliness of maturity 18

Tidewater region. See Plain, Atlantic Coastal.

Topography of the Coastal Plain region. See Plain, Atlantic Coastal, topography.

Varieties of apples. See Apples, varieties.

Vineland, N . J., dates of spring frosts 16

Virginia, dates of frosts 16, 57-87

early apples locally grown 52

features of apple industry 17, 53, 55, 57-87

location of tidewater bovmdary line

Warsaw, Va., dates of spring frosts 16

Washington, D. C, dates of spring frosts 16

Wind, direction and velocity, factors in plant growth 11

194

o

[Continued from page 2 of cover.)

No. 105. Kelatien of T>eaf to Burning Qualities of Tobacco. 1907. Price, 10 cents.
lOG. Seeds anf] Plants Imported. Inventory No. 12. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

107. American Pvoot Dnij;s. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

108. The Cold Storage of Small Fruits. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

109. American Varieties of Garden Beans. 1907. Price, 25 cents.

110. Cranberry Diseases. 1907. Price, 20 cents.

112. Suprarenal Glands in Pliysiological Testing of Drug Plants. 1907. l^rice, 10 cents.

113. Tolerance of Various Plants for Salts in Alkali Soils. 1907. Price, 5 cents.

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120. I'roduction of Easter Lily Bulbs in the United States. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

121. Miscellaneous Papers. I'DOS. .Price, 15 cents.

122. Curly-Top, a Disease of Sugar Beets. 1908. Price, 15 cents.

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124. The Prickly Pear as a Farm Crop. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

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131. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

133. Peach Kernels, etc., as By-Products of the Fruit Industry. 1908. Price, 5cents.

134. Influence of Soluble Salts upon Leaf Structure of Wheat, etc., 1908. Price, Scents.

135. Orchard Fruits in Virginia and the South Atlantic States. 1908. Price, 20 cents.
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137. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 14. 1900. Price, 10 cents.

138. Production of Cigar-Wrapper Tobacco in Connecticut Valley. 1908. Price, 15 cents.

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177. A Protected Stock Range in Arizona. 1910. Price, 15 cents.

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184. The Production of Vegetable Seeds. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

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180. Field Studios of tho Crown-(;all and Ilairy-Ror ' f the Apple Tree. 1910, Price, 20 cents.

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193. Experiments in Blueberry Culture. 1910. Price, 25 c uts,

194

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 195.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE PRODUCTION, OF VOLATILE OILS

AND PERFUMERY PLANTS IN

THE UNITED STATES.

BY^

FRANK RABAK,

Chemical Biologist, Drug-Plant, Poisonous-Plant, Physio-
logical, AND Fermentation Investigations.

Issued December 9, 1910.

WASHINGTON:

government printing office.

1910.

BULLETINS OF THE BUBEATJ OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The scientific and technical publications of the Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1,
1901, are issued in a single series of bulletins, a list of which follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that the publications in this series are not for general distribution. The
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No. 2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

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102. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

[Continued on page 3 of cover.]
195

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 195.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS

AND PERFUMERY PLANTS IN

THE UNITED STATES.

BY

FRANK RABAK,

Chemical Biologist, Drug-Plant, Poisonous-Plant, Physio-
logical, AND Fermentation Investigations.

Issi'ED December 9, 1910.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

OARDiiN.

WASHINGTON:

government printing office.

1910.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Hauold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

Drug-Plant, Poisonous-Plant, Physiological, and Fermentation Investigations.

SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

Rodney 11. True, PhysioloQist in Charge.

A. B. Clawson, Heinrlch Hasselbring, C. Dwight Marsh, and W. W. Stockberger,

Physiologists.
H. H. Bunzel, Jamos Thompson, and Walter Van Fleet, Experts.
Carl L. Alsberg, H. H. Bartlett, Otis F. Black, Frank Rabak, and A. V. Sievers, Chemical

Biologists.
W. W. Eggleston, Alice Henkel, S. C. Hood, G. F. Mitchell, and T. B. Young, Assistants.
G. A. Russell, Special Agent.

195

2

LETTER OE TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau or Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,

Washington^ D. C.^ August 26^ 1910.

Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for
l^ublication as Bulletin No. 195 of the special series of this Bureau a
manuscript by Mr. Frank Rabak, Chemical Biologist, entitled " The
Production of Volatile Oils and Perfumery Plants in the United
States," submitted by Dr. B. H. True, Physiologist in Charge of the
Office of Drug-Plant, Poisonous-Plant, Physiological, and Fermenta-
tion Investigations.

There is a steady demand for information concerning plants yield-
ing materials used in the manufacture of perfumery products; also
concerning the processes and apparatus required to utilize these oil-
bearing plants. This line of agricultural work has not yet reached
any marked development outside of the peppermint industry in ]\Iich-
igan, New York, and Indiana, but the outlook for a further growth
of this branch of special agriculture seems worth consideration.
Much experimental work will be required to determine the most
favorable locations for operation, and practical experience in hand-
ling the crops and the special apparatus needed in utilizing them must
be accumulated. However, the economic significance of this class of
products seems likely to justify the efforts required.
Respectfully,

G. H. Powell,
Acting Chief of Bureau.

Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

195

3

CONTHNTS

Page.

Introduction 7

Aroma of plants 9

Nature of odors 9

Localization of odors 11

Development of aroma 12

Extraction of aroma 16

Separation of perfumes by solution 16

Extraction with volatile solvents 16

Extraction with liijuid fats 18

Extraction with solid fats 19

Separation of perfumes by expression 21

Separation of perfumes by s-team distillation 22

Apparatus 23

Method of operation 26

Handling of volatile oils 27

Purification 27

Separation, filtration, and drying 27

Preservation 28

Growth and harvesting of perfume plants 29

Climate and soil 29

Growth and cultivation 30

Harvest 30

Volatile oil plants of the United States 34

Cultivated plants 35

Wild plants 36

Sassafras 37

Wintergreen and sweet birch 37

Canada fleabane 38

Eucalyptus _ 38

Monardas ' 39

Pennyroyal 40

Miscellaneous aromatic plants capable of cultivation 40

Commercial aspect of the industry 43

Value and consumption of volatile oils 44

Imports and exports of volatile oils 45

Present sources and cost of production of volatile oils 47

Conclusions 47

Index 49

195

5

ILLUSTRATIONS,

Page.

Fig. 1. Continuous extraction apparatus 17

2. Apparatus for treating flowers by the enfleurage process 20

3. Ecuelle for lacerating the oil vessels in the peels of oranges, lemons,

etc 22

4. Distilling and condensing apparatus 24

5. Steam generator 25

195
6

B. P. I. — 608.

THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PER-
FUMERY PLANTS IN THE UNITED STATES.

INTRODUCTIOlSr.

The use of aromatics and perfiunery dates back to the early a^^es
when spices, balsams, asafetida, and other resinous exudations, many
of which possess agreeable odors, were used for the purpose of scent-
ing. The peculiar, agreeable aromas emanating from plants grow-
ing in their native habitats may be supposed to have early aroused
the attention and admiration of the primitive peoples, although it
may not have been known in what forms plants and flowers possessed
their aromas. Before the art of distillation was known, the ancient
peoples used the odoriferous plants and spices in their dried forms
for their agreeable odors. Gradually, however, the development of
special utensils for other domestic purposes may have resulted in the
discovery of methods for the separation of odors from plants and
plant products.

The use of distilling apparatus by the ancients in their endeavor
to solve the problem of the transmutation of the elements and in
other researches requiring the .separation of volatile from nonvolatile
substances antedates its use for the pi'oduction of essential oils and
perfumes, but it was probably learned at an early date that the odors
present in plants and plant exudations were capable of separation
because of their greater volatility when compared with the other con-
stituents present. The first mention in ancient Greek writings of
the separation of an odor from a crude substance is that of the oil
of cedar, which was separated from the oleoresin by means of the
crudest form of apparatus. This consisted of an open earthen kettle
in which the oleoresin was boiled with water, the vapors of steam
and oil being collected in layers of wool so placed that the steam from
the kettle passed through the wool, which served as a condenser and
retained the oil and water. Gradually this apparatus was trans-
formed until it consisted of two definitely related parts, the kettle, or
body of the still, and the removable head, which, besides closing the
kettle, also acted as a condensing device on account of its exposure of
a large surface to the air. Further improvements were made from

195

8 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PEEFUMERY PLANTS.

time to time, until the apparatus came to consist of a still body with
a detachable head, to admit of the introduction of the material, and
of a condensing worm or tube surrounded by flowing cold water.
The highly efficient modern still embodies in a more elaborated adap-
tation the essential principles of this crude apparatus.

Along W'itli the development of the necessary aj^paratus there have
grown up in different parts of the world many large and small indus-
tries founded on volatile-oil production. From the small stills for-
merly used in making essences or spirits for use in the home for
medicinal, condimental, or perfumer}^ purposes from herbs gath-
ered wild or grown in the garden, there have come the extensive
perfumery industries of southeastern France, the attar-of-rose indus-
try in Bulgaria, the peppermint and turpentine industries in the
United States, and the other many and varied phases of the great
industry of volatile-oil production.

The present centers of activity in this branch of manufacture have
become established where they exist through a favorable combination
of conditions, including the adaptation of soil and climatic conditions
to the needs of the plants concerned and suitable labor conditions.
In southwestern France a general perfumery industry of great im-
portance, based on the production of lavender, cassie, rose, violet,
and other perfumery plants, has grown up. The attar of roses from
Bulgaria and Turkey, the rose-geranium oils from Algeria, Re-
union, and other French colonies, the lavender and other essential
oils from England, and the citrus oils from Italy, as well as the
lemon-grass, citronella, vetiver, and other volatile-oil and perfume-
producing products from India, may be mentioned as important in-
dustrial products. In the United States and in Japan the produc-
tion of peppermint oil and its products constitutes an important
industry. In many instances introduced plants are used; in others,
native species, usually brought under cultivation, form the basis of
production.

The growth of the volatile-oil industry has been most rapid in
late years in Germany and France, due in part to the opening up
of remunerative lines of work by pioneering scientific workers and
in part to the greater demand for these products by the manufacturers
of those countries. Although volatile oils find much use in a medic-
inal way, the greatest demands come from the makers of perfumeries
and of flavors. As a result of scientific research along the lines of
perfume chemistr}-, not only has a great field for commercial activity
been discovered but scientific knowledge itself has been greatly en-
larged. This mutually helpful relation between science and commerce
has been conspicuously developed in France and Germany, but to only
a relatively slight extent in this country. In view of the increasing
importance of this class of products to American commerce, it seems

195

AEOMA OF PLA.NTS.- 9

highly advisable that steps be taken to investigate the possibilities
of our coimtiy in this direction. With our great range of latitude
and variet}' of climate and soil, the conditions naturally favorable to
the production of such oils and perfumes should be available. Other
questions, such as labor and transportation facilities, must be con-
sidered. It is probable that by careful, scientific study of the situ-
ation the way may be opened for the development of somewhat ex-
tensive industries based on the growing and manufacturing in this
country of volatile-oil products now either imported or neglected.
These industries are already represented by the peppermint, spear-
mint, and wormwood products grown in New York, Michigan, Indi-
ana, Wisconsin, and other States of the upper Mississippi Valley.

AROMA OF PLANTS.
NATURE OF ODORS.

Of the countless numbers of plants in the vegetable kingdom, a
large percentage possesses peculiar aromatic odors, by means of
which the plants may ofttimes be characterized. The substances
which impart these peculiar odors to plants consist of mixtures of
comi^ounds oily in character and of a volatile nature; hence the
designation " volatile oils."

It may be generally stated that all plants which in the growing
condition give off a pronounced odor or which produce this odor
when the leaves or flowers are rubbed betAveen the fingers contain an
essential oil. However, this must not be construed to mean that all
volatile oils must necessarily be derived from plants which possess
an odor, there being plants which do not possess the oil pre-formed in
the tissues, but which through the interaction of constituents in the
plant under proper conditions yield a volatile oil. A common ex-
ample of this class of plants or plant products is the bitter almond,
which yields the bitter-almond oil of commerce by maceration of the
ground kernels with water, the oil formation taking place during
maceration.

The aroma of plants is not necessarily due to volatile oils, there
being other odor-bearing substances which, while distinctly aromatic,
are not of an oily character. Reference is here made to plants and
plant products which, while not possessing any odor during the
growing period, develop very fragrant odors after harvesting and
drying. An example of this class is the vanilla bean of commerce,
which in a green condition is odorless but which when properly
cured develops the characteristic fragrant vanilla odor. In this case,
according to Lecomte," a glucosidal body in the plant, coniferin, is

"Lecomte, Henri. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de TAcadeaiie
des Sciences, vol. 133, 1901. p. 745.

59647°— Bui. 195—10 2

10 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMERY PLANTS.

hydrolized during the curing process by plant enzymes or ferments
to the compound coniferyl alcohol, which in turn is oxidized by
oxydase to vanillin. In this case a characteristic odor is perceptible,
yet no volatile oil can be separated from the plant. A fuller dis-
cussion of this class of substances will follow.

With only a few exceptions it may be stated that volatile oils ex-
ist in the tissues of a plant as minute globules, sometimes inclosed in
cells but in some instances in enlarged cavities so conspicuous as to be
seen without the aid of a lens or a microscope. By a careful ex-
amination of the leaf of a peppermint plant, especially at the time of
blossoming, tiny glistening particles of oil are clearly discernible.
The close scrutiny of the peel of a lemon or an orange discloses to
view small, circular oil glands under the epidermis, imparting to it
much of the characteristic roughened appearance. Such seeds as
cloves, fennel, and anise contain oil passages directly below the epi-
dermis surrounding the endosperm or embryo of the seeds.

The volatile oils in plants do not represent simple substances but
are complex mixtures of numerous aromatic compounds which possess
a definite chemical composition. However complex the composition
of an oil may be, usually one constituent seems to impart the char-
acteristic odor and stands out conspicuously. Generally this con-
stituent attracts attention as the odor bearer of the plant or oil.

The substances which supply the aroma to plants or to essential
oils may be resolved by chemical classification into several groups of
organic compounds, namely, hydrocarbons, acids, alcohols, esters,
aldehydes, ketones, oxids, phenols, and sulphur compounds.

Volatile oils with but few exceptions contain constituents which
belong to two or more of the above-mentioned groups of organic
compounds. Although each of the groups may contribute to the
complex odor of a plant or of a volatile oil, usually compounds exist
in the oil which seem to the observer to be especially agreeable and
fragrant. The bearers of these pleasant odors which are so apparent
even in complex mixtures are for the most part either ester-like or
alcoholic in character. It is not unusual, howcA^er, that aldehydes,
ketones, or phenols play the role of odor bearers in a few oils or |ii
plants, as, for example, the principal odorous constituent of lemon
oil, which is the aldehyde citral, while the pronounced odor of pen-
nyroyal oil is chiefly duo to the ketone pulegone. The strongly aro-
matic odor of thyme is attributed to the phenol called thymol, wdiile
sulphur compounds are largely responsible for the aroma of the
mustard oils.

Thus it may be perceived that while esters and alcohols impart
agreeableness to the majority of oils, there are exceptions, as already
stated. Such oils as peppermint, lavender, wormwood, rose, geran-
ium, ylang-ylang, orange flower, and numerous others owe their

195

I

AROMA OF PLANTS. H

fragrance to alcohol or ester coinpoiinds, or to both, since these com-
pounds are usually found accompanying- one another in the oils.
Owing- to their particularly agreeable fragrance, the esters and the
alcohols form a class of the so-called desirable constituents.

Esters represent a group of constituents which are formed by the
interaction of alcohols and plant acids (esterification), an ester re-
sulting by the elimination of water in the reaction. Almost in-
yariably these esters possess a pleasant odor and conyey the charac-
teristic mellowness and fragrance to many of the essential oils from
plants. Indeed, a number of oils are yalued according to the per-
centage of esters which they contain. The largest number of pleas-
ant-smelling esters usually occur in oils as formates, acetates, or
butyrates. the acetic-acid esters preyailing. The oil of layender
flowers, for instance, owes its agreeable aroma to the acetic-acid ester
of the alcohol linalool or to linalyl acetate. The oil is yalued ac-
cording to the percentage of linalyl acetate Avhich it contains, al-
though the free alcohol linalool also exists in the oil. In this con-
nection it may be mentioned that the ester menthyl acetate imparts
fra'grance to peppermint oil. menthol being also an important con-
stituent in this case.

Another striking example of an ester compound as the odor bearer
of an oil is the methyl ester of anthranilic acid, which carries the odor
of orange flowers. Further examples are not necessary to emphasize
the importance of esters and alcohols in determining the aromatic
yalue of oils or plants.

In yiew of the fact that certain constituents may be classed as
odor bearers, the desirability of these constituents in yolatile oils
being eyident, attention should be giyen to the possibility of increas-
ing this class of substances by proper conditions of climate and
cultiyation.

LOCALIZATION OF ODORS.

Volatile oils, although found in all parts of plants, are localized
more or less generally in certain portions. The leayes, possibly on
account of their extensiye area, often carry a large proportion of oil.
In many plants, indeed, the leaves serve as the chief source of the
oil. ]\Iention may be made here of the oils obtained from leaves of
such plants as the eucalyptus, bay, Avintergreen, pine, lemon grass,
citronella. and ginger grass. On the other hand, in some plants the
oil is obtained principally from other parts, the leaves possessing
little or no odor, as in the oil-vieldinc: roses.

The flowering tops of aromatic plants as a rule yield oils of rich
aroma, excelling the oils produced from any other portion of the
plant. The exquisite bouquet of such oils as rose, lavender, cassie.
orange flower, and ylang-ylang is well known, all of these oils being
obtained from the flowers or flowering tops.

195

12 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMERY PLANTS.

The fruit oils occupy a position of no little importance, represent-
ing an industry by themselves. The principal oils from the citrus
fruits are obtained from the lemon, sweet orange, bitter orange (petit
grain), and bergamot. In all of the above fruits the essential oil
is contained in the peel of the fruit from which it is obtained.

Many of the various seed oils are very important commercially,
being employed largely as perfumes and medicinal agents. Among
the seed oils derived from the order Umbelliferse (parsnip family)
which possess especial value may be mentioned caraway, anise, fen-
nel, and coriander. Other seeds yielding oils of commercial import
are cardamom, American wormseed, mustard, bitter almond, peach,
and apricot seeds.

In addition to the above and playing an important role in volatile-
oil production are the bark and wood oils, the former being repre-
sented by such oils as sassafras, canella, and cinnamon. The wood
oils comprise such oils as sandalwood, copaiba, and cedar, while from
the woods indirectly are obtained several essential oils of value,
namely, oils from oleoresins, as turpentine, copaiba, elemi, California
turpentine {Pinus sahiniana), and Oregon balsam oil.

There are comparatively few root oils, the chief examples being
valerian, snakeroot, and sassafras oils.

The aerial portion of the plant serves possibly more extensively
for the extraction of volatile oils than any other of the plant parts
mentioned. Peppermint, spearmint, and wormwood, from which
oils are now produced commercially in this country, are typical
instances.

DEVELOPMENT OF AROMA.

The development of the aroma in a plant is conditioned by the
interaction of several important factors. It is generally accepted
that a close relationship exists between the growth of the plant and
climatic factors, such as heat, light, and moisture, and it seems clear
also that these conditions play an important part in the formation
of the aroma and materially influence its quality. The effect of
climate upon the quality of the aroma is clearly shown by the vary-
ing fragrance of the oils jiroduced by plants of the same species Avhen
they are grown in sections having a wide diversity of climatic con-
ditions. Continuous sunshine, Avhich may be a factor in the develop-
ment of fragrance in one plant, may possibly exert a reverse action
upon another in which the formation of the chief odoriferous con-
stituents is not directly favored by the action of light. Usually, how-
ever, sunshine is a favorable agent for the production of delicate
aromas, while, on the other hand, cloudiness or darkness has a tend-
ency to lower the production of aromatic substances by the plant.

195

ABOMA OF PLANTS. 13

An fibiindance of moisture is required for the growth of certain
plants and also for the development of aroma. This is especially
true of plants whose habitat may be aquatic or subaquatic; in this
case dryness becomes a direct hindrance to growth and likewise
lessens the activity of the metabolic processes taking place within
the organism.

On the other hand, many plants are especial lovers of dryness,
particularly such as inhabit the western arid tracts and deserts.
These excessively' dry regions are not devoid of plant life; neither
are they wanting in plants possessing odors. The sages are excel-
lent examples of sturdy growers on dry lands, and many are decidedly
aromatic, producing oils of excellent quality.

In both of the above extreme cases, coupled with the dryness or
moisture, an abundance of sunshine is usually conducive to the form-
ation of volatile oils in plant organs.

A typical example may be mentioned in the case of lavender. This
highly fragrant oil is derived from the plant Lavandula vera^ which
grows for the most part in France and England and is much in-
fluenced by such factors as soil, dryness, moisture, altitude, and sun-
shine. Oils which possess the highest percentage of the odor bearer,
linalyl acetate, are usually produced from plants grown on mountain
slopes.

Lamothe* states that the finest grades of lavender plants of the
Drome region are grown at the highest altitudes (2,500 feet) in the
mountain districts. Plants grown on the lowlands of these moun-
tains have been found to be decidedly inferior. Most light soils are
well suited to the growth of lavender, but those of a heavy or soggy
nature should be avoided.

The lavender produced in the Mitcham district of England is gener-
ally considered to have the most agreeable fragrance. In England the

I conditions are decidedly different from those occurring in France, both
with respect to soil and altitude. A chalky soil seems to be best
adapted to the growth of lavender in the Mitcham district. The
plant is, however, also grown profitably in the vicinity of Bourne-
mouth, Dorsetshire, where the soil consists of sand and clay, with
more or less peaty humus.'' Fungous growths, it is stated, harm

I lavender where the drainage is not perfect. An abundance of humid-

lity and sunshine is also considered necessary by the English growers.
Although it is generally conceded that the English lavender oil
is the most fragrant, this property is attributed by Gildemeister, Hoff-

^mann, and Kremers^ to the invariably low ester content of the oil,

« I.amothe, M. L. Bnl. Rome-Rertrand Fils., October, lOOs! p. 33.
^Pliarniiicoutical .Journal, vol. ,S.3, 1001), p. .^)32.

'' (iiklenieistor, Eduard, lloffiuanii, Friedricb, aud Kremors, Edward. Tlie Vola-
[tile Oils, p. GOG.
195

14 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMERY PLANTS,

aiul their iin(liii<>s are fiirtlier substantiated hy Kebler " and by
Parry.''

In the United States the cultivation of hi vender has not advanced
to any extent. However, in view of the fact that certain regions of
the United States possess climate, soil, and other factors practically
similar to those of the lavender-producing regions of France and of
England, it does not necessarily follow that lavender may not be
grown profitably in America.

The nature of the soil through its physical and chemical properties
oflfers an important variable condition likely to affect the metabolism
of the plant, and consequently the constituents elaborated by it. Ex-
periments upon peppermint by Charabot and Hebert'' seem to indi-
cate that soils supplied with commercial fertilizers produce plants
yielding oils superior in esters or odor-bearing compounds, the esteri-
fication of menthol in the plant seeming to be favored. Peppermint
grown by the writer upon a soil rich in organic matter, a black loam,
produced an oil noticeably richer in menthyl acetate than peppermint
grown upon a clay loam. The existing conditions of climate were
possibly also instrumental in bringing about this result.

Seasonal changes have also a marked effect not only upon the
quality but also upon the quantity of oil produced by a plant. A
plant distilled at its flowering period during one season may produce
a certain yield of oil of certain quality, and in the following season,
which may be entirely different, it may produce a much higher or
lower yield of oil either superior or inferior in quality.

The agents already enumerated are instrumental in bringing about
certain chemical changes in the composition of the oil in the cells or
tissues of the living plants which contain the oil already formed.
There is, however, another group of plants Avhich, though not possess-
ing the oil already formed in the plant tissues, do possess certain
basal constituents from which the volatile oil is formed. These con-
stituents usualh' belong to a class of plant constituents known as
glucosids, which break down by hydrolj'sis into a sugar, generally
glucose, and some other compound. The " other compound '' which
is formed by this hydrolysis in the case of some glucosids is volatile
and constitutes the volatile oil from the plant.

Very common examples of plants with glucosidal l)odies which
yield a volatile oil are wintergreen and sweet birch. The leaves of
the wintergreen and bark of the sweet birch contain the glucosid
gaultherin, wdiich under proper conditions of hydrolysis yields
methyl salicylate and glucose. Methyl salicylate in this instance

" Kebler, L. F. American Journal of Pharniaey, 1900, p. 223.
& Parry, E. L. Chemist and Druggist, 1902, p. 168.

cChiirnbot, A., and Hebert. A. Bulletin du Jardiu Colonial, vol. 27, 1902,
3d ser., pp. 224 and 914.
195

AROMA OF PLANTS, 15

represents the volatile oil of winterj!;reen. In order to effect this
In^drolysis of the gliicosid in AA'interoreen or sweet birch, the material
is simply macerated with water. A reaction innnediately begins,
assisted by the plant ferments, which act as catalysing- agents, with
the formation of the volatile methyl salicylate and glucose, as
follows :

CuHisOg , „ ^ C6H,(OH)COOCH3 , CeHiA,

;+ ap-

gaultherin"' - methyl salicylate ~ glucose"

If after the reaction is complete the fermented material is put into
a distilling apparatus, the volatile oil of wintergreen and sweet birch
may be distilled as a colorless oil with the characteristic wintergreen
odor so commonly known.

In addition to the two plants mentioned containing glucosidal sub-
stances which split up into a volatile oil and a sugar, the ordinary
bitter almonds and peach, apricot, and prune kernels may be men-
tioned. These kernels contain the glucosid amygdalin, which when
hydrolyzed yields benzaldehyde, hydrocyanic acid, and glucose, as
follows :

C20H27NO,, HON CeH,CHO CeHiA

amygdalin ■" - hydro- benzalde-"' glucose'

cyanic hyde
acid

Therefore, when the ground kernels are macerated or hydrolyzed in
the presence of water and then distilled, the ordinary volatile oil char-
acteristic of bitter almonds and of peach, prune, and apricot kernels,
is obtained.

These kernel oils are in every way identical, just as the oils of win-
tergreen and sweet birch are practical^ identical, the former con-
sisting chiefly of hydrocyanic acid and benzaldehyde and the two
latter of nearly pure meth}^ salicylate.

One other example of an oil produced by fermentation is the oil
of mustard seeds. These seeds contain the glucosid sinigrin, which
likewise suffers hydrolysis when ground seeds are macerated in
water, producing the volatile oil of mustard (alhd iso-sulphocyanid),
glucose, and potassium acid sulphate, according to the following
reaction :

C,oH,6NS,KO, C3H,CSN CeHiA , KHSO^

sinigrin ' - allyl iso- glucose ' potas-
sulpho- slum

cyanid acid

sulphate

The fermented mixture readily yields the volatile oil by distilla-
tion with steam. The medicinal action attributed to mustard seeds
is due to the mustard oil developed in the reaction mentioned. This

195

16 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PEEFUMEEY PLANTS.

oil, however, is not formed until the mustard is brought in contact
with water, thus enabling the vegetable ferment to hydrolj^se the glu-
cosid, with the results specified.

These instances are cited here simply to nuike clear the fact that
not all volatile oils preexist in plants and that some of our most valu-
able oils are obtained from plants entirely devoid of odor, which,
however, develops when the proper conditions are supplied. The
number of these special cases is comparatively few Avhen Ave consider
the vast number of plants which contain volatile oils existing as such
in their tissues and depending for their development in the plant only
on conditions of growth and nourishment.

EXTRACTION OF AROMA.

For the separation of the aromatic principle from a plant, several
methods are in vogue, depending for their efficiency and practicability
largely upon the nature of the odors to be extracted. The properties
of the various odorous substances are such that in order to separate
them in their entirety onl}^ such methods can be applied as will bring
about the least possible change in the fragrant constituents. Because
of the facility with which certain aromatic principles undergo change
it is necessary at times to extract the perfume Avithout exposing the
materials to high temperatures and to other conditions which would
tend to change their chemical nature. For this reason several meth-
ods are emploj'ed at the present time for the extraction of volatile
oils and perfumes, each of which possesses adA-antages and disad-
vantages.

The following general methods find application in commerce for
the separation of the odoriferous principles from plants and plant
products: (1) Solution, (2) expression, and (3) distillation.

SEPARATION OF PERFUMES BY SOLUTION.

The method of solution as applied in practice is subdivided into
three modifications, viz, by volatile solvents, by liquid fats, and by
solid fats.

EXTKACTION WITH VOI.ATILE SOLVENTS.

The method of extraction Avith vohitile soh^ents, such as ether,
chloroform, benzene, petroleum ether, acetone, etc., is adaptable only
to flowers, because of the comparatively small quantity of other kinds
of extractive matter soluble in any one of these soh'ents. The method
would be A'ery impractical for the extraction of perfumes or oils from
a AA'hole plant or from the leaA^es of a plant, since whole plants or
plant parts other than floAvers contain considerable other matter
besides the essential oil solublo in these soh'ents.
195

EXTRACTION OF AROMA.

17

The method employed commercially for the extraction of odors
by means of these volatile solvents embodies a process known as
continuous extraction. By this method the solvent, after percolating
through flowers and carrying with it in solution the odorous con-
stituents, is heated in a proper receiving
vessel and the vapors condensed and
utilized further for extracting any re-
maining odor. The advantage of this
method is the small amount of solvent
necessary for extraction and the con-
tinual percolation of fresh solvent
through the material.

The accompanying illustration (fig.
1) represents an apparatus used for
this purpose, which consists chiefly of
the percolator, the receiving vessel, and
the condenser.

The percolator, Z?, in the bottom of
which is placed a circular screen, is
charged with the flowers to be extracted,
and the removable cover, F, is attached
by means of clamps, as indicated. A
heavy gasket of cotton wicking or asbes-
tos (previously moistened) or rubber
is placed between the cover and the
l^ercolator to insure a tight connection.
To the bottom of the percolator at H is
attached the receiving vessel, ^i, and
the hot water steam bath, Z), by means
of a screw union. Into the cover, F, is
fitted a perforated rubber cork, through
which passes a glass tube, A'. The glass
tube, A', is further connected with the
condenser, 6', by means of a perforated
rubber stopper. The condenser may
be of the single-tube or worm variety,
the former being preferable. The tube
K is of glass for the purpose of enabling
the operator to observe the rapidity with
which the condensation of vapors is taking place. After pouring the
solvent through the condenser and into the percolator, heat (pref-
erably steam or hot water) is applied to the bath, D. The steam is
passed through the bath, Z?, in the direction indicated by the arrows.
The solvent which has percolated through the flowers in B is
59647°— Bui. 195—10 3

Fig. 1. — Continuous extraction ap-
paratus. A, Ueceivins vessel : B,
percolator ; C, condenser ; D,
bath ; E, union ; F, cover ; O,
tube ; H, union ; .7, drain cock ;
K, glass tube.

18 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMERY PLANTS.

vaporized and driven up through the tube G (which should be covered
with asbestos to prevent radiation) and into the percolator, thence
into the condenser, where the vapors are condensed and drop back
into the material. A continuous extraction is thus obtained with a
minimum quantity of solvent.

For the final recovery of the solvent from J., the apparatus, after
cooling, is disconnected at H and a screw cap attached to the neck
of A. The tube G is disconnected at the union E^ which may be con-
nected with the condenser in proper position, and heat applied to Z>.
The excess of the solvent is completely recovered in this manner, the
resultant oil or perfume being drained off by opening the cock, J .

The chief disadvantage of an apjjaratus of this type is its narrow
field of usefulness, which is practically restricted to the separation
of perfume from flowers. ^^Hien this apparatus is used for the
extraction of other parts of the plant which may contain aromatic
substances, the oil is liable to be contaminated by resins, waxes, etc.,
which would be extracted with the perfume by the solvent used. In
order to purify further the crude oil obtained, steam distillation must
be resorted to, in which case the delicate quality of the perfume
obtained by the cold extraction would probably suffer slight changes
induced by the steam.

EXTRACTION WITH LIQUID FATS.

The process of extraction with liquid fats is comparatively simple
and depends upon the ability of a liquid, fatty oil to absorb the odors
from flowers. For this purpose olive oil, lard, or other bland fixed
oils may be advantageously used. The oil is placed in a kettle or vat
(preferably porcelain lined) and heated to a temperature of 40° to
60° C. ; the flowers to be extracted are then introduced either directly
into the fatty oil or inclosed in coarse bags and suspended in the fat.
The material is maintained at this temperature for a time varying
from one-fourth to one and one-half days, when the mixture is either
drained to remove the flowers or the bags are removed and expressed
and recharged with fresh material. In this manner a perfumed oil is
produced from which the perfume may be extracted by shaking out
with strong alcohol, in which the odor is soluble and the fat insoluble.
The fatty oil, which still retains traces of the flowery fragrance, may
be used for further extraction of the same flowers.

This method of maceration in liquid, fatty oil is carried on to some
extent in the perfume gardens of southern France and Germany,
where perfumed oils are largeh^ manufactured from such flowers as
rose, jasmine, violet, tuberose, cassie, etc.

The extraction by maceration is advantageous because of its ease
of operation and manipulation, but owing to the fact that heat is

195

EXTRACTION OF AROMA. 19

necessary for the rapid absorption of the perfume, another method
in which the fat is used as a cokl absorbing medium has been devised
and used.

EXTRACTION WITH SOLID FATS.

The process of absorption of perfumes in cold by means of fats,
the " enfieurage " process, has long been used for the extraction of the
more delicate odors, and is possibly more universally used than any
other process for the preparation of certain flower odors.

The great avidity with which some solid fats absorb aromatic sub-
stances is the basis of the method. Odors of nearly every description
are absorbed by neutral solid fats when the latter are placed adjacent
to or in contact with the odoriferous substances.

The enfleurage process, which is based upon this peculiar property
of fats, was originally carried out by spreading freshly picked flow-
ers upon a thin layer of lard spread upon glass plates, the flowers
being allowed to remain in contact with the lard until exhausted,
when the apparatus was charged with fresh flowers. In this manner
a perfumed pomade was produced containing the natural odor of the
flowers.

For effecting a separation of the perfume from the solid fat, which
is desirable in some cases, advantage is taken of the comparative
insolubility of the fat in strong alcohol and the ready solubility of
the perfume. Therefore, in preparing the pure perfume, the per-
fumed iwmade is thoroughly and repeatedly agitated with alcohol, an
alcoholic extract or perfumed essence resulting. This resulting
extract is sometimes employed as such for producing delicate scents.
In order to obtain the pure oil from the alcoholic extract, the alcohol
is evaporated carefully in a vacuum, the concentrated oil or perfume
of the flowers remaining. These concentrated oils, although often
rather unpleasant in odor in extreme concentrations, produce an
exquisite aroma when diluted.

The crude process of enfleurage just mentioned has been largely
modified in recent years in order to promote rapidity of operation, to
protect against loss of odor by nonabsorption, and to obviate the actual
contact of the flowers with the lard. ^Yhen the flowers are in actual
contact with the lard there is a tendency toward the absorption of
undesirable substances.

A practical apparatus of this nature (fig. 2) consists of a box,
H, about 2 feet square and 6 feet high, so constructed as to be prac-
tically air-tight. In the lower portion of the box, which is supported
about 2 feet above the floor, is placed a layer of sponges, G, or other
porous material capable of holding moisture. The bottom of the
sponge tray may be constructed of light copper gauze or brass gauze
to permit the free access of air. Directly above are located the flower

195

20 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMERY PLANTS.

ff-'^

trays, A^ B^ C^ Z>, and E, which also have brass or tinned-iron screens
of rather coarse mesh for bottoms. The sides, fronts, and backs of
trays may be of wood. The trays may readily be placed in or taken
out of the absorption box when refilling is necessary. Immediately
above the flower trays are located a series of glass plates so con-
structed that they may be readily taken from the box and replaced.

The absorbing medium, lard or other solid
fat, is spread in a layer about one-half inch
in thickness upon each glass plate, which is
i:)laced in its proper position. The front
portion of the apparatus must be supplied
with a tight-fitting door (not shown in the
illustration) capable of being opened or re-
moved to admit of charging and discharging
the fat and flowers. When the flower trays
have been charged with the freshly picked
flowers and the door closed firml}^ a current
of air is made to pass upward through the
sponges and the flowers and the lard-laden
tray, a more efficient circulation being pro-
duced by the alternating arrangement of
glass plates. The odor-bearing air as it
passes over the lard readily surrenders its
perfume, which can be subsequently ex-
tracted from the lard. A small fan may be
placed at the top of the apparatus or a
blower at the bottom to produce the required
movement of the perfume-laden air. The
current should be regulated so that absorp-
tion is completely effected in its upward
journey.

When retained in fresh condition, flowers
hold their aroma and even secrete perfume
for a longer period of time than if allowed
to wilt and dry ; hence the moistened sponges
in the bottom of the apparatus. Some flow-
ers are even known to continue to secrete
perfume if left in moistened air. The air
drawn through the apparatus is moisture
laden and therefore produces the best yield of perfume from the
flowers.

The oi^eration of the above contrivance may be continued with
only such interruption as is required for recharging with fresh
flowers when practically^ all odor has been drawn off. After the
lard has been thoroughly charged, the perfume held in solution is

195

y///t\\\\

Fig. 2. — Apparatus for treat-
ing flowers by the enfleur-
age process. A, B, C, D, E,
Flower trays ; F, exit ; G,
sponge tray; H (1-18),
glass plates.

EXTEACTION OF AKOMA. 21

separated by a thorough agitation of the pomade with strong alco-
hol, preferably by means of a shaking or churning device in which
the pomade is continually agitated and beaten in order to expose the
largest surface possible to the solvent action of the alcohol. There
results from this extraction operation an alcoholic extract of the
flowers which possesses the natural odor to a very high degree. Be-
cause of the fact that no heat is necessary, the resulting extract is far
superior to an extract prepared by the process of heating with liquid
fats.

It is to be remembered, however, that the yield of perfume from
some of the more delicate flowers, such as violet, cassie, tuberose,
jasmine, etc., is rather small, which accounts largely for the ex-
ceedingly high prices of the extracts or pomades of these flowers.

Usually it is impossible to extract the odor from the pomade com-
pletely, even when extracted successively with fresh portions of
alcohol. The fat after extraction still retains the characteristic
aroma and may be used in this form or may be again spread ui3on
the glass and utilized for further absorption from the same kind
of flowers.

The amount of labor required for this work is necessarily large
when the fact is taken into consideration that the flowers require hand
picking. The time consumed by the entire process from the picking
of the flowers to the finished extract is also very considerable. How-
ever, the quality and, consequently, the prices of these exquisite odors
usually offset unfavorable conditions of labor and time in regions
where this industry is carried on commercially.

SEPARATION OF PERFUMES BY EXPRESSION.

Another class of volatile-plant products already cited is so localized
in the plant as to admit of the extraction of the oil by a ditferent yet
extremely simple process. The class of products referred to includes
the citrus fruits, namely, the lemon, orange, bergamot, and other
related fruits. Owing to the fact that the oil contained in these
fruits is deposited in the outer portion of the peel and is therefore
very accessible, the method of expression is peculiarly adapted to the
citrus fruits and products.

There are several methods applicable to the extraction of the oil
from the peel of the lemon, orange, and bergamot, all of which, how-
ever, embody the same principle, namely, the rupturing or breaking
of the glands containing the oil and the collecting of the oil after it
has been released.

In the method known as "ecuelle a piquer," the rinds of the
lemons are rubbed in hollow cups (ecuelle, fig. 3) lined with sharp
points, which lacerate the oil glands and allow the oil to exude.

195

22 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PEEFUMERY PLANTS.

This method has been largely displaced by the simple expression of
the oil.

Owing to the ease with Avhich the peels of the fruits liberate the
oil, a method of expression is applied very conveniently to the sepa-
ration of the oil. Usually the peels from half sections of the fruit
are turned inside out and pressure brought to bear on the outer sur-
face in such a manner as to rupture a large majority of the oil vessels.
The oil thus liberated is collected upon a sponge, which absorbs it
and from which it is subsequently squeezed. By this method, known
as the " sponge method," the larger part of the oils of the lemon, the
orange, and the bergamot is extracted, the operation being carried on
usually at night, when other activities in the fruit work are at a
standstill.

Expression by the sponge method is far from complete because of
inability to bring pressure upon every, portion of the peel; hence,

after the " hand-pressed " oils, which
are generally conceded to be the best
grade, are obtained the peels are placed
in a power press or in a crude still and
the remaining oil is separated. This
latter forms a secondar}^ oil of com-
merce, generally considered to be much
inferior to the sponged oil.

The use of a mechanical device for
rupturing lemons and bergamots and
for expressing the oil from them has
been introduced into some producing
districts of Europe. However, only a
Fig. 3.— ficueiie for lacerating the small percentage of the oils is extracted

^eLoTel'" "Xtnl uT""' ■" ""'^ ^-"y- 'he sponge system being

most usually adopted.

Whether the process of steam distillation, which will be discussed
later, if somewhat modified would produce a grade of oil equal to the
hand-pressed oil is doubtful. At any rate, the oil containing only
traces of compounds capable of decomposition at the usual tempera-
ture of steam, it should not be greatly inferior, production by this
method would be easier, and its cost would be materially less.

SEPARATION OF PERFUMES BY STEAM DISTILLATION.

A simple still, which consists essentially of three parts, the still
body, the condenser, and the receiver, with a suitable means of ajoi^ly-
ing direct heat to the still body, containing material suspended in
water, was used early in the eighteenth century. Even at the present
time many smaller distillations are still carried on with this form of
apparatus. The chief disadvantage of this type of still lies in the

195

EXTEACTION OF AROMA. 23

fact that the heat, being applied directly, has a tendency to char or
burn the materials adjacent to the bottom, and thus appreciably affect
the quality of the aromatic product distilled over.

This method has been largely superseded in modern times by dis-
tillation with steam, the principles of which depend upon the prop-
erty of the steam as it passes through the charged apparatus to
carry with it the volatile portion of the plant in the form of vapors,
which are condensed, together Avith the excess of watery vapor, and
deposited in the receiving vessel. The three steps in the process are
(1) the distilling, (2) the condensing of the vapors, and (3) the col-
lecting of the oil. Even though the boiling points of the volatile
oils separated by distillation from plants may be considerably
higher than the temperature of steam, the odors are readily liberated
by the passing steam and carried over.

APPARATUS.

The apparatus required for the three processes which collectively
constitute steam distillation is of comparatively simple construction,
consisting of (1) a still, (2) a still head (cover for body), (3) a con-
denser, and (i) a receiver.

The body of the still, or the receptacle In which is placed the
material from which the oil is to be extracted, gives best results when
cylindrical in form and may be constructed of various materials,
preferably copper. However, some stills are made with wooden
bodies. Galvanized iron heavily tinned on the interior is a suitable
material, principally because of its cheapness and durability. The
still may be constructed of any size desirable, provided the other
parts, the condenser and the receiver, are in proportion, depending
upon the amount of material to be used and the extent of production
desired.

In figure 4, A represents the still, B the still head, or cover, C the
condenser, and D the receiver. Through the side of the still at the
point E passes a galvanized steam pipe from three-fourths to 1
inch in diameter, extending downward and finally terminating in
the middle of the still, as shown by the dotted line. A spigot, F,
is attached to the bottom of the still for draining the collectecf water
from the apparatus. About 3 inches from the bottom of the still is
placed a coarse screen, //, fastened to a wooden frame, which acts
as a support for the herb or plant part to be distilled. Encircling
the top of the still is an iron collar, which may be conveniently con-
structed of angle iron, to which the copper or the metal is securely
attached.

The still head, or cover, B, is of the same material as the still and
is slightly conical in shape, with an exit tube terminating in a uni(m,
at which point connection may be made with the condenser. Around

195

24 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMEEY PLANTS,

the periphery of the cover is securely fastened a flat collar of iron
of the same diameter as the angle iron used on the top of the still,
so that with the cover in place the tAvo will exactly coincide.

Fig. 4. — Distilling and condensing apparatus. .1, Still ; B, still head or cover ; C, con-
denser; D, receiver; E, steam pipe; F, spigot; G, tripod; H, screen.

The condenser, C, as shown in figure 4, consists of a group of
tubes (inside diameter one-half to 1 inch, depending upon the size
of the condenser) surrounded by an outside jacket fitted with an
inlet tube at the bottom and an outlet tube at the top, to enable cold

195

EXTRACTION OF AROMA.

25

^

/I

EJ

^

water to pass continiiall}' through the condenser in an upward direc-
tion. The condenser is attached to the still by means of the union
joint, as illustrated.

The tripod, G^ acts as a support for the condenser while the appa-
ratus is in operation and also while the still is being charged or dis-
charged. Under the bottom opening of the condenser is placed a
receiver, D, of copper, with a goose-neck siphon tube extending from
the bottom to within 2 inches of the top. On the side opposite the
siphon tube is fastened a small
brass spigot to admit the removal
of the oil from time to time.

For the generation of steam, if
a source is not otherwise available,
a small boiler, such as is illus-
trated in figure 5, may be con-
veniently used. A small boiler,
yl, of light boiler iron fitted with
about a dozen flues is capped by
the cover, B. Other usual acces-
sories are attached, viz, water
gauge, C ;' pop valve, D ; water
gauge, E ; and steam outlet, F.
The boiler may be preferably set
upon a gasoline stove or an open-
fire stove or on a tripod with an
open fire beneath. The pop valve
maj^ be set at about 8 to 10 pounds,
no greater pressure being neces-
sars^- To replenish the water in

the boiler a funnel tube attached to Fig. 5.— steam generator, a. Boiler ; n,

the pop valve mav be used. Con- ^°'^^'' = ^' ^^^"^"^ s^"«^ ' ^' p^p ^^'^^ = ^•

. \ . water gauge ; F, steam outlet.

nection to the still is made most

conveniently by the attachment of a short piece of rubber steam hose
to F, as this admits a ready detachment from the still when distilla-
tion is completed. A pressure of 5 to 10 pounds of steam is sufficient
for ordinary distillation. The size of the boiler may be slightly
increased if distillation is to be conducted on a larger scale.

The boiler just described possesses efficiency enough to distill
charges of 75 to 150 pounds of herb.

For distillation on a commercial scale a large, stationary, upright
boiler maj^ be installed for the generation of steam, or, if conven-
ient, steam may be taken from any high-pressure boiler which may
be in use for other purposes. The volume necessary being very
slight, indeed, is scarcely perceptible upon the steam gauge.
59647°— Bui. 195—10 4

26 THE PEODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMERY PLANTS.

METHOD OF OPERATION.

To charge the still, place the false bottom in the still and pack the
herb firmly until completely filled. Place a gasket of asbestos rope,
heavy cotton wicking, or other suitable material (previously mois-
tened) around the top of the still. Place the cover uj^on the mois-
tened gasket and clamp securely with heavy steel clamps. Connect
the exit pipe from the top of the still to the condenser by means of
the union, as indicated in the diagram. Now conduct steam into the still
through the inlet pipe, E^ slowly at first, and regulate afterwards so
that the distillate jjassing from the end of the condenser is cold or
but very slightly warm. The receiving vessel, Z>, should be previously
filled three-fourths full of water and placed under the exit from
the condenser. Likewise, the cold water is started flowing through
the condenser, as indicated by the arrow. Frequently the oil may be
led from the receiver by opening the cock on the side. However,
owing to the siphon tube attached to the receiver, overflowing is
impossible, since this tube carries off the water which separates in
the bottom of the receiver. To ascertain when distillation is com-
pleted a few drops of the distillate as it comes from the condenser are
collected in a glass test tube. The appearance of oily globules on the
surface readily indicates whether appreciable quantities of oil are
still passing over. Usually a distillation is comj)leted in from one
and one-half to two and one-half hours.

The advantage of steam distillation over other methods of volatile-
oil extraction lies principally in its wide applicability and speed of
operation. Most plants or plant parts, with the exception of the
flowers in some few cases, may be extracted most readily and most
expeditiously and with a minimum amount of labor b}^ the steam-
distillation method. The simplicity of the operation is obvious.
The removal of the oil is much more complete than by any other
process. Furthermore, there is produced as a by-product during the
distillation an aqueous distillate which is completely saturated with
the oil. The aqueous distillate may in many instances be utilized
and sold as an "aromatic water" of commerce, especially in such cases
as lavender, orange flowers, rose, etc. The aromatic waters possess
excellent odors, largely because of the extreme dilution of the odorous
compounds held in solution, and are useful in the perfumery and
toilet-preparation industries. "VATien the aqueous distillate from the
plant has no marketable value, it may be profitably collected and re-
turned to the boiler. In case of a further distillation of the same
plant it will materially add to the yield of oil, since the distillate is
a saturated solution of the oil. Many oils are extremeh^ soluble in
water. Distillates from oils of this class usually augment consid-
erablv the vield of oil when returned to the boiler and transformed
into steam and oil vapors.

195

(

HANDLING OF VOLATILE OILS. 27

The spent herb, which on a large scale amounts to no inconsiderable
quantity, may be used as fuel and the ash used as fertilizer, or it
may be scattered upon a field and plowed under as a mulch. In
some cases the spent herb serves as a useful stock food, an example of
which is the peppermint grown in Michigan.

The advantages far outnumber the disadvantages of the distilla-
tion method, the only disadvantage being the possibility of slight
decomposition of the ester bodies in some of the more delicate per-
fumed plants. However, this is only slight and almost negligible
in most herbs.

HANDLING OF VOLATILE OILS.

PURIFICATION.

The volatile oil as it comes from the still is in a crude state, being
contaminated by volatile substances which are formed during the dis-
tilling process by the action of the steam upon the less stable plant
constituents, decomposing them into volatile organic substances,
which, although trifling in quantity, nevertheless tend to affect the
color, odor, and taste of the oil.

The chemical changes taking place in the still are numerous, the
more important being oxidation and reduction of some of the con-
stituents of the oil, as well as of the other plant constituents, saponi-
fication of the more unstable esters, and resinification brought about
by a polymerization of certain plant constituents, all of which aid in
forming volatile substances which mingle with the oil.

Although a process of purification is not always applied to these
crude oils, it is important and sometimes highly profitable to subject
the crude product to a process of rectification. By rectification is
meant a redistillation of the oil with steam, this procedure affecting
a moderate separation of the undesirable substances which may have
been formed. The substances which detract from the odor of the
oil are usually left behind in the apparatus as a heavy, malodorous
liquid slightly resinous in character. Rectification usually results
in a fine, finished product, free from foreign odors, and leaves an
oil much more presentable in color as well as in odor and taste.

This process may be conducted in a miniature still built on the
same general plan as the large commercial still. The loss in the
amount of oil is more than compensated for by the better quality
and the increased salability of the rectified oil.

SEPARATION, FILTRATION, AND DRYING.

To separate the oil from the aqueous distillate in the receiving
vessel, the portion which has not been separated by means of the
stop cock on the side of the receiver is poured into a separating fun-
nel of glass and the heavier liquid drawn off. The oils resulting from

195

28 THE PEODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMEEY PLANTS.

different distillations of the same plant are then united and sub-
jected to filtration, which process tends to separate any solid particles
or emulsion of oil and water. Filtration is conveniently effected by
pouring the oil into a glass funnel which has been fitted w^ith a fil-
tering medium, such as filter paper (an unsized, porous paper) or
cotton. When cotton is used as a filtering medium a small tuft may
be fitted loosely into the neck of the funnel and oil poured upon it.
Usually filtration takes place more rapidlj^ through cotton than
through paper and with much less loss. Rapidity of filtration is
essential to minimize the possibilities of changes taking place in the
oil b}^ oxidation, since the oil is more or less exposed to the action
of the air and light while undergoing this clarifying process. Hence
cotton is to be recommended.

Just as the water that comprises the aqueous distillate is a saturated
solution of the oil, so the oil which floats above the distillate is satu-
rated with water. Usually it is of prime necessity that the moisture
be removed from all oils, first, because of the subsequent changes that
are likely to occur if moisture is present, and, second, because of
the turbidity which water imparts to the oil. Hence, after filtration
through cotton the oil should be dried by shaking in a bottle with a
dehj'drating substance, such as anhydrous calcium chlorid or anhy-
drous sodium sulphate, preferably the latter, owing to its lack of
action upon the constituents of the oils. The crude sodium sulphate
(Glauber's salts) may be dehydrated by heating it in a vessel over
direct heat, with constant stirring until a dry, grayish powder
results. But a small quantity is necessary to abstract the moisture
from an oil. After the oil has been dried it is again filtered through
a light plug of cotton. A clear and transparent oil finally results,
bearing in every way the appearance of a marketable oil.

PRESERVATION.

Many constituents of volatile oils are of such a nature that unless
the strictest precautions are observed in storing the oils chemical
decomposition takes place, causing them to change in both odor and
color, thereby reducing the quality and value. The esters of an oil
(combinations of organic acids with alcohols) are very prone to
decomposition, as are also many aldehydes and hj^drocarbons, which
either through saponification, hydration, oxidation, reduction, or
polj^merization become totally different substances. These chemical
l^rocesses are usually stimulated by the action of light and air upon
the oils. Therefore, in order to guard against these changes and to
minimize them as much as possible, the strictest attention should be
paid to the proper bottling and storage of the oils.

195

GROWTH AND HARVESTING OF PERFUME PLANTS. 29

It is of the utmost importance that all oils should be placed in
bottles which are well filled. The absence of air is of the greatest
importance in insuring the preservation of an oil. The oxygen of
the air, assisted by light, becomes extremeh^ energetic in bringing
about some of the changes previously mentioned. It is therefore of
import that the oils be kept not only in well-filled, tightly stoppered
bottles, but in a dark place. It is sometimes convenient and advisable
to use amber-colored bottles in order to prevent the entrance of the
actinic rays of light which are so active in causing polj^nerization.
A cool place is also to be preferred for the storage of volatile oils.

All undue exposure of oils to the action of light and air should be
avoided as much as possible. It is necessary that an oil from the
time it leaves the receiving vessel after distillation or rectification
until it is filtered, dried, and bottled should be handled with care and
dispatch to insure a product of the best quality and appearance.

GROWTH AND HARVESTING OF PERFUME PLANTS.

CLIMATE AND SOIL.

Up to the present time the cultivation of perfume-yielding plants
has not been carried on, even experimentally, over a very large part
of the United States, and such work of this sort as has been done
is confined to but a few kinds of plants. Until our knowledge along
these lines has been very much increased by practical attempts to
cultivate this class of products, only statements of probabilities can
be made. However, in some cases plant introductions along other
lines from the oil-yielding countries of the Old World, together with
information as to conditions of climate and soil in those regions, give
a basis for surmise in connection with these crops. The wide
diversity in climate and soil in different parts of the United States,
with the varying conditions of heat, light, and moisture, renders it
probable that some portions of the country will be found to be well
fitted for the cultivation of the perfumery plants characteristic of
the temperate zones. It appears probable that the conditions pre-
vailing in those parts of Europe associated with the perfumery
industry can be fairly well duplicated. It will doubtless require
much experimental work to find the particular localities best suited
to special plants.

It must be borne in mind, however, that not only must conditions
of soil and climate be right but that the labor conditions which go
with the problem must be met in a practical way. The distance of
the point of production and the transportation factors are also im-
portant and might be decisive.

195

30 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMERY PLANTS.

Some work on perfumery-plant growing has been carried on in
Florida, notably by Mr. E. Moulie, of Jacksonville, whose experience
has been distinctly encouraging. Experiments by Mr. S. C. Hood
with a number of oil-yielding grasses grown in the testing garden
carried on by the Bureau of Plant Industry at Orange City, Via., give
good ground for hope that a number of kinds of plants able to endure
a little freezing weather may be cultivated with good results. Cali-
fornia and the arid Southwest offer promising conditions for plants
which thrive in dry, sunny locations. Michigan, Indiana, and New
York are already well known as important centers for the production
of peppermint, spearmint, and erigeron oils, while Michigan, Wiscon-
sin, Nebraska, and other States in the north-central part of the country
form a most important source of wormwood oil. Doubtless other oil-
bearing plants now on trial may be found to do well in parts of the
same general section. American wormseed {Che no podium spp.) is
distilled in Maryland and southward, and sassafras is distilled in
various places, especially in the mountains, from Pennsylvania south-
ward. The oils of wintergreen, sweet birch, spruce, and white cedar
are derived from the more northern ranges of the Atlantic slope. The
mountainous regions of Tennessee and Kentucky supply wintergreen,
sweet birch, and sassafras oils.

It is thus apparent that a number of native and introduced plants
rich in volatile oils have obtained foothold on a commercial basis
in this country, and there is good ground to hope that products of
this general class now obtained from abroad may in time become
naturalized here.

GROWTH AND CULTIVATION.

Several methods of procedure with regard to the propagation and
cultivation of volatile-oil and perfume-yielding plants are to be
followed, depending largely upon the nature and habitat of par-
ticular species of plants. Annual plants such as are grown from
seeds and which blossom and mature the same year are rather com-
mon among volatile-oil plants.

The details of cultivation and handling vary somewhat with the
crop grown and are a matter for careful field study. In general,
the annuals are either fall or spring sown, depending upon soil and
climate, some seeds germinating best if left in the ground over
winter, as is the case with pennyroyal. Eow culture is advisable in
order to secure better cultivation and a consequent freedom from
weeds.

Perennials are in some cases grown well from seed, as caraway and
wormwood, but in some cases, such as spearmint, peppermint, sage,
rose, and lavender, propagation from cuttings or roots is preferable.

195

GEiDWTH AND HARVESTING OF PERFUME PLANTS. 31

The method of handling must be adapted to the particular plant to
be grown.

A thorough cultivation of the field is necessary to eliminate all
weeds, both between the rows and in the rows themselves. This is
of the utmost importance, since weeds, although as a rule not con-
taining any volatile oil, do possess volatile substances which are set
free by the steam should the weeds become mixed with the aromatic
plant. A contamination of the oil and a depreciation in the aromatic
qualities will result unless the material is kept free from weeds and

other rank growths.

HARVEST.

Possibly no stage in the cultivation and production of volatile oils
from plants is of greater importance than that of the proper harvest-
ing of the crop. It is usually conceded that most perfume plants
reach their maximum development as regards odor, both in quality
and quantity, at the flowering period. On the other hand, many
authorities are of the opinion that as soon as a plant reaches its full
flowering period there sets in a gradual consumption of the odorous
principles ; hence, the harvest should be made prior to this consuming
process.

Experiments recently conducted for the purpose of determining the
amounts of odorous constituents of several plants present at various
stages of development seem to indicate that both the quality and the
quantity of the oils vary appreciably during their successive stages
of development, but no evidence was obtained to show that consump-
tion of odor took place during flowering. However, it was proved
that the odor was developed during the advance in growth and the
approach of the flowering period.

Three typical plants were used as a basis of experiment, viz, pepper-
mint {Mentha jni^etita)^ bergamot mint {Mentha citrata), and worm-
wood {Artemisia absinthium), the oil of each of Which owes its
characteristic fragrance to esters which admit of being measured
quantitatively with some accuracy. The plants were grown under
like conditions and distillations conducted at three well-defined stages
of advancement, namely, (1) before flowering (or while in the bud-
ding state), (2) at flowering, and (3) after flowering (or during the
fruiting stage).

The effect of successive stages of growth upon the esters and the
alcohol only wnll be considered here, although other constituents, and
especially the terpenic compounds, also suffer changes.

195

32 THE PKODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMEEY PLANTS.

To picture more clearly the results of the experiments and the
changes observed in the oils, tabulations were made as follows :

Table I. — Yield of oil and changes observed in plants at different stages of

groicth.

PErPERMINT (MENTHA PIPERITA).

Stage of growth.

Before flowering (July 22)

At flowering time (August 21) . .
After flowering (September 25).

Ester con-
tent as

menthyl
acetate.

I'er cent. I Per cent.
0. 23 9. .5

.20
.10

14. .5
24.0

Alcohol
content as
free men-
thol.

Per cent.
31.0
23.6
34.0

BERGAMOT MINT (MENTHA CITRATA).

Stage of growth.

Before flowering (July 20)

At flowering time (September22i
After flowering (October 14)

Yield of
oil.

Per cent.
0.32
.37
.22

Ester con-
tent as
linalyl
acetate.

Alcohol

content as

linalool,

free.

Percent. Psr cnt.
47.6 7.3

5.5.0 7.3

52.0 5.5

WORMWOOD (ARTEMISIA ABSINTHIUM).

Stage of growth.

Before flowering (July 2) . .
At flowering time (July 14)
After flowering (August 4)

Ester con-

Yield of

tent as

oil.

thujyl

acetate.

Per cent.

Per cent.

0.19

26.0

.18

32.5

.10

47.5

Alcohol

content as

thujyl

alcohol,

free.

Per cent.
14.7
n.7
12.0

It is obvious from these results that in two cases, with peppermint
and with wormwood, the aromatic quality of the oil, if measured by
the percentage of esters, is increased gradually during each stage of
growth, the percentage of free alcohol remaining fairly constant. In
the peppermint the oil from the "after-flowering" stage was notice-
ably more fragrant than the oils from the two earlier stages. The
yield of oil remains fairh' constant up to the last stage, when there
is a marked diminution. The plant in the first two stages is very
much the same as regards moisture content, while the low percentage
of oil from the plant after flowering, when it possesses much less
succulency, may be attributed to the consumption of other constitu-
ents than the esters and alcohol. This applies to all of the plants
which seem to follow the same general course in this respect.

The oils from the l:>ergamot mint disclose a verv slight decrease
in ester content and alcohol content in the " after-flowering " stage.

195

GROWTH AND HAEVESTING OF PERFUME PLANTS.

33

The decrease is so slight, however, as not to warrant the statement
that a consumption of odor has occurred.

It must be understood that these results are proposed only tenta-
tiveh' and that further experiments will be carried on to prove or
disprove the conclusions drawn.

Employing the aforementioned plants as typical examples, the
harvest j^eriod, in order to attain a maximum j^ield of oil with a
correspondingly high percentage of odorous constituents, should
begin as soon as the plant is fully blossomed. A delay of the
harvesting until the " after-flowering " stage is reached apparently
increases somewhat the quality of the odor, but this increase is largely
overbalanced by the decrease in the yield of oil, which is of para-
mount importance to the grower.

The proper preparation of the material prior to distillation is not
to be overlooked, since the quality and the quantity of the oil are
varied considerably b}^ improper handling and by partial or com-
plete drying of the fresh plant before it enters the still.

To illustrate this point more clearly, practical instances will be
mentioned to show the effect of drj'ing upon the quality and the
quantity of the oil from plants. The three examples previously men-
tioned will be used as a basis for the comparison of the oils from
fresh and dry material. In order to obtain a rational and logical
means for comparing the oils, fresh, green plants of peppermint, ber-
gamot mint, and wormwood were cut during the height of their blos-
soming stage. The herb in each case was divided into two equal parts,
one half of which was set away to dry and the other half distilled
immediately. The oils obtained were later analj'zed for the esters
and the alcohols, and the results obtained are presented in Table II.

Table II. — Yield of oil and percentages of esters and of alcohols obtained from

fresh and from dry plants.

PEPPERMINT (MENTHA PIPERITA).

Condition of plant.

Date of distil-
lation.

Yield of
oil.

Mentliyl
acetate.

Menthol.

Fresh

Per cent.

August O1.50

December -."iS

Per cent.
10.5
18.0

Per cent.

48

Drv

47

BERGAMOT MINT (MENTHA CITRATA).

Condition of plant.

Date of distil-
lation.

Fresh
Drj' . . .

September.
December .

Yield of
oil.

Per cent.

"1.30

.75

Linalyl
acetate.

Per cent.
33.0
51.8

Linalool.

Per cent.
45
43

195

Calculated from dry weight.

34 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMEEY PLANTS.

Table II. — Yield of oil and percentages of esters and of alcohols ohtaiiuil from
fresh and from dry [jlants — Continued.

WORMWOOD (ARTEMISIA ABSINTHIUM).

Condition of plant.

Date of distil-
lation.

Yield of
oil.

Thuiyl
acetate.

Thujyl
alcohol.

Fr6sli - -....--

Aiigust

December

Per cent.

O.GO

.44

Per cent.
32
35

Per cent.
41

Drv

18

These data with respect to the oils from fresh and dry herbs readily
illustrate that during the drying of the plants certain factors, assisted
by exposure to air and light, undoubtedly bring about chemical
changes in the aromatic constituents, which evidence themselves in
the final analyses of the oils.

It will be noted that the yield of oil decreases 63^ per cent in the case
of peppermint, while the percentage of decrease of oil from bergamot
mint is nearly 43, and from wormwood about 27 per cent. These
marked decreases are in part due to the long period of drying, but
they at least show that there is a dow^nward tendency, which is very
natural considering the volatility of the constituents.

In all three cases there seems to be an increase in the percentage of
esters, w^ith a decrease in the percentage of alcohol, in the dried herb,
the chemical changes no doubt being such as to facilitate the produc-
tion of esters and to break down the alcohols. Apparently the alco-
hols seem to be more unstable, condensing wdth the organic acids in
the plant under favorable conditions of heat, light, and moisture to
form esters. This latter change is especially noticeable in all the
oils, the dry-herb oils being considerably richer in esters than the
fresh-herb oils, and correspondingly poorer in alcohols.

In order to produce the largest yield of oil from a given quantity
of herb, distillation should be made immediately after harvesting.
There is no noteworthy advantage in drying or even partially drying
the plant, since the longer the time between the cutting and the dis-
tilling the more volatile oil will be lost by gradual evaporation or
volatilization. Although the quantity of oil capable of being carried
off into the air by simple drying seems only trifling, nevertheless, on
a large scale the loss would be considerable. The increased propor-
tion of the odoriferous esters in the oils from dry herbs is insufficient
to warrant the drying of the plants before distillation, because of the
loss of oil encountered during the drying process.

VOLATILE OIL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

At the present time the number of plants in the United States
yielding volatile oils in a commercial way is very small, but the num-
ber capable of yielding oils of probable value is correspondingly

195

VOLATILE OIL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 35

great. There is, in fact, a large number of odoriferous plants still
uninvestigated which should demand consideration. As yet but little
research has been undertaken Avhich would tend to increase the num-
ber of valuable aromatic plants now Ijeing utilized. A study of this
particular phase of the subject, coupled with the introduction of for-
eign species into the United States, should eventually develop some-
what the resources of the country along this important line.

CULTIVATED PLANTS.

The relatively small number of volatile-oil-yielding plants at pres-
ent under cultivation and the success of the industry based on these
few plants should be sufficient justification for widening the scope of
our efforts.

The cultivated plants at the present time are principally the mints,
peppermint and spearmint, together with small quantities of such
plants as wormwood, tansy, and wormseed.

The distillation of peppermint « and spearmint in the United States
dates back to 1816. when the peiDpermint plant was first cultivated for
the production of the oil in Xew York, followed somewhat later by
spearmint. The cultivation gradually spread, until at present the
center of the industry is in Michigan, with limited production in
Indiana.

The cultivation in New York and Michigan has decreased recently,
owing to a slight oversupplj?-, which, however, is probabh^ only tem-
poraiy. Peppermint and spearmint are possibl}' more largely dis-
tilled in the United States than any other oils at the present time,
excluding such plants as grow wild and which produce large quan-
tities of oil. notably the turj)entine-yielding pines.

The wormwood plant (Artemisia ahsintMum) ^ although introduced
from Europe, has been cultivated to some extent commercially in
Wisconsin, ]\Iichigan. Xew York, and other Xorth-Central States.
The distillation of the oil has been conducted with a certain degree
of success, the yield from fresh. floAvering herbs being from one-tliird
to one-half of 1 per cent. It is, however, questionable whether, in
the light of the recent European agitation against wormwood, this
plant will continue to be cultivated for its oil to the same extent as
in the past.

The herb tansy {Tanacetum vulgare) is grown for its oil in a small
way in the eastern part of the United States and yields from one-
tenth to one-fifth of 1 per cent of a volatile oil used principally' in
medicine.

The plant American wormseed {Cheiwpodiuin amhrosioides L.,
var. antlielminticum) is grown chiefly in Maryland and southward,

" Bulletin 90, pt. 3, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
195

36 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMERY PLANTS.

where the jDlant is found growing wild. There are produced the
seeds, which are valuable commercially, and the volatile oil dis-
tilled therefrom, which also possesses the anthelmintic action of the
seeds.

Another volatile oil which is produced on a very extensive scale
and which has been distilled commercial!}" for more than a century,
naniel}", oil of turpentine, deserves brief mention. The production
of turpentine oil is confined principally to the Southern and Gulf
States, from Virginia to Florida, regions of extensive pine forests.
Turpentine is obtained as an oleoresinous exudation from several
varieties of pine trees, chief among which is the long-leaved pine
{Pinus folustAs Miller). Other species, such as Pinus taeda L. and
Pinus echinata Miller, also yield a valuable oleoresin. Unlike most
volatile oils, the oil of turpentine is not distilled directly from the
plant but results as one of the products of the distillation of the
oleoresin obtained from the trees, the other product being the rosin
or colophony of commerce. The usefulness and value of oil of
turpentine in commerce, both in the arts and in medicine, where it is
practically indispensable, require no further comment.

The plants just enumerated represent the principal volatile-oil
plants which are cultivated or gathered for oil production in the
United States. The distillation of oils from the mint species is a
singular instance of an industry of commercial magnitude, while the
several other oils which are being distilled from cultivated plants
occupy a secondary position in production. The further development
of some of the oils mentioned will be controlled largely by the con-
sumption of the products and by the demand which may be created
for them.

The experimental work being conducted at the present time at the
Arlington Experimental Farm, near Washington, D. C, is such as to
demonstrate the practicability of more extensive cultivation of the
i:»lants already grown, as well as of other plants growing wild at
present, but which b}' proper methods of domestication can probably
be greatW improved both from the standpoint of luxuriance of
growth and of fragrance.

The introduction of foreign species of volatile-oil plants and the
testing of the same upon native soil are also receiving considerable
attention, and the successful production of oil is clearly assured in
some cases. Suitable localities, however, must be chosen to conform
with the natural habitats of the introduced plants in order to attain
the highest degree of efficiency of production.

WILD PLANTS.

Possibly the number of wild aromatic plants which are used in the
manufacture of volatile oils exceeds that of those which are at present

195

VOLATILE OIL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 37

cultivated. The extent of the production of tlie oils is much less,
chiefly because of the more or less scattered condition of these plants,
and therefore the difficulty of gathering them in large quantities.
Usually these wild aromatic plants are distributed over wide areas
confused largely with other volatile or nonvolatile species, thus caus-
ing the rapid collection of the plants to be seriously hindered. For
this reason, probably, together with lack of interest in the cultiva-
tion of the wild plants, the production of their oils has been largely
restricted.

SASSAFRAS.

A specific example of an important uncultivated plant which yields
a volatile oil of considerable value is the sassafras tree. Sassafras
oil was one of the first volatile oils distilled in America, The range
of the tree is from Florida, where it was originally discovered, to
Virginia and Pennsylvania, and even as far north as Xew York and
the New England States. It is quite abundant in the South-Central
States, especially Kentucky, Tennessee, and Arkansas. The produc-
tion of this oil attained commercial significance early in the last
century, and it is distilled extensively at present in Kentucky, Ten-
nessee, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia; also to a less extent
in Ohio, Indiana, and New York.

Although the distillation of this very fragrant oil, which is ob-
tained principally from the bark of the root of the sassafras tree
{Sassafras officmalis), has assumed a strong commercial aspect, the
tree has not been grown, strictly speaking, for oil purposes. No
doubt the great abundance and the ready accessibility of the trees
OTowinsf wild are the causes of the noncultivation of this tree for
commercial purposes. The leaves and branches of the tree are
faintly aromatic, but are not used as a source of the oil. The root
bark and wood, which contain from 1 to 8 per cent of volatile oil,
form the crude source of supply. The oil is distilled by the ordinary
method of steam distillation, the wood and bark of the root being
previousl}' coarsely comminuted to admit of better extraction.

WINTERGREEN AND SWEET BIRCH.

The distillation of the oils of wintergreen and sweet birch is a
further example of wild aromatic plants furnishing oils in sufficient
quantities to supply the trade. Both wintergreen {Ganlfheria pro-
cumbcns) and sweet birch {Betula lenta) occur largely from the New
England States and North-Central States to Georgia, Florida, and
Alabama. The distillation of these oils dates back nearly as far as
that of the oil of sassafras and has developed until the industry at
present is of some significance. Wintergreen and sweet birch are
entirely unrelated plants, yet the oils produced from them by dis-

195

38 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AXD PERFUMERY PLAXTS.

t illation are for all practical uses identical. Mention has been made
previously of the fact that the oil in these plants is formed by re-
action and does not preexist in the tissues. The glucosid gaultherin
is the constituent which is responsible for the formation of this oil,
and since the reaction between this glucosid and the plant ferment is
the same in both plants, the resulting volatile oil (or methyl salicy-
late) must necessarily be similar.

In the case of the sweet birch, which is a tree of some size, the bark
of the trunk and the small branches are used for distillation, being
previously cut into small pieces and allowed to macerate with water
before introduction into the still. A yield of three-tenths to three-
fifths of 1 per cent of oil is obtained. On the other hand, for
the separation of the oil of wintergreen the leaves and twigs are
used, the plant being more or less shrubby. The same treatment is
applied to wintergreen as to sweet birch, maceration in water being
allowed to continue for a period of several hours prior to distillation.
The yield of volatile oil from wintergreen varies from one-half to 1
per cent. Owing to the abundance of these plants their cultivation
especially for the volatile oil has not been attempted, the material
being collected from the plants as they grow in their native habitats.
The strict enforcement of the Food and Drugs Act has tended to
curtail largelv the use of the svnthetic oil (methvl salicvlate) for
certain purposes where the natural oil is required. A more active
demand for the natural oils of sweet birch and wintergreen has neces-
sarily resulted, the j^rice of these oils being thereby materially
advanced.

CANADA FLEABASE.

Several other plants capable of yielding volatile oils of some value
are at present distilled in the United States. A very common herb
growing abundantly in the Xorth-Central and "Western States, the
Canada fleabane {Erigeron canadensis)^ usually regarded as a weed
and known to westerners as the fireweed (not the true fireweed, how-
ever), is distilled in a small way in connection with the distillation
of peppermint. The plant, which is a hard}' annual, is not cultivated,
but is cut in the wild condition, no special care being taken to elimi-
nate other aromatic weeds or plants, and consequently there results
an oil which, although representing the oil of erigeron, is far below
the true standard of the oil, owing to the presence of extraneous plant
matter introduced during distillation.

EVCALYPTUS.

The production of eucalyptus oil from the leaves and twigs of the
blue-ginn tree (EycaJyptus glohuJus) is of considerable importance
in the volatile-oil industry of the United States. The commercial

105

VOLATILE OIL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 39

production of this oil is confined almost exclusively to the State of
California, where the tree grows abundantly. The tree is not
cultivated as a source of volatile oil, but is extensively grown for
ornamental; fuel, and timber purposes. The leaves and twigs are
collected from the waste branches or brush resulting when the trees
are cut for timber or wood and used for the purpose of distillation.
The material selected for distillation may be coarsely comminuted
and the essential oil readil}' obtained therefrom by the usual method
of steam distillation.

The yield of oil varies from three-tenths to four-fifths of 1 per cent,
according to the quantity of woody branches and twigs introduced
into the still with the leaves, the latter producing the highest 3'ield
of oil. The use of this oil is very general, and it is employed chiefly
as a therapeutic agent. From TO to 90 per cent of the oil consists of
eucalyptol or cineol, the chief constituent and the one to which its
valuable antiseptic properties are due.

The waste leaves and branches accumulating when the trees are
cut for lumber or wood are not fully utilized. At points where a
considerable number of trees are being felled a distilling apparatus
could under favorable circumstances be profitably installed and suc-
cessfully operated at a very moderate expense. It has been estimated
that 2 tons of leaves and twigs will produce from 3 to i gallons of oil
at a cost of about $3 a gallon for distilling the oil.''

MONARDAS.

Two additional plants possessing volatile oils of antiseptic value
and growing wild in the whole north-central portion of the United
States, from Pennsylvania to Minnesota, are wild bergamot {Monarda
fistidosa) and horsemint {Monarda punctata), belonging to the
Labiate tribe. These plants yield oils rich in antiseptic constituents,
the former producing an oil consisting chiefly of the liquid phenol
carvacrol, while the oil from the latter consists for the most part of
the crystalline phenol thymol. Both of these constituents are isomeric
in character and of equal value as antiseptics, the extensive use of
thymol for medicinal purposes being familiar to most people.

"Wild bergamot and horsemint, owing to their hardiness, are capable
of profitable cultivation in the Xorth-Central States, where the
climatic conditions seem to be especially suitable for their growth and
for the production of oil. The whole fresh |)lant during its flowering
condition is generally distilled, the amount of oil obtained being
influenced by conditions of growth and culture, but averaging from
three-tenths to 1 per cent or more. The perennial nature of the plants
enables the grower to produce them from year to year with a mini-

" Bulletin 196, California Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 34.
195

40 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMERY PLANTS.

mum of labor on somewhat sandy, dry soil which possibly has no
great value for the j^roduction of other croj^s.

PENNYROYAL.

Pennyroyal is a small annual herb characteristic of the east-central
portion of the United States. It is distilled for its oil principally in
Ohio and Xorth Carolina, with smaller operations in intermediate
States. The pennyroyal plant {Hedeoma pulegoides) is native to
the United States, is readily propagated and grown, and yields a
volatile oil which finds extensive application in therapeutics. The
yield of oil distilled from the fresh flowering herb varies from three-
fifths to 1 per cent.

MISCELLANEOUS AROMATIC PLANTS CAPABLE OF CULTIVATION.

The foregoing instances represent typical cases of wild plants indi-
genous to the United States and capable of yielding volatile oils,
some of which are distilled on a quasi-commercial basis while others
are not grown or distilled at all.

Hosts of other wild aromatic plants are found growing in all sec-
tions of the country, many possessing exceedingly fine fragrance and
many, on the other hand, possessing odors less attractive but never-
theless possibly of value. These odorous plants will in most cases
produce volatile oils which ma}' contain constituents of value, not only
in the iDerfumeiy trade but also in the arts and medicine. A system-
atic canvass of the flora of the United States, with special atten-
tion to those plants which possess an aroma, and a trial distillation of
the same, followed by a careful, detailed chemical examination of the
oils, will no doubt bring to light new oils, the value of which may be
determined from the nature of the constituents identified in them.
Several new volatile oils have been distilled within the past year
which have been shown by chemical analysis to contain highly valu-
able constituents. The results of these experiments, which have
proved very gratifying, will be published in the' near future, and the
significance of the exploration in this field of research will be clearly
indicated. Practicall}' no progress has been made in this direction
within the last few decades. The necessity of these investigations is
therefore strongly recommended.

Various other plants deserving mention, besides those alreadj^ culti-
vated and those growing wild which possess volatile products of
value to the perfumer and confectioner, are the rose, lavender, rose
geranium, rosemary, thyme, SAveet basil, summer savoiy, and sweet
marjoram, and the umbelliferous seeds (caraway, anise, fennel, and
coriander), besides the citrus fruits lemon and orange. The plants of
the first general class, though not native to this country, have been

195

VOLATILE OIL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 41

introduced and groAvn as garden plants, luxuriant growth and ex-
cellent aromas usually being obtained.

The umbelliferous plants mentioned have also been largely grown,
although only on a garden scale, usually for their seeds, which
possess considerable value to the housewife and to the confectioner
for flavoring or condimental purposes. The distillation of the oils
from these seeds has been very largely for experimental purposes
only.

The citrus fruits, although grown very extensively, have received
but slight attention in the United States from the standpoint of their
volatile oils, which are of so much value to the scenter and perfumer.

The rose, lavender, and rose geranium, although possessing ex-
ceedingly fragrant volatile oils have received only trifling considera-
tion as regards cultivation for the aroma.

It is not unlikely that certain sections of the United States are
adapted to the growth of the Bulgarian rose, which produces the rose
oil of commerce. In order to locate these desirable regions, practical
tests would be required, attention being paid to the quality of the
perfume obtained and also to the labor required in the gathering of
the rose petals. Besides the usual variety of rose used for perfume
cultivation, the Rosa damascena^ there are a number of other species
which have become naturalized in this country and which possess
fragrance of exceedingly high quality, besides being prolific bearers.

Experiments in connection with the growing of roses for perfumery
purposes are worthy of attention in some of the southern portions
of the United States w^here the conditions of climate are especially
favorable and where, since the petals must be plucked by hand for
distillation, labor would be sufficiently cheap to insure a certain
degree of success.

Lavender {Lavandula vera), now grown extensively in the semi-
mountainous districts of France and in England for the volatile oil,
is no less capable of growth on the soils of this country than other
plants which are at present grown profitably. The regions of growth
in France, Ital}^ and England are not entirely dissimilar and do
not possess any more suitable climatic and soil conditions than might
be supplied in some sections of the United States. In this case ex-
periments would also be necessary to locate desirable regions, but
the labor factor would be minimized considerably owing to the fact
that the entire tops of the plants are distilled. Owing to the little
labor required in connection with lavender, enterprise in this matter
should not be lacking.

The rose geranium (Pelargonium odorafissimum) , a plant with
an exquisite odor grown and distilled in France, Spain, Algiers, and
the island of Reunion, deserves some consideration with regard to
cultivation, inasmuch as the oil distilled from the plant is of such

195

42 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMERY PLANTS,

a nature as to make it almost indispensable in the perfumery industry.
Unlike that of lavender, the odor of the rose geranium resides in
the leaves, the flowers being almost odorless. Experiments in a pre-
liminary way are now being carried on to determine the quality of
the oil capable of being distilled from this plant. As in the case of
the rose and lavender, the most suitable location can be learned
only by a system of tests in localities with diffei-ent climatic and soil
conditions.

Kosemary [^Rosmarinus officinalis), thyme {Thymt/s nulgaris),
sweet basil {Ocimum basilicum), summer savory [Satureja horten-
sis), and sweet marjoram (Origanmn marjorana), besides others of
this type originating in Mediterranean countries and yielding oils
of excellent fragrance for both the perfumers and the toilet-prepara-
tion manufacturers, can by proper attention and perseverance no
doubt be produced advantageousl3\ A factor of considerable import
in the growth and distillation of these plants is that whole fresh
herbs can be distilled, thus obviating the necessity of picking the
flowers by hand.

The distillation of oil from such seeds as caraway, anise, fennel,
and coriander, which are so universally used for flavoring and scent-
ing purposes, has been successfully exploited in southern Europe for
decades. These seeds have been introduced into the United States
and grown in small quantities, principally for household use. The
ease of production as a household necessity should be sufficient stimu-
lus for growing the plants on a broader basis for the distillation of
the very fragrant oils. The North-Central States, with their excel-
lent soil and climate, undoubtedly are capable of producing profitable
yields of seeds giving from 2 to 7 per cent of volatile oil. The
method of distillation is similar to that of leaves or herbs, with the
exception that, in order to facilitate the permeation of the steam, the
seeds are ground coarsely before being subjected to the steam vapors.

The commercial isolation of oils from citrus fruits and their by-
l^roducts centers principally in Sicily and Italy. The production of
oil from either lemon or orange peel in the citrus regions of Cali-
fornia has received but slight attention and should be deserving of
more, inasmuch as the demand for these oils is very constant and
the prices reasonably high. The distillation of waste lemons or
unsalable lemons would possibly yield a volatile oil of lemon of fair
quality, wdiich no doubt would find a ready market. The Sicilian
methods of hand expression are practically out of the question be-
cause of the labor factor involved. The distillation of lemon-tree
prunings yields an oil of extremely high citral content, which should
prove valuable for flavoring purposes.

195

COMMEECIAL ASPECT OF THE INDUSTRY. 43

COMMERCIAL ASPECT OF THE INDUSTRY.
VALUE ANI> CONSUMPTION OF VOLATILE OILS.

Mention has already been made of the vaUie in general of volatile
oils as industrial products, which commercially have not been manu-
factured in the United States to any extent, the mint oils being
singular exceptions. Lack of interest in the growth and develop-
ment of perfumery plants is principally responsible for the inactive
condition now existing in this important phase of industrial enter-
prise. Possibly a lack of experience with regard to the growth of
the plants concerned and the methods necessary for success has been
largely instrumental in preventing the upbuilding of this branch
of industry.

It must be conceded that very large quantities of volatile oils are
at present consumed in the United States in the several uses to which
they are applied. In the manufacture of perfumes the role played
by volatile oils is all important. A large proportion of the amounts
consumed enters the channels of the perfumery trade. Usually per-
fumes consist of blends of odors brought about by a skillful com-
bining of several oils in varying proportions through a medium
capable of holding in' solution these oils and odoriferous ingredients.
The manufacture of perfumes has shown but little development in
the New World. Perfumery products are largely imported in the pre-
pared condition, chiefly from France, where the skillful art of com-
pounding has been scientifically developed.

The use of volatile oils in flavoring and in the manufacture of
flavoring extracts is very extensive, but it is restricted to a compara-
tively small number of oils, principal among which are lemon, orange,
wintergreen, peppermint, and others of this type.

For scenting purposes, such as aromatizing soaps and toilet prep-
arations in general, volatile oils have been employed very extensively
in the United States. Their use in this line of application has in-
creased with the increase in the manufacture of these much-demanded

articles.

On the other hand, the medicinal value of certain oils and of cer-
tain constituents which can be isolated from them has created a de-
mand which in part has been supplied by home production and in
part by foreign production. The separation of important thera-
peutic ingredients, chiefly antiseptics, has been highly serviceable
in the treatment of many ailments, a striking instance of this kind
being the separation of camphor from the oil of camphor, this ingre-
dient playing an important role in medicine as well as in the arts.
Other oils deserving mention in this connection are those of euca-
lyptus and thyme, the former yielding the vahiable eucalyptol and
the latter thymol. Another example is peppermint oil, from which

195

44 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PEE'FUMERY PLANTS.

menthol is isolated. All of these constituents possess therapeutic
value of no little importance.

In order that the grower may become acquainted with the approxi- •
mate value of volatile oils on the American market, the following
tabulation of prices has been prepared. The perfumery articles
listed include the principal volatile oils which enter the markets of
the United States for consumption, the prices being current whole-
sale quotations in effect in January, 1910. l^rices are per pound
unless otherwise stated.

Wliolesalc prices of various volatile oils in the markets of the Vnited states,

January, 1910."

Almond, bitter $3.25 to $4. 75

Anise 1.10 to 1.12^

Bay 1.90 to 2.00

Bergamot 3.75 to 4.00

Cade .10 to .20

Cajeput .52* to .55

Camphor .09 to .10

Caraway seed 1.15 to 1.25

Cedar, leaf 1 . 42* to .45

Cedar, wood .16 to .17

Cinnamon 6.50 to 12. 00

Citronella .25 to .28

Cloves .70 to .72i

Copaiba 1.00 to 1.10

Coriander 5.00 to 6.00

Cubeb 3.00 to 3.25

• Erigeron 1.50 to 1.60

Eucalyptus, American .35 to .60

Fennel seed 1.10 to 1.30

Geranium, rose, African 3. .50 to 4.00

Geranium, rose, Turliisb 2. 25 to 2. 50

Ginger 4.00 to 4.50

Ginger grass 1.10 to 1.85

Hemlock .45 to .50

Jmiiper, berries .80 to LOO

.Juniper, wood .28 to .25

Lavender, flowers 1.85 to 2.25

Lavender, spike .60 to 1.10

T^mon . 77^ to .85

Lemon grass .80 to .85

Lime, expressed , 1.75 to 2.00

Lime, distilled .55 to .60

Linaloe 2.80 to 2. S5

Mace .70 to ,75

Male fern 1.90 to 2.20

Mustard — 3.00 to 4.00

Neroli, petals 50.00 to 75. 00

Xeroli, bigard 35.00 to 50. 00

a Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter, vol. 77, no. 4, January 24, 1910, p. 32.
195

COMMERCIAL ASPECT OF THE INDUSTRY. 45

Nutmeg $0.70 to $0. SO

Orange, bitter 2.25 to 2.35

Orange, sweet 2.20 to 2.40

Origanum . 20 to .40

Patchouli 4.00 to 4.25

Pennyroyal 1-70 to 1.80

Pennyroyal, French 1.40 to 1.50

Peppermint, tins 2.00 to 2.10

Peppermint, bottles 2.30 to 2. ,35

Petit grain, French 5.00 to 6.00

Petit grain. South American 2.40 to 2.75

Pimento 1-90 to 2.25

Rose, natural peroz__ 5.00 to 5.50

Rosemary flowers . 672 to .75

Safrol -40

Sandalwood 3.00 to 3.25

Sassafras -55 to .65

Savine 1. 25 to 1. 30

Spearmint 1-75 to 1.85

Spruce .40 to .45

Tansy 2.50 to 2.75

Thyme 1-00 to' 1.10

Wintergreen (or sweet birch) 1.45 to 1.75

Wiutergreen, leaf 3.25 to 4.25

Wormseed 1-50 to l.GO

Wormwood 6.25 to 6.50

Ylaug-ylang 47.00 to 65. 00

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF VOLATILE OILS.

Importations of volatile oils and allied products have increased
from year to year until at the present time the expenditures for
volatile oils and perfumes aggregate more than $'2,000,000 annually.

According to the statistics of imports compiled by the Bureau of
Statistics of the Department of Commerce and Labor, the importa-
tion of volatile and distilled oils, free and dutiable, for the year
ending June 30, 1908, amounted to $3,619,161.33.« From this amount
there should be deducted $886,923, which represents distilled oils not
of plant origin. The total importation, therefore, of volatile oils,
free and dutiable, distilled from plants for the above year was valued
at $2,732,238.33. These figures represent only the volatile oils
imported.

In addition to the sum mentioned, the imports of alcoholic per-
fumery, including toilet and cologne waters and alcoholic handker-
chief perfumes, must be considered. The total imports of this class
of perfumes for the year ending Jime 30, 1908, amounted to
$484,498.43."

« Commerce and Navigation of the Ignited States, 1908, p. 917.
195

46

THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PEEFUMEEY PLANTS.

The value of toilet preparations, such as cosmetics, hair washes,
dentrifices, pastes, pomades, and powders, into which perfumery sub-
stances enter may also be mentioned in this connection. The imports
of these preparations for the above year reached a total of
$004,258.09."

For purposes of comparison and to illustrate the remarkable in-
crease of consumption of volatile oils of foreign production, the sta-
tistics extending over several years are tabulated.''

Tablk III. — Itiii)()rl.s of volatile lunl distilled oils for the years ending June

30, 1!)03 to 1908, inclusive.

Free imports from —

Europe

North America.
South America.

Asia

Oceania

Africa

1903.

81,253,360

2,747

2. 364

191,730

129

1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

$1,318,606
1,315

4, 052
252, 729

1,450,330

290

1,576,992

»1, 387, 268 SI, 617, 796

16,389 5,713

2,205 I 750

176,563 308,781

24

f 2, 227, 530

2,431

4,9d9

407, 008

304

1,582,449 1,933,040 2,642,242

1908.

82,215,265

5, 996

14,886

311,688

2,550,835

Table IV. — Imi>orts of volatile and distilled oils for the i/ears ending June 30^

1U03 to IDOS, inelKsive.

Dutiable imports from^

1903.

1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

1908.

Europe . ...

8590, 493
14,444

8745, 013
12,210

8865,008
4,994

88.50, 989
12,794
15
38, 361
15, .529
12,227

8987.919
18,879

81,028,630
15,678

North America

South America

415

Asia

86, 768
14,296

41,214

20,958

361

54, 296

24,. 343

3.003

32, 572
17,123

3, 485

22, 441

Oceania

19, 308

Africa

8,134

Total

706, 001

819, 756

951,644

929, 915

1,059,978

1,094,606

The steady increase in the importation of perfumery products,
as shown in Tables III and IV, indicates that the consumption of
volatile oils and scenting materials in America is also increasing.
AVith the exception of peppermint, comparatively small quantities
of crude oils are distilled and exported from the United States. The
exports of peppermint oil, distilled largely in Xew York and ^liclii-
gan, for the year ending June 30, 1908, were 141,617 pounds, valued
at $357,555," while all other essential oils exported amounted to
$214,765.

The imports of volatile oils and perfumery materials far exceed the
exports of the same jiroducts, the principal product of export being
peppermint oil, a singular case where the distillation approaches
industrial size in the Ignited States.

Toiiinierce fuid N;iviir:ition of tlio TTnitod States, 100,9. ]i. 019.
'' Commerce and Navigation of the Ignited States, 1908, p. 279.
c Commerce and Navigation of the United States, 1908, p. 636.
195

CONCLUSIONS. 47

The total yearly outlay for the crude materials, and also for the
finished products, is sufficient to attract attention and is deserving
of concerted action on the part of growers and others who might
profitably engage in this neglected field of research and practice.

PRESENT SOURCES AND COST OF PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS.

The present source of these commercial products, which may be
gleaned from the tabulation, is Europe, from whence they are im-
ported both in the crude state and in the manufactured condition.
Italy possibly furnishes the smallest quota of volatile oils and the
largest valuation, the products being chiefly the citrus oils, supplied
solely by Sicily and Italy and consumed to a great extent in the
United States. From France the large proportion of perfumery
extracts and finer essential oils is imported. Avhile (lermany, Turkey,
and Great Britain distribute to this country large consignments of
crude and purified volatile oils.

The Mediterranean regions of Europe are the chief sources of these
aromatics, which are so generally employed in the industries in
diverse waj's. The cost of production is minimized in these countries
because of the cheaper class of labor as compared with laboi' in
America, for instance. In the handling of many flowers and plants,
much hand labor is required, especially in the collection of the mate-
rial prior to distillation. The actual distillation and purification of
the oils can be conducted with equal economy in the United States,
while in the case of no small number of plants which may be suitably
collected and distilled in the whole condition the question of labor
becomes a less serious factor, especially in some instances where mow-
ing machines may be employed advantageously to harvest the crops.
AVhere hand picking is required, as in the case of some of the more
delicate odors from flowers and flowering tops, cultivation and ex-
traction of the odor could possibly be carried out in the Southern
States, which have abundant sunshine, an important prerequisite in
odor development. Furthermore, the lal)or conditions in the South-
ern States are such that the cost of gathering, which is a serious
obstacle, would be comparable to a degree with that in foreign
countries

CONCLUSIONS.

In view of the success which has been achieved in the United
States along a number of special lines, the outlook for a very con-
siderable extension of the volatile-oil industrv in general seems
promising. Favorable conditions of soil and climate seem to be
obtainable. With an increased practical knowledge of how to luuidle
the crops of greatest promise and with a working familiarity with the

195

48 THE PEODUCTION OF VOLATILE OILS AND PERFUMERY PLANTS.

forms of apparatus used in separating- the oils, the preliminary steps
leading to such an extension will have been taken. Before a full-
fledged industry can be expected to appear, however, much prelimi-
nary experimental work must be done over a wide area in order to
ascertain the most successful combinations of soil, climate, and labor
conditions.

From the standpoint of the consumption of products derived from
volatile oils obtained from plants, the commercial statistics show a
large and active market. They also show that the demand is now
supplied in very large part from foreign sources, and an active inter-
est in testing the possibilities of our land is suggested.

195

i

INDEX.

Page.

Acetone, use in extraction of perfumes 16

Acids, relation to aroma of plants 10-11, 28

Africa, distilled oils exported to the United States 46-47

Alabama, growth of perfume-yielding plants 37-38

Alcohol, compounds, office as odor bearers 10-1 1, 45

relation to aroma of plants 10, 28, 31-34

use in extraction of perfumes 1 9-21

Aldehydes, relation to aroma of plants 10, 28

Algeria, perfumery industry 8, 41

Almond, bitter, aromatic oil 9, 12, 15, 44

Altitude, relation to development of aroma 13

Amygdalin, source of volatile oil of peach kernels, etc 15

Anise, aromatic oil 10, 12, 40, 42, 44

culture in the United States 40, 42

Apparatus, use in perfumery industries 7-8, 17, 20, 22, 23-25, 47

See also Distillation, Enfleurage, Extraction, and Steam.

Apricot, oil contained in seed 12, 15

Arkansas, perfumery-plant industries 37

Arlington Experimental Farm. See Experiments at Arlington.

Aroma of plants, conditions of development 12-16, 31-34

derivation 10

factors affecting quality 12, 13, 14, 29

See also Climate, Culttu-e, Light, and Soil.

methods of extraction 16-27

nature, localization, and development 9-1 6

Aromatics, early use 7

Artemisia absinthium, use and cultiu-e 31-34, 35

Asia, distilled oils exported to the United States 46^7

Attar of rose, development of industry in Bulgaria and Turkey 8

Balsam, Oregon, oil obtained from oleoresin in wood 12

Barks, source of volatile oils 12, 14, 37, 38

Basil, sweet, culture in the United States 40, 42

Bay, aromatic oil 1 1, 44

Benzene, use in extraction of perfumes 16

Bergamot, aromatic oil from fruit 12, 21-22, 44

mint. See Mint, bergamot.

wild, source of aromatic oil 39-40

Betula lenta, source of aromatic oil 37-38

Birch, sweet, aromatic oil 14-15, 38, 45

growth in the United States 30,37-38

Blue-gum tree. See Eucalyptus.

Bulgaria, perfumery industry 8

Bulgarian rose. See Rose, Bulgarian.

Cade, wholesale price of aromatic oil 44

195 49

50 THE PEODUCTION OF VOLATILE OIL AND PERFUMERY PLANTS.

Page.

Cajeput, wholesale price of aromatic oil 44

Calcium chlorid, use in dehydrating oils 28

California, perfumery-plant industries 30, 39, 42

Camphor, source and price 43, 44

Canada fleabane. See Fleabane.

Canella, oil contained in bark 12

Caraway, aromatic oil 12, 30, 40, 42, 44

Cardamom, oil contained in seed 12

Carvacrol, product of wild bergamot 39

Cassie, aromatic oil 8, 11, 18, 21

Cedar, aromatic oil 7, 12, 30, 44

Charabot, A., and Hebert, A., on soils for growing peppermint 14

Chenopodium ambrosioides, growth in the United States 35-36

Chloroform, use in extraction of perfumes 16

Cineol, production from eucalyptus 39

Cinnamon, aromatic oil 12, 44

Citral, odorous constituent of lemon oil 10, 42

Citronella, aromatic oil 8, 11 , 44

Citrus fruits. See Fruits, citrus.
Citrus oils. See Fruits, citrus.

Climate, relation to perfumery industry 11, 12-14, 29, 47-48

Cloves, aromatic oil 10, 44

Cologne, imports 45

Colophony, by-product of turpentine distillation 36

Conclusions of bulletin 47^8

Coniferin, relation to aroma of vanilla bean 9-10

Copaiba, aromatic oil ] 2, 44

Coriander, oil contained in seeds 12, 40, 42, 44

Cotton, use as filtering medium 28

Cubeb, wholesale price of oil 44

Culture, relation to aroma of plants 11

Distillation, apparatus and methods 7-8, 22-25, 26-27

Ecuelle, use in extraction of aromatic oils ' 21-22

Elemi, oil obtained from oleoresin 12

Eiifleurage, process for extraction of oils 19-21

England, perfumery industries 8, 13, 41, 47

Erigeron, aromatic oil 30, 38, 44

canadensis, source of aromatic oil 38

Esters, office as odor bearers 10-11, 27, 28, 31-34

Ether, use in extraction of perfumes 16

Eucalyptol, medicinal use 39, 43

Eucalyptus globulus, source of aromatic oil 38-39

aromatic oil 11,38-39,43,44

Europe, distilled oils exported to the United States 46-47

Experiments at Arlington Experimental Farm 36

testing garden in Florida 30

in determining development of odorous constituents 31-34

to determine quality of rose-geranium oil 42

Extraction, methods and processes 7-8, 16-27, 37, 39, 42

Fats, use in extraction of odors ' 18-21

Fennel, aromatic oil 10, 12, 40, 42, 44

Fermentation. See Ferments.

Ferments, action in oil production 9-10, 15, 16, 38

195

INDEX. 51

Page.

Fern, male, wholesale price of oil 44

Fertilizers, effect on quality of aromatic oils 14

Fireweed. See Fleabane.

Fleabane, source of aromatic oil 38

Florida, perfumery-plant industries 30, 36, 37

Flowers, sources of aromatic oils 9, 10, 11, 16-18, 19-21, 26, 41, 47

France, perfumery industries 8, 13, 18, 41, 43, 47

Fruits, citrus, relation to aromatic-oil industry 8, 12, 21-22, 41, 42

source of aromatic oils 8,10,12,21-22,40,41,42

Gaultheria procumbens, source of aromatic oil 37-38

Gaultherin, relation to oil of wintergreen 14, 15, 38

Georgia, growth of perfume-yielding plants 37-38

Geranium, rose, aromatic oil 8, 10-11, 40, 41-42, 44

Germany, perfumery industries 8, 18, 47

Gildemeister, Eduard, Hoffmann, Friedrich, and Kremers, Edward, on low

ester content of English lavender oil 13

Ginger, wholesale price of oil 44

Ginger grass. See Grass, ginger.

Glucose, relation to aroma of plants 14-15

Glucosids, relation to production of aromatic oils 9-10, 14-15, 38

Grass, ginger, volatile oil 11, 44

lemon, volatile oil 8, 11, 44

Great Britain, exports of volatile oils to the United States 47

Harvest, factors determining time 31-34

Heat, effect on development of aroma 34

Hebert, A. See Gharabot, A.

Hedeoma pulegoides, source of aromatic oil -JO

Hemlock, wholesale price of oil 44

Herbs, whole, distillation .' 12, 42, 47

Hoffmann, Friedrich. See Gildemeister, Eduard.

Hood, S. C, growing perfumery plants in Florida 30

Horsemint, source of aromatic oils 39-40

Huisache. See Cassie.

Hydrocarbons, relation to aroma in plants 10, 28

Imports, perfumery products 45^6

India, development of perfumery industries 8

Indiana, perfumery-plant industiies 9, 30, 35, 37

Italy, perfumery industries 8, 41, 42, 47

Japan, development of perfumery industries 8

Jasmine, use in perfumery industry 18, 21

Juniper, wholesale j^rice of volatile oil 44

Kebler, L. F., on low ester content of English lavender oil 13-14

Kentucky, perfumery-plant industries 30, 37

Ketones, relation to aroma of plants 10

Kremers, Edward. See Gildemeister, Eduard.

Lamothe, M. I., on effect of altitude upon fragrance of lavender 13

Lavandula vera, source of aromatic oil 13, 41

Lavender, aromatic oil 8, 10-11, 26,41, 42, 44

culture in the United States 14, 30, 40, 41

effect of climate, altitude, and soil u])()n fragrance 13

Leaves, sources of aromatic oils 9, 10, 11, 14, 16, 38, 39, 42

Lecomte, Henri, on source of vanilla odor 9-10

Lemon, aromatic oil 10, 12, 21-22, 40, 42, 43, 44

grass. See Grass, lemon.
195

52 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OIL AND PERFUMERY PLANTS.

Page.

Light, relation to quality of aroma 12, 28-29, 34

Lime, wholesale price of volatile oil 44

Linaloe, wholesale price of aromatic oil 44

Linalool, odor bearer for certain plants 11 33

Linalyl acetate. See Linalool.

Mace, wholesale price of volatile oil 44

Marjoram, sweet, culture in the United States 40, 42

Male fern. See Fern, male.

Maryland, perfumery-plant industries 30, 35-36, 37

Mentha citrata and M. piperita, typical plants in experiments 31-34

Menthol, odor bearer for certain plants 11, 33, 43-44

Michigan, perfumery-plant industries 9, 27, 30, 35, 46

Minnesota, perfumery-plant industries 39

Mint, bergamot, experiments to determine proportions of constituents 31-34

Mississippi Valley, perfumery-plant industries 9

Moisture, effect on development of aroma 13, 34

process of extraction from oils 28

Monarda fistulosa and M. punctata, distribution 39

Monardas, source of aromatic oils 39-40

Moulin, E., perfumery-plant growing in Florida 30

Mustard, aromatic oil 10, 12, 15-16, 44

Nebraska, perfumery-plant industry 30

Neroli, wholesale price of volatile oil 44

New England, perfumery-plant industries 37

New York, perfumery-plant industries 9, 30, 35, 37, 46

North Carolina, perfumery-plant industry 40

Nutmeg, wholesale price of volatile oil 45

Oceania, distilled oils exported to the United States 46-47

Ocimum basilicum, source of aromatic oil 42

Odor. -See Aroma of plants.

Ohio, perfumery -plant industries 37, 40

Oil, aromatic. See Oils, volatile.

synthetic (of wintergreen), curtailment of use by law 38

Oils, volatile, chiefly contained in aerial portion of plants 12

composition, chemical 10, 28

consumption 43-47

cost of production 39, 47

derivation of term 9

development of industries 8-9, 29-42, 43

handling and preservation 27-29

imports and exports 45-46

indirectly obtained from plants 12, 14-16

localization in parts of plants 9, 10, 11-12

material, proper preparation prior to distillation 33-34

medicinal uses 8, 35, 36, 39, 43

methods of extraction 16-27, 33-34

period of maximum development 31-34

prices 38, 39, 44-45

production 8-9, 36, 43-47

source of supply 8, 47

uses 8, 35, 36, 39, 4S, 45-46

value 43-47

See also names of aromatic plants.
195

I

b

INDEX. 53

Page.

Oleoresin, methods of ext.racti(jn 7-8

Oleoresins, source of certain oils 12, 36

Orange, aromatic oil 10-11, 12, 21-22, 26, 40, 43, 45

Oregon balsam. See Balsam, Oregon.

Origanum marjorana, source of aromatic oil 42

wholesale price of volatile oil 45

Oxids, relation to aroma of plants 10

Oxydase, relation to aroma of vanilla bean 9-10

Oxygen, action in decomposing perfumes 28-29

Paper, use as filtering medium 28

Parry, E. L., on low ester content of English lavender oil 13-14

Patchouli, whplesale price of volatile oil 45

Peach, oil contained in seed 12, 15

Pelargonium odoratissimum, source of aromatic oil 41-42

Pennsylvania, perfumery-plant industries 30, 37

Pennyroyal, aromatic oil 10, 45

distribution 40

germination of seed 30

Peppermint, aromatic oil 10-11, 12, 14, 43, 45

development of industry in the United States 8-9, 30, 35, 38, 43, 46

experiments to determine development of constituents 31-34

export 46

use of spent herb as stock food 27

Perfumery. See Oils and Perfumes.
Perfumery plants. See Plants, aromatic.

Perfumes, early use 7

methods of extracting 16-27

use in soaps and toilet preparations 43, 45-47

See also Oils.

Petit grain, wholesale price of volatile oil 45

Phenols, relation to aroma of plants 10, 39

Pimento, wholesale price of oil 45

Pine, soiu-ce of valuable oils .■ 11, 36

Pinus spp., source of valuable oleoresins 36

Plants, aromatic, capable of cultivation 35-36, 40-43

distribution 8-9, 40-42

dried forms used before distillation was known 7

growth and harvesting 29-34, 42

localization of volatile oils in tissues 10, 11

production, factors affecting 12-14, 29, 31, 42, 43-44

use in perfumery industry 8-9, 29, 30, 35-44

whole, source of aromatic oils 42

wild , 35, 3(M0

See also names of individual species.

Prices of aromatic oils 38, 39, 44-45

Prune, extraction of aromatic oil from kernels 15

Pulegone, odorous constituent of pennyroyal oil 10

Purification, methods applied to crude oils 27

Reunion, island, perfumery industry , 8, 41

Rosa damascena, soiu-ce of aromatic oil 41

Roots, source of volatile oils 12, 37

195

54 THE PRODUCTION OF VOLATILE OIL AND PERFUMERY PLANTS.

Page.

Rose, essential oil 10-11, 45

Bulgarian, possible culture in the United States '41

culture in the United States 30, 41, 42

geranium. See Geranium, rose.

use in perfumery industry 8, 18, 26, 40

Rosemarinus officinalis, source of aromatic oil 42

Rosemary, aromatic oil 40, 42, 45

Rosin, product of turpentine distillation 36

Safrol, wholesale price of oil 45

Sage, example of dry-land aromatic plants 13

growth in the United States 30

Sandalwood, aromatic oil 12, 45

Sassafras, aromatic oil ' 12, 30, 37, 45

officinalis, source of fragrant oil 37

Satureja hortensis, source of aromatic oil 42

Savine, wholesale price of volatile oil 45

Savory, summer, culture in the United States. ." 40, 42

Seeds, source of aromatic oils 10, 12, 40, 41, 42

Sicily, perfumery industries 42, 47

Sinigrin, source of oil of mustard seeds 15

Snakeroot, oil obtained from root 12

Sodium, sulphate, use in dehydrating oils 28

Soil, relation to perfumery industries 13, 14, 29, 47-48

sandy, suited to growth of monardas 39^0

South America, exports of distilled oils to the United States 46-47

Spain, perfumery industry 41

Spearmint, aromatic oil 12, 45

production, in the United States 9, 30, 35

Spices, dried forms used before distillation was known 7

Sponges, use in perfumery industry 19, 20, 22

Spruce, aromatic oil 30

Steam, use in distillation of perfumes 22-27, 37, 39, 42

Sulphur, compounds, relation to aroma of plants 10

Summer savory. See Savory, summer.

Sunshine, effect on development of aroma 12, 13, 47

Sweet basil. See Basil, sweet.
Sweet birch. See Birch, sweet.
Sweet marjoram. See Marjoram, sweet.
Synthetic oil of wintergreen. See Oil, synthetic.

Tanacetum vulgare, use of oil as medicine 35

Tansy, aromatic oil 35, 45

Tennessee, perfumery -plant industries 30, 37

Thyme, aromatic oil 10, 40, 42, 43, 45

Thymol, product of certain plants 10, 39, 43

Thymus vulgaris, source of aromatic oil - 42

Time of harvest, relation to perfumery-plant industry 31-34

Toilet preparations. See Perfumes.

Tuberose, use in perfumery industry 18, 21

Turkey, perfumery industries 8, 47

Turpentine, industry in the United States 8, 12, 35-36

Twigs, source of aromatic oils 38, 39

Umbelliferse, culture in the United States 40, 41

oils contained in seeds 12

195

INDEX. 55

Page.

Valerian, oil obtained from root 12

Vanilla, development of odor while curing bean 9-10

Vanillui, relation to aroma of vanilla bean 9-10

Vetiver, cultivation in India 8

Violet, use in perfumery industry 8, 18, 21

Virginia, perfumery-plant industries 36, 37

Volatile-oil industry. See Oils, volatile, production.

Wintergreen, aromatic oil 11, 14-15, 30, 37-38, 43, 45

Wisconsin, perfumery-plant industries 9, 30, 35

Woods, source of volatile oils ' 12, 37

Wormseed, American, aromatic oil 12, 30, 35-36, 45

Wormwood, aromatic oil 10-11, 12, 45

experiments to determine proportions of constituents 31-34

production in the United States 9, 30, 35

Yield, percentage of volatile oil 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42

Ylang-ylang, aromatic oil 10-11, 45

195

o

j

[Continued from page 2 of cover.] i,

No. 103. Dry Farmins; in the Great Basin. 1907. Price. 10 cents. j

104. The Use of Feldspathic Rocks as Fertilizers. 1907. Price, 5 cents. ■ i ,

105. Relation of Composition of Leaf to Burning of Tobacco. 1907. Price, 10 cents. ;
100. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 12. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

107. American Root Drugs. 1907. Price, 15 cents. ■
108." The Cold Storage of Small Fruits. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

109. .American Varieties of Garden Beans. 1907. Price, 25 cents. '

110. Cranberry Diseases. 1907. Price. 20 cents.

112. Use of Suprarenal Glands in Testing of Drug Plants. 1907. Price, 10 cents. j

113. Tolerance of Plants for Salts Conmion in Alkali Soils. 1907. Price, 5 cents. '.;

114. Sap- Rot and Other Diseases of the Red Gum. 1907. Price, 15 cents. \

115. Disinfection of Sewage for Protection of Water Supplies. 1907. Price, 10 cents. ■

116. The Tuna as Food f6r Man. 1907. Price, 25 cents. ^

117. The Reseedmg of Depleted Ranee and Native Pastures. 1907. Price, 10 cents. i
lis. Peruvian Alfalfa. 1907. Price, lo cents. ;

119. The Mulberrv and Other Silkworm Food Plants. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 1

120. Production of Easter Lily Bulbs in the United States. 1908. Price, 10 cents. J

121. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 15 cents. ,,

122. Curly-Top, a Disease of Sugar Beets. 1908. Price, 15 cents. r

123. The 'Decay of Oranges in transit from California. 1908. Price, 20 cents. •

124. The Prickly Pear as a Farm Crop. 1908. Price, 10 cents. ':

125. Dry-Land Olive Culture in Northern Africa. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

126. Nomenclature of the Pear. 1908. Price, 30 cents. •

127. The Improvement of Mountain Meadows. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

128. Eg%T)tian Cotton in the Southwestern United States. 1908. Price, 15 cents. '•

129. Barium, a Cause of the Loco- Weed Disease. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

130. Dry-Land Agriculture. 1908. Price, 10 cents. , ;

131. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 10 cents. ' \

133. Peach, Apricot, and Prune Kernels as By-Products. 1908. Price, 5 cents. ]

134. Influence of Soluble Salts, Principally Sodium Chlorid, upon Leaf Structure and Transpiration ,

of Wheat, Oats, and Barley. 190§. Price, 5 cents. ■;

135. Orchard Fruits in Piedmont and Blue Ridge Regions, etc. 1908. Price, 20 cents.

136. Methods and Causes of Evolution. 1908. Price, 10 cents. :

137. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 14. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

138. The Production of Cigar- Wrapper Tobacco under Shade. 1908. Price, 15 cents. ^

139. American Medicinal Barks. 1909. Price, 15 cents. ^

140. "Spineless" Prickly Pears. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

141,. Miscellaneous Papers. 1909. Price, 10 cents. :,

142. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 15. 1909. Price, 10 cents. \

143. Principles and Practical Methods of Curing Tobacco. 1909. Price, 10 cents. j

144. Apple Blotch, a Serious Disease of Southern Orchards. 1909. Price, 15 cents. ";

145. Vegetation .Effected by Agriculture in Central America. 1909. Price, 15 cents. '

146. The Superiority of Line Breeding over Narrow Breeding. 1909. Price, 10 cents. ;

147. Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids. 1909. Price, 5 cents. <

148. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 16. 1909. Price, 10 cents. i

149. Diseases of Deciduous Forest Trees. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 5

150. The Wild Alfalfas and Clovers of Siberia. 1909. Price, lOcents. '

151. Fruits Recommended for Cultivation. 1909. Price, 15 cents.

152. The Loose Smuts of Barley and Wheat. 1909. Price, 15 cents. j

153. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 17. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

154. Farm Water Supplies of Minnesota. 1909. Price, 15 cents. '

155. The Control of Black-Rot of the Grape. 1909. Price, 15 cents.

156. A Study of Diversity in Egyptian Cotton. 1909. Price, 15 cents. ,

157. The Triickee-Carson'E.xperiment Farm. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

1.58. The Root-Rot of Tobacco Caused by Thielavia Basicola. 1909. Price, 15 cents.
159. lyocal Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

100. Italian Lemons and Their By-Products. 1909. Price, 15 cents.

101. A New Type of Indian Corn from China. 1909. Price, 10 cents. ;

162. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 18. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

163. Varieties of American Upland Cotton. 1910. Price, 25 cents. .;
104. Promising Root Crops for the South. 1910. Price, 10 cents. \
165. Application of Some of the Principles of Heredity to Plant Breeding. 1910. Price, 10 cents. '

106. The Mistletoe Pest in the Southwest. 1910. Price, 10 cents. '

167. New Methods of Plant Breeding. 1910. Price, 20 cents. '

168. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 19. 1909. Price, 5 cents. j

169. Variegated Alfalfa. 1910. Price, 10 cents. <

170. Traction Plomng. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

171. Some Fungous Diseases of Economic Importance. 1910. Price, 25 cents. '

172. Grape Investigations in Vinifera Regions. 1910. Price, 25 cents.

173. Seasonal Nitrification as Influenced by Crops and Tillage. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ■ ,

174. The Control of Peach Brown-Rot and Scab. 1910. Price, 10 cents. i

175. The History and Distribution of Sorghum. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

176. Seeds and Plants Imported. In\'entory No. 20. 1910. Price, 5 cents. '

177. A Protected Stock Range in Arizona. 1910. Price, 15 cents. :

178. Improvement of the Wheat Crop in California. 1910. Price, 10 cents. '■

179. The Florida Velvet Bean and Related Plants. 1910. Price. 10 cents. , >.

180. Agricultural and Botanical Explorations in Palestine. 1910. Price, 15 cents. ;

181. The Curiy-Top of Beets. 1910. Price, 15 cents. •;

182. Ten Years' Experience with the Swedish Select Oat. 1910. Price, 10 cents. .'

183. Field Studies of the Crown-Gall of the Grape. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

184. Production of Vegetable Seeds: Sweet Com and Garden Peas and Beans. 1910. Price, 10 cents. :

185. Cold Resistance of Alfalfa and Some Factors Influencing It. 1910. Price, 15 cents. ■■

186. Field Studies of the CrowTi-Gall and Hairy-Root of the Apple Tree. 1910. Price, - cents. '

187. Study of Cultivation Methods and Crop Rotation for Great Plains Area. 1910. Price, — cents. ■

188. Dr>' Farming in Relation to Rainfall and Evaporation. 1910. Price, — cents. '

189. Source of the Drug Dioscorea. 1910. Price, — cents. j

190. Orchard Green-Manure Crops in California. 1910. Price, 10 cents. i

191. Value of First-Generation Hybrids in Com. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

192. Drought Resistance of the Olive in the Southwestern States. [In press.J !

193. Experiments in Blueberry Culture. 1910. Price, — cents.

194. Summer Apples in the Middle Atlantic States. [In press.) ,]

195 :

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The scientific and technie.il publications of tiie I5areau of I'lant Industry, wliicli was organized July
1, 1901, are issued in a single series of bulletins, a list of which follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that the publications in this series are not for general distribution. The
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No. 2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1901. Price, 10 cents.

8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents. .

10. Records of Seed Distribution, etc. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents. . :- ,

14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents. ,

15. Forage Conditions on Northern L5order of (Jreat Basin. 1902. Price, 15 cents.
17. Some Diseases of the Co wpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

23. Berseem: The Great Forage and Soiling Crop of Nile Valley. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

24. Unfermen ted Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

25. Miscellaneous Papers. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, Spain, and the Orient. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

29. The Effect of Black-Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

32. A Disease of the While Ash. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

33. North American Species bi Leptochloa. 1903. Price, 15 cents.
35. Recent Foreign Explorations. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

30. The "Bluing" of the Western Yellow Pine, etc. 1903. Price, 30 cents.

37. Formation of Snores in Sporangia of Rhizopus Nigricans, etc. 1','03. Price, 15 cents.

38. Forage Conditions in Eastern Washington, etc. 1903. Price, 15 cents.
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41. The Commercial Grading of Corn." 1903. Price, 10 cents.

42. Three New Plant Inlroductions from Japan. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

47. The Description of Wheat Varieties. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

48. The Apple in Cold Storage. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

49. The Culture of the Central American Rtibber Tree. 1903. Price, 25 cents.

50. Wild Rice: Its Uses and Propagation. IS03. Price, 10 cents.

51. Miscellaneous Papers. 1905. Price, 5 cents.
54. Persian Gulf Dates. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

59. Pasture, Meadow, and Forage Crops in Nebraska. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

,00. A Soft Rot of the ("alia Lily. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

Gl. The Avocado in Florida. 1904. ]>rice, 5 cents.

62. Notes on Egyptian Agriculture. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

67. Range Investigations in Arizona. 1904. I'rice, 15 cents.

68. North American Species of Agrost is. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

69. American Varieties of Lettuce. 1?04. Price, 15 cents.

70. The Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

71. Soil Inoculation for Legumes., 1905. Price, 15 cents.

72. Miscellaneous Papers. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

73. The Development of Single-Germ Beet Seed. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

74. The Prickly Pear and (Hher Cacti as Food for Stock. ItQS. Price, 5 cents.

75. Range Mariagement in the State of Washington. L905. Price, 5 cents.

76. Copper as an Algicide and Disinfectant in Water Supplies. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

77. The Avocado: A Salad Fruit from the Tropics. 1S05. Price, 5 cents.

79. Variability of Wheat Varieties in Resistance to Toxic Sahs. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

80. Agricultural Explorations in Algeria. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

81. Evolution of Cellular Structures. 1S05. Price, 5 cents.

52. Grass Lands of the South Alaska Coast. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

83. The Vitality of Buried Seeds. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

84. The Seeds of the Bluegrasses. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

85. Principles of Mushroom Growing and Mushroom Spawn Making. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

86. Agriculture without Irrigation in the Sahara Desert. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

88. Weevil-Resisting .'\dapta1 ions of the Cotton Plant. 1906. Price. 10 cents.

89. Wild Medicinal Plants of the I'nited States. 1906. Price, 5 cents. '

90. Miscellaneous Papers. 1906. Price, 5 cents.

91. Varieties of Tobacco Seed Distributed, etc. 1906.' Price, 5 cents.

94. Farm Practice with Forage Crops in Western Oregon, etc. 1906. Price, 10 cents.

95. A New Type of Red Clover. 190(5. Price, 10 cents.

96. Tobacco Breeding. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

97. Seeds and Plants Imported. InventoryNo.il. 1907. Price, 30 cents.

98. Soy Bean Varieties. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

99. Qiiick Method for Deterniination of Moisture in Grain. 1907. Price, 5 cents.
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102. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

103. Dry Farminj; in the Great Basin. 1907. Price, 10 cents.

104. The Use of Feldspathic Rocks as Fertilizers. 1907. Price, 5 cents.

105. RehUion of Leaf to Burning Qualities of Tobacco. 1907. Price, 10 cents.

106. Seeds and Plants Itnported. Inventory No. 12. • 1907. Price, 15 cents.

107. American Root Drugs. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

108. The Cold Storage of Small Fruits. 1907. Priee, 15 cents.

109. American Varieties of Garden Beans. 1907. Price, 25 cents.

110. Cranberry Diseases. 1907. Price, 20 cents.

19G [Continued on page 3 of cover.)

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 196.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

BREEDING DROUGHT-RESISTANT

FORAGE PLANTS FOR THE

GREAT PLAINS AREA.

BY

ARTHUH V. DTLLMAN,

Assistant Physiologist, Alkali and Deought Resistant
Plant-Breeding Investigations.

Issued Deckmbek 17, 1910.

WASHINGTON;

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,

1910.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
fMRDeiN.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant-Breeding Investigations.

scientific staff.

T. H. Kearney, Physiologist in Charge.
H. L. Shantz, Physiologist.
A. C. Dillman, Assistant Physiologist.
196

2

I

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,
Washington, B.C., August 16, 1910.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for
pubHcation as Bulletin No. 196 of the series of this Bureau the accom-
panying manuscript entitled "Breedmg Drought-Resistant Forage
Plants for the Great Plains Area," by Mr. Arthur C. Dillman, Assistant
Physiologist in Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant-Breeding Inves-
tigations, Bureau of Plant Industry.

In the Great Plains area, where the rainfall is limited in quantity
and is of uncertain distribution, drought-resistant varieties of crop
plants are indispensable if farming is to be made a reasonably safe
enterprise. Forage plants which can be successfully grown with a
limited moisture supply are especially needed in order to buikl up a
well-balanced type of dry-land agriculture. The Department of
Agriculture has introduced from foreign countries many varieties
that are more drought resistant than those ordinarily grown in the
United States, but even these can be further improved and adapted
by the use of plant-breeding methods.

The present paper describes the preliminary results of work along
tliis line which was begun by the Bureau of Plant Industry in cooper-
ation with the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station in
1906, and is now being carried on by the Bureau on the experiment
farms at Bellefourche, S. Dak., and Akron, Colo. The progress that
has been made in breeding drought-resistant and otherwise improved
strains of alfalfa, amber sorgo, millets, Bromus inermis, and other for-
age plants especially adapted to the area is here reported. In several
of these crops new and ])romising strains have been developed. As
soon as a satisfactory test of their comj^arative drought resistance
can be had, the seed of those strains which stand the test most suc-
cessfully will be increased and distributed. It is believed that this
bulletin will be useful, not only because it points out the scope of the
work conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry in this field, but
because it describes simple breeding methods which can be applied
by the farmers of the area for the improvement of their crop varieties
in respect to drought resistance and other qualities.
Respectfully,

G. II. Powell,

Acting Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

CONTENTS

Page.

Introduction 7

Objects sought 7

History of the investigations 9

Stations where work is now in progress 10

Inception of the work 10

Bellefourche Experiment P'arm 10

Akron Dry- Land Station 12

Alfalfa breeding for drought resistance 12

Alfalfa brecnling at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm 12

Segregation of strains 12

Breeding methods used 15

Uniformity of plants in the progeny rows 16

Com])arative yields of the different strains and progenies 17

Winterkilling 18

Future testing of strains 19

Alfalfa breeding at the Akron Dry-Land Station 19

Seed production of alfalfa planted in hills 19

Breeding drought-resistant sorgos 20

Conditions to be met 20

Sorgo breeding at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm 22

Sorgo breeding at the Akron Dry-Land Station 23

Breeding drought-resistant millets 24

Segregation of strains 24

Results of preliminary work at the Highmore substation 24

Variety tests at the Bellefourche Exjjeriment Farm ' 24

Millet breeding at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm 25

Breeding methods 25

Results of the work 25

Dates of ripening 27

Uniformity in the progeny rows 27

Millet breeding at the Akron Dry- Land Station 27

Brome-grass 29

Western wheat-grass 30

Slender wheat-grass 31

Agropyron cristatum 32

Canada peas 32

Summary * 33

Conclusion 34

Description of plates 36

Index 37

196 5

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.
Plate I. Alfalfa breeding at the Rellefourche Experiment Farm, South
Dakota. Fig. 1. — Alfalfa plants in the breeding nurserj--, showing
the first season's growth. Fig. 2. — Selected strains of alfalfa in

double-cultivated rows 36

II. Sorgo at the Highmore substation and the Belief ourche Experiment
Farm, South Dakota. Fig. 1.— Sorgo, South Dakota No. 341, at
the Highmore substation, South Dakota. Fig. 2.— Sorgo progeny
row at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm, South Dakota, show-
ing uniformity of plants 36

III. Kursk millet at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm, South Da-

kota. Fig. 1. — Selection rows. Fig 2. — Progeny rows 36

IV. Agropyron in the grass nursery at the Bellefourche Experiment

Farm, South Dakota. Fig. 1.— Rows of Agropyron cristatum.

Fig. 2. — Rows of Agropyron tenerum 36

196
6

B. P. I.— 606.

BREEDING DROUGHT-RESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS
FOR THE GREAT PLAINS AREA.

INTRODUCTION.

This paper describes tlie results so far attained in breedino; im-
proved strains of alfalfa, sorjjo, millet, smooth brome-o;rass, and
other forage plants adapted to the semiarid conditions of the elevated
region lying between the ninety-eightli meridian and the Rocky
ISIountains. While the work with none of these crop jilants has
reached completion, it is considered desirable to publish at this time
a description of the objects, methods, an<l preliminary results.

In this plant-breeding work, as in all other investigations bearing
upon dry-land agriculture that are carried on by the Bureau of Plant
Industry, it is intemletl to make the results apphcable to the whole
territory in which similar climatic conditions exist. By conducting
the work simultaneously and with the same methods at different
stations, comparable results are expected. The working out of this
plan should afford a much safer basis for the establishment of broad
principles in drought-resistance breeding than could be attained by
any strictly local work. Although the actual breeding is at present
confined to onl}" two of the dry-land stations, these are representative
of a considerable portion of the Great Plains.

At both of these stations the Office of Forage-Crop Investigations
is engaged in testing varieties of the forage plants that are believed
to be adapted to the climatic contlitions of the region. The drought-
resistant plant breeding is conducted in cooperation with these
variety tests, which not only afford material for the selection of
resistant individuals, but give an excellent opi)ortunity for com-
paring the drought resistance of the new strains developed with that
of a large number of existing varieties of the same crops.

OBJECTS SOUGHT.

To make dry-land farming in a semiarid region like the Great
Plains a reasonably safe enterprise, drought-resistant crops must be
grown. Most of the varieties of crop plants tliat have heretofore
been used in tliis region have originated in countries of abundant

196 7

8 BREEDING DEOUGHT-RESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

rainfall, like the eastern Uniterl States and western Europe. In
recent years the Department of Agriculture has introduced a large
number of more or less drought-resistant crop plants from foreign
countries where the climatic conditions more nearly resemble those
of the Great Plains area. Even with these ])lants, however, prelimi-
nary tests show that there is much opportunity for breeding work to
improve the quality, increase the yield, and eliminate the less hardy
and less drought-resistant individuals.

Cultivated forage plants are greatly needed in the Great Plains
area. Until recently this was essentially a stock-raising territory,
and although large parts of it are now being divided up into small
farms devoted to grains and other crops, it seems altogether likely
that stock raising will continue to be one of the chief industries. In
the past the chief dependence of the stock grower has been the
"range;" in other words, the native growth of prairie grasses. Only
scattered attempts have been made to grow cultivated forage plants,
but as the region becomes more and more settled there will be an
increasing demand for hay and other stock feeds to supplement the
wild-grass pasturage. The growing of forage plants is likely to
become one of the most important phases of Great Plains agriculture.

The chief limiting factor in the production of crops in this region
is the lack of sufficient moisture. One means of meeting this defi-
ciency is the use of tillage methods tliat will conserve water in the
soil, preventing as far as possible loss by evaporation. Another
means of attacking the problem is to grow the most drought-resistant
varieties that can be obtained. The investigations described in the
present bulletin are concerned with developing such varieties by
breeding methods.

The principal factors that enter into drought resistance are prob-
ably the ability of the plant to develop a root system that will uti-
lize to the utmost a scanty supply of soil moisture and its ability to
reduce transpiration, or loss of water, through the leaves and stems
when the air is very dry. It is evident that certain species and varie-
ties of crop plants are better e({uipped in these respects than others,
since they wilt less rapidly when the soil moisture is deficient and
when hot, dry winds are blowing. Every farmer on the Great Plains
knows that under such conditions the sorgos, kafirs, and milos, for
example, will remain fresh and green longer than corn; moreover,
within the limits of a single crop species there are great differences
in drought resistance, some varieties being superior to others. This
has been abundantl}^ l)rove(l in the course of the variety-testing work
of the Office of Grain Investigations and of the state experiment sta-
tions, which have shown certain varieties of wheat, oats, barley, etc.,
to be more drought resistant than others. Finally, every close observer

196

HISTOEY OF THE INVESTIGATIONS. ^ 9

will notice that some individual plants of a variety are markedly
more resistant than other plants from the same lot of seed growing
beside them. This fact gives the plant breeder an opportunity to
produce still more resistant strains of the drought-resistant varieties
by the persistent selection of such individual plants.

Other qualities of the plant must not be neglected in breeding
forage plants for drought resistance. The quantity and quality of
the hay and seed are equally im})ortant. The individual plants
which are actually most drought resistant may be deficient in yield
and quality and will have to be discarded in favor of other individuals
of somewhat less drought resistance but in other respects superior.
Good seed production is essential not only in species that are grown
primarily for the seed, but in those which are grown for hay, since in
order to keep the variety drought resistant it is necessary that the
seed should be produced in the region to which it is adapted. For-
tunately the yield and quality of the seed are generally better in
semiarid than in humid regions. This is notably the case with
alfalfa, of which most of the commercial seed at present grown in the
United States is produced under irrigation and consequently is not
the best adapted to dry-land agriculture.

In perennial plants like alfalfa and the principal meadow grasses,
hardiness or resistance to winterkilling is another essential charac-
teristic, especially in the nortliern part of the Great Plains. Early
maturity is of great importance in the growth of annual crops. One-
half of the annual precipitation in this region occurs from April to
July, inclusive. It is therefore desirable to obtain early-maturing
strains which will make most of their growth during the period when
the soil contains its greatest amount of moisture. In the northern
part of the Great Plains the development of locally adapted varieties
of sorgos, nulos, and other late-maturing crops is hindered by the
shortness of the season. In breeding these plants the ability to ripen
seed as early as possible is a characteristic that can not be overlooked.

HISTORY OF THE INVESTIGATIONS.

The plant breeding for drought resistance described in this paper
is a continuation of the work begun by Prof. W. A. ^Vheeler in 1904
at the Highmore substation of the South Dakota Agricultural Ex-
periment Station. Professor Wheeler was at that time botanist of
the South Dakota station. The writer was associated with him as
student assistant in botany and was in close touch, almost from the
beginnmg, with the plant-breeding work carried on under his direc-
tion. In the breeding work at ITighmore all the ])rincipal forage
crops of the region were taken up, alfalfa, clover, millet, sorghum,
smooth brome-grass (Bromus inennis), western wheat-grass (Agro-
58575°— Bui. 196—10 2

10 BREEDING DKOUGHT-EESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

injron smithii), and other species. At the outset, variety tests
were made with seed obtained from all available sources. More
than twenty different varieties of alfalfa, various species of grasses,
strains of clover, and varieties of foxtail millet were tested side by
side. Numerous individual plant selections were made from the
varieties of these crops that proved to be most drought resistant and
otherwise valuable.'*

STATIONS WHERE WORK IS NOW IN PROGRESS.

INCEPTION OF THE WORK.

The Bureau of Plant Industry in 1906 undertook coo])eration in
the breeding work at Highmore substation, South Dakota, Mr. T. 11.
Kearney being in charge of tlie work on the part of the Bureau.
In 1907 Professor Wlieeler resigned his position as botanist of the
South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station. In May, 1908,
cooperation in forage-plant breeding between the Bureau and the
South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station was discontinued and
the work of this office was transferred to the experiment farm which
is conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry in cooperation with the
project of the Unitecl States Reclamation Service, at Bellefourche,
S. Dak. Work was begun at Bellefourche with about forty selections
of alfalfa, a strain of amber sorgo, and a strain of smooth brome-
grass, all of which had been found promising at Highmore. Part of
the breeding w^ork at Bellefourche is carried on in cooperation with
the variety testing conducted at that station by the Office of Forage-
Crop Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

In 1908 breeding work was also begun at the Akron (Colo.) Dry-
Land Station of the Ofhce of Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations,
starting with varieties and strains of forage plants that had pre-
viously given good results at Highmore and at Bellefourche.

BELLEFOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM.

The Bellefourche Experiment Farm is conducted by the Office of
Western Agricultural Extension/ Bureau of Plant Industry, on the
Bellefourche project of the United States Reclamation Service in
South Dakota. It is located 20 miles east and 4 miles north of the
town of Bellefourche. An irrigation canal has been planned to ex-
tend through the farm, dividing it into two nearly equal parts. It

oThe preliminary results of this work were reported by Prof. W. A. Wheeler in
Bulletin 101, of the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, published in
March, 1907.

b During the first year when this breeding work was carried on at Bellefourche the
experiment farm was under the direction of the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture
Investigations.
196

STATIONS WHERE WORK IS NOW IN PROGRESS. 11

is on land lying above this projected canal that the drought-resistant
breeding is carried on. On part of the land (about 40 acres) the
native sod was broken in June, 1907, and this part has been kept
under thorough cultivation since that time. Another field of 20
acres was broken in 1908 and a third, of 10 acres, in 1909.

The soil conditions here are different from those existing in the
greater part of the Great Plains region, the Bellefourche soil being a
heavy clay of the Pierre shale formation locally known as "gumbo."
This formation underlies nearly the entire State of South Dakota, but
it is covered by other formations except in the west-central part of
the State. There it constitutes the surface soil of practically the
entire area between the Missouri River and the Black Hills. It
forms a broad semicircle east of the Black Hills, in South Dakota, and
extends northward into Montana and southward into Nebraska.
The area covered in South Dakota is probably about 16,000 square
miles, being more than one-fifth of the area of the State. This soil
takes up water very slowly, so that during very heavy or long-
continued rains there is considerable run-off. It has, however, a
high capacity for absorbing water. Its moisture equivalent" is
about 29 per cent. The soil is therefore capable of holding a large
quantity of water and retains this moisture well when the surface is
so cultivated as to form a protecting mulch. If the surface is not
cultivated and is allowed to become dry and baked, the soil cracks
badly, owing to the considerable shrinkage in drying. These cracks
extend down 4 or 5 feet, allowing the subsoil to dry out. This is
often the condition of the fields during the winter and is probably
one of the factors which makes winterkilling of alfalfa common in
this region. The fine roots of the plants are evidently torn severely
in the shrinking of the soil. The large cracks about the plant pro-
mote drying of the roots and jjermit extensive and severe freezing.
It is the opinion of the writer that this extreme winter drought in the
alfalfa fields has as much to do with the killing of alfalfa plants as
the mere fact of low temperature.

The average annual precipitation at the station probably does not
exceed 15 inches. At Ashcroft, S. Dak., which is about 65 miles
northwest of the Bellefourche Experiment Farm, the average annual
precipitation during the seventeen-year period from 1892 to 1909
was 14.2 inches. The average seasonal precipitation, Aj)ril to August,
inclusive, was slightly over 9 inches. At the Bellefourche station
records of the seasonal (April to August) rainfall have been kept for
only two years. The totals are as follows: 1908, 8.6 inches; 1909,

oAs defined by Briggs and McLane in Bulletin 45, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, this term indicates the percentage of moisture to dry weight of
soil that remains after a centrifugal force equivalent to 1,000 times gravity has been
applied to the saturated soil.
19G

12 BREEDING DEOUGHT-EESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

13.3 inches. The g;reater part of the rainfall in this region occurs
during the early growing season, and the latter part of the summer
is liable to be exceedingly dry.

Although the soil type at Bellefourche is peculiar to only a part of
the region, the similarity of the climatic conditions is such that we
may expect that strains of forage crops developed at this station will
be adapted to the greater part of western North and South Dakota
and eastern Montana.'*

AKRON DRY-LAND STATION.

The Akron Dry-Land Station is conducted by the Oflice of Dry-
Land Agriculture Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry.
The farm is located about 4 miles east of Akron, Washington County,
in northeastern Colorado. It was selected as a desirable place for
breeding drought-resistant forage crops because of its central loca-
tion in the Great Plains. The climatic conditions are probably more
severe here than in the greater part of the central Great Plains, but in
general the station is representative of a large part of the area. The
altitude of the station is nearly 4,700 feet, being about 1,800 feet
liigher than the Bellefourche station. The average annual precipi-
tation, as computed from the records at several places in eastern Colo-
rado, is about 17 inches, though the precipitation at Akron for the
past few years has slightly exceeded this.

The land at the Akron station, on which the plant-]:)reeding nursery
is located, was broken from the native sod in June, 1907, and has been
under cultivation ever since. The soil may be classed as a loam, and
is generally favorable for the production of crops when sufhcient
moisture is present. The soil is typical of the ''hard lands" of the
Great Plains, as distinguished from the "sand lands" of eastern
Colorado, western Nebraska, and other sections of this region. The
moisture equivalent of the Akron soil is about 17 per cent, which
indicates that it is only medium in water-storing capacity.

ALFALFA BREEDING FOR DROUGHT RESISTANCE.

ALFALFA BREEDING AT THE BELLEFOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM.

SEGREGATION OF STRAINS.

In the alfalfa breeding at Bellefourche, while increased drought
resistance has been the principal object in view, it has been necessary
also to take into consideration hardiness, seed production, and the

a In transferring the breeding work from Highmore to Bellefourche, the crops were
placed under different conditions of soil and a slightly different climate. The soil
at the Highmore substation is a glacially deposited clay loam, containing some sand.
The altitude is a little less than 1,700 feet, as compared with 2,900 feet at the Belle-
fourche station, and the precipitation is about 17 or 18 inches annually. Highmore
may be considered as located near the eastern edge of the Great Plains, while Belle*
fourche is representative of the more arid portion of the northern Great Plains.
19G

ALFALFA BREEDING FOR DROUGHT RESISTANCE. IS

yield and quality of the forao;e. All selections have been made with
the idea of combining large forage and seed production in the same
individual plant, the forage type, however, receiving first considera-
tion. A thorough test of the yields of all strains developed is made
in Vjroadcast plats and in cultivated rows. It should be said that no
proper test of drought resistance has been had in the alfalfa-breeding
work up to this time. During the time the work was carried on at
Highmore, from 1905 to 1907, inclusive, the annual rainfall was above
the average for that station. The season of 1908 at Belief ourche was
a dry one, but this was the year when the breeding work was begun
there and the plants were too young to afford records of yields under
dry conditions. But since the first season's growth of an alfalfa
plant is a critical period in its life, and since these selections made a
good growth at Belief ourche in the comparatively dry year, 1908, it
would seem that they must be at least fairly drought resistant.

During the season of 1909 the precipitation was again above the
average, so that no test of drought resistance was secured that year.
It will therefore be necessary to retain all of the progeny rows and
plats until a proper test of drought resistance is secured.

The alfalfa stocks used in the breeding work at Belief ourche con-
sisted of selections from six strains which were grown at the High-
more (S. Dak.) substation. Two of these strains, South Dakota No.
162 and No. 164, are recommended by Prof. W. A. Wheeler in Bulle-
tin 101 of the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station as the
best of the stocks tested at Highmore. The twenty stocks tested
there included several hardy stocks imported by the Department of
Agriculture previous to the year 1905. The two best varieties, which
are described on a later page of tliis bulletin, proved to be perfectly
hardy and of good forage and seed producing ability. Four other
stocks tested at Highmore, which proved fairly hardy, are also repre-
sented in the breeding plats at Bellefourche. In the following dis-
cussion each strain is designated by a letter, the selections made from
each strain being numbered in consecutive order; as A-1, E- 12, etc.

Strain A. — This is South Dakota No. 65. The seed was screened
from a lot of durum wheat imported from Tashkend, Turkestan, in
1902, by the United States Department of Agriculture. It was
planted in 1902 on a small plat, about 12 by 50 feet, at Brookings,
S. Dak. This plat went through four seasons there (from the si)ring
of 1902 to the fall of 1906), and did not suffer any from winterkilling.

" Seed from this plat [harvested in 19041 was planted at the High-
more substation, in 1905, in a selection row. A few of the plants in
this row died during the winter of 1905-6, showing that it is not per-
fectly hardy under severe test."" The plants now growing at Belle-

a ^^^^eeler, W. A. Bulletin 101, South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station,
p. 135.
196

14 BREEDIKG DROUGHT-RESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

fourche represent the fourth generation of seed. They are somewhat
coarse, with stems inchned to be stout and not greatly branched.
Tlie results obtained this season indicate that this strain is fair in
seed production.

Strain B. — This is South Dakota No. 66. "The seed was obtained
by Prof. N. E. Hansen, from Merke (lat. 43° N., long. 73° E.), north-
ern Turkestan in 1898 for the United States Department of Agricul-
ture. It was distributed by the department as S. P. \.^ No. 1169.
It was sown in a small plat at Brookings in 1899 and has not winter-
killed to date. The seed from this plat was sown at Highmore in
1905 in selection rows. The results seem to show it to be about equal
to No. 65 in quality, hardiness, and seed production."^ The plants
of this variety are large, coarse, woody in texture, and poor in amount
of branching. It has proved the poorest in seed yield of any of the
varieties tested at Bellefourche.

Strain C. — This is South Dakota No, 67. "The seed was obtained
from the Minnesota experiment station as Minnesota No. 3 in 1902."^
Minnesota No. 3 was derived from seed purchased by the Minnesota
experiment station from a commercial seed firm under the name of
"Grimm" alfalfa, but has shown itself to be different from that
variety in liardiness and other qualities. It is similar in type of plant
to strain E described below, but is somewhat inferior in both forage
and seed yield.

Strain D. — This is South Dakota No. 150, purchased from a seed
firm as Turkestan alfalfa. It is similar in type of plant to the other
Turkestan strains, which are inclined to be woody, sj^reading, and
lacking in leafiness and branching.

Strain E. — This is South Dakota No. 162. This strain originated
from the Grimm alfalfa which has been grown near Excelsior, Minn.,
for more than fifty years. "^ In all the tests at Brookings, Highmore,
and Bellefourche it has proved superior to all other stocks tested in
seed production, hardiness, and forage type of plant. The selec-
tions grown at Bellefourche are inclined to be very leafy, much
branched, with short internodes and fine stems. This gives the
maximum amount of palatable forage. The selections have proved
to be uniformly good in seed production, which is a valuable char-
acteristic of these selections, since the seed yield is one of the impor-
tant features of the crop in the Great Plains region.

a An abbreviation for the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction of the United
States Department of Agriculture.

& Wheeler, W. A., loc. cit.

« Brand, C J. The Acclimatization of an Alfalfa Variety in Minnesota. Science,
vol. 28, 1908, p. 891. Westgate, J. M. Bullotiu 169, Bureau of Plant Industry,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909. Science, vol. 30, 1909, p. 184.
196

ALFALFA BREEDING FOE DROUGHT RESISTANCE. 15

Strain F. — This is South Dakota Xo. 164, which is thought to be
S. P. I. No. 991, a Turkestan stock. This strain is less coarse and is
better in quality of forage than most of the Turkestan varieties.
In amount of seed produced it stands second to strain E, as noted in
Table I.

A part of the selections with which the breeding work was begim at
Belief ourche were made in 1907 by Mr. John Cole, now of the Office
of Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, but at that time connected with the South
Dakota xVgricultural Experiment Station and in charge of the High-
more substation. These are selections A 1 and 2, B 1, C 1-4, D 1
and 2, E 1-7, and F 1-3. Selections E 9-16 and F 4-12 were made
at the Higlnnore substation in 1906 by Prof. W. A. Wheeler. Selec-
tions E 17-31 and many other selections not described in this bulle-
tin were made by the writer.

BREEDING METHODS USED.

In the alfalfa-breeding nursery (PL I, fig. 1) plants are grown
singly in hills 21 inches apart, the rows being 42 inches apart. This
allows 75 plants to a row in the regular plats of the station, which
are 8 rods long. The seed from a single plant is generally planted in
one row of hills, but when sufficient seed was available, two rows of
hills have been planted to a single selection, and when the quantity
of seed available was small, less than a full row has been planted to
a selection. "VMiere less than a row was planted there were 25 or 50
hills instead of 75, as in a full row. The hills are planted at definite
distances apart so that the rows of plants are in line in both directions.
(See PI. I, fig. 1.) Each row is given a progeny number and each
plant \vdthin the row an individual number corresponding to the
number of the hill in wdiich the plant grows. If a plant is missing
in the row the order of numbering is not changed, each plant in the
row being permanently designated by the position it actually occupies.
This system makes a convenient and certain means of designating
each plant and obviates the use of stakes except at the head of the row.

At the period when the first blossoms appear the plants in the
nursery are studied carefully and complete notes are taken as to
the type of plant, the amount of branching, leafiness, and the color
of the flowers. The forage type of plant is best judged at this time,
for it. is at this stage in the development of the plant that it should
be cut for forage. After these notes are taken all the inferior plants,
together with such as are divergent from the type of the row, are cut
and removed from the nursery. This is done in order that the pollen
from these inferior ])hints wall not be carried to and fertilize the
flowers of the superior plants. It may be explained further that all
plants at the ends of the rows are discarded. This is done in order to

196

16 BREEDING DEOUGHT-RESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

secure comparable results of yields per plant from each progeny row,
as the end plants, because of their favored position, make a larger
growth. The purpose is to secure accurate comparative yields of all
the progeny rows.

Later in the season, when the seed is ripe, the superior individuals
are selected as mother plants to furnish seed for planting the following
season and thus continue the work of selection.**

After the superior plants have been selected the bulk of the plants
in the row are harvested, dried in shocks, weighed, and thrashed.
Since a record is kept of the number of plants harvested, an accurate
estimate of the producing power ])er i)lant of each row is easily made.
The )delds of the progenies gro^^^l at Bellefourche during the season
of 1909, which are in the fourth generation of selection, are presented
in Table I.

UNIFORMITY OF PLANTS IN THE PROGENY ROWS.

Breeding work with a plant like alfalfa has the special advantage
that one is able to compare living plants belonging to different genera-
tions of selection. Alfalfa being perennial, the mother plants can be
retained in their original places in the breeding nursery for com-
parison with their progeny. Thus, the degree in which the progeny
has inherited the desirable characters of the mother plant can be
checked by direct comparison. In general, there has been great uni-
formity in the rows although they are the progeny of plants that
were selected mthout any precaution to insure close pollination.
As shown in Table I, in 29 out of 36 progeny rows harvested sepa-
rately, in which the plants "off type" were discarded, over 80 per
cent of the plants in each row were harvested as uniform in type.
Some prominent types may be noted,- as E-2, in which the plants
were very erect, rather slender, and onl}^ moderately branched, and
had dark-purple flowers. This is a rather distinct, easily recognizable
form and it will be noted that 84 per cent of the plants in this row
conformed to the type. B-1 is another distinct type; the plants are
tall, coarse, slightly branched, and woody, with very light purple
flowers fading to white. Of the plants in this row 92 per cent were
typical. In some progeny rows the variation in type of plant has
been great, but in general the uniformity is close enough to show that
this method of simple selection without isolation can give valuable
results in breeding alfalfa.

a Heretofore the plants have not been inclosed with screens to insure self-pollination;
but it is the plan in future work to inclose a number of plants and pollinate them by
hand and thus get a comparison of the uniformity of progeny of screened plants and
those which are exposed in the normal way to the chance of cross-pollination by
insects. These screens will be placed over the plants at the beginning of the bios,
soming period. Hitherto the only distinction made with superior plants has been to
harvest them separately at the time the seed matiu'ed.
196

ALFALFA BREEDING FOE DROUGHT RESISTANCE.

17

COMPARATIVE YIELDS ^ OF THE DIFFERENT STRAINS AND PROGENIES.

Table I. — Uniformity and seed yield of plants of alfalfa grown in progeny rows at Belle-

fourche, S. Dak., in 1909.

Strain.

Progeny
No.

Proportion
of typical
plants in

Average
dry weight

Average
seed yield

Seed yield

per 100

grams of

dry plant.

progeny
rows.

per plant.

per plant.

Per cent.

Grams.

Grams.

Grams.

A

1

91

138

21

15.2

2

88

129

16

12.4

B

1

92

153

12

7.8

C

1

82

150

14

9.3

2

81

150

21

14.0

3

79

1.35

16

11.9

4

85

132

20

15.1

D

1

89

138

13

9.4

2

85

123

17

13.8

E

1

79

171

27

15.8

2

84

171

18

10.5

.3
4

72
88

23'
33

isg"

ii'.h"

5

80

144

23

16.0

0

82

192

32

16.7

7

80

150

25

16.7

9

91

150

22

14.7

10

90

138

22

16.0

12

100

150

21

14.0

13

95

138

19

13.8

15

74

180

27

15.0

16
17

83

85

28
20

iss"

u'.h"

18

66

165

28

17.0

19

84

180

33

18.3

F

1

85

144

18

12.5

2

76

150

20

13.3

3

81

150

19

12.7

5

87

135

14

10.4

6

87

132

15

11.4

7

91

134

22

16.4

8

83

192

28

14.6

9

57

144

17

11.8

10
11

85
82

21
20

i44"

is.'g""

12

91

180

30

16.7

The results given in Table I were obtained from a large number of
plants. Where the progeny occupied two rows of the breeding
nursery the number of plants harvested in the bulk lot exceeded 100.
Where the progeny occupied one row the number of plants usually
exceeded 50, but where less than a row was planted the report shows
the yield of only 20 to 50 plants. Yields estimated on more than
50 plants should represent fairly the producing power of the progeny
under this system of planting. Column 3 of Table I shows the per-
centage of plants of uniform type in the progeny row, leaving out of
consideration the inferior plants which were discarded early in the
season.

The dry weight of the plants and the seed yield have been reduced
to an average per plant so as to afford a comparison of the producing

a The yields obtained in the breeding nursery, where each plant has much more
space than in ordinary field culture, do not necessarily indicate that under field
conditions the different strains will be found to occupy the same relation to each
other in comparative yielding power.
58575°— Bui. 196—10 3

18

BREEDING DEOUGHT-KESISTANT FOEAGE PLANTS.

power of the progeny. Column 6 of the table gives the seed yield
per 100 grams w^eight 6f plant, showing the relation between the seed
yield and forage production in each progeny row. It will be seen
that a large seed yield is usually associated with a large forage yield,
as is shown b}^ a comparison of columns 4 and 5. This result throws
some light upon the Cjuestion whether or not heavy seed production
and heavy forage production are opposed, or whether they can be
combined in the same individual; the results seem to indicate that
these two characteristics can be combined. This purpose has, in fact,
been constantly kept in mind in the selection of the mother plants.

Table II is inserted to show the comparative yields of the strains
represented in the breeding work. It will be seen that strain E ex-
ceeds all others in both seed yield and forage production, as showm
b}^ the yield per plant, and that large seed yield and heavy forage
production can be combined in the same strain.

Table II. — Proportion of plants ivinterkilled and average yield of each strain represented
in the alfalfa-breeding nursery at Belief ourche, S. Dak., in 1909.

Strain.

Variety from which derived.

Winter-
killing,
1908-9.

Total
number of

plants
harvested.

Average
dry weight
per plant.

Average
seed yield
per plant.

A

Turkestan

Per cent.

182
132
281
121
601
354

Grams.
147
153
141
132
162
150

Grams.

18

B

Do

2

12

C

Grimm

18

D

Commercial Turkestan

14

E

F

Grimm

4

1

24

Turkestan

21

WINTERKILLING.

The winterkilling of the varieties in the breeding nursery during
the winter of 1908-9 was practically negligible, while the broadcast
plats and cultivated rows of the same varieties did not show any
killing at all. The nursery method of planting, where each plant
stands alone and unprotected, is the most severe test of hardiness.
At the Ashcroft (S. Dak.) Weather Bureau station, where conditions
are probably most nearly representative of the Bellefourche Experi-
ment Farm, a temperature of — 30° F. was recorded in January, 1909.

It should be said that the varieties of alfalfa represented in the
breeding plats at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm have been sub-
jected to severe mnterkilling tests for several generations. They
represent selections, some of three and some of four generations of
individual plants grown in the breeding nursery at Highmore under
conditions which eliminated the less hardy individuals. The mini-
mum temperatures recorded during the time the w^ork w^as carried
on at the Highmore substation are as follows: 1904, —27° F.; 1905,
-36° F.; 1906, -31° F.; 1907, -27° F. There was some winter-

196

ALFALFA BEEEDING FOR DROUGHT RESISTANCE. 19

killing during each of these winters, especially in the breeding nur-
sery, where the test is most severe. The winter of 1905-6 was
especially severe; among 20 stocks tested at Highmore, 8 winter-
killed greatly and were discarded. Some winterkilling was noted in
all the varieties except South Dakota No. 162, which is strain E of
the above table

FUTURE, TESTING OP STRAINS.

The bulk seed from each of the best progeny rows was planted in
1910 under two conditions, in cultivated rows (PI. I, fig. 2) and in
broadcast plats. If conditions favor a test, the comparative drought
resistance of the different strains, progenies, and individual plants
will be carefully noted. At the beginning of the season a record of
their hardiness and earliness of development was made. Later in
the season comparisons of yields will be made from the broadcast
plats as to forage production and from the cultivated rows as to seed
production. If the progenies which have proved superior thus far
continue to show superiority in these characters, combined with
hardiness and drought resistance, seed from them will be increased
and distributed as soon as possible.

ALFALFA BREEDING AT THE AKRON DRY-LAND STATION.

The plan followed at Belief ourche in the alfalfa-breeding work has
been followed at the Akron Dry-Land Station. There is°not likely
to be so severe a test of hardiness or resistance to winterkilling at
Akron as farther north in the Great Plains. The test of drought
resistance, however, is hkely to be quite as thorough.

The strains of alfalfa are the same as those used at the Bellefourche
Experiment Farm. The plan has been to divide the seed of the selec-
tions made at Bellefourche and from other sources and plant part of
the seed at Bellefourche and part at Akron. In this way a comparison
of the effect of somewhat different climatic and soil conditions can be
made and the possibihty of obtaining an adequate test of drought
resistance is increased. As the breetling nursery was establishecfin
1909, no results have yet been obtained except notes on the season's
growth and the autumn stand of each progeny row.

SEED PRODUCTION OF ALFALFA PLANTED IN HILLS.

Maximum seed production in alfalfa can no doubt be attained by
growing plants in such a manner as to allow cultivation of the soil
rather than by planting in broadcast plats. The method of planting
in single or double cultivated rows has been recommended « and is
unquestionably an improvement over the broadcast method for seed
production. The results as to seed production in the breeding nursery

« Brand, C. J., and Westgate, J. M. Circular 24, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture.
196

20

BKEEDING DEOUGHT-RESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

at Bellefourclie suggest tliat the method of planting in hills is still
more favorable to seed production and may be used to good advantage
where it is desired to increase rapidly the seed of some valuable strain.
It was observed that the yield of seed in the breeding plats at the
Highmore substation was often fairly good when the broadcast plats
yielded little or no seed. In 1907 a commercial seed firm in South
Dakota, with which the writer was then associated, obtained a yield
at the rate of 200 pounds of seed per acre in the alfalfa-breeding nur-
sery of half an acre. The plants were grown singly 18 inches apart, in
rows 36 inches apart. In the breeding nursery at Belief ourche in 1909
the yield of seed was much greater than from alfalfa seeded in broad-
cast plats or in double-cultivated rows. These yields are presented in
Table III.

Table III. — Seed yield of alfalfa 'planted in kills compared with broadcast or row planting.

Plat
No.

67
69
61
62

Method of planting and variety.

Breeding nursery, 475 plants, strains D and F, in hills.

Breeding nursery, 500 plants, strain E, in hills

Broadcast plat, strain of Grimm alfalfa

Double-cultivated rows, strain of Grimm alfalfa

Seed yield

obtained

Yield

on ^-acre

per acre.

plat.

Pounds.

Pounds.

20

200

26

260

12

120

8J

85

Yield esti-
mated on
perfect
stand.

Pounds.
348
430

In plat 67, 325 plants, and in plat 69, 350 plants, were discarded or
missing. The missing plants had been destroyed chiefly by pocket
gophcn. In estimating yields the living plants nearest these were
discarded as having had an unduly favorable opportunity. For this
reason column 4 is added, estimating the yield per acre of a perfect
stand in the breeding nursery, which would be 825 plants on the

10

-acre plat.

The method of planting in hills or very thinly in single rows can be
recommended only where rapid increase of seed is desired, as when
some especially valuable selection is grown. With the present inter-
est in alfalfa breeding and the great need for drought-resistant and
hardy strains, the price of seed of superior strains is likely to be high.
Under such conditions the above method of seed increase may be
used to advantage.

BREEDING DROTJGHT-RESISTANT SORGOS.

CONDITIONS TO BE MET.

Sorgo is an important forage crop in the central and southern Great
Plains, but its use in the northern part of the region has been limited
because the season is too short to ahow the crop to mature seed.
Sorgo is not likely to be planted extensively in regions where seed can
not be matured. To purchase seed every je&v often makes the crop
unprofitable. Further than this, the greatest food value of the crop

196

BREEDING DEOUGHT-EESISTANT SORGOS.

21

can not be secured unless it reaches the point of flowerinp^ at the time
of harvesting. The purpose in the breedino; work described here has
been to obtain a drought-resistant and productive strain which will
mature early. Such a strain would extend the sorgo-growing area
north of its present limits.

The breeding work with sorgo at Highmore and Bellefourche has
been done with a saccharine sorglnmi of the Minnesota Amber type,
South Dakota Xo. 341. This strain has slender stalks and rather
long, narrow leaves. The plants stool quite freely, having from two
to six suckers per plant. The seed panicles become open and spread-
ing as the seed ripens. The seeds are reddish yellow in color when
separated from the glumes. The glumes, however, are black and
either smooth or slightly hairy. In thrashing, manj' of the seeds
separate from the glumes. The stock of this variety was found at the
Highmore substation in 1903 under the name of ' 'Montana. " This is
all that is known about its history. It was grown at Ilighmore in 1906
in comparison with two other amber types and proved to be two
weeks earlier than the varieties with which it was compared. The
earhness of the type has made it valuable as a stock from which to
"work. Two valuable selections (PI. II, fig, 1) were made in the course
of the breechng w^ork at Highmore, and seed of these has been increased
and is now on the market.

The two selections referred to were very marked in point of earliness
and in uniformity of the progeny. It is probable that the early
flowering of the mother plant in each of these selections prevented
cross-pollination from any of the surrounding plants, which were ten
days or more later in flowering. This insured self-fertilization and
the resulting uniformity of progeny.

Yields of sorgo, South Dakota No. 341, at the Highmore substation
for three seasons, 1906 to 1908, inclusive, and at the Bellefourche sta-
tion for 1908 and 1909, were furnished by the Office of Dry-Land
Agriculture Investigations. These pelds are from each of two j^g-acre
plats used in the rotation experiments of that office and are as follow^s:

Table IV. — Yield per acre of air-dry /odder at Highmore and Bellefourche, S. Dak.

Place and year.

Yield of
rotation
No. 33.

Highmore:

190G. ..
1907 a..

1908

Bellefourche: b
1908

1909

Average per acre of all plats .

Pounds.

11,140

4,940

8,150

2.. 330
4,280

Yield of
rotation
No. 34.

Pounds.

10, 810

5,700

7,250

4.200
7,500

Average
vield.

Pounds.
10,975
5,350
7,700

3,265
5,920

6,642

o The low yields in 1907 at Highmore were due to a poor stand of plants in both plats.

b The lower yields in rotation No. .33 than in No. 34 at Bellefourche for both years, 1908 and 1909, are due
to the poorer type of soil where the plats of rotation No. 33 were located. The soil there is very poor in
spots, being liable to puddling and to extreme baking when dry.

196

22 BEEEDING DKOUGHT-RESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

The average yield of 6,642 pounds of feed per acre at these two
stations is sufhcient to warrant the growing of this strain where
forage of this kind is desired.

SORGO BREEDING AT THE BELLEFOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM.

In 1908 the writer obtained some of the bulk seed of the South
Dakota No. 341 stock from the Highmore substation and planted a
field with it at Bellefourche for the purpose of making selections. In
September, 1908, 18 individual selections were made in tliis field.
These were selected for earhness, amount of stooling, and uniformity
of the main stalk and suckers in height and ripening. The selections
ranged in date of ripening from September 10 to September 20, in
height from 4^ to 5J feet, in yield of seed from 50 to 100 grams, and
in number of suckers from 3 to 5 per plant. The characters wliich
make the most desirable type of forage sorgo are slender stems, uni-
formity in the size of the suckers on each plant, and large total leaf
surface, and these points governed the selection.

The seed of each of these selected plants was planted in a single
row, 8 rods long, in 1909. In date of ripening the progen}' rows were
very similar to the mother plants, ranging from September 10 to Sep-
tember 18. In height the progenies exceeded the respective mother
plants by about 6 inches, the plants ranging from 5 to 6 feet liigh.
This was probably due to the more favorable season in 1909. Each
individual row was quite uniform as to height and type. (PI. II,

fig. 2.)

In order to show what characters apart from drought resistance are
regarded as most important in a sorgo for the northern Great Plains
and to give some idea of .the amount of diversity still remaining in
this selected stock, short descriptions are given of the types that pre-
dominated in the 1909 progenies of the five most promising selections.
It is possible that strains derived from more than one of these selec-
tions may ultimately be found valuable for this region. Thus, near
the noi'thern limit for sorgo culture the earliest maturing strain, even
if somewhat inferior in other respects, may prove to be the most use-
ful, while farther south a later developing strain which produces a
better qualit}^ of forage may be preferred.

Selection No. 2. — Plants in this row stooled freely; the stalks were
small and fine and there were many small suckers which would make
forage of good quality. The progeny was good in seed production
and uniform in early ripening. This was one of the best rows.

Selection No. 6. — This was a good row, but was shghtly later than
that of selection No. 2 in ripening seed. It was very imiform in
height and type of i)lant. The plants were very leafy and had
numerous suckers that were slender and fine.

196

BEEEDIXG DEOUGHT-EESISTANT SOKGOS. 23

Selection No. 9. — This was about the best row in the breeding plat;
the plants stooled freel}', the stalks were small, and the plants uni-
form in height and type. It was early and uniform in ripening seed.

Selection No. 10. — This row was very similar to that of selection
No. 9 except that the plants were later in maturing and the stalks
were slightly thicker. (See PI. II, fig. 2.)

Selection No. 12. — This was a fairly good row; the stalks were
small and the plants stooled freely and were early in ripening. A
pecuHarity of this row was that a large percentage of the outer glumes
of the seed were free from hairs.

Bulk seed was saved from each of the above selections. This seed
was harvested September 16, when nearly all the plants in the breed-
ing nurser}" were mature. Seed from each row was harvested sepa-
rately by cutting the mature panicles from all the plants that showed
the type characteristic of the row. No comparisons of yields of either
seed or forage were made, as the differences in stand in the different
rows would have made the comparison of little value. The bulk seed
from each row was planted in field plats in 1910 for comparison of
their drought resistance, yield, uniformity, earliness, and other char-
acteristics. The writer believes that sorgo can be made a valuable
crop in the northern sections of the Great Plains if this early-matur-
ing type is planted. Since no strain that will ripen seed is at present
generally grown in this region, it would seem desirable to increase
seed of these superior selections as rapidly as possible for distribution
to farmers.

SORGO BREEDING AT THE AKRON DRY-LAND STATION.

Seed of each of the selections made at Belief ourche in 1908 was
planted in single rows 8 rods long at the Akron Dry-Land Station in
1909. Each of the plants selected in 1908 bore two or more panicles
of mature seed. The seed from one of these panicles was planted at
Bellefourche and the seed from the other at Akron. The progeny
was very similar in type of plant and general characteristics to that
grown at the two stations, l:)ut it is evident that extreme earliness in
ripening is not of first importance at the Akron station. Tlie progeny
of selection Xo. 13 was considered the best row there, while at Belle-
fourche it was decidedly too late in maturing and the stalks had a
tendency to be coarse and pithy. This row, No. 13, was harvested
for seed, and the seed was planted for comparison with other varieties
in 1910.

It is probable that later maturing varieties (for example. Orange
and Red iVmber) may be grown to good adA^antage at Akron, and in
future drought-resistance breeding work at that locality such varieties
will be considered.

196

24 BREEDING DKOUGHT-EESISTANT FOEAGE PLANTS.

BREEDING DROUGHT-RESISTANT MILLETS.
SEGREGATION OF STRAINS.

Several varieties of foxtail millets (Chaetocldoa italica) are grown
rather extensively in the northern Great Plains. This crop is espe-
cially valuahle there because it reciuires only a few weeks to complete
its development; for this reason it is often used as a "catch crop" to
replace other crops which have been frozen or otherwise destroyed
in early summer.

Most of the varieties now on the market are mixtures of more or
less distinct types and offer an excellent opportunity to the plant
breeder to segregate these types and develop pure strains. This
has been the purpose of the work here described, special attention
being given to the segregation of strains characterized by drought
resistance, early maturity, and maximum forage yield.

RESULTS OF PRELIMINARY WORK AT THE HIGHMORE SUBSTATION.

Mention is made in Bulletin 101 of the South Dakota Agricultural
Experiment Station of the breeding work with foxtail millets carried
on in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry at the Highmore
substation. The breeding work was conductetl with five varieties
of millet — Kursk, Common, Siberian, Hungarian, and German.
Several uniform and productive strains were developed at Highmore
and were grown for comparison of yields, but the results have not
been published in detail. Seed of one pure strain of Kursk millet
developed at Highmore has been increased by a commercial seed
firm and is now oftered for sale. The Office of Forage-Crop Investi-
gations of the Bureau of Plant Industry secured some of this seed in
1907, and it was distributed under S. P. I. No. 22420.

VARIETY TESTS AT THE BELLEFOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM.

In 1908 breeding work was begun at the Bellefourche Experiment
Farm with five varieties of foxtail millet (Chaetocldoa italica). In
cooperation with the Office of Forage-Crop Investigations a prelimi-
nar}^ test was made in 1908 of these varieties in ^V-acre plats and in
1909 in yV-acre plats. The results were as follows:

196

BEEEDING DROUGHT-RESISTANT MILLETS.

25

Table V.^ Yield per aar of five varieties of foxtail millet at Bellefourche, S. Dak., in

1908 and 1909.

Variety.

Yield of

hay from

plat.

Plats of one-twentieth acre, 1908:

S. P. I. No. 22420, Kursk

S.P.I. No. 22423, Common

S. P. I. No. 22340, German

S. P. I. No. 22424, Siberian

S. P. I. No. 22426, Hungarian

Plats of one-tenth acre, 1909:

S. P. I. No. 25220, Kursk

S. P. I. No. 24841 , Common

S. P. I. No. 24842, German

S. P. I. No. 24843, Siberian \

Average yield for the two years of the three best millet varieties:

Common

Siberian

Kursk

Pounds.
144
150
116
150
130

154
206

68
194

Estimated

yield of hay

per acre.

Pounds.
2,880
3,000
2, 320
3,000
2,260

1,540

2,060

680

1,940

2,530
2,470
2,210

About thirty other species and varieties were tested in single rows
in 1908, but none of these proved to be of any special value for this
region except S. P. I. No. 20694. Seed of this number was obtained
by Professor Hansen, at Khokand, Russian Turkestan, in 1906, when
acting as agricultural explorer for the Department of Agriculture.
A quantity of the seed was planted in a selection row at Bellefourche
in 1908. Two plants in this row matured seed and were saved.
Since the plants were identical, so far as could be seen, the seed from
the two was mixed and planted in a progeny row in 1909. The
selection is of good forage type, but the panicle is open and the seed
shatters readily.

MILLET BREEDING AT THE BELLEFOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM.

BREEDING METHODS.

The methods used in the millet-breeding nursery were much the
same as in the alfalfa nursery. In 1908 the seed of each of the
varieties, Kursk, Common, German, Hungarian, and Siberian, was
planted in hills 8 inches apart, in rows 42 inches apart (PI. Ill, fig. 1).
The seedlings were thinned to single plants in a hill. Selections of
the superior individual plants were made and the seed planted in
single rows 8 rods long, in 1909 (PI. Ill, fig. 2).

RESULTS OF THE WORK.

The table following gives the record of yields and other data
concernmg the individual plant selections made in 1908 the jirogeny
of which gave the largest yield in 1909 :

190

26

BKEEDING DROUGHT-RESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

Table VI. — Yield of millet selections of 1908 and of their progenies grown at Belle-

fourche, S. Dak., in 1909.

Number
of selec-
tions in
1908

and of
progeny

rows
in 1909.

Individual selections of 1908.

Progeny grown in 1909.O

Variety and selection.

Total dry

weight

of plant.

Weight
of seed.

Propor-
tion of
seed to
100 parts
of straw.

Total

dry

weight

of plants.

Weight
of seed.

Propor-
tion of
seed to
100 parts
of straw.

Kursk, No. 22420:!'

1

2

Grams.
100
125
85
130
120
130
150

112
95

100
65

120
95

140
95

170
170
127
120

55
90

Grams.
29
43
16
27
19
29
22

42
33
38

28

25

8

16

13

15
13
19
12

5

7

Per cent.
40
52
23
26
19
29
17

60
53
61
76

26

9

13

16

10

8

17

11

10
8

Pounds.
28
291
29
30
28
27
27

21
18f
19
22i

22i
23
214
23

28

204

25

26

Pounds.
9§

94
9

84

11

8
7i

?
84

7
61
5
54

3

5*
44

54

Per cent.
51
48

4

45

5

41

8

43

10

48

11..

42

Common, No. 22423:6

1

58

4

62

7.. . ....

73

8

60

Siberian, No. 22424: b

1

45

5

41

9

30

10

31

Hungarian, No. 22426:6

1

11

3

19

7

28

8... .

22

S. P. I., No. 20694:
1

27

2

AVERAGE YIELDS OF ALL THE SELECTIONS AND PROGENIES, c

Kursk, No. 22420

Common, No. 22423...
Siberian, No. 22424. . .
Hungarian, No. 22426.

15

108

23

27

27

8|

8

86

31

56

18

7f

10

122

16

15

21

51

8

130

13

11

25

4|

47
63
36
24

a The yields of the different progenies are strictly comparable because the rows were of uniform length
and the stands were all perfect.

b Only those selections from each variety are here included of which the progenies in 1909 gaveyieldsof
seed and of total dry matter above the average for the progenies of all the selections made in 1908 of that par-
ticular variety.

c Including selections the progenies of which yielded low in 1909 and were hence excluded from the
preceding showing.

Some interesting results are sliown in the millet-breeding work as
recorded in the above table. It will be noted in the record of averages
that the Kursk is the highest yielding variety in the progeny rows
grown in 1909, both in total weight of plant and weight of seed.
Kursk is considerably ahead of any other variety in yield of seed
though the Common variety exceeds it in proportion of seed to straw.

It will also be noted that the yields of seed and straw of the proge-
nies, in general, correspond rather closely with those of the respective
mother i)lants. This is es])ecially marked in the Kursk and Common
varieties. For example, in the Kursk variety, seven selections are sepa-
rately listed in which the progeny of each ^delded above the average of
all rows. As shown in Table VI, the selected mother plants all yielded

196

BREEDING DROUGHT-RESISTANT MILLETS. 27

above the average in total weight of plant, except No. 1 and No. 4.
Selections 6, 7, 9, 12, 14, and 15 (not separately shown in the table)
yielded below the average of both mother plants and progeny.

DATES OF RIPENING.

The average dates of ripening and the average number of days from
date of planting to maturity for the selected varieties for the two
years were about as follows:

Table VII. — Date of ripening and length of growing period of several selected varieties

of millet at Bellefourche, S. Dak.

Variety.

Date of
ripening.

Maturing
period,
(days)

Common

August 24

August 28

Septemlier 7 . .
September 10. .

96
100
110
113

Kursk

Hungarian

Siberian and No. 20(j94

1

It will be seen that the Common and Kursk varieties are earher by
ten days or more than the Hungarian and Siberian. Earliness in
ripening is an important factor in all dry-land crops, especially millet,
which is often used as a catch crop to replace a previously destroyed
crop.

UNIFORMITY IN THE PROGENY ROWS.

It was noted in the breeding plats that the progeny rows from the
different selections of Kursk resembled one another much more closely
than the progeny rows from any other variety. This may be accounted
for by the fact that the bulk seed from which these Kursk selections
were made was itself the product of two selections made at Highmore
only three or four generations back. There seems also to be great
uniformity among the plants in each progeny row.

The selected plants have been remarkably true to seed from the
beginning, indicating that millet is probably a self-pollinated plant.
This belief is based on the general uniformity of the plants in the
progeny rows as observed by the writer in all his breeding work \vith
this crop.

MILLET BREEDING AT THE AKRON DRY-LAND STATION.

Seed of several selections of millet made at the Bellefourche Experi-
ment P'arm in 190S was used for beginning the breeding work at the
Akron Dry-Land Station in 1909. These selections were the same as
those planted at Bellefourche, sufficient seed being borne by each
plant for use at l)oth stations.

196

28

BREEDING DROUGHT-EESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

Table VIII. — Yield of millet selections of 1908 and of their progenies grown at Akron,

Colo., in 1909.

Individual plant selections
made at Bellefourche in 1908.

Progeny grown at Akron in 1909.

Variety and selection.

Total dry

weight of

plant.

Weight
of seed.

Propor-
tion of
seed to
100 parts
of straw.

Yields from actual stands.

Stand in
row.

Total dry

Total dry

weight of

plants.

Weight
of seed.

Propor-
tion of

seed to
100 parts
of straw.

weight
calcu-
lated to
a full
stand, a

Kursk, No. 22420:

1

Grams.
100
125
150
130
130
145
100

Grams.
29
43
25
27
29
30
29

Per cent.
40
52
20
26
29
26
42

Pounds.
18}
39
33i
42
33}
39*
28i

Pounds.

7|
18
14}
17
14}
174
12'

Per cent.
63

86
79
68
73
80
73

Per cent.

80

95

100

100

100

100

90

Pounds.
23.2

2

41.0

3

33.5

5

42.0

10

33.7

13

39.5

15

31.6

Average

126

30

34

33

14i

75

34.9

Common, No. 22423:
1

112
82
75
95

100
65

42
40
33
33
38
28

60
95
79
53
61
76

22.1
13|
19*
27i
19J
24}

104
4|
Oi

134
9'

12

87
45
47
98
88
98

80
75
70
95
95
95

28.0

2

18.3

3

28.0

4

29.0

7

20.3

8

25.6

Average —

88

36

71

21

9

77

24.8

Siberian, No. 22424:
1

120
175

25
25

26
17

15i
37"

6}

68
72

80
90

19.4

4

41.0

Average....

1474

25

21i

26

10.9

70

30.2

a This calculation is doubtless too favorable to the rows in which the stand was incomplete, since the
plants growing near the gaps unquestionably yielded more heavily than would the average plant in a row
in which the stand is complete.

>

The yields of millets in the progeny rows in 1909 were considerably
heavier at Akron than at Bellefourche. This fact is not only apparent
by comparison of the average yields of all the progenies of each
variety at Bellefourche (Table VI) and at Akron (Table VIII), but
generally holds good in the case of progenies of those individual
selections of which the seed was divided and planted partly at
Bellefourche and partly at Akron. The heavier yields at Akron
were doubtless largely due to the more favorable season at that
locality in 1909. The rainfall there was well distributed through-
out the growing season, while at Bellefourche there was less than
3 inches of rain during July and August, which is the critical
period in the growth of millet. It was noted that the yield of seed in
many of the rows at Akron was remarkably high. The average seed
yield of the Kursk ])rogeny rows w^as 14^ j)ounds per roM', which is
equivalent to a yield of 25 bushels per acre. The largest j^ield, from
Kursk selection No. 2, of 18 pounds to the row, is at the rate of 32
bushels per acre.

As shown by the averages for the })rogonios of each variety, the
Kursk is first in total weight of ])laiit and w^eight of seed. The

196

BKOME-GKASS. 29

superior yield of Kursk millet when grown in cultivated rows is a
marked character of the variety. This is no doubt partly due to its
strong stooling habit and vigorous growth. It has been noted by the
writer that in seeding millets broadcast a much heavier stand is secured
in the Kursk variety than in others when the same amount of seed is
used per unit area. This makes it desirable to seed somewhat less of
this per acre than of other varieties, especially under dry-land
conditions.

In 1910 the seed of the best progeny rows grown in 1909 were
l)lanted in -j^-acre plats in com])arison %vith standard varieties.
These tests will be continued until the forage value of the different
selections as compared with one another and with other varieties
under conditions of severe drought can be ascertained.

BROME-GRASS.

Smooth or Hungarian brome-grass (Bromus inermis) is one of the
most drought-resistant grasses grown in the northern Great Plains.
It is well adapted to cultivation on account of its abundant seed
production and vigorous habit of growth, and it has come into
general favor in the Central Northwest since its introduction into the
United States. ° Several stocks of seed were tested at the Highmore
substation previous to and during the time cooperation was carried
on between the Bureau of Plant Industry and the South Dakota
Agricultural Experiment Station. One of these stocks, listed as
South Dakota No. 26, appeared to be decidedly superior to the others
in forage production. This strain is rather distinct in type of plant
and has light-colored outer glumes or scales around the seeds which
give the mature panicle an exceptionally light-colored appearance.
The plants are strong and vigorous and remain productive for several
years; that is, the strain does not "run out" quickly. Bulk seed of
this strain was planted broadcast and in double-cultivated rows at
the Belief ourche Experiment Farm in 1909. A breeding nursery
occupying two ^-acre plats was also planted. The seed was planted
in hills 42 inches apart each way and the hills were thinned to indi-
vidual plants in early summer. An excellent stand was secured in
all the plats. There is great (Uversity in the manner of growth of the
individual jdants in the breeding nursery. Many of them are erect
and close growing, while others are inclined to spread greatly by root-
stocks. There is also great diversity as to amount of leafiness and
amount of stooling. Altogether tliere is great opportunity for
selection of superior types. In addition to the work in the breecUng
nursery tests are being made of several indivi(hial selections of
Bromus inermis furnished by the Office of Foragc-Croj) Investiga-
tions. These are planted in progeny rows.

a For a chemical analysis of brome-grass, see Table IX.
196

30

BKEEDING DROUGHT-RESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

WESTERN WHEAT-GRASS.

Western wheat-grass, botanically known as Agropyron smithii {A.
occidentale) , is native over a large part of the northern Great Plains and
is valued highly as a pasture and hay grass. It is especially common
on the "gumbo " soils in western South Dakota. Along the river and
creek bottoms, where subject to annual overflow, it forms a dense,
vigorous growth and is the most valuable native hay grass of the
region. In such places it forms a pure growth nnmixed with other
grasses. On the dry ranges it forms a considerable part of the native
forage and is remarkably drought resistant. The growth on the
ranges, however, is scattered and thin. In depressed areas where
drainage is poor or which receive the drainage from higher areas
the wheat-grass occurs to the exclusion of other native grasses.
This is doubtless due partly to its great alkali resistance and partly to
its ability to endure rather long periods of flooding. The alkali con-
tent of the soil in these areas ranges as high as 0.4 to 0.6 of 1 per cent.

Wheat-grass hay is locally in great demand in South Dakota. It
is especially valuable for feeding to livery and other horses doing hard
work. For this purpose it sells for $4 to $5 more per ton than alfalfa
and mixed hay at Bellefourche, Deadwood, and other places in the
Black Hills.

Chemical analyses indicate that it is especially rich in crude protein
and ether extracts. The following analyses of some common native
and cultivated forage plants of South Dakota are here given for pur-
poses of comparison:

Table IX. — Chemical analyses of some common native and cultivated forage plants of

South Dakota.

Name of forage plant.

Western wheat-grass {Agropyron
occidentale).

Slender wheat-grass (Agropyron
tcncrum).

Smooth brorae-grass (Bromus incr-
mjs).

Buffalo-grass {Bulbilis dactyloidc.s) . . .

Blue grama (Boutdoua oligostachya) . .
Timothy (t'hlcum prntensc)

Name

of

analyst.

(Shepardo

•^Knight and
I Kepner.i)
Shepard a

( do. a

■| Knight and
I Kepner.f'

(Shepard a

\ Knight and
I Kepner.6

Shepard a

do. a

Ash.

Ether
extract.

Crude
fiber.

Crude
protein.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

1 8.52
f 5.03

2.91
3.07

34.90
36.70

9.80
9.23

' 5.74

2.77

32.44

8.90

1 8.08
( 6.21

2.06
2.71

41.27
29.50

10.79
9.47

1 11.19
f 11.60

2.46
2.42

28.74
26.81

5.60
8.34

8.69
7.-39

2.18
3.58

31.40
34.39

9.11

8.84

Nitro-
gen-free
extract.

Per cent.

43.88
45.97

50.15

37.80
52.11

52. 02
50.83

48.62
45.80

a Shepard, J. H. Bulletin 40, South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1894.

6 Knight, H. G., and Kepner, F. E. Bulletin 76, Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908.

It will be noted that in the percentage of fats (ether extracts)
western wheat-grass is very liigh, being excelled only by timoth}^
It is also high in amount of crude protein, but is excelled in this by

196

SLENDER WHEAT-GRASS. 31

Bromus inermis. It is therefore very rich in two of the most impor-
tant food constituents, and this accounts for its great feeding value
as demonstrated by the practical feeder. One other character
which may be mentioned is the comparatively concentrated form of
the cured hay; that is, the weight per unit volume is great as com-
pared with most hay grasses.

Breeding work was begun with western wheat-grass at the High-
more substation by Prof. W. A. Wheeler in 1905. These breeding
plats were visited several times by the writer, the last visit having
been made in August, 1908. At this time there appeared to be
considerable uniformity in many of the progeny rows from the first
selections. South Dakota No. 34-89 was uniformly more spreading
than the rows at each side of it: No. 34-105 was also noticeably
spreading in habit of growth, while No. 34-81 was close growing, show-
ing a slight approach to bunch-grass habit.

Breeding work was begun at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm
in 1908 with bulk seed harvested from natural meadows near the
farm. It is desired to secure a drought-resistant and productive
strain, suitable for establishing permanent grass meadows on unirri-
gated land. It is very important to improve the seed production
and percentage germination of the seed and the early growth habits
of the plant. The germination of the seed is poor and slow and the
early growth is not vigorous. It is therefore difficult to obtain a
good stand of the grass. Both spring and autumn seeding are being
tested to determine which method will produce the better stand.
The results so far are not conclusive.

A breeding nursery has been established with single plants in hills
42 inches apart each way. These were grown from seed planted in
the field in 1909.

SLENDER WHEAT-GRASS.

Slender wheat-grass, botanical!}' known as Agropyron tenerum,
appeared to be valuable as a cultivated hay grass in variety tests
by the South Dakota substation at Highmore, and b}' the Office of
Forage-Crop Investigations at Bellefourche. The seed germinates
freely and the first season's growth is good, so that there is not the
difficulty in securing a stand that is experienced with western wheat-
grass; but this species is apparently not so drought resistant as brome-
grass and western wheat-grass.

Seed collected from plants growing native in western South Dakota
was planted in the grass nursery at Bellefourche in 1908 (PI. IV,
fig. 2). In 1909 individual plants were selected from this nursery
and these will form the basis of the breeding work with this grass.

196

32 BKEEDING DEOUGHT-RESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

Considerable variation among the individual plants was noted in
height, amount of stooling, and leafiness. The most desirable types
were those which have the leaves extending well up along the culms,
thus producing a very leafy plant. There w^as much variation in
this regard. In 1910 the seed of these selections was planted in
rows so that a close comparison could be made of their progeny. A
few individual plant selections of slender wheat-grass were furnished
by the Office of Forage-Crop Investigations, and these were planted in
progeny rows in 1909.

AGROPYRON CRISTATUM.

The grass botanically known as Agropyron cristatum, recently
introduced from Siberia by the United States Department of Agri-
culture, gives evidence of being a very hardy grass. In cooperation
with the Office of Forage-Crop Investigations, seed of six different
lots, S. P. I. Nos. 19536 to 19541, inclusive, was planted in the grass
nursery at Belief ourche in 1908 (PI. IV, fig. 1), and larger areas
were planted again in 1909. It was observed that this species starts
growth very early in the spring, and is not injured by severe frosts.
In habit of growth it is like slender wheat-grass, being a ''bunch-
grass" without creeping rootstocks, but in the character of its rather
harsh foliage it somewhat resembles western wheat-grass. Further
tests will be made of seed from several sources, and if the species
proves to be valuable as a hay grass, selections of superior strains will
be made.

CANADA PEAS.

The Office of Forage-Crop Investigations tested a large number
of varieties of Canada peas, grass peas (Lathyrus sativus), and several
varieties of vetches at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm in 1908
and 1909. The yields of most of these have not been satisfactory
in the two years during which tests have been made. The low yields
have probably been due to the newness of the soil at the farm, as the
plats were on land broken only one year previous to cropping. Two
or three varieties of Canada peas, however, are very promising, and
breeding work has been begun with these.

In dry-land farming the need of an annual leguminous crop for
use as green manure in short rotations is apparent, and Canada peas
promise to be the most valuable crop for this purpose in the northern
Great Plains region. The breeding work will be directed to obtaining
a more drought-resistant variety than is now grown in the region,
combining also fair seed production with a good forage type of plant.

196

SUMMARY. 33

SUMMARY.

The chief limiting factor in the production of crops in the Great
Plains area is lack of sufficient moisture. Two ways of increasing
crop production in that region are: First, the use of tillage methods
which will conserve the moisture in the soil as far as possible for the
use of crops; and second, growing drought-resistant varieties.

The object of the plant-breeding work described in this bulletm
is to develop strains of some of the common forage crops that are
more drought resistant and productive than strains now grown in the

region.

Drought-resistant forage-breeding work is now carried on at two
farms conducted by the Department of Agriculture in the Great
Plains area, at Belief ourche, S. Dak., and at Akron, Colo. These
farms are fairly representative of a large part of the nortliern and
central Great Plains.

In breeding alfalfa for this region, while drought resistance is the
principal object in view, such characters as resistance to winter-
Idlling, superior forage yield, and good seed production can not be
neglected.

The results of the breeding work with alfalfa indicate that superior
forage production and superior seed production are not antagonistic,
but may be combined in one plant or strain.

Maximum seed production in alfalfa can be obtained by growing
plants in hills, allowing thorough cultivation of the soil. This
method can be recommended only where seed is the chief object of
the crop.

Breeding sorgo at Bellefourche has been undertaken for the pur-
pose of developing a drought-resistant and early-maturing strain of
good forage quality. The existence of such a strain would extend
the use of the crop considerably north of its present area.

Most millet varieties now on the market are mixtures of more or
less distinct types. In the breeding work conducted by this office,
several promising types have been segregated and have shown a
high degree of uniformity. They will be tested further for drought
resistance, early maturity, and forage yield.

Numerous species of grasses have been tested for drought resistance
in the course of the breeding work at Ilighmore, and by the Office
of Forage-Crop Investigations at Bellefourche and other stations in
the Great Plains area. Breeding work is in progress with species
that have proved drought resistant and otherwise valuable, includ-
ing smooth brome-grass, western wdieat-grass, and slender wheat-
grass.

196

34 BREEDING DROUGHT-EESISTANT FOEAGE PLANTS.

CONCLUSION.

It is intended to test thoroughly the improved strains which have
been developed in the course of this work in order to determine their
relative drought resistance in comparison with varieties now grown
in the region. The most promising strains of alfalfa will also be thor-
oughly tested in respect to their hardiness. As soon as definite results
from these tests of drought resistance and hardiness are obtained,
seed of such strains as may prove resistant will be increased and
distributed.

196

1

PLATES

196

35

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I. Alfalfa breeding at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm, South Dakota.
Fig. 1. — Alfalfa plants in the breeding nursery, showing the first season's growth.
The photograph was taken July 29, 1909, three months after planting. The rows
are from individual plant selections of the second generation, South Dakota No.
167. Fig. 2. — Selected strains of alfalfa in double-cultivated rows (rows 7 inches
apart alternating with cultivated space 32 inches wide).

Plate II. Sorgo at the Highmore substation and the Bellefourche Experiment
Farm, South Dakota. Fig. 1. — Sorgo, South Dakota No. 341, at the Highmore
substation. South Dakota. The selected strain at the left is ten days earlier than
the bulk seed of the same variety at the right. Fig. 2. — Sorgo progeny row No.
10, showing uniform type of plants. Grown at the Bellefourche Experiment
Farm, South Dakota, in 1909, from seed of a single plant selected in 1908.

Plate III. Kursk millet at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm, South Dakota.
Fig. 1. — Selection rows of Kursk millet at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm,
South Dakota. The individual plants are grown in hills 8 inches apart.
Fig. 2. — Progeny rows of Kursk millet grown at the Bellefourche Experiment
Farm, South Dakota, in 1909. These are the progenies of plants selected in the
rows shown in figure 1.

Plate IV. Agropyron in the grass nursery at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm,
South Dakota. Fig. 1. — Rows of Agropyron cristatum in the grass nursery at the
Bellefourche Experiment Farm, South Dakota. In 1909 this grass was ten days
earlier in starting spring growth than any other species in the nursery. Fig. 2. —
Rows of Agropyron tenerum in the grass nursery at the Bellefourche Experiment
Farm, South Dakota. This is a valuable type of hay grass and breeding work
is being carried on in the hope of segregating a more drought-resistant strain.
196
36

Bui. 196, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

Fig. 1.— Alfalfa Plants in the Breeding Nursery, Showing the First Season's

Growth.

Fig. 2.— Selected Strains of Alfalfa in Double-Cultivated Rows.

ALFALFA BREEDING AT THE BELLEFOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM,

SOUTH DAKOTA.

Bui. 196, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

i I

FiQ. 1 .—Sorgo, South Dakota No. 341, at the Hiqhmore Substation, South

Dakota.

Fig. 2.— Sorgo Progeny Row at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm, South
Dakota, Showing Uniformity of Plants.

SORGO AT THE HIGHMORE SUBSTATION AND THE BELLEFOURCHE
EXPERIMENT FARM, SOUTH DAKOTA.

Bui. 196, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II

ar4lB?^«^-_:i?i'r^ r V

. .ri ■Sii«^:,^*'--'^M

Fig. 1 .—Selection Rows.

»-^ -,-^"1/.--'%«i

Fig. 2.— Progeny Rows.

KURSK MILLET AT THE BELLEFOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM, SOUTH

DAKOTA.

Bui. 196, Bureau of Piant Industry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture.

Plate IV.

Fig. 1 .— Rows of Agropyron cristatum.

Fig. 2.— Rows of Agropyron tenerum.

AGROPYRON IN THE GRASS NURSERY AT THE BELLEFOURCHE
EXPERIMENT FARM, SOUTH DAKOTA.

INDEX.

Page.

Agropyron cristatum, breeding experiments 32, 36

smithii. See Grass, wheat, western,
tenerum. See Grass, wheat, slender.
Akron Dry-Land Station. See Experiments.

Alfalfa, breeding for drought resistance 7, 9-10, 12-20, 33-34, 36

comparative yields 17,18

price per ton , comparison 30

varieties, Grimm 14, 18, 20

Minnesota No. 3 14

South Dakota Nos. 65, 66, 67, 150, 162, 164 13-15

Turkestan 14, 15, 18

Altitude, of certain stations 12

Analyses, chemical, of certain forage plants 30

Ashcroft, S. Dak., climatic records 11, 18

Awnless brome-grass. See Grass, brome.

Barley, tests of drought-resistant Aarieties 8

Bellefourche Experiment Farm. See Experiments.
Bouteloua oligostachya. See Grama, blue.

Brand, C. J., on alfalfa growing 14, 19

Breeding, plant, methods used 7, 15-16, 23, 24, 25, 29-31, 33-34

objects sought 7-9, 31-34

See also names of crops tested; as, Alfalfa, Grass, Legumes, Millet, and Sorgo.

Briggs, L. J., and McLane, J. W., on soil moisture 11

Bromus inermis. See Grass, brome, smooth.

Brookings, S. Dak., test of alfalfa 13, 14

Bulbilis dactyloides. See Grass, buffalo.
Canada peas. See Peas, Canada.
Chaetochloa italica. See Millet.

Climate, conditions to be met 7-8, 12, 24, ^3

See also Rainfall and Temperature. '

Clover, tests for drought resistance 9-10

Cole, John, work in plant breeding 15

Conclusion of bulletin 34

Cooperation with Office of Dry-Land Agriculture 10, 12, 15, 21

Forage-Crop Investigations 7, 10, 24-25, 29, 31, 32, 33

Western Agricultural Extension 10

Reclamation Service 10

South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station 10, 15, 24, 29

Corn, comparison of drought-resistant jjower 8

Crops, comparative tests, by Office of Grain Investigations 8

leguminous, necessity in dry-land farming 32

methods to increase production 33

Dead wood, S. Dak., prices of alfalfa and western wheat-grass hay 30.

Department of Agriculture, importation of drought-resistant plants 8, 13, 14, 32

Earliness. See Maturity,

196 37

38 BKEEDING DROUGHT-RESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

Page.

Excelsior, Minn., cultivation of alfalfa 14

Experiments, at Akron Dry-Land Station 10, 12, 19, 23, 27-29

Bellefourche Experiment Farm 10-33, 36

Highmore substation 9-10, 12-15, 18-22, 24, 29, 31, 33, 36

objects sought 7-9

Flowers of alfalfa 15, 16

sorgo 21

Foliage, factor in forage yield 14, 15, 22, 29, 32

Forage, yield and quality 9, 12-15, 17-18, 22-24, 28-29, 33-34

Grain, yield and quality 9, 12-13, 14, 15, 17-19, 28-29, 33-34

Grama, blue, chemical analysis 30

Grass, brome, chemical analysis 30

experiments, breeding 9-10, 29, 33

variety. South Dakota No. 26, character and test 29

buffalo, chemical analysis 30

native, chief dependence of early agriculture 8

wheat, slender, chemical analysis 30

experiments, breeding 31-32, 33, 36

western, chemical analysis 30

tests for drought resistance 9-10, 30-31 , 33

Great Plains, definition of area covered 7

Green-manure crops. See Legumes.

Gumbo, soil resultant from Pierre shale 11, 30

Hansen, N. E., importations of seeds 14, 25

Hardiness, factor in plant breeding 9, 11-14, 18-19, 33

Hay. See Forage.

Highmore substation. See Experiments.

History of investigations i 9-10

Introduction to bulletin 7

Irrigation, outline of project at Bellefourche 10-11

production of alfalfa seed 9

Kafirs, power of resisting drought 8

Kearney, T. H., drought-resistant plant-breeding work 10

Kepner, F. E. See Knight, H. G.

Knight, H. G., and Kepner, F. E., on analyses of forage plants 30

Lathyrus sativus. <See Peas, grass.
Leaves of alfalfa. See Foliage.

Legumes, cultivation for green manure 32

McLane, J. W. See Briggs, L. J.

Maturity, factor of earliness 9, 19, 21, 22, 24, 27, 31, 33

Merke, Turkestan, source of alfalfa l"!

Millet, tests for drought resistance 7, 9-10, 24-29

varieties, common 24-28

foxtail 10,24-29,36

German 24-27

Hungarian 24-27

Kursk 24-29,36

Siberian 24-28

S. P. I. No. 20694 25

S. P. I. No. 22420 24

Milo, power of resisting drought 8, 9

Minnesota, origin of alfalfa variety, Minnesota No. 3 14

196

INDEX. 39

Page.

Moisture, conservation in soil 8, 9, 11, 12, 33

Oats, drought-resistant varieties 8

Office of Dry-Land Agriculture. See Cooperation.

Forage-Crop Investigations. See Cooperation.
Grain Investigations. See Crops, comparative tests.
Western Agricultural Extension. See Cooperation.

Peas, Canada, breeding experiments 32

grass, breeding experiments 32

Phleum pratense. See Timothy.
Pierre shale formation. See Gumbo.
Plant breeding. See Breeding.

Planting, alfalfa, method used for maximum seed yield 19-20 33 36

Plants, characters required for semiarid region 7_9 i6 22

Plates, description 36

Pollination of alfalfa 16

sorgo 21

Precipitation. See Rainfall.

Prices of alfalfa and western wheat-grass hay 30

Rainfall, factor in plant breeding 9 11_13 28

Range, character of industry g

Reclamation Service. See Cooperation.

Screens, proposed use to insure self-pollination 16

Seed, distribution of superior strains 19, 21 23 24 34

production. See Grain.

Selection, factors governing method in plant breeding 8-9 23

Shepard, J. H., on analyses of forage plants ; 30

Shrinkage of soil in drying, effect on plants H

Siberia, origin of Agropyron cristatum 32

Slender wheat-grass. See Grass, wheat.

Soils, factor in plant-breeding work 11 12 21 30 32

Sorghum, tests for drought resistance 9_10

Sorgo, breeding for drought resistance 7-8, 9, 10, 20-23, 33, 36

varieties, Montana, origin 21

Orange, proposed culture at Akron, Colo 23

Red Amber, proposed culture at Akron, Colo 23

South Dakota No. 341, character and breeding 21-22, 36

South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station. See Cooperation.

Sowing, broadcast, alfalfa, comparative yield 19-20

Kursk millet, results 29

Stations, dry-land, as located, representative of Great Plains conditions. . 7, 10-12, 33
experiment. See Cooperation and Experiments.

Stock, live, chief industry of Great Plains area 8

Summary of bulletin 33-34

Temperature, factor of plant breeding 11^ 18-19

Timothy, chemical analysis 3O

Turkestan, source of plant introductions 13, 14, 25

Uniformity, factor in plant breeding 16, 21, 22-23, 27, 33 36

Varieties, tests of drought-resistant plants 7-9^ 10

See also Alfalfa, Millet, Sorgo, etc.

Vetches, breeding experiments [ __ 32

Western wheat-grass. See Grass, wheat.

Westgate, M., J. on alfalfa growing 14 19

190

40 BREEDING DROUGHT-RESISTANT FORAGE PLANTS.

Page.

Wheat, tests of drought-resistant varieties 8

grass. See Grass, wheat.

Wheeler, W. A., plant breeding for drought resistance 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 31

Winterkilling. See Hardiness.

Yield of alfalfa 14, 16-20

millet 26-27,28

sorgo 21-22

196

o

[Continued from page 2 of cover.] '

No. Ii2. Suprarenal Glands in I'hvsiological Testing of Drug Plants. 1907. Price, 10 cents. ■

113. Tolerance of Various Plants for Salts in Alkali Soils. 190/. Price, 5 cents. :

114. Sap-Rot and Other Diseases of the Red Gum. 190/. Price, 15 cents.

115. Disinfection of Sewage for Protection of Public Water Supplies. 1907. Price, 10 cents. j
IIG. The Tuna as Food for Man. 1907. Price, 25 cents. ^ '
117. The Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pastures. 1907. Price, 10 cents. ' '
MS. Peruvian Alfalfa. 1907. Price, lo cents. :

119. The Mulberrv and Other Silkworm Food Plants. 1907. Price, 10 cents. ^

120. Production of Easter Lily Bulbs in the United States. 190S. Price, ,10 cents. ';

121. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 15 cents. .;

122. Curly-Top, a Disease of Sugar Beets. 190S. Price, 15 cents. -.

123. The Decay of Oranges in Transit from California. 1908. Price. 20 cents. "

124. The Prickly Pear as a Farm Crop. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

12.5. Dry-Land Olive Culture in Northern Africa. 1908. Price. 10 cents.

120. Nomenclature of the Pear. 190S. Price, 30 cents. -

127. The Improvement of Mountain Meadows. 1908. Price, 10 cents. -

128. Egyptian Cotton in the Southwestern United States. 1908. Price, 15 cents. -

129. Barium, a Cause of the Loco-Weed Disease. 1908. Price, 10 cents. -

130. Dry-Land Agriculture. 1908. Price, 10 cents. ^ i

131. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 10 cents. ^
1.33. Peach Kernels, etc., as By-Products of the Fruit Industry. 1908. Price, 5 cents. ■]

134. Influence of Soluble Salts upon Leaf Structure and Transpiration of Wheat, Oats, and Barley i

1908. Price, 5 cents. ■

135. Orchard Fruits itt Virginia and the South .Vtlantic States. 1908. I'rice, 20 cents.

136. Methods and Causes of Evolution. 1908. Price, 10 cents. -^

137. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventors' No. 14. 1S09. Price, 10 cents. '

138. Production of Cigar-Wrapper Tobacco in Connecticut Valley. 1908. Price, 15 cents. •

139. American Medicinal Barks. 1S09. Price, 15 cents.

140. " Spineless " Prickly Pears. 1809. Price, 10 cents.

141. Miscellaneous Papers. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 'j

142. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 15. 190&. Price, 10 cents.

14-3. Principles and Practical Methods of Curing Tobacco. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

144. Apole Blotch, a Serious Disease of Southern Orchards. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 5

145. Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America. 1909. Price, 15 cents. ;
140. The Superiority of Line Breeding over Narrow Breeding. 1909. Price, 10 cents. .,

147. Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids. 1909. Price, 5 cents. ''^

148. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 10. 1909. Price, 10 cents. j
- 149. Diseases of Deciduous Forest Trees. 1909. Price, 15 cents. )

150. Wild Alfalfas and Clovers of Siberia. 1909. Price, 10 cents. ■!
161. Fruits Recommended for Cultivation. 1909. Price, 15 cents, !
152. Loose Smuts of Barley and Wheat. 1909. Price, 15 cents. '
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154. Farm Water Supplies of Minnesota. 1909. Price, 15 cents. .
1.55. Control of Black-Rot of the Grape. 1909. Price, 15 cents. ■;
156. A Study of Diversity in Egyptian Cotton. 1S09. Price, 15 cents. j

1.57. The Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm. 1903. Price, 10 cents. ;

1.58. The Root-Rot of Tobacco Caused by Thielavia Basicola. 1909. Price, 15 cents.

159. liocal Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. 1909. Price, 10 cents.

160. Italian Lemons and Their By-Products. 1909. Price, 15 cents.

161. A New Type of Indian Corn from China. 1£09. Price, 10 cents. ■

162. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 18. 1909. Price, 10 cents. ;

163. Varieties of American Upland Cotton. 1910. Price, 25 cents. j

164. Promising Root Crops for the South. 1910. Price, 10 cents. I

165. Application of Principles of Heredity to Plant Breeding. 1909. Price, 10 cents. '

166. The Mistletoe Pest in the Southwest. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ;

167. New Methods of Plant Breeding. 1910. Price, 20 cents. i

168. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 19. 1909. Price, 5 cents. <

169. Variegated Alfalfa. 1910. Price, 10 cents. -i

170. Traction Plowing. 1910. Price, 10 cents. -

171. Some Fungous Diseases of Economic Importance. 1910. Price, 25 cents i

172. Grape Investigations in Vinifera Regions. 1910. Price, 25 cents. -

173. Seasonable Nitrification as Influenced by Crops and Tillage. 1910. Price, 10 cents. i

174. The Control of Peach Brown-Rot and Scab. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

175. The History and Distribution of Sorghum. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ;
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177. A Protected Stock Range in Arizona. 1910. Price, 15 cents.

178. Improvement of the Wheat Crop in California. 1910. Price, 10 cents. '.

179. The Florida Velvet Bean and Related Plants. 1910. Price, 10 cents. ;

180. Agricultural and Botanical Explorations in Palestine. 1910. Price, 15 cents.

151. The Curiv-Top of Beets. 1910. Price, 15 cents. i
182. Ten Years' Experience with the Swedish Select Oat. 1910. Price. 10 cents. J
18.3. Field Studies of the Crown-Gall of the Grape. 1910. Price, 10 cents. .^

184. The Production of Vegetable Seeds: Sweet Corn and Garden Peas and Beans. 1910. Price, 10 ■'

cents. , - ;

185. Cold Resistance of Alfalfa and Some Factors Influencing It. 1910. Price, 15 cents.

18fi. Field Studies of the Crown-Gall and Hairy-Root of the Apple Tree. 1910. Price, — cents.

187. A Study of Cultivation Methods and Crop Rotation for the Great Plains Area. .1910. Price, J5

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155. Dry Farming in Relation to Rainfall and Evaporation. 1910. Price, 15 cents.

189. The Source of the Drug Dios?orca, with a Consideration of the Dioscorea; Found in the United 'i

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190. Orchard Green-Manure Crops in California. 1910. Price, 10 cents.

191. The Value of First-Generation Hybrids in Corn. 1910. Price, 10 cents. '■:

192. I>rouglit Resistance of the Olive in the ^Southwestern States. [lu press.] ^

193. Experiments in Blueberry Culture. 1910. Price, — cents. ^

194. SummiT Apples in the Middle Atlantic States. [In press.] j

195. The Production of Volatile Oils and Perfumery Plants in the Uhited States. [In press.]-

19G }

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 19?.

\B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE SOY BEAN; HISTORY, VARIETIES,
AiND FIELD STUDIES.

BY

C. V. PIPER, Agrostologist,

AND

W. J. MORSE, Scientific Assistant,
Forage-Crop Investigations.

Issued December 31, 1910.

WASHINGTON:

government printing office.

1910.

BTJLLETINS OF THE BTJREATT OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The scientific and technical publications of the Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1,
1901, are issued in a single series of bulletins, a list of which follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that the publications in this series are not for general dist ribution. The
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[Continued on page 3 of cover.]
197

(

Bui. 197, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

Plant of a Wild Soy Bean. No. 22428, Grown in a Greenhouse.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY- BULLETIN NO. 197.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE SOY BEAN; HISTORY, VARIETIES,
AND FIELD STUDIES.

BY

C. V. PIPER, Agrostologist,

AND

W. J. MORSE, Scientific Assistant,
Forage-Crop Investigations.

Issued December 31, 1910.

LIBRARY
^EW YORK
BOTANICAL

QARUGN.

WASHINGTON:

governaient printing office.

1910.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of But eav , Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

Forage-Crop Investigations,
scientific staff.

C. V. Piper, Agrostologisl in Charge.

J. M. Westgate, Agronomist.

R. A. Oakley and H. N. Vinall, Assistant Agrostologists.

S. M. Tracy, Special Agent.

A. B. Conner, A. B. Cron, M. W. Evans, Roland McKee, and AV. J. Morse, Assistants.

197

2

i

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Depahtmext of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industrt,

Office of the Chief,
Washington, D. C, August 3, 1910.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for
piibHcation as Bulletin No. 197 of the series of this Bureau the
accompanying manuscript entitled "The Soy Bean; History, Varie-
ties, and Field Studies."

This paper was prepared by ^h\ C. V. Piper, Agrostologist, and
Mr. W. J. Morse, Scientific Assistant, of the Office of Forage-Crop
Investigations.

The soy bean is a striking example of a crop with very numerous
varieties, the wealth of which has been largely disclosed by the
studies here presented. This crop is already of considerable value
in the United States, and there can be but little doubt that it is des-
tined to become of much greater importance, not only for forage, but
in all probability for the production of oil and oil cake. The results
here presented bring together much information that will be of
interest to students and experimenters, and which, it is believed,
will be of material assistance to all agronomic investigators.

Respectfully,

G. H. Powell,

Acting CJiief of Bureau.

Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

197 3

CONTENTS.

Page. I

Botanical history and identity of the eoy bean 9 j

Botanical classifications of soy-bean varieties 11

Varietal characteristics of soy beans 12 ,

Habit of growth 12

Foliage 13

Pubescence 13

Flowers 13

Pods 14

Seeds 14 j

Frost resistance 15 :

Period of maturity 16

Changes in life period 19

Pollination and hybridization 20 j

Mutations 23 ^

Nomenclature and classification 24 j

Early agricultural history in the United States 26 i

Varieties introduced into the United States independently of the Department j

of Agriculture or previous to 1898 27 j

Enumeration 27

ItoSan 28

Mammoth 29 j

Buckshot 291

Guelph, or Medium Green 30

Butterball 30j

Kingston 31

Samarow 31

Eda 31

Ogemaw, or Ogema , 31

Varieties grown in Europe 32

Early history 32 ,

Samarow 32;

Etampes 32

Chernie 32j

"Yellow Riesen " 32i

Buckshot 33]

"Yellow " 33j

"Brown" 33

Butterball 33]

S. P. I. No. 5039 33

The soy bean in Asia 34i

Asiatic sources of soy beans 34 1

List of varieties 34:

197 5 i

6

CONTENTS.

Page.

Desirable characters in soy-bean varieties 36

Considerations governing choice 36

Habit of the plant 36

Coarseness 36

Ability to retain leaves 36

Color of the seed 36

Shattering 36

Resistance to disease 37

NonfiUing of pods 37

Synopsis of the groups 37

Synopsis of the varieties 37

Group I.— 190 varieties 37

Group II. — 4 varieties 38

Group III. — 3 varieties 38

Group IV. — 76 varieties 38

Group V. — 7 varieties 39

Catalogue of soy-bean varieties 39

The best varieties of soy beans 74

Explanation of plates '. 78

Index 79

197

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page.
Plate I. Plant of the wild soy bean, No. 22428, grown in greenhouse. . Frontispiece.
II. Fig. 1. — Plants of the mid soy bean from Soochow, China, No. 25138,
grown at the Arlington Experimental Farm, 1908. Fig. 2. —
Plants of the soy bean from Cawnpore, India, No. 24689 78

III. Rows of soy beans grown in the variety tests at the Arlington Ex-

perimental Farm i 78

IV. Plants of seven varieties of soy beans, showing types of habit: No.

17852, Meyer; No. 17852 B, Peking; No. 17263, Austin; No. 18259,
Pingsu; No. 22504, unnamed; No. 17278, HoUybrook; No. 17271,

Haberlandt 78

V. The same seven plants shown in Plate IV after hanging in a dry room

for six months. All have shattered badly but No. 17852 B, Peking. 78

VI. Pods of soy beans, showing the range in size and shape 78

VII. Pods of soy beans: No. 19985 L, hairy and smooth pods from one het-
erozygote individual; No. 18258 C and No. 17278, smooth pods
from heterozygote plants; No. 22898 A, a variety with tumid pods;

No. 19186 B, a variety with much-compressed pods 78

VIII . Seeds of 36 varieties of soy beans, showing variation in size and form . 78
197 7

B. p. I.— 607.

THE SOY BEAN; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND

FIELD STUDIES.

BOTANICAL HISTORY AND IDENTITY OF THE SOY BEAN.

The soy bean was first made known to Europeans by Kampfer,
who spent three years, 1690 to 1692, in Japan. Kampfer (Amoeni-
tatum Exoticarum, 1712, p. 837) gives the Japanese name ''Daidsii
Mame" and describes it as an erect bean, with the pod of a lupine
and the seeds like a large white pea. Linnaeus (Flora Zeylanica, 1747,
p. 534) describes the plant briefly under "Dolichos" and states that
it is cultivated in Ceylon. This last statement is probably an error.
He also cites the descriptions of Kampfer. In 1 753 Linnaeus repeats
the description of the Flora Zeylanica and forraally names the plant
Dolichos soja, giving its habitat, however, as India. What Linnseus's
Ceylon or India plant may be is not certain, as will appear.

Moench in 1794 rechristened the Linnsean plant Soja hispida.
Savi in 1824 called the Japanese soy bean Soja japonica. Miquel in
1855 named a narrow-leafed form from Java Soja angustifolia, and
Maximowicz in 1873, using Moench's specific name, published the
soy bean as Glycine Mspida, which name has been generally adopted.
Siebold and Zuccarini had previously (1843) named a plant from
Japan Glycine soja, supposing it to be the Dolichos soja of Linnaeus.
This plant, however, was not the soy bean cultivated by the Japanese
but the wild plant later described as Glycine ussuriensis by Kegel
and Maack. Under existing botanical rules, the soy bean, which is
known only as cultivated, has been called Glycine Jiispida (Moench)
Maximowicz, and its nearest relative Glycine soja Siebold and Zuc-
carini {G. ussuriensis Kegel and Maack). Maximowicz considered
that the soy bean was probably derived from the latter by cultiva-
tion, but this idea has not generally been accepted.

Glycine soja (Pis. I and II), as heretofore known, difl'ers from G.
Jiispida in its more slender and more vining stems, in being less hairy,
in bearing smaller pods and seeds, and especially in having smaller
flowers. The flower is 3 to 5 mm. long, while that of G. hispida is
6 to 7 mm. The structure of the flower is the same in both, but the
calyx lobes are usually longer in proportion to the tube in G. hispida
than in G. soja. It is apparent, therefore, that the fundamental
diflPerences between the species are slight. The smaller flower we

107 9

10 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

regard as the best single character to separate G. soja from G. hispida,
but using this as a criterion G. soja is also a cultivated species.

Among numerous lots of seeds received from India (S. P. I. Nos.
24672 to 24693, inclusive) representing seven varieties, there are at
least two (see Nos. 24675 and 24682) which have very small flowers,
3 mm. long, indistinguishable from those of the wild G. soja that we
have grown. Typical plants of Glycine soja obtained from the
Botanic Garden, Tokyo, Japan (S. P. I. No. 22428), and from
Soochow, Kiangsu, China (S. P. I. No. 25138), have been grown
three seasons. The India plants are coarser stemmed, less vining,
and bear somewhat larger pods and seeds, but the flowers are much
smaller than those of any variety of G. hispida and precisely like
those of G. soja. Other numbers from India are probably G. hispida,
but the flowers are somewhat smaller than the Japanese varieties
and the pods and seeds as small as any variety of G. hispida. It is
therefore apparent that both G. soja and G. hispida are cultivated
in parts of India, if we accept the flower character as decisive. This
fact makes it doubtful which of the two plants Linnseus named
Dolichos soja. There seems no good reason why G. hispida may not
have been derived from G. soja by cultivation, the smaller flowers
of the latter being the principal difficulty to explain. In all other
respects the two supposed species seem to merge completeh^. The
identity of the plant cultivated in India has been commented on by
Watt (Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, 1890, p. 509)
as follows:

Reference having been made to the authorities of the Calcutta Herbarium on the
subject of G. soja, Sieb. et Zucc, being, as shown in the Flora of British India, a
native of this country, Dr. Prain kindly went into the subject very carefully. He
writes: "We have not, from any part of India, any specimens of G. soja proper. The
Khasi Hills plant is more erect, more hispid, and has larger legumes than the Him-
alayan, and indeed resembles G. hispida, Maxim., quite as much as it does the Indian
cultivated 'G. soja,' which, indeed, it connects with G. hispida. It is, in fact, the
plant most like the wild G. soja, S. et Z., which no one ever professes to have found
wild in India, while it is also the one most like G. hispida, Maxim, (which has never
been found wild anywhere). It is the plant collected by Dr. Watt and myself in the
Naga Hills."

The writer noted on his Naga Hill specimens that they were found in a semiwild
state, and that the plant was known to the Angami Nagas as Tsu Dza, a name not
unlike soja. Throughout India, the soy bean is cultivated, black and white seeded
forms being met with, which vary to some extent, but all preserve the specific char-
acters of Cr. hispida. Plants raised at Saharunpur from Japanese seed have larger and
broader leaves than the usual Indian forms. The fact that this cultivated plant
possesses, even among the aboriginal tribes, names which are original, i. e., in no
way modern derivatives, points to an ancient cultivation, if, indeed, it may not be
accepted as an indication of its indigenous nature. (Editor.)

Prain apparently does not apply the size of the flower as a critical
character. Applying this, however, two of the Indian varieties (see

197

BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES. 11

Nos. 24675 and 24682) are certainly Glycine soja, but the plants are
stouter and less twining, and the pods and seeds larger than the
wild form from Japan. Three other varieties (Nos. 24672, Khasi
Hills, and 24673 and 24674, Darjiling) we would refer to G. hispida,
though the flowers are somewhat smaller than the Japanese and
Chinese varieties. The first is erect and bushy, but the other two
are procumbent and vining. A variety from Taihoku, Formosa,
No. 24642, is very similar to the two varieties from Darjiling. On
the whole, we are therefore inclined to believe that there is but one
botanical species, which has been profoundly modified by cultivation.

BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES.

The numerous varieties of soy beans have led some botanists to
o-ive them botanical designations, but these for the most part have
been ignored by later writers.

Roxburgh (catalogue, p. 55) described a variety in the Calcutta
Botanical Garden as Soja Mspida pallida, stating that it had yellow
flowers and white seeds. Voigt (Hortus Suburbanus Calcuttensis,
p. 231) apparently redescribes the same plant as Soja hispida leuco-
spemia. There is perhaps an error here as all of the varieties of soy
beans grown by us have either white or purple flowers and none have
truly white seeds.

Martens (Die Gartenbohnen, 1869) discusses the soy bean under
the name Soja hispida Moench and gives a classification of thirteen
varieties that he had secured from various sources, of which he
apparently grew but one. He divides the species into three sub-
species based on the form of the seed, under which the varieties
are named according to the color of the seed.

I. Soja elliptica Martens. Seeds oval.

1. S. elliptica nigra. Seeds black; obtained from Shanghai and Paris.

2. S. elliptica castanea. Seeds brown ; obtained from Chefoo, Venice, and

Berlin.

3. S. elliptica virescens. Seeds greenish yellow; obtained from Paris.

4. S. elliptica lutescens. Seeds yellow; obtained from Chefoo.
II. Soja sphaerica. Seeds globose.

5. <S. sphaerica nigra. Seeds black, large; obtained from Japan.

6. S. sphaerica minor. Seeds black, small ; obtained from Japan and Sumatra.

7. S. sphaerica virescens. Seeds greenish: obtained from Shanghai and

Yokohama.

8. 5. sphaerrca lutescens. Seeds yellow, large; obtained as " New Japan peas"

from Norway. This is identified as var. pallida of Roxburgh.

9. .^. sphaerica minima. Seeds yellow, small; obtained from Yokohama.
III. Soja compressa. Seeds compressed.

10. 5. compressa nigra. Seeds black, very large; obtained from Yokohama.

11. S. compressa parvula. Seed3 black, small; obtained from Chefoo.

12. S. compressa virescens. Seeds greenish; obtained from Berlin as Soja

ochroleuca Bouch6.
1,3. S. compressa zebrina. Seeds brown banded with black; obtained from the
Berlin Botanic Garden.
197

12 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

Harz (Zeitschrift ties Landw. Vereins Bayern, 1880, and Land-
wirtschafthliche Samenkunde Handbuch, 1885) p;ives an even more
elaborate classification than Martens of the varieties of Soja hispida,
dividing the species into two subspecies on the form of the pod, and
numerous varieties on the shape and color of the seeds, but it is not
apparent that he grew the plants. His grouping is as follows:

Soja platycarpu Harz. Flat-podded soy beans.

1. olivacea Harz. Seeds olive-brown.

2. punctata Harz. Seeds olive, speckled with brown.

3. melanospcrma Harz. Seeds black, elongate (Soja compressa nigra Martens).

a. vulgaris. Hilura flat; seeds 9.1X5.5X3.5 mm.

b. renisperma. Hilum concave; seeds 10. 1X5X3. 8-4 mm.

c. nigra. (Soja elliptica nigra Martens. ) Seeds little compressed, 11X5.1 X

4.4 mm.

d. riibrocincta. Like the preceding, but dark red about the hilum.

4. plalysperma Harz. Seeds black, flat.

5. parvula Martens. Seeds black, small.
Soja tumida Harz. Swollen-podded soy beans.

6. pallida Roxb. Seeds yellow or yellowish.

7. castanea (Soja elliptica castanea Martens). Seeds brown.

8. atrospervia Harz. {Soja sphaerica nigra and S. sphaerica minor Martens.)

Seeds black.

This classification differs from that of Martens primarily in recog-
nizing two main groups based on the shape of the pod rather than
three groups based on the form of the seed.

While either the system of Martens or that of Ilarz wdll classify the
material, they are of little value either botanically or agronomically.
To accommodate the much larger number of varieties we have
studied, either scheme would need to be elaborated greatly. Further-
more, there are all possible intergrades between flat pods and tumid
pods, as also between oval, globose, and compressed seeds. Botan-
ically speaking, the form of the pod and the color and form of the
seeds is of little significance. Agronomically the habit and size of
the plants are much more important characters, and in many cases
varieties very different in these respects have closely similar seeds.

VARIETAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOY BEANS.

The characters that distinguish soy-bean varieties may be con-
sidered under the following categories:

HABIT OF GROWTH.

All soy beans are strictly determinate as to growth; that is, the
plants reach a definite size according to environment and then mature
and die. The great majority of the varieties are erect and branching,
with a well-defined main stem. (Pis. II and III.) The branches may
all be short, or the lower ones elongated, either spreading or ascending.

197

VARIETAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOY BEANS. 13

In other varieties the stems and branches, especially the elongated
terminals, are more or less twining and usually weak, so that the
plant is only suberect or even procumbent. (Pis. I, II, and III.)
In the bushy forms the internodes may be short, in which case the
pods are more or less densely crowded or elongated, causing the pods
to be scattered. Varieties with elongated internodes are usually
slender and the pods small, but this is by no means universal. The
form of the plant may be greatly modified by thickness of planting,
as the development of the branches is inhibited by close planting and
encouraged by isolation.

FOLIAGE,

There is wide variation in the leaves of soy beans, involving shape,
size, color, and degree of persistence. These characters merge by
insensible degrees, so that they are useful in differentiating varieties
only in extreme cases. In shape, the leaflets are usually ovate-
lanceolate, but in some varieties are narrowly lanceolate or almost
linear; in others, nearly orbicular. They vary in length from 1 inch
to 5 inches. In color they are usually pale, but some are dark green.

In nearly all varieties of soy beans the leaves commence to turn
yellow as the pods begin to ripen and commonly all have fallen when
the pods are mature. On this account it is difficult to harvest the
crop for grain and save all the foilage as well, but this is possible with
many varieties. A few sorts, like the Wisconsin Black, retain their
leaves green until all or nearly all of the pods are mature.

Additional leaflets occur not uncommonly in several varieties.
This seems to be especially true with early sorts from Siberia, on
which leaves with four or five leaflets are frequently seen.

PUBESCENCE.

All soy beans are hairy plants, and there is but little difference in
the amount of hairiness. No smooth variety has thus far been
obtained, the nearest approach to it being No, 22876, from Tokyo,
Japan, The pubescence occurs in two colors, white or gray and tawny,
which behave in Mendelian fashion, the tawny being dominant. The
tawny pubescence is nearly always on tawny-colored or dark pods and
the white pubescence on grayish pods. Many cases occur where two
varieties differ wholly or mainly in the color of the pubescence. In
some instances these have been segregated; in others the mixture
is evident. In such cases one color usually predominates, the pres-
ence of the other being due to casual hybridization,

FLOWERS.

Soy-bean flowers occur in two colors, purple and white. Certain
varieties can be distinguished most readily by this character. In a
number of the lots tested both colors of flowers occur, the plants

197

14 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTOEY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

otherwise resembling each other very closely. Two strains of this
sort can, however, be readily separated. Roxburgh (Catalogue, p. 55)
and Voigt (Hortus Suburbanus Calcuttensis, p. 231) each describe a
variety with white seeds and yellow flowers. Such may really exist,
but there is no hint of yellow flowers in the 290 varieties we have

studied.

Most soy-bean flowers have no perceptible odor; but Nos. 23336,
23337, and 20797, when in full flower at Jackson, Tenn., September
13, 1909, were very fragrant, the odor suggesting that of lilacs.

The flowers are borne on short axiflary racemes, commonly with
8 to 16 in each cluster. In some varieties, however, the racemes may
have as many as 35 flowers.

PODS.

In most varieties of soy beans the pods are distinctly compressed,
but in some cases cylindric, and all possible intermediate forms exist.
(See Pis. VI and VII.) The number of seeds per pod in most varieties
is 2 to 3. In a few sorts, however, the number is 3 to 4. Wein
(Journal fur Landwirtschaft, 1881, Supplement (Ergiinzungshaf t) ,
p. 3) speaks of varieties having occasionally 4 to 5 seeds in a pod, but
we have never seen but one example of a 5-seeded pod. The largest
pods are perhaps those of No. 23213, 2| to 3 inches long; the smallest,
those of No. 17256, three-fourths inch to f^ inches long.

Many soy-bean varieties shatter their seeds easily. In general,
small pods shatter less easily than large pods, but there are exceptions
in each case. Among the varieties tested the Peking, No. 17852B,
holds its seeds far better than any other. Plates IV and V show
the striking differences in this regard.

Soy-bean pods are commonly borne in clusters of 3 to 5. In a few
varieties the clusters may contain 12 pods. Depending on the length
of the internodes, the pods appear crowded or scattered. A single
plant may bear over 400 pods. The color of the pods may be gray
or tawny, or rarely black. Gray pods bear white or grayish hairs,
while all tawny pods have tawny pubescence. Certain varieties with
black pods bear white or grayish hairs.

SEEDS.

The range in size and shape of soy-bean seeds according to variety
is well shown in Plate VIII. None are truly globose, but this
shape is closely approximated by some varieties. Others are much
flattened. The great majority, however, are elliptic in outline, the
thickness less than "the breadth.

Most varieties of soy beans have unicolored seeds in the following
colors, straw-yellow, olive-yellow, olive, green, brown, and black, the
last really a dark violet. Straw-yellow seeds are in some varieties

197

FROST RESISTANCE. 15

very pale, especially when old, and are sometimes erroneously called
white, but no truly white seeds are known in soy beans. In several
varieties with straw-yellow seeds, like the Mammoth, the seeds have
a greenish tinge if harvested before full maturity, making it difficult
to distinguish them from varieties whose fully mature seeds are
greenish yellow. The latter again merge by very fine gradations
into olive and from this into brown.

Bicolored seeds occur in but few varieties. The commonest are
green or yellow with a saddle of black, the latter not sharply de-
limited. Two varieties have their seeds brindled brown and black,
the two colors somewhat concentrically arranged. One variety has
black seeds faintly marked with minute brown specks. On heter-
ozygote plants the seeds are often irregularly bicolored, as discussed
on another page.

The hilum or seed scar is pale in some varieties and dark in others
and therefore often of value to distinguish varieties. In a few
varieties, as in Ito San, there is a minute brown spot on the micropyle
which is diagnostic.

The germs or embryos of soy-bean seeds are yellow, except in the
green-seeded and part of the black-seeded sorts, in which they are
green.

FROST RESISTANCE.

Soy beans will withstand considerable frost, both in the spring, when
young, and in the fall, when about mature. The trials at the Arling-
ton Experimental Farm, near Washington, D. C, indicated that
varieties vary to a considerable degree in this respect. The first
frost in the fall of 1909 at this farm came on October 13, the mini-
mum temperature being 31° F. The top leaves of nearly all varieties
were slighty touched by this frost. The varieties from India were
injured to a greater extent than any of those previously grown. The
first killing frost occurred on October 29, 1909, the minimum tem-
perature being 27° F. In the majority of the late and very late
varieties the plants were killed. However, several varieties still
retained a fair percentage of green leaves, and the pods were but
slightly touched. The Riceland and Barchet varieties showed con-
siderable frost resistance, about 50 per cent of the leaves and all the
pods remaining green after this later frost. The most resistant
variety in the trial was No. 20798E, a selection from No. 20798,
Barchet, this variety still having about 70 per cent of green leaves
and no pods injured. Those varieties showing any degree of resist-
ance still retained green leaves and pods on November 15, the tem-
perature meantime not reaching the minimum of October 29.

In a variety trial at Muskegon, Mich., in 1909, the Guelph, Ito San,
and Ogemaw varieties were found to be quite frost resistant and the
58576°— Bui. 197—10 2

16 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES;, AND FIELD STUDIES.

Chernie, Jet, and Meyer extremely sensitive. The comparative
resistance of the varieties is reported as follows, the first being least
injured: (1) Ogemaw; (2) Haberlandt, Ito San, Kingston, Guelph;
(3) Habaro, Shingto, Manhattan, Brindle; (4) Jet; (5) Meyer,
Chernie.

It may be that the same variety varies in frost resistance, depend-
ing on its stage of maturity. In the foregoing list, however, the
Ogemaw, though very early, usually matures with the Manhattan
and the Chernie, while the Haberlandt is fifteen days later.

PERIOD OF MATURITY.

In soy beans there is a continuous succession of varieties from very
early to very late. With very few exceptions, earliness is correlated
with size, the largest varieties being latest. As in the cowpea, early
plantings take a longer time to mature than late plantings, but there
is by no means a consistent behavior in the different varieties in this
respect. In general, the later the variety the more is its life period
shortened by later planting.

Haberlandt, in 1877, planted one variety at Vienna at intervals of
one week through the season and attempted to correlate the life
periods obtained with the amount of heat. His results are shown in
Table I.

Table I. — Results of planting a single variety of soy bean at different dates, Vienna,

Austria, 1877.

Date of planting.

March 31 .
April?..
April 14..
April 21 . .
April 28..
May 5.. .
May 12..
May 19..
May 26..
June 2...
June 9...

Date of harvest.

September 29 .

do

do

do

do

October 15

do

October 18....

do

do

October 26...,

Life
period.

Days.
182
175
167
160
153
163
156
152
145
138
139

Total heat required-

Until
germina-
tion.

C.
230
294
189
217
228
209
221
275
153
152
130

Until
blossom-
ing.

° C.
1,185
1,102

008
026
995
936
960
1,043
985
871
739

Until
maturity

C.

2,972

2,893

2,787

2,753

2,701

2,811

2,722

2,641

2,519

2,405

2,322

J 97

PERIOD OF MATURITY.

17

Prof. C. A. Mooers, of the Tennessee Agricultural Experiment
Station, has conducted extensive experiments of a similar kind. The
following table gives some of his results : ®

Table II. — Life po-iod of soy-bean varieties planted at intervals of two weeks for two con-
secutive years at the Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station.

Variety.

Mammoth.

Medium Yellow.

Ito San.

1907.

Date planted.

April 3...
April 15..
April 30..
May 15...

June 5

June 17...
June 29 . .
July 15...
April 3...
April 15..
April 30. .
May 15. . .

Julie 5

June 17...
June 29...
July 15...
August 0.
April 3...
April 15..
April 30..
May 15. . .

June 5

June 17...
June 29...
July 15...
August 6.

Date harvested.

October 5

do

October (i

October 9

October 12. . .
October 22. ..

do

October 28...
September 13

do

do

September 18
September 20
September 27

do

October 9

October 29...,

August 9

....do

....do

August 17

September 3 . ,
September 18 .

do

October 9

October 29

Life
period.

Days.

186

173

160

146

129

127

113

105

164

151

137

135

107

102

90

86

84

129

117

102

93

90

93

81

85

84

1908.

Date planted.

April 2

April 14...

May 1

May 15

June 1

June 17

July 1

July 16

April 2

A^ril 14

May 1 ,

May 15

June ]

June 17

July 1

July 16 October 1/

August 1 1 October 24

April 2

April 14....

May 1

May 15

June 1

June 17

July 1

July 16

August 1 . . .

Date harvested.

October 7

....do

....do

....do

....do

October 21

....do

October 24

August 15

September 7...
September 14 .

....do

September 19 .
September 23 .
September 28 .

July 25
July 29

August 5

August 15

August 27

September 10 .
September 19 .

October 6

October 24

Life
period.

Days.

188

179

159

145

128

126

112

100

135

146

136

122

110

98

89

93

85

114

106

96

92

87

85

80

82

85

A large list of varieties has been grown for several years past at the
Arlington Experimental Farm, planted each year during the first
week in June. In period of maturity nearly all the varieties behave
consistently from season to season, as indicated in Table III, on the
following page.

o Bulletin 82, Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station, December, 1908.
197

18 THE SOY bean; HISTOEY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

Table III. — Life ■periods of soy beans groum at the Arlington Experimental Farm, near
Washington, D. C.,for three or four seasons.

1905.

1907.

Variety.

Date
planted.

Date harvested.

Life
period.

Date
planted.

Date harvested.

Life
period.

No. 14952, Shanghai

Days.

June 5
...do

October 20

October 15

do

Days.
137

No. 14953, Edward

132

No. 14954, Acme

...do

132

No 16789 Brooks ..

..do

October 7

do

124

No. 16790, Cloud

...do

124

No 17251, Buckshot ..

June 3
...do

September 14 .

October 19

September 25 .

Octobers

September 25 .

October 2

September 23 .

August 30

September 14 .
September 23 .
September 14 .
September 30 .

October 30

.do

103
128
114
122
114
121
112

88
103
112
103
119
149
149
113
121
119

96
114

96
133
147

...do

...do

...do

...do

...do

...do

...do

...do

.do.. .

September 16 .
October 15....
September 30.

October 6

September 30 .

October 7

September 30 .

September 15 .

.do

103

No. 17252, Flat King

132

No 17253 Nuttall

.do

117

No 17254, Ebony

do

123

No 17255 Kingston

.do

117

No. 17256, Brownie

...do

124

No. 17257, Eda

...do

117

No. 17258, Ogemaw

...do

102

No 17260 Samarow

...do

.do

102

No 17261, Guelph.. .

...do

...do

...do

...do

...do

...do

...do

September 30 .
September 20 .

October 10

October 2a

October 21

September 30 .
October 7

117

No. 17262, Yosho

...do

107

No. 17263, Austin

...do

127

No. 17264, Tokyo

...do

137

No 17267. Hope

.do

138

No. 17268, Ito San.

...do

September 24 .

October 2

September 30 .
September 7 ..
September 25 .
September 7 . .

October 14

October 28

117

No. 17269, Medium Yellow

...do

124

No 17271, Haberlandt

.do

No. 17273, Butterball

...do

June 5

...do

...do

...do

...do

...do

September 30 .

October 5

September 30 .

October 20

October 25

September 30 .
do

117

No 17275, Amherst

.do

122

No. 17277, Manhattan

...do

117

No 17278 Hollybrook

.do

137

No. 17280, Mammoth

No. 17861, Jet

...do

142
117

No. 1S227, Chernie...

...do

117

1908.

1909.

Variety.

Date
planted.

Date harvested.

Life
period.

Date
planted.

Date harvested.

Life
period.

No. 14952, Shanghai

June 6
...do

October 25

October 28

October 20

Octobers

October 7

September 16 .

October 15

Octobers

.do

Days.
141
144
136
124
120
99
128
121
121

lis

121
114
105
105
118
104
123
134
134
106
123
119
105
119
98
128
146
124
112

June 2

...do

...do

...do

...do

June 7
June 2
June 7
June 2
.do

October 30

Novembers...

October 25

October 9

do

September 15 .

October 16

October 4

do

Days.
150

No. 14953, Edward

156

No. 14954, Acme

.do

145

No. 16789, Brooks

...do

129

No. 16790, Cloud

June 9
...do

129

No. 17251, Buckshot

100

No. 17252, Flat King..

do

136

No. 17253, Nuttall

.do

119

No. 17254, Ebony

do ....

124

No. 17255, Kingston

do

October 5

Octobers

October 1

September 22 .
.do

do

124

No. 17256, Brownie..

do ...

.do

do

124

No. 17257, Eda

.do

June 7
.do

September 27 .
do

112

No. 17258, Ogemaw

do

112

No. 17260, Samarow

.do

...do

do

112

No. 17201, Guelph.

do

October 5

September 21 .

October 9

October 20

.do

June 2
June 7
June 2

...do

...do

June 7
June 2

...do

June 7
June 2
June 7
June 2

...do

...do

June 7

do

117

No. 17262, Yosho ..

June 8
.do

September 24.

October 16

October 30

October 29

October 2

October 4

October 9

September 27 .

October 4

September 20 .

October 18

October 30

October 9

September 20 .

109

No. 17263, Austin

136

No. 17264, Tokyo

June 6
.do

150

No. 17267, Hope

149

No. 17268, Ito San.

June 8

...do

...do

September 22 .

October 9

Octobers

September 21 .

October 5

September 14 .

October 12

October 30

October 10

September 30.

117

No. 17269, Medium Yellow

No. 1 7271 , Haberlandt

124
129

No. 17273, Butterball

No. 17275, Amherst

...do

...do

112
124

No. 17277, Manhattan

.do... .

105

No. 17278, Hollybrook...

June 6

...do

June 8
June 9

138

No. 17280, Mammoth

No. 17861, Jet

150
129

No. 18227, Chernie

105

197

CHANGES IN LIFE PEEIOD. 19

Based on the data from the Arhngton Experimental Farm, the
varieties may be classified into seven groups according to their life
periods:

Very early Maturing in 80 to 90 days.

Early Maturing in 90 to 100 clays.

Medium early Maturing in 100 to 110 days.

Medium Maturing in 110 to 120 days.

Medium late Maturing in 120 to 130 days.

Late Maturing in 130 to 150 days.

Very late More than 150 days.

CHANGES IN LIFE PERIOD.

Ball, in Bulletin 98 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, page 8, cites
the case of Agrostology No. 1299 (S. P. I. No. 17276), obtained from
France in 1902, as illustrating that a variety may progressively
change from early to late. According to Ball's records, this variety
matured at the Arlington Experimental Farm in 1902 in 95 days;
in 1903, in 120 days; in 1905, in 130 days. On the other hand, at
Knoxville, Tenn., the record of this variety is perfectly consistent
from year to year and it matures with the Buckshot, a very early
variety.** Planted August 2, 1906, both matured in 70 days; planted
May 25, 1907, both matured in 91 days; planted July 11, 1907, both
matured in 81 days; planted July 30, 1907, both matured in 84 days;
planted May 13, 1908, both matured in 80 days; planted July 17,
1908, both matured in 82 days.

No. 1299 was not grown at the Arlington Experimental Farm after
1905 until 1909, when seed was obtained from the Tennessee Agri-
cultural Experiment Station. In this year it matured in 100 days,
exactly the same as required for Buckshot that had been grown con-
tinuously at Arlington.

It seems difficult to reconcile these results with those reported by
Ball, but the subject needs further investigation.

In the case of the Ogemaw variety, phenomena have occurred that
are precisely like those reported by Ball. As shown by Table III,
this variety required the following periods to mature at the Arlington
Experimental Farm: In 1905, 88 days; in 1907, 102 days; in 1908,
105 days; in 1909, 112 days. In all these years the variety remained
perfectly uniform and no variants have ever been found in it. In
1909 seed of this variety was secured from several sources to see if
any changes in its life period, which was suspected from its increasing
lateness at Arlington, had actually occurred. The results are shown
in Table IV. All of these lots of the Ogemaw variety came from the
same original source, namely, Mr. E. E. Evans, West Branch, Mich.

a Bulletin 82, Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 81, 1908.
197

20 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

The limited amount of data concerning three other varieties indicate
that ButterbaU has likewise become later at Arlington or earlier at
the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, while no change has
taken place in Buckshot and Manhattan.

Table IV. — Variation in life periods of Jour soy-bean varieties, apparently due to place

effect.

Period of

maturity

at the

Variety.

Serial
No.

Arlington
Experi-
mental
Farm,
1909.

Source of seed.

Ogemaw

0855

Days.
84

Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908, where grown 5 years
from S. P. I. No. 13502 from Agrostology No. 1992.

Do

0854

87

Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908, where grown 4 years
from Agrostologv No. 1992.

Do

0856

87

Minnesota Agricultural E.xperiment Station, 1908, original seed from

Kansas in 1900.

Do

0857

87

Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908, original seed from
Michigan in 1903.

Do

0858

87

Do.

Do

21755

87

Arlington Experimental Farm, 1908, from seed from Paris, France.

Do

25212

87

Bremen, Germany.

Do

0866

92

Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908, grown there several years.

Do

0865

97

Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908, original seed from Minne-
sota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1907.

Do

17258

112

Arlington Experimental Farm, 1908, where grown for 0 years.

Buckshot

17251

100

Do.

Do

0859

101

Mirmesota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908, grown several years
from Agrostology No. 1303.

Do

0860

101

Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908, grown several years
from Agrostologv No. 1979.

Do

0861

101

Minnesota .\gricuitural Experiment Station, 1908, grown several years
from Agrostologv No. 1978.

Manhattan. . .

17277

105

Arlington E xpeririiental Farm, 1908, where grown for 6 years from Agros-
tology No. 1295.

Do

0862

105

Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908, where grown for
several years from Agrostologv No. 1295.

Do

8422

117

Arlington Experimental Farm, 1908. from seed grown several years at
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station from Agrostology No. 1199.

ButterbaU....

0863

105

Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908, where grown for
several years from Agrostologv No. 1197.

Do

0864

105

Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908, where grown for
several years from Agrostology No. 1199.

Do

1727.';

112

Arlington Experimental Fann, 1908, where grown for 6 years from
Agrostology No. 1197.

POLLINATION AND HYBRIDIZATION.

The soy-bean flower is completely self-fertile, bagged plants setting
pods as perfectly as those in the open. This was tested at the Arling-
ton Experimental Farm in 1909 by bagging .30 plants representing
10 varieties. In no case did the bagged individuals fail to produce
as well as neighboring unbagged plants. Ten plants were also
inclosed in box screens with similar results.

The flowers are much visited by bees, mainly for the pollen, as but
a very small quantity of nectar is secreted. Cross-pollination would
be of frequent occurrence were it not that the abundant pollen of
eacli flower covers the stigma almost as soon as the flower opens.

197

POLLINATION AND HYBRIDIZATION. 21 !

Previous to 1907 the remarkable uniformity of the plats at the |

Arlington Experimental Farm, except for occasional and evident \

admixtures, had led to the belief that natural hybrids of the soy bean i

did not occur. In that year the occurrence of certain oddly colored j

seeds, smoky green, smoky yellow, brown and yellow, etc., in the i
bulk seed was noted. These were carefully saved and the resultant
rows in 1908 gave diverse progeny, showing that some of the seeds

at least were hybrids. In 1908 more than a hundred single-plant ;

selections of supposed hybrids were made and planted in 1909. Some '

of the results are indicated in Table V.

I

197 I

I

22 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

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MUTATIONS. 23

It is evident from the diversity of the propjeny that the parents
were hybrids in all the cases listed. The number of plants grown in
each case is too small to secure definite proportions, but it is clear
that the color of the pubescence and the color of the seed behave in
Mendelian fashion. The same is probably true of the flower color,
which was counted in only one case.

There is thus furnished a clear explanation of the origin of many
of the new varieties at the Arlington Experimental Farm that were
at first mistaken for accidental admixtures. It also accounts for the
diversity of the population exhibited in manj'- introduced varieties
notwithstanding the apparent uniformity of the seed.

It must not be supposed from the foregoing account that hybrids
are common in soy beans. At Arlington the test rows are grown
contiguously, so that there is great opportunity for cross-pollination.
Nevertheless, the percentage of hybrids that occur is very small, per-
haps not one individual in two hundred.

Thus far the hybrid plants have been detected mostly by the color
of the seed. In a number of cases none of the progeny has seed
similar to the parent; or, in other words, the color of heterozygote
seeds is often unstable. Among the most striking of such heterozy-
gote seeds (PI. VIII) are yellow with a single narrow transverse
band of brown; yellow or green, with an irregularly star-shaped
brown or black figure centering at the hilum; and green or yellow
more or less suffused with a smoky color. Some of the last breed
true, but most of them do not.

Heterozygote plants, especially where the seeds are largely or
wholly yellow, are often distinguishable by the unusual form of the
pods near the tips of the branches. These are more tumid than the
other pods and the seeds more crowded. Such pods may also be
thinner in texture and much less hairy. Illustrations of this phe-
nomenon are shown in Plate VII.

MUTATIONS.

The origin of new varieties of soy beans without hybridization has
apparently occurred in certain cases that have come under our obser-
vation. From a theoretical standpoint there can be no doubt that
the fundamental diversity in a plant, especially when normally self-
pollinated, is brought about by other causes than hybridization. It
is self-evident that there must be two different varieties to cross
before crossing can become effective in producing new varieties.
Most soy-bean varieties when pure remain very constant to type, so
that any chance variation is quickly detected. There are two cases
in which the evidence is fairly satisfactory that a brown-seeded
variety arose as a mutation from a yellow-seeded sort.

197

24 THE soy BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

Trenton (S, P. I. No. 24610). — This is a brown-seeded variety
found by Mr. S. J. Leavell, of Trenton, Ky., in a field of the yellow-
seeded Mammoth. Grown sitle by side at the Arlington Experimental
Farm in 1909, the two varieties were indistinguishable by any other
character than the seed color.

Riceland (S. P. I. No. 20797).— At the Arlington Experimental
Farm this variety has been grown for three seasons, and while it ma-
tures but few seeds it is very uniform. At Biloxi, Miss., in 1908, it
displayed astonishing diversity. Some plants had very narrow
leaves, others very broad, and all degrees of intermediates occurred ;
some plants were erect, others procumbent; some fruited heavily,
others scarcely at all. The seed was saved from individual plants
showing the most striking variations, and the resultant plants of each
in 1909 were uniform. It is possible that the seed planted at Biloxi
contained these forms, but the fact that the same bulk seed gave uni-
form plants elsewhere indicates that the diversity was a response to
the environment. No similar phenomenon has as yet been witnessed
in other varieties.

NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION.

Most of the varieties of soy beans that were early introduced into
the United States received such names as Early Black, Medium
Green, Late Yellow, etc., one adjective referring to the period of ma-
turity, the other to the color of the seed. As long as the varieties
were few such a system of naming was satisfactory.

In 1907, when the number of varieties had increased to 23, Ball"
recognized the impracticability of such a system of nomenclature
and gave single-term appellations to most of the varieties. On this
account, several of the older sorts are now known by two or more
names.

At the present time there are known about 300 varieties, mostly
obtained in the last three years from Asia by the activities of the
Office of Seed and Plant Introduction of the Bureau of Plant Industry.
In the synopsis of the varieties here presented they are classified (1)
by the type of plant into five groups and (2) by the color of the seeds.
A brief description is given of each, but only the more important have
been given names. It will be noticed that a considerable number of
the varieties are not pure, containing two or more closely similar sorts
distinguished by the color of the flowers or the color of the pubescence,
or both. Thus, the Acme variety is really a mixture of four sorts,
namely, white flowered with gray pubescence, white flowered with
tawny pubescence, purple flowered with gray pubescence, and purple
flowered with tawny pubescence. These all mature together and the

« Bulletin 98, Bureau of Plant Industry, 1907.
197

NOMENCLATUKE AND CLASSIFICATION. 25

seeds are either identical or distinguishable with great difficulty.
Nevertheless, the results secured with other varieties leave no question
that all these can be separated and bred true to type.

In regard to the brief descriptions given, a few words of explanation
are necessary. Many of the importations proved to be impure lots of
seeds. In some cases, especially where the seeds were differently
colored, these were separated before planting, and such are definitely
indicated. In other cases the mixture was not detected until the
plants were grown, or, in a few cases, until the seed was harvested.
Where the difference was detected in the field and the plants sep-
arated, they are referred to as "field selections." On the other hand,
if the selection was merely a separation of seed from the garnered
crop, these are spoken of as "seed selections." Both the "seed"
selections and the "field" selections are for the most part "mass"
selections, and many of them prove still to be impure, containing
both tawny and gray-haired, or red-flowered and white-flowered
varieties, which, however, mature together. Most of these have not
been separated, though in all valuable varieties they should be.
Where one or the other of such dift'erences is not recorded, the variety
is a pure strain. Where the selections were made the first year that
the plants were grown from imported seeds, they may be either acci-
dental admixtures or the result of hybridization at the place where
the original seed was grown. If, on the other hand, they were
selected two or more yearl after they were introduced, they are almost
certainly the result of hybridization at the Arlington Experimental
Farm.

Besides these, many individual or centgener selections have been
made; these, however, are not considered in the accompanying de-
scriptions. Except these last, all selections are indicated by the origi-
nal S. P. I. serial number with a letter added, thus 16790 D.

It will be apparent from the descriptions that many varieties are
very similar to one another. Only a comparatively few of them
have been named. Very careful field comparisons were made, how-
ever, in all cases, so that each description represents a different thing.

In the cases of a number of early S. P. I. introductions, new num-
bers were assigned to different lots of seed grown from the original.
Thus, the original introduction of Ebony was S. P. I. No. 6386 and
different lots of its progeny were Nos. 8492, 9414, and 17254. This
is indicated in each case. Many of these earlier S. P. I. numbers were
also distributed under a series of Agrostology numbers, full keys to
their respective identities being given by Ball in Bulletin 98 of the
Bureau of Plant Industry, so that their identity with the numbers
and descriptions here given can be easily determined.

197

26 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.
EARLY AGRICULTURAL HISTORY IN THE UNITED STATES.

The first mention of the soy bean in American Hterature is by
Thomas Nuttall, in the New England Farmer, October 23, 1829.
Nuttall grew a variety with red flowers and chocolate-brown seeds
in the botanic garden at Cambridge, Mass., and from his observa-
tions wrote a brief account concerning it. He writes:

Its principal recommendation at present is only as a luxury, affording the well-
known sauce, soy, which at this time is only prepared in China and Japan.

In the same journal two years later, November 23, 1831, is an
account of the successful culture of the plant at Milton, Mass., the
seed having been obtained from Nuttall.

No further mention of the plant in American literature appears
until 1853, when a brief account appeared under the name "Japan
pea," by A. H. Ernst, Cincinnati, Ohio, as follows: "■

The Japan pea, in which so much interest has been manifested in this country for
a year or two past, from its liardihood to resist drouglit and frost, together with its
enormous yield, appears to be highly worthy of the attention of agriculturists.

This plant is stated to be of Japan origin, having been brought to San Francisco
about three years since, dnd thence into Illinois and Ohio. Its habit of grov/th is
bushy, upright, woody, and stiff, branching near the ground, and attaining a height
of three or four feet. The leaflets are large, resembling those of an ordinary bean,
occurring in sets of three, with long quadrangular stems. The flowers, which are
email and white, but rather inconspicuous, sometimes having purple centers.

In the following year, 1854, the Perry 'expedition brought back
two varieties of "soja bean" from Japan, one "white" seeded, the
other "red" seeded.'' These, together with the Japan pea, were dis-
tributed by the Commissioner of Patents in 1854, and, thereafter?
frequent references to the plant occur in agricultural literature
under such names as Japan pea, Japan bean, and Japanese fodder
plant."^ Most of these articles speak of the plant as the Japan pea,
none of them as the soy or soja bean. It is apparent from the early
accounts that there were at least two Japan peas, one early enough
to mature in Connecticut (Patent Office Report, 1854, p. 194), the
other very late (American Agriculturist, 1857, vol. 16, p. 10). Judg-
ing from all the accounts, we suspect that the early Japan pea may
be the Ito San variety, which, however, has red flowers, while the
late variety may be the Mammoth. The Ito San is still occasionally
called the Japan pea, while the introduction and source of the Mam-
moth has never been definitel}^ determined. From these early

o Report of the Commissioner of Patents, Agriculture, p. 224.

b Report of the Commissioner of Patents, Agriculture, 1854, p. xv.

c See especially Report of the Commissioner of Patents, Agriculture, 1854, p. 134.
American Agriculturist, November 1, 1854, p. 120; January, 1857, p. 10; February,
1874, p. 63. Rural New Yorker, January 21, 1854, p. 22; January 21, 1858, p. 14.
American Farmer, January, 1856, p. 57. The Cultivator, May 18, 1855.
197

VAEIETIES INTRODUCED INTO THE UNITED STATES. 27

accounts the Mammoth may well be the "white-seeded" soja bean
obtained by the Perry expedition. The "red-seeded soja bean" was
perhaps, the Adsuki bean {Pliaseolus angularis), as no red-seeded
soy bean is known.

Prof. G. H. Cook, of New Brunswick, N. J., obtained seed of the
soy bean at the Bavarian Agricultural Station in 1878. In the same
year Mr. James Neilson^ obtained seeds of several varieties at Vienna,
Austria. Both of these gentlemen planted the seeds and gathered
crops of the different varieties in 1879. These varieties were without
doubt those grown and distributed through Europe by Professor
Haberlandt, of Vienna.

A yellow-seeded soy bean was grown at the North Carolina Agri-
cultural Experiment Station in 1882 and reported on in some detail.
The source of the variety is not given, but by imphcation it is the
same as the variety stated to be grown by a number of persons in
the State, and is probably the Mammoth.''

Two varieties, one black seeded, the other with white seeds, were
grown at the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station in 1888.'=

In 1890 Prof. C. C. Georgeson secured three lots of soy beans from
Japan which were grown at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment
Station in 1890 and subsequently .<^

Prof. W. P. Brooks, of Amherst, Mass., brought with him from
Japan in 1889 a number of soy-bean varieties, including the Medium
Green or Guelph, and the Ito San. It is quite certain that other
importations of soy beans from Asia were made by others, but no
definite records have been found.

Since 1890 most of the agricultural experiment stations have
experimented with soy beans and many bulletins have been pub-
lished dealing wholly or partly with the crop.

VARIETIES INTRODUCED INTO THE UNITED STATES INDEPEND-
ENTLY OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OR PREVIOUS
TO 1898.

ENUMERATION.

Previous to the numerous introductions by the United States
Department of Agriculture beginning in 1808, there were not more
than eight varieties of soy beans grown in the United States, namely,
Ito San, Mammoth, and Butterball, with yellow seeds; Buckshot
and Kingston, with black seeds; Guelph or Medium Green, with
green seeds; and Eda and Ogemaw, with brown seeds.

a Rural New Yorker, 1882, p. 9.

b Annual Report of the North Carolina Experiment Station, 1882, pp. 1 16-127.
c Annual Report of the Massachusetts Experiment Station, 1889, pp. 140-141.
d Bulletin 19, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 200.
197

28 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

It has been possible to determine the history of these, in part at
least, which is of value in interpreting the older records.

ITO SAN.

Ito San was among the varieties introduced in 1899 by Prof. W.
P. Brooks, of Amherst, Mass., and by him called Early Yellow.
Later, Mr. E. E. Evans secured seed of it and in 1902 called it Ito
San. Mr. Evans writes that he subsequently secured it "from half
a dozen sources in the United States and Japan." The same variety
was also among those introduced by Prof. C. C. Georgeson, of the
Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, and grown in 1890 " and
subsequent years. This conclusion is based on the identity of nine
varieties obtained from the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment
Station in 1903. This station had previously obtained several varie-
ties from the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station in 1892.''
Three of the varieties from Rhode Island had exactly the same names
as those published in Bulletins 19 and 32 of the Kansas Agricultural
Experiment Station, namely, Eda Mame, Yellow Soy Bean, and
Kiyusuke Daidzu. All three of these are Ito San.

Ball " gives a list of numerous American sources tlirough which
this variety was secured under such nam.es as Yellow, Early Yellow,
and Early White. It was also grown at the Virginia Agricultural
Experiment Station in 1905 as Japanese pea, as shown by later
cultures at the Arlington Experimental Farm of seed from this
experiment station.

Among the introductions of the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant
Introduction it is represented by No. 6326, received in 1901 from
Tokyo, Japan, and No. 21818, obtained from Vilmorin-Antlrieux &
Co., Paris, France, as "Yellow Etampes." It is quite probable that
this is one of the varieties grown by Professor Haberlandt in his
experiments, as all of his varieties were grown at Etampes and other
places in France.'^ We suspect that this is also the variety that
was distributed by the United States Patent Office in 1853, as most
of the early accounts point to this or a closely similar variety. These
accounts refer to it as Japan pea, Japanese pea, Japan bean, and
also coffee berry. «

a Bulletin 19, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, December, 1890.
b Report, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, 1892, p. 150.
c Bulletin 98, Bureau of Plant Industry, p. 24.
d La Nature, 1881, pt. 2, p. 115.

e See especially the Rural New Yorker, January 21, 1854, p. 22.
197

VARIETIES INTRODUCED INTO THE UNITED STATES. 29.

MAMMOTH.

The Mammoth is at present the most important soy bean grown
in the United States. It has also been known as Late, Yellow, Late
Yellow, Southern, and Mammoth Yellow.

The date of introduction of this variety is very obscure, and
nothing definite is known regarding its origin. None of the numer-
ous recent introductions are identical and but one is closely similar,
namely. No. 22318, from Erfurt, Germany, received as ''Yellow
Riesen." It is not probable, though, that this was German-grown
seed, as so late a variety could scarcely mature in Germany. Sev-
eral varieties from Shanghai, China, and from Japan are closely
related. It may possibly be the "white-seeded" soy bean intro-
duced by the Perry expedition. We have been unable to find any
early published records that definitely refer to this variety. It is not
improbable that it is this variety that was grown at the North Carolina
Agricultural Experiment Station in 1882. There can be but little
doubt that it is the "soja" bean from T. W. Wood & Sons, Rich-
mond, Va., grown by the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station
in 1889 " and in 1890. ^ Since 1895 Mammoth has been a well-known
variety.

BUCKSHOT.

The history of this variety is somewhat complicated. It has been
obtained from the following American sources :

Agrostology No. 1184, "Black," from Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station,
spring, 1903.

Agrostology No. 1301, "Early," from Johnson & Stokes, March, 1902.

Agrostology No. 1303, "Extra Early Black," from J. M. Thorburn & Co., March, 1902.

Agrostology No. 1304, from W. A. Burpee, March, 1902.

Agrostology No. 1474, "Extra Early Black," from Hammond Seed Company, March,
1903.

Agrostology No. 2033, "Crossbred No. 9," from the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment
Station, May, 1904. "Crossbred No. 9" of Evans is really Ogemaw, while his
" Crossbred No. 6 " is Early Black or Buckshot. These two numbers were exactly
reversed at the Arkansas Experiment Station, as the variety received from that
station as "Crossbred No. 6 " (Agrostology No. 2031) proved to be Ogemaw.

All of the foregoing were later united as S. P. I. No. 17251.

S. P. I. No. 6334, from Tokyo, Japan, April 20, 1901. Among the progeny of this

are S. P. I. Nos. 8491, 9412, and probably 11179, and Agrostology No. 1292.
S. P. I. No. 19987, from Yokohama, Japan, 1907.
S. P. I. No. 22883, from Tokyo, Japan, 1908.
S. P. I. No. 22322, "Early Black from Podolia," Haage & Schmidt, 1908.

a Report, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1889, p. 43.
''Bulletin 19, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 201.

197

30 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTOEY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

From these data it would appear that the Buckshot is a common
Japanese variety. But Mr. E. E. Evans, West Branch, Mich.,
claims that this variety was originated by him in 1901 as a hybrid,
"Evans's Crossbred No. 6," which he advertised in 1902 and dis-
tributed widely. In recent correspondence Mr. Evans states that
this was a hybrid of a large, flat, black variety, Medium Early Black,
and of the Dwarf Brown. According to Mr. Ball, No. 6334 and
its progeny numbers were identical with Evans's variety. In
Mr. H. T. Nielsen's opinion, Nos. 19987 and 22883 were also pre-
cisely identical. Unfortunately, these three Japanese lots were
not gro\vn in 1909. A critical comparison of the seed samples
shows, however, that the three Japanese lots have thicker, more
nearly globose seeds than most of the lots derived from Evans's
plant. It is, therefore, not unlikely that there are really two closely
similar but distinct varieties involved, a matter which needs further
investigation.

Nos. 22322 and 25212 A are undoubtedly the same as Evans's plant.

GUELPH, OR MEDIUM GREEN.

Guelph, or Medium Green, was introduced by Prof. W. P. Brooks,
in 1889, from Japan, and is now quite extensively grown in the
Northern States. The same variety was also obtained from Hankow,
China, in May, 1901— S. P. I. No. 6558, according to Ball's identifi-
cation.« It has since been received from only one foreign source,
namely, S. P. I. No. 22320, from Haage & Schmidt, as "Green
Samarow." This last might easily be the progeny of the American
introduction.

BUTTERBALL.

The Butterball variety was first secured from the Rhode Island
Agricultural Experiment Station in 1903 as "Early Japm," and
it is probably one of Professor Brooks's introductions. According
to Ball,'' S. P. I. No. 8422, from Yokohama, Japan, is identical.
A recent culture of this number obtained after a lapse of several
years from the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, through
Mr. H. B. Derr, proved to be Butterball, but there were a few differ-
ent things intermixed, probably hybrids. A recent lot of seed
from Dammann & Co., Naples, Italy, S. P. I. No. 22415, received as
"Giant Yellow," is undoubtedly Butterball.

a Bulletin 98, Bureau of Plant Industry, p. 21.
b Bulletin 98, Bureau of Plant Industry, p. 25.
197

J

VAEIETIES INTRODUCED INTO THE UNITED STATES. 31

KINGSTON.

The Kingston sov bean was received from the Rhode Island Agri-
cultural Experiment Station in 1903 as "Japanese Xo. 15." It was
obtained by them from Prof. "W. P. Brooks, of the Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station, who brought a number of soy-bean
varieties from Japan in 1SS9, and is probably the variety which he
named "Medium Black.'' It has never been secured ffom any other
source. In aU probability this is the variety gro'^m at the Rhode
Island Agricultural Experiment Station in 1893 "' as "'Medium
Black."

SAMAROW.

The Samarow has not occurred in any of our Asiatic importations.
It is advertised under the name of ''Green Samarow" by several
European seedsmen. Messrs. J. M. Thorburn & Co., who first intro-
duced it into the United States about 1901, inform us that their seed
was from Italy. The "Green Samarow," S. P. I. No. 22320, from
Haage & Schmidt, Erfurt, Germany, proved to be Guelph.

EDA.

The Eda is the brown-seeded variety introduced from Japan and
grown by the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station in 1890 under
the name Yamagata CTia-daidzu. The identification of Chadaidzu
rests on the fact that the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment
Station secured all of the varieties from Kansas in 1892. The De-
partment of Agriculture obtained all of these varieties from Rhode
Island in 1903, including but one brown-seeded variety under the
name "Brown Eda Mame."

OGEMAW, OR OGEMA.

The Ogemaw, or Ogema, variety was first introduced by Mr. E. E.
Evans, of West Branch, Mich., in 1902, as "Evans's Crossbred No. 9."
Mr. Evans writes that he originated this as a cross between his No.
6, Early Black, and the Dwarf Bro\Mi. All of the several lots of this
variety grown in our trials, namely. Agrostology Nos. 13502, 17258,
and 17259, trace back to this origin, and it has been obtamed from
no foreign source. Nos. 21755, from France, and 25212, from Bre-
men, Germany, are very similar, however.

"Annual Report, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, 1893, p. 191.
58576°— Bui. 197—10 3

32 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTOEY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.
VARIETIES GROWN IN EUROPE.
EARLY HISTORY.

The g^o^^^ng of soy beans in Europe dates from the experiments
of Prof. Friedrich Haberlandt, of Vienna, in 1875 and subsequent
years. Haberlandt secured seed of nineteen varieties at the Vienna
exposition in 1873. These were as follows:

Five yellow-seeded varieties from China, j One yellow-seeded variety from Japan.

Three black-seeded varieties from China.
Three green-seeded varieties from China.
Two brown-red-seeded varieties from
China.

Three black-seeded varieties from Japan.
One black-seeded variety from Trans-
Caucasia.
One green-seeded variety from Tunis.

Of these, only four varieties matured at Vienna, namely, two
yellow seeded, one black seeded, and one bro^vn-red seeded, all from
China. All of Haberlandt 's further work was done with these four
varieties, which were grown in many places in Austria and Germany
and in France and Italy, so that they became widespread. Presum-
ably they are still among the varieties grown in Europe. They
were brought to this country by Cook and by Neilson in 1878,** but
it is only by surmise that any of the American varieties can be traced
to this source.

From various European sources the following varieties of soy
beans have been obtained :

SAMAROW.

Seed obtained from Dammann & Co., Naples, Italy, No. 22411, and identical with
No. 17260, which last was introduced by Messrs. Thorburn & Co. from Italy. Also
called "Green Samarow."

ETAMPES.

Seed from Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., Paris, France, No. 21818, proved identical
with Ito San. Also advertised by other European seedsmen, usually as Yellow
Etampes.

CHERNIE.

Seed was received from Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co. as "Early Black from Podolia,"
No! 21757 and No. 21756; from Haage & Schmidt, Erfurt, Germany, aa No. 22321;
and from Dammann & Co. as "Black," No. 22412. All of these are identical and
indistinguishable from No. 18227, obtained from Khabarovsk, Siberia.

"yellow riesen."

Seed obtained from Haage & Schmidt, No. 22318. The variety is very similar to
Mammoth, but somewhat later. No. 22317, "Yellow," from the same source, has
indistinguishable seeds, but these did not germinate.

o Rural New Yorker, 1882, p. 9.
197

VAKIETIES GROWN IN EUROPE. 33

BUCKSHOT.

No. 22322, obtained from Haage & Schmidt, is indistinguishable from the Buckshot
variety, S. P. I. No. 17251. It was received as "Early Black from Podolia," but is not
the same as the variety received under that name from another source. Seeds of this
variety were also mixed in the brown seed from the Botanical Garden of Bremen,
Germany, and grown as No. 25212 A.

''yellow."

This variety was received from Dammann & Co., No. 22414, and Vilmorin-Andrieux
& Co., No. 21754, the two being identical and different from any others yet received.
It is a small, early variety, maturing at Arlington in ninety days.a

''brown."

Seed under this name was obtained from Dammann & Co., No. 22413, Haage &
Schmidt, No. 22319, and Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., No. 21755. These seeds are indis-
tinguishable, but only No. 21755 grew. The original seed of this is much smaller than
Ogemaw, but in 1909 both the seeds and plants could not be distinguished from Oge-
maw from Michigan. No. 25212, from the Botanical Garden, Bremen, Germany, also
with brown seeds, was likewise indistinguishable from Ogemaw in 1909, though the
original seeds were different both from No. 21755 and from Ogemaw.

BUTTERBALL.

The variety secured from Dammann & Co., No. 22415, as "Giant Yellow," could
not be distinguished from S. P. I. No. 17274, Butterball.

S. P. I. NO. 5039.

This seed was received from Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co. as "Extra Early Black
Seeded." This is the original importation of the variety later named Wisconsin
Black, S. P. I. No. 25468, which is now commercially handled by a few seedsmen.

There are no authentic records of a few of the earhest S. P. I.
importations from Europe, so that nothing definite can be said as to
their identity. Among these are No. 1492 (brown seeded), No.
1493 (black seeded), and No. 2156, Yellow Etampes, all from France.

From these data it would appear that at the present time at least
ten varieties of soy beans are more. or less grown in Europe. Pre-
sumably there are included among these the four varieties grown by
Haberlandt, and it is therefore probable that his black variety was
Chernie, his brown-red variety the "Brown" of the European seeds-
men,, one of the yellows the Ito San or Etampes, and the other
probably the "Yellow" of Dammann & Co. and Vilmorin-Andrieux
& Co. All of these are quite small seeded and agree well with the
weights per thousand seeds as given by Haberlandt.

a No. 17276, without name, from Havre, France, is a very similar but distinct
variety.
197

34 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

THE SOY BEAN IN ASIA.
ASIATIC SOURCES OF SOY BEANS.

Soy beans are grown most abundantly in Asia in Japan, Korea,
Manchuria, and in the northern provinces of China, namely Shan-si
and Shan-tung, but little detailed statistical information concerning
the crop has yet been published.''

In other provinces of China the plant seems not to be cultivated
extensively, though grown as far south as the Yangtse. Seeds have
also been received from such places as Canton and Hongkong in
southern China, but it is not certain that these were grown there.
The soy bean is also grown sparingly in Formosa, Cochin China,
Celebes, Java, and India.

According to Watt ^ the soy bean is "extensively cultivated
throughout India and in eastern Bengal, Khasi Hills, Manipur, the
Naea Hills, and Burma, often found as a weed on fields or near culti-
vation." The few varieties secured from India are very distmct,
indicating a long culture in that country, as indeed the numerous
vernacular names used would imply.

LIST OF VARIETIES.

Among the many varieties introduced it is a very interesting fact
that the same variety has rarely been secured a second time unless
from the same place. It appears that practically every locality in
China has its own local varieties. If this be true, then there are
probably several times as many varieties existing as have yet been
obtained. In general, the earliest varieties come from the northern-
most locahties, the latest from the southernmost.

The following lists show the various places in Asia from which
soy-bean seed has been obtained. Distinct soy-bean varieties are
obtained from practically every different locality. The list not
only indicates to some extent the distribution of the soy bean, but
will suggest the more likely regions from which valuable new varieties
may be obtained.

SIBERIA.

South Usuri, Nos. 480, 20699; Khabarovsk, Nos. 18227, 20405, 20406, 20408; Mer-
koechofka, Nos. 20407, 20409, 20410, 20411, 10412, 20414.

MANCHURIA.

Newchwang, Nos. 19183, 19184, 19186; Harbin, No. 20854; Tieling, Nos. 21079,
21080.

"See, however, the following works: Hosie, Alexander, Report on the Province of
Szechwan, 1904, and Soya Bean and Products; Special Consular Reports, vol. 40,
1909, Bureau of Manufactures, Department of Commerce and Labor.

b Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, 1890, vol. 3, p. 510.
197

THE SOY BEAN IN ASIA. 35

KOREA.

Pingyang, Nos. 6386, 6396, 6397, 6414, 6416; Ko-bau, No. 20011.

JAPAN.

Tokyo, Nos. 647, 648, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 6312, 6314, 6326, 6333, 6334,
6335, 6336, 22874, 22875, 22876, 22877, 22878, 22879, 22880, 22881, 22882, 22883, 22884,
22885; Kobe, Nos. 20892, 20893; Yokohama, Nos. 4980, 8422, 8423, 8424, 19981, 19982,
19983, 19984, 19985, 19986, 19987, 22503, 22504, 22505, 22506, 22507; Hokkaido, Nos.
21825, 21830, 21831; Anjo, No. 8900.

CHINA.

Peking, Ghihli, Nos. 17852, 23305, 23306, 27498; Shan-hai-kwan, Chihli, No. 17857;
Tientsin, Chihli, Nos. 17862, 23229; Paotingfu, Chihli, Nos. 22897, 22899, 22900,
22901, 23312; Wutaishan, Chihli, Nos, 23291, 23292; Shiling, Chihli, Nos. 23303,
23311; Pee-san, Chihli, No. 18258; Tschang-ping-tsu, Chihli, No. 18259; Sachon,
Chihli, No. 17861; Chefoo, Shantung, Nos. 22536, 22537, 22538; Boshan, Shantung, No.
21999; Chungking, Szechwan, Nos. 23522, 23523; Ningyuenfu, Szechwan, Nos.
23544, 23545, 23646; Yachow, Szechwan, Nos. 25437, 25438; Soochow, Kiangsu, Nos.
23207, 24180, 24181, 24182, 24183, 24184, 25133, 25134, 25135, 25136, 25137, 25138;
Shanghai, Kiangsu, Nos. 14952, 14953, 14954, 18619, 22311, 22312, 22927, 23205, 23336,
23337, 23338; Chinhuafu, near Shanghai, Nos. 20797, 20798, 23232; Chin-kiang,
Kiangsu, Nos. 8584, 8586; Chinhua, Kiangsu, No. 9344; Tangsi, Chekiang, Nos. 23208,
23209, 23211; Taichow, Chekiang, Nos. 23296, 23297; Hangchow, Chekiang, Nos. 16789,
16790, 22498, 22499, 22500, 22501, 22644, 22645, 22646, 23212, 23213; Hankow, Hupeh,
Nos. 6556, 6558, 6559, 6560, 6561; Wuchang, Hupeh, Nos. 2869, 2870, 2871, 2872;
Ingchung, Fukien, Nos. 22920, 22921, 22922; Ingang, Fukien, No. 27499; Swatow,
Kwangtung, No. 22886; Canton, Kwangtung, Nos. 22379, 22380, 23325, 23326, 23327;
Hongkong, Kwangtung, Nos. 22406, 22407; Sheklung, Kwangtung, Nos. 22633, 22634;
Tsintse, Anhwei, No. 23299; Weihsien, Shantung, Nos. 22534, 22535.

FORMOSA.

Taihoku, Nos. 24641, 24642, 24643.

COCHIN CHINA.

Saigon, No. 22714.

INDIA.

Darjiling, Assam, Nos. 24673, 24674; Pithoragarh, Kumaon District, No. 25118;
Khasi Hills, Assam, No. 24672; Safipur, Unao, U. P., No. 24675; Hasangani, Unao,
U. P., No. 24676; Ranjitpurwa, Unao, U. P., No. 24677; Etawah, U. P., Nos. 24678,
24679, 24680, 24683, 24684, 24685, 24686; Mainpuri, U. P., Nos. 24681, 24682; United
Provinces, No. 24687; Cawnpore, U. P., Nos. 24688, 24689; Dehra Dun, U. P., No.
24690; Poona, Bombay, but grown there from Japanese seed, Nos. 24693, 24694,
24695, 24696, 24697, 24698, 24699, 24700, 24701, 24702, 24703, 24704, 24705, 24706,
24707, 24708, 24709, 24710, 24711.

JAVA.

Buitenzorg, No. 21946.

CELEBES.

Macassar, Celebes, No. 5517.
1»7

36 THE SOY BEAN; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

DESIRABLE CHARACTERS IN SOY-BEAN VARIETIES.
CONSIDERATIONS GOVERNING CHOICE.

The determination of tlie best variety of soy bean for any locality
will depend first on whether it is grown primarily for hay or for
grain, or for both purposes. In this, as with other crops, yield is
the most valuable single desideratum. Secondary considerations of
importance are habit of the plant, degree of coarseness, ability to
retain the foliage, color of seed, and ease of shattering.

HABIT OF THE PLANT.

Erectness of stem with upright or ascending branches is a prime
requisite of a desirable variety. A tall habit is also important, as
dwarf varieties usually bear pods very close to the ground, so that
many will be left on the stubble, which is not the case in many tall
sorts.

COARSENESS.

An objection to some varieties of soy beans is the coarse, woody
stem which makes mowing difficult. There are many slender varie-
ties where this objection does not hold, but slenderness is usually
accompanied with small pods and seeds, and often with vining tips
and a tendency to lodge. Unless there is lodging, such varieties are
easily mown.

ABILITY TO RETAIN LEAVES.

Nearly all soy beans begin to shed their leaves as the pods ripen.
There are a number of exceptions to this, like the Wisconsin Black,
where the leaves remain green even after all the pods are mature.
It may be possible to combine this character as a valuable feature
to later varieties to be grown both for hay and grain.

COLOR OF THE SEED.

Yellow or green seeds are preferable to darker colors, as the shat-
tered seeds are more easily found by hogs pasturing the field or
stubble.

SHATTERING.

When grown for grain alone, shattering is a serious fault. Some
varieties, like Guelph, shatter inordinately; others, like Peking,
scarcely at all; while most varieties shatter somewhat, especially
during changeable weather, if not harvested when ripe. As a rule
the varieties with large pods and seeds shatter much worse than
those with small pods and seeds. In a few varieties, like Brownie,
the seed coats break badly in thrashing, a very objectionable character.

197

i

i

SYNOPSIS OF THE VARIETIES. 37

RESISTANCE TO DISEASE.

In sections where nematodes and cowpea wilt occur most soy-
bean varieties are seriously affected by both these diseases. A few
varieties, however, exhibit considerable resistance to these diseases,
and there is good ground to believe that practically immune strains
can be developed.

NONFILLING OF PODS.

In Louisiana and the southern half of Alabama, Mississippi, and
Georgia late varieties of soy beans, especially the Mammoth, fre-
quently fail to develop seeds, while earlier sorts are not thus affected.
The cause for this has not been determined. At Biloxi, Miss., selec-
tions of No. 20797 fill their pods perfectly, so that there is little
doubt that late varieties adapted to this section can be secured or

developed.

SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS.

Plants bushy, the branches without tendency to twine, the terminals rarely elon-
gated :
Pods medium to large, crowded or scattered; stems coarse to medium. Group I
Pods small, stem rather slender —

Internodes short, the pods crowded; medium late II

Internodes long, the pods scattered; very late; foliage dark green . Ill

Plants more or less twining, especially the long, slender terminals:

Plants erect or suberect, slender, the internodes long; pods medium to

small IV

Plants procumbent, rather coarse; pods small; very late V

These groups merge into each other more or less, but in a general
way represent fairly distinct types. The type of branching is the
same in all, the differences being due to the relative development of
the main stem and the lateral branches.

SYNOPSIS OF THE VARIETIES.
GROUP I. 190 VARIETIES.

Group I contains far more than half of the varieties of soy beans,
including all the best known ones, such as Mammoth, Hollybrook,
Guelph, and Ito San.

Seeds strnw-yelloiv; germ yellow— 71 varieties.— 'Nos. 14953, 14953 A, 14953 B, 16790
D, 17257 E, 17262 B, 17268, 17268 A, 17269, 17269 D, 17270, 17271, 17273, 17275,
17275 L, 17276, 17277, 17277 A, 17278, 17280, 17862 G, 18619, 19184 A, 19184 G, 19981,
19981 A, 19984, 20011 A, 20406, 20406 C, 20407 B, 20892, 20892 A, 20893 A, 21079 H,
21080 K, 21754, 21825, 22312, 22318, 22318 A, 22335, 22379, 22406, 22498, 22503, 22504
A, 22505, 22506, 22714, 22876, 22879, 22880, 22880 A, 22880 C, 22901, 22921 B, 22922,
22922 A, 23207 B, 23209, 23292, 23296, 23303, 24181, 24672, 24672 B, 24695, 24840,
25131, 27500.
197

38 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

Seeds olive-yellow; germ yellow— 45 varieties.— ^oa. 17251 A, 17253 C, 17254 C, 17262,
17263, 17263 D, 17264, 17267, 17268 C, 17271 E, 17275 B, 17862 E, 19184 D, 19184 E,
19186, 19981 B, 19984 D, 19985, 19985 F, 19985 K, 19986, 20011, 20405, 20405 C, 20406
E, 20798 C, 21079, 21079 D, 22381, 22381 B, 22504, 22507, 22537, 22644, 22644 B,
22644 C, 22645, 22646, 22874, 22898 A, 22920, 23207, 24183, 24839, 27501.

Seeds chromium green; germ green — 17 varieties. — Nos. 17260, 17261, 17271 L, 17852 N,
17862 B, 18258 E, 20854, 21080, 21080 N, 22500, 22880 B, 22897, 23209 A, 23292 C,
23296 A, 23303 A, 25437 A.

Seeds brown to olive; germ yellow— 28 varieties.— Nos. 17254 B, 17256, 17257, 17257 D,
17257 G, 17258, 17258 A, 17260 B, 17263 C, 17277 C, 17277 D, 18258 N, 19186 C, 19984 A,
19984 B, 20405 B, 20406 G, 20412 A, 20412 B, 21080 L, 21755, 22333, 22411 A, 22644 A,
23229, 24610, 25130, 25437 C.

Seeds black; germ yellow— 18 t-anmes.— Nos. 17251, 17252, 17252 C, 17253, 17254,
17262 D, 17271 D, 20410, 22634, 23205, 23292 A, 23296 C, 23325, 23523, 23546, 24180,
24682, 25468.

Seeds black; germ green— 7 varieties.— 'Nos. 14952, 17255, 19184, 21079 A, 22336 A,
23306, 25437 B.

Seeds bicolored; germ yellow— 4 varieties.— Nos. 20407, 20411, 23213 A, 23311 B.

GROUP II. — 4 VARIETIES.

Group II consists of four varieties which appear very promising as
grain producers. The small size of the seeds is not objectionable,
but on the contrary advantageous when grown for grain alone.

Seeds olive-yellotv; germ yellow — 2 varieties. — Nos. 17852 E, 23312.
Seeds black; germ yellow — 2 varieties. — Nos. 17852 B, 23311 A.

GROUP III. 3 VARIETIES.

The four or five varieties belonging to Group III have a very dif-
ferent appearance from other soy beans. They all come from the
valley of the Yangtse, and are said to be grown on the low-lying
rice fields either as a green manure or for fodder. Their marked
leafiness, large size, and slender stems make them especially desirable
for hay. They are too late to mature at Washington.

Seeds broivn to olive; germ yellow — 3 varieties. — Nos. 9344, 20798, 23336.
Seeds black; germ yellow — 3 varieties. — Nos. 6560, 20797, 23337.
Seeds bicolored; genu yellow — 2 varieties. — Nos. 6559, 23338.

GROUP IV. — 76 VARIETIES.

Group IV is the second largest group and includes the most impor-
tant Manchurian varieties. From the standpoint of seed production,
they promise to be superior to Group I because of their relatively
slender stems, permitting easy mowing, and their smaller pods and
seeds, which shatter less easily. They can also be planted more
closely because they are less bushy.

Seeds straw-yelloio; germ yellow— 25 varieties.— Nos. 14954, 16789, 16789 A, 16789 B,
17272, 17277 E, 17862, 17862 (', 17862 F, 18258, 18258 A, 19186 F, 22534, 22921, 22921 A,
23208, 23213, 23297 B, 24184, 25133, 25134, 25134 A, 25437, 25438 B, 27499.
197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VABIETIES.

39

Seeds olive-yellow; germ yellow— 8 varieties.-— ]<ios. 17857 B, 19183 B, 19184 C, 20798 E,
21999 C, 21999 D, 22633, 22920 A.

Seeds chromium green; germ green — 7 varieties. — Nos. 17857, 18258 D, 23311, 25135,
25438, 25438 A, 27498.

Seeds brown to olive; germ yellow~12 varieties.— Nos. 17852 C, 19186 D, 20409, 20412,
21999 B, 23211, 23232, 23292 B, 23297 A, 23299, 24672 A, 25136.

Seeds black; germ yellow— 16 varieties.— Nos. 16790, 16790 B, 17852 D, 17852 R,
17861, 18227, 18259, 19183, 19186 B, 22538, 22899, 22899 A, 22919, 23291, 23297, 23338 B.

Seeds black; germ green— 5 varieties.— Nos. 22380, 22407, 22501, 22900, 22927.

Seeds bicolored; germ yelloiv — 3 varieties. — Nos. 17852, 21999, 23299.

GROUP V. — 7 VARIETIES.

The varieties included in Group V are mostly from India, but the
wild soy bean of China and Japan is also included. All form tangled
masses of vines, difficult to mow, but perhaps of use as green manure
and pasture crops. ♦

Seeds straw-yellow; germ yellow — 1 variety. — No. 24674.

Seeds brown to olive; germ yelloiv — 1 variety. — No. 24673.

Seeds shining black; germ yellow — 3 varieties. — Nos. 24642, 24675, 25137.

Seeds dull black, very small; germ yellow — 1 variety. — No. 22428.

Seeds bicolored; germ yellow — 1 variety. — No. 25118.

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES.

The following is a complete list of soy beans imported by the
United States Department of Agriculture, arranged chronologically
in accordance wdth the serial numbers (S. P. I. numbers) assigned to
them by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction:

480. From South Usuri, Siberia, 1898. Seeds yellow. Insufficient varietal
notes.

647. From Tokyo, Japan, 1898.

648. FromTokyo, Japan, 1898.

649. From Tokyo, Japan, 1898.
From Tokyo, Japan, 1898.
From Tokyo, Japan, 1898.

652. From Tokyo, Japan, 1898.

653. From Tokyo, Japan, 1898.
From Tokyo, Japan, 1898.
From Tokyo, Japan, 1898.

656. From Tokyo, Japan, 1898.

1492. From France, 1898.

1493. From France, 1898.

650.
651.

654.
655.

Insufficient varietal notes.

Insufficient varietal notes.

Insufficient varietal notes.

Insufficient varietal notes.

Insufficient varietal notes.

Insufficient varietal notes.

Insufficient varietal notes.

Insufficient varietal notes.

Insufficient varietal notes.

Insufficient varietal notes.
Seed brown. Insufficient varietal notes.
Seed black. Insufficient varietal notes.

2156. From France, 1898. "Yellow Etampes. " See 17268.

2869. From Wuchang, Hupeh, China, 1899. Seeds yellow. Insufficient varietal

notes.

2870. From Wuchang, Hupeh, China, 1899. Seeds green. Insufficient varietal

notes.

2871. From Wuchang, Hupeh, China, 1899. Seeds green. Insufficient varietal

notes.

2872. From Wuchang, Hupeh, China, 1899. Seeds green. Insufficient varietal

notes.
197

40 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

3869. From China, 1899. Insufficient varietal notes.

3870. From China, 1899. See 17272.

3884. From Honolulu, 1899. Seeds yellow. Insufficient varietal notes.

3885. From Honolulu, 1899. Seeds black. Insufficient varietal notes.

3886. From Honolulu, 1899. Seeds green. Insufficient varietal notes.
4285. From Richmond, Va., 1900. "Mammoth." See 17280.

4628. From Amherst, Mass., 1900. "Medium Green." See 17261.

4912. From Japan. See 17270.

4913. From Japan. See 12400.

4914. From Japan. See 17266.

4980. From Yokohama, Japan. Insufficient varietal notes.

5039. From Paris, France. See 25468.

5517. From Macassar, Celebes. Insufficient varietal notes.

5764. Grown from 4912. See 17270.

5765. Grown from 4913. See 12400.

5766. Grown from 4914. See 17266.

6312. From Tokyo, Japan, 1901. See 17252. •
6314. From Tokyo, Japan, 1901. See 17262.
6326. From Tokyo, Japan, 1901. See 17268.

6333. From Tokyo, Japan, 1901. See 17277.

6334. From Tokyo, Japan, 1901. See 9412.

6335. From Tokyo, Japan, 1901. See 17267.

6336. From Tokyo, Japan, 1901. • See 9413.
6379. Grown from 3870. See 17272.

6386. From Pingyang, Korea, 1901. See 17254.

6396. From Pingyang, Korea, 1901. See 17271.

6397. From Pingyang, Korea, 1901. See 17263-

6414. From Pingyang, Korea, 1901. See 17256 and 22333.
6416. From Pingyang, Korea, 1901. See 17253.
6556. From central China. See 17269.

6558. From Hankow, Hupeh, China. See 17261.

6559. Hankow. From near Hankow, Hupeh, China, 1901. Plants slender, erect,

very leafy; height 36 to 42 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers
purple; pods scattered; seeds brown, more or less banded with black,
medium small, oblong, flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. This
variety is almost identical with the following, except for the color of the
seed.

6560. Riceiand. From near Hankow, Hupeh, China. Plants slender, erect, very

leafy; height 36 to 60 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers pur-
ple; pods scattered; seeds black, oblong, small, flattened; hilum pale;
germ yellow. This is very similar to 20797, but has smaller seeds. The

stock has been lost.

6561. From near Hankow, Hupeh, China. Seeds small, black, short, oblong;

medium small; hilum pale; germ yellow. Apparently it was never grown.

8422. From Yokohama, Japan. See 17274.

8423. From Yokohama, Japan. See 17265.

8424. From Yokohama, Japan. See 17264.

8489. Grown from 6314. See 17262.

8490. Grown from 6333. See 17277.

8491. Grown from 6334. See 9412.

8492. Grown from 6386. See 17254.

8493. Grown from 6396. See 17271.

8494. Grown from 6336. See 9413.
107

CATALOGUE OP SOY-BEAN VARIETIES. 41

8495. Grown from 6397. See 17263.

8496. Grown from 6416. See 17253.

8497. Grown from 6312. See 17252.

8584. From Chin-kiang, Kiangsu, China. Insufficient varietal notes.
8586. From Chin-kiang, Kiangsu, China. Insufficient varietal notes.
8900. From Anjo, Japan. Insufficient varietal notes.

9344. From Chin-hua, Kiangsu, China. The seed of this did not germinate. It is
almost certainly the same as No. 23336.

9407. Grown from 4912. See 17270.

9408. Grown from 4913. See 12400.

9409. Grown from 4914. See 17266.

9410. Grown from 6312. See 17252.

9411. Grown from 6333. See 17277.

9412. Grown from 6334. According to Ball, indistinguishable from several other

lots, all of which were united as 17251, which see.

9413. Grown from 6336. According to Ball, identical with 12400, the two being

united as No. 17275, which see.

9414. Grown from 6386. See 17254.

9415. Grown from 6396. See 17271.

9416. Grown from 6397. See 17263.

9417. Grown from 6414. See 17256.
9417 A. Grown from 6414. See 22333.

9418. Grown from 6416. See 17253.

11179. Origin lost. Same as 17251.

11180. Origin lost. Insufficient varietal notes.

12399. Grown from 9407. See 17270.

12400. Grown from 9408. According to Ball, this proved identical with 9413, the

seed of these two numbers being united as No. 17275, which see.

13502. Ogemaw. From West Branch, Mich. See 17258.

13503. Guelph. Grown at Arlington Experimental Farm from seed from Thorburn

& Co. See 17261.

14952. Shanghai. From Shanghai, China, 1905. Erect, stout, bushy; height 30 to

36 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white; pods
large, 2J to 2h inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering little; seeds black,
large, 8 to 8h mm. long, elliptical; hilum pale; germ green. Grown five
seasons. No. 22311, also from Shanghai, proved to be the same.

14953. Edward. From Shanghai, China, 1905. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

36 to 42 inches; very late; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods large,
2 to 2^ inches, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow,
large, 8 to 9 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum brown; germ
yellow. Grown five seasons.

14953 A. A field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 30 to 36 inches;
late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods large, 2 to 2^ inches long,
compressed, half crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, large, 8^
to 9 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum seal-brown; germ
yellow. Grown two seasons.

14953 B. A field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 30 to 40 inches;
very late; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods large, 2J to 2| inches
long, tumid, scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, large, 8 to
8i mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum seal-brown; germ yellow.
Grown two seasons.
197

42 THE SOY BEAK ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

14954. Acme. From Shanghai, China, 1905. Plants slender, erect, the tips twin-
ing; height 36 to 42 inches; late; pubescence gray (50 per cent) and
tawny (50 per cent); flowers both purple and white; pods medium-sized,
1| toll inche.:! long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-
yellow, small, 6J to 7 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum seal-
brown; germ yellow. Grown five seasons.

15887. From Chekiang Province, China. Indistinguishable from Riceland, 20797.
Grown in 1907.

16789. Brooks. From Hangchow, Chekiang, China, 1905. Plants slender, erect,

the tips twining; height 36 to 42 inches; medium late; pubescence gray ;
flowers both purple and white; pods medium-sized, If to 2 inches long,
tumid, scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7^
to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum light to dark brown;
germ yellow. Grown four seasons. This is said to be the bean-cake bean
grown so extensively in the Manchurian provinces and is a most valuable
crop.
16789 A. Flora. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants slender, erect, the tips
twining; height 28 to 34 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers
both purple and white; pods medium-sized, If to 2 inches long, com-
pressed, half crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-
sized, 8 to 8^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ
yellow. Grown two seasons.

16789 B. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;

height 36 to 42 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and
white; pods medium-sized, 1^ to 2 inches long, tumid, scattered, shat-
tering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium large, 8 to Si mm. long, ellip-
tical, slightly flattened; hilum light; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

16790. Cloud. From Hangchow, Chekiang, China, 1905. Plants slender, erect,

the tips twining; height 34 to 40 inches; medium late; pubescence both
gray and tawny; flowers both purple and white; pods medium-sized, 1^
to If inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds black,
medium small, 7 to 7J mm. long, oblong, much flattened; hilum pale;
germ yellow. Grown four seasons. This variety is said to be an excel-
lent table bean. No. 22535, from Weihsien, China, is the same thing.

16790 B. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants erect, the tips twining; height 48

to 52 inches; medium late; pubescence gray (10 per cent) and tawny
(90 per cent); flowers both purple and white; pods medium-sized, 1^ to
If inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds dull black,
medium-sized, 8 to 8^ mm. long, oblong, much flattened; hilum seal-
brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
16790 D. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants erect, stout, bushy; height 20 to 24
inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers pm-ple; pods medium-
sized, li to If inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-
yellow, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
17251. Buckshot. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 14 to 18 inches; early; pubes-
cence tawny; flowers white; pods medium to large, IJ to 2 inches long,
crowded, shattering little; seeds black, large, 8 to 8^ mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown eight seasons.
Buckshot has been on the market for a number of years and sold as
Black, Early Black, Medium Early Black, Extra Early Black, Large
Black, etc. No. 17251 is composed of the progeny of 6334 combined
with various other lots. See page 29. Nos. 19987 and 22883 from Japan
are very closely similar, if not identical.
197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES.

43

17251 A. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 24^

inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods large, If to 2
inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds olive-yellow,
medium large, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum
black; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17252. Flat King. The progeny of 6312 from Tokyo, Japan, 1901. Plants stout,

erect, bushy; height 24 to 30 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers
white; pods large, 2\ to 2J inches long, compressed, half crowded, shat-
tering little; seeds black, large, 11 to 11^ mm. long, elliptical, much flat-
tened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown nine seasons. This variety
was also obtained from Yokohama, Japan, No. 19982, and again from
Tokyo, No. 22875.

17252 C. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 30 to 36

inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white; pods
medium-sized, IJ to IJ inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds black, medium small, 6 to 6J mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17253. Nuttall. The progeny of 6416 from Pingyang, Korea, 1901. Plants stout,

erect, bushy; height 18 to 24 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers
white; pods medium large. If to 2^ inches long, crowded, shattering little;
seeds black, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown nine seasons. No. 22334 is undoubt-
edly the progeny of 17253 as shown by records.

17253 C. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 12 to 16

inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium large, 2 to 2\ inches long, tumid, half crowded, shatter-
ing moderately; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7J to 8 mm. long,
oval; hilum black; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17254. Ebony. The progeny of 6386 from Pingyang, Korea, 1901. Plants stout,

erect, bushy; height 22 to 26 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny;
flowers purple; pods medium-sized, IJ to If inches long, half crowded,
shattering moderately; seeds black, medium small, 7 to 7J mm. long,
oblong, much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown nine seasons.
This variety was also received from Swatow, China, 1908 (S. P. I. No.
22886). Ebony has proved a valuable variety in southern Illinois and
especially through the work of Mr. Ralph Allen, of Delavan, 111., has
become well known as No. 9414 and also as "Black Beauty."

17254 B. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 32 to 36

inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, IJ to 1^ inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds
cinnamon brown, small, 5h to 6 mm. long, subglobose; hilum pale; germ
yellow. Grown two seasons.
17254 C. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 26
inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, IJ to 1| inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering moder-
ately; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum clove-brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17255. Kingston. "Japanese Number 15" from Rhode Island Agricultural Experi-

ment Station, originally from Japan. Plants stout, bushy, erect; height
16 to 22 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods
email, 1| to 1^ inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering little; seeds
black, small, 5J to 6 mm. long, subglobose; hilum pale; germ green.
Grown nine seasons. See also page 31.
197

44 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTOKY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

17256. Brownie. The progeny of 6414 from Pingyang, Korea, 1901. Plants stout,

erect, bushy; height 20 to 30 inches; medium late; pubescence gray;
flowers purple; pods small, 1^ to 1 J inches long, tumid, crowded, shatter-
ing little; seeds cinnamon brown, small, 5 to 5-| mm. long, subglobose;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown nine seasons.

17256 A. Baird. See 22333.

17257. Eda. From Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, 1903, but

originally introduced by the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station in
1890 as Yamagata Cha-daidzu. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 14 to
20 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods medium-
sized, 1| to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering moderately;
seeds deep brown, large, 8^ to 9 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown nine seasons. See also page 31.

17257 D. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 26

inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium small, 1^ to IJ inches long, tumid, half crowded, shatter-
ing moderately; seeds seal-brown, medium-sized, 6^ to 7 mm. long^
elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two
seasons.
17257 E. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height IS to 22
inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized, 1^ to 1| inches long, tumid, half crowded, shatter-
ing moderately; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 8 to Sh mm. long,
elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum dark brown; germ yellow. Grown
two seasons.

17257 G. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 26

inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized, IJ to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds buff, medium-sized, 6 to 6^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17258. Ogemaw. The progeny of 13502 from E. E. Evans, West Branch, Mich.,

1904. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18 to 22 inches; medium; pubes-
cence tawny; flowers white; pods large, 2 to 2\ inches long, tumid,
crowded, shattering badly: seeds deep brown, large, 8J to 9 mm. long,
elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Compare also page
31 and see notes under Nos. 21755 and 25212.

17258 A. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 24

inches; medium early; pubescence gray; flowers white; pods medium-
sized. If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds
buff-brown, medium-sized, 7 to 7h mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
17260. Samarow. From J. M. Thorburn & Co., 1902. Plants stout, erect, bushy;
height 15 to 18 inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods
medium-sized, 1^ to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds chromium green, medium-sized, 7 to 7h mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum brown; germ green. Grown nine seasons. This
variety has not occurred in any of our Asiatic importations. It is adver-
tised under the same name by German and Italian seedsmen, and such
an importation. No. 22411, from Italy, proved identical with 17260. Sec
also page 31.
197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES.

45

17260 B. A pxire field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 14 to 18
inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods medium large,
2^ to 2^ inches long, compressed, crowded, shattering moderately; seeds
clove brown to almost black, medium-sized, 9 to 9^ mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17261. Guelph. From J. M. Thorburn & Co., 1902. Plants stout, erect, bushy;

height 20 to 24 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple;
pods medium-sized, IJ to IJ inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
much; seeds chromium green, medium to medium large, 7 to 8 mm. long,
elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum brown; germ green. Grown eight
seasons. This variety is advertised by a German seedsman, and such an
importation. No. 22320, proved identical with 17261. According to Ball,
No 6558 from Hankow, China, is the same as Guelph. Compare page 30.

17262. Yosho. The progeny of 6314 from Tokyo, Japan, 1901. Plants stout,

erect, bushy; height 22 to 26 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers
pm-ple; pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded,
shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, large, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened; hilum black; germ yellow. Grown nine seasons.
17262 B. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 10 to 14
inches; medium early; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods medium-
sized, 1^ to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds
straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7h mm. long, elliptical, slightly flat-
tened; hilum light brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17262 D. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18 to 24

inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
moderately; seeds black, medium large, 8 to 8J mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17263. Austin. The progeny of 6397 from Pingyang, Korea, 1901. Plants stout,

erect, bushy; height 32 to 36 inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers both
purple and white; pods medium-sized, If to 2 inches long, tumid, half
crowded, shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, medium large, 8 to 8.J
mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow.
Grown nine seasons. This variety was also distributed under Agros-
tology No. 1539.

17263 C. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, Inishy; height 30 to 34

inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white;
pods, medium-sized, 1 J to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds buff, medium small, 6J to 7 mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17264. Tokyo. The progeny of 8424 from Tokyo, Japan, 1901. Plants stout, erect,

bushy; height 30 to 36 inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple
and white; pods medium large, 1^ to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded,
shattering moderately; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm.
long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown
nine seasons. This variety was also obtained from Kobe, Japan, No.
20893.

17265. The progeny of 8423 from Yokohama, Japan, 1902. According to Ball this

proved the same as the preceding and was united with it.

17266. The progeny of 4914 from Japan. According to Ball this also was the same

as Tokyo 17264 and was finally united with it.
197

46 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTOKY, VAEIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

17267. Hope. The progeny of 6335 from Tokyo, Japan, 1901. Plants stout, erect,

bushy; height 28 to 34 inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple
and white; pods medium large, 1| to 2\ inches long, tumid, half crowded,
shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, large, 8 to 8^ mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown nine seasons. No.
22881, also from Tokyo, is the same variety.

17268. Ito San. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18 to 22 inches; medium in

maturity; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-sized, 1^
to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering moderately; seeds
straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flat-
tened; hilum pale, a brown speck at the micropylar end; germ yellow.
Grown nine seasons.

This variety has also been known as "Japan Pea," "Coffee Berry,"
"Early Yellow," "Early White," and "Yellow Eda Mame." It is one
of the earliest importations, very probably 1850, as the "Japan Pea."'
The Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station obtained this variety
from Japan in 1890. Only one European importation has been made,
this being from Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., No. 21818, who advertise the
variety as "Yellow Etampes." See also page 28.
17268 A. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18 to 24
inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and
white; pods medium-sized, IJ to If inches long, tumid, crowded,
shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 8 to 8J mm. long,
elliptical, slightly flattened ; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown two
seasons.

17268 C. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 26

inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white;
jiods medium-sized, IJ to If inches long, compressed, half crowded,
shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 6^ to 7 mm. long,
elliptical, much flattened; hilum seal-brown; germ yellow. Grown two
seasons.

17269. Medium Yellow. The progeny of 6556 from central China, 1901. Plants

stout, erect, bushy; height 30 to 86 inches; medium; pubescence tawny;
flowers both purple and white; pods medium-sized, 1^ to If inches
long, tumid, half crowded, shattering moderately; seeds straw-yellow,
medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum pale;
germ yellow. Grown nine seasons. Thisisthe variety grown as Medium
Yellow by the Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station.

17269 D. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 24 to

30 inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white; pods
medium-sized, 1^ to If inches long, compressed, crowded, shattering
little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 74 mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened; hilum light brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
17270 The progeny of 4912 from Japan in 1900. Other numbers of the same progeny
are 12399, 9407, and 5764. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 24 to 30
inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-sized.
If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering moderately; seeds
straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly flat-
tened; hilum light to seal brown; germ yellow. Grown nine seasons.

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES. 47

17271. Haherlandt. The progeny of 6396 from Pingyang, Korea, 1901. Plants

stout, erect, bushy; height 24 to 30 inches; medium late; pubescence
tawny; flowers both purple and white; pods crowded, medium-sized.
If to 2 inches long, tumid, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-
sized, 8 to 8^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum brown; germ
yellow. Grown nine seasons.

17271 D. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18 to 24
inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods medium-
sized, li to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds
black, medium-sized, 8 to Sh mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17271 L. A pure field selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 16 to 20
inches; medium early; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods medium-
sized, IJ to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds
chromium green, medium-sized, 7 to 7J mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum black; germ green. Grown one season.

17272. The progeny of 3870 from China in 1899. Plants slender, erect, the tips

twining; height 32 to 36 inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers
white; pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded,
shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 6^ to 7 mm. long,
elliptical, much flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown ten
seasons. Ball included this variety in Hollybrook, but it is different.

17273. Butterball. From the Rhode Island Agricultm-al Experiment Station,

1903, originally from Japan. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18 to 24
inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers white; pods medium-sized,
IJ to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-
yellow, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum light brown; germ yellow. Grown seven seasons. This variety
has also been obtained from the following foreign sources: Dammann &
Co., Naples, Italy, No. 22415; Tokyo, Japan, Nos. 22878 and 22884; and
Yokohama, Japan, No. 8422. See also page 30.

17274. The progeny of 8422 from Yokohama, Japan. Identical with 17273.

17275. Amherst. The united progenies of 4913 from Japan, 1900, and 6336 from

Tokyo, Japan, 1901. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 24 to 28 inches;
medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-sized, 1 to
1^ inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering moderately ; seeds straw-yellow,
medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum dark
brown; germ yellow. Grown nine seasons.

17275 B. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 14 to 18
inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers both pm-ple and white;
pods medfum-sized, 1^ to If inches long, compressed, half crowded,
shattering much; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 8 to 8J mm. long,
elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum light brown; germ yellow. Grown
two seasons.

17275 L. A field mass selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 14 to 18
inches; medium early; pubescence gray; flowers both piuple and white;
pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering mod-
erately; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

17276. The progeny of Agrostology No. 1299 from Havre, France. Plants stout,

erect, bushy; height, 14 to 18 inches; early; pubescence gray; flowers
white; pods medium-sized, 1^ to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded and
shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium small, 7 to 7^ mm. long,
elliptical, much flattened; hilum light to seal-brown; germ yellow.
Grown eight seasons.

58576°— Bui. 197—10 4

48 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTOKY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

17277. Manhattan. The progeny of 6333 from Tokyo, Japan. Plants stout, erect,

bushy; height, 14 to 18 inches; medium early; pubescence gray; flowers
white; pods medium large, IJ to 2 inches long, tumid, crowded, shatter-
ing little; seeds straw-yellow, medium large, 8 to 8^ mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum light brown; germ yellow. Grown ten seasons.

17277 A. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 22 to 26
inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods medium-
sized, If to 2 inches long, compressed, crowded, shattering little; seeds
straw-yellow, medium large, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flat-
tened; hilum seal-brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17277 C. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 16 to 20
inches; early; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods, large, IJ to 2
inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering little; seeds raw
umber, large, 8^ to 9 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened, hilum pale;
germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17277 D. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 14 to 20
inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods medium-sized,
IJ to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds cinna-
mon brown, medium-sized, 8J to 9 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17277 E. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants slender, erect, the tips vining;
height 24 to 28 inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers white; pods
medium small, 1^ to IJ inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds straw-yellow, medium small, 6 to 6J mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened; hilum light brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17278. Hollybrook. From Arkansas Agricultural Exjieriment Station, 1904.

Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 24 to 30 inches; late; pubescence
gray; flowers both purple and white; pods medium-sized, 1^- to 1-| inches
long, tumid, crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, small to
medium, 5| to 6| mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum light
brown; germ yellow. Grown six seasons. This variety was introduced
. by Messrs. T. W. Wood & Sons, of Richmond, Va., originally found mixed
in Mammoth. Nos. 17269, 17270, 17272, and 17276 are all distinct.

17280. Mammoth. A combination of various lots; all from American sources.
Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 36 to 42 inches; late; pubescence
gray; flowers white; pods medium-sized, 1^ to 1} inches long, scattered,
shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium small, 6J to 7 mm. long,
elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown ten
seasons. This variety has also been grown under Nos. 4285, 25093, and
25162. It is the standard commercial late variety, more extensively
grown at present than any other. See also page 29.

17520. Hollybrook. From Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va. Same as 17278.

17852. Meyer. From Peking, Chihli, China, 1906. Plants slender, erect, the tips
twining; height 32 to 38 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers
purple; pods large, 2 to 2\ inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering little;
seeds variable, black and brown, the colors usually in concentric bands,
large, 8i to 9 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum brown; germ
yellow. Grown four seasons. The beans of this variety are said to be
roasted and sold in Peking as delicatessen.
17852 B. Pekimj. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants slender, erect; height 32 to
36 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods small.
If to 2 inches long, compressed, shattering little; seeds l)lack, medium
small, 7 to 7A mm. long, oblong or nearly so, much flattened; hilum jjale;
germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

il>7

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES.

49

17852 C. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;
height 24 to 30 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers both
purple and white; pods medium-sized, IJ to If inches long, compressed,
half crowded, shattering moderately; seeds olive-brown, medium-sized,
8 to 8J mm. long, oblong, much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow.
Grown two seasons.

17852 D. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants slender, suberect, the tips twining;
stems 42 to 52 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple;
pods medium-sized, If to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds black, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17852 E. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants slender, erect; height 24 to 30 inches;
medium late; jiubescence gray; flowers both purple and white; pods
small, 1^ to If inches long, tumid, shattering little; seeds olive-yellow,
medium small, 6^ to 7 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum light
brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

17852 N. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18 to 30
inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods large,
2 to 2^ inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering much; seeds
chromium green, large, 9^ to lOJ mm. long, broadly elliptical, much
flattened; hilum slate-black; germ green. Grown two seasons. Except
for color of seed this is identical with 17252, Flat King.

17852 R. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants slender, suberect, the tips twining;
stems 48 to 56 inches; medium late; pubescence gray (10 per cent) and
tawny (90 per cent); flowers both purple and white; pods small, IJ to IJ
inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering moderately; seeds medium-
sized, 6 J to 7 mm. long, oblong, much flattened; hilum pale; germ
yellow. Grown two seasons.
17857. From Shan-hai-kwan, Chihli, China, 1906. Plants slender, erect, the tips
twining; height 28 to 32 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny;
flowers both purple and white; pods medium large, 2 to 2\ inches long,
compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds chromium green, medium-
sized, 7 to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum slate-black;
germ green. Grown four seasons.

17857 B. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;
height 30 to 36 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple
and white; pods medium-sized, If to 2| inches long, compressed, scat-
tered, shattering moderately; seeds olive-yellow, medium small, 8 to 8^
mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum black; germ yellow. Grown
two seasons.

17861. Jet. From Sachon, Chihli, China, 1906. Plants slender, erect, the tips

twining; height 36 to 48 inches; medium late; pubescence gray (40 per
cent) and tawny (60 per cent); flowers both purple and white; pods
medium-sized, 1^ to If inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
moderately; seeds black, medium small, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown four seasons. A
variety said to be grown for fodder and considered an excellent food for
stock.

17862. Shenvood. From Tientsin, Chihli, China, 1906. Plants slender, erect, the

tips twining; height 24 to 26 inches; medium late; pubescence gray;
flowers both purple and white; pods medium-sized, 1^ to If inches long,
tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-
sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum pale or light
brown; germ yellow. Grown four seasons. This variety is said to be
excellent for making bean cheese. No. 22898 from Paotingfu, Chihli,

China, is the same thing.

197

50 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

17862 B. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 32 to 38
inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, 1^ to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds
chromium green, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, oblong, much flattened;
hilum black; germ green. Grown two seasons.

17862 C. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants slender, suberect, the tips twining;
height 32 to 38 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers both
purple and white; pods medium-sized, 2 to 2 J incheslong, tumid, scat-
tered, shattering moderately; seeds straw-yellow, medium small, 7^ to 8
mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum seal-brown; germ yellow.
Grown two seasons.

17862 E. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 30 to 34
inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized, 1^ to If inches, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds olive-yellow, medium sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum pale to light brown; germ yellow. Grown two
seasons.

17862 F. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;
height 24 to 26 inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers both
purple and white; pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, tumid, half
crowded, shattering moderately; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7J
to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum pale or brown; germ
yellow. Grown two seasons.

17862 G. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 30 to 36
inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium
sized, 1| to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds
straw-yellow, medium-sized, 8 to 8^ mm. long, elliptical, much flat-
tened; hilum pale to light brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
18227. Chernie. From Khabarovsk, Siberia, 1906. Plants slender, erect, the tips
twining; height 22 to 28 inches; medium early; pubescence tawny;
flowers purple; pods medium-sized, 1§ to If inches long, compressed,
half crowded, shattering little; seeds black, medium-sized, 7^ to 8^ mm.
long, oblong, much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow; leaves persist
when pods are ripening. Grown four seasons.
18258. From Pee-san, Chihli, China, 1906. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;
height 28 to 34 inches; medium late; pubescence both gray and tawny;
flowers both purple and white; pods medium-sized, 2 to 2^ inches long,
compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-
sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, oblong, much flattened; hilum brown; germ
yellow. Grown four seasons.

18258 A. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;
height 30 to 36 inches; medium late; pubescence both gray and tawny;
flowers both purple and white; pods medium-sized, 1| to 2 inches long,
compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-
sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum seal-brown;
germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
18258 D. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining; height
30 to 34 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods
medium-sized, 1| to 2 inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering little;
seeds chromium green, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened; hilum black; germ green. Grown two seasons.
197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES. 51

18258 E. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 26 to 30
inches; medium late; pubescence both gray and tawny; flowers white;
pods medium-sized, If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds chromium green, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, ellip-
tical, slightly flattened; hilum black; germ green. Grown two seasons.
18258 N. A pure field selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 28 to 32
inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, IJ to If inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering little;
seeds olive, with black saddle, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, oblong,
much flattened; hilum black; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

18259. Pingsu. From Tschang-ping-tsu, Chihli, China, 1906. Plants slender,
erect, the tips twining; height 32 to 36 inches; medium late; pubescence
gray (50 per cent) and tawny (50. per cent) ; flowers both purple and
white; pods medium-sized, If to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered,
shattering much; seeds black, small, 8 to ^ mm. long, oblong, much
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown four seasons. This bean
is said to be grown in the northern country as a nitrogen-supplying crop
with sorghum, corn, or millet.

T8459. Guelph. From West Branch, Mich., 1906. Same as No. 17261.

18460. Buckshot. From West Branch, Mich., 1906. Same as No. 17251.

18619. From Shanghai, Kiangsu, China, 1906. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height
24 to 30 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple, pods
medium-sized, 2 to 2^ inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum dark brown; germ yellow. Grown four seasons.
This variety is said to be used in Shanghai as a vegetable after the beans
have made sprouts several inches long.

19183. Wilson. From Newchwang, Manchuria, 1906. Plants slender, erect, the

tips twining; height 36 to 48 inches; medium late; pubescence gray
(10 per cent) and tawny (90 per cent); flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds black, medium, 7J to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much flat-
tened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown three seasons. This variety
has an admixture of medium-sized, subglobose, black seed with green
cotyledons. This variety is said to be grown for oil, the exhausted
material being exported as a very valuable fertilizer.

19183 B. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;

height 36 to 48 inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers both
purple and white; pods medium-sized, IJ to 1|- inches long, compressed,
scattered, shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, medium small, 7 to 7^
mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum light brown to russet; germ
yellow. Grown two seasons.

19184. Fairchild. From Newchwang, Manchuria, 1906. Plants stout, erect,

bushy; height, 30 to 34 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers
both purple and white; pods medium-sized, 1^ to If inches long, tumid,
half crowded, shattering little; seeds black, medium-sized, 7 to 7i mm.
long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ green. Grown
three seasons. This is said to be a very rare variety used both for food
and for making a superior oil.

19184 A. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 34 to 38

inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers white; pods medium-
sized, small, 1^ to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little;
seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
197

52 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

19184 C. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;
height 36 to 48 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers both
purple and white; pods medium-sized, IJ to 2 inches long, tumid,
scattered, shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^
mm. long, elliiJtical, slightly flattened; hilum black; genn yellow-
Grown two seasons.

19184 L) A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 24
inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and
white; pods large, 2 to 2^ inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds olive-yellow, large, 7 to 7 J mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

19184 E. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 22 to 26
inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers white; pods medium-
sized, If to 2J inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds
olive-yellow, medium large, 7J to 8 mm. long, oval; hilum brown; germ
yellow. Grown three seasons.

19184 G. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18 to 24
inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, 14 to 2 inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering moderately; seeds
straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7h to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum black; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
10186. Morse. From Newchwang, Manchuria, 1906. Plants stout, erect, bushy;
height 30 to 36 inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers both
purple and white; pods medium large, 1| to 2-} inches long, tumid,
half crowded, shattering moderately; seeds olive-yellow, medium large,
72 to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum brown; germ
yellow. Grown three seasons. This variety is said to be the most com-
mon one from which oil is extracted at Newchwang.

19186 B. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants slender, suberect, the tips twining;
stems 48 to 60 inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers purple;
l)ods medium-sized, *1| to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds black, medium-sized, 7^- to 8 mm. long, oblong, much flat-
tened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

19186 C. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 24
inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white;
pods large, 2 to 2| inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little;
seeds cinnamon brown, medium large, 7§ to 8 mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened, breaking easily; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown
two seasons.

19186 D. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants slender, suberect, the tips twining;
stems 48 to 56 inches long; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers pur-
ple; pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered,
shattering little; seeds brown, medium-sized, 8J to 9 mm. long, oblong,
much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

19186 F. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants slender, suberect, the tips twining;
height 36 to 42 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers both
purple and white; pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, tumid, scat-
tered, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7 J to 8 mm.
long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum dark brown; germ yellow. Grown
two seasons.
19951. Mammoth. F'rom Richmond, Va.
197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VAKIETIES. 53

19981. From Yokohama, Japan, 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18 to 22

inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white;
pods large, 2^ to 2^ inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering moderately,
seeds straw-yellow, large, 9^ to 10 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown three seasons. No. 19983 from Yoko-
hama is the same, and the variety has also been obtained from Tokyo,
Japan, Nos. 22882 and 22885.

19981 A. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 22 to 26
inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white; pods large,
2^ to 2J inches long, compressed, crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-
yellow, large, 8^ to 9 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum light
brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

19981 B. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 24
inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods large, 2 to 2{
inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, large,
7^ to 8 mm. long, oval; hilum black; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

19982. From Yokohama, Japan, 1907. This is identical with Flat King, 17252.

19983. From Yokohama, Japan, 1907. This is the same variety as 19981.

19984. Natsn. From Yokohama, Japan, 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

18 to 30 inches; late; pubescence gray (25 per cent) and tawny (75 per
cent); flowers both purple and white; pods medium large, 2 to 2 J inches
long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-
sized, 8 to 8J mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ
yellow. Grown three seasons.

19984 A. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 30 to 42
inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium
small, 1\ to IJ inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little;
seeds brownish olive, medium-sized, 6 to 6^ mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

19984 B. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 24 to 30
inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers white; pods medium large, 2 to 2^
inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds buff, medium
large, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ
yellow. Grown two seasons.

19984 D. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 36 to 42

inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white; pods
medium large, 2 to 2\ inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little;
seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 8J to 9 mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum clove-brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

19985. Nemo. From Yokohama, Japan, 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

28 to 32 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods
medium-sized If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little;
seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum light to slate-black; germ yellow. Grown three seasons.

19985 F. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, bushy; height 32 to 38 inches;

medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white; pods
medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering little;
seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, G^ to 7 mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum black; germ yellow. Grown three seasons.
19985 K. A field mass selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 24 to 30
inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized, 1^ to 2 inches, tumid" half crowded, shattering little;
seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.
197

54 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTOEY^ VARIETIES^ AND FIELD STUDIES.

19986.

19987.
20011.

20011 A.

20405.

20405 B.

20405 C.

20406.

20406 C.

20406 E.

Ohute. From Yokohama, Japan, 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height
14 to 18 inches; early; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white
pods large, 2 to 2\ inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little
seeds olive-yellow, large, 9^ to 10 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened
hilum slate-colored; germ yellow. Grown three seasons. This variety
was also received from Tokyo, Japan, No. 22877.

From Yokohama, Japan. Very similar to, if not identical with Buckshot,
17251.

From Ko-bau, northern Korea, 1906. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 15
to 18 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, 1^ to 1| inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering little;
seeds olive-yellow, small to medium, 6^ to 7 mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum seal-brown; germ yellow; leaves persisting when pods
are ripening. Grown three seasons. This variety is said to be grown at
high elevation in Korea.

A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 24
inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-sized,
1^ to If inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-
yellow, small, 6J to 7 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum brown;
germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

Habaro. From Khabarovsk, Siberia, 1906. Plants stout, erect, bushy;
height 18 to 24 inches; medium; pubescence both gray and tawny;
flowers purple; pods medium-sized, IJ to If inches long, tumid, half
crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7^ to 8
mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum light brown; germ yellow.
Grown three seasons.

Chestnut. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height
24 to 30 inches; medium early; pubescence gray (25 per cent) and tawny
(75 per cent); flowers purple; pods medium-sized, IJ to If inches long,
tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds brown, medium large, 7 to
7^ mm. long, oblong, much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow; leaves
persist when pods are ripening. Grown two seasons.

A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 26
inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-sized,
1^ to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering moderately; seeds
olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

Elton. From Khabarovsk, Siberia, 1906. Plants stout, erect, bushy;
height 28 to 32 inches; medium early; pubescence both gray and tawny;
flowers purple; pods medium large. If to 2 inches long, compressed, half
crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium large, 7^ to 8 mm.
long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown three
seasons.

A pure field. selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18 to 22
inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized. If to 2 inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-
yellow with brown saddle, medium-sized, 8 to 9 mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow; leaves persisting while
pods are ripening. Grown two seasons.

A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 12 to 16
inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, IJ to 2 inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering moderately; seeds
olive-yellow, medium-sized, 8 to 9 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VAEIETIES. 55

20406 G. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 24 to 28

inches; medium early; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods large,
2 to 2\ inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering little; seeds
light brown, large, 8§ to 9 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum
pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

20407. Brindle. From Merkoechofka, Siberia, 1906. Plants stout, erect, bushy;

height 16 to 20 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple;
pods large. If to 2^ inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little;
seeds brown and black, the colors somewhat concentrated in bands,
large, 8 to 9 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ
yellow. Grown three seasons. This variety is said to be used in Siberia
for human food, being boiled with millet.

20407 B. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18 to 24

inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized, IJ to If mm. long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 8^ to 9 mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

20408. From Khabarovsk, Siberia, 1906. Seeds black. They failed to germinate

in 1907.

20409. Hansen. From Merkoechofka, Siberia, 1906. Plants slender, erect, the

tips twining; height 16 to 20 inches; early; pubescence tawny; flowers
purple; pods small, IJ to IJ mm. long, tumid, crowded, shattering little;
seeds brown, very small, 5 to 5h mm. long, oblong, much flattened; hilum
pale; germ yellow. Grown three seasons.

20410. From Merkoechofka, Siberia, 1906. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 12

to 15 inches; medium early; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods
small, 1| to 1^ inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering much;
seeds black, small, 6 to 6J mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum
pale; germ yellow; leaves persist when pods are ripening. Grown three
seasons.

20411. From Merkoechofka, Siberia, 1906. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 16

to 20 inches; medium early; pubescence tawny, flowers both purple
and white; pods small, 1^ to 1^ inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering
moderately; seeds dull black marbled with brown, small, 5 to 5^ mm.
long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown three
seasons.

20412. Merko. From Merkoechofka, Siberia, 1906. Plants slender, erect, the

tips twining; height 28 to 32 inches; medium early; pubescence gray (60
per cent) and tawny (40 per cent); flowers both purple and white; pods
medium small, IJ to If inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds brown, small, 7^ to 8 mm. long, oblong, much flattened,
hilum pale; germ yellow; leaves persist when pods are ripening. Grown
three seasons.

20412 A. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 16 to 18
inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized. If to 2 inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering little;
seeds deep brown, medium small, 7h to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow; leaves persist when pods are ripen-
ing. Grown two seasons.

20412 B. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 24
inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, 1^ to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering moderately;
seeds olive to mummy brown, medium large, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow; leaves persist when pods are
ripening. Grown two seasons.
197

66 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

20414. From Merkoechofka, Siberia, 190G. Identical with Chernie, 18227.

20629. From Manchuria, March, 1907. Seeds failed to germinate.

20699. From Usuri Province, Siberia, March, 1907. Seeds failed to germinate.

20797. Riceland. From Chinhuafu, near Shanghai, Kiangsu, China, 1907. Plants

slender, erect, very leafy; height 36 to 42 inches; very late; pubescence
tawny; flowers purple; pods medium small, 1^ to If inches long, com-
pressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds black, medium small, 6J to
7 mm. long, oblong; much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown
three seasons. No. 23337 from Shanghai is the same thing. This variety
is said to be grown as a second crop in low-lying rice fields and mainly
used as a fodder for domestic animals. It is not quite identical with the
original Riceland, No. 6560..

20798. Barchet. From Chinhuafu, Kiangsu, China, 1907. Plants slender, erect,

very leafy; height 36 to 42 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers
purple; pods medium small, 1^ to If inches long, compressed, scattered,
shattering little; seeds dark olive-brown, medium-sized, 6^ to 7 mm.
long, oblong, much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown three
seasons. This variety has also been grown under No. 23336 from Shang-
hai, China, and 9344 is almost certainly the same thing.

20798 0. A selection out of the original seed of 20798. Plants stout, erect, bushy;
height 30 to 36 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple;
pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7-^- to 8 mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum burnt umber; germ yellow; leaves persist while
pods are ripening. Grown two seasons.

20798 E. A selection out of the original seed of 20798. Plants slender, erect, the tips
twining; height 36 to 42 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers
purple; pods medium-sized, 1\ to IJ inches long, compressed, scattered,
shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, 6^ to 7 mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum dark brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
20854. Tasking. From Harbin, Manchuria, 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy;
height 14 to 18 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple
and white; pods medium-sized, IJ to If inches long, tumid, half crowded,
shattering little; seeds chromium green, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long,
elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum black; germ green. Grown three
seasons.

20892. From Kobe, Japan, 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 24 to 30 inches ;

late; pubescence gray (5 per cent) and tawny (95 per cent), flowers both
purple and white; pods large, 2 to 2J inches long, tumid, half crowded,
shattering moderately; seeds straw-yellow, large, 8^ to 9 mm. long,
elliptical, slightly flattened, hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown three
seasons.

20892 A. A pure field selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 12 to 18

inches, medium early; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering moderately;
seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 82 to 9 mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

20893. From Kobe, Japan, 1907. This proved to be identical with Tokyo, 17264.

20893 A. A pure field selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 24 to 30

inches; late; pubescence tawny, flowers purple; pods large, 2 to 2J
inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering moderately; seeds straw-yellow,
very large, 9 to 9^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened, hilum pale;
germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
197

CATALOGtJE OP SOY-BEAN VARIETIES. 5*7

21079. Shingto. From Tieling, Manchuria, 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

24 to 30 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods medium-
sized, 1^ to If inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering little; seeds
olive-yellow, medium-sized, 6^ to 7 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flat-
tened; hilum light to slate-black; germ yellow. Grown three seasons.
This variety is said to be used to produce bean oil and bean cake.

21079 A. Auburn. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height
24 to 28 inches; medium early; pubescence gray (30 per cent) and tawny
(70 per cent); flowers white; pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long,
compressed, half crowded, shattering little; seeds black, medium -sized,
7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale; germ green.
Grown two seasons.

21079 D. A field mass selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 24
inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium sized, IJ to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened ; hilum dark brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

21079 H. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy, height 24 to 30

inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, If to 2 inches long, compressed; crowded, shattering moderately;
seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much flat-
tened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

21080. From Tieling, IManchuria, 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 14 to 18

inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods medium-
sized, If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds
chromium green, medium-sized, 9 to 9| mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum brown; germ green. Grown three seasons. This
variety is said to be the most expensive of all the soy beans at Tieling
and is eaten only by the better classes of Chinese.

21080 K. A field selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 22 to 26 inches;

medium early; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-sized,
1^ to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds smoky
yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.

21080 L. A field selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 12 to 16 inches;
medium early; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods large, 1^ to If
inches long; tumid, crowded, shattering a little; seeds dark brown, large,
10 to 10| mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow.
Grown one season.

21080 N. A field selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 12 to 16 inches;
medium early; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white; pods
medium large, IJ to If inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering little;
seeds chromium green, large, 8J to 9 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flat-
tened; hilum pale; germ green. Grown one season.
21731. Mammoth. From Hickory, N. C.

21754. From Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., Paris, France, 1908. Plants stout, bushy,
erect; height 10 to 14 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers pur-
ple; pods medium sized, If to 2 inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering
little; seeds straw-yellow, medium small, Ih to 8 mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened, hilum seal-brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons,
This variety was also obtained from Dammann & Co., Naples, Italy, and
grown under S. P. I. No. 22414.
197

68 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

21755. From Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., Paris, France, 1908. Plants stout, bushy,

erect; height 12 to 16 inches; very early; pubescence tawny; flowers
white; pods large, 2 to 2^ inches long, turned, half crowded, shattering
moderately; seeds deep brown, medium large to large, 8 to 9 mm. long,
elliptical, much flattened ; hilum pale ; germ yellow. Except for length of
season, this could not be distinguished from 17258, Ogemaw. Grown two
seasons.

21756. From Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., Paris, France, 1908. This is identical

with 18227.

21757. Identical with the preceding and from the same source.

21818. From Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., Paris, France, 1908. This could not be
distinguished from Ito San, 17268.

21825. From Hokkaido, Japan, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 16 to 20
inches, medium early; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized; li to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering moderately;
seeds straw-yellow, medium-.sized, 8 to 8J mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons. This variety
is said to be used principally in the manufacture of "soy," "miso,"
"tifu," etc. It has also been obtained again from the same place and
grown under Nos. 21830 and 21831.

21830. From Hokkaido, Japan, 1908.

21831. From Hokkaido, Japan, 1908.

Both these numbers produced plants that were identical with 21825.
21946. From Buitenzorg, Java, 1908. A black-seeded variety, but the seeds failed

to germinate.
21999. Taha. From Boshan, Shangtung, China, 1907. Plants slender, erect, the
tips twining; height, 28 to 32 inches; medium late; pubescence gray (5
per cent) and tawny (95 per cent); flowers both purple and white; pods
large, 2 to 2J inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds
black with olive saddle, large, 9 to 10 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum black; germ yellow. Grown two seasons. This is said to be a rare
variety of soy bean, used by the higher classes of Chinese as a vegetable
in soups.

21999 B. A mass selection out of the original seed. Plants slender, erect, the
tips twining; height, 36 to 48 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers
white; pods large, 2 to 2\ inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds brown, large, 8 to 9 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

21999 C. A mass selection out of the original seed. Plants slender, erect, the tips
twining; height, 42 to 48 inches; late; pubescence gray (40 per cent)
and tawny (60 per cent); flowers both purple and white; pods scattered,
shattering little, medium-sized, 1^ to 2 inches long, compressed; seeds
olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7J mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum slate-black; germ yellow. Grown two seasons. '

21999 D. A mass selection out of the original seed. Plants slender, erect, the
tips twining; height, 30 to 42 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers
both purple and white; pods large, 2 J to 2 J inches long, tumid, half
crowded, shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, large, 8^ to 9 mm. long,
elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum black; germ yellow. Grown two
seasons.
22311. From Shanghai, China, 1908. This proved to be the same as 14952 from the
same place.
197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES. 59

22312. Famhavi. From Shanghai, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height
36 to 40 inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, 1^ to If inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering moderately; seeds
straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly flat-
tened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22317. From Haage & Schmidt, Erfurt, Germany, 1908. A yellow-seeded sort, but

the seed did not germinate.

22318. From Erfurt, Germany, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 24 to 32

inches; very late; pubescence gray; flowers white; pods medium-sized,
Ih to If inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow,
medium-sized; 8 to 8 J mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum
light brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
22318 A. A field selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 36 to 40 inches;
late; pubescence gray; flowers white; pods medium-sized, H to If
inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow,
medium small, 5^ to 6 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum
brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.

22319. From Haage & Schmidt, Erfurt, Germany, 1908. 5\. brown-seeded variety,

but the seed did not germinate.

22320. From Haage & Schmidt, Erfurt, Germany, 1908, as "Green from Samarow. "

Identical with Guelph, 17261.

22321. From Haage & Schmidt, Erfurt, Germany. Identical with Chernie, 18227.

22322. From Haage & Schmidt, Erfurt, Germany, 1908, as "Early Black from

Podolia. " The same thing as Buckshot, 17251.

22333. Baird. The progeny of 17256 A. Selected out of 17256, grown from 6414

from Pingyang, Korea, 1901. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 30 to
36 inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white; pods
medium small, 1\ to 1^ inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds brown, medium small, 5J to 6 mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown nine seasons.

22334. From the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908. Identical with

Nuttall, 17253, and, as the records show, grown from seed obtained from
the Department of Agriculture.

22335. From the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908. Plants stout,

erect, bushy; height 16 to 20 inches; medium; pubescence gray and
tawny; flowers white; pods medium-sized, IJ to If inches long, tumid,
half crowded, shattering moderately; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized,
6^ to 7 mm. long, oval; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22336. From the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908. Both this and

22337 proved to be identical with Guelph, 17261.
22336 A. A pure field selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 12 to 15
inches; medium early; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, IJ to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering moderately;
seeds black, medium-sized, 8 to 8J mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum pale; germ green. Grown one season.

22337. See 22336.

22379. Sivan. From Canton, Kwangtung, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect,
bushy; height 26 to 30 inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers both
purple and white; pods medium-sized, IJ to If inches long, tumid, half
crowded, shattering moderately; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 6^
to 7 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum light brown; germ
yellow. Grown two seasons.
197

60 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

22380. From Canton, Kwangtung, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips

twining; height 30 to 36 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers white;
pods large, 2 to 2J inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering moder-
ately; seeds black, large, 7^ to 8h mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum pale; germ green. Grown two seasons.

22381. From Canton, Kwangtung, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

18 to 24 inches; late; pubescence gray (25 per cent) and tawny (75 per
cent); flowers both purple and white; pods medium large, 2 to 2 J inches
long, tumid, crowded, shattering moderately; seeds olive-yellow,
medium-sized; 7J to 8 mm. long, oval; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown
two seasons.
22381 B. A pure selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 12 to 16 inches;
medium early; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods large, 2 to 2^
inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds olive-yellow
(smoky), large, 9J to 10 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum
pale; germ green. Grown one season.

22406. Hongkong. From Hongkong, Kwangtung, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect,

bushy; height 24 to 30 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers
both purple and white; pods scattered, shattering little. If to 2 inches
long, tumid; seeds black, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, oblong,
slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ green. Grown two seasons.

22407. Nigra. From Hongkong, China, 1908. Plants slendet, erect, the tips

twining; height 24 to 30 inches; medium; pubescence gray (8 per cent)
and tawny (20 per cent); flowers both purple and white; pods medium-
sized. If to 2 inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering moderately; seeds
black, medium-sized, 8^ to 9 mm. long, oblong, much flattened; hilum
pale; germ green. Grown two seasons.

22411. From Dammann & Co., Naples, Italy, 1908, as "Samarow." This proved

to be identical with 172G0.
22411 A. A pure field selection in 1907. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 12 to 16
inches; medium early; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods small,
IJ to IJ inches long, compressed, crowded, shattering much; seeds dull
brown, very small, 5 to 5^ mm. long, oblong, much flattened; hilum
pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22412. From Dammann & Co., Naples, Italy, 1908. The plants were exactly like

Chernie, 18227.

22413. From Dammann & Co., Naples, Italy. Seeds brown, but none germinated.

22414. From Dammann & Co., Naples, Italy, 1908. This is exactly the same variety

as 21754.

22415. From Dammann & Co., Naples, Italy, as "Giant Yellow." The plants

and seeds of this can not be distinguished from Butterball, 17273.
22428. Wild soy bean from the botanic gardens, Tokyo, Japan, 1908. Plants very
slender, very vining, procumbent; length of stems 36 to 48 inches;
very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods small, f to 1| inches
long, compressed, scattered, shattering very much; seeds dull black,
oblong, much flattened, very small, 3^ to 4 mm. long; hilum pale;
germ yellow. Grown three seasons. (See PI. I.) No. 25138, from
Soochow, Kiangsu, China, is identical. (See PI. II, fig. 1.) This is
the wild form of the soy bean. It volunteers very readily at Arlington
Experimental Farm, the seedlings appearing about May 1. Were it
not that the seed shatters so badly, the plant would have promise as a
cover crop.
197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES. 61

22498. From Hangchow, Chekiang, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy;

height 16 to 20 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple;
pods scattered, never fully maturing at Arlington Experimental Farm;
seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum dark brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22499. From Hangchow, Chekiang, China. Seeds straw-yellow, but none germi-

nated .

22500. From Hangchow, Chekiang, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy;

height 24 to 28 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers white;
pods half crowded; seeds chromium green, medium-sized, 9 to 10 mm.
long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum brown.; germ green. Grown
two seasons.

22501. From Hangchow, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;

height 42 to 48 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers white;
pods medium large, 2 to 2\ inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds black, medium large, 7 to 7J mm. long, subglobose; hilum
pale; germ green. Grown two seasons.

22503. From Yokohama, Japan, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 12 to 16

inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods large, 2J to 2^
inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering moderately; seeds straw-yellow,
large, 9^ to 10 mm. long, subglobose; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown
two seasons.

22504. From Yokohama, Japan, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18 to 24

inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods large, 2{ to 2^
inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering much; seeds olive-yellow,
large, 8 to 9 mm. long, subglobose; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown
two seasons.
22504 A. A selection out of the original seed 22504, Plants stout, erect, bushy;
height 14 to 18 inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods
medium-sized, IJ to 2 inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering little;
seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 8 to 8J mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22505. From Yokohama, Japan, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20 to 28

inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized, IJ to If inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering
little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 6i to 7^ mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22506. From Yokohama, Japan, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 12 to 16

inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods medium large,
2 to 2\ inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering much; seeds straw-
yellow, medium-sized, 8^ to 9 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum light brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22507. From Yokohama, Japan, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 18 to 22

inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods medium-sized,
1^ to If inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering much; seeds olive-
yellow, medium large, 8^ to 9 mm. long, subglobose; hilum brown; germ
yellow. Grown two seasons.
22534. From Weihsien, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining; height,
36 to 42 inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized, 1§ to If inches long, compressed, half crowded,
shattering moderately; seeds straw-yellow, medium small, 7^ to 8 mm.
long, oval; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons. This variety
is said to be used for making lamp and cooking oil and for flour to make
cakes. The remaining material after expressing the oil forms a cake
which is exported for feeding animals and enriching land.
197

62 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTOKY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

22535. From Weihsien, China, 1908. The seeds and plants of this are identical

with Cloud, 16790.

22536. From Chefoo, Shantung, China, 1908. This proved identical with 17857.

22537. From Chefoo, Shantung, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height,

18 to 30 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
moderately; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 8^ to 9 mm. long, ellipti-
cal, much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
This variety is said to be used quite extensively at Chefoo for the manu-
facture of oil.

22538. From Chefoo, Shantung, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips twin-

ing; height, 36 to 42 inches; medium late; pubescence gray (50 per cent)
and tawny (50 per cent); flowers both purple and white; pods medium-
sized, 1^ to If inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering moderately;
seeds black, medium-sized, 6 to 6J mm. long, oblong, much flattened;
germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22633. Morgan. From Sheklung, Kwangtung, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect,

the tips twining; height, 36 to 42 inches; very late; pubescence tawny;
flowers both purple and white; pods medium small, 1^ to IJ inches-long,
compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, small, 5^ to
6 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum russet; germ yellow.
Grown two seasons.

22634. From Sheklung, Kwangtung, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy;

height, 22 to 28 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple;
pods medium-sized, 1^ to If inches long, half crowded; shattering mod-
erately; seeds black, medium small, 1\ to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22644. Stuart. From Hangchow, Chekiang, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect,

bushy; height, 36 to 40 inches; very late; pubescence gray; flowers purple;
pods medium-sized, If to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds olive-yellow, medium small, 7 to 7J mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum russet; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22644 A. A pure field selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 36 to 42
inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-sized.
If to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds seal-
brown to olive, medium small, elliptical, 6J to 7 mm. long, much flat-
tened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

22044 B. Nielsen. A pure selection out of the original seed of 22644. Plants stout,
erect, bushy; height, 34 to 38 inches; very late; pubescence gray; flowers
purple; pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered,
shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long,
elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum burnt umber; germ yellow. Grown
two seasons.

22644 C. A selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 24 to 30 inches;
very late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white; pods medium-
sized, 1^ to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds
olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.

22645. From Hangchow, Chekiang, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy;

height, 16 to 20 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods
medium large, 2 to 2\ inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering mod-
erately; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum bister brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES. 63

22646. From Hangchow, Chekiang, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height,
30 to 36 inches; very late; pubescence gray; flowers purple; medium-sized
pods large, 2 to 2{ inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little;
seeds olive-yellow, large, 8 to 9 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum russet; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22714. From Saigon, Cochin China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 30 to
36 inches; very late; pubescence gray ; flowers both purple and white; pods
scattered; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7Jto8 mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum light brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22874. Vireo. From Tokyo, Japan, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 14

to 18 inches; early; pubescence ta,wny; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized, 1 J to 2 inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering little;
seeds olive-yellow, medium small, 6 to 6J mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hiltim slate-color; germ yellow; leaves persist when poda are
ripening. Grown two seasons.

22875. From Tokyo, Japan, 1908. This proved the same as Flat King, 17252.

22876. From Tokyo, Japan, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 16 to 22

inches; medium; pubescence gray and very sparse; flowers purple; pods
medium-sized, 1 J to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little;
seeds straw-yellow, small to medium, 6^ to 7^ mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22877. From Tokyo, Japan, 1908. This was found to be the same as Okute, 19986.

22878. From Tokyo, Japan, 1908. This did not differ in any respect from 17273.

22879. From Tokyo, Japan, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 20 to 26

inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white; pods
medium small. If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds straw-yellow, medium small, 6^ to 7 mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum light to seal-brown; germ yellow. Grown two
seasons.

22880. From Tokyo, Japan, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 18 to 22

inches; medium; pubescence gray (60 per cent) and tawny (40 per cent);
flowers both purple and white; pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long,
compressed, half crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-
sized, 7J to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale to brown;
germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22880 A. A selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 28 to 32 inches;
medium early; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white; pods
medium large, 2 to 2J inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering little;
seeds straw-yellow (cloudy saddle); medium large, 8 to 8^ mm. long,
elliptical, much flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown one
season.

22880 B. A selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 12 to 16 inches;
medium early; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods medium-sized, IJ
to 2 inches long, compressed, crowded, shattering little; seeds chromium
green, medium-sized, 7-^- to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum
brown; germ green. Grown one season.

22880 C. A selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height, 14 to 18 inches;
yellow; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-sized, 1^ to 2
inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow
(cloudy); medium-sized, 6^ to 7 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

22881. From Tokyo, Japan, 1908. Identical with Hope, 17267.

58576°— Bui. 197—10 5

64 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

22882. From Tokyo, Japan, 1908. Identical with 19981.

22883. From Tokyo, Japan, 1908. Identical with 19987.

22884. From Tokyo, Japan, 1908. Identical with Butterball, 17273.

22885. From Tokyo, Japan, 1908. Identical with 19981.

22886. From Swatow. Kwantung, China, 1908. Identical with Ebony, 17254.

22897. Columbia. From Paotingfu, Chihli, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect,

bushy; height, 28 to 34 inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers both pur-
ple and white; pods medium-sized, IJ to 2 inches long, compressed,
crowded, shattering little; seeds chromium green, small, 7 to 7^ mm.
long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum light brown; germ green.
Grown two seasons.

22898. From Paotingfu, Chihli, China, 1908. This was grown in 1908 and found

to be indistinguishable from Sherwood, 178(i2.

22898 A. Lowrie. A field mass selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

30 to 34 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and
white; pods medium-sized. If to 2 inches long, tumid, scattered, shat-
tering little; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, ellip-
tical, much flattened; hilum light to slate-black; germ yellow. Grown
one season.

22899. Arlington. From Paotingfu, Chihli, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect,

the tips twining; height 30 to 36 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny;
flowers both purple and white; pods medium-sized, 1^ to If inches long,
compressed, scattered, shattering moderately; seeds black, medium-
sized, 7i to 8 mm. long, oblong, much flattened; hilum pale; germ
yellow. Grown two seasons. This_ variety is said to be boiled as a
fodder for horses and mules. Oil is also expressed out of it and the
remaining material used as fertilizer.

22899 A. A mass selection out of the original seed. Plants slender, suberect, the tips

twining; stems 48 to 56 inches long; medium late; pubescence tawny;
flowers both pUrple and white; pods medium-sized, Ih to If inches
long, compressed; seeds black, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, oblong,
much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22900. From Paotingfu, Chihli, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;

height 30 to 40 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple
and wdiite; pods large. If to 2 inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering
moderately, seeds black, large, 8 to 8i mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ green. Grown two seasons.

22901. From Paotingfu, Chihli, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

24 to 30 inches; medium; pubescence gray (40 per cent) and tawny (60
per cent); flowers both purple and white; pods medium-sized, U- to If
inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-
yellow, small to medium small, 6 to 7 mm. long, elliptical, much flat-
tened; hilum slate-black; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

22919. From Ingchung, Fukien, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips twin-

ing; height 36 to 48 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers
both purple and white; pods medium-sized, 1 J- to 2 inches long, tumid,
scattered, shattering much; seeds black, medium-sized, 6^ to 7 mm.
long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown
two seasons.

22920. From Ingchung, Fukien, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

16 to 24 inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and
white; pods large, 2 to 2J inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
moderately; seeds olive-yellow, medium large, 8 to 8^ mm. long, ellip-
tical, slightly flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES. 65

22920 A. A selection out of the original seed. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;

height 32 to 36 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers both
purple and white; pods medium large, If to 2^ inches long, tumid,
scattered, shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, medium-sized, 7 J to 8
mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum light to seal-brown; germ
yellow. Grown two seasons.

22921. From Ingchung, Fukien, China, 1908. Plants slender, suberect, the tips

twining; height 36 to 48 inches; medium late; pubescence gray (50 per
cent) and tawny (50 per cent); flowers both purple and white; pods
medium-gized, H to If inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
much; seeds straw-yellow, medium small to medium, 6 to 7h mm. iong,
elliptical, much flattened; hilum black; germ yellow. Grown two sea-
sons.

22921 A. A mass selection in 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining; height

18 to 24 inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and
white; pods medium-sized, IJ to If inches long, compressed, half
crowded, shattering much; seeds straw-yellow, medium small to me-
dium, 7^ to 8 mm. long, oval, slightly flattened; hilum raw umber;
germ yellow. Grown one season.

22921 B. A selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 12 to 18 inches;

late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods medium large, 1^ to If
inches long, tumid, haif crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow^
large, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum black; germ
yellow. Grown one season.

22922. From Ingchung, Fukien, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

30 to 34 inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and
white; pods medium large, IJ to If inches long, tumid, half crowded,
shattering little; seeds straw-yellow; medium large, 8^ to 9 mm. long,
elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum light to dark brown; germ yellow.
Grown two seasons.

22922 A. A field mass selection in 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 30 to 36

inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized, 1| to 2 inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering
moderately; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, ellip-
tical, slightly flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.

22927. From Shanghai, Kiangsu, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips
twining; height 30 to 42 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers both
purple and white; pods large, 2 to 2^ inches long, compressed, scattered,
shattering little; seeds black, large, 8 to SJ mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ green. Grown two seasons.

23205. From Shanghai, Kiangsu, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height
24 to 30 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods
medium-sized, 1^ to 1 f inches long, compres.sed, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds black, medium small, 6^ to 7 mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; germ yellow. Grown one season. This is said to be an
important bean for dry rice land.

23207. From Soochow, Kiangsu, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height
24 to 28 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods half
crowded; seed solive-yellow, large, 8 to 8^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum slate-black; germ yellow. Grown one season.
197

66 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

23207 B. A pure selection out of the original seed. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height
30 to 34 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods large,
2^ to 2J inches long, compressed, crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-
yellow, large, 9 to 9J mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum seal-
brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.

23208. From Tangsi, Chekiang, China, 1908. Plants slender, suberect, the tips

twining; height 30 to 36 inches; very late; pubescence gray; flowers
purple; pods large, half crowded; seeds straw-yellow, large, 7^ to 8 mm.
long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown
one season.

23209. From Tangsi, Chekiang, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

24 to 28 inches; very late; pubescence gray and tawny; flowers purple;
pods medium large, 2 to 2\ inches long, compressed, half crowded, shat-
tering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium large, 8 to 8 J mm. long, ellip-
tical, slightly flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown two sea-
sons.
23209 A. A pure selection out of the original seed. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height
36 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods medium-
sized, 2 to 2\ inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds
chromium green, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum brown; germ green. Grown one season.

23211. From Tangsi, Chekiang, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips twin-

ing; height 30 to 36 inches; very late; pubescence both gray and tawny;
flowers purple; pods large, 2 to 2i inches long, compressed, half crowded,
shattering little; seeds deep brown, medium large, 7 to 8 mm. long,
elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two sea-
sons.

23212. From Hangchow, Chekiang, China, 1908. Seeds yellow, but none germi-

nated.

23213. From Hangchow, Chekiang, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips

twining; height 24 to 30 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers
purple; pods half crowded; seeds straw-yellow, large, 8 to 8 J mm. long,
oval; hilum prominent seal-brown; germ yellow. Grown one season,
23213 A. A selection out of the original seed. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20
to 24 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple and white;
pods half crowded; seeds yellow and black, medium large, 7^ to 8 mm.
long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum seal-brown; germ yellow.
Grown one season.

23229. Sedo. From Tientsin, Chihli, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy;
height 20 to 26 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods
medium large. If to 2| inches long, tumid scattered, shattering little;
seeds deep brown, very large, 9 to 10 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons. This variety is said to
be rare and used only for human food.

28232. From Chinhuafu, Kiangsu, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tipa
twining; height 34 to 40 inches; very late; pubescence tawTiy; flowera
purple; pods small. 1^ to 1^ inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds dull brown, small, 5^ to 6 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons. This variety is said to
be grown on wet rice lands throughout central China.
107

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES, 67

23291. From Wutaishan, Shansi, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips

twining; height 30 to 42 inches; medium late; pubescence gray (50 per
cent) and tawny (50 per cent); flowers purple; pods medium small, 1^ to
If inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds black,
medium-sized, 7 to 8 mm. long, oblong, much flattened; germ yellow.
Grown one season. "This variety is considered by the Chinese to be the
best food for their hard-working horses and mules."'

23292. From Wutaishan, Shansi, China. 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

18 to 24 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods
medium-sized, If to 2 inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds small to medium, 7-^- to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum brown. Grown two seasons. This variety is said to be used all
through northern China for making bean curd and bean vermicelli.

23292 A. A selection out of the original seed. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 26
to 30 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized; H to If inches long, compressed, scattered, .shattering little; seeds
medium-sized, 7 to 8 mm. long, oblong, much flattened; germ yellow.
Grown one season.

23292 B. A selection out of the original seed. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;
height 24 to 30 inches; medium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods
medium-sized, IJ to 2 inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering
moderately; seeds brown, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, oblong, much
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

23292 C. A selection out of the original seed. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 28
to 34 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-sized,
If to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds chro-
mium green, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, oblong, much flattened;
hilum seal-brown; germ green. Grown one season.

23296. From Taichow, Chekiang, China, 1908. A variety found growing on strongly

alkaline lands. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 30 to 36 inches;
medium; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and white; pods medium
sized, If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds
straw-yellow, medium-sized, 8h to 9 mm. long, elliptical much flattened;
hilum .slate-black; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

23296 A. A selection out of the original seed. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 24
to 30 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods
medium large. If to 2 inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering
moderately; seeds chromium green, medium large, 9 to 10 mm. long,
elliptical, much flattened; hilum bister brown; germ green. Grown one
season . ,

23296 C. A selection out of the original seed. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20
to 24 inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, 1^ to If inches long, compre.ssed, half crowded, shattering little;
seeds black, medium-sized, 8| to 9 nun. long, oblong, much flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

23297. From Taichow, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining; height

28 to 34 inches; medium late; pubescence gray and tawny; flowers
purple, pods medium-sized, If to 2 inches long, compressed, half-crowded,
shattering little; seeds black, medium-sized, 7^ to 8 mm. long, oblonr,
much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.
197

68 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTOEY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

23297 A. A selection out of the original seed. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;
height 30 to 36 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers both
purple and white; pods large. If to 2\ inches long, tumid, half crowded,
shattering little; seeds brown, large, 8 to 8^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

23297 B. A selection out of the original seed. Plants slender, suberect, the tips
twining; height 30 to 36 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers
both purple and white; pods medium-sized, IJ to 2 inches long, com-
pressed, half crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-
sized, 8 J to 9 mm. long, oblong, much flattened; hilum slate-black; germ
yellow. Grown two seasons.
23299. From Tsintse, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining; height
42 to 48 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods large, 2
to 21 inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering little; seed black with
yellow saddle, large, 9 to 9^ mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum.
black; germ yellow. Grown one season. This is said to be a rare local
variety of soy bean used as a vegetable when slightly sprouted.
23303. From Shiling, Chihli, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 14 to
30 inches; medium late; pubescence gray (70 per cent) and tawny (30
per cent); flowers purple; pods medium-sized, 1| to 2 inches long, com-
pressed, half crowded, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-
sized, 8 to 8J mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum brown to
nearly black; germ yellow. Grown two seasons. This variety is said
to be used all through northern China for making bean curd and bean
vermicelli.

23303 A. A selection out of the original seed. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 20
to 24 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods
medium large, IJ to 2 inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds chromium green, medium-sized; 8 to 8^ mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened; hilum black; germ green. Grown one season.

23305. From Peking, Chihli, China, 1908. Seeds yellow, but all failed to ger-

minate.

23306. From Peking, Chihli, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 30

to 36 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods large,
If to 2 inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering little; seeds black,
large, 84 to 9 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum pale; germ
green. Grown one season.
23311. From Shiling, Chihli, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;
height 36 to 40 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; jwds
medium large, If to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds chromium green, medium large, 7J to 8J mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened; hilum slate-black; germ green. Grown one season.

23311 A. Selected out of the original seed. Plants slender, erect; height 32 to 36
inche.s; medium late; pubescence tawney; flowers both purple and white;
pods medium-sized, 1^ to If inches long, compressed, shattering little;
seeds black, medium small, 7 to 7h mm. long, oblong, much flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

23311 B. A selection out of the original seed. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 30
to 36 inches; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-sized,
If to 2 inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering little; seeds black and
yellow, medium small, 7 to 7h mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.
197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES. 69

23312. From Paotingfu, Chihli, China, 1908. -Plants slender, erect; height 24 to
30 inches; medium late: pubescence gray; flo\Yers both purple and white;
pods medium small, IJ to li inches long, tumid, shattering little; seeds
olive-yellow, small, 6 to 6i mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum
pale; germ yellow. Grown two seasons.

23325. From Canton, Kwangtung, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

12 to 16 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods
medium small, IJ to If inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering moder-
ately; seeds black, small, 6 to 6i mm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

23326. From Canton, Kwangtung, China. Seeds olive-yellow; all failed to germi-

nate.

23327. From Canton, Kwangtung, China, 1908. Seeds olive-yellow; none germi-

nated.

23336. From Shanghai, Kiangsu, China, 1908. This is the same as 20798, secured

at the same place.

23337. From Shanghai, Kiangsu, China, 1908. Identical with 20797, from the same

place.

23338. From Shanghai, Kiangsu, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, very leafy;

height 48 to 60 inches ; very late; pubescence tawny ; flowers purple; pods
medium-sized, 1^ to 2 inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering little;
seeds brown with more or less black usually in concentric bands, medium-
sized, 7i to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale; germ
yellow. Grown one season. Notes taken at Jackson, Tenn.
23338 B. A selection out of the original seed. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;
height 30 to 40 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple;
pods scattered; seeds black, large, 8 to 9 mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

23522. From Chungking, Szechwan, China, 1908. Seeds olive-yellow; none germi-

nated.

23523. From Chungking, Szechwan, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy;

height 14 to 20 inches; late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods
medium-sized, 1^ to If inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering moder-
ately; seeds black, medium-sized, 6i to 7h mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

23544. From Ningyuenfu, Szechwan, China, 1908. Seeds yellow; none viable.

23545. From Ningyuenfu, Szechwan, China, 1908. Seeds yellow; none grew.

23546. From Ningyuenfu, Szechwan, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

38 to 42 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods
small, 11 to U inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds
black, very small, 5 to 5^ mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum
pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

24180. From Soochow, Kiangsu, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

14 to 20 inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods
large, 2^ to 2h inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering moderately; seeds
black, large, 9 to 9^ mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale;
germ yellow. Grown one season.

24181. From Soochow, Kiangsu, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

18 to 24 inches; medium; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods
medium-sized, If to 2 inches long, tumid, half-crowded, shattering
little; seeds straw-yellow, medium large, 8 to 8^- mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.

24182. From Soochow, Kiangsu, China, 1908. Seeds green; none viable.
197

70 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VAEIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

24183. From Soochow, Kiangsu, China, 1908. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

16 to 20 inches; medium late; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods
large, 2 to 2{ inches long, tumid, crowded, shattering little; seeds olive-
yellow, medium-sized, 9 to 9^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum brown; germ yellow; leaves persist when pods are ripening.
Growm one season.

24184. From Soochow, Kiangsu, China, 1908. Plants slender, erect, the tips

twining; height 36 to 42 inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers purple;
pods medium-sized, Ih to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shatter-
ing little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, ellip-
tical, slightly flattened; hilum light brown; germ yellow. Grown one
season.
24610. Trenton. From Trenton, Ky. Found by Mr. S. J. Leavell in a field of the
Mammoth variety in 1904. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 32 to 38
inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers white; pods medium-sized, 1^
to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds brown,
medium small, 6J to 7 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale;
germ yellow. Except for color and shape of seeds, this variety is indis-
tinguishable from Mammoth, 17280. Grown one season.

24641. From Taihoku, Formosa, 1909. Seeds yellow; all failed to germinate.

24642. From Taihoku, Formosa, 1909. Plants procumbent, vining, rather coarse;

stems 52 to 60 inches long; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple;
pods small, IJ to IJ inches long; tumid, scattered, shattering little;
seeds black, small, 5 to 5^ mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum
pale; germ yellow. Grown one season. A variety identical with this
was received under No. 24643 (Taihoku, Formosa).

24643. From Taihoku, Formosa, 1909. Seeds black; none grew.

24672. From Khasi Hills, Assam, India, 1909. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

42 to 48 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods small,
IJ to 1^ inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds yel-
low, clouded with brown, small, 5J to 6 mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.

24672 A. A selection out of the original seed. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;
height 36 to 42 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple;
pods small, 1^ to U inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering little; seeds
brown, small, 5J to 6 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale;
germ yellow. Grown one season.

24672 B. A selection out of the original seed. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 24
to 32 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods small,
1 to li inches long, tumid, scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-
yellow, small, 5i to 6 mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum brown;
germ yellow. Grown one season.

24673. From Darjiling, Assam, India, 1909. Plants procumbent, vining, rather

coarse; stems 48 to 60 inches long; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers
purple; pods small, 1\ to 1^ inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds brown, small, 5 to 5imm. long, elliptical, much flattened;
hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

24674. From Darjiling, Assam, India, 1909. Plants procumbent, vining, rather

coarse; stems 48 to 56 inches long; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers
purple; pods medium small, n to If inches long, compressed, scattered,
shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, small, 6 to 6i mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.
197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VARIETIES. * 71

24675. From Safipur, Unao, United Provinces, India, 1909. Plants procumbent,

vining, rather coarse; stems 48 to 60 inches long; very late; pubescence
tawny; flowers purple; pods small, 1\ to 14 inches long, compressed,
scattered, shattering li*tle; seeds black, small, 5h to 6 mm. long, oblong,
much flattened ; germ yellow. Grown one season. The following lots, all
from India, were found to be identical with this: 24676, from Hasangani;
24677, from Ranjitpurwa; 24678, 24679, 24680, 24683, 24686, from Eta-
wah; 24681, from Mainpuri; 24688, from Cawnpore; 24689, from Dehra,
Dun.

24676. From Hasangani, Unao, U. P., India. Identical with 24675.

24677. From Ranjitpurwa, Unao, U. P., India. Identical with 24675.

24678. From Etawah, Unao, U. P., India. Identical with 24675.

24679. From Etawah, Unao, U. P., India. Identical with 24675.

24680. From Etawah, Unao, U. P., India. Identical with 24675.

24681. From Mainpuri, U. P., India. Identical with 24675.

24682. From Mainpuri, U. P., India, 1909. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 18

to 24 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods small,
1^ to Ih inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds
black, very small, 5 to 51 mm. long, oblong, much flattened; germ yel-
low. Grown one season. Nos. 24684 and 24685, from Etawah, India,
are identical with this variety.

24683. From Etawah, Unao, U. P., India. Identical with 24675.

24684. From Etawah, Unao, U. P., India. Identical with 24682.

24685. From Etawah, Unao, U. P., India. Identical with 24682.

24686. From Etawah, Unao, U. P., India. Identical with 24675.

24687. From United Provinces, India. Did not germinate.

24688. From Cawnpore, India. This proved to be identical with No. 24675.
24689 From Cawnpore, India. This is identical with No. 24675.

24690. From Dehra Dun, U. P., India. Did not germinate.

24693 to 24711, inclusive. Nineteen Japanese varieties of soy beans grown on Poona
Farm, Bombay Presidency, India. All of these failed to germinate,
except 24695.

24695. From Poona, Bombay, India, 1909, originally from Japan. Plants stout,
erect, bushy; height 28 to 32 inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers
purple; pods medium-sized, 1| to 2 inches long, compressed, crowded,
shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7} mm. long;
elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

24839. From Shanghai, Kiangsu, China, 1906. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

32 to 36 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods large,
2^ to 2i inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds olive-
yellow, medium large, 74 to 8 mm. long; elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum slate-black; germ yellow. Grown four seasons.

24840. From Shanghai, China, 1906. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 32 to 36

inches; very late; pubescence gray; flowers purple; pods large, 1| to 2^
inches long, tumid, .'icattered, shattering little; .seeds straw-yellow,
large, 84 to 9 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum seal-brown;
germ yellow. Grown three seasons.

2.5093. Mammoth. From Hickory, N. C.

25118. From Pithoragarh, Kumaon District, India, 1909. Plants prociimbent,
vining, rather coarse; stems 48 to 60 inches long; very late; pubescence
tawny; flowers purple; pods small, 1^ to If inches long, compressed,
scattered, shattering little; seeds black, marbled with brown, small, 5
to 6 mm. long, oblong, much flattened; hilum ])ale; germ yellow. Grown
one season.
197

72 • THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

25130. Early Broivn. From Knoxville, Tenn, 1909. Plants stout, erect, bushy;
height 18 to 24 inches; medium early; pubescence tawny; flowers purple;
pods medium-sized, 2 to 2 J inches long, tumid, half crowded, shattering
little; seeds brown, medium-sized, 7i to 8 mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow^ Except for color of seeds and
maturity, this variety is difficult to distinguish from Ito San, 17268.
Grown one season. No. 25161, from the Indiana Agricultural Experiment
Station, is the same.
• 25131. From Knoxville, Tenn., 1909. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 30 to 36
inches; medium late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, 1| to 2 J inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering much;
seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7 J mm. long, elliptical, much
flattened; hilum light brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.

25133. From Soochow, China, 1909. Plants slender, suberect, the tips twining;

stems 48 to 60 inches long; very late; pubescence both gray and tawny;
flowers purple; pods scattered; seeds straw-yellow, small, b\ to 6
mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum light brown; germ yellow.
Grown one season. This variety is said to be the smallest grown at
Soochow, and is used only for bean sprouts.

25134. From Soochow, China, 1909. Plants slender, suberect, the tips twining;

stems 36 to 42 inches long; very late; pubescence gray; flowers purple;
pods large, 2\ to 2| inches long, compressed, scattered; seeds straw-
yellow, large, 9 to 9| mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum light
brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.
25134 A. A selection out of the original seed. Plantsslender, suberect, the tips twining;
stems 42 to 48 inches long; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers both pur-
ple and white; pods medium-sized, 1^ to If inches long, tumid, scattered,
shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 8 to 8| mm. long,
elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum light to dark brown; germ yellow.
Grown one season.

25135. From Soochow, Kiangsu, China, 1909. Plants slender, erect, the tips

twining; height 40 to 46 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers
purple; pods large, 2 to 2i inches long, scattered, shattering little; seeds
chromium green, large, 7| to 8 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum slate-colored; genn green. Grown one season. This variety may
be put to all uses of the soy, but in practice it is used only to make parched
Sutt beans, eaten as a relish.

25136. From Soochow, Kiangsu, China, 1909. Plants slender, suberect, the tips

twining; stems 48 to 56 inches long; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers
purple; pods large, 2\ to 2| inches long, compressed, scattered, shat-
tering little; seeds brown, very large, 9 to 10 mm. long; elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season. This variety is
said to be the largest of all the soys at Soochow. It is used only for
eating in the green state, but may be used for all the soy purposes.

25137. From Soochow, Kiangsu, China, 1909. Plants procumbent, vining, rather

coarse; stems 36 to 42 inches long; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers
purple; pods scattered; seeds brown and black, the colors concentrated
in bands, large, 9 to 9^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum
pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

25138. From Soochow, Kiangsu, China, 1909. This is identical with the wild soy

bean, No. 22428. Grown one season. (See PI. II, fig. 1.)
197

CATALOGUE OF SOY-BEAN VAEIETIES. 73

25161. Early Brown. From Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, 1909.

Identical with 25130.

This variety was obtained originally by the Indiana Agricultural
Experiment Station from Mr. E. F. Diehl, Leesburg, Ind., who writes
that he had two varieties, an Early Yellow and the Early Black, which
he tested side by side. In the progeny, he noted a few seeds that were
partly brown and yellow in color, the one gradually shading into the
other. Out of curiosity, he selected and planted the seeds with the larg-
est amount of brown and within a few years secured the brown-seeded
variety which has been called Early Brown.

Among seeds of the Ito San variety grown at the Kansas Agricultural
Experiment Station were many in which the seed was partially brown,
undoubtedly due to the influence of crossing.

25162. Mammoth. From Columbia, Tenn.

25212. From Botanic Gardens, Bremen, Germany, 1909. This proved to be the
same as 21755.
25212 A. Black seeds mixed with the preceding. Produced plants identical with
Buckshot, 17251.

25437. From Yachow, Szechwan, China, 1909. Plants slender, erect, the tips

twining; height 48 to 56 inches; very late; pubescence gray (60 per cent)
and tawny (40 per cent); flowers white; pods medium-sized, IJ to If
inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow,
medium-sized, 6 to 6§ mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum
light brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.

25437 A. A selection out of the original seed. Plants stout, erect, Inishy; height 32
to 38 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-
sized, IJ to 1| inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds
chromium green, medium-sized, 6^ to 7 mm. long; elliptical, slightly
flattened hilum russet; germ green. Grown one season.

25437 B. A selection from the original seed. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height
26 to 32 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers white; pods
medium-sized, 1| to 2 inches long, compressed, half crowded; shattering
little; seeds black, medium-sized, 6 to 7 mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum pale; germ green. Grown one season.

25437 C. A selection out of the original seed. Plants stout, erect, l)ushy; height36

to 40 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers both purple and
white; pods medium-sized, 1| to 2 inches long, compressed, half crowded,
shattering little; seeds l^rown, medium-sized, 6| to 7 mm. long, elliptical,
much flattened; hilum pale; germ yellow. Grown one season.

25438. From Yachow, Szechwan, China, 1909. Plants slender, erect, the tips twin-

ing; height 30 to 36 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers white;
pods medium-sized, 1| to 2 inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering
little; seeds chromium green, medium small, 6 to 7 mm. long, elliptical,
slightly flattened ; hilum slate-colored; germ green. Grown one season.

25438 A. A selection out of the original seed. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;

height 34 to 38 inches; very late; pubescence l)oth gray and tawny;
flowers both purple and white; pods medium large, If to 2] inches long,
compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds olive-yellow, medium-
sized, 6^- to 7^ mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum light brown;
germ yellow. Grown one season.
197

74 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

25438 B. A selection out of the original seed. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;
height 36 to 40 inches; very late; pubescence both gray and tawny;
flowers white; pods medium-sized, 1^ to If inches long, compressed,
scattered, shattering little; seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7J
mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened; hilum seal-brown; germ yellow.
Grown one season.
25468. Wisconsin Black. From L. L. Olds Seed Company, Madison, Wis., 1909,
secured by that company from the Wisconsin Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 16 to 20 inches; me-
dium; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium-sized, IJ to If
inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering little; seeds black,
medium-sized, 8 to 8§ mm. long, elliptical, much flattened; hilum pale;
germ yellow. Grown nine seasons. This variety has proved to be one
of the earliest growing in Wisconsin. While the records are somewhat
incomplete, it is almost certainly the direct descendant of S. P. I.
No. 5039, received from Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., Paris, France, 1900.

27498. From Peking, Chihli, China, 1909. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;

height 42 to 48 inches; late; pubescence gray; flowers both purple and
white; pods medium-sized, Ij to If inches long, tumid, half crowded, shat-
tering little; seeds chromium green, medium-sized, 7 to 7^ mm. long, ellip-
tical, slightly flattened; hilum black; germ green. Grown one season.

27499. From Ingang, Fukien, China, 1909. Plants slender, erect, the tips twining;

height 36 to 42 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple;
pods scattered; seeds straw-yellow, 5J to 6 mm. long, elliptical, slightly
flattened; hilum seal-brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.

27500. From Shanghai, Kiangsu, China, 1909. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height 26

to 32 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods medium
large, 2 to 2 J inches long, compressed, half crowded, shattering little;
seeds straw-yellow, medium-sized, 7 to 7J mm. long, ellijitical, much
flattened; hilum light brown; germ yellow. Grown one season.

27501. From Shanghai, Kiangsu, China, 1909. Plants stout, erect, bushy; height

36 to 42 inches; very late; pubescence tawny; flowers purple; pods large,
2J to 2f inches long, compressed, scattered, shattering little; seeds olive-
yellow, cloudy, large, 9^ to 10 mm. long, elliptical, slightly flattened;
hilum black; germ yellow. Grown one season.

THE BEST VARIETIES OF SOY BEANS.

It is difficult to determine the best soy-bean varieties out of those
tested, not only on account of the very large number, but also owing
to the divergent results reached at the various places where they
have been grown. The soy bean seems to be peculiarly subject to
fluctuations brought about by change of soil or change of climate.
The differences in behavior of the same pedigreed seed in different
places is often very striking, so much so that it is difficult to believe
that it is the same variety. Whether these differences are due
mainly to climate or to soil is difficult to determine, but in general
the results indicate that both factors are potent. On this account ■
it may very well be that the final conclusions reached by experi-
menters as to the best varieties will depend upon the place where
the experiments have been conducted. The list of the best varieties

197

THE BEST VARIETIES OF SOY BEANS. 75

here given is a tentative one based primarily upon the resuhs at
Arlington Experimental Farm, but those obtained in c-ooperation
with various experiment stations have also been given due con-
sideration. These matters should- be given careful weight by all
experimental agronomists, as otherwise it is conceivable that really
valuable varieties may be overlooked or may be too hastily dis-
carded.

Very early. — Ogemaw, 17258.

^a?-?!/.— Early Brown, 25161; and Vireo, 22874.

Medium early.— Chernie, 18227; Auburn, 21079 A; Merko, 20412; Elton, 20406;
Chestnut, 20405 B.

Medium.— Ito San, 17268; Medium Yellow, 17269; Tashing, 20854; Shingto, 21079;
Swan, 22379; Brindle, 20407; Sedo, 23229; Lowrie, 22898 A.

Medium Zafe.— Brooks, 16789; Flava, 16789 A; Cloud, 16790; Ebony, 17254; Haber-
landt, 17271; Peking, 17852 B; Wilson, 19183; Taha, 21999; Austin, 17263.

Laie.— Mammoth, 17280; Edward, 14953; Acme, 14954; Flat King, 17252; Tokyo»
17264; Hope, 17267; Hollybrook, 17278; Farnham, 22312.

Very iaie.— Barchet, 20798; Riceland, 20797.
197

PLATES.

197

77

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I. Plant of the wild soy bean, No. 22428, grown in greenhouse. Note the very
slender stems, vining habit, and small, scattered pods.

Plate II. Fig. 1.— Wild soy bean from Soochow, China, No. 25138, grown at Arlington
Experimental Farm, 1908. This variety could not be distinguished from No.
22428 when grown side by side. Note the slender vining stems and procumbent
habit. Pig. 2.— Soy bean from Cawnpore, India, No. 24689, grown at Arlington
Experimental Farm, 1909. This variety is very similar in habit to No. 25138, but
is so late that it did not even bloom at Arlington.

Plate III. Variety tests of soy beans at Arlington Experimental Farm. Note the
erect, bushy habit, and differences in size and earliness.

Plate IV. Seven varieties of soy beans, showing types of habit. No. 17852, Meyer;
No. 17852 B, Peking; No. 17263, Austin; No. 18259, Pingsu; No. 22504, unnamed;
No. 17278, Hollybrook; No. 17271, Haberlandt.

Plate V. The same seven plants shown in Plate IV, after hanging in a dry room for
six months. All have shattered badly but No. 17852 B, Peking.

Plate VI. Pods of soy beans, showing range in size and shape. Most of the varieties
have three seeds to the pod, two and four being only occasional numbers. (Nat-
ural size.)

Plate VII. Soy-bean pods; No. 19985 L, hairy and smooth pods from one heterozy-
gote individual; No. 18258 C and No. 17278, smooth pods from heterozygote
plants; No. 22898 A, a variety with tumid pods; No. 19186 B, a variety with
much-compressed pods.

Plate VIII. The seeds shown on this plate are as follows, beginning with the upper
row and extending from left to right, there being two seeds of each variety: Row
1, Nos. 22882, 17278, 23297 B, 24674, 24641; row 2, Nos. 17251, 24180, 17252, 25656,
22899 A; row 3, Nos. 25118, 23546, 17255, 24685, 16790 B, 25138; row 4, Nos. 25136,
23229, 20406 G, 22644 A, 19186 D; row 5, Nos. 20412, 22333, 17256, 20409, 22411 A,
row 6, Nos. 24182, 17252 B, 17857, 17271 L, 17260; row 7, 21079 L, 23299, 20407.
17852, 20797 A; row 8, 19985 L, 21079 M, 18258 C, 19982 A, 19982 A.
197
78

Bui. 1 97, Bureau of Plant Industry, U, S Dept, of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Fig. 1.— Plants of a Wild Soy Bean from Soochow, China, No. 25138, Grown
AT THE Arlington Experimental Farm, 1908.

<^'T-

Fig. 2.— Plants of a Soy Bean from Cawnpore, India, No. 24689.

Bui. 197, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate III.

Bui. 197, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agricultur

Plate IV.

J /i

4 \

,%> /^r 22504

^AX ^

17278

1727)

Plants of Seven Varieties of Soy Beans, Showing Types of Habit.

No. 17852, Meyer; No. 17862 B, Peking; No. 17263, Austin; No. 18259, Pingsu; No. 22504 unnamed-
No. 17278, Holly brook; No. 17271, Haberlandt.

Bui. 197, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate V.

.3UN -^f^'

V

I82S9

1^278

47271

The Same Plants Shown in Plate IV After Hanging in a Dry Room for Six

Months.

All have shattered badly but No. 17852 B, Peking.

_l

Bui. 197, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VI.

22503 25649 23299 17260 B 22880B

18259 17852 B 22899 I6790B 20411 224-28

Pods of Soy Beans, Showing the Range in Size and Shape.

(Natural size.)

Bui. 197, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VII.

19985 L

18258 C

17278

22898A

19186 B

Pods of Soy Beans.

No. 1998,5 L, hairy and smooth pods from one heterozvgote individual; No. 18258 C and No 17278
smooth pods from heterozygote plants; No. 22898 A, a variety with tumid pod.s; No. 19186 B a
variety with much-compressed pods.

J

Bui. 197, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VIII

^1^ ^f f|p

I i i

§§ eo ^<» e999

§§| ^§ #•§#

99 89 UMHUf^f

Seeds of 36 Varieties of Soy Beans, Showing Variation in Size and Form.
The bottom row shows peculiar types of coloration that occur only on het^rozygote plants.

INDEX.

Page.

Allen, Ralph, culture of soy bean 43

Amlierst, Mass., culture of soy bean 27, 28, 30, 31

Arkansas, state experiment station, source of soy-bean varieties 29, 48

Arlington Experimental Farm. See Experiments.

Asia, source of soy-bean varieties 24, 27, 34-35

Assam, source of soy-bean varieties. See Khasi Hills.
Austria. See Experiments at Vienna.

Ball, C. R., on nomenclature of soy bean, etc 19, 24, 25, 28, 30, 41, 45, 47

Bavaria, source of importation of soy bean : 27

Bean, Adsuki, probably erroneous application of name 27

Japan, variant name for soy bean 28

soy, best varieties, tentative list 74-75

characters of varieties 9, 10, 12-15, 23, 36-37, 39-75

considerations governing choice of varieties 36

descriptions of varieties 25, 39-74

European varieties 32-33

frost resistance 15-16

habits of growth 12-13, 26, 36, 37, 78

heterozygote plants 23, 78

history 9-11, 26-27, 32, 39-74

list (tentative) of best varieties 74-75

Mendelian features 13, 23

nomenclature ■. 9-11, 24-25, 26, 28, 29

pollination. See Hybridization.

shattering of seeds 14, 36

source of varieties. See names of places and countries.

synopsis of classification 37-39

use as human food. . 26, 42, 48, 49, 51, 55, 57, 58, 66, 67, 68, 72

in making oil and oil cake 51, 57, 61, 62, 64

varieties. Acme 18, 24, 42, 75

Agrostology 19, 29, 31, 45, 47

Amherst 18, 47

Arlington 64

Auburn 57, 75

Austin 18, 45, 75, 78

Baird 44, 59

Barchet 15, 56, 75

Black Beauty 43

Brindle 16, 55, 75

Brooks ^ 18, 42, 75

Brown 33

Eda Mame 31

Brownie > 18, 36, 44

. 79
58576°— Bui. 197—10 6

80 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

Page.

Bean, soy, varieties, Buckshot 18, 19, 20, 27, 29-30, 33, 42, 51, 59, 73

Butterball 18, 20, 27, 30, 33, 47, 60, 64

Chadaidzu '- 31

Chernie 16, 18, 32, 33, 50, 56, 59, 60, 75

Chestnut 54, 75

Cloud 18,42,75

Columbia G4

Daidsu Mame 9

Dwarf Brown 30, 31

Early Black 24, 29, 31, 32, 33, 42, 59, 73

Brown 72, 75

Japan 30

White 28, 46

Yellow 28,46,73

Ebony 18, 25, 43, 64, 75

Eda 18, 27, 28, 31, 44

Mame 28,46

Edward 18, 41, 75

Elton 54,75

Etampes 32, 33

Extra Early Black 33, 42

Fairchild 51

Farnham 59, 75

Flat King 18, 43, 49, 53, 63, 75

Flava 42, 75

Giant Yellow 30, 33, 60

Green Samarow 30, 31, 32

Guelph (or Medium Green) 15,

16, 18, 24, 27, 30, 31, 36, 37, 41, 45, 51, 59

Habaro 16, 54

Haberlandt 16,18,47,75,78

Hankow 40

Hansen 55

Hollybrook 18, 37, 47, 48, 75, 78

Hongkong 60

Hope 18, 46, 63, 75

Ito San 15, 16, 17, 18, 26, 27, 28, 32, 33, 37, 46, 58, 73, 75

Jet 16, 18, 49

Kingston 16,18,27,31,43

Kiyusuke Daidzu 28

Large Black 42

Late Yellow 24, 29

Lowrie 64, 75

Mammoth ........ 15, 17, 18, 26, 27, 29, 37, 40, 48, 52, 57, 70, 71, 75

Manhattan 16, 18,20,48

Medium Black 31

Early Black 30,42

Green (Guelph) 24, 27, 40

YeUow 17,18,46,75

Merko 55, 75

Meyer 16, 48, 78

Morgan 62

Morse 52

197

INDEX. 81

Page.

Bean, soy, varieties, Natsu 53

Nemo 53

Nielsen 62

Nigra 60

• Nuttall 18,43,59

Ogemaw (Ogema) .... 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 27, 29, 31, 33, 41, 44, 58, 75

Okute 54, 63

Peking 36, 48, 75, 78

Pingsu 51, 78

Riceland .- 15, 24, 40, 56, 75

Samarow 18, 31, 32, 44, 60

Sedo 66, 75

Shanghai 18, 41

Shenvood 49, 64

Shingto 16, 57, 75

Southern 29

Stuart 62

Swan 59, 75

Taha 58, 75

Tashing 56, 75

Tokyo 18, 45, 75

Trenton 24, 70

Vireo 63, 75

Wilson 51, 75

Wisconsin Black 33, 36, 74

Yamagata Cha-daizu 31, 44

Yellow 28, 29, 32, 33

Eda Mame 46

Etampes 28, 32, 33, 39, 46

Reisen 29, 32

Yosho 18, 45

wild, characteristics 60, 72, 78

See also Classification, Color, Disease, Flowers, Foliage, Frost, Germ, Hilum,
Hybridization, Importations, Maturity, Mutation, Pods, Pubescence,
Seeds, etc.

Bengal, culture of soy bean 34

Berry, coffee, variant name for soy bean 28, 46

Biloxi, Miss. , culture of soy bean 24, 37

Brooks, W. P., introduction of seeds of soy bean 27, 28, 30, 31

Burma, culture of soy bean 34

Burpee, W. A., introduction of Buckshot variety of soy bean 29

Cambridge, Mass., early growing of soy bean 26

Catalogue, chronological, soy-bean seed introductions 39-74

Celebes, source of soy-bean varieties 34, 35, 40

Ceylon, source of soy-bean varieties 9

China, source of soy-bean varieties . 10, 11, 26, 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 39-43, 45-51, 56, 58-74, 78

Chronology of seed introduction of soy bean 39-74

Classification of soy bean, botanic and agronomic 11-12, 24-25, 37-39

Climate. See Frost.

Coarseness of soy bean, economic features 36

Cochin China, source of soy-bean varieties 34, 35

Coffee berry. See Berry, coffee.

Color, as distinguishing varieties of soy bean 22, 24-25, 26, 27, 32, 36, 37-39

197

82 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

Page.

Columbia, Tenn., source of soy-bean variety 73

Commissioner of Patents, distribution of seeds of soy bean 26, 28

Connecticut, early growing of soy bean 26

Cook, G. H., introduction of soy-bean seed in 1878 27, 32

Dammann & Co., introduction of soy-bean varieties 30, 32, 33, 47, 57, 60

Darjiling, Assam, India, source of soy-bean varieties , 11, 70

Delavan, 111., source of variety of soy bean 43

Department of Agriculture, introduction of soy-bean varieties 31, 39-75

Derr, H. B., introduction of Butterball variety of soy bean 30

Diehl, E. F., selection of brown-se'eded variety of soy bean 73

Disease, comparative resistance of varieties of soy bean * 37

Dolichos soja, description by Linnaeus 9-10

Embryo. See Germ.

Ernst, A. H., on description of Japan pea '26

Evans, E. E., introduction of soy-bean varieties 19, 28, 30, 31, 44

Experiments with soy beans at Arlington Experimental Farm. 15, 17-25, 60, 61, 75, 78

Kansas experiment station 27, 28, 29, 31, 44, 46, 73

Knoxville, Tenn 19

Massachusetts state experiment station 27

Milton, Mass 26

Minnesota state experiment station 20

Muskegon, Mich 15-16

North Carolina state experiment station 27, 29

Tennessee state experiment station 17, 19, 46

Vienna, Austria. 16, 27, 28, 32, 33

Virginia state experiment station 28

Flowers of soy bean, distinguishing varieties 13-14, 22, 24, 25, 26

fertilization 20-23

Foliage of soy bean, distinguishing variations 13, 24, 26, 36, 78

Formosa, source of soy-bean varieties 11, 34, 35, 70

France, source of soy-bean varieties 11, 19, 20, 28, 31, 32, 33, 39, 40, 47, 57, 58, 74

Frost, endurance of different varieties of soy bean 15-16

Georgeson, C. C, introduction of soy-bean seed 27, 28

Germ (or embryo) of soy bean, distinguishing colors 15, 37-39

Germany, source of soy-bean varieties 11, 20, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 44, 59, 73

Glycine hispida, name applied to soy bean by Maximowicz 9-11

soja, name applied to plant from Japan 9-11

ussuriensis, name applied to plant by Kegel and Maack 9

Growth, distinguishing habits of soy bean 12-13, 26, 36, 37, 78

'Haage & Schmidt, introduction of soy-bean varieties 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 59

Ilaberlandt, F., correlation of life periods of soy bean with amount of heat 16

distribution of seeds of soy bean 27, 28, 32, 33

Habit. See Growth.

Hammond Seed Company, introduction of Buckshot variety of soy bean 29

Harz, classification of varieties of soy bean 12

Hawaii, source of soy-bean varieties 40

Hickory, N. C, source of soy-bean variety 71

Hilum of soy bean, distinguishing characteristics 15, 23

Hjbridization and pollination of soy bean 20-23, 25, 30, 31

Idaho, source of soy-bean varieties 20

Illin<jis state experiment station, source of soy-bean varieties 30, 59

Importations of seed of soy bean 26-35, 39-74

See also names of places and countries.
197

INDEX. 83

Page.

India, source of soy-bean varieties 9, 10, 11, 15, 34, 35, 39, 70, 71, 78

Indiana, source of soy-bean variety 72, 73

Italy, source of soy-bean varieties 11, 31, 32, 44, 47, 57, 60

Jackson, Term., notes on growth of soy bean 14, 69

Japan bean. See Bean, Japan.

pea. See Pea, Japanese.

preparation of soy sauce 26

source of soy-bean varieties 9-11, 26-32,

34-35, 39^1. 43, 45-48, 53, 54, 56, 58, 61, 63, 64
Japanese pea. See Pea, Japanese.

Java, source of soy-bean varieties' 9, 34, 35, 58

Johnson & Stokes, source of Buckshot variety of soy bean ^ 29

Kampfer (1712), first description of soy bean 9

Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. See Experiments.

Khasi Hills, Assam, som-ce of soy-bean varieties .- 10, 11, 34, 70

Knoxville, Tenn., source of soy-bean varieties 72

See also Experiments.

Korea, source of soy-bean varieties 34, 35, 40, 43, 44, 45, 47, 54, 59

Lea veil, S. J., discoverer of Trenton variety of eoy bean 24, 70

Leaves. See Foliage.

Leesburg, Ind., source of brown-seeded variety of soy bean 73

Life period. See Maturity.

Linnaeus (1747, 1753), naming and description of soy bean 9

Maack. See Kegel and Maack.

Madison, Wis., source of soy-bean variety 74

Manchuria, source of soy-bean varieties 34, 51, 52, 56, 57

Manipur, culture of soy bean ■. 34

Martens, on classification of varieties of f oy bean 11

Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station. See Experiments.

Maturity of soy bean, period of different varieties 16-20, 24

Maximowicz (1873), assignment of name to soy bean 9

Milton, Mass. See Experiments.

Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. See Experiments.

Miquel (1855), assignment of name to bean from Java 9

Miso, made from soy beans in Japan 58

Moench (1794), rechristening of soy bean 9

Mooers, C. A., correlation of life period of soy bean with amount of heat 17

Muskegon, Mich. See Experiments.

Mutation, origin of new varieties of soy bean. 23-24

Naga Hills, culture of soy bean 10, 34

Names ascribed to soy bean 9, 10, 11-12, 26, 28, 29

Neilson, James, culture of soy bean 27, 32

Nematodes, development of immune strains of soy bean 37

New Brunswick, N. J., early growing of soy bean 27

Nielsen, H. T., on source of Buckshot variety of soy bean 30

North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. See Experiments.

Norway, source of variety of soy bean 11

Nuttall, Thomas, first mention of soy bean in American literature 26

Odor of soy bean, fragrance suggestive of lilacs 14

Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, soy beans imported 24, 28, 39-75

Olds Seed Company, L. L., source of soy-bean seed 74

Pea, Japanese, variant name for soy bean 28, 46

Persistence of leaves of soy bean a desirable quality 36

197

84 THE SOY BEAN ; HISTORY, VARIETIES, AND FIELD STUDIES.

Page.

Perry, O. H., introduction of soy-bean seeds from Japan 26-27, 29

Phaseolus angularis, probably confused with soy bean 27

Plates, description 78

Pods of soy bean, classification based on character 12, 14, 36, 37, 78

Pollination. See Hybridization.

Prain, Doctor, on identity of Indian plant 10

Pubescence of soy bean, distinguishing variations 13, 22, 23, 24, 25

Regal and Maack, description of wild soy bean 9

Rhode Island state experiment station, source of soy-bean seeds 28-31, 43, 44, 47

Richmond, Va., source of soy-bean seed 48

Roxburgh, on catalogue description of soy bean 11, 14

Savi (1824), assignment of name to soy bean 9

Seed scar. See Hilum.

Seeds of soy bean, classifications based on variations. 11-12, 14-15, 22-24, 27, 32, 36, 78

importations, independent, or prior to 1898 27-31

sources 26-33, 39-74

See also names of places and countries.

Shattering of seed of soy bean an undesirable quality 36

Siberia, source of soy-bean varieties 32, 34, 39, 50, 54, 55, 56

Siebold (1843), assignment of name to plant from Japan 9

Soja angustifolia, name applied to soy bean by Miquel 9

compressa and elliptica, names applied to subspecies of soy bean 11

hispida, name applied to soy bean by Moench 9, 11, 12

japonica, name-applied to soy bean by Savi 9

platycarpa, group name applied by Harz to soy bean 12

sphaerica, name applied to subspecies of soy bean 11

tumida, group name applied by Harz to soy bean 12

Soy bean. See Bean, soy.

sauce, prepared in oriental countries 26, 58, 72

Sumatra, source of variety of soy bean 11

Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station. See Experiments.

Thorburn & Co., J. M., introduction of soy-bean varieties 29, 31, 32, 41, 44, 45

Tifu, made from soy beans in Japan 58

Trans-Caucasia, source of soy-bean varieties 32

Trenton, Ky., source of soy-bean variety 24, 70

Tsu dza, name applied to plant in the Naga Hills 10

Tunis, source of soy-bean varieties 32

Varieties of soy bean, catalogue 39-74

distinguishing characteristics. . 12-15, 23-25, 32-33, 36-38, 39-74
See also Bean, soy, varieties, for names of separate varieties.
Vienna, Austria. See Experiments.

Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., introduction of seeds of soy bean. . . 28, 32, 33, 46, 57, 58, 74
Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. See Experiments.

Voigt, on plant in Calcutta Botanical Garden 11. 14

Watt, George, on identity and cultivation of soy bean 10, 34

West Branch, Mich., source of soy-bean varieties. See Evans, E. E.
Wild soy bean. See Bean, soy, wild.

Wilt of soy bean, resistance to disease to be developed 37

Wisconsin, source of Wisconsin Black soy-bean seed 74

Wood & Sons, T. W., introduction of seeds of soy bean 29, 48

Zuccarini (1843), assignment of name to plant from Japan 9

197

O

[Continued from page 2 of cover.]

No. 108. The Cold Storage of Small Fruits. 1907. Price. 1.5 cents.

109. American Varieties of Garden Beans. 1907. Price, 25 cents.

110. Cranberry Diseases. 1907. Price. 20 cents. „ „. ,^ ' ^
112 Suprarenal Glands in Physiological Testing of Drug Plants. 1907. '' Pnce, 10 cents,
r 3. Tolerance of Various Plants for Salts in Alkali Soils. 1907. Price, .5 cents.

V i Sap-Rot and Other Diseases of the Red Gum. 1907. Price, 15 cent„s.

115. Disinfection of Sewage for Protection of Public Water Supplies. 1907. Price, 10 cents.

110. The Tuna as Food for Man. 1907. Price, 25 cents.

117. The Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pastures. 1907. Price, 10 cents.

118. Peruvian .Vlfalfa. 1907. Price, 10 cents.

119 The Mulberry and Other Silkworm Food Plants. 1907. Price. 10 cents.

120. Production of Easter Lily P.ulbs in the United States. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

121. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 15 cents.

122. Cinlv-Top, a Dise:ise of Sugar Beets. 1908. Price, 15 cents.

l-?3 The "Decay of Oranges in Transit from Calrfornia. 1908. Price, 20 cents.
r>4 'IMie Prickry Pear as a Farm Crop. 1908. Price, 10 cents.
12.5. Dry-Land Olive Culture in Northern Africa. 1908. Price,- 10 cents.
12(i. No'menclatureofthe Pear. 190S. Price, 30 cents.

127 The Improvement of Mountain Meadows. 1908. Price, 10 cents,

128 Egyptian Cotton in the Southwestern United States. 1908. Price. 15 cents.

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197 ' ' -

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 198.

B. T. GALLOWAY, CMef of Bureau.

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL

CROP PLANTS:

COTTON, COFFEE, CACAO, THE CENTRAL AMERICAN
RUBBER TREE, AND THE BANANA.

BY

O. F. COOK.

Issued January 14, 1911.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMEXT PRINTING OFFICE.
1911.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

The scientific and technical publications of the Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1,
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198

[Continued on page 3 of cover.]

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 198.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL

CROP PLANTS:

COTTON, COFFEE, CACAO, THE CENTRAL AMERICAN
RUBBER TREE, AND THE BANANA.

BY

O. F. COOK.

LIBRARY
NEW YORIC
BOTANICAL

GARDBN.

Issued January 14, 1911.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1911.

I

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beveuly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Cleric, James E. Jones.

Crop Acclimatization- and Adaptation Investigations.

scientific staff.

O. F. Cook. Binnumist in Charge.

G. N. Collins and F. L. Lewton, Afisistant Botanists.
H. Pittier, Special Field Agent.

E. B. Boykin, J. II. Kinslor, Argylo McLachlan, and D. A. Saunders, Special Agents.
E. C. Ewlng and R. M. Meade, Assistants.
198
2

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,

Office of the Chief,
Washington, D. C, August 2, 1910.
Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled " Di-
morphic Branches in Tropical Crop Plants: Cotton, Coffee, Cacao,
the Central American Rubber Tree, and the Banana," by Mr. O. F.
Cook, Bionomist of this Bureau, and to recommend its publication as
Bulletin No. 198 of the Bureau series. The paper shows that each
plant produces two different kinds of branches, and points out
numerous agricultural applications of these specialized habits of
growth.

Respectfully, G. H- Powell,

Acting Chief of Bureau.

Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.
198 3

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction 7

Structural significance of dimorphic branches 8

Similarity of dimorphic branches to alternating generations 10

Different types of dimorphic branches 12

Dimorphic branches of the cotton plant 13

Various forms of fruiting branches 17

Sterility of intermediate forms of branches 18

Intermediates between fertile branches and flowers 21

Relation of dimorphic branches to acclimatization 27

Relation of branch dimorphism to weevil resistance 29

Dimorphic branches of the Central American rubber tree 31

Relation of dimorphic branches to methods of propagation 33

The pruning of rubber trees 34

Dimorphic branches of coffee 34

Propagation of coffee from old wood of upright branches 35

Relation of branch dimorphism to the pruning of coffee 37

Dimorphic branches of cacao 38

Relation of dimorphic branches to habits of growth 40

Relation of dimorphic branches to the pruning of cacao 41

Dimorphic branches of the banana plant 43

Cultural value of two types of offshoots 45

The planting of resting tubers 46

Comparisons of different systems and types of branches 48

Summary of types of branches 53

Branches of cotton 53

Branches of Castilla 53

Branches of coffee 54

Branches of cacao 54

Branches of the banana plant 54

Conclusions 55

Description of plates 60

Index 61

198

5

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

Page.

Plate I. Abnormal branches and involucres of Egyptian cotton 60

II. Bolls produced on short axillary branches of Pvgyptian cotton 60

III. Coffee tree, Maragogipe variety, showing three upright branches

bearing numerous lateral branches 60

IV. Upright and lateral branches of coffee 60

V. Abnormal formation of lateral branches of coffee 60

VI. A young cacao tree with two whorls of branches 60

VII. Fig. 1. — Petioles of leaves from uprights and whorl branches of
cacao. Fig. 2. — Section through banana rhizome showing origin
of sword suckers 60

TEXT FIGURES.

Fig. 1. Diagram of a cotton plant with two vegetative branches and numer-
ous fruiting branches 26

2. Diagram of a cotton plant with numerous vegetative branches and no

fruiting branches 27

3. Diagram of a cotton plant with six vegetative branches and numerous

fruiting branches 28

4. Diagram of a rubber tree with one permanent vegetative branch and

numerous temporary fruiting branches '. 32

5. Diagram of a coffee tree with a simple trunk and numerous lateral

fruiting branches 36

6. Diagram of a coffee tree with two upright branches and numerous

lateral branches 37

7. Diagram of a cacao tree with three upright shoots and three groups of

whorl branches . .• 38

8. A broad-leaved sucker of a banana plant from Costa Rica 43

9. Sword suckers of the commercial banana, used in setting out planta-

tions in Costa Rica -14

198
6

B. P. I.— 608.

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP
PLANTS: COTTON, COFFEE, CACAO, THE CEN-
TRAL AMERICAN RUBBER TREE, AND THE

BANANA.

INTRODUCTION.

It has been known for a long- time that some species of plants have
two or more forms of branches, but such specializations have been
looked upon as botanical curiosities rather than as having practical
significance in agriculture. Several of the most important economic
species of the Tropics have now been found to have two or more
different and distinct kinds of branches regidarly present on every
normal plant. These difl'erences in the formation of the branches
are worthy of scientific study and have definite relations to agri-
cultural problems.

The specializations of the branches of the tropical crop plants
are not mere inequalities of position and development like those
that commonly appear among the trees and shrubs of the temperate
regions. The differences do not arise merely from favorable or
unfavorable positions on the plant that might affect the supply of
food or the exposure to sunlight. The two kinds of branches are in
most cases so definitely different that they do not replace or serve as
substitutes for each other. The differences of the branches have
sometimes been recognized by individual planters of coffee or cacao,
but they have not received the study that the facts would warrant,
either in their scientific aspects or in relation to practical agricul-
tural applications.

As the best means of describing the nature and extent of the diver-
sity of branches which exists in several of the more important tropical
crop plants, it seems desirable to bring together in one report the
facts of this kind which have been observed. The cvdtural sig^nifi-
cance of some of them is at once obvious and will show the desira-
bility of further study in this class of phenomena. That much more
information of this kind remains to be discovered seems strongly to
be indicated by the fact that a definite diversity of branches has been
found in all of the principal tropical crop plants to which attention
has been directed with this idea in mind.

198 7

8 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

STRUCTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DIMORPHIC BRANCHES.

In attempting to understand the dimorphism of branches it is
desirable to consider the nature of the structural units that compose
the bodies of the plants. For some of the purposes of scientific study
the individual cells or the tissues formed by the cells of one kind can
be considered as units of structure. But many forms of plant and
animal life also show structural units of a higher degree, such as the
many similar joints or segments that compose the bodies of the worms
and centipedes and the internodes of higher plants. Each joint is
highl}' complex in itself, with a complete system of tissues and
organs. The word " metamer " is used as a general term to apply to
these complex units of organic structure. In some of the lower forms
of animal life each metamer is capable of an independent existence,
just as in some plants each joint of the stem or the rootstock, if
planted as a cutting, will grow into a new individual. In a similar"
way each seedling represents a single metamer, able to produce
others.

Two general groups of metamers may be recognized in plants —
those that build up the vegetative parts of the plant and those that
take part in the formation of the flowers and fruit. A vegetative
metamer consists of a joint or section of the stem, together with a
root or roots, and one or more leaves, as well as the hairs, scales, and
other smaller appendages that belong to the joint, the root, or the
leaf.

The floral or reproductive metamers of plants are generally smaller
than the vegetative metamers. The part that corresponds to the joint
or section of the stem of a vegetative internode is extremely short,
while the part that corresponds to the leaf takes the form of a sepal,
stamen, or pistil.

A plant as a whole represents a collective individual — a social
organization, as it were — of the different kinds of subordinate meta-
meric individuals, some devoted to vegetative purposes and some to
reproduction. Botanical wa-iters have often referred to the floral
organs as transformed leaves, but it is quite as reasonable to suppose
that the leaves represent floral or reproductive organs that have
assumed vegetative functions."

The stamens and pistils of the primitive types of plants are more
nearly like those of the advanced types than are the vegetative meta-
mers, showing that evolution has tended more toward the specializa-
tion of the vegetative parts. Dimorphic branches represent a some-
what advanced stage of vegetative specialization. A plant with

" Cook, O. F. Origin and EAolution of Angiosperms through Apospory. Pro-
ceedings, Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 9, 1907, pp. 150-178
198

STRUCTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DIMORPHIC BRANCHES. 9

dimorphic branches has two kinds of vegetative metamers, in addition
to the various kinds of floral or reproductive metamers. In the cotton
plant, for example, seven principal kinds of metamers might be
enumerated : The two kinds that compose the two types of branches,
the two kinds whose specialized leaves form the involucre and the
calyx, and the metamers of the corolla, the stamens, and the pistils.
Some plants, such as Broussonetia, have two kinds of vegetative
metamers alternating in the same stem, each alternate internode
having only a small leaf."

The diversity of the metamers does not end with the recognition
of the different types, for the individual metamers of the various
groups are often as distinctly different among themselves as the
plants they compose, or even more so. If it be considered that a plant
is an aggregate or colony of metamers, it follows that causes of dif-
ferences between plants are to be sought in the structure or behavior
of the component metamers. Plants with dimorphic branches not
only have two kinds of vegetative metamers, but have them arranged
in separate series. The variations of the higher plants are much more
readily appreciable than the variations of the higher animals, because
the same character is repeated in the large number of internode indi-
viduals that compose the bodies of plants.

The individuality of the internodes and the significance of this
fact in the developmental history of plants were appreciated over a
century ago by Goethe, the great German naturalist and poet. In his
poem on " The Evolution of Plants," the series of changes in the
forms of the metamers is traced from the seedling, the process of
plant growth being used as an illustration of the general idea of evo-
lution from simple forms of life to more complex.

Yet it appears very simple, when first we can see the new structure,
This in the world of the plants is ever the state of the child.
Growth is continued at once, one shoot coming forth from another,
Tvodes upon nodes towering up, all repeating the form of the first.
Still they are not quite the same; in manifold ways they are varied,
Each of the leaves, as you see, develops beyond the preceding.
Larger, and sharper in margin, as well as more deeply divided.

Not only the differences of the vegetative internodes, but those of
the internodes that are modified as flower stalks and floral organs
were recognized, as well as the sexual differentiation of the stamens
and pistils, though the poem was published in 1700, three years before
the announcement of SprengeFs discovery of the fertilization of
flowers. Comparison of the series of gradually modified internodes

"Other examples of anisophylly have been described by several botanical
writers. See Wiesner, ,T., Studien ueber die Anisophyllie tropischer Gewaeehse,
Sitzungsberichte der Matheniatisch-Natnrwissenschaftlichen Classe, Kaiserliche
Akademie der Wissenschaften. Vienna, vol. 10.3, 1894, p. 625.

198

10 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

in the individual plant with the successive links of the chain of organic
development led Goethe to the view that each plant is an evidence of a
general law of evolution.

Every plant will declare it, the law of the endless creation,
Every flower will repeat it, louder and louder the voice.

SIMILARITY OF DIMORPHIC BRANCHES TO ALTERNATING

GENERATIONS.

Darwin also recognized the individuality of the internodes of plants,
though apparently without attaching an evolutionary significance to
the fact, no reference being made to it in " The Origin of Species."
Attention has been called by Mr. Argyle McLachlan to an interesting
paragraph in another work, in which Darwin draws a comparison
Ijetween the leaf buds of plants and the individual animals that build
up the branching colonies of zoophytes:

The examination of these compound animals was always very interesting to
me. What can be more remarkable than to see a plant-like body producing an
egg, capable of swimming about and of choosing a proper place to adhere to,
which then sprouts into branches, each crowded with innumerable distinct
animals, often of complicated organizations. The branches, moreover, as we
have just seen, sometimes possess organs capable of movement and independent
of the polypi. Surprising as this union of separate individuals in a common
stock must always appear, every tree displays the same fact, for buds must be
considered as individual plants. It is. however, natural to consider a polypus,
furnished with a mouth, intestines, and other organs, as a distinct individual,
whereas the individuality of a leaf bud is not easily realized; so that the union
of separate individuals in a common body is more striking in a coralline than
in a tree. Our conception of a compound animal, where in some respects the
individuality of each is not completed, may be aided by reflecting on the produc-
tion of two distinct creatures, by bisecting a single one with a knife, or where
nature herself performs the task of bisection. We may consider the polypi in
a zoophyte, or the buds in a tree, as cases where the division of the individual
has not been completely effected. Certainly in the case of trees, and judging
from .-iiialogy in that of corallines, the individuals iiropagated by buds seem more
intimately related to each other than eggs or seeds are to their parents. It
seems now pretty well established that plants propagated by buds all partake of
a common duration of life, and it is familiar to every one what singular and
numerous peculiarities are transmitted with certainty by buds, layers, and
grafts, which by seminal propagation never or only casually reappear.''

It is plain from this passage that Darwin considered the internodal
structure of plants as a method of vegetative propagation of new
individuals rather than as an example of successive stages of evolu-
tionary progress. This becomes the more evident from his compari-
son of the results of vegetative propagation with those obtained by
sexual reproduction. The general tendency to uniformity among
vegetative individuals lends greater significance to differences that

" Darwin, Charles. Journal of Researches, end of chapter 9.
198

SIMILARITY TO ALTERNATING GENERATIONS. 11

regularly appear among vegetative internodes of the same plant.
Dimorphic branches and similar specializations show that change of
characters in vegetative internodes is a definite phenomenon in the
development of plants, like changes that take place during the de-
velopment of many animals. Much evolutionary importance has
been attached by zoologists to the recapitulation of ancestral char-
acters in embryos, as well as to metamorphosis and alternation of
generations. All of these phenomena find their parallels among
plants, though botanists have given them relatively little attention.

The evolutionary development of the various degrees of specializa-
tion of the branches of such a plant as the cotton becomes more com-
prehensible if we compare it with the stages through which a simple
herb would naturally pass in attaining the stature and habit of a
branching shrub or tree. Manv small herbs bear single terminal
flowers, but in plants that have increased in size and complexity ter-
minal flowers are replaced by axillary flowers or flower clusters, and
these tend in turn to grow out into branches, able to subdivide still
further and bear larger and larger numbers of flowers.

In the cotton plant the primary branches have now become as
sterile as the main stem, and the extra-axillary branches that nor-
mally bear the fruit also have the power of changing over into sterile
limbs, the production of fruit being deferred to a later generation
of branches to enable the plant to construct a larger vegetative
framework.

The main stem and the one or more series of vegetative branches
which intervene between the germination of the seed and the forma-
tion of another flower correspond to several generations of the vege-
tative parts of a simple herb and might also be compared to the vege-
tative generations of the plant lice and other lower animals that are
able to propagate for several generations by simple vegetative sub-
division, instead of requiring sexual reproduction for each genera-
tion of new individuals, as among the higher animals. The relations
between the sterile and the fertile branches of cotton and of other
plants that have dimorphic branches afford a rather close parallel
to the original examples of the phenomenon of alternation of gen-
erations, though they are not comparable to the changes that occur
in the life histories of the liverworts, mosses, and ferns which botan-
ical text-books commonly describe as alternation of generations."

A shrub or tree may be thought of as a colony or complex of man}^
individual branches each corresponding to a separate plant in a
species of smaller shrubs or herbs. Dimorj^hism of branches means
that there are two kinds of these branch individuals that follow each

a Cook, O. F.. and Swingle, W. T. Evolution of Celhilar Structures. Bulletin
81, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905.
198

12 DIMOEPHIC BRANCHES IN TBOPICAL CROP PLANTS.

other ill definitely alternating sequences. The seeds of the cotton,
cofl'ee, and many other species do not grow at first into plants simi-
lar to the branches which produced the seeds. The seedlings at first
develop upright sterile stems and a series of vegetative branches.
Another type of branches is formed for the production of flowers and
fruit, and then there may be no return to the condition of the upright
main stem and the purely vegetative limbs except by way of the seed
and seedlings.

In some plants the formation of different kinds of vegetative inter-
nodes is more specialized in relation to time, the whole plant going
over from one habit of growth or form of foliage to another. In the
eucalyptus and in many coniferous trees related to the juniper there
is a juvenile form of foliage altogether different from that of the
adult trees. This phenomenon is not to be confused with the simpler
dimorphism of branches shown in the tropical crop plants, though
some of the Coniferaj have this as well as the other. Cuttings of
lateral branches, not being able to replace the main axis, do not re-
produce the form of the parent tree. Some of the Conifera? pro-
duce a juvenile type of foliage only in exceptional cases of bud re-
version, which may even be confined to buds forced from the axils
of the cotyledons, as explained by Beissner and Beyerinck."

DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIMORPHIC BRANCHES.

It is easier to describe and compare the dimorphic forms of
branches in the several species of cultivated plants if we consider in
advance a general difference of function. Some branches have the
same form and functions as the axis or main stem of the plant, while
others are more or less restricted to the bearing of fruit or to other
special j^urposes. The specializations of the branches show various
directions and degrees in different species and varieties of plants, but
in each case it is possible to distinguish between branches that are
more similar to the main trunk and those that are less similar.

In the present report the word " limb " is used as the general name
for branches that are unspecialized or that are specialized for vege-
tative functions instead of for fruiting. The limbs continue the
growth and share the functions of the trunk or main stem of the
plant.^ Limbs may have vegetative functions only and may be

'^ Beissner. L. Ueber Jupcemlformen von Pflanzen, speciell von Conlferen, Bericht
liber die Verhandlungen der deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft. vol. 6, 1SS8,
p. Ixxxiii. Beyerincli, M. W. Beissner's Untersucliungen iieber der Ketinis-
porafrage, Botanische Zeitung, vol. 48, 1890, p. 518.

''In the diagrams tliat illustrate^ the habits of branching in this rejiort the
vegetative limbs are drawn in solid lines like the main stem, while the fruiting
brandies are indicated by broken lines. (See figs. 1-7.)
198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 13

unable to bear flowers or fruit. Branches that bear fruit may be
correspondingly restricted on the vegetative side. Different species
and varieties of plants are so unlike that no general principle of
classification can be applied except that of distinguishing between
the different foims of specialization.

The most useful distinction between limbs and other forms of
branches relates to differences of function rather than to the structure
or positions of the parts. In the cotton plant, for example, the
axillary branches function as limbs, while in the Central American
rubber tree they are definitely specialized for fruiting and do not
become pennanent parts of the tree. They die and drop off after
they have borne two or three crops of fruit.

The branches that arise from extra-axillaiy buds also have their
functions reversed in the two cases. In the rubber tree the extra-
axillary buds produce limbs but no fruiting branches, while in the
cotton plant all the fertile branches arise from extra-axillary buds.

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE COTTON PLANT.

Though the dimorphism of the branches of the cotton plant is not
an extreme case, it may be better to use it as the first example before
considering the other tropical plants that are less known in the TTnited
States. The differences are more striking in some of the tropical
plants, but are no more significant in their agricultural bearings.
The distinctions between the two kinds of branches of the cotton
plant depend upon position and function rather than upon any very
conspicuous differences of form or structure. This may explain why
the dimorphism of the branches has continued to be overlooked in so
familiar a plant as the cotton, although the difference between ordi-
nary short fraiting branches and large basal branches or " wood
limbs " is obvious at a glance and is familiar to all planters."

The cotton plant, as represented by the Upland varieties in general
cultivation in the Southern States, consists of a central axis or
" stalk " bearing a leaf at the end of each joint or intemode.
Branches that arise from the axils of the leaves do not normally
bear fruit, but behave like divisions of the main stalk. A fertile
branch arises at one side, right or left, of an axillary branch or an
undeveloped axillary bud which may give rise to an axillary branch
late in the season. The position is usually constant throughout in
the same stalk, so that the plants can be distinguished as right-handed

° For a brief statemeut regarding dimorphism of branches in cotton, see " Wee-
vil-Resisting Adaptations of the Cotton Plant," Bulletin 88, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, I90G, pp. 19-20. See also "A Study of
Diversity in Egyptian Cotton," Bulletin 156, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.
Dept. of Agi-iculture, 1909, pp. 28-30.
198

14 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

or left-handed with reference to the position in which their fruiting
branches are borne along the main stalk.

On the fruiting branches this regularity in the position of the
flowers is not so obvious, for the joints are twisted to bring all the
leaves to the sides and all the flower buds on top. The flower buds
appear between the bases of the stipules, sometimes nearer the right-
hand stipule, sometimes nearer the left. The stipule that is close to
the base of the flower stalk is usually larger than the other.

Antidromy, as the condition of right and left handedness of plants
has been called, consists in the fact that the stems of the different indi-
vidual plants reverse the direction of the spirals in which the leaves
and branches are arranged. On some cotton plants the extra-axillary
branches occur on the right side of the axillary branches; in other
individuals on the left side. If a stalk on which the extra-axillary
buds appear to the right of the axillary buds be considered right-
handed, the turn of the spiral will pass to the right in going by the
shortest route from any given branch to the one above. Thus it
appears that the extra-axillary bud is always above the axillary, in
the sense that it is farther up the spiral.

In all the different species and varieties of cotton thus far exam-
ined right-handed and left-handed stalks seem to be about equally
numerous. As the Guatemalan types in which the branch dimor-
phism was first studied had never undergone close selection, the ques-
tion was raised whether among the carefully bred American varieties
there might not be specializations toward one direction of the spiral.
No indication of this was found in a large series of varieties studied
by Mr. F. J. Tyler at Waco, Tex. Seeds from the same boll were
also found to give about equal proportions of right-handed and left-
handed seedlings. The possibility remained that the direction of the
spiral may be determined in advance by the positions in which the
seeds develop on the placenta. To test this theory seeds from two
rows of the placenta were planted separately, but gave right and
left handed plants without reference to the position on the placenta.
The manner in which this diversity arises remains unexplained.

The axillary buds have been found in all the types and varieties
of cotton thus far observed, but they are often very small and
dormant. They may all remain undeveloped unless the plant is cut
back or severely checked by unfavorable conditions. In many kinds
of cotton both types of branches are commonly to be found on the
same plant.

Tlie difference between the two kinds of branches was first appre-
ciated in Guatemala in connection with the indigenous Kekchi cotton.
The lower joints of the main stem of the Kekchi cotton usually pro-
duce two branches, one a fertile branch with flowers and fruit, the

198

DIMORPHIC BEANCHES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 15

other a sterile limb with leaves only. It was noticed also that the
branches that bear the flowers arise in the same position as the flowers
themselves — not in the axils of the leaves, but at the side of the
axillary bud.

The axillary branches of cotton function normally as equivalents
of the main stem in the sense that they do not bear any flowers or
fruits except in the indirect way of producing other branches of the
fertile sort from extra-axillary buds. Fertile branches borne by the
main stem of a cotton plant may be called primary fruiting branches;
those that come from limbs may be called secondary fruiting
branches. Normal fruiting branches of both kinds bear a flower bud
at each node. Secondary limbs may be produced from primary
limbs, or even from axillary buds of the fruiting branches, especially
if a plant has been injured or pruned or suddenlv forced into renewed
growth late in the season. Only in rare and abnormal cases is a flower
borne directly on a branch that arises from an axillary bud.

It is the normal habit of some varieties to develop vegetative limbs
from axillary buds along with the fruiting branches that come from
the extra-axillary buds, as in the Kekchi cotton of Guatemala. Some
varieties do not have true axillary branches, but develop limbs from
the extra-axillary buds of the main stem, the production of flowers
being deferred until fertile branches can be produced on the limbs.
This is sometimes the case with the Pachon cotton of western Guate-
mala and Avith the Rabinal cotton of the central plateau region. In
an experiment with the Pachon cotton at Lanham, Md., no axillary
limbs were produced, each node bearing only an extra-axillary limb.
In another experiment at Trece Aguas, Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala,
the Pachon cotton showed nearly the normal habit of the Upland
type of cotton, bearing most of its crop directly on fertile primary
branches, sending out small primary limbs only in the latter part of
the season.

In the Old World cottons {Gossypkim herhaceum) and the Sea
Island cottons it is not usual for the plants to develop true axillary
limbs to functional size. If the other branches are injured or stunted,
the axillary limbs may push out a few leaves.

In the Egyptian cotton, also, there is a very general tendency to
develop vegetative limbs as well as the fertile branches from extra-
axillary buds. The axillary buds usually remain dormant unless
an injury or other abnormal condition forces them into groAvth.
At the base of the main stalk it is often difficult to see that the limbs
come from extra-axillary buds, but a little farther up it becomes
obvious that both the limbs and the fruiting branches have extra-
axillary positions on the same side of the axillary bud. with much
regularity. Finally, some varieties of Upland cotton may not form

108

16 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

an}' vegetative branches, though extra-axillary limbs and even axil-
lary limbs may be formed bj^ the same varieties when grown under
conditions that favor a large development of the vegetative parts.

In the so-called " cluster " cottons it often happens that one or
more buds, or bolls, appear to be borne on short axillary branches, but
careful examination will usually show that the fruit does not come
directly from the axillary branch itself, but belongs to a very short
fertile branch arising from the axillary. In the Egyptian cotton a
short fertile branch is often pushed out from one side of the dormant
bud that represents an undeveloped axillary branch. Sometimes the
bud that represents an undeveloped axillary branch is carried up a
little on the base of the extra-axillary branch. After this has oc-
curred, a branch that arises from the axillary bud appears to be borne
by the extra-axillary branch rather than by the main stem of the
plant. This impression may be strengthened still further if the
axillary bud or the fruiting branch to which it sometimes gives rise
be changed into flower bud, as in the cluster cottons that show an
abnormal propensity toward fruit production. Sometimes the nor-
mal extra-axillary fruiting branch is also replaced by a single flower
bud, so that three flower buds may appear to come from each of the
nodes of the main stem instead of the more normal complement of a
limb and a fertile branch.

In varieties of cotton that are not inclined to produce true axil-
lary limbs, the extra-axillary branches usually assume the func-
tions of limbs; that is, they produce flowering branches instead of
bearing the flowers themselves. A true axillary limb seldom stands
alone on the main stem, but is almost invariably accompanied or pre-
ceded by a fertile branch. The insertion of a limb and a branch close
together, at the same node, makes it easy to ascertain whether true
primary limbs are present or limbs that represent fruiting branches
transformed for vegetative purposes.

The leaves of the vegetative limbs and those of the main stem are
larger and have relatively longer petioles than those of the fruiting
branches. Another definite difference between the leaves of the main
stem and those of the fertile branches, has been noticed by Mr. Row-
land M. Meade in the Triumph variety of Upland cotton. The
leaves of the main stem have nectaries on three of the veins, while
those of the fertile branches have only the one nectary, on the back
of the midrib. When the fruiting branches are shortened, as often
happens in the Egyptian cotton, the petioles of their leaves are also
greatly reduced in length, a step toward the still more distinctly ab-
normal condition where the leaves of tlie shortened fertile branches
begin to show some of the characteristics of the involucral bracts.

198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 17

In types of cotton that have a normal development of branches an
axillary bud yields only a sterile vegetative branch or limb. From
extra-axillary buds three things may come: (1) Flowers, (2) fertile
branches bearing a series of flower buds, one at each node, and (3)
extra-axillary limbs having the position of fertile branches but
sharinff the form and function of the axillarv limbs.

VARIOUS FORMS OF FRUITING BRANCHES.

As the fruiting branches represent a specialized feature of the cot-
ton plant, it is not surprising that different stages of specialization
are found in the fruiting branches of the various species and varie-
ties of cotton. Though the general distinctions between the vegeta-
tive limbs and the fertile branches apply to all forms of cotton thus
far examined, definite differences often appear between the fruiting
branches of different varieties and even among the individual mem-
bers of the same variet}'; and since these differences in the methods
of producing the fruit are of direct agricultural importance, it is
worth while to understand them in detail.

In a general botanical sense it might be said that the fruiting
branches of all kinds are intermediate between the vegetative limbs
and the flowers, for botanists consider that each flower of a plant
represents a shortened branch. The range of specialization of fertile
branches lies, therefore, between the limb and the flower. The fer-
tile branches of some cottons are long and leafy, much like the vege-
tative limbs, while in others they may be so much shortened as to
appear merely a part of the flower stalk. In the great majority of
cases the fertile branches are definitely unlike either of the extremes,
but the range of forms is completely covered if the whole series is
considered.

A comparison of the branches of the Egyptian cotton with those
of the Kekchi cotton or with our United States Upland varieties may
serve as an illustration of the different degrees of specialization
found in the branches in different types of cotton. In the Egy]:>tian
cotton the basal joints of the fruiting branches are longer than in the
Upland, while on the vegetative branches the basal joints are shorter
than on the corresponding branches of the Upland. In other words,
the differences between the basal joints of the two kinds of branches
are much greater in the Egyptian cotton than in the Upland series.
The tendency for the basal joint of the fruiting branches to be longer
than the others is very general, and likewise for the basal joints of
vegetative branches to be shorter, liut in the Egyptian cotton the con-
trast is more accentuated than usual.

58S.S4°— Bui. 19N— 11 2

18 DIMOEPHIC BRANCHES IN TEOPICAL CEOP PLANTS.

The Hindi cotton that figures in literature as a contamination of
the high-grade Egyptian stocks shows the slightest differentiation
of the fruiting branches. These branches have a curious zigzag form
that readily distinguishes them from the straight vegetative limbs, but
they may retain the nearly upright position of the limbs and do not
appear to have lost any of the vegetative functions. In such cases
the flower buds are usually aborted at an early stage, though mature
bolls are sometimes found on branches that remain more upright
and limblike than those in Upland or Egyptian varieties.

The other extremes of differentiation in the direction of the shorten-
ing of the fruiting branches are found in great variety among the
so-called " cluster " cottons. The simplest form of clustering is rep-
resented by a mere shortening of the joints of the fruiting branches,
which brings the flowers and bolls closer together than in normal
long-branched varieties. More pronounced clustering leads to denser
groupings of bolls by the development of additional flowers on short
branches from the axils of the leaves of the fruiting branches. In its
most extreme form the clustering has the effect of reducing the num-
ber of bolls. The leaf buds that normally continue the growth of the
branches are sometimes replaced by flower buds, or adjacent leaf
buds may be aborted and fall off, so that the branch soon ends with
a flower or a boll and no more joints can be added.

It usually appears that the cluster habit is merely a form of spe-
cialization of the fruiting branches, for the vegetative limbs and
axillary branches are usually not aft'ected at all by the cluster ten-
dency. In other cases the axillary buds of the vegetative branches,
as well as the terminal buds, may appear to be replaced by flower
buds, though it is usually found, on closer examination, that the
flower bud is borne on a short fertile branch that rises from an other-
wise abortive axillary branch.

Finally, it sometimes happens, as in the Triumph variety of Upland
cotton, that two forms of fruiting branches are regularly produced.
The normal condition with the Triumph cotton is to have several of
the lower fruiting branches very short and determinate, so that some-
times this variety is erroneously described as a cluster type.

STERILITY OK 1XTER3IEDIATE FORMS OF BRANCHES.

Botanists are familiar Avith the fact that changes and substitution
of form often occur among the floral organs of plants. The most
familiar change of this kind is in the so-called doubling of flowers,
meaning the addition of a larger number of petals to the corolla.
In many cases the number of stamens decreases as the petals become
more numerous, and many double flowers are completely sterile, both
the stamens and pistils being transformed into petal-like organs.

198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 19

Such changes are occasionally found in the flowers of the cotton
plant, as when additional petals are inserted on the staminal tube.
Sometimes these additional petals are very small, as though individ-
ual stamens had been changed into petals. More serious modifica-
tions appear when petals of nearly normal size are inserted on the
base of the staminal tube, which is then subdivided into five separate
columns alternating with the supernumerary petals. Pistils are
sometimes transformed into supernumerary petals, though the change
is seldom complete. Some of the pistils usually remain unmodified,
but the boll is deformed and seldom develops to maturity.

In view of the occurrence of intermediate conditions between the
parts that are so profoundly ditferent as the stamens and pistils, it
would naturally be expected that intermediate stages would also
occur between the two forms of branches, in spite of the fact that
dimorphism represents the normal condition. Intermediate forms
of branches do occur, and, like the intermediate forms of the floral
organs, they are usually sterile. Not only do most of their flower
buds abort, but the branches themselves commonly fail to reach full
development. They often wither and fall off after producing one or
two internodes.

If such branches occurred without regularity on the plant, it might
be difficult to determine the nature of the abnormality, but they have
evident relations to particular varieties and to definite positions on
the plants. In following the branching habits of the Egyptian cot-
ton through the season of 1909, Mr. McLachlan noticed the curious
fact that an interval of rudimentary or abortive branches usually
occurs on the main stem of the plant, consisting of two or three inter-
nodes above the last of the sterile vegetative branches and below the
first normally developed fruiting branch. Even on large plants that
bear limbs 4 feet or more in length, with 30 internodes and up-
ward, and fruiting branches nearly 2 feet in length, composed of
twelve internodes, the intervening nodes are either quite vacant or
have branches only a few inches long, usually with only one internode,
very seldom Avith more than two or three. Sometimes there is a more
gradual transition from these small branches to those of normal
length, but there is a strong tendency to abortion of the flower buds
on all of the shortened lower branches of the fertile form.

As already suggested, the frequency of abnormal branches in the
Egyptian cotton may be connected with the contamination of the
EgA'ptian stocks Avith the so-called Hindi cotton, a type related in
some respects to our United States Upland cotton, but widely differ-
ing in others. Though the Hindi cotton has the two distinct forms
of branches, they appear less different than in any other variety in-
cluded in the experiment. It seems to be the regular habit of Hindi

198

20 DIMORPHIC BEANCHES IN TEOPICAL CROP PLANTS.

cotton to shed a large jDroportion of its flowers in the very young stages
and then to develop the vegetative functions of these barren fertile
branches which not only grow to large size, but often produce
branches of their own from axillary buds. In view of these habits of
the Hindi cotton, it does not appear improbable that the frequent
tendency of the Egyptian plants toward abnormal, intermediate forms
of branches is caused, or at least intensified, by admixture with the
Hindi type. In any case the characters of the branches must be
taken into account as one of the standards of selection in the Egyptian
cotton, as well as in Upland varieties.

In addition to the relatively small and late development of the
fruiting branches on vigorous, overgrown Egyptian plants a very
large proportion of the flower buds are aborted and fall off. Many
of them are dropped while still very small and even microscopic in
size. This abortion of the buds appears to have a definite relation to
the habits of branching of the plants. If the fruiting branches are
of a normal, slender, and horizontal form, the chances of the buds
being retained are very much greater. If, on the other hand, the
fruiting branches become more robust and take an oblique or upright
direction and thus resemble the vegetative branches or limbs, the buds
almost invariable fall off while still very young. Only the scars of
the fallen buds may remain as a distinction between the fertile and
sterile branches, as in the Hindi cotton. On different plants and even
on different branches of the same plant, the buds attain different
sizes before they abort and fall off, and these different sizes of the
buds may be considered as marking intermediate stages between the
normal fertile branches which retain their fruit and the normally
sterile vegetative branches which produce no trace of flowering buds.

The practical point is that these intermediate conditions and forms
of the branches, even when they bear large numbers of buds, produce
very little fruit, often none at all. The failure of a plant to maintain
the normal specialization of the two forms of branches is an unde-
sirable character from the standpoint of acclimatization and breed-
ing. There is not only a tendency on the part of the newly imported
plants to increase the number of sterile vegetative branches at the
expense of the fertile, but a tendency for the remainder of the fertile
branches to become abnormal.

While it is possible for a very large and vigorous plant to produce
a good crop of cotton with a sufficiently long season, there can be no
regular assurance of large yields unless the plants begin to bear early
in the season. The plants must begin to produce fertile branches
early in the season and numerous buds on each branch. It is not to
be expected that all of the buds of a fertile plant will set bolls, or
that all the bolls will reach maturity, but this only makes it the more

198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 21

important that the plants shall be able to produce enough flower
buds to take advantage of all opportunities for the setting of a large
crop. The tendency of the Egyptian cotton to grow larger vegeta-
ti^e branches and smaller fruiting branches than the Upland cotton
is responsible for differences in yield and earliness between the two
types.

In Egypt and in the cooler parts of the United States the Egyptian
cotton produces small, early plants with much the same habit of
growth as the Upland cotton. The more fertile soils and the greater
heat of the spring months in the Southwestern States induce a much
more luxuriant growth, especially in the Egyptian cotton. The plants
not only shoot up to a very large size, but put forth many vegetative
branches from the base of the stalk before any fertile branches are
formed.

INTERMEDIATES BETWEEN FERTILE BRANCHES AND FLOWERS.

Farther toward the top of the plants another intermediate condi-
tion of the branches is frequenth^ found, especially in the Egyptian
cotton. The fertile branches become abnormal by approximation to
flower buds. The leaf bud that would continue the growth of a nor-
mal fruiting branch either becomes abortive or appears to be
directly transformed into a flower bud. A further evidence of the
abnormality of these branches is found in the fact that their leaves
are usuallv different from those of normal fruiting branches and
tend to take on the form of the floral bracts. The first and most
frequent manifestations of this tendency are found in the shortening
of the petiole or stem of the leaf and the enlargement of the stipules —
the small, pointed, leaf-like structures at the base of the petiole.
(See PI. I.)

On the normal fruiting branches the stipules are always shorter
than those of the main stem or vegetative limbs, remaining narrow
and pointed; but on the abnormal, shortened, fruiting branches one
or both of the stipules become broadened and thickened as in the
formation of the floral bracts. In Egyptian cotton it is easy to find
all these abnormal fruiting branches completing a series of grada-
tions between normal leaves or completely modified floral bracts.
That the abnormality of the branches involves in this case the break-
ing down of the distinctions between the internodes of normal fruit-
ing branches and those of the more specialized floral organs is also
shown by the fact that leaf -like bracts are often found as well as
bractlike leaves, and that supernumerary petals, divided stamina!
tubes, and abnormal pistils are of frequent occurrence on plants that
show abnormal intermediate foi-ms of branches.

198

22 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

Each of the three bracts that inclose the bud of the cotton plant
represents a specialized leaf formed by enlarged stipules united with
a greatly reduced blade. In Egyptian cotton it often happens that
the leaf subtending a flower bud does not retain its normal size and
shape, but becomes more or less intermediate between a leaf and a
bract. One or both of the stipules may be enlarged and united with
the blade, or the blade may remain separate, wiih the stalk more or
less shortened.

The formation of these abnormal organs shows, as in the case of
the branches, a failure to maintain the normal specialization of the
parts. The processes of growth that should take place only in the
bracts are partly anticipated in the formation of the leaf, the result
being an intermediate expression of the leaf and bract characters.
Plants that have the bractlike leaves are also likely to have leaf-
like bracts, more deeply divided at the apex than the normal bracts,
and often deeply lobed or cleft nearly to the base.

The liability of the normal specializations to break down may be
connected in a general way with the fact of dimorphism of the
branches. The fertile branches can be looked upon as inflorescences
that have approached the vegetative form and tend to revert to more
determinate conditions. The dimorphism of the branches, in such
plants as cotton and coffee, means that there are two kinds of vege-
tative internodes, one forming branches devoted to purely vegetative
purposes, the other somewhat infermediate between vegetative and
reproductive internodes. Individual internodes which are accessory
to the reproductive internodes occur in many plants, just below the
flowers. The fruiting forms of specialized branches are made up of
such intermediate or slightly specialized internodes.

The practical siginficance of the abnormalities of the involucre is
the same as in the case of the branches. The disturbance of the
normal processes of growth are shown to have affected more than
the mere external form of the plants. The flower buds that follow
the abnormal bractlike leaves are almost invariably aborted, and
if the number of such abnormalities is large the plant becomes un-
productive or even completely sterile. Such abnormalities have been
particularly abundant in the Dale variety of Egyptian cotton, both in
1008 and 1909, but the 1909 planting from seed raised in Arizona in
1908 shows a much larger proportion of normal individuals than
among the plants grown from imported seed. Some of the plants of
the Dale cotton have the strict upright form of the so-called limb-
less' varieties of Upland cotton, and some produce no flower buds in
the normal place on fruiting branches, but only from buds of short
axillary branches that appear to represent transformed leaf buds,
all other buds being completely aborted. Sometimes all of the buds
abort and the whole plant remains completely sterile.

198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 23

An apparent transformation of the axillary leaf bud into a flower
bud is of frequent occurrence in some of the cluster varieties of
Upland cotton, but is also common in Egyptian cotton, especially in
the Dale variety that has the abnormal branches and bracts.

A transformation of leaf buds into fruiting buds might be expected
to increase the fertility of the plants, but this is not the result in the
Egyptian cotton for the reason that the most frequent effect of this
transformation is to put an end to the growth of a fertile branch.
A ffrowine branch must have a leaf bud at the end, and if this ter-
minal bud is transformed into a flower, the branch does not continue.
If the transformation is successfully accomplished, we secure one
additional boll, but at the expense of a fertile branch which might
produce several bolls. The loss is still further increased by the fact
that the plants addicted to this habit of transforming leaf buds into
flower buds lose a very large proportion of their buds by abortion.

The frequency of abnormalities in the bracts and in the floral
organs shows a general disturbance of the normal process of heredity
in the newly imported varieties, such as frequently attends hybridiza-
tion. In the Egyptian cotton varieties it does not appear that these
phenomena are directly connected with hybridization, for they occur
in large numbers of plants that give no evidence of admixture of
Hindi or Upland characteristics. Nevertheless, the whole series of
abnormalities may be considered from the standpoint of hybridiza-
tion, in that they represent intermediate stages between organs of
the plants that are normally distinct and different from each other.
In each case there is a failure to follow the normal paths of develop-
ment by which the normal individual advances from the characters
of the seedling to those of the adult plant. Although a plant may
have all of its characters normally developed in some of its parts,
the parts that show the intermediate conditions of the characters may
be quite as abnormal as in any hybrid, and resulting sterility is quite
the same from the practical standpoint.

The study of the evolution of plant structures has led to the recog-
nition of a phenomenon called translocation of characters, or homoeosis,
the carrying over into one part of the plant of a character that nor-
mally appears in another part, such as the manifestation of the bract
characters by the next leaf below the bracts in Dale cotton."

<»Leavitt, R. G. A Vegetative Mutant and the Principle of Homoeosis in
Plants, Botanical Gazette, Januaiy, 1909, p. 04.

" In lionuieosis a character or a system of organ ization which has heen evolved
in one part of the body is transferred ready-made to another part. The great
mass of instances ai'e of the class called teratological. By this designation we
mean substantially that they are suddenly appearing deviations from the cus-
tomary structures."
198

24 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

In extreme cases a single long-stemmed boll may arise from the
axil of a leaf at the base of the fertile branch. This might be taken
to indicate a direct transformation of the axillary bud into a fertile
branch ; but further examination will usually show, even on the same
plant, great variation in the pedicels of these axillary bolls, making
it evident that they are not simple pedicels, but shortened branches.
Small bractlike leaves or stipules are occasionally present, even on
straight stems, and sometimes the joint between the branch proper
and the true stem or pedicel of the boll remains distinct, even when
there are no leaves or stipules. (See PI. II.)

Where the axillary branches are longer and more definitely jointed
it becomes possible to see that the bolls are really borne on a short
fertile branch that rises in turn from a short true axillary branch,
instead of being inserted directly on the main stem. A shortened
axillary branch may represent three normally independent elements,
an axillary vegetative branch, a secondary fertile branch borne on
the axillary, and the pedicel of the boll, all fused into a simple stem.
In some cases it is plain that the true axillary branch has remained
entirely undeveloped, for an axillary bud or bud scar can often be
found at the base of one of the shortened branches. When no such
mark is found it may be supposed that the axillary bud was carried
out by the growing branch. It is seldom necessary to suppose that
the axillary bud is directly transformed into a flower bud, since the
existing conditions can also be reached by fusing tlie successive joints
together, much as they are fused in the formation of a normal in-
volucre.

The idea of translocation may be applied to these abnormalities of
the Egyptian cotton, or it may be combined with the idea of hybridi-
zation, in view of the many intermediate stages between the parts that
are nonnally quite unlike. The fact that sterility so generally ac-
companies these intermediate conditions is a further reason for look-
ing upon translocation as a phenomenon akin to hybridization.
Changes that might be looked upon as results of partial transloca-
tions of characters might also be considered as hybrid metamers or
metameric hybrids. They represent abnormal intermediate stages
between metamers that are quite unlike when normally developed.
They indicate an abnormal intermediate expression of the charac-
ters rather than an abnormal transmission of characters to new parts
of the plant. All of the hereditaiy characters are probably trans-
mitted to all parts of the plant, since all of the internodes are able,
directly or indirectly, to produce flowers and seeds, but the growth
of the normal plant involves the full expression of each character
in the appropriate place and its complete suppression in other parts
of the plant. Failure of the proper suppression of a character

198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 25

amounts to an abnormality, no less than the failure of a character to
come into expression.

These abnormal intermediate forms of branches might also be com-
pared to the hermaphrodite individuals that occur occasionally in
plants that normally have the stamens and pistils on separate in-
dividuals, such as the fig tree, the date palm, and the hop vine. The
dioecious habit is a condition of dimorphism inside the species. The
abnormalities of the intermediate individuals support the analogy with
hybridization. The behavior of hermaphrodite hop plants has been
studiexl recently by Dr. W. W. Stockberger."

These phenomena are of interest from the standpoint of the study
of heredity as well as for agricultural purposes, since they show that
characters having little or no direct relation to the external conditions
may be seriously affected by changes of environment. Xew conditions
appear to disturb the functions of heredity, not only to bring about
substitution of characters and thus cause diversity between the plants,
but they also appear to break down specializations inside the plant,
to disarrange the patterns, as it were, of the different kinds of inter-
node individuals that form the normal plant.

This conclusion does not refer alone to the fact that these abnor-
malities are very frequent in the newly imported varieties of cot-
ton, but is also justified by the fact that different parts of the same
field may differ distinctly in these respects, as the result of relatively
slight differences of external conditions. Even in hj^brids that are
showing Mendelian segregations of parental characters of branching
in the second generation, experiments in different places may give
very different results. Hybrids between the Kekchi cotton of Guate-
mala and the Triumph variety of United States Upland cotton
showed, in one place (Del Rio, Tex.), many Triumph-like plants
with short basal branches, while at another place (Victoria, Tex.),

" Stockbergrer, W. W. Some Conditions Influencing the Yield of Hops, Cir-
cular 50. Bureau of Plant Industry, IT. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1910, p. 11.

" In some sections hop vines are occasionally found which bear both staminate
and pistillate flowers. Such plants are known locally as ' bastai'ds,' ' mongrels,'
or ' bull-hops.' When they occur they rei»resent a total loss, so far as yield is
concerned, since the few hops borne by these vines are inferior and never
gathered. On the acre under consideration there were only five of these plants,
but they have been observed in much greater px'oportion in other years and
in other localities * * *. In 1!)0S a number of cuttings were taken from one
of these 'bastard' jtlants and removed to a locality about 40 miles distant.
The vines from these cuttings came into flower in 1909 and in every case re-
produced the malformation of the original plant from which they were taken.
In view of this fact care should bo taken to prevent the use of cuttings from
'bastard' plants by promptly digging tluMu otit and destroying the roots as soon
as they are observed. In this way their i)erpetuatiou may be prevented and
the loss in yield due to their occurrence avoided."
198

26

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

the same stock of hybrids showed only long branches like the Kekchi
parent. Hybrids between Kekchi and McCall, on the other hand,
growing beside the Triumph hybrids, showed the short " cluster "
branches of the McCall parent veiy definitely in both localities, and
in approximately Mendelian proportions. In the equable tropical
climate of Guatemala a planting of the McCall cotton failed to give
any indication of the cluster habit that characterizes this variety in
the United States."

The frequency with which the abnormal intermediate forais of
branches occur in all the different stocks of Egyptian cotton that are
now being grown in Arizona increases the practical importance of
this class of facts. The behavior of other types of cotton during

the period of acclima-
tization has shown
that new conditions of
growth are able to dis-
turb the processes of
heredity and thus lead
to many abnormalities
of development and
often to the complete
sterility of the plants,
either through failure
to form any flower
buds or through the
abortion of all that are
formed.

A^Hiether the produc-
tion of these abnor-
mally shortened
branches of the Egyp-
tian cotton is connected
with the transfer to new conditions is not so plain as in the case of
the abnormal transformations of fruiting branches into vegetative
branches, but it is quite possible that the two conditions merely repre-
sent the extremes of one long series of variations. In the Dale cotton
as grown near Yuma, Ariz., in 1909, the abnormal shortening and
abortive tendencies of the branches were much stronger in the plants
raised from imported seed than in those produced from seed raised
at Yuma in 1908. The larger and more luxuriant plants also showed
the greater tendency to abnormal shortening of the fruiting branches,
instead of the usual tendency to elongate and change to the vegetative

« Cook, O. F. Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids, Bul-
letin 147, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909, p. 23.
198

Fig. 1.— Diagram of a cotton plant with two vegetative
branches and numerous fruiting branches.

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE COTTON PLANT.

27

form. The analogy with the cluster habit of Upland varieties is
often very strong, and in these also the tendency to abortion of the
flower buds is often very great. Under favorable conditions cluster
varieties of Upland cotton are sometimes extremely productive, but
if unfavorable conditions supervene they are liable to Avholesale
abortion of the flower buds or the young bolls. The very strong
tendency to fruitfulness defeats itself. The plant is under too
great a strain of production and suffers the more acutely if condi-
tions become unfavorable.

RELATION OF DIMORPHIC BRANCHES TO ACCLIMATIZATION.

The recognition of the different behavior of the two forms of
branches is an essential step in the scientific study of many of the
problems of cotton
culture. One of the
most striking illus-
trations of the sig-
nificance of the di-
morphism of the
branches has been
shown in the study
of acclimatization.
Central American
varieties of cotton
that grew under
their native condi-
tions as low, short-
stalked plants with
few limbs and nu-
merous horizontal,
fertile branches
(fig. 1) showed in

'J' g X a S a complete ^^^- -■ — Diagram of a cotton plant with numerous vegetative
„ , . „ brandies and no fruitfng brandies.

change of habits or

growth, becoming large, densely leafy bushes, with many strong,
sterile limbs, but with very few fruiting branches or none at all.
(Compare figs. 1 and 2.)

If the change had affected only the size of the plants, it could have
been looked upon as a direct result of a rich soil or more favorable
conditions of growth, but the complete imlikeness of the Texas plants
to their Central x\merican parents showed that other factors were
involved. It was possible to raise large-sized plants Avhich still re-
tained the normal form and fertility of the type. The abnormal be-
havior of the plants was found to arise largely from the fact that
sterile limbs were substituted for the normal fruiting branches.

198

28

DIMOBPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPTC.U. CROP PLANTS.

The most extreme result of the transfer to new conditions is shown
when the phmts fail to fomi any fruiting branches, all the branches
beinir chanired over to the vea^etative form (fiar. 2). Such plants, of
necessity, remain completely sterile, there being no place where fruit
can be put on. in spite of the most luxuriant vegetative growth.
"Where the reaction is less violent the plants are not completely sterile.
but produce a late crop, often cut off by frost before any of the seed
has ripened (fig. 3). Even when the plants are all able to ripen
seed the crop may be cut short and the quality rendered inferior be-
cause too many vegetative branches are fomied and the bolls develop
too late in the season.

A oradual return of the plants to their normal habits of branching
has marked the progress of acclimatization. The fertility of the

imported stocks has also
continued to increase so
that many varieties of the
Central American cottons
are now able to grow in
Texas in a completely nor-
mal manner, under the same
conditions that render
plants of the same stocks
abnormal and unfruitful if
grown from imported seed.
The relation of the fac-
tor of branch dimorphism
to the problem of acclima-
tization that first became
apparent in dealing with
the Kekchi type of Upland
cotton from Guatemala has
been shown in differing de-
grees in many other types,
including the Egyptian
that has been introduced into Arizona and southern California.
In all such cases the reduction of the vegetative branches may l)e
looked upon as one of the measures of acclimatization, since it rep-
resents a better adjustment to the new conditions. The collection of
statistical data on this point in connection with the Eg^-ptian cotton
was entrusted to Mr. Arg\le McLachlan. A report of his observa-
tions on Egyptian cotton growing in the Yuma Valley in the season
of 1909 shows very definite contrasts in the production of vegeta-
tive branches. Newly imported stocks of Mit Afifi cotton usually
produced the first fruiting branches on the fifteenth or sixteenth

198

Fig. 3. — Diagram of a cotton plant with six vegeta-
tlTe branches and numerous fruiting branches.

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 29

node of the main stalk, while an acclimatized stock of the same
variety began to produce fruiting branches at the tenth node, on the
average.

' To secure a further reduction of the vegetative branches must be
considered as one of the principal problems of adaptation in connec-
tion with the establishment of an Egyptian cotton industry in the
United States. Experiments have demonstrated that good crops of
Egyptian cotton can be grown in Arizona, but the large, branching
plants greatly increase the labor of picking and much of the crop is
likely to be damaged or lost. The heavily laden branches are very
brittle and many of them are broken by the wind or by the pickers.
Very large plants are often a total loss, for even the main stalk is
likely to break after two or three large branches have split off. Stalks
with no vegetative branches very seldom break.

A recent study of cotton culture in Egypt shows that the native
method of very close planting is an important factor in restricting the
growth of vegetative branches, but the scarcity of hand labor would
forbid a direct imitation of the Egyptian system in the United States.
Experiments are now to be made with modified systems of close plant-
ing adapted to machine culture. It may prove desirable to leave three
or more plants in a hill, instead of one, if the vegetative branches can
be suppressed in this way. Attention is also being given to the selec-
tion of early, productive plants with few vegetative branches or none.
Varieties of Upland and Sea Island cotton have been developed
which seldom produce any vegetative branches.

RELATION OF BRANCH DIMORPHISM TO WEEVIL RESISTANCE.

Cotton varieties that develop the extra-axillary vegetative branches
instead of the axillary limbs are very poorly qualified for early fruit-
ing and determinate habits of growth, which have been considered as
means of avoiding the injuries of the boll weevil. One of the difficul-
ties of combating the weevil by cultural methods lies in the fact that
our Upland cottons continue to produce a succession of superfluous
buds, in which weevils are bred throughout the growing season. If
the weevils did not have a succession of buds to feed upon, breeding
would diminish in the latter part of the season, and the number that
could survive the winter would be greatly reduced. The pollen diet
seems to be absolutely necessary to enable the weevils to complete
their life history. Until they have fed upon pollen the adults very
seldom copulate and never lay eggs.

Of all the types thus far known, the Kekchi cotton of Guatemala
comes the nearest to the ideal of a determinate habit of growth, for
it is able by means of its ready development of axillary limbs to
secure abundant foliage without being compelled to continue the for-

198

30 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL, CROP PLANTS.

mation of flowering buds. Varieties which have no vegetative limbs
have no leaves except those of the main stem and the fruiting
branches. Fruiting branches produce only as many leaves as flower
buds, a bud at the base of each leaf. Varieties that do not produce
vegetative branches must put on more flower buds in order to produce
additional leaves.

Even when the weevils are not present a large proportion of the
buds and young bolls of our Upland cottons are generally thrown off
as superfluous, the vegetative energy of the plant not being adequate
to bring them to maturity. Selection has probably tended toward
the elimination of sterile branches in our Upland types of cotton.
As long as the weevils did not enter into the problem, the super-
fluous buds, though no doubt causing a large waste of the productive
energy of the plant, had a compensating value as a kind of insurance
of the crop, for if in an unfavorable season the early buds were lost
their places were filled hj numerous successors as soon as the weather
improved.

With the advent of the weevil it becomes a matter of importance to
do away, if possible, with this persistent prodigality of bud forma-
tion. At the same time it is essential that the growth of the plant
continue, at least to the extent of producing leaves enough to serve
adequately the purposes of assimilating food for the growth of the
bolls. The Kekchi cotton, by making use of primary branches, sug-
gests a factor that has a relation to the problem, by showing how
more foliage can be produced without the need of making the extra
number of floral buds which are likely to serve only as breeding
places for the weevils.

Many other kinds of plants, the great majority, indeed, have the
determinate habits which would be so great an advantage in cotton
in dealing with the weevil, for they produce buds and blossoms for
only a short interval. Some plants can be made to continue in blos-
som by having their flowers picked so that seed can not set. To have
educated the cotton plant to such determinate habits by selection
might have proved a difficult and time-consuming labor. But with
the realization of the fact that the cotton plant has two distinct kinds
of branches, one of which does not produce flower buds, the task of
finding or securing by selection a regularly determinate variety of
cotton appears more definite and practicable. The possibilities of
utilizing at the same time others of the numerous weevil-resisting
adaptations possessed by the Kekchi cotton and other Central Ameri-
can varieties have received detailed consideration in a previous
report."

a Cook. O. F. Weevil-Resisting Adaptations of the Cotton Plant, Bulletin 88,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF CENTRAL AMERICAN RUBBER TREE. 31

The application of branch dimorphism to the problems of weevil
resistance is not necessarily limited to early fruiting and determinate
habits of growth. ^Vhile early fruiting is undoubtedly an advantage
under the ordinary conditions of cotton-growing communities, it does
not necessarily follow that late-fruiting types of cotton will be per-
manently excluded from cultivation in all weevil-infested regions.
Late-fruiting varieties must always suffer worse, of course, when
grown with early varieties, but if the late-fruiting varieties were
grown exclusively by whole communities the disadvantage would be
less and might be avoided entirely if varieties were secured which
w^ere able to set a crop of bolls within a short time after the produc-
tion of flower buds began. As long as the weevils were left without
pollen to feed upon, and were thus unable to breed, the danger from
weevils would not be increased. A quick-fruiting late variety, grown
by itself, would have the same advantages of weevil resistance as an
early variety growm under ordinary conditions, and with the prospect
of being able to set a larger crop of bolls than the small plants of
an extra-early variety.

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE CENTRAL AMERICAN RUBBER

TREE.

The differences between the two kinds of branches in the Central
American rubber tree (Castilla) correspond in some respects to those
of the cotton plant. All the flowers and fruits are borne by one kind
of branches, while the other kind has vegetative functions only, like
the main trunk of the tree. But wdth regard to the origins of the
two kinds of branches, the rubber tree is directly contrasted with
the cotton plant. The fertile branches of Castilla always come
from axillary buds, while the vegetative branches are always extra-
axillary.

The diversity of function is carried a step farther than in the
cotton plant, for the fertile branches do not become a permanent
part of the tree. After they have borne tw^o or three crops of fruit
they separate neatly from the trunk and drop out of their sockets,
which soon heal over. The dimorphic nature of the branches of the
genus Castilla and the self -pruning habit of the fruiting branches
have been described and illustrated in a former publication."

Except in very rare instances, the fruit-bearing branches of Cas-
tilla remain quite simple and produce only leaves, followed in the
next year by a cluster of flowers above each of the leaf axils. Orowth
takes place only at the end of the branch, leaving a longer and longer

« Cook, O. F. The Culture of the Central American Rubber Tree. Bulletin 49,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dei)t. of Agriculture, 1003, p. 20, pi. 10.
198

32

DIMOEPHIC BEANCHES IN TEOPICAL CEOF PLANTS.

naked section at the base after the successive crops of leaves and
fruits have fallen. Finally the weight of the branch becomes too
great for the support, the soft basal joint gives way, and the branch
drops to the ground. The base of the branch is conical or rounded,
and fits into a socket in the wood of the trunk. Both the base and
the socket are marked with very fine radiating ridges and grooves,
showing that the self-pruning habit of the tree is the result of a defi-
nite specialization of tissues and not a mere breaking or rotting away.
In fact, the branch is usually still alive when it falls, and milk flows
out of the tree into the exposed socket to cover the wound. The bark
also soon grows over it and heals completely, leaving only a faint,

rounded scar.

The upright or permanent

branches of Castilla are com-

•V I _.--' ^j paratively few in number.

They arise, one in a place, at
the right or the left of the base
of a temj^prary branch, with
the same regularity as in a
stalk of cotton. They take a
much more oblique or upright
direction than the temporary
or fruiting branches, which
/ /' ■ \ are usually nearly horizontal

or somewhat drooping. The
trees often grow to a height of
15 or 20 feet before any of
the permanent branches de-
velop, and then they often ap-
pear singly or a few at a time.
(SeefigU.)

The idea that extra-axillary
buds are abnormal or excep-
tional appears to be quite as unwarranted in Castilla as in cotton. It
Avould be possible for a Castilla tree to grow to seed-bearing maturity
without producing any extra-axillary branches, but there would be
formed in this way only a simple upright stalk or trunk. All of the
branches that form the true permanent framework of the tree arise
from extra-axillary buds that might be considered adventitious.
AVhether such buds are added after the formation of the internodes
that bear them or are formed with the internodes and remain dormant
at first is not certain. A permanent branch is often put forth at the
base of a temporary branch that is still very young, in trees of suffi-
cient age. That permanent branches of Castilla can arise as truly

198

/

Fig. 4. — Diagram of a rubber tree with one
permanent vegetative branch and numerous
temporary fruiting branches.

DIMORPHIC BEANCHES OF CENTRAL AMERICAN RUBBER TREE. 33

adventitious buds is indicated by the fact that they often appear in
considerable numbers along the edges of wounds, as when the bark is
healing over gashes made in extracting rubber.

RELATION OF DIMOKPIIIC BRANCHES TO METHODS OF PROPAGATION.

There is no reason to suppose that the fruit-bearing branches of
Castilla would take root, or that they could develop into normal
trees. Sections of the trunk or of the permanent branches, on the
other hand, take root readily, often when merely driven into the
ground as fence stakes. In the Soconusco district of southern Mexico
many instances were observed in which rubber trees were growing
with apparent health and vigor from plantings as fence stakes. One
of the largest rubber trees in the vicinity of Tapachula is said to
have grown from a fence stake."

The fact that the Central American rubber tree is capable of being
propagated from cuttings is of practical interest in connection with
the great diiferences in yields of rubber from individual trees.
Though external conditions are undoubtedly responsible for some of
the ditferences, there is every reason to believe that the characteristics
of the individual trees will prove as important as among other culti-
vated plants. A system of vegetative propagation would enable such
differences to be utilized directly, whereas an attempt to develop im-
proved strains that would come true to seed might require many
years of breeding. The utilization of the increased vigor and fer-
tility of hybrids miglit also be made possible by a system of vegeta-
tive propagation.

The use of large cuttings in setting out new plantations would
have cultural advantages in more quickly reestablishing the forest
conditions that are now considered desirable in rubber plantations.
Two of the systems of managing plantations that Avere quite popular
at first have been found to have serious disadvantages. The leaving
of the old forest to keep down the undergrowth by shade interfered
also with the growth of the young rubber trees. Clean culture allows
the trees to grow very rapidly at first, but their later development
ma}^ be checked if the fertile surface soil is washed away and harm-
ful grasses become established. The cleaning of the grassy planta-
tions becomes more and more expensive, and also more and more
harmful. The expected rate of growth of the trees is not maintained,
and the period of profitable production of rubber recedes into an in-
definite future.

Other difficulties in rubber culture come from the refusal of the
latex to flow from the trees. Even when an encouraging yield is

« Cook, O. F. The Culture of the Central American Rubber Tree, Bulletin 49,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1903, pi. 9. •

58884°— Bui. 198—11 ^3

34 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

obtained from first tappings, later attempts to secure latex from the
vicinity of an old cut may be very disappointing. In the Para rub-
ber tree (Hevea) there is a so-called ''wound response" that results
in continued and increased yields of latex from the paring back of
the edges of the wounds, but in the Central American rubber (Cas-
tilla) the tapping of the bark in the vicinity of old cuts may bring
out very little latex. The bark pressure that forces the latex out of
new cuts is not restored around the old cuts. Only a small propor-
tion of the latex is extracted by the present methods of tapping;
the rest remains and dries up in the bark. If bark could be pro-
duced more rapidly by vegetative propagation, it might become prac-
ticable to harvest the bark as well as the latex and extract the rubber
by mechanical means. Branches from the more iDroductive trees
would be available for extending the plantation.

THE PRUNING OF RUBBER TREES.

The fact that the rubber tree prunes itself so extensively leaves
little work of this kind for the planter to do, but two precautions are
not unworthy of consideration. The self-pruning mechanism does
not always work successfully. If growth is very rapid the trunk
may enlarge around the bases of the temporary branches and hold
them in place, even after they are dead. This is also likely to hap-
pen when a branch has been injured or dwarfed, and thus lacks the
Aveight necessary to break it away from its socket. Such decaying
branches may give fungi or insects an entrance to the wood of the
tree and thus induce decay. It would require very little additional
labor to keep the plantation entirely clear of them. In most cases a
pole with a simple hook or elbow at the end would enable them to be
pulled out of their sockets, which would be better than cutting them
off. The pruning away of some of the permanent branches may be
desirable in the occasional instances where these come out too low
down. The earlier these are removed the better, to keep the trunk
of the tree smooth and erect for purposes of tapping.

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF COFFEE.

The upright branches or limbs of the coffee shrub are the equiva-
lents of the original main stem; they bear no fruit, but can give rise
to other uprights arid to lateral branches. (See PI. III.) The
laterals bear flowers and fruit, and can also give rise to other
branches of the same form and function, called secondary laterals, or
simply secondaries, but no lateral branch ever produces a true up-
right branch. Unlike the cotton plant and the rubber tree, each
internode of coffee bears two opposite leaves and is capable of pro-
ducing two sets of branches, two axillary and two extra-axillary. In

198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF COFFEE. 35

rare cases an internode may bear three leaves and the branches may
stand in whorls of three.

The buds that give rise to the upright limbs make their appearance
in the normal position, in the axils of leaves, but the lateral branches
develop in advance of the leaves of the joint to which they are at-
tached, and appear to arise from near the bases of the joints or inter-
nodes of the uprights, instead of from the ends of the joints. (See
PI. IV.) They do not ajDpear to have any connection with the leaf
which is nearest them below. There is no difference of texture or
line of separation between the upright and the young lateral branch.
Both are covered from the first with the same continuous skin or
epidermis, without groove or wrinkle. The lateral branches do not
fall off or separate from the upright except by decay.

The lateral branches are always formed while the joint is young
and growing, instead of pushing out afterwards, as do the adventitious
or dormant buds. In this respect there is an abrupt difference between
the primaries or first generation of laterals and the second genera-
tion or secondary laterals. These arise from the primary laterals at
the axils of the leaves. Secondary laterals are seldom produced when
the uprights are allowed to grow normally, but the growth of secon-
dary laterals can be forced by severely pruning the uprights. Under
unfavorable conditions, where the growth of the plants is alternately
checked and forced, the formation of supernumerary secondary
laterals represents a diseased condition, somewhat resembling the
" witches'-brooms " of some of our northern trees. (See PI. V.)

The axils of the lateral branches usually produce only flowers and
fruits. The floral buds appear in large numbers clustered on several
very short axillary branches. The secondary laterals can thus be
understood as representing sterilized floral branches. Flowers are
not normally formed on uprights. In the Bourbon coffee, which is
abnormally prolific in flowers, the uprights are occasionally fertile
to a slight extent.

PROPAGATION OF COrFEE FROM OLD AVOOD OF UPRIGHT BRANCHES.

The prevalent idea that coffee can not be grown from cuttings has
arisen, presumably, from attempts made with lateral or secondary
branches (fig. 5). Pieces of the main stem or of upright branches
take root readily and produce entirely normal trees. Several very
successful examples of vegetative propagation of coffee from upright
branches have been seen in Central America, though all were results
of accidents, not of any definite intention to apply a new method. In
such towns as Coban and Purula, in the coffee-growing districts of
the mountains of eastern Guatemala, one often finds fence stakes of

198

36

DIMOEPHIC BRANCHES IN TEOPICAL CROP PLANTS.

.^

old coffee wood putting out new shoots and forming new tops like
vigorous young trees in a plantation.

Other cases were found in Costa Kica on the large coffee estate of
Senor Don Federico Tinoco at Juan Viiias. Straight stakes cut from
old coffee trees had been used to support the bushes in the rose garden
of Sehora Tinoco, and had promptly taken root. They had been
allowed to grow, and had all developed into large, well-formed, pro-
ductive coffee trees. Such instances certainly demonstrate the pos-
sibility of producing normal coffee trees by vegetative propagation.
As there are considerable differences of soil and climate between
Costa Rica and eastern Guatemala, it appears that such propagation

is not narrowly limited to one set of
» conditions.

V, \ If a system of vegetative propa-

gation could be applied to coffee by
the use of cuttings of the upright
branches (fig. 6), several important
cultural advantages might result.
Much of the labor and expense now
required for seed beds, nurseries,
and transplanting would be saved,
and plantations might be brought
more rapidly to the size when good
crops are produced and the ground
is well shaded by the trees. The
latter condition not only reduces the
cost of cleaning the land of weeds,
bat protects it from injurious ex-
posure and erosion.

The possibility of improving the
coffee crop by the development of
superior hybrid varieties also depends
upon the use of some system of vegeta-
tive propagation, or upon the grafting of the young seedlings, as
has been proposed in Java and other tropical countries. At pres-
ent we have only the so-called Arabian type of coffee and the several
mutative varieties which have been selected from it. Most of these,
if not all, are inferior to the parent stock in fertility. Although very
satisfactory in the matter of coming true to seed, they all seem to lack
the first essential of an improved type, for they are generally less
fertile than the parent stock.

In addition to the precaution of using the upright branches, other
methods of treating the propagating stock will need, of course, to be
worked out. It is quite possible that the cuttings can not be used in

198

Fig. 5. — Diagi-am of a coffee tree
with a simple trunli and numerous
lateral fruiting branches.

DIMORfHIC BRAlSfCHES OF COFFEE.

37

a fresh condition, but may need some process of curing after they
are cut, such as would allow new tissues to form on the cut surfaces
before they are placed in the ground. In the successful cases of
propagation from cuttings mentioned al)ove, the wood had come
from old trees that had been taken out of the plantations. Time
may also have elapsed between the cutting of the stakes and the
setting of them in the ground.

RELATIOX OF BRANCH DIMORPHISM TO THE PRUNING OF COFFEE.

The habits of growth and cultural requirements of coffee, and espe-
cially the principles of the art of pruning, can not be clearly under-
stood without the recognition of the
two kinds of branches. Planters
who reason in a general waj^, with-
out taking into account the di-
morphism of the branches, often
suppose that the pruning back of
the uprights at the growing ends
will cause them to send out new
lateral fruiting branches lower
down. This is a mistake, for new
lateral branches are formed only on
young, growing uprights, and then
only two of the laterals from each
joint of the upright.

Additional development of lateral
branches is to be obtained from
mature uprights only by forcing
the primary laterals to send out
secondarv laterals. If the pri-
mary laterals have been cut off no
secondary laterals can be formed.
Severe cutting back of the main
trunks or upright branches is usual as a means of forcing more vege-
tative growth in the lateral branches. If the pruning is too slight
it may have the effect of merely causing the primary laterals to
elongate without forcing them to send out secondary lateral branches,
for it is not a normal habit of the coffee tree to produce branches
from the laterals. Left to itself without pruning, coffee usually
produces only simple laterals and forms new lateral growth only
through the medium of new uprights.

When all the axillaiy buds of the main stem have been eradicated
no new uprights can be formed. If the tree continues to thrive, it
spreads out on the ground as a tangled mass of slender decumbent

198

Fk;. G. — Diagram of a coffee tree with
two upright branches and numerous
lateral branches.

38

DIMOEPHIC BRANCHES IN TEOPICAL CROP PLANTS.

«V-'

lateral branches. It is the custom of planters in Jamaica, according
to Mr. G. N. Collins, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, to pull off the
uprights instead of cutting them, on the ground that this prevents
the growth of an}^ more uprights. It is easy to understand that
additional uprights may develop from buds of short basal joints of
uprights that have been cut otf, but this would not be the case with
uprights that are pulled out. An additional bud can be seen on
Plate IV, underneath the base of one of the new uprights that have
been forced by pruning.

If the fertility of a plantation is to be maintained, resort must be
had to some form of pruning, in order to continue the formation of

healthy new^ wood on which good fruit

V , , can be borne. Old trees that are not

\ \ ; / / pruned tend to produce slender branches,

narrow leaves, and very small fruit. New
wood can be obtained by allowing new
uprights to develop or by preventing the
growth of the uprights and forcing the
laterals to branch. The use or the rejec-
tion of the uprights affords a fundamen-
tal distinction between the several differ-
ent systems of pruning coffee.

The subject is one of too great extent
and complexity to be discussed in detail
here. Methods that may be thoroughly
justifiable and advantageous under the
conditions of one coffee-growing district
may be objectionable in another, or even
destructive, so greatly do the habits of the
plants differ under different conditions
of climate and soil. The practicability of
the different systems of pruning depends
also very largely upon the character and
cost of labor. In some countries the natives
show much aptitude for such work, but in others only the simplest sys-
tems can be applied ; the cost of skilled assistance would be prohibitive.

DIMORPHIC BRAlSrCHES OF CACAO.

The cacao tree bears two distinct kinds of branches, but these do
not correspoid directly to those of the rubber tree, the coffee, or the
cotton. The fruit-bearing function is not confined to either type
of branches. Both have vegetative functions, and both produce the
small leafless twigs that bear the flowers and fruits. Even the main

Fig 7. — Diagram of a cacao tree
with three upright shoots
and three groups of whorl
branches.

198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF CACAO, 39

trunk of the cacao tree produces flowers and fruit in the same way
as the branches. In other words, cacao is cauliflorous.

The two kinds of vegetatiA e branches can be distinguished readily
by their position and also by the fact that they bear different kinds
of leaves. The trunk elongates by a succession of upright shoots,
each of which is terminated by a cluster or whorl of branches (fig.
7). (See PL VI.) The main stem and the upright branches have
leaves with distinctly longer petioles than those of the lateral
branches. The petioles of the leaves of the uprights are often 3
inches long, while those of the whorl leaves are less than an inch.
(See PL VII, fig. 1.)

In the patashte tree {Theohroma hicolor), a relative of the cacao
that is being introduced into cultivation in Guatemala, the specializa-
tion of the leaves of the two types of branches is carried still farther.
The leaves of the main trunk and the upright limbs have petioles
8 or 10 inches in length, while the leaves of the secondarv or lateral
branches have petioles only about 1 inch long, as in the cacao. The
blades of the two kinds of leaves of the patashte are also very differ-
ent in size, shape, and texture, instead of being nearly alike as in the
cacao."

When a cacao seedling has grown a simple straight stem to a
height of 2 to 4 feet, the single terminal bud gives place to a cluster
or circle of three to six small buds, from which arises a whorl of as
many branches. (See PL VI.) These branches soon diverge in a
horizontal or oblique direction, but curve upward toward the end.
In the petashte tree the number of branches in each whorl is always
three, but in the cacao there are usually four, often five, and occa-
sionally six. The whorled branches do not continue the upward
growth of the main stem or trunk of the tree, but a new shoot for
this purpose appears, in due time, on the side of the trunk, often an
inch or more below the terminal whorl of branches. This lateral
shoot curves upward and passes between two of the whorled branches
into a vertical position, grows a few feet upward, and divides into
another whorl of branches. Later on these upright sections seem to
straighten more and more until the clusters of branches, which had
previously terminated the trunk at its different stages of growth, are
pushed over to the side, as though they were lateral clusters.

"The patashte tree also differs from the cacao in not behig cauliflorous. The
short inflorescence branches do not ris** fi-om the old wood of the main trunk
and larger basal branches, but are confined to the axils of new leaves near the
slender growing ends of the branches. The patashte is a much taller tree and
grows much more rapidly than the cacao. It is usually from 12 to 20 feet
high before it begins to l)ran('h, instead of branching within H or 4 feet of
the ground, as the cacao u.sually dues.
198

40 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

RELATION or DIMORPHIC BRANCHES TO HABITS OF GROWTH.

Other cacao trees, both wild and cultivated, fail to show these
habits of growth. Instead of the erect main stem, with branches in
rosette-like clusters, the trunk divides near the ground into many
oblique arms that form a broad spreading top of dense foliage,
entirely unlike the open, irregularly distributed foliage of the trees
with tall upright trunks. Planters of cacao have recognized cultural
differences betAveen the two forms of trees, the low, spreading type
being preferable for jjlantation purposes to the tall type with the
whorled branches.

It has been supposed that the different habits -of growth betoken
two different varieties of cacao, but seedlings from the spreading
trees have not been found to show any tendency to reproduce the
spreading habit of growth. If the spreading trees had any other
character in common, the idea of a varietal difference might still
appear to have some justification, but the fact is that lioth kinds of
trees show the same general range of individual differences in the
characters of the fruits, which are the only parts of the plant that
lend themselves to careful comparison. The serious difference lies
in the fertility, for the low, compact trees that shade their own short
trunks and the ground underneath them appear to thrive much bet-
ter in plantations than trees of the other type, and bear larger crops.
In eastern Guatemala, where this matter was studied in some detail,
it was the opinion of a very intelligent cacao planter, Don Eicardo
Fickert-Forst, owner of the Trece iVguas estate, that the low, spread-
ing trees would bear, on the average, at least twice as much cacao as
the others, and that they would continue to be fruitful for a longer
period of years. Efforts had been made to obtain more of the
spreading trees by planting seeds from trees of this form.

The failure of such attempts can be explained after the serious
differences between the two kinds of branches are recognized. The
low, spreading trees have this desirable form because they do not
produce any of the upright shoots and whorls of branches. Their
method of branching is the same as that shown on whorl branches,
that are incapable of forming uprights, as already explained. Al-
though there is no indication of a whorled arrangement of the main
branches of the spreading trees, it may nevertheless be considered
that the tops of these trees represent the development of only one or
two of the branches of an original whorl, and this would afford an
adequate explanation of the formation of a different type of tree.

The inability of the whorled branches to produce any upright
shoots Avould explain why a tree top formed from such a branch
would not have any of the strong upright shoots, but would produce

198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF CACAO. 41

only the relatively slender oblique or lateral shoots proper to the
branches that are formed as members of a whorl. If only one or
two of the branches of the first whorl were to survive and to begin
branching near the base, the further growth of the tree might come
from the development of these whorled branches, the upright tj^pe
of the branches falling into comjDlete abeyance. The question of
being able to produce at will the desired type of tree appears to turn
on the treatment of the young tree at the time it puts out the first
or second whorl of branches.

RELATION OF DIMORPHIC BRANCHES TO THE PRUNING OF CACAO.

Kecognition of the dimorphism of the branches of the tree is a
matter of even more fundamental cultural importance with cacao
than with coffee, since it enables us to understand differences in
habits of growth that determine the productiveness and even the
life of the trees. Much of the advice regarding the pruning of cacao
has been given without regard to the dimorphism of the branches,
and is misleading, if not actually dangerous. Some writers have
recommended the removal of some of the branches of the lowest
whorl if the tree begins to branch too 1(!W down, and others have
held that only three or four of the whorl branches should be allowed
to develop Avhen five or six are produced. In neither case has it
been considered that the preliminary treatment might have the effect
of a complete alteration of the habits of growth of the tree.

If the production of whorled branches is to be allow^ed to continue
so as to produce trees of the upright, open form, it is very doubtful
whether any advantage can be gained by removing a few of the
branches of a whorl. The effect is to weaken the basal ring of wood
that supports the whorl in its rather precarious position at the end
of the long, upright shoot. When the strength of this ring is dimin-
ished the weight of the branches is likely to split them apart. More-
over, the wood of the cacao tree is so soft that decay is very likely to
follow any injury — another reason why any attempts at pruning
should be confined to the very youngest stages of the growth of the
branches.

If an attempt i^ to be made to compel the young tree to form its
crown from one or two of the whorl branches, it is also very important
that these keep the more nearly upright position that they have in
their early stages. If pruning be delayed until the whorl has
opened out and tlie branches have become nearly horizontal, the
chances of having a well-shaped crown are very small. It may also
be desirable not to let the branches that are left grow too long.
Pinching off the end when they are about a foot long would force

198

4'2 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IX TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

them to send out secondary or lateral branches near the base and thus
assist in forming a compact, wdl-shaped crown. Witli t\v(i (ir more
strong branches from near the base of a single whorl branch a condi-
tion somewhat similar to the original whorl may develop, but essen-
tially difl'erent in the subsequent habits of growth, since these
branches do not tend to spread apart like true whorl branches, and
are able to continue the upward growth of the tree without the forma-
tion of any more upright shoots from the main trunk.

A further indication that the habit of forming the whorled
branches represents a definite specialization may be found in the
fact that the upper leaves of an upright are often aborted. The
stipules are of the normal size, but the petioles and blades do not
develop. The stipules soon drop oft', leaving small scars on the sur-
face of the bark as the only indication of the joints.

It is not clear whether this habit of forming abortive leaves is to be
viewed as an adaptation to avoid the clustering of too many leaves
at the top of an upright shoot, or is connected with the shortening
of the internodes to form the whorl of branches. AMien the leaves
are aborted many short internodes are likely to be formed below the
whorl. In other cases there are no abortive leaves. Even the whorled
branches may arise from axils of normal, full-sized leaves, but in
such cases the whorl is likely to be somewhat irregular, as though the
internodes had not been sufiiciently shortened.

If these reduced leaves are taken into account, the cacao tree may
^be said to have three kinds of leaves, the leaves Avith the long petioles
on the lower parts of the uprights, aborted leaves at the ends of the
uprights, and short-pet ioled leaves on the whorled branches. The
specialization of the leaves of the cacao is somewhat similar to that
of the pine tree. Young seedlings and new shoots of pines that have
been cut down or severely pruned have functional green leaves all
along the shoot. Ordinary shoots and branches of pine trees have
no functional green lea^ es. but only scalelike membranous sheathing
leaf bases. The functional leaves of adult pine trees represent the
terminal clusters of a few leaves at the ends of very short specialized
branches that appear to be incapable of further growth. New
branches have to be developed from special zones where the axillary
buds of the leaves of the uprights remain dormant instead of pro-
ducing the short leaf-bearing branches.

The habit of the cacao tree to produce the long uprights with a
whorl of branches at the end appears thoroughly imdesirable from
the cultural standpoint, but if we consider the habit of the wild cacao
to grow in dense thickets with many other kinds of woodv vegetation
its peculiar habit of growth may be seen to have some advantages.
The rapid growth of the upright shoots enables a cacao tree to raise

198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE BANANA PLANT.

43

a terminal whorl of branches above the surrounding vegetation, and
thus secure an amount of exposure to sunlight that might not he
obtainable otherwise. Though the cacao must be reckoned as one of
the shade types of vegetation it does require light. The most vigorous
and productive ca-
cao trees are those
that stand out in
full exposure to tin'
light, but the soil
conditions must be
very favoraVjle to
enable the trees to
thrive Avith full ex-
posure.

DIMORPHIC
BRANCHES OF
THE BANANA
PLANT.

Although the
habits of growth of
the banana plant
are altogether dif-
ferent from those of
the shrubby and
woody .species pre-
viously described,
there is a definite
dimorphism of
branches that has to
be taken into ac-
count in studying
the habits of
growth and the
problems of culti-
vation. Banana
planters regularly
distinguish between
"sword suckers'*
and "broad-leaved suckers,'" but the nature and the extent of the
differences between the two kinds of offshocjts have not l>een ade-
quately appreciated. The effects of external conditions have been
supposed to explain the differences, although lx>th kinds of branches
are almost always to be found on any well-develope^l plant.

Fio. 8.-

■A broad-leavfd sucker of a banana pluut from
Costa Rica. fOrratly reduced.)

198

44

DIMOEPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

The names of the two kinds of offshoots allude to differences in the
size and shape of the leaves. The broad-leaved suckers begin near
the ground to produce leaf blades of the same general form as those

of the adult plant (fig. 8). The
sword suckers produce at first only
small narrow blades that by their
shape suggest the name (fig. 9).
The basal, sheathing parts of the
leaves that form the so-called
" trunk " of the banana plant are
much larger in the sword suckers,
and this renders the reduction of
the blade of the leaf a more evi-
dent specialization.

Possibly the dimorphism of the
branches is not as definite in the
banana as in the woody plants
previously considered. Though
no connecting stages betAveen the
two kinds of branches were no-
ticed in the rootstocks that were
dug out and examined, it may be
that intermediate conditions will
be found occasionally, as in Indian
corn. The intermediate joints of
corn idants, betw^een the ears and
the suckers, seldom develop
branches, but when such branches
are developed they are intermedi-
ate in form, as well as in position.
The differences in the develop-
ment of the leaves call attention
at once to the fact that the two
kinds of banana suckers stand in
different relations to the parent
plant. The broad-leaved suckers,
with their relatively large, ex-
panded leaves, are able from the
first to elaborate a larger part of
the nourishment they require than
are the sword suckers, yet in spite of this apparent advantage
the broad-leaved suckers are of much slower growth. It is evident
from this fact that the sword suckers stand in a different relation to

Fig. 9. — Sword suckers of the commer-
cial banana, used in setting out planta-
tions in Costa Rica. (Greatly reduced.)

198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE BANANA PLANT. 45

the parent plant and draw a much larger proportion of nourishment
from it.

These differences of relation are made still more obvious when it
is learned how the two kinds of branches originate. The broad-leaved
suckers come from buds around the sides of the rootstocks, near the
surface of the ground. The sword suckers begin their development
deep in the ground, underneath the parent rootstock. They have at
first the form of slender, subterranean shoots, that grow first in a
horizontal direction or even obliquely downward. They thicken into
a large fleshy bulb before beginning to grow much above ground.
(See PI. Vlf, fig. 2.)

The sword suckers may be looked upon as true permanent branches
of the parent rootstock, while the broad-leaved suckers are better
adapted for separate propagation under natural conditions. Many of
the latter are put out above the surface of the ground. Some of
them have at first the form of small, rounded tubers, the buds remain-
ing entirely dormant. A banana plant that has been uprooted by the
wind does not die at once, but puts out from about its base a large
number of these potato-like tubers, which finall}' fall off and are read-
ily scattered, or roll down hill. The wild relatives of the banana plant
are natives of steep, rocky hillsides, where such a method of vege-
tative propagation would be distinctly advantageous.

CULTURAL VALUE OF TWO TYPES OF OFFSHOOTS.

Banana planters generally follow the rule of using the sword suck-
ers in setting out plantations, on the ground that they produce fruiting
plants quicker than the broad-leaved suckers. This is easy to believe,
in view of the larger amount of stored nourishment that is carried over
to the new plants by using the much thicker bulb of the sword suck-
ers instead of the relatively small rootstocks of the broad-leaved
suckers. Some planters in Costa Rica doubt Avhether the broad-
leaved suckers ever produce fruit of their own, and are inclined to
believe that fruiting does not begin until the necessary sword suckers
have had time to grow. In Jamaica, on the other hand, the sword
suckers are cut back nearly to the ground before planting and the
first crop comes from the growth of new suckers.*^

« See Stockdale, F. A., " The Question of a Banana Industry," Journal of the
Board of Agriculture of British Guiana, vol. 3, no. 2, 1909, p. 79.

"The suckers which would be selected for planting [in Jamaica] are not the
same as those that would bo chosen in this colony [British Guiana 1, and the
method of treatment is totally different. Sucliers for planting purposes are
suckers that have not been cut back, or in other words, ' sword suckers ' —
as indicated by their first leaves being very narrow — which have been allowed
198

46 DIMOEPHIC BEANCHES IN TEOPICAL CEOP PLANTS.

The use of the most vigorous suckers appears especially important,
not only to obtain the earliest possible crop from a new plantation,
but because it is also highly desirable for a new plantation to grow up
rapidly and shade the ground as soon as possible, thus protecting
itself from harmful weeds and lessening the cost of cultivation. The
later welfare of the plantation may also be affected by its early pros-
perity. The shading of the ground not only helps to maintain favor-
able soil conditions and thus conduces to larger crops, but larger
numbers of the quick-growing sword suckers are produced in pros-
perous, shady plantations. The exposure of the base of a banana
plant to much light appears to stimulate the formation of broad-
leaved suckers, as though the plants had the intention to occupy the
surrounding land before turning their attention to the production
of fruit.

THE PLANTING OF RESTING TUBERS.

Although the production of many broad-leaved suckers may be
considered to represent an unfavorable condition in a plantation,
they are not without interest and utility from other points of view.
The much greater abundance in which the broad-leaved suckers are
produced would render them of very distinct importance in any
attempt to propagate a new variety or special strain derived from a
single superior plant. A rootstock can not be expected to produce
more than three or four sword suckers at one time, while a score, or
perhaps several scores, of broad-leaved shoots might be obtained if
a plant were treated with this end in vieAV. Study might well be
given to the finding of differences in habits of branching. A strain
that Avould produce only a few suckers would be more valuable in the
plantation, for the pruning away of superfluous suckers is one of the
chief items of expense in many banana plantations. Such a strain
might be at a disadvantage, however, in furnishing stocks for new

to grow to about 8 or 10 feet in height and which have large bulbs at their base.
No small suckers, such as we choose in this colony, are taken. In preparing
their suckers for planting the Jamaicans cut down those selected to within about
6 inches of the ground and then dig out the bulbs. All the old roots are then
trimmed off, and the bulb is planted so that the eyes are at least 3 or 4 inches
below the level of the ground. From this bulb three or four suckers will spring
up. The strongest one is selected, and all the others are pruned off until
June, when one or two suckers are left, and then, again, all others are pruned
off until October, when there is again left either one or two, and finally another
is left the following February. It is calculated that the first suckers should
fruit in the following March, the June suckers in May, the October ones in
February or Iilarch, twelve months, and the February one in May or June,
twelve months. This system for timing is the outcome of long experience and
could not be adopted in this colony without modification on account of differ-
ences in climatic and rainfall conditions."
198

DIMORPHIC BRANCHES OF THE BANANA PLANT. 47

plantations, unless it could be made to jdeld more numerous offshoots
when these Avere required.

The use of the hardened resting tubers may be considered as the
ideal condition for shipping- propagating stock of the banana from
one country to another. The question of diversifying the American
banana industry by the importation of some of the superior types of
banana of the Old World has often been raised. One of the diffi-
culties has been to obtain new stocks in sufficient quantity, even for
adequate experiments to be made. This has appeared to stand in the
way of any immediate practical results being obtained, and has un-
doubtedly tended to discourage attempts to obtain superior varieties.
It is also possible that the broad-leaved suckers may be found
useful in dealing with some of the banana diseases that appear to
indicate a weakening of the vitality of some of the best strains of
the commercial banana, as in the case of some of the superior varieties
of sugar cane. The sugar planters of Java bring down new stock
from the mountains, because the mountain-grown canes have been
found more resistant to disease than the same variety grown con-
tinuousl}^ in the lowland plantations.

The tuber-like, broad-leaved suckers that are formed on uprooted
banana plants ma}^ be looked upon as a resting state, and may be
expected to have a relation to subsequent vigor of growth. An
interruption of growth might be directly beneficial, or if different
conditions prove to be necessary, as in the case of the sugar cane, the
tubers would greatly facilitate the exchange of propagating material.
They could be collected and transported from one district to another
much more readily and cheaply than the large, heavy sword suckers.

As a means of testing the possible effect of the resting stage upon
the subsequent behavior of the plants, a suggestion was made in 1903
to Prof. H. Pittier, who soon after took charge of the experimental
plantations of the United Fruit Company in Costa Rica, that plant-
ings be made of these potato-like tubers to see whether any differ-
ences of behavior would be shown. In 1904 a hectare (about 2|
acres) of land was planted with these small resting tubers, instead
of the usual sword suckers. The growth of the plants was unex-
pectedly rapid and did not fall behind that of the neighboring fields
that were planted with large sword suckers. The first crop was
matured in about nine months, the usual time under the Costa Rican
conditions, and with more than usual uniformity, each plant pro-
ducing a large, well-formed cluster of fruit. It was also noticed
that the plants of this field produced very few suckers around the
base until after fruiting, in very distinct contrast with adjoining
fields planted with the sword suckers. When Professor Pittier made
a visit to Costa Rica in 1907, three years after the beginning of the
198

48 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

experiment, this field still appeared very distinctly superior to any
of the adjoining areas.

Although no observations or tests were made to determine the
resistance of these plants tq disease, it is apparent even from this
single experiment that commercial crops of bananas can be produced
under conditions that would give a considerable measure of protec-
tion against disease. The resting tubers would be much less likely
to convey diseases than the sword suckers, and could be much more
easily disinfected. Some of the banana diseases that become ver}^
serious in old plantations appear to have little or no effect upon
vigorous young plantations under favorable conditions. The more
frequent replanting of bananas, every two or three years, is being
advocated among the Jamaica planters, because the old stocks are
thought to " run out " and become less vigorous, and also because the
young plants can be brought into fruit with greater regularity."

The possibility of producing a full and regular crop of large
clusters of fruit by the use of tubers instead of sword suckers would
also make it more feasible to use bananas in a rotation of crops, a
policy which may prove to be as desirable in tropical cultures as in
those of temperate regions, if a permanent use of the land is to be
maintained. If the destructive policy of raising bananas for a few
years and then abandoning the land continues to be followed in
Central America, it will probably not require many decades to ex-
haust all the districts that are well suited to banana culture and at
the same time readily accessible from the United States. In a few
favored' spots where soil conditions are ideal or where new soil con-
tinues to be deposited by floods of adjacent rivers, permanent cul-
tures may be maintained, but in most places the prosperity of a
banana plantation appears to have definite natural limits.

COMPARISONS OF DIFFERENT SYSTEMS AND TYPES OF BRANCHES.

One reason why dimorphism of branches has not received more
attention is doubtless to be found in the fact that current botanical
classifications of buds and branches do not provide adequate recogni-
tion for the different kinds of diversity shown by the branches, as
among these tropical crop plants. The view generally stated or
implied in text-books is that branches are to be divided, with refer-
ence to their methods of origin, into two principal kinds, axillary

» " There is a growing tendency throughout the whole island to reduce the
period of ratooning and to replant-every two or three years, as it is found that
by so doing the crops may be better limed for the American market, as after
first ratoons the plants fruit somewhat irregularly." (See Stockdale, F. A.,
" The Question of a Banana Industry," Journal of the Board of Agriculture of
British Guiana, vol. 3, no. 2, 1909, p. 81.)
198

COMPAEISONS OP SYSTEMS AND TYPES OF BEANCHES. 49

and adventitious. This compels us to infer that branches which
do not come from the axils of the leaves must be regarded as adventi-
tious, or to some extent irregular and abnormal.

It may be that the present series of facts of dimorphism will
incline botanists as well as planters to take into account the normal
and regular existence of branches which are neither truh^ axillary
nor truly adventitious. It is as impossible to understand the habits
of growth of the plants from the botanical standpoint as it is to find
correct principles of cultivation and pruning without seeing that
the same plant can produce two or more kinds of branch organs
essentially distinct from each other in position, form, and function.

The different systems of branching have evidently been specialized
on independent lines that could hardly be described on the basis of
the usual classification of branches into two general classes — axillary
and adventitious. There should be no implication that extra-axillary
buds are of necessity adventitious, or that extra-axillary or adven-
titious buds are less important in anj'^ particular plant than axillary
buds. There are no general relations between the position and the
function, nor between the position and the time of appearance, nor
yet between the time of appearance and the function. There are no
general principles that apply to the dimorphic branches of all the
different plants, nor do any two of them fully agree.

The extra-axillary branches of the coffee have the fruit-bearing
functions of the axillary branches of Castilla, while the axillary
uprights of coffee correspond functionally to extra-axillary uprights
of Castilla. The axillary branches of Castilla must be considered
as more definitely limited on the vegetative side than the extra-
axillary branches of the other plants, in view of their temporary
nature.

The specializations shown in the branches of the cotton plant are
in some respects quite the opposite of those of the Central American
rubber tree. The flowers and fruit of the cotton plant are borne on
extra-axillary branches, those of Castilla on the axillary branches.
The vegetative limbs of Castilla are all extra-axillary, while those
of cotton are axillary. The axillary or fertile branches of Castilla
are temporary, while the extra-axillary serve as permanent divisions
of the main stem."

Coffee agrees better with cotton than with Castilla, since it is the
axillary buds Avhich give rise to the permanent, upright shoots. The
extra-axillary branches of cotton and coffee are also alike in the bear-
ing of fruit. Though extra-axillary in position they can hardly be
called adventitious. Indeed, they are less adventitious than the axillary
branches, for they are developed with far greater regularity. Extra-
axillary buds in cotton and coffee seem to lack the power of remaining
58884°— Bui. 198—11 4

50 DIMORPHIC BEANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

dormant. They do not appear to be present on young plants, and
they are never added after the internode and its leaf or leaves have
become mature. They are laid down with regularity as a part of each
internode of the adult plant.

The extra-axillary buds, both in cotton and coffee, are developed
with the same invariable regularity as the leaves themselves. They
resemble adventitious buds only in the technical sense that their posi-
tion is extra-axillary. Considered from the standpoint of the habit
and functions of the plant, they are not more adventitious than the
terminal or the axillary buds.

Before the young internode emerges from between the stipules of
the coffee leaves, the three buds that give rise to the central axis and
the two lateral branches can be found standing in a row with the axil-
lary buds and only very slightly above them. Later on the three
buds are pushed out nearly together, but the middle one soon leaves
the other two behind. Strictly speaking, therefore, the extra-axillary
branches of coffee arise from subterminal buds. After the branches
are formed there is no internal indication of a joint or septum; the
pith is quite continuous. Thus an internode of a main stem or an
upright branch of coffee does not appear to be a simple cylinder, but a
three-armed fork or trident.

The lateral branches of the coffee plant do not normally branch
again, though they can be forced to do so by pruning. The secondary
lateral branches are produced from sterilized flower buds, and have
only the characters of laterals, never of uprights. Persistent pruning
may exhaust all the buds capable of forming uprights and leave the
tree a tangle of horizontal or drooping branches, apparently without
the power to put forth any more uprights.

Branches of definitely limited possibilities of vegetative growth,
like the fruiting branches of coffee and Castilla, may be considered as
having intermediate functions between those of leaves and of or-
dinary types of vegetative branches. The leaves of Begonia and
Bryophyllum, which produce plantlets from adventitious buds, and
the leaf-like flower-bearing organs of Phyllanthus and Phyllonoma
represent other intermediate stages between ordinary leaves and
branches. The leaf-like branch organs of some of the relatives of
asparagus, such as Ruscus and Semele, might be mentioned in the
same connection. Even the tobacco leaf may develop a roAv of vege-
tative buds along the base of the midrib. The axillaiy branches of
Castilla are as definitely deciduous as the leaves. The permanent
branches of coffee are formed from axillary buds, while those of Cas-
tilla appear to be adventitious as regards the time of development,
though they have definite positions.

Unless the different branch organs are to receive distinctive names
in each of the different plants, it will be necessary to content our-

198

COMPAKISONS OF SYSTEMS AND TYPES OF BRANCHES. 51

selves with a few general temis that will enable us to indicate more
directly the nature of these various kinds of branches. A primary-
distinction can be made as to whether a bud is laid down when the
branch grows or is formed afterwards from unspecialized tissues of
the bark. Buds that are not adventitious in the latter sense, but are
formed with the growth of the internode to which they belong, might
be called natal buds.

xVdventitious branches are not supposed to have regularitj^ of posi-
tion, but such regularitjr should not be allowed to obscure their ad-
ventitious character if they are formed subsequent to the growth of
the internode. The loss of the original axillary bud may be followed
by the development of an adventitious axillary bud, as happens in
coffee. Also the flower buds of coffee appear to be adventitious to a
very considerable extent, and perhaps altogether so. With severe
pruning, leafy branches may also be forced from the axils of the
kaves of the fruiting branches long after the normal production of
flowers and fruits would have ceased. This may be taken to show
either that additional adventitious buds can be formed in the axils
after the fruiting period is past, or that the axillary buds of the
fruiting branches have previously remained dormant and not taken
part in the jDroduction of flowers and fruit.

The fact that flower buds can be adventitious only emphasizes the
more the absence of any general connection between origins, positions,
and functions, for plants have always had flowers, or at least the
essential sexual organs, even before they had the jjresent specializations
of their vegetative parts into branches and leaves. Flower buds could
never be considered adventitious if we were to attach any functional
sense to the term, but they appear adventitious with respect to the
time and method of origin on the individual jalant.

The terms axillary and extra-axillary are sufficient, perhaps, for
the designation of the positions of the two kinds of buds on any par-
ticular plant, but as a general term extra-axillarj'' is extremely in-
definite. It groups together buds arising from internodes of the stem
or trunk and those coming from the roots, as in the plum, pear, bread-
fruit, and sweet potato. It does not distinguish between the condi-
tions to be found in coffee, where the extra-axillary branch is far
above the axil, and in cotton and Castilla, where the extra-axillary
branch is at the side of the axil.

Some might prefer to describe the cotton j^lant or the coffee tree as
having two axillary buds, and thus avoid the tendency to confuse
extra-axilhiry position wath adventitious origin, but it is evident that
no scientific object can be gained by applying the same name to things
as different as the two kinds of branches. In the strictly mathe-

198

62 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

matical sense only one bud could be axillary. No subsequent adventi-
tious bud could be trul}^ axillar3^ Yet to apply such a distinction to
coffee would reduce it almost to an absurdity. Some of the fruit buds
might be reckoned as axillary, but others closely adjacent would
have to be considered as extra-axillary. The leafy branches which
can be forced from these same axils by pruning would be axillary if
they came out first, or extra-axillary if they followed a crop of
flowers, a purely artificial distinction. Instead of attempting to
establish too sharp a contrast between axillary and extra-axillary it
would be better to admit a third and intermediate positional category
of adaxillary branches, for those that stand close to the axil, as dis-
tinguished from extra-axillary branches that are distinctly separated
from the axil.

If many buds arise simultaneously or successively from the axillary
position, or as near to it as they can be placed, they might be termed
coaxillary. The inflorescence branches of coffee could be described afs
coaxillary, and probably those of Cuscuta."

In describing the functions of branches, distinctions are also to be
observed. Some branches are completely vegetative and produce no
floAvers or inflorescences; some are completely reproductive, in the
sense that thev bear only floral buds. Between the two extremes a
great multiplicity of intervening stages exists. Sometimes branches
which normally bear fruit can be sterilized and rendered purely
vegetative. In some j)lants all branches have equal vegetative poten-
tialities; in others, as in coffee, cotton, and Castilla, the upright main
stems are different from the lateral fruiting branches. In some
plants these lateral branches can, in case of accident, become substi-
tutes for upright stems ; in others, they can furnish buds from which
upi'ight stems can arise ; in still others, the lateral branches are with-
out the 2:>ower to replace the main steam.

The existence of two or more buds in or about the axil of a leaf is
known, of course, in many jDlants and has been recognized by writers
on plant morphology, but definite specializations of positions and
functions have not received the attention required b}^ the agricultural
importance of such facts. As long as no difference of function has to
be considered, additional buds can be considered as mere substitutes
or accessories of the true axillary bud. Thus Pax ^ recognizes what

° Dr. C. E. Bessey, in ;i paper on the adventitious inflorescence of Cuscuta
glomerata, stated that the examination of young plants shows that the in-
florescence is developed from numerous crowded adventitious buds and not by
the repeated branching of axillary flowering branches, as commonly stated.
Science, vol. 4, 1884, p. 342.

^ Pax, F. Allgemeiue Morphologie des Pflauzen, p. 36.
198

StJMMABY OF TYPES OF BRANCHES. 53

he calls " beisprossen," or accessory shoots, and subdivides these into
two classes: (1) Serial shoots, if they arise one above the other, and
(2) collateral shoots, if they appear side by side.

Until more general studies and classifications of methods of branch-
ing can be made it seems best to retain the ordinary designations of
uprights, laterals, etc., especially in connection with plants to which
these terms have already been applied. All that can be attempted at
present is to indicate the varied relations between the different posi-
tions and functions of branches in the plants that have been studied.

SUMMARY OF TYPES OF BRANCHES.

The characters of the different kinds of branch individuals of cot-
ton and the other plants with Avhich it ban been compared can be
defined or briefly described as follows.

BRANCHES OF COTTON.

(1) Axillary limbs. — Natal axillary branches which never produce
flowers, but are like the main axis of the plant in forming at each
node an axillaiy vegetative bud and an adaxillary bud that may give
rise to a vegetative or a fertile branch.

(2) Fertile branches. — Natal adaxillary branches which produce
a flower bud on each internode, in an adaxillary position, and an
axillary vegetative bud.

(2a) Vegetative &r«?i(?Aes.— Natal adaxillary branches which have
the same form and functions as the main stem or the axillary limbs.

In varieties that have normally complete dimorphism of the
branches, axillary buds give rise to vegetative branches only. Adax-
illary buds can produce fertile branches or vegetative branches, ex-
cept on fertile branches, where they produce floAvers.

The cotton flower is always solitary, except in cases of fasciation,
that are rather common in cluster varieties. Being extra-axillary,
the flower is not directly subtended by a leaf or a bract, though there
is a whorl of three bract leaves at the end of the simple peduncle.

BRANCHES OF CASTILLA.

(1) Temporary branches.— ^^iiil axillary branches producing
leaves and inflorescences; short lived and deciduous; not able to serve

as main stems.

(2) Permanent branches.— Kd.yeni\i\o\\s adaxillary or extra-axil-
lary branches, bearing leaves and temporary branches, but no inflo-
rescence branches; serving as permanent divisions of the main stem.

198

54 DIMORPHIC BEANCHES IN TEOPICAL CROP PLANTS.

(3) Inflorescence hranches. — Natal coaxillary branches borne on
the temporary branches in chisters of four male inflorescences or two
male and one female.

BRANCHES OF COFFEE.

(1) Upright hranches. — Natal axillar}- branches not producing in-
florescence branches; serving as equivalents of the main stem.

(2) Lateral hranches. — Natal extra-axillaiy branches attached to
the bases of the internodes of the main stem or of the upright
branches. Lateral branches produce leaves, inflorescence branches,
and secondary laterals, but are unable to replace the main stem.

(2a) Secondary lateral hranches. — Adventitious branches arising
from axillary buds of the lateral branches. They are inflorescence
branches pushed into vegetative growth by severe pruning. In form
and function they agree with the lateral branches.

(3) Inflorescence hranches. — Natal and adventitious coaxillary
branches borne in clusters on lateral and secondary lateral branches.

BRANCHES OF CACAO.

(1) Upright hranches. — Probably adventitious extra-axillary
branches, bearing long-petioled leaves and able to produce branches
of all three kinds and to become permanent parts of the main stem.

(2) Whorled hranches. — Natal axillary branches produced in
whorls and terminating upright branches. Whorl branches bear
short-petioled leaves, lateral branches, and inflorescence branches, but
are unable to replace the main stem.

(2a) Lateral hranches. — Natal axillary branches produced by
whorled branches and having the same functions; not producing
whorled branches or main stems.

ijS) Inflorescence hranches. — Adventitious extra-axillary branches
arising from the mature wood of the main trunk and the whorled and
lateral branches, without power to replace the main stem or the
vegetative branches.

BRANCHES OF THE BANANA PLANT.

(1) Sioord suckers. — True branches of the rhizome that arise from
subterranean buds, develop large bulbous bases, and put forth narrow
leaves when j^oung.

(2) Broad-leaved suckers. — Offshoots adapted for separate vegeta-
tive propagation, arising from superficial buds and bearing broad-
bladed leaves while still young.

198

CONCLUSIONS.

55

The relations between the positions and the fnnctions of the
branches of the four woody pLants are summarized as follows :

Summary of the classification of branches.

Cotton.

Castilla.

Coffee.

Cacao.

Description.

1.

2.

2a.
X

1.

2.

1.

2.

2a.

1.

2.

Origin :

X

X

X

"x"
" x'

X

X

X

X

X
X

X

Position :

A xillarv

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X
X

Reproductive function :

X

'"x"

"x'

X

X

"x"

X

afijri h>

X
X

X
X

X
X

Vegetative function :

X

X

X

1 X

1

CONCLUSIONS.

Definite dimorphism of branches exists in at least five important
tropical crop plants— cotton, coffee, cacao, the Central American
rubber tree (Castilla), and the banana. Each normal plant pro-
duces two kinds of branches, with regular differences of form and
function.

The factor of branch dimorphism must be taken into account in
the scientific study of the structure and habits of all these plants,
as well as in the breeding and adaptation of varieties. Systems of
cultivation and pruning must likewise be planned with reference
to the habits of branching.

In each species there is a definite relation between the functions
of the branches and their positions or places of origin on the inter-
nodes, but there is no general relation of position to function that
applies to all the species, or even to any two of them. It is neces-
sary to consider each plant separately in order to understand the
agricultural importance of the dimorphism of the branches.

In the cotton plant the branches that arise in the axillary posi-
tion have vegetative functions only, like the main stalk. The
branches that produce the flowers and fruit are extra-axillary ; that
is, they arise at one side of the axillary branch or bud. Branches
with the vegetative form and functions may replace the fruiting
branches, in the extra-axillary position, but no normal fruiting
branches develop in the axillary position.

The definite differentiation of the two kinds of branches represents
a normal condition in all the types of cotton that have been studied

198

56 DIMORPHIC BRANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

from this point of view. Intermediate forms of branches are accom-
l^anied by abortion of flower buds and other abnormalities.

The substitution of additional branches of the vegetative form
for the fruiting branches is a frequent occurrence in imported tj'pes
of cotton. The plants regain their normal fertility when the normal
relations of the branches are restored. This readjustment of the
habits of branching represents one phase of the process of acclimati-
zation.

The dimorphism of the branches is also a factor in the problem
of weevil resistance, since the development of larger or more numer-
ous vegetative branches tends to render the crop late. Early crops
usually suffer less injury from the weevils.

In the Central American rubber tree (Castilla) the axillary
branches do not share all the functions of the main stalk or trunk of
the tree. The axillary branches bear the flowers and fruit, but are
shed after a few seasons. The permanent branches always arise
from extra-axillary positions and usually do not begin to develop
until the tree is several years old.

The self-pruning habit of the Central American rubber tree is an
important cultural advantage. Only an occasional tree requires prun-
ing, and then only to correct accidents or abnormalities.

In the coffee tree only vegetative branches, or uj^rights, like the
primary trunk, are produced from the true axillary buds. All the
fertile branches, or laterals, have extra-axillar}^ positions above the
true axillary branches. Lateral branches can not produce uprights,
nor can new laterals be produced from old uprights.

As the crop is borne only on young wood of lateral branches, a
vigorous growth of lateral branches must be maintained if good crops
are to be secured. New uprights must be formed to produce new
laterals, or laterals may continue to grow and subdivide if the growth
of uprights is prevented by pruning. Failure to take the dimorphism
of the branches fully into account in the work of pruning often
results in serious injury to coffee plantations. The practical value of
the different systems of jDruning the coffee tree depends on local con-
ditions of climate and soil, as well as upon the quality and cost of the
labor supply.

In the cacao tree fruit twigs may be borne on all parts of the old •
wood, including that of the main trunk, but there are two types of
vegetative branches. The upright growth of the trunk takes place
by a series of shoots, each of which is terminated by a whorl of three
to six branches. A new ujiright shoot arises from the side of another
upright, not from a whorl branch.

The natural habit of growth of the cacao tree, by a succession of
whorls, is very undesirable in plantations, and can be avoided by

198

CONCLiJSlONS. 67

judicious pruning of the young trees to induce them to develop theii*
crowns from some of the members of the first whorl of branches, in-
stead of allowing them to produce a succession of uprights and
whorls.

The banana plant also produces two forms of suckers or offshoots,
corresponding to the dimorphic branches of the woody species. The
so-called sword suckers represent true permanent branches of the
rhizome. They arise from large subterranean shoots nourished by the
parent plant, and bear at first only narrow, sword-shaped leaves.

The so-called broad-leaved suckers arise as relatively small shoots
from near the surface of the ground. Even in the young stage they
produce broad-bladed leaves like those of the adult plant, and are
adapted for separate propagation.

Dormant tuber-like suckers of the broad-leaved type are formed
on uprooted rhizomes, and constitute a readily portable form of
propagating stock from which vigorous and productive banana plants
may be grown. The use of such tubers may render it possible to
produce bananas under a system of rotation with other tropical
crops.

198

PLATES.

198

59

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I. Abnormal branches and involucres in the Dale variety of Egyptian
cotton, where such abnormalities are especially common, though they occur
also in other Egyptian varieties, as well as in Upland cotton. The figure
near the upper left-hand corner of the plate represents a normal involucre
of Egyptian cotton seen from the side, so that only one of the three bracts
is shown. The figure at the top of the plate and that with the largest leaf
immediately below represent the first stages of transformation from leaves
to bracts, with the stipules enlarged, the petiole shortened, and the blade
reduced in size, but retaining the texture of a normal leaf. Other figures
show intermediate conditions, with the petiole suppressed, the blade more
reduced and united with the stipules, and the texture becoming the same
as in an ordinary involucral bract. The lower right-hand figure shows an
involucre with only two bracts, the upper bract still of the intermediate
form, while the lower is nearly normal, except at the base, where there is
an unusually large bractlet. (Natural size.)

Plate II. Bolls produced on short axillary branches of the Dale variety of
Egyptian cotton. The long stalks of these bolls represent the fused joints
of rudimentary branches, as shown by the presence of small bractlike leaves
and stipules. In the figure on the left-hand side of the plate there is a
bractlike organ in the position that would be occupied by a leaf on a normal
fruiting branch. In the figure at the bottom of the page this organ is re-
duced to the size of a stipule, while on other stalks it is entirely absent.
One stalk is distinctly jointed and bears two bolls in a double involucre, an
example of fasciation. The right-hand figure shows an abortive fruiting
branch ending in a single leaf with enlarged stipules, and a simple axillary
branch bearing a normal boll. (Natural size.)

Plate III. Part of a Maragogipe coffee tree on the Sepacuite plantation, Alta
Vera Paz, Guatemala, showing three upright branches bearing numerous
horizontal lateral branches. The leaves of this variety are larger, heavier,
and more inclined to be crumpled than those of the ordinary Arabian coffee.
(Greatly reduced.)

Plate IV. The left-hand figure shows one internode of a very young upright
and a complete internode of one of its lateral branches, projecting under-
neath the right-hand figure. The right-hand figure shows an older upright
where pruning has forced the growth of two new upright brandies, with
short basal internodes, arising below the bases of the nearly horizontal
lateral branches. (Natural size.)

Plate V. A diseased condition of the lateral branches of Arabian coffee in
eastern Guatemala, where the branching of the laterals has been forced by
persistent pruning. (Natural size.)

Plate VI. A young cacao tree on the Trece Aguas plantation, Alta Vera Paz,
Guatemala, showing the normal method of producing branches in whorls.-
The whorled branches do not give rise to upright shoots, which develop
from the side of the old uprights underneath the whorls. (Greatly reduced.)

Plate VII. Fig. 1. — Petioles of leaves from uprights of cacao. The upright
branches of the cacao produce leaves with the long petioles (left-hand side
of the figure). The whorled branches produce leaves with short petioles
(right-hand side of the figure). (Natural size.) Fig. 2.— Section through
the rhizome of a banana plant showing that sword suckers are true
branches of the rhizome, unlike the broad-leaved suckers that arise from
buds near the surface of the ground. (Greatly reduced.)

198

60

Bui. 198, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture.

Plate I.

Abnormal Branches and Involucres of Egyptian Cotton.

[Natural size.]

Bui. 1 98, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Bolls Produced on Short Axillary Branches of Egyptian Cotton.

[Xiitural size.]

Bui. 1 98, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II!.

Coffee Tree, Maragogipe Variety, Showing Three Upright Branches Bearing

Numerous Lateral Branches.

Bui. 1 98, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IV.

Upright and Lateral Branches of Coffee.

[Natural .size.]

J

Bui. 198, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate V.

Abnormal Formation of Lateral Branches of Coffee.

_^

Bui. 1 98, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VI.

A YouNQ Cacao Tree with Two Whorls of Branches.

J

Bui. 198, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VII.

Fig. 1 .—Petioles of Leaves from Uprights and Whorl Branches of Cacao.

[Natural size.]

Fig. 2.— Section Through Banana Rhizome, Showing Origin of Sword Suckers.

INDEX.

Abortion of buds. See Buds, abortive.

Acclimatization of cotton. See Cotton, acclimatization. Page.

Alternation of generations in animals 10

plants 11

American rubber tree. See Castilla.

Anisophylly, inequality of leaves 9

Arizona, experiments in cotton culture 26

Banana, branches, dimorphic 43-48, 54, 55, 57

summary 54

broad-leaved suckers 43

propagation 45

propagation from tubers 47

resting tubers 46-48

suckers, habits 43

"sword suckers" 43

Begonia, adventitious buds 50

Beissner, L. , on bud reversion 12

Bessey, C. E. , on inflorescence of cuscuta 52

Beyerinck, M. W., on bud reversion 12

Bracts, leaf-like 21-22

morphology 22

Branches, abnormal 19, 21 , 22

abortive 19

adaxillary, definition 52

adventitious 49

agricultural significance 20

axillary and extra-axillary 49

coaxillary, definition 52

collateral 53

dimorphic, comparison of different types 48-53

definition 8

different types 12-13

similarity to alternating generations 10-12

structural significance 8-10

See also under Banana, Cacao, Castilla, Coffee, Coni-
ferse. Corn, Cotton, Patashte, and Pine.

fruiting, forms 17

intermediate forms 18,21

unfruitful 20

relation to acclimatization and breeding 20

serial 53

summary of types 53-55

transformation 28

61

198

62 DIMOEPHIC BEANCHES IN TEOPICAL CROP PLANTS.

Page.

Broussonetia, dimorphic metamers 9

Bryophyllum, adventitious buds 50

Buds, abortive 19, 23, 27, 30

adventitious, definition 51

axillary and extra-axillary 51

natal, definition 51

transformation 23

Cacao, branches, dimorphic 38-43, 54, 55, 56

summary 54, 55

upright 39

whorled ^9

culture '*^

habits in wild state 42

leaves, abortive 42

dimorphic - 39

methods of pruning 41-43

relation of dimorphism to habits of growth 40-41

varieties of branching 40

California, cotton experiments 28

Castilla, branches, compared with other plants 49, 52

dimorphic 31-34,49,53-54,55,56

permanent 32

self-pruning 32

summary 53-54, 55

temporary 32

culture 33

latex extraction 33-34

methods of propagation 33-34

pruning 34

Centipedes, examples of metamers 78

Central American rubber tree. See Castilla.

Coffee, Bourbon, flowers on uprights 35

branches, abnormal - 35

compared with other plants 49, 52

dimorphic 34-38,49,54,55

lateral --- - 35

summary o-±,oo

upright 35

methods of propagation 35-37

pruning, diverse methods - - 37-38

varieties

witches' -brooms 35

Collins, G. N. , on coffee pruning 38

Conclusions of bulletin ^^'^'^

Coniferse, branches, dimorphic

juvenile vegetation

Cook, O. F., and Swingle, W. T., on alternation of generations H

on features relating to dimorphism 8, 13, 26, 30, 31, 33

Corn, Indian, branches, dimorphic

Costa Rica, banana culture '*^' ^ '^^^

vegetative propagation of coffee 36

198

INDEX. 63

Page.

Cotton, abortion of buds 23, 27, 30

acclimatization 26, 27-29

antidromy, spiral arrangement 14

bracts, abnormal 21

branches, abnormal or intermediate fora.s 21-27

compared with other plants 49, 52

dimorphic 13-31,55

relation of dimorphism to weevil resistance 29-31

relation to acclimatization 27-29

sterility of intermediate forms 18-21

summary 53, 55

cluster, branches 16-18

value 27

early fruiting 31

fruiting branches, various forms 17-18

hybrids, branches 25-26

involucre, abnormalities 22

late fruiting 31

leaves, abnormal 21

bractlike 22

metamers 9

phyllotaxy, leaf arrangement 13

spiral arrangement of buds 14

varieties. Dale 22-23, 26

Egyptian, branches 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28

Hindi, branches 18, 19, 20

Kekchi 14, 17, 28, 29, 30

McCall, branches 26

Old World, branches 15

Pachon, branches 15

Rabinal, branches 15

Sea Island, branches 15

Triumph 16, 18

Upland, branches 15,17,18,19,20

weevil resistance 29-31

Darwin, Charles, on individuality of buds of plants 10

Dimorphic branches. See Branches, dimorjthic.

Dimorphism, nature 22

Egypt, cotton culture 29

Fickert-Forst, R. , on f ruitf ulness of cacao 40

Flowers, doubling 18

Goethe, J. W. von, on internodea 9, 10

Gossypium herbaceum. See Cotton, Old World.

Guatemala, cacao culture 40

cotton experiments 15, 26

propagation of coffee 35-36

Heredity, effects of environment ... 25

Homoeosis, definition 23

HojiS, hermaphrodite 25

Hybridization, analogy 23

Hybrids, metameric 24

198

64 DIMORPHIC BEANCHES IN TROPICAL CROP PLANTS.

Page.

Internodes, individuality 9, 10

Intervals of abortive branches - 19

Introduction to bulletin - 7

Jamaica, banana culture - 45

coffee pruning 38

Leaves, representative of floral organs 8

Leavitt, R. G., on homoeosis 23

Limb, definition 12

Maize. See Corn, Indian.

McLachla«n, Argyle, on features relating to dimorphism 10, 19, 28

Meade, R. M., on cotton leaves 16

Mendelism, effect of environment - 25

Metamer, definition 8

Metamers, floral and vegetative 8-9

hybrid forms - 24

Patashte, tree, branches 39

Pax, F. , on classes of branches 52

Petioles, on dimorphic branches 16

Phyllanthus, leaf-like branches - - - 50

Phyllonoma, leaf-like branches 50

Pine, branches, dimorphic 42

Pines, three forms of leaves 42

Pittier, II., experiment with bananas 47-48

Plants as colonies of metamers -- 9

Plates, description 60

Recapitulation of characters - - 1 1

Rubbv." tree. See Castilla.

Ruscus, leaf-like branches - 50

Seedlings as metamers 8

Segments of animals 8

Semele, leaf-like branches 50

Sterility of branches - - 18, 23

Stock berger, W. W. , on hermaphrodite hop plants 25

Stockdale, F. A., on banana culture 45, 48

Summary of types of branches 53-55

Swingle, W. T., and Cook, O. F., on alternation of generations 11

Texas, cotton experiments 25, 27

Theobroma bicolor. See Patashte.

Tinoco, Federico, growing of coffee trees from cuttings 36

Tobacco, buds produced on leaves 50

Translocation of characters ^^

related to hybridization - 24

Transmission of characters ~^

Tyler, F. J., study of varieties of cotton 14

Units of plant structure - 8

Variations readily appreciable in plants 9

Weevil resistance. See Cotton, weevil resistance.

Weevils, relation to superfluous c-otton 1 >uds - 29

Wiesner, J., on anisopliylly 9

Witches' -brooms. See Coffee, witches' -brooms.
198

o

[Continue(J from page 2 of cover.] i

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