te pa peice es cs ~ net pore pes re pentane ied . wee ‘ oe eee aes ere ~~ ant splbdbtedel bs crs ana / Labia - latin ret et : ere . u puieienereeet ee - agian” anny ee ee wet eit Rraterejeieeieret sour eeer ad one _ vr? = “ 188 ee hah elie oe ia . oe eae ee sane weenie, | Sesteaor : vores eae wee Tea ee ied - eee car ewiatinors — ~—enwt > ro Sevewe +r " 2 4 hem afere"e a ~ he - . “ - : ao - ~~ we oe ee eee ereeareene® wv eretet ——— rn - os ter eurewe* o—" ; . ~~ Ne ainda pe ewan A ee ~~ owes : . 7 habe owe Te Oa Bie aw Cf AAI | ‘he BYU ey SFR. = oe see ad —_— ~ / F = ~~ Fw wr ey 7) v iid vv. eWoue h Lwe wh , hn e awe ) : a ww te SNS WSeCy he VW eetubsstat vr tries J ae . Be la aha ans ve NG Segre = “Vue Y awa = AGE TN Ang Th Ne NOS Midd dae Steam, ; i mrt ve wf ey WE SAAS v Ve w Mwy Oeste Stic > SJ ye sexi ove Ow iS ley wy We Ww [wisn WA a ry , ~- viv ww ‘—, Lae be jae & se Se a. No wil Sten) = St Ss ANE eA A Be IY, Yaw © aaks Lapnstr ae ee told wwe: wry’ yw uv wY > aff why wy ety be bs wes = s AA ; . ; een tee PEE DESL SS CSS Shy : “ 27 ¢ @ ~t’Oo _= av 39.9 ee pa gt be aN Shale a Snnmnenieyt¥ rvowes te a nh , OST SZ J Se 2 —i— 2. o a potty Hy PE Nee SoS © GEESE PAN ease Sot N “GeO we Te or . py d> dvs iar ty lvl be par perry Si ey ee ‘ osu See tb: ib dy eer, pba Pip st | IONS ies wa iter TT tg A a “ oat iz wes ‘ec yee fate poy hn. aoe SEO P eS Ee Sees NN 72 Lowe a rite SAT CALS Py, co.) ~ SCY : All A! diese ne ¢ Yee ve wring thy meee wy r\e. " © PSS ag tyes we Tl nm wt b, a Ny oe “o ahs ww we — ¥ves'5* SAAS Ye ¢v* " ot ~ vw - L we ad hd = AY ow. Pod i, ” op Hy Oe oy ood ob A > > “ (wy hyde dPeTOUl tM Ay . “esitthe ebebaer a + ‘Say eyes: = a ae 4 ce eter iti ~* UNM SO a ‘ nS i ty ee Vet ey OF ty Ww iD POM rete Ny yews 2 Teemenesrrer: Be ty >| ; pws a | wane = We 17 2 ae te thes ath d (Cece (a Ge CC Glee SUNG: COM” a age Ae MOC AC AO (CAE . aa CCl CC a CE OOO COU Ei ON OLE AC CCC - LOE 8 a€i Gie CC gee CC Gee eK 180 Coe 6 COG eC COO - Cie «¢ Sad « Cet ac aqme wc ae $$ (CE L a Co 4 C Cae Ce CG @c( & ac ? FY OC v a ¢ Me a ay = Sy Re CO ESE COE Soe a Wo Sane Gos [a @ (eo Gur ¢ C7 © c(’ ae ¢' CYCLE & a. % A fice md, & CC (GE 4 OK a cq a “ td aa fe RK ad (ae « ‘Sug wad rata Lae | qq < e ‘% ‘ Pine Our. Or Me Beg ( ort fi ad E4°¢@ Cae CG a zy’ r, ak ¢ tC ¢ ye r 4 ‘< ar (4 iat ECE “ir gag (‘aq BESS CRORE CC GME WE 41a QC « FARTS COL OY GE et q@r UC (VID US “ie KK 4 Tr Ge "OT @ € Go@ia. amc « iC Gl ete a EO OO Cea are Yara « gam «a ¢ (all (Ning a OATS (jr ( e . ; WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1911 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BurEAU oF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY, Washington, D. C., May 24, 1911. h. Sim: I have the honor to transmit herewith, for publication as Bulletin No. 39 of the Biological Survey, a report on Woodpeckers in Relation to Trees and Wood Products, by W. L. McAtee, assistant, Biological Survey. Woodpeckers as a family take high rank among our insectivorous birds, and being specially equipped to dig into _ wood for hidden larve inaccessible to other birds aid materially in _ the conservation of our forests. ‘Three members of the group, how- ever, the only ones properly known as sapsuckers, are injurious, since their chief purpose in digging into trees is to secure the cambium and the sap for food. The holes they make also permit entrance of moisture, bacteria, and fungi which injure and sometimes destroy the tree. They also cause staining of the wood, seriously impairing its market value when converted into lumber. Altogether the damage done by sapsuckers in the United States amounts yearly to not less than $1,200,000. This bulletin treats of the more strictly economic aspects of woodpecker work, and points out wherein the birds are beneficial and wherein injurious, and in the latter case suggests remedies. Respectfully, Henry W. HENsuHaw, Chief, Biological Survey. Hon. JamMEs WItson, Secretary of Agriculture. aig 3 ‘ Coy hs elie ter Vatoel Ae ee et! heb geet ey a; ie eee men 5 vn lee Tas COME NTS Page ntroduction eR ie woman siamese Gi< olcieinie a MS idle xe oS if Jamage by woodpeckers in ee ial Le peeapa re atria Ae WE Menu, ene Pts, ey arte, ot 7 (LENSE UD STRESS See Re ee a ea i Hulermide tm diceine out msects: 22 2.22252 2oS Lice. ieee eee se 8 Precuation,of nest and shelter cavities....22-.-2-0.b:24).900.2 60.025 -- 8 Attacks of tree enemies aided by woodpeckers.......-.....---------- 2 ~ Compensation for injuries due to food and nest excavations.............. 9 » Damage to wocden posts and structures..............0..0022000 ee eee eee 10 . Damage to telephone and telegraph poles...........---------------- 10 Wainasesto tencesand buildings..°4...5) 2222 sole 22k ee bees 13 BEE MECMM Gini AMACC> oe Sk SaeA Lees aD vice Sct ce dale oy oun deeas 14 Jamage by sapsuckers...-- SE Ae Re oie CME Lhe mile Marea We Sh oe Ae 16 f. Siiamouiion and habits of sapsuckers........22-..2.2...-2.2520. 0000522 16 _____ Effects of sapsucker work on the external appearance of trees...........- 18 _ Effects of sapsucker work on the health of trees...-........-----......--- 20 Trees attacked by the yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius) - - - 21 Trees attacked by the red-breasted sapsucker (Sphyrapicus ruber)... - 50 Trees attacked by the Williamson sapsucker (Sphyrapicus thyroideus) . - 53 Summary of injuries jeopardizing the vigor or life of trees......:-..-- 53 TEC Ge foie elle oe A eg ee 55 Effects of sapsucker work on lumber and finished wood products. .......-- 56 Be emer eaniorieerece Monee ema Cee ie lye 5 Sa, Ma We cee 56 Woods in which blemishes or ornamental effects are known to result RnURRnar SMe eee Canon Kemet Sct be I eo oe es he 62 Eeey of blemishes and ornamental effects in lumber resulting PBIes, REP SUICKOTS< <4 5 Oe ee eae eta eee he a a PR a iN NEON 95 Muneto feeganize sapsuckersy: . sane s =e Sui Joe oe esol es 96 E Werensive measures against sapsuckerss. 022-2222 22 shee ee eee eee. t ete 96 f, General SIE AD Lec cea. aa Cece TAS Laren es Gen oe LE EUST RATIONS. PLATES. ’ Page. ah. -Yellow-bellied, red-naped, and red-breasted sapsuckers. -- . - Frontispiece Remeemalicineon sapsucker ........._.-.-.--.2-- +--+. lee 20sec eceeees- 16 III. Work of pileated woodpecker; bleached walnut wood .........-.--- 16 IV. Work of California woodpecker; swollen sapsucker girdles ..........- 16 Ye card oohioth nell Sis809 5 SC a jbl ee) ts re ne 16 WLW Ore On capmiGwemOnewmUlOW 2.26202 esl once sens eine ye nein cn ee- 28 a 5 6 CONTENTS. Prats VII. Work of sapsucker on white elm 22-22. 25550 2:22.22 2 55 VIII. Work of sapsucker on white elm and western hemlock ...........- 64 IX. Work of sapsucker on hickory, maple, basswood, and chestnut; birdes-eyenaeeees se povtett sterol 68 X. Work of sapsucker on hickory and oak -.-........--).--====eeeee 70 XI. Work of sapsucker on hickory, pitch pine, red cedar, and sassafras. - ie XU: Work of sapsucker on tulip tree ..-=2--2-....-.--- 5255-2 78 TEXT FIGURES. Fie. 1. Homemade nest box for woodpeckers....-.-.---.--.--5.-22.--e eee 15 2. Longitudinal section of nest box shown im fig. 1-2. 22-222 15 3. Spiny tongue of downy woodpecker... ...-.../.4.52. 2.5 =e eee 17 4. Brushy tongue of sapsucker.......55.0--.52 524... 4--- 2. = ily) 5. Sapsucker work on honey locust_.--.2.2.2-:-212.---4-- 26. 19 6. Sapsucker work on hornbeam....--2.2 2225451222 202-- eee ae 7. Sapsucker work on California sycamore........-.-..-- a 39 8. Sapsucker work on bitter cherry .......25. 5.22 26555---22ee eee 43 9. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of sugar maple.................--- 59 10. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of sugar maple................-.+-- 60 11. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of long-leaf pine......-............- 63 12. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of bald cypress................- hem 64 13. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of bald cypress ....:...-..-------- 65 14. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of red cedar_...............-------- 66 15. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of red fir...............--------.--- 66 16. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of black cottonwood.........-....- 67 ‘ 17. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of Carolina poplar.....-...-....---- 68 a 18. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of black walnut. -............-...-- 68 a 19. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of pecan..............------------- fps i 20. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of big shellbark..................- 72 % 21. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of hornbeam..............-.------- 72 : 22. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of chestnut.............----------- 73 F 23. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of black oak.....-........---.----- 74 = 24. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of cow oak..........-..----+-------- 75 s 25. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of white live oak...............--- 75 i 26. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of live oak................--.------ 76 ; 27. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of shin oak...........--...-.---.-- ee Ns ‘ 28. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of slippery elm..........-.-..-.--.- 78 : 29. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of hackberry....-..-.--.----------- 78 30. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of red bay...--.-------------------- 79 ; 31. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of California holly...........-..---- 81 4 32. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of honey locust..............------ 82 F 33. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of honey locust.............-..--.- 83 a 34. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of holly .............----.-..-...- 84 é 35. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of basswood...........------------ 85 x 36. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of flowering dogwood.....---..---- 86; aa 37. Effects of sapsucker work on wood of the tree huckleberry......-...--- Sigaee 38: Yellow-bellied sapsucker. 2+). esses eee ee oe rr 92 3 Sou lickers s..ti06.55.4912 2562. ot eee ee acer 93 40. California woodpecker..............-- Bee. cose fas 94 , 41.’ Pileated woodpecker. .....-.../2-2 Uses e- Sek eet + se 95 ol 42 Hairy woodpecker. ./ 05: . .csie S0sk Restos es se 96 43. Red-headed woodpecker.....2..25-.2ss2se5- = ssi --.22-22 eee 97 : 44. Red-bellied ‘woodpecker... ..../.--...0.)s.025..4.-.+.<><2 tee 98 ae Sago ig ee ete 7 Vie — > 7 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES AND WOOD PRODUCTS. INTRODUCTION. Woodpeckers are peculiarly dependent upon trees, which furnish them food, shelter, and cradles for their young. No birds are more highly specialized nor more perfectly adapted to a particular mode of life than are most woodpeckers to arboreal existence. Moreover, as trees are important to woodpeckers, so are these birds important to trees. Woodpeckers benefit trees by consuming many of the most destructive forest pests, insects largely inaccessible to other birds. In securing these insects, however, which constitute the bulk of their food, and in making nests and shelter cavities, woodpeckers have another significant economic relation to trees, for they remove bark and wood from both dead and living trees. In the case of dead trees little or no harm is done. When, however, they make excavations in living trees, the birds destroy more or less of the cambium layer, from which proceeds the growth of both wood and bark. Slght injuries to the cambium result in distorted growth, but the destruction of large areas may cause death. Since trees are exceedingly valuable to man, the habits of birds whose relations to trees are so vital are of much economic importance. It is the purpose of this bulletin to examine the evidence for and against woodpeckers and to determine their status according to the effect of their habits upon trees and wood products. Injuries by woodpeckers are treated under two heads: (1) Damage by wood- peckers in general; (2) injuries due almost exclusively to the three species properly known as sapsuckers. DAMAGE BY WOODPECKERS IN GENERAL. This topic may be divided into two sections: Damage to trees, and damage to wooden posts and structures. DAMAGE TO TREES. Primarily the work of woodpeckers on the living parts of trees is injurious. The important cambium layer is injured every time a nest is excavated or an insect dug out. To what extent the various 7 8 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. injuries are offset by penenci activities of the birds will be discussed _ later. HOLES MADE IN DIGGING OUT INSECTS. As a rule the holes made by woodpeckers when digging out insects are not large, and there is every reason to believe that most of them heal quickly without noticeably disfiguring the exterior of the trees. They cause distortion and staining of the wood, however, as do all injuries to the cambium. These defects often resemble those which result from sapsucker work, but they generally occur in otherwise unsound trees and are much less numerous and important. However, wounds made by woodpeckers when digging out borers deeply buried in the wood, by reason of their larger size, often result in bleaching the wood (see PI. III, fig. 6), a feature rarely observed in connection with the smaller sapsucker pecks. Our two largest species of woodpeckers, the pileated and the ivory-billed, dig great pits or furrows in living trees or split off large chips. Plate III, figures 1 to 5, illustrates large wounds made by pileated woodpeckers. F.M. Chapman says: ‘I have seen an open- ing made by a pileated woodpecker in a white-pine tree 12 inches long, 4 inches wide, and 8 inches deep, through perfectly sound wood to reach the larve at work in the heart of the tree.”* These large woodpeckers occasionally riddle trees which show no signs of insect attack, but this is so unusual as not to warrant hostility. toward these fine birds, which are disappearing only too rapidly as man encroaches upon their domain. All woodpeckers chip off considerable wood from dead trees and branches to secure the insects therein. In spite of the good done by destroying these insects, in some countries woodpeckers are held in disrepute because they eee the quantity of free a view not likely to be adopted in the United States. Indeed, the offices of woodpeckers in capturing the various wood- boring cisaeie may be likened to those of the surgeon who removes diseased parts from the human body. Not only do we deem the surgeon’s achievement praiseworthy, but we pay him well for doing it. We should maintain the same attitude toward the woodpeckers, surgeons to our trees. Practically all the compensation they demand is the privilege of excavating nests and sleeping shelters in trees. EXCAVATION OF NEST AND SHELTER CAYITIES. There are 24 species (and several subspecies) of woodpeckers in . the United States, and although most of them usually select dead stubs or limbs or partly decayed trees in which to make their nests, 1 Chapman, F. M., Color Key to N. A. Birds, p. 148, 1903. a trees almost exclusively and dig a new hole each year; others occupy the same nest year after year. The Williamson sapsucker is one of the species which habitually nest in living trees. Joseph Grinnell relates that in the San Bernardino Mountains tamarack or lodge- pole pines (Pinus murrayana) are selected by that species as nest trees, usually old ones with the core dead and rotten but with a live shell. In one tree he noted a series of 47 holes which penetrated the trunk on all sides up to about 35 feet. Besides these there were many smaller drillmgs. When once selected by these sapsuckers a tree is doomed, but probably not more than 1 tree in 500 is appro- priated by the birds.' ATTACKS OF TREE ENEMIES AIDED BY WOODPECKERS. Unlike the surgeons of the human body, woodpeckers neither .close the wounds they make nor apply antiseptic treatment, but leave the cuts open to infection. Hence an opportunity is given for a host of enemies, such as bacteria, fungi, and insects,-to enter the wound and further injure the tree. While the birds are at fault in so far as they create conditions allowing the inception of damage by these formidable tree enemies, it is evident that blame for all the ensuing injury can not be placed upon them, and it must be admitted that 4 insects, fungi, and bacteria do immense damage with which wood- __peckers are in no way connected. It should not be overlooked, however, that old woodpecker holes are of use also to many friends ’ of trees, as they furnish nesting sites for bluebirds, titmice, chickadees, : and other insectivorous birds. COMPENSATION FOR INJURIES DUE TO FOOD AND NEST EXCA- VATIONS. After all, however, the question to be decided in regard to the injuries incident to insect hunting and nest excavating by wood- peckers is: Do the services the birds render in destroying the enemies of trees outweigh the damage they inflict? In Bulletin 37 of the Biological Survey it is shown that most woodpeckers destroy vast numbers of the worst pests of trees, many of which are inaccessible to other birds. This service by no means exonerates those species properly called sapsuckers, nor does it free from blame woodpeckers which attack structures valuable to man. It does mean, however, that in general we can safely ignore the minor injuries committed by woodpeckers in pursuance of their natural mode of life, and that in practically all cases (with the exceptions noted) woodpeckers living in forests, groves, or orchards do a great deal more good than harm. 1 Grinnell, Joseph, Univ. Calif. Pub. Zool., V, 64-65, 1908. 10 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. DAMAGE TO WOODEN POSTS AND STRUCTURES. However, when woodpeckers depart from their normal activities and inflict injuries in no wise essential to securing sufficient food or proper shelter, we are not bound to pass over the offenses so lightly as those above discussed. Probably the most serious damage resulting from a change of habits is the hollowing out of telephone poles for nest or shelter cavities, so weakening them that they snap off in high winds. DAMAGE TO TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH POLES. The red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) in some sections commonly chooses telephone poles as nesting sites. The Pennsylvania Telephone Co., of Harrisburg, reports that some years ago many costly poles were destroyed by this species, and Mr. Howard F. Weiss, of the Forest Service, states that 110 out of 268 white cedar poles along a southern railway were bored by this bird. The bird once became a nuisance to the Kansas City (Mo.) Electric Car Co. by drilling the poles carrying the feed cables. A man employed to kill them destroyed 19 in one day.' A related species, the golden-fronted woodpecker (Centurus auri- frons), does similar injury in Texas. Mr. H. P. Attwater says: ‘‘Here their favorite nesting sites are in telegraph poles, and there are few that are without woodpecker holes, as they appear to make new ones every year. ... A line running out of San Antonio to a ranch 9 miles distant was almost destroyed by these birds. They came from all sides, from far and near, and made fresh holes every year, sometimes as many as five or six in a single pole.’ Sennett made similar observations on the same bird in the Rio Grande Valley. He says: ‘‘The square Government telegraph poles are its favorite nesting place. There is hardly a pole free from their holes, and in one I counted ten; probably some were made by their only relative of that section, Picus scalaris, Texas woodpecker.” * Farther west a woodpecker, probably the Gila woodpecker (Cen- turus uropygialis), has been a source of trouble and expense to the Southern Pacific Co. for several years, especially along the 200 miles of road between Benson, Ariz., and Guaymas, Mexico. Mr. C. T. Day, assistant superintendent of telegraph on the Sonora division of this railway, says that between Nogales and Guaymas, Sonora, a great many poles have been lost on account of woodpeckers. ‘‘Weare 1 Bryant, J. A., Osprey, I., 147, Aug., 1897. 2 Quoted by Bendire, C., Life Histories of N. A. Birds, IT, 125, 1895. 3 Sennett, Geo. B., Notes on the Ornithology of the Lower Rio Grande of Texas. Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey Terr., IV, 39, 1878. raf, i. = ree DAMAGE TO POLES. 11 now changing some 300 poles on this account,’’ he writes. The poles injured ‘‘are round cedar, square redwood, and also round creosoted poles; the latter were only placed within the line within the last two or three years. The square poles seem to suffer the most; in many cases we find five or six holes of 3 or 4 inches in diameter in one pole. It seems to be the object of the woodpeckers to dig into the pole for insect life, which the pole may contain, although we _ find places where they have made nests. The hum of the wires, I think, has something to do with attracting the birds to the poles, which sound they take to be insect life in the pole.’ (Aug. 17, 1910.) Besides the species already mentioned, the following are known to injure telephone poles to a greater or less degree: Texan wood- pecker (Dryobates s. bairdi), St. Lucas woodpecker (Dryobates s. lucasanus), California woodpecker (Melanerpes f. bavrdi), red-bellied woodpecker (Centurus carolinus), yellow-shafted flicker (Colaptes auratus), and red-shafted flicker (Colaptes c. collaris). The California woodpecker, besides making nest cavities, perforates the entire sur- face of poles with small holes in which to store nuts. (See PI. IV, fig. 1.) However, ‘‘decay is the great cause of destruction of poles. It is estimated that approximately 95 per cent are destroyed by this cause and only 5 per cent by breakage or mechanical abrasion.”’ 4 How much of the breakage is due to the weakening of posts by wood- peckers is unknown, but the damage is nowhere near as great as com- monly supposed. Mr. Howard F. Weiss, of the Forest Service, dis- ‘cusses the effects of woodpecker attack on poles, in the Engineering News of February 23, 1911 (vol. 65, No. 8, p. 220), from which we quote at length: The number of holes in each pole may vary from one to a dozen or more, although these larger numbers are not common. The size of the hole varies from about 4 to 3 inches diameter. When used for nesting sites the birds may hollow out a pocket 6 to 10 inches in diameter and a foot or more in depth. The question of interest to telephone engineers is to just what extent such poles are weakened. The following example may be of interest. It has been found from measurements on two hundred and fifty 30-foot northern white-cedar poles that their average taper is approximately as follows: Circumference Distance from butt (inches). ae MnP ree Ve dn ile Si pe ee a WAN MR YN ne 0 CIR es PE Se Eas 9a a ee eee Soe A aan ch oC 5 his ae ei ae RE ete EA eh a ar 6 Pi clots Sue ttn dS cE A CaN mt CIE Ra Stee DR 10 Oe neeNe ME Seis pee cia Ponerinae 15 PS) eye Behe ge ME Ge kos Re te ae ee 20 EE yi tO SRNR ae TA NEES ENS Sit bar) fabs 25 Pes. 2. LES BUSS EEE Rieke ee a ea Re aE eee 30 1 Bureau of Census, Forest Products, No. 10, p. 106, 1909. Co aE The. ee ee ie, WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. Assuming the pole as a cantilever, loaded at one end, it is found that it may be hollowed to the extent shown in the figure without decreasing its strength. The length of ordinate between shaded area and right-hand edge of the diagram represents the thickness of outer shell which must be sound. For example, at 10 feet from the ground if only 2 inches of the outer shell are left, the pole will be approximately as strong as though it were solid. This grants the bird permission to build a house about 6 inches in diameter. The higher up the N SS pole it goes the larger can be its nest without — NN injury. If, however, the attack is less than 4 R feet from the ground the pole will be appre- ciably weakened. This illustration neglects the damage done by the entrance into the pole, or the subse- quent decay which may follow, and assumes that the bird builds its nest exactly in the center—a condition not always found in fact. On the other hand, it assumes that the pole has a uniform moisture per cent through- out its length and that the outer fibers at the ground line are perfectly sound. These condi- tions seldom, if ever, exist in practice, as the pole, particularly if it has been set for a year or more, always contains more moisture near the ground than at any point above it, and the 2 Ree Ee sapwood at the ground is invariably more or S less decayed. Hence, the birds could peck ae eae even larger holes than those shown in the sketch ~ without increasing their damage. a i The engineering department of the American Gaui =) Boros Telephone & Telegraph Co. made a few tests Beer ie OF Pole IAehes in 1908 near Zanesville, Ohio, to determine the ; R effect of woodpecker attacks upon the strength peeia Showits theextent to wihichia Dole La of poles. These tests were made by fastening can be hollowed by birds without appre- oe z ciably decreasing its strength. arope around the top of the pole and pulling with a block and tackle to which a dynamom- eter was attached. In 9 cases out of 12 the poles broke at the ground line and not at the points attacked by the birds. The examples in the accompanying table are typical. Y Y yy aD © GY é = istance from Ground Line, Feet. nv) D ie) Typical results of tests of damaged poles; American Telephone & Telegraph Co., Zanes- ville, Ohio. Pole No. 6390. Pole No. 6825. Pole No. 6372. INT yr GVeT REY IE tapes eh GS eee ee ee eS Mea a y } t Cedar. SUVA CS rete ese earn Mase Es oc a a aS rans 44 44, TEC ET I gen eee eg ees Cp ee 35 feet. Circumference, at ground (original) ...........-- ki 7 404 inches. Circumference below ground (minimum) i 38 inches Circumference; point ol loads -- 222-2 32--- 2 sae ee i hi 27 inches. iDrametersbindsholee=seene a sees case emai i :| 81 (See note.) Distance of hole above ground...............--- Distance of load point above ground...... IBTOKCIOMPa URS some ee ee eat eek Beene CAs ia Ground. Wincdentconrected oad eetaen. so easee seen aoe 520 pounds 1,100 pounds. Sieibihoh Sele Gabel en oe ere he, een a a aa Reenter Earth Earth. Top reflection (maximum). .... UE einem 2 feet 11 inches. ...| 5 feet 7 inches. .:.. Butt reflection (maximum)....................- 1 foot 3 inches... -- pn Chess ace ee ee Estimated breaking weight..................... 1,200 pounds. ....- 3,000 pounds. ...-- 2,000 pounds. ere. 4 an om a DAMAGE TO WOODEN STRUCTURES. ib) After pole No.-6390 broke as above shown it was reset and tested as a 30-foot pole, and it broke at the new ground line (404 inches circumference) under 1,000 pounds corrected load. It had a 24-inch shell at break. Estimated breaking weight as a 30-foot pole, 2,500 pounds. Pole No. 6325 was sound at the ground and set in wet rock hole, with about 10 inches of clay on top. At 3,000 pounds, actual reading, the dynamometer slipped. The load was applied for 300 pounds more, when the rope broke and test was abandoned. Pole No. 6372, at 1,100 pounds, corrected load, gave way at ground, but did not quite break off. There were 10 woodpecker holes between 15 and 20 feet above ground, as follows: Peper r aoe PCOUNG 222.2. a le ced a4 3 by 3 inches, 4 inches deep. PRES ADOVe STOUNG 20.25.6252. 6e esas e 3 by 3 inches, 5 inches deep. isteet above eround..2-- 5.22052... 22525. 3 by 3 inches, 3 inches deep. NOMeet above eroundens 5. so. oee 2s F lek 3 by 3 inches, 5 inches deep. At fifth gain, 30-inch circumference, 6 smaller holes. It appears, therefore, that the attack of poles by these birds is not as serious as one would be prone to believe, and, taking into account the great good that they do in eating insects, the destruction of our feathered friends can by no means be justified by the injury they do to pole-line construction. DAMAGE TO FENCES AND BUILDINGS. The downy, hairy, Texas, California, and red-headed woodpeck- ers and both the yellow-shafted and the red-shafted flicker are known to excavate holes in fence and gate posts, but the loss is much less than in case of telephone poles. Indeed, it is probable that in most cases where woodpeckers nest in fence posts about yards and farms the owner is glad to have them there because of the number of insects they destroy. To say the least, it would be an advantage to have them nest in fence posts rather than orchard trees, forinstance, and they would still visit the trees to glean insects. As woodpeckers excavate poles and fence posts, it is not surprising that they attack other wooden structures. The usual type of injury of this class is drilling holes into cornices or under eaves of houses or piercing the walls of barns and sheds. Buildings that are unoccupied most of the time, as schoolhouses and churches, are frequently defaced, church towers or steeples being favorite points of attack. The red-headed woodpecker is an old offender in this respect, and a case is recorded ' where in one season, 22 of these birds were killed one after another while attempting to make a nest in a church steeple. During the caretaker’s absence a pair finally completed a nest and reared their young. The red-bellied woodpecker also sometimes makes holes in houses, but the flickers— the yellow-shafted in the East and the red-shafted in the West—are the woodpeckers that show the strongest predilection for boring into buildings. Often many holes are madein thesamewall. (PI. V, fig. 1.) Apparently the birds learn little by experience, but keep on drilling 1 Stroop, L. J., American Naturalist, IV, 692, 1870. ee 14 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. openings into large cavities unsuited for either nests or shelter. When occupied houses are attacked, the loud calls and racket made by the birds, especially in the early morning, are very annoying to the inmates. The California woodpecker (Melanerpes f. bairdi), besides making holes in houses for nests or sleeping quarters, also pecks in cornices a multitude of small holes, wherein acorns are wedged. The bird usually stores the mast in dead limbs of trees, but when acorns abound near buildings it naturally takes advantage of the large exposed sur- face of dead wood as exactly suited to its purposes. This hoarding instinct undoubtedly has for its basis the provision of food for future use, but the woodpeckers store up immense quantities of acorns which they never eat, most of which fall to the lot of the squirrels and jays. H. W. Henshaw found the California woodpecker making much use of buildings for storage purposes near Ukiah, Mendocino County, Cal. He was informed that one schoolhouse (Pl. IV, fig. 2) was so much injured in a season or two that it was replaced by a new build- ing in preference to making the necessary repairs. PREVENTION OF DAMAGE BY WOODPECKERS. The prevention of damage by woodpeckers (except sapsuckers) rarely necessitates destruction of the birds. Moreover, woodpeckers are so valuable as conservators of trees that the public should not be deprived of their services. It has been claimed that creosote insures telegraph poles against the attacks of woodpeckers, but Mr. Weiss presents evidence to the contrary in the paper previously quoted from (pp. 11-13), and Mr. C. T. Day says concerning results in Sonora: Some of the creosoted poles about 9 or 10 inches in diameter have been picked, leaving an outside shell. In two or three instances the linesmen have found the inside of poles entirely eaten away . . . and found birds’ nests inside. It is a com- mon expression with the linesmen that the woodpeckers get fat on creosote. We tried spraying with carbolic acid in places where their holes were just begun, but so far we have been unable to notice any difference. We are now substituting a Texas pine pole, burnetized, with a creosoted butt, which is claimed to be so much harder than creosote that birds will have considerable difficulty in getting into it. We have some 200 poles up, but as yet they do not show any marks. The results of experiments of this kind will be awaited with inter- est. It will be fortunate, indeed, if some one or other of the preserva- tive treatments which are applied to nearly all poles now being set is found to protect them from woodpeckers. As telegraph poles are usually perforated by woodpeckers for the purpose of securing nesting sites, the providing of nest boxes may prove a comparatively cheap and easy solution of the difficulty. If nest boxes be supplied and _ P : i; : ’ a NEST BOXES. 15 utilized by the birds, the poles should be reasonably exempt from attack. Those suitable for woodpeckers (similar to that illustrated by figs. 1 and 2) cost 25 cents each in lots of 20 or more. They may be used to protect trees, fence posts, and buildings, as well as telegraph and telephone poles. Among native species flickers and the golden-fronted and red- headed woodpeckers have been known to use nest boxes, but few trials of them have been made in the United States. However, such Fig. 2.—Longitudi- Fic. 1.—Homemade nal section of nest nest box for wood- box shown in fig- peckers. ure 1. experiments have proved very successful in Europe, as the following account of their utility in Germany, where they have been employed extensively, shows: Wherever these nesting boxes have been hung up, great success has been the result. All the breeders in holes . . . have inhabited them. ... Ninety per cent of the 2,000 boxes in the wood at Kammerforst . . . and nearly all of the Seebach and of the 2,100 near Cassel were occupied. ... The Prussian board of agriculture has caused extensive experiments to be made with these boxes, with excellent results. Of the 9,300 boxes hung up by the Government in the State and communal woods of the Grand Duchy of Hesse, 70 to 80 per’cent were used the first year, and all have been inhabited this year (1907).! 1 Heisemann, M., How to Attract and Protect Wild Birds, pp. 45-46, 1908. 16 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. It is sometimes practicable to ee damage by woodpeckers by covering obj ects with tin. This does not apply to buildings, of course, — and when injury continues despite nest boxes and other provecna aa devices more strenuous action is permissible. Do not try to kill oe “i offenders by putting out poisoned food or water, for you will kill — more friends than enemies. Some States properly permit the shoot- ing of birds by the owners of premises that are manifestly being damaged. Shooting should be allowed only when actual damage is being done and then only under supervision of a proper authority. DAMAGE BY SAPSUCKERS. DISTRIBUTION AND HABITS OF SAPSUCKERS. Many woodpeckers are commonly termed sapsuckers, but there are only three species properly so called: The yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varvus) (Pl. 1), the red-breasted sapsucker (Sphyrapicus ruber) (Pl. I), and the Williamson sapsucker (Sphyrapicus thyroideus) — (Pl. II). The yellow-bellied sapsucker (known also as red-throated sapsucker, squealing woodpecker, and whining woodpecker) together — with its western form, the red-naped sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius nuchalis) , ranges over practically the whole of North America up to 60° north latitude, breeding from the northern limits of the range south to Massachusetts, Indiana, Colorado, and throughout the Rocky Moun- _ tain region, and migrating over the remainder of the continent as far as the West Indies and Central America. It sometimes winters as far north as the southern boundary of the breeding area. The — red-breasted sapsucker, locally called the red-headed woodpecker, nests from northern Lower California through the Sierra and Cascade Mountain Ranges to southern Alaska, withdrawing in winter to that part of its range south of middle California. The Williamson sap- sucker, the male of which was long known as the black-breasted and the female as the brown-headed woodpecker, occupies in summer the higher parts of the country from the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast, from Arizona and New Mexico to southern British Columbia, and winters from Texas and southern California south through the greater part of Mexico. The sapsuckers are a distinctly marked group of woodpeckers and are held by some authorities to constitute a separate subfamily. Most woodpeckers have long tongues which can be thrust far out of the beak and which are armed at the tip with backward projecting spines (fig. 3), enabling the birds to secure their insect prey although deeply buried in wood. The sapsuckers, on the contrary, have short, practically nonextensible tongues, furnished with a fringe of stiff hairs (fig. 4), not adapted to the capture of wood-boring insects. Bul. 39, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE II. A Hoen® Co Ballimore WILLIAMSON SAPSUCKER. [Left figure, female; right, male. ] Bul. 39, Biological Suivey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. WORK OF PILEATED WOODPECKER; BLEACHED WALNUT Woob. {1, Hole made in canoe cedar ( Thuja plicata) by pileated woodpecker in search of insects. 2, Healed excavation in same wood, outside view. 3,Same, inside view. 4 and 5, Excavations by pileated woodpecker in dead deciduous trees, Vilas County, Wis. By H.S8. Barber. 6, Bleached streak in black walnut, caused by woodpecker’s food excavation.] L4snooy Asuoy WO AIO Toxonsdes Aq poonpord soppirs us[[OA\g ‘eg [BO ‘kyuNo0D OULDOpUST ‘YBIYQ wou ‘osnoypooyos ‘Z “BIuUTOFI[BO ‘sT[LyIOOF BaLETg ‘“"sod soUET UL JoYOod POO VIMIOFT[VD Jo SoToy o8B109¢9 ‘T] "SAIGHI5) YAMONSdVG NATIOMS -YaNOSdGOO/MA VINYOSIIVD JO MYON PLATE IV. Bul. 39, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bul. 39, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. WORK OF FLICKER AND SAPSUCKERS. {1, Holes made by flicker in ranch buildings near Haywards, Cal. 2, Type of sapsucker work on white birch; 3,on apple; 4, on willow (Salix cordata), holes enlarged vertically by continued excavation at upper end; 5, on willow, almost complete barking; 6, on pitch pine, tree killed.] mation. There Ge ee alae HABITS OF SAPSUCKERS. 17 In keeping with their peculiarities of structure, these brush- tongued woodpeckers have peculiar food habits. They are the true sapsucking and cambium-eating species. They girdle and kill many trees, either by destroying extensive areas of the cambium or more commonly by removing many small pieces in such a way as to sever most if not all the channels carrying the elaborated sap from which both wood and bark are formed. The three species are probably equally to blame. While it has been asserted that the red-breasted and Williamson sapsuckers harm trees less than the yellow-bellied, these statements are probably founded on in- sufficient infor- is a dearth of és data respecting Fic. 3._Spiny tongue of downy woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens). (From the habits of Lueas, Rept. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1895.) these two woodpeckers, but similarity of structure and the evidence of stomach examinations indicate that the three species of sapsuckers are much alike in their cambium-eating habits and hence all three are injurious to trees. The Williamson sapsucker, however, is strictly an inhabitant of pine forests and aspen groves at considerable elevations, and therefore under present conditions is not likely to injure trees of great value to man. Stomach examinations show that the red-breasted sapsucker con- sumes enough cambium and bast to average 12.16 per cent of its food. The same food constitutes 12.55 per cent of the stomach con- tents of the Williamson sap- suckers examined and 16.71 per cent of the yellow-bellied woodpecker’s diet, an aver- Fig. 4.—Brushy tongue of sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius). age amount for the three of (From Lucas, Rept. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1895. 13.8 per cent. It must be noted also that cambium is a very delicate, perishable material, at certain times no more than a jelly, and thus never receives a percent- age valuation in examinations of long-preserved stomachs correspond- ing to its bulk when first swallowed. Neither do we get any record of the sap consumed by these birds, and they are inordinate tipplers.+ Hence the value of the percentages cited lies not so much in their accuracy as to the quantity of cambium eaten as in the fact that they indicate a steady consumption of this important substance. There a a, H yy 1 A yellow-bellied sapsucker has been observed to remain within a yard of some of its holes in a maple tree, drinking the sap at frequent intervals, from 10 a. m. to 5 p. m. 99068°—Bull. 39 —11——2 18 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. is no doubt that cambium, bast, and sap are depended upon by sap-" suckers as staple diet. The results of sapsucker attacks on trees are so uniform and char- acteristic as to be distinguished easily from the work of other wood- peckers. Sapsucker holes are drilled clear through the bark and cambium and often into the wood. They vary in outline from cir- cular to squarish elliptical, in the latter case usually having the longer diameter across the limb or trunk. Generally they are ar- ranged in rings or partial rings around the trunk, but they often fall into vertical series. Deeply-cut holes arranged mt such regularity are made only by sapsuckers. After the original pattern of holes is 3} completed: the sapseeee often continue their work, taking out the bark between holes until sometimes large areas are Alsealty removed. This often occurs on small limbs or trunks, where long strips of bark up and down the tree are removed, leaving narrow strings between. This effect is also produced by continually enlarging single punctures by excavating at the upper end (PI. V, fig. 4), which is done to secure fresh inner bark . and a constant supply of sap. Occasionally, after a tree has been checkered or grooved after the above-described systematic methods, it may be barked indiscriminately, leaving only ragged patches of bark. (PI. V, fig. 5.) Even in such cases, however, traces of the regularly arranged punctures are likely to remain, and there is no difficulty in recognizing the work as that of sapsuckers, for no other woodpecker makes anything like it on sound, living trees. All holes, grooves, or irregular openings made by sapsuckers penetrate at least to the outermost layer of sapwood or nongrowing part of the tree. This results in the removal of the exterior rough bark, the delicate inner bark or bast, and the cambium. Since the elaborated sap (upon which the growth of trees depends) is conveyed and stored in these layers, it is evident that sapsuckers attack the trees m a vital part. Each ring of punctures severs at its particular level part of the sap-carrying vessels, another ring made above destroys others, and so the process continues until in extreme cases circulation of elaborated sap stops and the tree dies. When the injury to the vital tissues is not carried so far, only a limb here and ‘there may die, or the tree may only have its vitality lowered for a few years. If the attacks cease, it may completely recover. EFFECTS OF SAPSUCKER WORK ON THE EXTERNAL APPEAR- ANCE OF TREES. ¢ Recovery, however, does not mean that the tree has escaped per- manent injury. Patches of cambium of varying size may be killed. Growth ceases at these points and the dead and discolored areas are . se INJURIES TO APPEARANCE OF TREES. | 19 finally covered by wood and bark. Until this process is completed, the tree is disfigured by pits with dead bark and wood at the bottom, and even when completely healed, the spot remains a source of weak- ness. In fact, all sapsucker pecking is followed by more or less rotting and consequent weakening of the wood, and renders trees more liable to be broken by the wind or other causes. Sapsucker injuries usually stimulate growth of the wood layers at the points attacked, so that they become much thicker than usual. This results in a te swelling of the bark, and when the birds reopen the old wounds year after year, as they habitually do, succeeding wood layers make excess growth and in time shelflike girdles fede On trees having thin, flexible, rapidly growing bark, the swollen girdles are. smoothly covered and rounded (fig.5; Pl. IV, fig. 3), but on trees having thick, brittle, or stiff bark, the bark breaks and a gaping ) furrow is formed at the summit of the - swelling (PI. VII, figs. 2 and 3; Pl. VIII, meee fio 11> Pl TX: fic. 2; Pl. X, fig.1). Some _____ trees are remarkably deformed by such ___ protruding girdles (fig. 5.) Buds are apt to start from the edges of holes drilled by sapsuckers and form twigs or small branches. Such shoots have been noted on honey locusts and _. sycamores, and in some trees, such as willows and elms, which are prone to produce adventitious buds, they arise from sapsucker injuries in such numbers as to materially disfigure the trees. The bark may be otherwise disfigured, sae ea as by exudations of gum or by pitch Fic. 5.—Sapsucker work on honey locust : ite (Gleditsia triacanthos). Protruding gir- $ streams, or sapsucker injury may be fol- dies. Specimen is 18 inches in diameter. __ lowed by fungus attack, as in certain pines. Spores of Peridermium cerebrum sometimes reach the wood through sapsucker punctures and cause knotty gall-like outgrowths which greatly disfigure the trees. The wood also is often distorted and discolored in such a way as to destroy its commercial value. This phase of damage by sapsuckers is exceedingly important and will be made the subject of a separate section of the bulletin. 3 Wie 20 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. EFFECTS OF SAPSUCKER WORK ON THE HEALTH OF TREES. Bendire says: ‘‘In certain localities, as where apple orchards are abundant, it [the yellow-bellied sapsucker] becomes a nuisance, and materially injures and eventually kills many such trees.”’+ In the State of Washington whole orchards of young apple trees have been destroyed by sapsuckers, either by the western form of the yellow- bellied woodpecker or by the red-breasted sapsucker. The latter species injures other trees also, as related by Ellwooc Cooper, of Santa Barbara, Cal. He says: There were no trees killed outright at the time the sapsuckers were so bad, but many of them ceased to be useful as fruit bearers. Some apple trees died back at the top and did not thrive, so that I cut them down as useless, also a few English walnut trees. The orange trees had my special attention. I used the knife, cutting out the injured place, covered the wood with grafting wax, and had the bark heal over. The trees are living now and thriving. I have a few blue gums (Eucalyptus globulus) that show injury at this time. I consider the birds a pest. There were many other trees injured. I hired a boy to shoot the red-headed woodpeckers [i. e., the red-breasted sapsuckers] and intend to do so the coming spring. (Jan. 22 and Feb. 8, 1909.) B. Horsford, of Springfield, Mass., writes as follows concerning the yellow-bellied sapsucker: I have seen the white birch cut off, or rather broken off, 20 feet from the ground in more cases than I can number—all his work. I have seen the yellow birch destroyed in the same manner—branches of the tree cut off, shriveled branches struggling for life, but dying. I have seen a tree girdled with spots 20 feet from the ground, then again a few feet lower, then below that, repeating the process to the roots, leaving a dead and dry section above each belt. I have seen the white pine destroyed in the same way. ... Ihave seen an elm tree 18 inches in diameter, whose trunk of 12 feet was spotted with ‘‘gimlet holes” . . . where for 10 summers past I have shot the pest and thereby saved the tree. ... Where the bird breeds, whole orchards are severely injured, if not destroyed. ... The leaves fade and the fruit withers on the stem or falls to the ground. Perhaps not half the apple trees attacked are killed outright, but the birch tree invariably dies.” Even forest trees are not immune from injury by sapsuckers. Prof. W. W. Cooke, of the Biological Survey, states that near Lake Itasca, in northern Minnesota, where the birds breed, the yellow- bellied is the most common woodpecker. It does much mischief among forest trees, killing many great poplars by its girdles. Mr. A. W. Butler says: It knows when sugar making begins. ... Ihave found their borings, from which sap was flowing, February 19, 1896. Through March and April they continue their work. ... In fall when they come to us they resume their work of piercing the bark of maple, apple, and other trees. ... Ihave found their fresh work on young apple trees, never before pierced, as late as November 19, 1895. Pine trees are also girdled, chiefly, however, through the winter, for among them the sapsucker spends his winter, and about lawns where pines and maples grow together they are most com- monly found at that season. By spring they have removed most of the bark scales { Bendire, C., Life Histories of N. A. Birds, TI, 84-85, 1895. 2 Forest and Stream, XX, 124, 1883. TREES ATTACKED BY YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER. 21 from the pine, and it then appears quite clean. The resin flows from the wounds the bird has made and forms milky streaks and gummy excrescences later in the season , which look unsightly. ... The pines are weakened, their tops girdled until they become bent and even blown off by the wind. Apple trees and choice maples are seriously damaged. ... I have counted six of these birds at one time on a dozen sugar maples in front of one lot in my own town, and have seen the sap flow in a stream.1 © Dr. P. R. Hoy gives evidence of damage by yellow-bellied sap- suckers. In 1865 he wrote as follows: a. They . . . energetically attack the maple, mountain ash, pine, spruce, pear, apple, plum, cherry, peach, and silver poplar, . . . ironwood, wild cherry, and basswood. It is during the autumnal visit that they do the greatest damage; for in spring, when the vital forces of vegetation are unusually active, the tree recovers more cer- tainly from the wounds inflicted, while in the fall, vegetable life being less active, the septa between the punctures are more likely to dry, leaving the tree dead or crippled for life. The sapsuckers attack the most thrifty trees, but after they have suffered a siege from these sapsuckers, they are thriftyno more. If not killed, they are so stunted — that they fall an easy prey to the bark lice, . . . for when an orchard tree is enfeebled from any cause, bark lice are sure to finish thework. ... The damage done by these birds to orchards and ornamental grounds is considerable, second only to that of the barklouse. There is not a garden or orchard of anysize in the vicinity of Racine [ Wis.] that has not lost trees killed by the sapsucker.? eS The instances above cited are sufficient to show that sapsuckers materially injure or even kill many trees of a wide variety of species. Subjoined are lists of the trees attacked by the three species of sap- suckers as complete as present information permits. TREES ATTACKED BY THE YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER. x (Sphyrapicus varius.) In these lists field notes on damage to certain trees are given, with locality and name of observer. The writer is responsible for cita- tions with localities only Gmost of which are vouched for by specimens _in the Biological Survey), for unsigned field notes, and for records of specimens in museums. The following abbreviations are used: A. A., Arnold Arboretum; A. M., American Museum of Natural History; F., Field Museum of Natural History; H., Hopkins collection. These _ -symbols are accompanied by the numbers of the specimens in these wood collections. Notes from published sources are followed by the name of the author, and the bibliography following the lists supplies the complete references. The exception is a paper read by Dr. A. D. _ Hopkins before the Biological Society of Washington, which, although unpublished, is inserted in the bibliography. We are under the ereatest obligations to Dr. Hopkins, who has furnished a vast amount of valuable data on sapsucker work. ‘The scientific names of the trees agree in the main with those of Britton’s North American Trees.’ 1 Indiana Dept. Geol., Annual Report 22 (for 1897). pp. 835-6, 1898. 2 Trans. Ill. State Agr. Soc., V, 731-2, 1865. 3 Britton, N. L., New York, 1908, pp. 894. 2 ee ee A ee ae Z pr hes oyrag 99 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. Names of families and the statistics as to the number of species in them are from the same book. | Included in this list are the names of many trees attacked by sap- suckers, but by which of the three species is not known. In view of the immense range of the yellow-bellied sapsucker, probably all these trees are at some time or other punctured by this species. Many of them are undoubtedly attacked by one of the other species, especially in the West by the red-breasted sapsucker. The information concerning sapsucker attack on trees of various families is summarized for each family before presenting the evi- dence relating to the individual species. . Following the family sum- maries are lists of all the species attacked, with detailed accounts of the species notably injured. The yellow-bellied sapsucker, in addition to attacking trees, also works upon several vines. Sometimes a vine is riddled ee the tree which supports it is untouched. The vines upon which punc- tures have been noted are: DUTCHMAN’S PIPE Canes macrophylla).—West Virginia (F.), Abbeville, La. Porson ivy (Rhus bh eee —This vine is abundantly punctured by sapsuckers and sometimes partly or entirely killed, as at Longbridge, La. RatTTaNn VINE (Berchemia volubilis).—Abbeville, La. Frost GRAPE (Vitis vulpina).—Longbridge oa Abbeville, La. VIRGINIA CREEPER (Psedera quinquefolia).—Plummers (algae Md. TRUMPET CREEPER (Tecoma radicans).—Cottonport and Aphe ville, La. These 6 species of vines belong to 5 families, 2 of which are not otherwise represented in the list. THE MAIDENHAIR TREES (GINKGOACEZ). This family contains only a single species, a native of Japan, which is commonly cultivated for ornament in the United States. It is vigorously attacked by sapsuckers, but so far as known it is not materially defaced. MAIDENHAIR TREE (Ginkgo biloba).—Along the central avenue of the Agricultural Department grounds in Washington are 76 trees of this species, of which 29, or 38 per cent, have been pecked by the yellow-bellied sapsucker. Some of the trees show numerous punc- — tures, and ina few cases swollen girdles have resulted. One tree which — divides into ten main trunks is closely punctured all over. The trees are disfigured, but as they are not especially prized for beauty of trunk, the blemishes are not serious. CONIFEROUS TREES ATTACKED. 23 THE YEW FAMILY (TAXACEZ). Four arborescent species of this family occur in the United States, and three of them are known to be attacked by sapsuckers. These ‘trees are little used for ornament, and as yet we have no evidence that sapsucker attacks have weakened or killed any of them. LIST OF TAXACEM ATTACKED. Froriwa YEw (Tazus floridana).—Bristol, Fla. (A. A. and A. M. 411). hi StinkinG cEDAR (Tumion tazifolium).—River Junction, Fla. _ (A.A. and A. M. 414.) CALIFORNIA NUTMEG (Tumion californicum).—California an A, and A. M. 413). THE CONE-BEARING TREES (PINACE), This large and important family of trees includes many of the finest ornamental forms. Almost half of the total number of native species, as well as several introduced forms, are known to be attacked by sapsuckers. The following table shows the number of indigenous species in each genus of the family and the number subject to at- tack by sapsuckers. There is little doubt that all are punctured 5 at times. is Pinacex attacked by sapsuckers. 2 Number Number | Introduced a Genus. . of native of these species - species. attacked. | attacked. TS CP AED |e oe Oe ee ee Sa ee as 36 16 2 PEC LEAT TT) Se i eh RE Si te eo Oa 3 0 1 Sy ELA CLEATS YS SA ate Te Cte eA arp ye al Se 8 3 1 r PRET RLENG ba (PEST D ic oats eran See ee en a elias ete ee ES 4 3 0 E Fir vie TESTU) VSS Re te ee et VR she SLA Ps Le reg Pe et i 2 it 0 a LETC GEN DIN Sot oles a Se UA pa tee ee lye ea Ae a 10 5 0 . BER GUUS CU TLOUD) 8 202 jac aarc) 2 erat eee sae eek ints = aek Se 2 2 0 mn EPC MISLOSS (Qe NOLOU LUN) =, o.3 <= eres oe oe eae ae oa Sista ee ene Soe 2 1 0 e Memensene dan Mey erid) a9 02.260. 55 225.2. 0 i sebastien Sie 1 1 0 a 2 VEE HIE (CLA PCATD eae ea a ee ere ea Se eu re pee 2 1 0 a ce ES MLR CRO UG ate alo ae Oran = Ns 3 SB ae ies ae A ate are d 5 3 0 a FEMALE TREC IOUTILS eet er aoe eae he etre ua eeu. itis cartes 3 1 0 a ae MIRE TIUDIETI IG) eet eee inn tants = cle wie ciara az aya ene ee 12 5 0 90 42 4 -, Several of the species attacked are known to have been seriously injured or killed, including 6 native and 2 introduced pines, 2 native and 1 introduced spruce, 2 native hemlocks, 2 firs, and 1 juniper. For Butler’s testimony concerning injuries to pines see pages 20-21. Steere makes a more serious charge, saying the bird ‘‘injures and ~ oftentimes kills the pines, making so many holes that the trees bleed. to death” (Annapolis, Md., Aug. 24, 1885). D4 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. Spruces, if not killed, are weakened and rendered unsightly. Wright says: Here, in the garden, they attacked a large spruce one autumn, and the next spring the trunk was white with the sap that leaked from the hundreds of ‘‘taps,” and the tree has never since recovered its vitality. Among the coniferous trees so badly affected are the most beautiful and valuable ornamental species, defacement or destruction of which — is a serious offense. LIST OF PINACEH ATTACKED. WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus)—The white pine is the most impor- tant tree of the eastern United States and is a valuable ornamental species. Hopkins states that young trees are injured or killed by sapsuckers; Horsford notes that he has ‘“‘seen the white pine de- stroyed”’ by these birds; and Warren says: ‘“‘In one garden [in Ra- cine, Wis.] all the . .. white pine trees were entirely killed.” Evi- dently this species suffers severely from sapsuckers, and, as it is so valuable, the loss is serious. : LIMBER PINE (Pinus flexilis)—Colorado (A. M. 499). WHITEBARK PINE (Pinus albicaulis)—Washington (A. M. 498). ONE-LEAVED NUT PINE (Pinus monophylla)—California (A. A. and A. M. 492). Not PINE (Pinus edulis).—Vermejo, N. Mex., May 6, 1903, (H.). CHIHUAHUA PINE (Pinus chihuahuana).—Southern Arizona (A. M. 491). Rep PINE (Pinus resinosa).—This species is rather infrequently — used for ornamental purposes and generally goes under the name Norway pine. Butler (1890) says: ‘‘ Norway pines in my yard have been girdled until they became puny, sickly trees and were cut down, and one tree was so girdled about two-thirds of its height from the ground that it was broken off during a windstorm.” A red pine in the grounds of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington bears considerable sapsucker work. BuLuL PINE (Pinus ponderosa mayriana).—Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz. (A. M. 489). LODGEPOLE PINE (Pinus murrayana).—Uintah Mountains, Medi- cine Bow Range, Wyo. and Utah (H. 6175b). LONG-LEAF PINE (Pinus palustris) —At the Santee Club, South , Carolina, fully 50 per cent of the long-leaf pines bear sapeme les work, — some to a disfiguring degree, as protruding girdles have resulpeea At Gainesville, Fla., sapsucker pecking is also plentiful on this — species, but on St. Vincent Island, Fla., only a few trees are punc- tured. Hopkins notes that the sapsucker injures or kills young trees. (His specimens are from Baldwin, Fla.; Boardman, N. C.; and Buna, Tex.) Ernest Napier, of the Game Commission of New oo taal z CONIFEROUS TREES ATTACKED. 95 Jersey, states that many young trees of this species in Lee County, Fla., have been killed by sapsuckers. The long-leaf pine is attacked throughout its range. PitcH PINE (Pinus rigida).—Many trees of this species in the vicinity of Washington, D. C., show abundant evidence of sapsucker attack. A specimen from Delslow, W. Va. (H. 6653), is from a tree which was killed by yellow-bellied sapsuckers (Pl. V, fig. 6). The sapsucker pecks are in vertical rows and are so numerous and closely placed that nearly half the bark is removed. Pitch pines in Rockfish Valley, Va., also are attacked. Ponp PINE (Pinus serotina).—Santee Club, Sout# Carolina. SHORT-LEAF PINE (Pinus echvnata)—Hopkins states that young trees are injured or killed by sapsuckers. Specimens collected near Seven Locks, Montgomery County, Md., show that sapsucker injuries are sometimes followed by an attack of the fungus Peridermium cere- brum, causing large gall-like outgrowths which greatly disfigure the trees. SPRUCE PINE (Pinus glabra).—Santee River, 8. C. (A. M. 472). Sorus PINE (Pinus virgimana).—The statement regarding fungus attack in echinata applies also to this species, which we know to be punctured by sapsuckers at Morgantown, W. Va. (H.), and in the vicinity of the District of Columbia. A dead tree on Plummers Island, Md., showed a band 8 to 10 inches wide of closely set punctures, and in other parts of the tree vertical strips of the bark had been removed. Death may well have been due to the sapsucker injuries. TABLE-MOUNTAIN PINE (Pinus pungens).—Fairfax County, Va. AUSTRIAN PINE (Pinus laricio austriaca).—This species is widely used for ornamental planting in- the United States. It is often dis- ‘figured or even killed by the yellow-bellied sapsucker. Widmann (see Bendire) says it is the bird’s ‘“‘favorite tree among our orna- mental evergreens. ... The exudations of resin, the secondary result of the sapsucker’s labors, mar the appearance of the trees by running down their sides or hardening into unsightly lumps.” Clif- ford states that the sapsuckers ‘‘do great damage to the ... Aus- trian pines, sometimes girdling them so as to kill them,”’ and Purdy notes that this species is one of the sapsucker’s preferred food trees. An Austrian pine in the Department of Agriculture grounds bears considerable sapsucker work. Some of the pits are exceptionally large, and many are arranged in vertical rows. Dr. A. K. Fisher says that one of 7 or 8 Austrian pines at his old home in Ossining, N. Y., was favored by sapsuckers and worked upon extensively every fall. ScorcH PINE (Pinus sylvestris) —This tree is occasionally planted for ornament and suffers from sapsuckers almost as severely as the Austrian pine. Widmann (see Bendire) says the Scotch pine is the 26 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. bird’s second choice among our ornamental evergreens. The trunks and larger limbs . . . look very badly at times.”” Purdy notesthat the Scotch pine is a favorite with the sapsuckers, and Clifford states that the birds sometimes kill it. EUROPEAN LARCH (Larix decidua).—Massachusetts, Kennard. | Norway SPRUCE (Picea excelsa).—This tree is extensively planted for ornamental purposes. According to Elliott, the sapsucker “in its fondness for cambium often removes considerable fresh bark. I have seen several fine Norway spruces ruined in this way.” 1 Rep spruce (Picea rubens).—Randolph County, W. Va. (F. 74878) ; Davis, W. Va. (H. 6626b). ENGELMANN SPRUCE (Picea engelmanm).—Sandpoint, Idaho (H. 195a). WEEPING SPRUCE (Picea breweriana).—Northern California (A. M. 457). TIDELAND SPRUCE (Picea sitchensis).—Push, Oreg. (H. 121a). EASTERN HEMLOCK (T'’suga canadensis).—This graceful and stately tree, a gem among ornamental conifers, is not spared by sapsuckers. Allen says: “In Vermont where I have observed S. varius [the yellow- bellied sapsucker] in abundance, no trees were so extensively per- forated as the hemlock.” Bendire says the sapsucker “‘is partial to the ... hemlock;” and Hopkins notes that the bird injures or kills young trees. (Specimens from Allegheny Mountains, W. Va.) SOUTHERN HEMLOCK (T’suga caroliniana).—South Carolina (A. M. 454); Habersham County, Ga., December 18, 1909 (F.). WESTERN HEMLOCK (Tsuga heterophylla) —Detroit, Oreg., June 2, 1899 (H.); Hoquiam, Wash. (H. 2167a) (see Pl. VIII, fig. 3). DoveLas FIR (Pseudotsuga mucronata) —St. Helena, Oreg. (H. 116a). . Wuite Fir (Abies concolor).—Oregon (A. M. 444); San Bernar- dino Mountains, Cal. Grinnell. Wuite Fir (Abies grandis).—Oregon (A. M. 446); McCloud, Cal. (is 71)3 White Fir (Abies amabilis) —Oregon (A: M. 447). Rep Fir (Abies magnifica).—California (A. M. 441). Rep Fir (Abies nobilis) —Oregon (A. M. 442). Bie TREE (Sequoia washingtoniana).—Near Grant National Park, Cal. (A. A. and A. M., 438). Repwoop (Sequoia sempervirens).—EKureka, Cal. (H.). Bap cypress (Tazodium distichum).—Boardman, N. C., March - 25 and April 3, 1904 (H.); Cottonport, La., Longbridge, La. INCENSE CEDAR (Heyderia decurrens).—Oregon (H.). CANOE CEDAR (Thuja plicata)—Washington, May 3, 1899 (H.). MonTEREY CYPRESS (Cupressus macrocarpa).—Monterey, Cal. (A. M. 482). POPLARS AND WILLOWS ATTACKED. OM GowEN cypress (Cupressus goveniana).—California (A. M., 430). MAcNAB CYPRESS (Cupressus macnabiana).—Lake County, Cal. (A. M. 429). : WHITE CEDAR (Chamexcyparis thyoides)—Dismal Swamp, Va. November 21, 1901 (H.); Atsion, N. J. (A. M. 428). DESERT JUNIPER (Juniperus utahensis)—Utah (A. A. and A. M, 422), WESTERN JUNIPER (Juniperus occidentalis).—California (A. M. 420). Rock ceDAR (Juniperus mexicana).—Austin, Tex. (A. M. 418.) NORTHERN RED CEDAR (Juniperus virgvmana).—tThis species is commonly attacked by sapsuckers. Mr. J. M. Thompson states that it is one of the bird’s principal food trees, and Mr. F. K. Steere says it is often badly hurt by the sapsucker (letter from Annapolis, Md., Aug. 24, 1885). Of 40 red cedar trees on a part of Plummers Island, Md., 19 are covered with closely set sapsucker punctures. Specimens from Florida (A. M. 417); Kanawha Station, W. Va. September 28, 1903 (H.); and LIlhnois (Ff. 26487) show abundant sapsucker work. . SOUTHERN RED CEDAR (Juniperus barbadensis).—Jacksonville, Fla. (A. M. 416). THE POPLARS AND WILLOWS (SALICACE). There are 15 native species of poplar in the United States, 8 of which, besides 1 introduced tree, are known to be attacked by sap- suckers. The only instance of serious injury to poplars that has come to notice was communicated verbally by Prof. Cooke of the | Biological Survey. He states that in northern Minnesota, where the yellow-bellied sapsucker is common in summer, it kills many large poplar trees in the forests. Willows are often seriously injured. Hopkins says the sapsucker injures or kills young trees, and specimens of small willows (Pl. V, fig. 5) collected by him in the Black Hills, S. Dak., September 3,'1901, show almost complete barking. Grinnell reports that sapsuckers kill many white willows (Salix lasiolepis). Fifteen of the 26 native arborescent willows are known to be attacked. The injury to willows and poplars by sapsuckers is unfortunate, since these trees are valuable for shade, for ornament, and for protect- ing the banks of water courses. LIST OF SALICACEA ATTACKED. SILVER POPLAR (Populus alba).—Washington, D. C., April 26, 1903 (H.); Albany, N. Y., Hough; Racine, Wis., Hoy, 1865. Swamp popLaR (Populus heterophylla).—Louisiana or Alabama, - (A, A. and A. M. 378). wail F 28 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. Buiack corronwoop (Populus trichocarpa).—Seattle, Wash. (A. A. and A. M. 373). Batm oF GILEAD (Populus candicans).—New Hampshire (A. A. and A. M. 377). Cortronwoop (Populus acuminata).—Nebraska (A. M. 374). Tacomanac (Populus balsamifera).—Essex County, N. Y. (A. A. and A. M. 376); Lewis County, N. Y. (Hough). CAROLINA POPLAR (Populus deltoides)—Texas (A. M. 372); Venice, La. Aspen (Populus grandidentata).—Rawdon, Nova Scotia (A. M. 379). AsPEN (Populus tremuloides).—Mackenzie Valley, Canada (H. A. Preble). Back wiLLow (Salix nigra).—Belle Isle, La. Warp wILtow (Salix longipes).—St. Louis, Mo. (A. A. and A. M. 368). CALIFORNIA BLACK WILLOW (Salix levigata).—California (Ave and A. M. 366). Witiow (Salix toumeyr).—Santa Catalina Mountains, Ariz. (A. A. and A. M. 365). PEACH-LEAVED WILLOW (Salix amygdaloides)—New Mexico (A. A. and A. M. 367). WESTERN BLACK WILLOW (Saliz lasiandra).—California (A. A. and A. M. 362 and A. M. 364). SANDBAR WILLOW (Salix interior).—New Orleans, La. (A. M. 360). SILVER-LEAVED WILLOW (Salix sessilifolia) —California (A. A. andl A. M. 359). WILLow (Salix missouriensis).—Furness, Nebr. (A. M. 356). WHITE WILLow (Salix lasiolepis).—California (A. A. and A. M. 357). According to Britton, the name Salix bigelovia is a synonym of S. lasiolepis. Hence the following note is incorporated here (see Pl vil): Near Bluff Lake [Cal.] a species of willow (Salix bigelovii) grows in good-sized clumps . . . and these willows seem to offer special attraction to the sapsuckers. But curiously enough the attentions of the birds are confined to a single clump in a locality. ... The incisions in the bark were generally rectangular, the long axis horizontal, and in vertical rows. These up-and-down rows of incisions often ran together, making vertical grooves, and sometimes also the rows were so close together as to obliterate the interval, so that the bark was completely gone over a considerable space The trunk above this zone of attack was always partly or entirely dead. This single willow clump . . . was rendered conspicuous by all its upper branches and stalks, above 2 to 4 feet from the ground, being dead, with the bark weathered off and the stems left bare and shining. (Grinnell, 1908.) Wixtow (Saliz hookeriana).—Oregon (A. A. and A. M. 353). YEW-LEAVED wittow (Salix taxifolia)—Swisshelm Mountains, Ariz, (A. A. and A. M. 358 and A. M. 361). SATIN WILLOW (Salix sitchensis).—California (A. A. and A. M. 352). Bul. 39, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. WoRK OF SAPSUCKER ON WILLOW. [Sierra sapsucker (Sphyrapicus v. daggetti) at Bluff Lake, California, September 3, 1905. By J. Grinnell.] WALNUTS AND HICKORIES ATTACKED. 29 Per ecous wittow (Salix discolor).—Vermont (A. A. and A. M. 355). Wittow (Salix scouleriana).—Oregon (A. A. and A. M. 354). THE BAYBERRIES (MYRICACEZ). There are four arborescent species! of this family in the United States, of which three are known to be attacked by sapsuckers, one eg at least being sometimes in part or entirely killed. However, these : small trees have slight economic value and are little used for orna- mental planting. LIST OF MYRICACEA ATTACKED. BayBerry (Myrica carolinensis).—Church Island, N. C. Wax Myrt_e (Myrica cerifera).—F lorida (A. M. 384); Santee Club, South Carolina. CALIFORNIA BAYBERRY (Myrica californica) .—California (A. M. 382). -‘THE WALNUTS AND HICKORIES “(JUGLANDACEZ). Sapsuckers are known to attack 3 of the 5 native species of walnut besides 1 introduced species, and 11 of the 14 native hickories. Throughout their range hickory trees usually are severely attacked by sapsuckers. We know of but one hickory being killed, but they are often disfigured by swollen girdles. Sapsuckers cause much staining and distortion in the wood of hickories. LIST OF JUGLANDACEA ATTACKED. Burrernvut (Juglans cinerea).—Fairfax County, Va. BLack WALNUT (Juglans nigra).—Allenton, Mo. (A. M. 399); Indianapolis, Ind. (H. 24236); Rockfish Valley, Va.; Beltsville, Md. TEXAN WALNUT (Juglans rwpestris).—Arizona (A. A. and A. M. 398). ENGLISH WALNUT (Juglans regia).—A tree on the grounds of the Department of Agriculture in Washington bears profuse evidence of sapsucker work. One limb has been killed on one side. Nourmec uicxory (Hicoria myristiceformis).—Oakley, 8. C. (A. M. 392). Prcan (Hicoria pecan).—Butler County, Mo. (F. 72458); Illinois . (F. 26454); Allenton, Mo. (A. A. and A. M. 395); Pantherburn, Miss. ; Department of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. TEXAN PECAN (/Hicoria terana).—Columbia, Tex. (A. A. 394). 1 Only 3 arborescent species are mentioned in Britton’s North American Trees, but Myrica carolinensis Miller (= Myrica cerifera intermedia Chapman, fide Sudworth) is typically tree-like on the shores of Curri- tuck Sound, N. C. oa hal ot Cdk ett, Ode Wi Cb aA ee Oe ee eee ee a ek ey ee a S30 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. Birrer PECAN (Hicoria aquatica) .—Southern Arkansas (A. A. and A. M. 391); Cottonport and Longbridge, La. _ Brrrer nut (Hicoria cordiformis).—West Virginia (F. 73488); Allenton, Mo. (A. A. and A. M. 393); Seven Locks, Montgomery County, Md.; Department of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. Mocxer nut (Hicoria alba).—This species is very commonly attacked by sapsuckers. A tree in Fairfax County, Va., examined March 21, 1909, bore many protruding girdles (Pl. X, fig. 1) where the birds had pecked in the same place year after year, besides a great deal of less conspicuous work. Plate IX, figure 2, shows similar gir- dles on another tree which is fully 2 feet in diameter. At the date specified there were many fresh drills in the girdles and elsewhere, and sap was flowing freely. Evidently growth is vigorous in this species, as a plug of wood grows out through almost every hole in the bark. About all the sapsucker has to do when he visits the tree the next year is to knock out the plugs. However, he usually punctures a layer or two of sapwood to insure a good flow of sap. A dead tree of this species near the same locality was evidently killed by sap- suckers. It bore more than a hundred nearly or entirely complete girdles of holes, besides numerous less perfect ones. In fact it was riddled from bottom to top. (PI. IX, fig. 3.) From an examination of sections of this tree it was learned that all this work has been done in five years or less. Much of it never healed. The mocker nut is severely attacked in the vicinity of Cloverdale, Ind. (letter from J. B. Burris, Dec. 9, 1901), and to some extent also in Illinois (F. 26457). Bia SHELLBARK (Hicoria laciniosa).—Morgantown, W. Va. (H.); Illinois (F. 26458); Department of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. SHELLBARK (/icoria ovata)—Widmann (see Bendire) notes that this species is ‘occasionally punctured.’”’ A specimen from Butler County, Mo., shows many pecks (F. 72449), and a tree in the Agri- culture Department grounds at Washington has on the limbs many sapsucker girdles, which cause the bark to split and peel off more than it naturally would. SoUTHERN SHELLBARK (Hicoria carolinx-septentrionalis)—Rome, ~ ‘Ga. (A. M.). Pienut (Hicoria glabra) —Weed and Dearborn state that sap- suckers “puncture the pignut hickory,” and C. G. Bates says: Bird pecks are common almost everywhere that hickories are found, but perhaps nowhere is the damage so serious as on the southerly slopes of the Cumberland Moun- tains of Tennessee, where the hickory, mostly pignut, occurs in rather open stands with chestnut oak, which is also frequently attacked by the sapsucker. (Dec. 15, 1908.) ee ae ee a ee ee ae ARSE SIS CEPTS) 22 ci Aono oon ee cis Feces nleecees basse eeteaeee 1 1 1 sae CM EREDE VIR SEIIAS (( OSETYO) Me 82 12 eas oe ee wie = 2 oes eds wo ee ediee aes 2 2 0 RUM USNG COTY LUS) soso So von Sanka e ea Soe Seek deem see el One 0 SICEMEEEREL TD Rees oo SSE oc a eo ee Petes Pane leone eeu 14 5 0 ERO EILYES)) errata ea ctctet oy) Sisieisic Sih s acjo so sis SGin eee wee Ho sees See 8 2 0 26 10 1 HORNBEAMS AND HICKORIES ATTACKED. . 31. Specimens from Butler County, Mo. (F. 72438), and Abbeville, 3 La., show profuse sapsucker work, including large swollen girdles. _ A tree only an inch in diameter, on Plummers Island, Md., had been attacked by sapsuckers. Wootxy picnut (Hicoria villosa).—Huntsville, Ala. (A. A. and | A.M. 385). THE HORNBEAMS, BIRCHES, AND ALDERS (BETULACEZ). Ten of the 26 native arborescent species of this family, besides 1 introduced tree, are known to be attacked by sapsuckers. They are tabulated by genera below: Number Native | Introduced Genus. | of native species Species species. attacked. | attacked. Two of the hornbeams and two hop hornbeams are much disfigured by sapsuckers, and at least two species of birches are frequently killed. Trees like the hornbeams with smooth close bark, and birches, which are prized for the beauty of their silvery white trunks, lose much of their ornamental value when disfigured by abundant sap- sucker puncturing. Birches in particular are among the most valu- able ornamental trees, and the fact that they are often killed by sap- _ suckers weighs heavily against the birds. LIST OF BETULACEZ ATTACKED. Hornseeam (Carpinus caroliniana).—This tree when attacked is generally severely blemished (fig. 6). One.in the Agricultural Depart- ment grounds is disfigured by a great many girdles, some of which are considerably swollen. In the vicinity of Gainesville, Fla., horn- beams are plentifully punctured, and at Abbeville, La., most of the hornbeams in the woods bore abundant sapsucker work. Specimens examined from Illinois (F. 26482), Morgantown, W. Va. (H.), and southern Arkansas (A. A. 351) are profusely punctured. EUROPEAN HORNBEAM (Carpinus betula) —Department of Agricul- ture grounds, District of Columbia. Hop HoRNBEAM (Osirya virginiana). —Morgantown, Wis, Vas CEL); Massachusetts (A. A. and A. M. 350). Hop HorNBEAM (Ostrya eee —Talfrey, Ari, (A. A. and A. M. 349), a 32 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES: Gray BiRcH (Betula populifolia).—Department, of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia: WuHitTe or CANOE BIRCH (Betula alba).—This tree is frequently and seriously injured by sapsuckers (PI. V, fig. 2). Weed and Dearborn say that ‘‘hundreds of punctures”’ are “‘made in white birches” and Hopkins notes that the sapsucker injures or kills young trees. Bolles, in writing of a sapsucker ‘‘orchard,”’ states that ‘‘The tree in use last year was nearly dead. Two neighboring birches showing scars — of earlier years were quite dead. ... Orchard No. 4... con- sisted of a large number of dead and a few living trees. ... The part of the orchard in use was a birch, from whose roots rose 4 major trunks quickly subdividing into 15 minor stems each ris- ing to a height of over — 30 feet.. All of the 15 trunks were dead or dying. Only 7 of them bore leaves.” “ Hermit,” speaking of a sapsucker “orchard,” says: "* ihe . canoe birches were dead or dying. Many . . . had been broken off by the wind just below the belt of punctures.” Horsford says: ‘I have seen the white birch cut off, or rather broken off, 20 feet from the ground, in more cases than I can number, all his work, . .. The birch tree in- variably dies.’’ And Gar- Fia. 6.—Sapsucker work on hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana). field notes th at“ This bird invariably attacks what appears to be perfectly sound and healthy bark. Great injury is inflicted by these attacks. ... The white birch is frequently killed.” George H. Selover writes that sapsuckers have often killed silver birches at Lake City, Minn. (letter, 1885). The tree is attacked in Maine also (H.). Wuire sircu (Betula pendula)—Department of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. Cuerry BircH (Betula lenta)—West Virginia (H.). YELLOW BircH (Betula lutea) —The sapsucker ‘‘is partial to the .. . yellow birch” (Bendire), and it ‘injures or kills young trees” (Hopkins). William Brewster says that the yellow birch is very = ¥ CHESTNUTS AND OAKS ATTACKED. 38 commonly attacked in western Maine, and Horsford states: ‘‘I have seen the yellow birch destroyed . . . branches of the tree cut off, shriveled branches struggling for life, but dying.’”’ Axper (Alnus incana).—A. A. 340; western Maine, William _ Brewster. Waite avper (Alnus rhombifolia).—San Bernardino Mountains, - — Cal., Grinnell. THE BEECHES, CHESTNUTS, AND OAKS (FAGACEZ), Cm . id Thirty-four of the 68 native arborescent species of this important family of trees and 2 introduced forms are known to be attacked by sapsuckers. Usually the injury does not seem to affect the vigor of oaks, and we know of few instances of the external appearance of the trees being altered for the worse. A sample of a dying live oak, sent to the Bureau of Entomology from Glen Rose, Tex., shows no injury except by sapsuckers, and Bolles implies that red oaks are sometimes killed. On the whole, the evidence at hand, while showing that a large number of species of this family are attacked by sapsuckers, does not indicate serious injury to their appearance or health. LIST OF FAGACEZ ATTACKED. Brecu (Fagus grandifolia) —Morgantown, W. Va. (H.); Rawdon, Nova Scotia (A. A: and A. M. 334); Massachusetts, Weed and Dear- born. CuinquaPiIn (Castanea pumila).—Southern Arkansas (A. A. and A. M. 332). CuEsTNuT (Castanea dentata).—Pickens, W. Va. (H. 6687a); Town- send Center, Mass. (A. M. 333); Montgomery County, Md.; Afton and Rockfish Valley, Va. TANBARK OAK (Pasama densiflora) —Hopkins. t Rep oak (Quercus rubra) —Bendire remarks that sapsuckers are “yartial to the . .°. red oak,” and Bolles says it is “drilled for suc- cessive years,” adding that “‘the forest trees attacked by them gener- ally die.” Five red oaks in the Department of Agriculture grounds _ show sparing sapsucker work; many trees about Afton, Va., are attacked, and a specimen from Allenton, Mo., shows that the tree is visited there also (A. M. 329). Pin OAK (Quercus palustris) —Every tree of this species over a considerable area in the vicinity of Dead Run Swamp, Fairfax County, Va., bears profuse marks of sapsucker attack. TURKEY OAK (Quercus catesbxi).—Florida (A. M. 322). Biack.oak (Quercus velutina)—Abbeville, La. TEXAS OAK (Quercus texana).—Abbeville, La. 99068°—Bull. 39—11—_3 - ~~ | 34 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. SCARLET OAK (Quercus coccinea).—Department of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. SPANISH OAK (Quercus triloba).—Florida (A. M. 321). Swamp SPANISH OAK (Quercus pagodefolia).—Abbeville, La. WATER OAK (Quercus nigra).—Illinois (F. 26474); Santee Club, South Carolina. WILLow oAK (Quercus phellos).—Missouri (A. M. 317); Depart- of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. LaurEL OAK (Quercus laurifolia).—Abbeville, La. SHINGLE OAK (Quercus imbricaria).—Missouri (A. M. 313); De- partment of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. WHITE-LEAF OAK (Quercus hypoleuca).—Southern Arizona (A. M. 308). CALIFORNIA LIVE OAK (Quercus agrifolia)—Newhall, Cal. (A. M. 312). WHITE LIVE OAK (Quercus chrysolepis)—California (A. A. and and A. M. 306). Live oak (Quercus virginiana).—Fully 90 per cent of the live oaks at the Santee Club, South Carolina, are abundantly pecked, some having protruding girdles. At Gainesville, Fla., a large proportion of the live oaks are punctured, generally profusely, while on St. Vincent Island, Fla., though many trees are pecked, the work is usually scanty. A specimen from Glen Rose, Tex. (presented by Dr. Hopkins, October 4, 1909), is rather closely punctured. NET-LEAF OAK (Quercus reticulata).—Southern Arizona (A. A. and A. M. 285). TEXAN WHITE OAK (Quercus breviloba).—Austin, Tex. (A. A. and A. M. 292). SHIN OAK (Quercus undulata).—Arizona (A. M. 291). TouMEY OAK (Quercus towmey?).—Mule Mountains, Ariz. (A. M. 286). ee ee ee Oe SSS - CHAPMAN OAK (Quercus chapmani).—Apalachicola, Fla. (A. A. and — ) A. M. 299). CHESTNUT OAK (Quercus prinus).—A sapling near the Seven Locks, Montgomery County, Md., shows considerable sapsucker work, which deforms its trunk. In the Cumberland Mountains of Ten- nessee this species is frequently attacked (C. G. Bates, Dec. 15, 1908), and a specimen in the Field Museum (No. 72968) shows that it is worked on vigorously in West Virginia. ; Cow oak (Quercus michauxii)—Many trees of this species are abundantly punctured, frequently with unusually large holes (made necessary by the thickness of the bark) in the vicinity of mea Cottonport, and Abbeville, La. SWAMP WHITE OAK Guervus bicolor).—Missouri (A. A. 296): De- partment of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. ELMS AND HACKBERRIES ATTACKED. 39 _ Overcup oak (Quercus lyrata).—Southern Arkansas (A. M. 297); ‘Illinois (F. 26519); Butlér County, Mo. (F. 72988); Department of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. CALIFORNIA WHITE OAK (Quercus lobata).—California (A. M. 303). WESTERN WHITE OAK (Quercus garryana).—Grant Pass, Oreg., April 25, 1899 (H.); California (A. M. 302). COLORADO WHITE OAK (Quercus leptophylla)—Colorado (A. A. and BoA. M. 301). Post oak (Quercus stellata).—Missouri (A. M. 300); Santee Club, South Carolina; Longbridge, La. Waite oak (Quercus alba)—White oaks show more evidence of -sapsucker attack than any other species of the genus in the vicinity of Washineton. In some localities large numbers of the trees are closely punctured and girdled. Sapsucker work is very common on this species about Afton, Va., and the tree is attacked also in West Virginia (H.) and near Winston-Salem, N. C. ENGLISH OAK (Quercus robur).—Specimens of the horticultural variety of this species known as Quercus sessiliflora cochleata, the sub- species pedunculata, and its cultivated form incisa, five trees in all, on the grounds of the Department of Agriculture, bear rather abundant puncturing. EvuropEan oak (Quercus conferta and var. pannonica).—Depart- ment of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. THE ELMS AND HACKBERRIES (ULMACEZ). This family comprises 17 native trees belonging to 4 genera. Hight of the native species and 2 introduced forms are known to be _ attacked by sapsuckers. Disfiguring swollen girdles have been _ noted on 2 species of elm and 1 of hackberry, and 1 of the elms is _ said to be reduced in vigor by excessive pecking. Number Native Introduced Genus. of native species species species. attacked. | attacked. EMPL STIL SD nee ee mars Aerob ene (Sct oiafalnjar nm Gioclalote inte o ccibee hel 6 5 2 Water elm Plinca) Weert SU CHOR CAE mn Bee EOE ee nee ae ene ae 1 1 0 ECR AUGSCILUS) emer oso uo oo sea eosac ee cael see ecececeeeels 9 2 0 CURE lie DAO OE ee eae Mahe cada, satire Ae So aais se Uso woe 1 0 0 17 8 2 LIST OF ULMACEZ ATTACKED. Crepar ELM (Ulmus crassifolia).—Matteson, Miss. (F.). Rock ELM (Ulmus thomasi).—Lansing, Mich. (A. M. 280). Winecep Eto (Ulmus alata).— Aiken, S. C. (A. M. 281). Warire etm (Ulmus americana).—Bendire remarks that the sap- sucker ‘‘is partial to the . . . elm;” and Horsford says: ‘‘I have for 10 summers past I have shot the pests and thereby saved t! 36 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. seen an elm tree 18 inches in diameter whose trunk of 12 eee spotted with ‘gimlet holes’ in the bark nearly 1 inch thick, and wh tree.” A white elm in the Smithsonian grounds is much disfigurec by sapsucker girdles and one near Scotts Run, Fairfax County, Va. bears more conspicuous work of the same character, some of the girdles — being 3 feet long and gaping as much as 3 inches (PI. VII, fig. 2). Specimens examined show that the tree is attacked in West Vir- — ginia (IH.), Illinois, and in Butler County, Mo. (F. 26445 and 73249, — respectively). ce SLIPPERY ELM (Ulmus fulva).—Specimens examined show that this — species is attacked by sapsuckers in Missouri (A. M. 278) and West — Virginia (H.). Sapsucker work was noted on slippery elms near — Abbeville, La., and trees seen near Longbridge, La., were covered — with rows of punctures, some of which had swollen into projecting — girdles. Ene.isH ELM (Ulmus campestris) AND ScorcH ELM (Ulmus mon- — tana).—In the Agricultural Department grounds are 31 elms, 9 of | which are marked by sapsuckers. Some are profusely punctured and — both of the European species, as well as the American elm, are attacked. WatTeER ELM (Planera aquatica).—Arkansas (A. A. and A. M. 275). Hackperry (Celtis occidentalis).—Iron County, Mo. (F. 72268); Allenton, Mo. (A. M. 273). é 7 TlackBerry (Celtis mississippiensis).—Sapsucker pecking is very abundant on trees of this species in the vicinity of Cottonport and Longbridge, La. A peculiar effect of sapsucker work on this tree — is that rings of bark are often formed about the punctures. They may be half an inch in height, and as they are round and open, a — cluster of them on the gray bark forms a model in miniature of a colony of cliff swallows’ nests. . THE FOUR O’CLOCK FAMILY (NYCTAGINACEZ). The single arborescent species in our flora is attached by sap- — suckers. Biotty (Torrubia longifolia) —Florida Keys (A. M. 264). THE MAGNOLIAS AND TULIP TREES (MAGNOLIACEZ). Six of the 8 native magnolias, 3 introduced species, and the single native species of tulip trees are distinct favorites of the birds. Of 22 magnolias on the Department of Agriculture grounds half have been pecked. The resulting girdles in the smooth, ashy gray bark of some of the species are unsightly, and one of the trees, a bull bay, is much roughened and distorted. The tulip tree is attacked throughout its ‘Bul. 39, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Vil. WoRK OF SAPSUCKER ON WHITE ELM. {1, Near view of bark showing closeness of punctures. 2, View of trunk showing swollen girdles (second one above limbs is about 3 feet long). 3, Near view of part of this girdle.] — - | ~ MAGNOLJAS AND TULIP TREES ATTACKED. 37 range, but we know of no case where this species has been killed by sapsuckers. One of the magnolias, however, seems to be more seriously affected. LIST OF MAGNOLIACEZ ATTACKED. CUCUMBER TREE (Magnolia acuminata).—Trees of this species in the grounds of the Department of Agriculture are plentifully punc- tured by sapsuckers, but the work is inconspicuous in their rough bark. All cucumber trees observed in the upper part of Rockfish Valley, Va., bore sapsucker work, one having several large swollen ‘partial girdles. The species is attacked in West Virginia also (H.). MouUNTAIN CUCUMBER TREE (Magnolia cordata).—Department of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. Butt Bay (Magnolia grandiflora).—Many of the trees bordering a long. avenue at the Santee Club, South Carolina, bear sapsucker work. - Trees in the vicinity of Longbridge, La., are abundantly punctured, and’ two specimens in the grounds of the Department of Agriculture at Washington have been attacked, one so vigorously that it is dis- figured by numerous girdles. L. L. Wright, of Talladega, Ala., sent in a specimen of sapsucker work from a tree of this species which, he writes, is dying from the effects of whatever it is that is ‘‘ honey- combing” the bark. From about 2 feet above the ground to the top of the tree it has been girdled at intervals of 15 to 24 inches, the holes varying from contact with each other to three-fourths of an inch apart. At about 8 feet above the ground a double girdle of holes has been made about an inch apart, and so deep as to remove the entire inner bark except for about 6 inches out of a circumference of nearly 3 feet. (March 18, 1911.) Sweet BAY (Magnoha virgimana).—Department of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia; Church Island, N. C. UMBRELLA TREE (Magnolia eta opegia (F. 96401). LARGE-LEAVED UMBRELLA TREE (Magnolia macrophylla).—Depart- ment of Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. East Astan MAGNoLiA (Magnolia yulan).—Department of Agri- culture grounds, District of Columbia. East Astan macno.ia (Magnolia obovata).—Department of Agri- culture grounds, District of Columbia. Hast Astan MAGNOLIA (Magnolia hypoleuca).—Department of _ Agriculture grounds, District of Columbia. TuLie TREE (Liriodendron tulipifera).—This species is a distinct favorite with sapsuckers. Everywhere about Washington are trees bearing abundant sapsucker work. The same is true in the vicinity of Winston-Salem, N. C., and the tree is vigorously attacked in the Rockfish Valley, Va., in West Virginia (Delslow, H. 6687; Pickens, H. 6487a), and in Illinois (fF, 26403). 38 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. THE PAWPAWS AND POND APPLES (ANONACEZ). Two genera, each represented by one arborescent species, occur in the United States. One of these species, the pawpaw, is attacked by sapsuckers, but, so far as known, not seriously injured. PawPaw (Asiminia triloba) Se saeas (A. M. 255); Illinois (F. 26404); Fairfax County, Va. THE BAYS AND LAURELS (LAURACEZ). The following tabulation shows the arborescent members of this family in the United States and the number of species attacked by sapsuckers: Number of| Native | Introduced Genus. native species species | species. attacked. | attacked. Ried bays! (Aer sed) Aan soba ser GeO oe ee atk ae eee Lancewood(Ocotea))s aheccsnc to. samc Joes eee Pee oe Eee Sassairasi(Sassajras) -S-Asthocees sacs. cece eles aoe eee eee aurelli (impel wlaniay a2 Sete Soe Soe 2 oes aCe Ee ae eee eee Camphori(Gimnamonvunn) meee meee ane oe meee eee ee Spice DUsh CBEnZOM ees eee eee ase ee ee Cece einen eee eee ae BORE CO =| COM SN Hlomooce “I i 1 Not usually classed as arborescent, but according to Dr. A. kK. Fisher it becomes a tree in Fairfax County, Va. Sassafras and camphor trees are known to be killed by the birds and all of the other species attacked are badly disfigured. These trees are used for ornament, and sapsucker injury to them counts against the bird. LIST OF LAURACE® ATTACKED. Rep Bay (Persea borbonia).—Apparently all trees of this species in the vicinity of the Santee Club, South Carolina, are attacked by sapsuckers. Most of them are profusely punctured, and the exterior of one tree was much disfigured by numerous rings of pecks which had become swollen and produced gaping, knotty girdles. At Gainesville, Fla., a large proportion of the red bays bore abundant sapsucker work. SwAMp RED BAY (Persea pubescens).—Trees of this species also were vigorously attacked near the Santee Club, South Carolina. SASSAFRAS (Sassafras variifolium).—The sapsucker injures or kills young trees (Hopkins). (Specimen from Monongalia County, W. Va., Mar. 17, 1894. Pl. XI, fig. 4.) CALIFORNIA LAUREL (Umbellularia californica):—A specimen from California shows evidence of severe sapsucker attack (A. A. 250). SWEET GUMS AND SYCAMORES ATTACKED. 89 CAMPHOR TREE (Cinnamomum camphora).—Camphor trees which were abundantly punctured were observed at Gainesville, Fla., and at Abbeville, La., the writer was informed that two camphor trees planted near that town had been killed by sapsuckers. THE SWEET GUM FAMILY (ALTINGIACE#). Only one species of this family occurs in the United States. It is vigorously attacked by sapsuckers apparently throughout its range, but, so far as we know, is never killed. Sweet cum (Liquidambar styraciflua).—A tree in the Agricultural Department grounds has a great many girdles of sapsucker pecks. At the Santee Club, South Carolina, almost every sweet gum tree bears sapsucker work, the bark of some being perforated as thickly as possible from top to bottom. At Gaines- ville, Fla., a large pro- portion of the trees are abundantly punc- tured, and the tree seems as much a fa- vorite at Abbeville, La. THE SYCAMORES (PLATANACE®). Two of the three native species are at- tacked by sapsuckers, and although the work disfigures the smooth white bark, it is not known to decrease the vitality of the trees. Fig. 7.—Sapsucker work on California sycamore (Platanus racemosa). LIST OF PLATANACE ATTACKED. Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis).—Longbridge, La. CALIFORNIA SYCAMORE (Platanus racemosa).—California (A. A. and A.M. 244). (Fig. 7.) THE ROSE FAMILY (ROSACE). All of the five arborescent species of this family occurring in the United States are attacked by sapsuckers, and one (Cercocarpus ledifolius) is known to be much disfigured. 40 WOODPECKERS IN RELATION TO TREES. LIST OF ROSACEH ATTACKED. (Vauquelinia californica).—Arizona (A. A. 242). } MouNTAIN MAHOGANY (Cercocarpus betuloides) i (A; AD and A. M. 203). MounTaIn MAHOGANY (Cercocarpus traskix).—Santa i Island, Cal. (A. A. 205). Mog NaN MAHOGANY (Cercocarpus breviflorus).—Huachucha Mae | tains, Ariz. (A. M. 204). MounTAIN MAHOGANY (Cercocarpus ledifoliws)—Kureka, Cal. ChwA= 202); THE APPLE FAMILY (MALACEZ). This family contains trees of immense economic importance, as the pear, crab apple, and apple. Each of these is attacked by sap- suckers. Both kinds of apple trees are often killed and young or- chards are sometimes ruined. The apple family includes also valuable ornamental trees, which are often injured or killed, especially the mountain ash. The harm done to the trees of this family weighs heavily in the case against the sapsuckers. Species of Malacex known to be attacked by sapsuckers. Nie HEe of| Native |Introduced Genus. native species species species. | attacked. | attacked. Mountaintash: (Sonbws))s.—. * 7 ey Am el A = hs c/ a ne ne ‘ ~ ‘ Say ¥ « bin we ‘ih. ee” 2 erate F Pie a Reet : pra ite 5 Baa clade 7 ye ne LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DeparTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, : Bureau or BrioLtocicaL SURVEY, Washington, D. C., November 1, 1911. Str: I have the nonor to transmit herewith for publication as Bulletin No. 40, a Report on the Condition of Elk in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, in 1911, by Edward A. Preble, assistant in the Biological Survey. At the last session of the sixty-first Congress an item was incorporated in the appropriation for the Biological Survey ‘‘for the feeding, protecting, and removal of elk in the See known as Jackson’s Hole and vicinity, in the State of Wyoming.” Steps were immediately taken to obtain the information necessary to enable the Biological Survey to undertake intelligently and effectively the solution of the elk problem in Wyoming. Mr. Preble was directed to proceed to Jackson Hole, and Mr. D.C. Nowlin, formerly game war- den of the State, was appointed as his assistant. They were in- _ structed: (1) To make a thorough examination of existing conditions, to ascertain approximately the number of elk which perished by starvation, and to collect all available data respecting the life history _and local distribution of the animals; (2) to cooperate with the State in feeding the elk and to arrange for obtaining a supply of feed for the winter of 1911-12; (3) to investigate the feasibility of transferring a few animals to other parts of the State or to game preserves in other States where nucleus herds might be established under Federal or State auspices. Upon arrival in Jackson Hole Messrs. Preble and Nowlin found that the State had already purchased and was feeding all the hay available and nothing further in this direction could be done except to make arrangements for the following winter. On account of the lateness of the season and the impassability of the roads it was practicable to make only one experimental shipment of elk, and 12 animals were successfully transported across Teton Pass. Seven of these were shipped to the National Bison Range, in Montana, and 5 to the Wichita National Game Refuge, in Oklahoma. All of them arrived in good condition and are doing well. The Biological Survey has undertaken not merely temporary relief during one or two severe winters, but an investigation, in cooperation with the State of Wyoming, of the broader problem of the mainte- nance of the elk herd of Jackson Hole as one of the important re- sources of the State and as a permanent source of income. Such an 3 . history of the ois a review of fhe oe which ie b 11 State to protect and perpetuate the species; the losses I pecans, and starvation 5 apy ents in feeding d and comeneadniiie for winter refuges where an adequ it forage may be obtained. The present ~~ lication is a report and deals mainly with the information collected 1 the condition of the elk Spanies the past winter. It ue State, a later by reports on eee and refuges sad these concerning which data are not yet ready for pableetess ott Respectfully, z Heyry W. Hens: : : Chief, Biologic Hon. JAMES WILson, ee Secretary of Agriculture. : Deets in winter ‘9 Habits in winter. AE nem eid. VII. ee of part of northwestern Wyoming, distribution of ell. < <0 225.2 os. 6 i showing summer and win PLATE II. Bul. 40, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PAK BREWS Chee IN \ Nb Fa . NV Ny ; = N R Ps ¥ DXierey YA S QW! ys Q \ Kes > NAY \ S h van RAN van WSs IN — Nei S IW SRR a GH DRA AN : SS \ N < E st AY Vy ce cee ands VLIW AK IN x ~ YV ; SRA WES . SWAG ww RON S223 \ ANS BREEN ‘ AWS ee, chance WER S x ENC AN c aa Ooo XI S " YN oe = / I \ mak ANN a &R 1 XO Ko iN Z y : \ NE NEEDING Y AS YS Lae s NS \ wR \ IN A a ss Ss RN NY XY } KET : MENA AN A AN v SN ‘N NIRS \ NS WY k NE a [h} = SSN NN SS ANS =z \\\ NN . NN KAY x CWA ANN aS (3 . WY N i S . Aee> \ i @ a oa Nase | “Epes ae) N nee () SSA NS ae =i au MR sz As Se Gey Aa a | p SON HOLE. Part OF NORTHWESTERN WYoMING, SHOWING APPROXIMATE RANGE OF ELK WHICH WINTER IN JACK y\* Winter range. Summerrange. ijeccs- REPORT ON CONDITION OF ELK IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING, IN 1911. INTRODUCTION. That part of the valley of Snake River in northwestern Wyoming usually called Jackson Hole has long been the principal winter home of large numbers of elk, or wapiti (Gervus canadensis). These animals, which spend the summer in the southern part of Yellow- stone Rational Park and in the mountains south of it, are forced in winter to seek lower levels, where a lighter snowfall and a milder climate insure more favorable forage conditions. Their primitive winter range has gradually been reduced, until this basin has become their principal stronghold. Here, until recent years, the herds have fared well, except in an occasional abnormal winter; but with increased settlement in this valley has come depletion of the range by grazing. The elk have come down in their old or even in aug- mented numbers only to find their former haunts shorn of forage by cattle, and when unusual winter conditions have conspired with a lessened food supply, great suffering and loss of life have ensued. Such was the case during the winters of 1908-9 and 1909-10, and during that of 1910-11, when an almost unprecedented fall of snow following a dry summer covered to a depth of several feet the remnant of a scanty crop of grass, conditions became acute. The elk sought the valley in about their normal numbers, but a little earlier than usual, and before the winter was half over had suffered great loss. The State legislature was appealed to and promptly appropriated money to buy food for the starving creatures. Moreover, the State, realizing its inability to cope with the situation unaided, presented © the following memorial to Congress: House Jom Memoriat No. 1. A joint resolution relating to the preservation of big game in the State of Wyoming, and memorializing the Congress of the United States to make an adequate appropriation to aid the State of Wyoming ii providing winter food for and otherwise protecting the big game which range in the National Park and in the Jackson Hole region of this State, alternately. Be it resolved by the house of representatives (the senate concurring): Whereas the principal remnant of the big game of the United States, comprised of moose, elk, and deer, range alternately during the winters in the National Park 7 8 CONDITION OF ELK IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING. and game reserve and the Jackson Hole section of the State of Wyoming, dou of the National Park; and Si Whereas during the winters they suffer greatly and perk from famine in ee num- _bers, which could be in a great measure prevented by adequate and systematic pro- vision for feeding and protecting them during storms and blizzards; and Whereas the State of Wyoming has been and is making appropriations of large sums of money and using every available means within its power to preserve said big game; and Whereas the sufficient and thoroughly adequate protection of said big came ars is too expensive and burdensome to be borne alone by the State of Wyoming: There- fore be it Resolved by the Legislature of the State of Wyoming, That the Government of the United States be, and is hereby, requested to cooperate with the State of Wyoming in feeding, protecting, and otherwise preserving the big game which winters in great numbers within the confines of the State of Wyoming; and the Congress of the United States is hereby memorialized and requested to make an adequate appropriation of money, to be used in aiding and cooperating with the State of Wyoming in the laudable and desirable effort to feed, protect, and preserve from extinction the prin- cipal remnant of the big game of the United States, which range during the winters principally within the territory of the State of Wyoming; be it further Resolved, That engrossed copies of this memorial and request be sent to the Basa. dent of the United States, to the President of the United States Senate, to the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, and to the Secretary of the Interior, asking their aid in bringing the object of this memorial and request before Congress and in securing from same an adequate appropriation of public moneys for the noble, humane, and national purpose herein set forth; and be it further Resolved, That engrossed copies of this memorial and request be sent to the Sen- ators from Wyoming in the Congress of the United States, viz., Hons. CLarENcE D. Crark and Francis E. Warren, and our Representative in said Congress, Hon. Frank W. Monpett, asking them to use their best efforts to secure favorable action upon the request embodied herein. Approved February 17, 1911. In accordance with this memorial the act approved March 4, 1911, making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture, ineluded an item of $20,000 immediately available for feeding, protecting, and removing elk in Jackson Hole and vicinity. The administration of this fund was intrusted to the Biological Survey, and to the writer was assigned the task of making the preliminary investigation. ITINERARY. T left Washington on March 7, 1911, and reached Cheyenne, Wyo., March 9. Here I was joined by Mr. D. C. Nowlin, formerly State game warden, who was to be associated with me in the work. Pur- suant to my instructions, conferences with Goy. Joseph M. Carey were held on March 10 and 11. The governor, as chairman of the newly established game commission, expressed himself as pleased to see steps taken toward Federal cooperation in the protection of the elk, and furnished me letters of introduction and a permit to capture a number of animals for removal to parks in other States. On March 12'Mr. D. F. Hudson, the present State game warden, joined us, and 7 te ee ee ee ee a ee ee ee gee ere. SP ye Ne ge ae i re ! GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF REGION. 9 - the next day Mr. Hudson, Mr. Nowlin, and I left Cheyenne for Jackson Hole, via Pocatello and St. Anthony, Idaho. To reach the scene of our work, a two days’ stage trip after leaving the railroad was neces- sary. We left St. Anthony on March 15 and passed the night at - Victor, Idaho, close to the western base of the lofty and picturesque Teton Range. Next day we crossed this range, over from 10 to 40. feet of snow, via the Teton Pass, at 8,429 feet altitude, and descending the eastern slope of the range crossed Snake River and reached the town of Jackson. This point, in the southern part of Jackson Hole, was our headquarters for nearly three months. From here we made trips by stage and other conveyances and on foot to various parts of the valley of Snake River from the head of Jackson Lake south nearly to Hoback River and visited also the valleys of Buffalo and Gros Ventre Rivers. We left the valley in early June to take up other work, but Mr. Nowlin returned about August 1 and continued the investigations. During the progress of the work I was greatly assisted by Mr. Nowlin. His intimate personal acquaintance with the people of the region and with the various phases of the problem made him peculiarly valuable. To the residents of the region, also, I am greatly indebted for courtesies extended. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION. Jackson Hole is the name commonly applied to that part of the Snake River Valley between Jackson Lake and the mouth of Hoback or Fall River. (See map, Pl. III.) It is a basin about 40 miles in length from north to south and averaging about 15 miles in width and extends in a north-northeast and south-southwest direction. It has an altitude of about 6,700 feet at its north end and falls to about 6,000 feet at its southern extremity. Snake River, after issuing from Jackson Lake, traverses the valley in a direction slightly nearer southwesterly than the general trend of the basin, entering it at its northeastern extremity and crossing to its western border in the course of afew miles. This river has a rather uniformly rapid current and is moderately direct in its course, but in places divides into numerous channels inclosing large islands. From the east it receives succes- sively Pacific Creek (whose twin, Atlantic Creek, heading in the same meadow, is tributary to the Missouri), Buffalo River or Buffalo Fork, Gros Ventre River, and Little Gros Ventre or Flat Creek. Parts of Snake River and its larger tributaries are bordered by groves of narrow-leaf cottonwoods (Populus angustifolia), interspersed with a few spruces, with an undergrowth of dogwood, alder, and other shrubs. Along some of the tributaries of Snake River are natural marshy meadows which support a rank growth of marsh grasses, with thickets of willows on their borders and along the streams, and a 15973°—Bull. 40—11——2 Ase OD a) Fe eet OE ee Pd ce tT ay Pn fe ae Fee Ve nS ee Be Va 10 CONDITION OF ELK IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING. variety of marsh-loving shrubs and other plants on their drier parts. | . One of the more extensive of these meadows lies along little Gros ae Ventre Creek above the town of Jackson, and will be referred to in more detail later. | By far the greater part of the area embraced in the basin alla . Jackson Hole is covered by a fairly rank growth of sagebrush (Arte- misia tridentata and A. cana). Large areas of this land have been cleared and under irrigation produce fine crops of alfalfa and timothy and fair yields of oats, barley, and wheat. The altitude of the valley and the proximity of large areas of high mountains cause frost to be common through May and in exceptional seasons in August. The shortness of the growing season prevents the successful raising of any but forage crops besides the hardier grains and roots, except in a few favored localities. The winters are long and severe and the snowfall heavy, though the amount in any particular section varies greatly from year to year. Thus, while the depth of snow is usually greater in the upper Gros Ventre Valley than about Jackson, the contrary was the case during the winter of 1910-11. The amount of snow which fell in the Valley of Spread Creek was also much less than on Antelope Flat, only a~ few miles distant, or about Jackson, though all three places are near the same altitude. These local fluctuations seem to be due to the proximity of the lofty Teton Range, which influences to a remarkable a degree the direction and intensity of local storms. In early January, 1911, about 4 feet of snow fell within 48 hours in some parts of the valley. On the mountains the amount of snow is, of course, much greater and the winter of longer duration than in the valley. On the Teton Pass (8,429 feet), practically the only means of access 4 to the valley, snowstorms are frequent until midsummer, and even in the lower part of the valley it is not unusual for snow to fall in late May and in September. In the spring of 1911 the winter’s snow was practically goneinthe main part of the valley on April 20, but the mountains and foothills _ above 7,000 feet were as white as in midwinter. te Bordering the valley on the west is the Teton Range, a succession of rocky crags with altitudes varying from about 10,000 to nearly 14,000feet. ‘(See PI. IV,fig.1.) These rise ohn ee thecompara- tively low and level valley (6,000 to 6,700 feet), affording a panorama __ whose equal in rugged grandeur is rarely seen. To the east the valley is bordered by foothills of the Gros Ventre Range, some of whose peaks reach an altitude of about 11,000 feet. These mountains are treeless above 10,000 feet. Below this the mountain slopes are usually well wooded, the commoner trees being Engelmann spruce (Picea engel- manni), Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), and aspen poplar s 7 (Populus tremuloides). Within the confines of the valley arise sev- eral so-called buttes, which rise about 1,000 feet above the general aaa Bul. 40, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. JACKSON HOLE AND VICINITY, WYOMING. PLATE III. Bul. 40, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fic. 1.—TETON RANGE, BORDERING JACKSON HOLE ON WEST. VIEW FROM NEAR GROVONT, MARCH 24, 1911. Fig. 2.-—MARSH BORDERING LITTLE GROS VENTRE OR FLAT CREEK, ABOVE JACK- SON. VIEW NORTHEASTWARD FROM BASE OF EAST GROS VENTRE BUTTE, NEAR JACKSON, MARCH 21, 1911. VALUE OF ELK. - 11 level. These are mostly devoid of trees, but support a few groves of aspen poplar and an occasional juniper (Juniperus scopulorum), nut pine (Pinus flerilis), or Douglas spruce. These hills, especially during moist seasons, produce a growth of grasses and other her- baceous plants which are excellent for forage and, as their steep slopes are early bared of snow by the action of sun and wind, they furnish fine feeding grounds for both stock and game. In this fertile valley, with its luxuriant growth of forage and comparatively mild climate, most of the elk which summer in the adjacent mountains and in the great area of high country extending northward into the Yellowstone National Park have lately spent the winters. In former years large numbers, probably the great majority of those which summered in the high ranges of northwestern Wyoming, win- tered on the Red Desert and other parts of the comparatively low country lying to the southward. Occupation of these tracts by sheep, with its attendant persecution and gradual depletion of the range, has forced the elk to confine their southward movements within ever-narrowing limits. Within the past few years the further march of settlement into the higher valleys, with the attendant utilization of the range for cattle grazing, has caused a serious diminution in the natural food supply available each winter for the elk. Thus, although elk probably became more numerous in Jackson Hole after settlement began, it is painfully evident that during the past few years the encroachments of civilization and coincident unfavorable winter conditions have resulted in serious inroads on their numbers. VALUE OF ELK TO THE REGION. Some of the most intelligent residents of Jackson Hole have esti- mated that the value of the elk to the region is equal to the revenue derived from stock raising, which is the principal industry. Others, while considering this estimate excessive, admit that the value of the animals is very great, and that without them the region under present conditions would not support nearly so large a population as it now does. Whatever the opinion of individuals on this point, it is evident that elk have played a very important part in the development of the region. Probably a majority of the more successful residents owe their start to the presence of these animals. Many trappers and hunters who were first attracted to this part of the State by the abundance of game, and later by the opportunities which it offered for acting as guides to visiting sportsmen, have now extensive stock interests and have abandoned their former pursuits, while others still guide hunting parties. | The amount of money which the elk are instrumental in bringing into the country is very large. During the hunting season of 1910, - } ty a , ass Sue = 12 — CONDITION OF ELK IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING, | 24 nonresident hunting licenses were granted in the four precincts of Jackson Hole, and in addition many parties who obtained licenses __ at other points—notably Cody, Lander, Dubois, Rock Springs, and Pinedale—hunted in the Jackson Hole region. Hunters are obliged — to hire guides, packers, cooks, and pack animals, and te provision the party. A conservative estimate places the average daily expense _ a of a person hunting in this region at $14. Thus, a trip of 30 ce would cost each nonresident $420: Practically all this is gee the vicinity of the hunting grounds. The food value of the animals killed by residents is also very large. During the season of 1910, 413 resident licenses, each good for the capture of two elk, were erated in Jackson Hole. It is fair to assume that 800 elk, with an average value of $20, not counting the value of hides, horns, and scalps, were taken under these licenses. NUMBER OF ELE IN JACKSON HOLE REGION. Any statement regarding the number of elk in the Jackson Hole region can be only approximate. This is evident since, out of the large number of estimates obtained from residents, the smallest and — z ; largest given by persons whose opportunities for intelligent judgment ~ were about equal varied as one to four. The migratory habits of the animals and the difficulty of traveling during the season when they are most easily observed makes it difficult to judge their num- bers. Careful consideration of all the data obtained leads me to estimate at from 20,000 to 25,000 the number which habitually range in the region drained by Snake River south and west of the Conti- — nental Divide in the southern part of the Yellowstone National Park, most of which spend the winter in the Jackson Hole region as above defined. Recent investigations have established the fact that a line approximately represented by the Continental Divide in the southern part of Yellowstone National Park separates the northward and southward migrating bands of elk. A conservative estimate of the number of Jackson Hole elk which summer north of Buffalo Fork, the southern boundary of the game preserve, is 12,000, and of this number not more than 4,000 (or 20 per cent of the total number wintering in Jackson Hole) cross the boundary of Yellowstone Park to spend the summer. Owing, moreover, to the fact that snow remains deep on these high mountains until very late, it is mid- summer before this part of the park is suitable for occupancy. By mid-September snow has again begun to fall, and the elk start to move southward from the Divitle and soon regain the game preserve, where the rest of the 12,000 have spent. the summer. -: The remaining 8,000 which complete the total of 20,000, a con- servative eotmiotie oe the number inhabiting the Jackson Hole region, spend the summer principally between Buffalo Fork and Gros Ventre a a NUMBER OF ELK. ce River, and in the Gros Ventre Range to the southward between the Snake and Green River Valleys. A few hundred animals from the more. easterly of these bands probably winter in the Green River Valiey, but most of them seek Jackson Hole at that season. Most of the residents consider that the élk have increased in num- bers within the last 10 years, but nearly all agree that there has been a decided decrease within the last 3 years. This is owing, of course, to the large number which died during these winters because of abnormal! conditions. - Assuming that the elk number 20,000 and that the number of each sex is approximately the same, oe herd just before calving time following a normal winter will be divided op enately as follows: 5,425 cows 4 years old and over. 1,200 cows 3 years old. 1,500 cows 2 years old. 1,875 female calves. 10,000 females in all. 10,000 males in all, of approximately the same relative ages. 20,000 It is elsewhere estimated that from 2,000 to 2,500 elk starved to death in the Jackson Hole region in the winter of 1910-11, and it must be borne in mind that this disastrous season was preceded by two others notable for heavy loss. It is plain that the animals can not maintain their numbers under such drains. But so high is the birth rate that elk will hold their own under a considerable winter loss. The estimate already given is that a band of 20,000 elk will include about 6,625 cows 3 years old and over, of which about 75 per cent, or 4,968, will drop calves each year. If, then, the elk are not to _ fall below their present numbers, the total deaths from all causes must not exceed 4,968 per year; or, in other words, the total deaths each year may rise to 4,968 and still the elk will hold their own. The total death roll is the result of four causes: (1) Natural causes, including accidents; (2) starvation; (3) wolves and other predatory animals; (4) hunting. It is evident that anything done to-decrease losses from, the first three causes will increase the number of elk that can be shot: each year without diminishing the herd as a whole. But just in proportion as starvation or wolves claim a greater number of victims must the number shot be curtailed, or else the total of the ellk will be diminished. At present, probably about 2,000 elk a year are killed by hunters and about 1,000 by wolves. If these figures are approximately correct, and if it is also true, as claimed, that under normal winter conditions the elk hold their own notwithstanding these heavy losses, then it follows that of the calves dropped each year (approximately eee oe 14 CONDITION OF ELK IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING, 5,000), at least 48 per cent live to be 3 years old. If the herd just holds its own, the death loss each year would be about 1,200, or one- gy fourth of the calves; 800, or one-fifth of the yearlings; 600, or one- a fifth of the 2-year-olds; and 2,400 mature animals. Comparison of these figures with those of the losses by starvation of the calves during the past three seasons shows how rapidly the total number of 4 elk must have diminished. FEEDING IN WINTER. The two winters preceding the past one (1910-11) had been unusually disastrous to the elk, and some feeding had been done. When it became evident, following the crusting of the deep snowfall of early January, that the loss was likely to be unprecedented, the legislature was appealed to and promptly made an emergency appro- priation. As a result, about the 15th of February the feeding of hay was begun on as large a scale as possible. The construction of a large dam by the Reclamation Service at the outlet of Jackson Lake had created an abnormal demand for hay, and an amount approximately equal to the normal excess supply had already been taken out of the valley. It was, therefore, possible for the State to procure only about 250 tons, and, while this saved large numbers of the animals, it was far less than the amount needed. Arrangements were usually made to have the hay fed by the person of whom it was purchased, a certain amount, varying with the number of animals which could be most readily reached, being hauled each day to some point easily accessible to them. The elk soon learn the time of feeding and come readily to meet the loads. (See Plate V.) It is the custom of most of the feeders to drive past a band, and, as the more eager of the animals follow the load, the herd is gradually ‘‘strung out,” in popular phrase ; that is, becomes scattered in a long line. The course is then retraced or paralleled and the hay is thrown out in small quantities at short intervals. This method imsures a fair share of hay to most’ of the animals, large and small. The latter part of the afternoon is — considered the best time for feeding the elk, since they are then fortified for the night. One of ‘the results of feeding is that the animals become extremely tame, especially when approached onlyin vehicles or on horseback. This familiarity, however, is quickly lost — when the feeding is discontinued, and within a few weeks those which _ ate freely from the hand of their benefactors become as wild as ever. _ It is supposed by some that the feeding during past years has caused the animals to seek the region earlier, and it is a fact that their — advent in the autumn of 1910 was sooner than usual, but probably this resulted from the weather conditions rather thin from the fact ee that they had been fed during the previous winter. ¥e PLATE V. Bul. 40, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (YooT "NS Aq poydvrsoj0yd) ‘SpRoy om} 07 ATIpver aTIOD pe SuLpsoys JO OUT] OY] UBT OOS FTO OU, "LL-OL6L ‘YSLNIM SLY] ‘NOSMOVP YVAN ‘MYVd HLNOS Ni ¥1q ONIGSas4 DISTRIBUTION OF ELK. 15 LIFE HISTORY OF ELK. DISTRIBUTION IN SUMMER. The elk which winter in the Jackson Hole region come from the Gros Ventre and other ranges to the eastward, and from the moun- tains lying between Buffalo Fork of Snake River and Yellowstone Lake. It has been popularly supposed that most of the Jackson Hole elk summer in the Yellowstone National Park, but in reality about four-fifths of them breed and spend the summer entirely south of the park boundaries and therefore within the State of Wyoming. Of these probably the majority summer north of Buffalo Fork in the State game preserve, but large numbers remain in summer in the Gros Ventre Range and in the mountains about the tributaries of Gros Ventre River. A few calve and remain all summer among the foothills and buttes close to the valley, even as low as 7,000 feet. Some summer along the east side of the Teton Range, but these are so fewas to benegligible. Tothe south of Jackson Hole proper several hundred summer in the higher parts of Hoback Basin and descend into this valley in winter, when their numbers are augmented by the overflow from Jackson Hole. MOVEMENTS OF ELK IN AUTUMN. With the advance of the season in autumn the elk leave the higher altitudes where they have spent the latter part of the summer and seek lower levels. They move southward gradually, and by the time the snow becomes deep most of them desert the mountains altogether and take up their residence in the valleys. The high region north of Buffalo Fork comprising the State game preserve is then compara- tively deserted by the animals, but south of that valley a few scat- tered bands composed mainly of old bulls pass the winter at from 7,000 to 9,000 feet, usually on northerly slopes where the snow, not being exposed to the heat of the midday sun, does not crust, but remains soft enough to permit the animals to reach the grass by pawing. In movy- ing southward from the game preserve the animals pursue more or less definite routes. Large numbers are in the habit of going along the eastern border of Jackson Lake to the vicinity of its outlet, where they cross the narrow arm of the lake or swim the rapid river below the outlet. Of these possibly the majority cross the plains to the lower part of Jackson Hole. - Other large bands cross Buffalo Fork‘in various places and, ascending the tributaries of Black Rock and Spread Creeks, cross to the valley of the Gros Ventre, where they arrive in numbers in November. Some of these bands, usually the later ones, remain on Black Rock and Spread Creeks during the entire winter, and two or three thousand usually pass the winter in the valley of the 16 CONDITION OF ELK IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING. Gros Ventre. The majority, however, move southeastwardly along — the foothills to the lower part of Jackson Hole. In 1910 they came about the last of November. The open valley between the hills and Snake River, a part of which is known as Antelope Flats, was for- merly a favorite migration route for these animals, but increasing set- ‘a tlement has lately caused them to seek almost entirely the shelter of the foothills to the eastward. Besides those which winter in the val- ley of the Gros Ventre within the mountains, a few hundred frequent the willow swamps of its lower stretches. A few winter about the upper Gros Ventre Butte (usually called the Black Tail Butte), and the low elevations, called the East and West Gros Ventre Buttes, — which occupy a considerable area in the middle part of Jackson Hole, harbor a number of good-sized herds. The favorite haunt of the animals, however, is the large marsh bordering Little Gros Ventre or Flat Creek above the town of Jackson. This occupies an area about 5 miles in length and varying in width from 1 to2 miles. Flat Creek, which traverses it, is partially dammed near the town of Jackson by a y ledge of rock, and the slackened current, permitting the deposition of great quantities of silt, has caused the formation of this marsh. A rank growth of coarse grass covers the greater part of this area, much of which is so wet during ordinary seasons as to prevent harvesting. Several large warm springs drain into it, and these cause parts of the stream to remain open during most or all of the winter, but the marsh itself is partially flooded and freezes early, allowing the animals to gain access to such forage as remains above the ice and snow. During the past winter an unusually heavy fall of snowin early January washeavily __ crusted as the result of a wet storm and the animals were prevented from obtaining more than a small proportion of the rich store of food which should have awaited them. The surrounding hillsides, as a result of the unusually dry summer of 1910 and the consequent exces- sive grazing, did not afford the usual amount of food, and before the winter was half over the condition of the herds had become appalling. DEPREDATIONS BY ELK IN WINTER. The passage of bands of large animals through even a sparsely settled country naturally results in some damage to fences. The ordinary rail fence used for the confinement of stock offers no serious impediment to the elk, especially when snow lies deep on the ground and eddies of air cheat the corners of fences and in the lee of knolls form deep drifts. Thus fences which cross the routes frequented by these animals are usually broken down early in the winter. The most serious damage, however, results from the efforts of animals to reach haystacks, and in this respect the settlers find it almost impos- sible to protect themselves. Besides their ability to leap or scramble — over high fences, the elk show great dexterity in clambering sideways — iy? between the poles and, if even a narrow space is left, they frequently Sy ete a . a HABITS OF ELK. 17 force apart even strongly fastened rails. The difficulty is, of course, increased by the tendency of drifts to form about high objects like haystacks. High fences of woven wire would doubtless prove much more effective than the rail fences in common use, but the initial cost of this fencing and the difficulties of transportation have prevented its adoption. Many settlers, despairing of fencing the starving animals from the hay needed for their stock, are forced to sleep beside the stacks during much of the winter, a task which is not conducive to a tolerant view of the situation. | HABITS IN WINTER. The life of the elk during a winter so severe as that of 1910-11 isa constant struggle to preserve existence. Following the path of least resistance, the majority of the animals, including most of the young calves, find themselves in the valley, where they are soon driven to browse on the willows and other shrubs already nearly destroyed during previous winters. The elk soon eat the smaller twigs and then are forced by hunger to attack the bark and larger branches. The woody fiber thus swallowed has little nutriment and is without doubt actually injurious, especially to the younger animals. Even sagebrush is drawn on for sustenance. Haystacks about ranches are, of course, eagerly sought. If insecurely fenced, they are soon at the merey of the starving animals, which frequently die from overfeeding. When they find the stacks securely fenced, large numbers die immediately around them. The larger animals by standing on their hind legs may be able to reach a few morsels of hay, while the young calves in the group are trampled by ve: larger associates and perish miserably. Many herds, composed mainly of adults of beth sexes, sometimes accompanied by a few calves, remain on the open hillsides and among the aspen and spruce woods of the mountain slopes. Although there is usually some mortality among these herds, they fare better on the average than those which seek the valleys, since they are in smaller bands and have a larger proportion of older and experienced animals. Besides securing some withered grass, they browse on the twigs and bark of the aspen poplar and to a less extent on the spruces. Any brush left by woodchoppers is eaten at night, as the animals are freely nocturnal. Some of these bands make forays to the valleys at feeding time or during the night and return to the hills to rest. WINTER MORTALITY OF ELK. Apart from the death of elk from actual starvation, there is, of | course, the normal mortality, most of which takes place in winter, when the conditions surrounding the animals are hardest. Even in ee awe Te eer ee ee een Nee Se AY Ee te ger re we ee ee y e p ee de eg ee eee 18 CONDITION OF ELK IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING. | mild winters and in times of plentiful food supply, many of the o: er animals of both sexes die. Owing to the fact that a large proportion of the animals killed for food during the autumn months are females, a great many young calves are left motherless and are in a more or less weakened condition when winter comes on. Furthermore, many of the late-born calves are poorly equipped to withstand the winter, and this is likely to be true also of many of the cows which have borne and nursed young the previous season. A conservative estimate places the number of elk witieh dind. of starvation in the Jackson Hole region during the winter of 1910- 11 at some 2,000 to 2,500. Of these, by far the greater number were calves of the previous year. Probably 75 per cent of the calves which came into the valley in November and December had perished of starvation before the end of the followmg March. In some bands the loss of calves was as high as 90 per cent, but other bands suffered less. The greater part of the loss occurred before - feeding began, but large numbers, both calves and older animals, were so weak that they died even when receiving what would ordi- narily have been an abundance of food. Many, in fact, on being fed after a period of starvation, die almost immediately. There is evidently little difference in the relative mortality of the sexes in adult elk, and out of 75 calves examined for sex 32 were males and 43 were females, indicating that in the case of the young the burden on the sexes is not strikingly unequal. HABITS IN SPRING AND EARLY SUMMER. As spring advances and the sides of hills bordering the valley become bare, the elk, especially the older animals, leave their haunts in the lower part of the valley and seek the hillsides, where they ~ subsist on the dry grass which has been exposed by the melting of the snow. At the time of my arrival, about the middle of March, they had already begun to work back into the hills, and the numbers being fed were much less than originally. Many of the animals at _ this season spend a part of their time on the hillsides, visiting the feeding grounds at the time when they have been accustomed to be 4 fed. As the spring advances, this movement into the hills becomes more and more pronounced, until the valley is entirely deserted. The last ones left that part of Jackson Hole south of the Gros Ventre Buttes, known locally as South Park, about April 26, some time after feeding of hay had been discontinued. They were subsisting on the green grass then springing up on the borders of some spring-fed creeks. They were seen on the adjacent hillsides until early May. In the swamp north of Jackson a large herd remained later. Inves- — tigation showed that they were feeding on the green leaves of the __ ane em ee meee rete ee ACR Te re MEP. SSN RLY MN Toro Sma ee ere A mM er ey Bhan e Tey One —? BIRTH OF YOUNG. 19 coarse marsh grass, evidently the plants which had grown in autumn after hay harvest. This grass had been kept green and succulent by its covering of ice and snow. In early May the icy flooring which had remained solid beneath the tangled grassy covering no longer held up the animals, and they all left about May 10. For some time longer upward of 100 remained on the East Gros Ventre Butte, several hundred feet higher than the valley level. Here they lived on the grasses and herbaceous plants which were fast springing up. e These elk remained here until about May 25, and then part or all of them crossed westward and joined others on the larger West Gros Ventre Butte, which afforded them more protection. Upward of 100 were seen there as late as May 31, and a few remained all summer. Some of the older bulls dropped their antlers about March 25, but the shedding continued for several weeks. Among a herd seen May 4 were a number of bulls still bearing horns, but by May 15 even the younger bulls had all dropped them. As the shedding of antlers is dependent on the general condition of the animal, the proc- ess was delayed by the severe winter and late spring. In an earlier spring following a normal winter the new horns are already well grown in May, but in 1911 that month found most of the bulls with their horns scarcely started, and in mid-August many were still in the velvet. . ee gt ie Ps BIRTH OF YOUNG. About 75 per cent of elk cows over 2 years old bear young. The majority of calves are born between the 25th of May and the middle _ of June. Nearly all the testimony obtained on the subject is to the effect that only one calf is born at a time. A few thought that twins sometimes occur, but it seems probable that this opinion arose from the fact that a cow elk is frequently followed by two calves during _ the summer, the extra one being the deserted or orphaned offspring __ of another cow. Many of the hunters had examined large numbers _ of female elk with calf, and none of these ever found more than one fetus. The proportion of the sexes at birth is nearly even. Large numbers of the cows have their young in the hills in the vicinity of Jackson Hole, but probably the majority of the animals which come from north of Buffalo Fork return there before dropping their young. ‘This varies according to the season, an early spring allow- ing a greater proportion to move northward before calving. The young are usually born in a thicket, very often among aspens, and are carefully concealed by the mothers when they have occasion to leave them. The calves are said to begin to graze at the age of 4 to _ 6 weeks, and many are weaned in September. In some cases, how- ten weaning does not occur until October, November, or even ater. 20 -—« CONDITION OF ELK IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING. HABITS IN LATE SUMMER AND IN AUTUMN. In July and August most of the elk range the mountains at an elevation of from 9,000 to 11,000 feet, where they find the least — annoyance from insects. At this time the older bulls frequently 4 range above timber line and rarely associate with the bands of cows — and calves. Toward the end of August the elk seek slightly lower _ elevations, and the stronger bulls begin to herd the cows. Therutting is at its height from September 10 to October 1. At this time the whistling or bugling of the males, which sometimes occurs in summer, : is heard in its highest perfection. At this season the cows are restless __ and wary, but the older bulls are less watchful than at other seasons and fall easy prey to hunters. The opening of the hunting season as early as September 1 has, therefore, a deterrent effect on the breeaing of the animals. The prohibition of hunting in the region lying north of the Buffalo Fork of Snake River, comprising the State game preserve, is of great value, since large numbers of the animals are thus left undisturbed during this important period. When the rutting season is over, the older bulls segregate and remain high in the hills after the main herds have sought lower alti- tudes. As has been shown, many old bulls may even winter at eleva- tions not much below the summer habitat. As the season progresses, the cows, calves, and younger bulls slowly seek the valleys. The heavy storms of November cause them to gather in large herds and by December the bulk have congregated in the valleys. (See Plate VIL.) ENEMIES OF ELK. One of the most destructive natural enemies of the elk, the puma or mountain lion, is now eliminated from consideration, since it is practically exterminated in the Jackson Hole region. On the other hand, wolves, which were formerly unknown there, are common and increasing. They first appeared about 10 or 12 years ago, coming in from the Green and Wind River region, probably following the introduc- tion of stock. It is estimated that about 25 adult wolves now range in Jackson Hole. The damage inflicted by them on both horses and cattle is serious, and, as they seem to be able to kill elk at will, they must destroy a large number. They kill stock and game on the hills immediately about thesettlements, bothsummer and winter, frequently two or more attacking the prey. They usually hamstring the elk, and after felling them make a meal from the eyes, the udder, and other — choice parts, and seldom return to the carcass, preferring afresh victim. — The coyote, unlike the wolf, is almost certainly native to the region, but has increased greatly with settlement. Adult elk are seldom or never killed by them, but a few young calves fall victims. Wood ticks are very abundant along the trails where elk travel and in the sagebrush in which they bed, and the animals frequently Bul. 40, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. Fi@. 1.—ELK CALVES IN WILLOW THICKETS. SOUTH PARK, BELOW JACKSON, LATE WINTER, 1910-11. (Photographed by 8. N. Leek.) Fic. 2.—ELK CALVES, DEAD AND DYING, ABOUT FENCED HAYSTACK, NEAR JACKSON. (Photographed by S. N. Leek.) (‘yoo “N ‘Ss Aq peydvrsoi0yq) “SNIVLNNOJA) SHL NI ANOH YSNWNS YISHL WOus ANOD LSNL SAVH ASHL NAHM ‘US LNIM ATYV” NI ‘AIOH NOSMOVE JO STTIHLOOY AHL NI w143 PLATE VII. Bul. 40, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ILLEGAL KILLING. 91 become unwilling hosts of large numbers. It is doubtful if the elk are killed by ticks, but in the spring they are undoubtedly weakened by the pests. ILLEGAL KILLING OF ELK. The great majority of the people of Jackson Hole are opposed to the killing of elk contrary to law, but there is more or less illegal killing throughout the year. Some of the lawbreakers became resi- dents of the region because of the opportunity afforded for making a living in whole orin part from game, and many of these regard the elk as their natural prey at any season. Many also are ‘‘old-timers”—men whose experience in the West antedates restrictive laws and the period when they became necessary. Others justify themselves in illegal killing ‘‘because so many of the elk die of starvation.” It is hoped that the conditions which furnish this excuse may be abolished. Lowest in the scale of all the enemies of the elk is the tusk hunter— the creature who, on the chance of gaining a dollar or two, kills one of the largest and finest of our game animals and, taking only the tusks, leaves the body to go to waste. The wolf kills that he may live, but the tusk-hunter slays only that he may escape honest labor. Under cover of the mail he forwards his booty undetected to dealers who dispose of the tusks to purchasers who seek only trophies, indif- ferent to how they are obtained. - The warden service in the Jackson Hole region at the present. time is very inadequate. The game preserve, with an area of not less than 1,000 square miles, is little patrolled except by the Federal forest rangers, whose regular duties will not permit much attention to game interests. In addition to this there remains an area comprising — at least 1,500 square miles, and this great tract of rough country is under the care of one deputy game warden with one or two assistants. TRANSPORTATION OF ELK. The plans of the Biological Survey contemplated the removal of a number of elk to other States, where they could be liberated on suit- ably protected ranges and form the nucleus of new herds. The problem of transportation is a difficult one, because the Teton Tange, 2,000 feet higher than the valley of Snake River, must be crossed on the way to the railroad. Spring, moreover, when the enw is disappearing on both sides of the range and is softening and settling on the Teton Pass, is the most unfavorable time of the year for moving live animals. The facilities for transportation were not extensive, and the number captured, therefore, was necessarily lim- ‘ited by the accommodations at our disposal. A dozen of the more vigorous antmals of various ages were selected from a herd being fed in the southern part of Jackson Hole, and on April 12 we started with them for the railroad. Hay or alfalfa was provided for them morning and night and water at least three times daily. They readily attended with some loss; but by constant vigilance and the hearty — 4 ali . a © ° A =} Lal = (o) A © ry te iS A lon eae Cy Be b l a, Q x mM 2) 2 by S fe = isc (2) = i" A took both food and water and were given as much of beth a wanted. A delay of a few days would have necessitated {making the firs elk were placed in each load. A decided aetos of terres a accompanied by a snowstorm, made traveling over the Teton Pass q unpleasant and arduous, but was of distinct assistance in the suc- — cessful accomplishment Fong always dreaded at this season. In — our case the normal difficulties were magnified by the nature of our : loads, which, though not of excessive weight, were bulky and i” heavy. Similar attempts in the past have almost invariably been cooperation of our assistants the mountains were crossed he te mishap. Near Victor, Idaho, close to the western base of the range, — bare ground was reached, and our loads were changed from runners — to wheels. This was done by lifting the wagon bed and racks by means of a derrick, without removing the animals. The roads from — a this point were in excellent condition, and the completion of the | was merely a matter of time. Upon our arrival at St. Anthony, arrangements were made at once — for shipping the animals. The National Bison Range at Ravalli, — Mont., and the Wichita Game Preserve in Oklahoma had been shiscted as the places to be supplied, and the lot was divided between them. It is gratifying to report that the animals in both shipments _ reached their destinations in excellent condition and that the project — of reestablishing the species in these depleted localities has been — successfully inaugurated. Bs.’ WINTER REFUGE FOR ELK. The establishment of a winter refuge, where the feed can be pre- served by excluding stock during the summer, is essential for th e i proper protection of the elk. Such a refuge should be of considerable size, should be situated in a valley which the elk naturally seek, and — should comprise pasture lands, as well as meadows which will produce — a hay for feeding the animals after they have exhausted the available ~ forage. An idoal situation would include also a tract of somewhat pi ated land, to which the animals could retire for rest. . +i In 1906, when increasing settlement and the attendant grazing the mountain parks began to affect the welfare of the wintering her of elk, Mr. D. C. Nowlin, then State game warden, suggested f ys setting aside of an area including a large part of the valley of | he Gros Ventre River for the exclusive use , of the elk and other g i Later, in his annual report for 1908, he outlined the propose 2 Re eG ape es aT ANE OSV ee WINTER REFUGE. 2S which was embraced by the Teton National Forest, and included several claims occupied by stock ranchers, and recommended its acquisition by the State. Early in 1909 a joint memorial was presented to Congress by the - Wyoming Legislature requesting that a tract comprising six town- ships of public land in the Gros Ventre region be granted to the State for a winter game refuge, and that provision be made also to acquire he holdings of the few settlers thereon located, who favored the ‘proposition and were willing to dispose of their land at a fair price. - Owing mainly to the opposition of the people of Jackson Hole, no result was obtained. In the course of the present investigation an attempt was made to ascertain the sentiment of the people of Jackson Hole regarding winter refuges. About 40 residents of the valley, most of them living within afew miles of the town of Jackson, were asked specifically whether or not they favored the acquisition of a tract for a winter refuge. Of this number, 27 favored the securing of a tract in the settled part of the valley. Most of the remainder were in favor of feeding hay in winter, while a few believed that some area should be set aside for the ellk but were indifferent as to its location. The few inhabitants of the _ Gros Ventre Valley were, generally speaking, in favor of the estab- lishment there of a reserve, and several from other sections were like- minded. It is evident that, while the inhabitants of the region as a _ whole have heretofore violently opposed the setting aside of an elk _ refuge on the Gros Ventre, they are really in favor of a refuge and differ mainly as to its location, the people in the valley advocating its establishment there, while the settlers on the Gros Ventre favor that section as its site. ___ The Biological Survey looks on the establishment of one or more _ winter refuges as the best solution of the problem of properly caring _ for the elk in winter. An area in the lower part of the region is of __ prime importance, since there the greatest number of elk resort and _ there an area of a given size can be made to support the greatest num- ber of animals. On the other hand, the establishment of a second __ refuge in the Gros Ventre Valley would be comparatively inexpensive and would gradually be the means of detaining there in autumn a _ considerable number of the elk which would otherwise keep on to the lower country. It has been estimated that 600 tons of hay can be harvested on the claims now occupied on the Upper Gros Ventre, and this amount, with the available forage, would support more elk than now winter there. The number which might be supported on a properly managed refuge in the Jackson region would be limited only __ by the size of the reservation. It is earnestly recommended that at least one winter refuge for elk be established. O i be ; cove “4 te ted FR 4 15% ‘o ” ein, © Si 06 <6" y: ; ee ‘ Aa yhabe Wie Yass oy 4h ere entaroee: Thi eee : ; Issued March 21, 1912. nw, (S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BIOLOGICAL SURVEY—BULLETIN No, 41 HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief HRONOLOGY AND INDEX. OF THE MORE IMPORTANT EVENTS IN AMERICAN GAME PROTECTION 1776-1911 BY T. S. PALMER Assistant Chief, Biological Survey WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE © 1912 “ [HIS PUBLICATION may be pro- cured from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office Washington, D. C., at 10 cents per copy Pye te Shae ae g LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. BIOLOGICAL SURVEY, Washington, D. C., November 27, 1911. Sir: 1 respectfully transmit herewith for publication as Bulletin No. 41 of the Biological Survey a Chronology and Index of the more important events in American Game Protection from 1776 to 1911, by Dr. T. S. Palmer, Assistant Chief of the Biological Survey. Requests are constantly received for information regarding various 1atters connected with the protection of game, and particularly as o the States which have adopted certain measures. From the information on file the following index has been prepared to answer ich inquiries and also to make the facts more generally available. Respectfully, a U. 8. DEPARTMENT oF AGRICULTURE, Henry W. HensuHaw, a Chief, Biological Survey. Hon. James WIitson, Secretary of Agriculture. CONTENTS. Summary of game protection by States.................------2--2--2+------ RTRs Pree gk oo haa as caps ~ tata ale win de’ Syne CHRONOLOGY AND INDEX OF THE MORE IMPORTANT EVENTS IN AMERICAN GAME PROTECTION, 1776-1911. INTRODUCTION. Game protection in the United States has been gradually developed during a period of nearly 300 years and has been marked by an immense volume of legislation. In no other country in the world have laws for the protection of game been passed in such numbers or amended so frequently. Among the characteristic features of American game legislation are the division of birds into three groups— game birds, nongame birds, and noxious species; the restrictions on hunting by nonresidents; the limitations on the quantity of game that may be killed at certain times; the prohibition of export and sale; the system of enforcement by State officers; and the mainte- nance of this system largely by receipts from hunting licenses. DEFINITIONS OF GAME. The mammals and birds which have been the subject of this extended legislation have varied considerably at different times, as have the definitions of the groups. Frank Forester, writing in 1848, declared: Game is an arbitrary term, implying, in its first and most correct sense, those animals, whether of fur or feather, which are the natural pursuit of certain high breeds of dogs. Under this heading he included the bison, mountain sheep, antelope, moose, elk, caribou, deer, rabbit, varying hare, black or brown bear, and grizzly bear, and added: This is the utmost limit that I can assign to the quadruped game of this country; as I can not lend my humble sanction to the shooting squirrels, racoons, or opossums out of trees, and calling that sportsmanship; any more than I can assent to shooting thrushes, crow blackbirds, pigeons, meadowlarks, and reed-birds, and calling them game. Under birds he included wild turkeys, quail, grouse, ptarmigan, coot, rail, plover, snipe, and other bay birds, woodcock, geese, swans, and ducks. (Field Sports in America, I, pp. 21, 23, 26-34.) In 1886 the committee on protection of birds of the American Ornithologists’ Union prepared a definition of game birds which, with slight modifications, has been generally accepted. This defi nition was based on natural groups, as follows: The following only shall be considered game birds: The Anatide, commonly known as swans, geese, brant, and river and sea ducks; the Rallidz, commonly known as rails, coots, mudhens, and gallinules; the Limicole, commonly known as shore birds, plovers, surf birds, snipe, woodcock, sandpipers, tattlers, and curlews; the 7 8 CHRONOLOGY AND INDEX. Galline, commonly known as wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, hessant a partridges, and quail. (Forest and Stream, X XVI, p. 84, Feb. 25, 1886.) In 1887 the Boone and Crockett Club in its constitution dchaam a big game as follows: i Under the heading of American large game are included the following ae Black and brown bear, grizzly bear, polar bear, buffalo (bison), mountain sheep, woodland caribou, fomernand caribou, cougar, muskox, white goat, elk (wapiti), wolf (not coyote), prong-horned antelope, moose, Virginia deer, mule deer, and Columbian black-tailed deer. (Art. IV.) In 1898 the list was modified by omitting the wolf. In 1900 the Biological Survey, utilizing these definitions, limited the term, so far as applied to North American species, to four well- marked groups of mammals and four of birds, namely: 1, ruminants and peccaries (Ungulata) ; 2, bears and raccoons (Carnivora) ; 3, rab- bits and squirrels (Rodentia); 4, opossums (Marsupialia); 5, swans, geese, brant, and ducks (Anatide); 6, rails, coots, mudhens, and gallinules (Rallide); 7, shorebirds, including plover, woodcock, — sandpipers, and curlews (Limicolez); 8, wild turkeys, grouse, pheas- ants, partridges, and quail (Galline). (Biol. Survey, Bull. No. 14, p. 11, 1900.) , The extent to which definitions have been incorporated in statutory — law shows even greater variations. In the English laws game is — defined as ‘‘ hares, pheasants, partridges, grouse, heath or moor game, black game, and bustards’” (Game Act, 1831, sec. 2), while the term ground gameis applied to hares and rabbits (Ground Game Act, 1880, sec. 8). Game proper thus includes only the Galline and the Otidide (bustards). Deer, waterfowl, and shore birds are not included, and protection of shore birds and wild fowl is provided under the Wild _ Birds’ Protection Act of 1880. 4 In Bouvier’s Law Dictionary game is defined as ‘‘ Birds and beasts _ of a wild nature obtained by fowling and hunting,” and in the Code ~ of Mississippi as ‘‘ All kinds of animals and birds found in the state of — nature commonly so-called.’”” Game birds are defined in the law of — Michigan of 1899 as “‘ Any birds protected by this act,” and a law of Maine enacted the same year declares the term ‘‘shall be construed to mean the ruffed grouse or partridge, all species of the pheasant, wood- cock, snipe, plover, and rail, and all ducks enumerated in this act. The term game animals shall be construed to mean moose, caribou, and deer.” (Acts, 1899, ch. 42, sec. 50.) Since 1886 the definition of game birds recommended by the Ameri- _ can Ornithologists’ Union has been incorporated in the laws of a num- ber of States, so that at present there is general uniformity in limiting — the term to four natural groups. In some States, however, the list is _ modified by the addition of a few species. California adds the glossy ibis; Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and the District of Colum- — bia, the reedbird and blackbird; a few States, the robin; and a — number of States in the South and West, the dove. 3 sf i = 5 mg Dy Fe 3 AMERICAN GAME PROTECTION. 9 DEVELOPMENT OF GAME LAWS. The history of the development of the complex game laws of to-day from the simple provisions of colonial times is both interesting and valuable in showing the numerous experiments which have been tried and have resulted in failure, and in throwing light on present problems. Many provisions, such as restrictions on sale and export, considered recent, are in reality very old; while, on the other hand, legislation prohibiting spring shooting of waterfowl and summer shooting of woodcock and shore birds is comparatively recent, owing in large measure to the generally accepted, but erroneous, idea that migratory birds require little protection and may be shot as long as they are present in spring and as soon as they appear in late summer. The earliest game laws were probably the hunting privileges granted in 1629 by the West India Co. to persons planting colo- nies in New Netherlands, and the provisions regarding the right of hunting in the Massachusetts Bay Colonial Ordinance of 1647 and the New Jersey Concessions of Agreements of 1678. The yearsinter- . vening between 1629 and 1911 may be conveniently divided into two periods of approximately equal length—a colonial period and a modern period. The latter period is the more important and the one with which we are mainly concerned. In the century and a third since the Revolution a vast number of experiments have been made in game protection. Many of the laws passed were soon repealed and are now forgotten, but some contained suggestions which are still valuable. The object of the present publication is to furnish access to the more important ideas, to show briefly the development of the present system, and to direct attention to some of the more important facts in the history of game protection. The index is in no sense a complete index to the mass of statute law enacted since 1776, but merely a guide to some of the more important provisions. In order to keep the subject matter within reasonable limits it has been restricted chiefly to legislation, decisions of the courts, and organization of the more important game protective associations and the game warden service in the several States. A few other facts of general interest have been incorporated, such as the dates of introduction or extermination of some of the more important species; the dates of publication of some of the more important works dealing with legislation or the history of game protection, establish- ment of public parks and private preserves, and the origin of certain ideas which have had an effect on the protection of game. At the end of the colonial period 12 colonies had enacted game laws. Close seasons had been provided for deer in all the colonies except Georgia; and for wild turkeys, heath hens, partridges, and quail in New York. Several of the colonies had laws prohibiting hunting on Sunday or hunting with fire at seal Massachusetts in 20201°—Bull. 41—12——2 a 10 ———— AND INDEX. 1710 had prohibited the use of Hons or canoes with sails, or canoes | disguised with hay, sedge, or seaweed for hunting waterfowl. Restrictions on export and sale of deer skins were also in force in some of the colonies. The beginnings of the warden system had been made in Massachusetts and New Hampshire about the middle of the eighteenth century, but these comparatively few statutes were all that were considered necessary. By 1800 the number of States which had found it desirable to pass game legislation had been increased from 12 to 14 by the addition ~ 4 of Vermont and Georgia. By 1850 comparatively little game legislation had been enacted, although the list of States having such laws had increased to 19, which included the thirteen original States and Maine, Vermont, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Indian Territory, thus comprising all the States along the coast from the New Brunswick boundary to the mouth of the Mississippi River, together with Indian Territory. The only game law in force west of the Mississippi was the restriction on hunting on Indian lands. No protection for nongame birds was pro- vided until the passage of the first laws protecting insectivorous birds in Connecticut and New Jersey in 1850. In the decade from 1851 to 1860 game laws were passed for the | ; first time in 12 States, increasing the total number to 31. These States included Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin, east of the Mississippi River; Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, and California in the West; and Louisiana and Texas in the South. The first law prohibiting the use of ferrets in hunting rabbits was passed — in Rhode Island in 1860. The only provision for warden service was for local moose wardens in Maine in 1852. In the decade from 1861 to 1870 the list of States was still further increased by 10. The chief advance was in the Rocky Mountain States—in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming; farther west in Nevada and Washington; and in the Middle West in Kansas, Ken- tucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia. The first efforts to restrict spring shooting were made in Ohio,! 1861, and Michigan, 1863 and 1869; and shooting waterfowl from blinds placed in open water was prohibited locally in North Carolina in 1870. In the decade from 1871 to 1880 the progress of game legislation extended to 48 States by the addition of North and South Dakota, Utah, and Oregon in the West; Arkansas and New Mexico in the South; and the District of Columbia in the East. The waste of game (Wyoming, 1871) and hide hunting (Oregon, 1874) were pro- hibited, and the first statutes were enacted limiting bags of game birds (lowa, 1878) and providing rest days for wildfowl (Maryland, 1 This law (Acts 1861, p. 173) was local. Earlier laws covering a few species were enacted in Rhode Island in 1846 and in Michigan in1859. The former prohibited spring shooting of wood duck, black duck, woodcock, and snipe; the latter restricted killing of mallard and teal. E F AMERICAN GAME PROTECTION. 11 1872, and New Jersey, 1879). Destructive methods of hunting wild- fowl were restricted by prohibiting the use of boats propelled by steam or sail (New Jersey, 1879), and market hunting was prohibited (Arkansas, 1875). This period also marked the beginning of the nonresident license legislation (New Jersey, 1873, and Delaware, 1879) and the establishment of the first game commissions (Califor- nia and New Hampshire, 1878). The first publication of the game laws in pamphlet form appeared in New York in 1873. In the decade from 1881 to 1890 the first game laws were passed in the Territories of Arizona and Oklahoma. Measures were adopted prohibiting hunting in the snow (Delaware, 1887), on highways (Kansas, 1886), or for millinery purposes (Wisconsin, 1887). The first salaried wardens were appointed (Michigan, Minnesota, and Wis- consin, 1887). The model law for the protection of nongame birds was enacted in two States (New York, 1886, and Pennsylvania, 1889). The decade 1891 to 1900 was marked by the first real Federal legislation. In 1900 the earliest game provision for Alaska was incorporated in the Alaska Civil Code, although the first general game law for the Territory did not pass until 1902. The year 1900 also marked the final passage of the earliest general Federal statute, commonly known as the Lacey Act, which became a law after being under consideration by Congress for three years. Jacking deer (New York, 1897) and dove baiting (Georgia, 1898) were prohibited, and training dogs on game birds was regulated (Michigan, 1891). The modern system of hunting licenses was established by provision for resident and nonresident licenses in 1895 in several States and for guide licenses in Maine, 1897, and Wyoming, 1899. In the decade from 1901 to 1910 a number of new restrictions were placed on the statute books, among which may be mentioned pro- hibition of the use of automatic guns (Pennsylvania, 1907) and silencers (Maine, North Dakota, and Washington, 1909), the require- ment of a license to photograph big game in winter (Wyoming, 1905), and provision for paying for damages to crops by deer (Vermont, 1902). The propagation of game has received widespread attention through the so-called ‘‘more game movement”’ inaugurated in 1908. New impetus was given to game protection through the estab- lishment of sportsmen’s journals in the early seventies, and this move- ment was almost immediately reflected in an increased volume of legislation; so that during the last three decades of the century the number of laws rapidly increased. GAME LAWS ENACTED 1901 TO 1910. The following table shows the number of game laws enacted during the decade from 1901 to 1910. A cipher indicates that there was no legislative session in the State for that year and a dotted line POPE Ee Nes ee TEN eee ee ee ee Py eae ee ee 2 ee ee jo oN ate 12 CHRONOLOGY AND INDEX. _ a signifies that although the legislature was in session no game law passed. Number of game laws enacted, 1901-1910. dg = > = + re State. 1901 | 1902 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905 | 1906 | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 Total. ; for) Oo oS oS rare wmoneanH ooocoeore = B MommoHwoHocoro r— SSOSONWNOSSCONWOOKRKHOONOUNSOCOOCONCOYVSCOSHSOSOSOrRS eect Capea: = eevee = eee =o SOMSDKFOCCOCOCFOOOCMOWRONODOS _ coonmnoow MOV AGA. fd cots bch: bowen ey Wew Eamipshire: 3225.05. 222... ING WMEISC Yd oc tp ent bee acess New Mexico oR -_ ROR WHO WO WR RON ROR, -1R We DD ~I ZA a Bp Q P F P wore es =) 3 - ‘ ‘ ' . ‘ ‘ ' ‘ . ‘ ‘ ‘ CWODNNNWWHRNROOOIMONSCCHOHRH 1 Pennsylvania. -../. 2....2--J-s~.2 7 Riode islands. -.- cs ac eso es 2 Banth Carolinas. ioc -scnsdvetsar|2es- oe DOUGH MK ODH cs occ oes eaten oe ie © 5 B ® to irginia AZESI ON 4 0) a SAE eP ate West Virginia. ..-s-cenccc2 sb sce WVNSCONSIM 2:5. 2 ns Seeman mila = Sat Wiveniineo. os). Loe gs eke ~) — Ccooo8wooSsOoHSCOoSCOHOSOROASCCCOO — WW NOOR RH bo Coke NOOO ms i | ° = & ee S R The total number of laws, exclusive of bounty laws and appropria- tion acts, was 1,324, an average of about 133 per annum, or 265 for each biennial period. The States which have passed the greatest number of game laws during these years were North Carolina, 316; New York, 94; Maryland, 90; Massachusetts, 80; and Tennessee, 51. Those pebaelt have passed the smallest number were Alaska and Dis- _ trict of Columbia, 2 each; Mississippi, Nebraska, and West Virginia, — 4 each; Arizona, Missouri, Ohio, and Utah, 5 each. These numbers _ do not indicate tits amount of game lepislation so much as the differ- — 4 ence in manner of enactment, some States making each special provi_ 3 sion or local law a separate act, while others group all the game ‘legislation of a session in a ingle act. The figures are chiefly of | relative value. Absolute accuracy is difficult of attainment, both ii Se ES ee AL Pe eo ee 5 in el a ee a Se! Ay ae ee ee PORISHONIA. 52-2 2-3 - AMERICAN GAME PROTECTION. 13 _ because game measures are occasionally embodied in laws relating to other subjects and because in case of certain measures there is room for difference of opinion as to whether they should or should not be considered game laws. The numbers are conservative, however, and the totals show less, rather than more, than the actual number of laws passed. SUMMARY OF GAME PROTECTION BY STATES. In the following table the dates of adoption of 10 of the more important features of the game law are shown for each State, from the earliest dates to 1910. Figures in black-face type indicate the first enactment of the kind. Summary of game protection by States. Deer. Spring! won. Sale First Soot | same Pro- | Resi- | State State. game | (Hoes lHound-| mbhod| Dirds | Gk, [Export.|RIPNEG| dent | war- law pro- |ingpro-| (water- (model ; tered licenses.} dens. tected).|hibited.| fowl). | !2¥)- game). JG oi ee ee AS So Lt es a Arkansas..........-- @alvormia: |. 9.05... Colorado. ... pes Connecticut. BS Delaware.... District of Columbia. Maryland 25.323 5.. |G Gl oe Mirmmesota..... =. 4. Mississippi.........- (MUSSOMTie we. oes ~~ o 2 New Hampshire. ..- Wew Jersey... - 2-22. New Mexico.....-.- North Dakota......- AE CGS eae DRE Pennsylvania. ...... 14 CHRONOLOGY AND INDEX. LOCAL LAWS. Tn several of the States protection of game was first afforded in the form of local laws. Thus the first law in Texas established a close season for quail on Galveston Island; the first in California applied to only a few counties; in Louisiana, to St. Bernard Parish; in Mis- souri, to St. Louis County; and in New York, to the counties on Long Island and near New York City; while an early law of Missis- sippi was one authorizing police boards of counties to pass ordimances for the protection of game. ‘The first close seasons in Alabama were established in three counties in the southwestern part of the State. As time went on, local laws in some States increased greatly in num- ber and resulted in considerable confusion. Such legislation was especially popular in Alabama, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Many of these local laws are comparatively recent, having been enacted within the last 25 years. In Tennessee under the constitu- tion of 1870 and in Texas under the constitution of 1875 special pro- visions were made permitting local game legislation. On the other hand, several of the States prohibited local legislation by constitu- - tional provisions, notably Pennsylvania in 1874, Kentucky in 1894, and Alabama in 1901, thus putting an end to the complexity of local. regulations and greatly simplifying the game laws in these States. Congress in 1886 adopted a general provision prohibiting local game laws in any of the Territories, a provision incorporated in the con- stitutions of the Dakotas, Montana, and possibly one or two other States admitted about that time. Recently both Virginia and Ten- nessee repealed most of their local laws and substituted general statutes, and at the present time comparatively few States depend on local legislation for the protection of their game. CLOSE SEASONS. It is interesting to note the gradual adoption of the close season as a means for the protection of various kinds of game during the 204 years from 1694 to 1898. Following are the dates of the first close seasons for various kinds of game, beginning with deer in Massachusetts and ending with European partridges in Vermont in 1898: 1694. Deer (Massachusetts). 1850. Doves(Connecticut and NewJersey) 1708. Heath hens, ruffed grouse, quail, | 1851. Prairie chickens (Wisconsin). wild turkeys (New York). 1852. Antelope, elk (California). 1791. Woodcock (New York). 1859. Rail (Pennsylvania). 1818. Snipe (Massachusetts). 1861. Goats, sheep (Nevada). 1820. Rabbits (New Jersey). 1864. Buffalo (Idaho). 1830. Moose (Maine). 1870. Caribou (Maine). 1841. Squirrels (Pennsylvania). 1882. Introduced pheasants (Oregon). 1846. Ducks (Rhode Island). 1898. European partridges (Vermont). AMERICAN GAME PROTECTION. 15 The progress made in gradually shortening the open seasons may be illustrated by comparing the deer seasons first established in the Atlantic Coast States with those in effect in 1910: State. Original open season. eee Open season for 1910. at anv NERIRE ois iacnScet ccc ses 1830, Sept. 1-Jan. 1. 4 Oetu1=Dee. 153042 5.6 ees. 65 New Hampshire. .....- 1741, Aug. 1-Jan.1.......... Ochs Decl eee alan ie 52 Wiermont 22. 2.522502226 1779 June 10-Jan. 10.......- Oete2o ssl See Ou oes 6 Massachusetts .....-...- 1694, July 1-Jan.1-.-..---.-.- INOW 27-5 csasneaeeeeane ce 6 Prrtael ars ett Cs es cere aes on RE ee Gee crate Miaka eS Sees co Ae No open season......-..--.- None Connecticut. 7... 2.3% 1698, July 15-Jan.15......-.| | 184 |..--. CRRA Se Me oe ne None. New Mork. 3.06 .5.222 52 1705, Aug. 1-Jan.1........-.- Sept. 16-Nov.1-.........-..-. 38 New Jersey......---.-- 1722, July 1-Jan.1.......... SiCayVSOPCMee ete ees seek toes 5 Pennsylvania......-..- 21 July: ivanell ee Nov: 15=Dees tose ses 552 13 ICTWANG: cece con. = (nace doe he Dees Deer exterminated ...-.-...-|....---.-- Maryland 2.552225... - 1730, Aug. I-Jan.1........-- Nov. 10-Jan.1(Alegany Co.) 44 Oct. 1-Jan. 1 ear t ¢ Co. es 79 WL ees 1699, Aug. 1-Feb.1-....--...- Sept. 1-Dec. 1 78 North Carolina. .......| 1738, July 15-Feb. 15..-.....-. Oct jahebuts ces eee 105 South Carolina.......-. 1769, Aug. 1-Jan.1-_......... Nov. 1-Feb.1...........--.- 79 CECE a 1850, Aug. 1-Apr.12.-..._... dial hy iis =a Pra lhe Sa eae Eee 145 longa ors cl2n 54 LS 1877, Sept. 1-Apr.1.-......-.- Nov.dt-Hebeiis ase fase ee 79 1 Exclusive of Sundays, on which hunting is now prohibited in all these States. 2 Richmond County only. CLOSE TERMS. Karly in the history of the country, in some localities where game was becoming exterminated, hunting was suspended for a term of years in order to afford opportunity for recuperation. These close terms were later extended to so many States that in some cases the species received absolute protection throughout its range in the United States. The first close terms were apparently those for deer for 3 years in Massachusetts, 1718, and 4 years in Virginia in 1772. Later a similar suspension of the hunting season occurred in three counties of Massachusetts for a term of 5 years in 1818, New Jersey in 1862, and in Vermont for 32 years from 1865 to 1897. Comparatively few close terms for quail have been established in States well within the range of the species, although such periods are common in locali- ties where birds have been introduced, or reach the border of their natural range, where they are likely to be winter killed. In the case of doves the species was first removed from the game list in Con- necticut and New Jersey in 1850, and has since been given complete protection in about a third of the Northern States, although in the South and Southwest it is still retained on the game list. By the establishment of a close term on caribou in Minnesota in 1905, the last State which had any of this game was closed to hunting, and caribou were practically removed from the game list in the United States. Close terms for antelope have likewise been extended and adopted | by successive States until in 1909 they covered the entire range of the species, thus practically removing antelope from the game list. 16 CHRONOLOGY AND INDEX. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROTECTION OF GAME BY SPECIES. The progress in extending protection to the more important ice of game is shown in the following table: Development of the protection of game by species. Species First close season. First close term. First bag limit. Protection in 1910. Antelope. . -=-2-- are (12 coun- | California, 1883.....- Wyoming, 1890....- 17 States, no open ies), 1852 mn. California, 1854. Buttalosese2t2 32 Idaho, 1864.......-- eelorade (10 years), | South Dakota, 1901. - @ariboulezsss ssc... Maine, 1870....-...-- New Hampshire,1878 Maine, 1883......... pies range. Meee Se eee Massachusetts, 1693..| Massachusetts, 1718_.|....-. GOs Se ae ee 47 State: Yak aE oe aes ae ue coun- | Michigan, 1879...... Wyoming, 1890... .. Throaghout range. ies), 1852. California, 1854. Moose; ye 5502.55 | Manes T8305: Long Island (5] Maine, 1883......... Do. years), 1869. Mountain goat...| Nevada, 1861..-....- Gelorade (10 years), | Washington, 1897... Do. Mountain sheep..|..... (1 a eee oe Ae Colorado (10 years), | Wyoming, 1890... -.. 12 States. Rabbitencestcses New Jersey, 1820....| None lll aerial hots Wisconsin, 1903-..... 17 States and Dis- trict of Columbia. Squirrel. ........| Pennsylvania (5 | Nebraska, 1905-...-. Ohio and Vermont, | 28 States. counties), 1841. 1902. - Daversa eas.cca. New Jersey, 1850....| New Jersey, 1850....| Minnesota, 1897.....| 44 States, 20 no open season. 1 Db (ch cee eee ee Rhode Island, 1846..| Louisiana (wood | Dakota, 1887........ 44 States. ay 5 years), 1904 Introd. pheasant .| Oregon, 1882........ Oregon, 1882.-.....-. se (1 county), | 41 States. Prairie chicken...}| Wisconsin, 1851..... pets Jersey (5 years), ee 1078.2. FAA Throughout range. 66. Grae ee... New York, 1708....-. Texas (Galveston Is-|..... 6 (0 aR Ss a 48 States. land), 1860. Minnesota, 18612 2252|0 12TH 2 ee a Pennsylvania, 1859..) None.........---.-- Connecticut, 1899 ...| 33 States. Delaware, 1859. ....- c Ruffed grouse....| New York, 1708..... NER J via (3 years),| Iowa, 1878......--.- Throughout range. Siti pe ies cee = 5-2 Massachusetts, 1818 . we bs ee oe a 00..c=sceee eee 40 States. Wild turkey. .... New York, 1708..... New Jersey, 1874... Florida, 1895........ 26 States. Woodcock... ..-- New York, 1791.....| Oregon (5 years),1901 Iowa, 1878 oP aaa 30 States. Nongame........ Connecticut” and’) Connecticut anid! |-:- 522... 22---eceenes 40 States (model New Jersey, 1850. New Jersey, 1850. law). Restrictions on the capture of game by prohibiting certain destructive methods, limiting the amount that may be killed, restricting hunting to special days, or extending special protection to females of certain species have been adopted from time to time as necessity for such action became apparent. An interesting illus- tration is the legislation to prevent hunting deer by firelight. - Ap- parently the first law of this kind was passed in Maryland in 1730, and similar statutes were enacted by each of the coast States from Maryland to Mississippi, ending with Florida in 1828. The dates of the adoption of these laws are shown in the following table: : Year. Year. Wiepry era ae ee Lei. Peek 1730 | Virginia. ..05.. 2.0. 400. See 1792 South Carolina 21.0231. ..: 2. .<<2 2201769, | “Mississippiisss:. 2.23.22. 4c 1803 North: Carolinas. aan aes a. crnsa sass titi ot Adpbamia...... i cise 1822 GeOrPInii. 05. -stcsencesasecese--.. 1790 | Plonda:, ». 2 ciccan omens 1828 AMERICAN GAME PROTECTION. in WARDEN SERVICE. In early days the enforcement of the game law was left to local peace officers or intrusted to certain general officers. Thus New York as late as 1820 intrusted the duties of suing for penalties under _ the game law to overseers of the poor. In recent years, however, d special officers, known as wardens or protectors, have been found necessary. The earliest officers of this kind seem to have been the deer wardens of Massachusetts, 1739, and New Hampshire, 1741, alterwards known as deer reeves in Massachusetts, 1764. Later these were followed by the moose wardens in Maine, in 1852. Shortly after the establishment of fish commissions their duties were extended to include game (beginning in California and New Hampshire in 1878), and a few years later the first appointments of salaried State game wardens were made in Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin in 1887. This system has spread until at the present time it is in force in 41 States. GAME-PROTECTION FUNDS. In order to meet the expenses incident to game protection, and particularly to warden service, special funds were found necessary, and such funds were often set aside as game-protection funds. Thus the laws of several states contain the provision that the money re- ceived from licenses and fines shall form a game-protection fund and be applied to the payment of wardens. With the adoption of license systems these funds have assumed greater importance and are often of considerable size, amounting in several States in recent years to up- _ wards of $100,000 per annum. The possession of such funds and the ease with which they may be collected have proved a source of weak- ness as well as strength to the game-warden departments, and there has been a tendency recently toward a reaction in requiring a direct appropriation by the legislature before any part of such funds can be applied to game protection. Acts have also been passed trans- ferring to the State treasury or applying to other purposes what is regarded as a surplus. ~ FAILURE OF LEGISLATION TO SAVE THE BUFFALO AND WILD PIGEON. : The completion of the Union Pacific Railroad in 1868 determined the fate of the buffalo. The species at that time was distributed chiefly on the Great Plains region between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains, although a few individuals may have ranged west of the mountains. The only State which afforded the species any protection was Idaho. The building of the railroad not only divided the buffalo into two great herds, a northern and a southern, but gave ready access to the hunting grounds and afforded easy 20201°—Bull. 41—12——3 Pe ees te ee EP Weer ae CHRONOLOGY AND INDEX. - means of shipment for hides. For a time the slaughter raged almost uninterruptedly, and in six years the southern herd was almost exter- minated. With the completion of the Northern Pacific Railroad in 1881 the fate of the northern herd was hastened, and practically the last survivors were destroyed seven years later. | Tt is interesting to note that a close season was first established in Idaho in 1864, in Wyoming in 1871, followed by Montana in 1872, Nebraska, 1875, Colorado, 1877, New Mexico, 1880, North and South Dakota, 1883. Neither Kansas nor Texas ever estab-— lished any close season, the reason for which is apparent. With the building of the Kansas Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroads in the early seventies, an important trade in buffalo hides and meat arose at several points in southern Kansas, notably at Dodge City, Leavenworth, and Wichita. From these centers per- sistent and concerted attacks were made on the southern herd between 1871. and 1874; and so long as buffalo kilimg remained profitable it was impossible to secure any legislation which would — interfere with the traffic. With the disappearance of the southern herd about 1874 the need for a close season vanished. Briefly stated, not the slightest protection was afforded in the way of legis- lation in the States in which buffalo were most abundant and in which, through its accessibility, the species was most quickly exter- minated. . The enormous flocks of wild pigeons which formerly darkened the skies in the States of the upper Mississippi Valley, New York, and southern New England had already begun to decrease by the middle of the last century. The last great nesting in New York occurred in 1868, the last large roosting in 1875, and the last great nesting in Michigan—probably the last anywhere on the continent—in 1878. During the time of abundance no serious effort was made to protect the birds. The first legislation on wild pigeons seems to have been an act passed in Massachusetts in 1848, which, instead of protecting the birds, protected the netters against molestation in carrying on their busmess. In 1857 a committee of the State Legislature of Ohio in their report on a game bill declared: The passenger pigeon needs no protection. Wonderfully prolific, having the vast forests of the North as its breeding grounds, travelling hundreds of miles in search of food, it is here to-day and elsewhere to-morrow, and no ordinary destruc- tion can lessen them or be missed from the myriads that are yearly produced. The last wild pigeon in Ohio was killed March 24, 1900, near Sargents, Pike County (Dawson, Birds of Ohio, p. 427, 1903), and 10 years later the sole survivor of the species known was a captive bird in the gardens of the Zoological Society of Cincinnati. Wild pigeon nesting and roosting grounds were first protected in New York in 1862 by a provision prohibiting persons from disturb- MRRP eR eRe cs era yy pues rei Woks omonae AMERICAN GAME PROTECTION. 19 ing the birds by discharging firearms within a mile of their roosts. _ Similar legislation was enacted in Michigan in 1869 and in Pennsyl- _ yania in 1878. The first close season seems to have been provided in Massachusetts about 1870. Thus it will be seen that the birds - were not fully protected even during their breeding season until after the last of their great nesting colonies had been wiped out, and then even these colonies were not protected in New York and _ Michigan until 10 years before the practical disappearance of the bird as an abundant species. ; : It is sometimes said that game legislation will not save a species from destruction, and that this fact is shown by the history of the _ buffalo and the pigeon. The most casual examination of their history will show that game legislation played no part in the fate of these species. A close season during the period of reproduction __ was denied them until too late, and even then there was little serious attempt to enforce the laws. Such legislation as existed was enacted before the establishment of an effective warden force, and the efforts at enforcement met with scanty support. (See Roney, Am. Field, X, p- 345, Jan. 11, 1879). ee ee eo on CHRONOLGGY OF GAME PROTECTION IN THE UNITED STATES, " 1776. Uns 1778. 1779. 1780. 1784. 1785. 1787. 1788. 1789. 1790. 1791. 1792. 1795. 1797. 1798. 1801. 1776-1911. Pennsylvania.—Constitutional provision that inhabitants of the State “‘shall have liberty to fowl and hunt in seasonable times on lands they hold, and all E other lands therein not inclosed.”’ pres —Expiration on Aug. 1 of first close term on deer for 4 yore (Hen- — ning’s Stats., vol. 8, p. 591.) North Peconic: —Law prohibiting hunting at night by firelight (chap. 22). New Hampshire.—Act protecting deer, Jan. 1 to Aug. 1, and requiring towns to select two persons each year to enforce the law. a 1776-80, p. 135.) North Carolina.—Act prohibiting hunting at night with gun and firelight. Vermont.—First game law, protecting deer from Jan. 10 to June 10 (p. 58). | Vermont.—Act regulating fines and changing them from continental currency to English currency. North Carolina.—Law prohibiting fire hunting under penalty of 39 lashes, — prohibiting slaves from hunting, and forbidding hunting without permission _ on posted lands east of the Appalachian Mountains (chap. 33). o New York.—Law protecting deer (from Dec. 1 to Sept. 1) and heath hens (pm p Apr. 1 to Oct. 1) (chap. 31). ; South Carolina.—Law prohibiting fire hunting for 3 years (No. 1299, p. 719). [Tennessee].—Act providing for payment in skins of salaries of State officers. ‘‘Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Franklin . . . that from and after the first day of January 1788, the salaries of this Common- wealth be as follows, to wit: His Excellency, the Governor, per annum 100° deer skins. His Honor the Chief Justice 500 deer skins. The Secretary to a his Excellency the Governor 500 raccoon skins,’’ etc. New York.—Deer law, close season Jan. 1 to Aug. 1; possession of green siktuts prima facie evidence of guilt; hunting deer with bloodhounds or beagles (except in Suffolk County) prohibited (chap. 82). South Carolina.—Law prohibiting fire hunting, and protecting does from Mar. 1 to Sept. 1. Captains of militia to read act to their companies every 6 months. (No. 1463, p. 124.) Georgia.—First game law, prohibiting fire hunting. (Prince’s Digest, p. 341.) New York.—Law protecting heath hen in Queens and Suffolk Counties, Apr. 1-_ Oct. 5; partridge and quail in Queens, Kings, and New York, Apr. 1 to Oct. 5; and woodcock in Queens, Kings, and New York, Feb. 20 to July 1 (chap. 9). Virginia.—Law prohibiting fire hunting for deer (chap. 50, sec 1). Delaware.—Law reenacting prohibition of Sunday hunting (first law was enacted in 1750). (Rev. 1829, p. 483.) Vermont.—Amendment to the deer law changing the close season to Jan. 10 to July 1 (chap. 44), and protecting muskrats in June, July, and August (chap. 43). New Jersey.—Laws prohibiting Sunday hunting (p. 329), and providing for flogging of slaves found hunting on Sunday (p. 307). Vermont.—Act repealing protection of muskrats passed in 1797 (p. 105). Virginia.—Law protecting deer from Jan. 1 to Aug. 1. (Shepherd’s Stats., vol. 2, p. 276.) 20 ees On eS SS et a a ie i, 2 1803. 1805. 1807. 1808. 1809. 1812. 1813. 1816. 1817. 1818. 1819. 1820. 1821. 1822. 1827. 1828, 1829. AMERICAN GAME PROTECTION. yal . Massachusetts.—Law protecting deer Jan. 1 to Aug. 1, permitting capture of deer in private parks or islands at any time and prohibiting hounding in Barnstable county. (Laws 1780-1807, p. 70.) Mississippi Territory (including Alabama).—First game law prohibiting fire hunting; each slave discovered fire hunting to receive 39 lashes and his mas- ter to pay $10; captains of militia to have law read at head of their companies twice every year (Digest 1798-1823, p. 368); and law prohibiting Sunday hunting (Clay’s Digest, p. 592). Tennessee.—Law prohibiting Sunday hunting (previous law in 1741). New York.—Law prohibiting setting traps or sticks or spears for deer, or watch- ing for deer at night within 30 rods of a highway (chap. 97). OChio.—Law prohibiting hunting on Sunday (chap. 43). Indiana.—Law prohibiting Sunday hunting (chap. 37). Georgia.— Decision in State v. Campbell (1 T. U. P. Charlton, 166) holding that the ‘‘Black Act,’ protecting game parks of England (9 Geo. I, ec. 22, 1722) did not become part of common law of Georgia. New Hampshire.—Law authorizing towns of Newmarket, Stratham, and Exeter to appoint 3 fish wardens—one of the first authorizations for wardens (Act June 27). Tennessee.—Repeal of game laws of 1729, 1738, 1745, 1766 (chap. 94). Vermont.—Act protecting muskrats between May 25 and Mar. 15 (chap. 105). New Jersey.—Incorporation of the fowling and fishing association of Upper Township, Cape May County, the first incorporated association of the kind in the State (Act Feb. 5). New Hampshire.—Law prohibiting killing between Jan. 10 and Sept. 1 any deer except tame deer or deer kept in private parks (chap. 14). Indiana.—Second law prohibiting hunting on Sunday by persons 14 cane of age or over (chap. 57). Massachusetts.—Law protecting partridge and quail from Mar. 1 to Sept. 1, and woodcock, snipe, lark, and robin from Mar. 1 to July 4 (chap. 103). Virginia.—Law granting privilege of hunting to owners of shores on Atlantic Ocean, Chesapeake Bay, and rivers and creeks thereof (chap. 28). New Jersey.—First protection for game birds and rabbits—woodcock from Feb. 1 to June 25; moorfowl, grouse, partridge, quail, and rabbit from Feb. 1 to Sept. 1 (p. 678). New York.—Overseers of the poor in towns required to sue for penalties ad the deer law (chap. 37). Mlinois.—Law prohibiting Sunday hunting (p. 48). Massachusetts.—Law prohibiting shooting on salt marshes (except by land- owners) between Mar. 1 and Sept. 1 (chap. 10). New Hampshire.—Law protecting beaver, mink, muskrat, and otter, May 30 to Nov. 1 (chap. 50). Alabama.— § wf tes Vas me ae Aue NI } re Stes oe G : Issued J anuary 9, 1913 - BrouoeTvaL ‘SURVEY—BULLBTIN No, 43 “HENRY. We bah aha Chief NDEX’ TO PAPERS RELATIN G 10 5 THE FOOD OF BIRDS © BY MEMBERS OF THE BIOLOGICAL SURVEY IN PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE “1885-1911 BY 7 W. L. McATEE ¥i J Z Assistant, Biological: Survey colored pls. 1893. The introduction (pp. 9-18) to this bulletin summarizes the food habits of the various species and groups them according to their economic value. Then INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. - 9 follows the detailed consideration of the food habits of the species, giving in- formation gleaned from correspondence, published sources, and stomach ex- amination. The results of examinations of 37 species are tabulated. The name “short-winged hawk,” given on page 11, is a slip of the pen and should be omitted. The same error occurs in Circular 61, p. 3, 1907; Yearbook 1894, _ —p. 217; 1895, p. 590; 1896, p. 628. Buuietin 4. The prairie ground squirrels or spermophiles of the Mississippi Valley. By Vernon Bailey. 69 pp. 3 colored pls. 4 colored maps. 1893. The natural enemies of spermophiles, including nine hawks and six owls, are discussed in pages 15-18. Bouiietin 5, The pocket gophers of the United States. By Vernon - Bailey. 47 pp. 6 figs. 1 colored map. 1895. | In the treatment of natural enemies, pp. 20-22, two species of hawks and three of owls are mentioned. BuiietTin 6. The common crow of the United States. 98 pp. 1 pl. 2 figs. 1895. General habits of the crow. Animal food of the crow. Insect food of the crow. By W. B. Barrows [pp. 9-57 and 68-71, figs. 1-2]. Report on the insect food of the crow. By E. A. Schwarz [pp. 57-67]. Vegetable food of the crow. Protection of crops. By W. B. Barrows [pp. 72-94]. Bulletin 6 treats first of the general habits of the crow, including its migra- tions and the formation of roosts. Next the animal food is discussed, the principal topics being the relations of the crow to rabbits, mice, ground squirrels, gophers, bats, moles, shrews, sheep, swine, eggs and young of poultry and wild birds, and to tortoises, snakes, lizards, frogs, toads, salamanders, fish, crustacea, and mollusks. The insect food is dealt with in a separate chapter, of which the report by E. A. Schwarz occupies 11 pages. In the chapter on vegetable food this omnivorous bird’s corn-pulling habits receive full consideration, as do also its relations to other grains and cultivated fruits. The natural foods most fully treated are mast, weed seeds, wild rice, and wild fruits, particularly sumacs. The bulletin contains casual references to the food of a few other species of birds, and closes with a statement of methods for protecting crops from crows and a discussion of bounty laws and their effects. Buuietin 7. [The food and tongues of woodpeckers.] 44 pp. 5 pls. 1895. Preliminary report on the food of woodpeckers. By F. E. L. Beal [pp. 7-33, 1 pl. (frontispiece), figs. 14]. The tongues of woodpeckers. Relation of the form of the tongue to the character of the food. By Frederic A. Lucas [pp. 35-44, pls. 1-3]. Formal reports on the food habits of 7 species of woodpeckers and brief notes upon 3 others are given by Professor Beal. The introduction is devoted to a general statement of the food and comparison of the various species. Follow- ing this are tables showing the percentage of various elements of the food and the relative proportions of adult and larval: Coleoptera found in the stom- -51197°—Bull. 48—13——2 10 INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. achs of 7 species of woodpeckers. Next the species are taken up separa the animal and vegetable food and the damage attributed to the birds are fy discussed. : The report on tongues by Doctor Lucas notes the peculiarities of this orgs to the character of the food. Plates I-III thoroughly illustrate this interesting 4 anatomical essay. : Buuietin 8. The jack rabbits of the United States. By T. S. Palmer, M.D. 84 pp. 7 pls. 2 figs. 1896. 2nd ed. with numerous alterations and additions, including ap- pendix of 5 pages. 88 pp. 7 pls. 3 figs. 1897. The information relating to birds is the same in both editions and occurs — on the same page, 44. Eight birds of prey are listed among the natural enemies of jack rabbits. Butietin 9. Cuckoos and shrikes in their relation to agriculture. 296 pp. 1 pl. 1 fig. 1898. The food of cuckoos. By F. E. L. Beal, B. S. [pp. 7-14, fig. 1]. The food of shrikes. By Sylvester D. Judd, Ph. D. [pp. 15-26, 1 pl. (frontispiece) ]. After noting briefly the general habits of the yellow-billed and black-billed — cuckoos this bulletin treats their food habits collectively. The almost exclu- sively insect diet is discussed in detail, and a list is given of the species of insects identified in the stomachs. The food habits of the two species of shrikes are treated separately, and lists of the species identified among the prey are given. The report ends with a tabulation of the percentages of prin- cipal food elements by seasons. Buuietin 12. Legislation for the protection of birds other than game birds. By T. S. Palmer. 94 pp. 2 pls. (maps). 8 figs. (1 map). 1900. Revised edition. 143 pp. 4 pls. (maps). 7 figs. (1 map). 1902. The remarks on bird food in this bulletin relate principally to species which, while often used as game, are outside of the ordinary classes of game birds. It is shown that several of these have very beneficial food habits, and their protection is urged. Brief statements of the character of the food of many other species are given in connection with synopses of legislation occasioned by their beneficial or injurious habits. Lists of the species protected and of those specifically exempted from protection in each State and in the Canadian — provinces are presented, aiso the full text of Federal, State, and Canadian laws for the protection of birds. Buuietin 13. Food of the bobolink, blackbirds, and grackles. By F. E. L. Beal, B.S. 77 pp. 1 pl. (map). 6 figs. 1900. This bulletin contains formal reports on the food habits of the bobolink, the cowbird, and 7 species of blackbirds. The introduction notes the salient fea- tures of the food of the various species and compares them one with another. The individual treatment of the species comprises discussion of their relations to crops, particularly grain (rice in the case of the bobolink), and a complete © Lie, ual fy all acral iy Gi Oe aA a INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 11 synopsis of the remaining vegetable food and of the insect and other animal food. Tabulations of the principal food items, by months, follow the general account of each species, and diagrams graphically conveying the same infor- mation are given for the bobolink, cowbird, and red-winged blackbird. - Buuietin 15. The relation of sparrows to agriculture. By Sylvester DD. Judd, Ph. D. 98 pp. 4 pls. 19 figs. 1901. The introductory matter in Bulletin 15 comprises a statement of the impor- tance of sparrows, a general account of the principal constituents of their food, -and-a description of the methods of ascertaining the economic value of birds, including observations in the field and examination of stomachs in the labora- tory. Under the food of sparrows as a group are discussed mineral substances found in sparrows’ stomachs, food neutral in effect on agriculture, food inju- rious in effect, and food beneficial in effect. The behavior of sparrows and their habits of feeding in the natural state are described at length, and results of experiments with captive birds are compared with those of the investigation of stomach contents. The caged sparrows were also used to test the efficacy of the various so-called ‘“ protective” adaptations of insects, and the resistance of certain hard-coated seeds to the digestive action of the birds. ‘The remainder of the bulletin is devoted to a discussion of the food of sparrows by species. Details of the animal and vegetable food of 26 species are given. Plate IV shows the percentages of the principal food items of 6 species by the graphie method of proportionate sectors of circles. The bulletin contains casual refer- ences to the food of numerous species of birds not formally treated. Buuietrn 17. Birds cf a Maryland farm. A local study of economic ornithology. By Sylvester D. Judd, Ph. D. 116 pp. 17 pls. (1map). 41 figs. 1902. “Birds of a Maryland Farm” is an account of the relations of all the birds occurring on a 230-acre farm near Marshall Hall to all of the animals and plants used by them for food. Several pages are devoted to a discussion of the local distribution of birds as influenced by topography, nesting facilities, and food ‘supply. In Chapter II is described the behavior of birds during periods of unusual abundance of certain insects, as well as their relations to useful insects and to the standing pests of the various cultivated crops, trees, shrubs, and herbage. ‘The food of the nestlings of several species is described in detail. Chapter III deals with the birds that prey upon poultry, wild birds, fish, carrion, mice, and rabbits, and Chapter IV with those that eat wild and cultivated fruit; this chapter contains also notes on the distribution of seeds by birds. The principal grain eaters are treated in Chapter V and the consumers of weed seed in Chapter VI. The remainder of the bulletin is devoted to a discussion of the food by species or by larger groups. Bulletin 17 represents the results of i wm ‘ a a’ voll Mol - ee ie the most complete study of local economic ornithology that has been made. It a gives notes on the food of no fewer than 133 species of birds. } __ Butzerry 21. The bobwhite and other quails of the United States in f their economic relations. By Sylvester D. Judd. 66 pp. 2 pls. er (1 colored). 10 figs. 1905. . Two-thirds of this publication is devoted to a single species, the bobwhite. The discussion of the general habits of the bird, its value as food, as an object of sport, and as an asset on the farm, is very full. The decrease in numbers of the bird, legislation in its behalf, and measures for preservation and propa- a ; ih 12 INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. a topics: Grain, weed seeds, mast and pine seeds, fruits, leaves and buds, beetles, 4 bugs, grasshoppers and allied insects, caterpillars, miscellaneous animal food, and food of the young. One hundred and twenty-four different inseets and cther animals were identified in the stomachs and 188 seeds and fruits. Information of the same character, briefer in all cases, the volume depending on the number of stomachs available for examination, is given for six other species of quails. Butietin 22. Birds known to eat the boll weevil. By Vernon Bailey. 16 pp. 1905. . This bulletin is a preliminary report on the investigations of boll-weevil- eating birds. Notes are given on 11 species of birds in whose stomachs BH. A. — 4 Schwarz of the Bureau of Entomology found boll weevils and on 9 species — added to this list by investigations by the Biological Survey. The field work was done by James G. Gaut and Vernon Bailey; the stomachs were examined by F. E. L. Beal. Butietin 23. The horned larks and their relation to agriculture. By W. L. McAtee. 37 pp. 2 pls. 13 figs. 1905. The horned larks of the United States belong to a single species composed of 21 subspecies. Their food habits are treated collectively in this bulletin, except for a Californian subspecies (Otocoris alpestris actia), which owing to environment is considerably more vegetarian than the other members of the group. The general habits and economic relations are first discussed, then the vegetable food is considered under the following heads: Wheat, corn, oats, other grains and forage plants, weeds, fruit, and miscellaneous vegetable food. The animal food, mineral matter, and food of the nestlings and other young horned larks precede the account of the California subspecies. ‘This is followed by the summary and a list of seeds, fruits, and invertebrates eaten by the horned larks, which includes 77 items of animal food and 104 of vegetable. Buietin 24. The grouse and wild turkeys of the United States and their economic value. By Sylvester D. Judd. 55 pp. 2 pls. (1 colored). 1905. . The food habits of 12 species of grouse and the wild turkey are described in this bulletin, the fullest accounts dealing with the prairie hen and the ruffed grouse. The insect food, which generally includes a goodly proportion of grasshoppers, and the vegetable food, characterized by the preponderance of berries, buds, and leaves, or browse, are discussed in detail. In the case of. the ruffed grouse no fewer than 45 items of animal food and 120 of vegetable are Jisted. Butierin 25. Birds that eat the cotton-boll weevil. A report of progress. By Arthur H. Howell. 22 pp. 1906. This “report of progress” on the boll-weevil investigation adds 8 species to the list in Bulletin 22, making 2S in all known to feed on the weevil. The most important notes are those on the orioles, nighthawk, and flycatchers. On pages 19-20 is a brief discussion of the relations of birds to cotton worms. Tables giving the records of birds examined which had and which had not eaten boll weevils conclude the paper. The field work done since the publication of the first report (Bulletin 22) was by A. H. Howell; the stomachs were exam- ined by F. H. L. Beal and W. L. McAtee. : : a J 4 id a d 5 je i y ee ee eee ee ae Oe ee ee ee 7 ie Y INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 13 Buuietin 27. The North American eagles and their economic rela- tions. By Harry C. Oberholser. 31 pp. 2 pls. 2 figs. (maps). 1906. This report is a compilation of information on the habits and distribution of 3 species of eagles—the bald, the golden, and the gray sea eagles. Their relations to fish, wild birds, poultry, and wild and domestic mammals are dis- eussed and opinions given as to their economic status. Maps showing the breeding ranges of the bald eagle and the golden eagle are included in the bulletin. Buiietin 29. The relation of birds to the cotton-boll weevil. By Arthur H. Howell. 31 pp. 1 colored pl. 6 figs. Oct. 10, 1907. Bulletin 29 is a résumé of the study of birds in relation to the boll weevil. Forty-three species are listed (on page 6) as enemies of the insect, adding 15 to the list in Bulletin 25. Recommendations of measures designed to increase the efficiency of bird enemies of the pest include proposals for legislation in favor of the upland and killdeer plovers and the blackbirds, and suggestions for the special protection of swallows, meadow larks, and painted buntings. Nesting boxes for purple martins are described and illustrated. The relations of the various groups of birds to the boll weevil are described separately, the results of the field work of 1906 and 1907 are given, and the paper ends with tabulated records of birds examined which had and which had not eaten boll weevils. The field work was carried on by the author and the stomachs were examined by W. L. McAtee. Buuietin 30. Birds of California in relation to the fruit, industry. Part I. By F. E. L. Beal. 100 pp. 5 pls. (1 colored). Nov. 11, 1907. The introductory paragraphs in this bulletin state the general problem of the relations of birds to cultivated fruit in California. They serve as an introduc- tion to both Part I, the present bulletin, and Part II, issued as Bulletin 34. The status of birds in newly settled regions, the effect of migration on the economic relations, the causes of depredations, conditions in California com- pared with those in the Eastern States, and protective measures, such as the planting of decoy plants and provision of water supplies, are some of the subjects discussed, in the introduction. It is shown that, while birds are usually destructive to crops in newly planted regions, ‘‘ experience everywhere shows that after a time there is a partial readjustment of conditions, so that inroads by birds become much less common or wholly cease.” The usual causes of damage by birds wherever or whenever occurring are defined; the principal bird enemies of fruit in California are named in order of importance, following which are the separate accounts of the species. The food habits of 35 species are fully discussed, including the most important species from the tanagers to the thrushes, in systematic order, together with, the linnet, or house finch, the worst fruit pest among the birds in the State. The account of this species is based upon the examination of 1,206 stomachs. The food of the nestlings or young of several species is described, the most extended account dealing with those of the russet-backed thrush. Butietin 31. An economic study of field mice (genus Microtus). By David E. Lantz. 64 pp. 8 pls. 3 figs. Oct. 28, 1907. In treating the natural enemies of field mice the author mentions some 50 species of birds, including shrikes, cuckoos, crows, herons, bitterns, storks, 14 INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. ibises, gulls, hawks, and owls. In many cases a brief summary of the genera! 5 food habits of the species is given, and notes on the diet of the same bird in ae Old World or of related European species are also presented. Buuierin 32. Food habits of the grosbeaks. By W. L. McAtee. 92 | pp. 4 pls. (3 colored). 40 figs. Feb. 29, 1908. a The pine and evening grosbeaks receive only passing mention, but the e¢ar- dinal, gray, rose-breasted, black-headed, and blue grosbeaks are discussed in de tail. The account of each species includes a description of the appearance of the bird, its distribution and habits, the details of its vegetable and animal food, mineral matter found in the stomachs, and the food of the nestlings and other young birds. Lists of the seeds, fruits, and invertebrates eaten by each species are given. One chapter discusses the relations of grosbeaks and other birds to parasitic insects. Some mention is made of the food of about 30 species of birds besides grosbeaks, these references occurring mainly in lists of bird enemies of rose chafers and potato beetles and in an account of birds that feed on mulberries. Butietrn 33. The brown rat in the United States. By David EK. Lantz. 54 pp. 3pls. 4 figs. May 29, 1909. Four owls and seven hawks are mentioned among the natural enemies of the brown rat. One of the owls is said to attack also the black rat. Buuitetin 34. Birds of California in relation to the fruit industry. Part Il. By F. E. L. Beal. 96 pp. 6 colored pls. Aug. 8, 1910. This bulletin continues the account of the food habits of California birds be- gun in Bulletin 30. It states that only four of the species of birds common in California (the linnet, California jay, Steller jay, and red-breasted sapsucker) can be regarded as of doubtful utility. The animal and vegetable food of 32 species is fully treated, especially in relation to fruit culture. As in Part I the food of the young is a special feature. Nestlings of 9 species were studied and reported upon, the fullest accounts dealing with the California towhee and the black-headed grosbeak. Part I discussed one species of the sparrow family, that worst fruit pest, the linnet, and important species of the families Tanagridze (tanagers) to Turdidee (thrushes) in the order of the check-list of North American Birds by the American Ornithologists’ Union. Part II deals with the principal species in the families Tetraonide (grouse and quails) to Frin- gillide (sparrows, finches,.and grosbeaks). Buuietrin 37. Food of the woodpeckers of the United States. By F. E. L. Beal. 64 pp. 6 pls. (5 colored). 3 figs. May 24, 1911. The accumulation of woodpecker stomachs in the 16 years since the publica- tion of Bulletin 7 enabled Professor Beal to present in Bulletin 37 formal re- ports on the food habits of 16 species, 9 more than were treated in the pre- liminary report. Brief notes upon the food of 6 other species also are included ; the food of 11 species of woodpeckers which were not even mentioned in Bul- letin 7 is discussed. Tables are given showing the comparative rank of the — species as consumers of animal and vegetable food and of ants and beetles. Butietin 38. Birds of Arkansas. By Arthur H. Howell. 100 pp. 7 pls. (1 colored map). 4 figs. (maps). Oct. 12, 1911. A section of the introduction to this bulletin is devoted to a general state- ment of the economic value of birds, and brief notes on the food of 126 species are scattered through the text. od eee > ‘no RS Bees ae Saeed ee Ue ee, Me UP Ay es eee yt We INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 15 — Butrerry 39. Woodpeckers in relation to trees and wood products. By W. L. McAtee. 99 pp. 12 pls. (2 colored). 44 figs. Sept. pe toil.” This bulletin deals principally with the relations of three species of wood- peckers—the true sapsuckers—to living trees and the effect of their work upon the value of the articles into which the wood of these trees is manufactured. The sapsuckers are known to attack at least 258 trees, shrubs, and vines, of which 32 are sometimes killed and 68 seriously injured. Defects due to sap- sucker work have been found in the wood of 174 species of trees, in 90 of which they are at times so serious as to spoil the appearance or workability of the wood, and in 22 species they sometimes render the wood useless except for coarse construction or for fuel. The damage done to fence posts, telephone poles, and buildings by 10 other species of woodpeckers is also discussed. CIRCULARS. The Biological Survey had its origin as a section of Economic Ornithology established under the Division (now Bureau) of Ento- mology. Four circulars of that division (Nos. 18, 20, 24, and 27) were published in the interest of the new subdivision, and one of them, No. 20, relates to the food habits of birds. . The earliest circulars of the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy were largely devoted to requests for information and letters of acknowledgment, which are now issued as “ forms.” _ Directions for preparing specimens, contained in Nos. 4, 11, and 12, and later Nos. 46 and 49, are still issued as circulars. Aside from these circulars, No. 17, Bird Day in the Schools, is the only one up to No. 27, inclusive, which is intended for the diffusion rather than the acquisition of knowledge. Most of the circulars issued since No. 28 (1900) are short articles conveying information which it was desirable to give speedy pub- licity. Six of them are devoted to enonomic ornithology and five others contain brief references to the economic status of certain birds. Two of the latter (Nos. 29 and 38) were issued from the office of the Secretary and hence do not fall into the class of publications here indexed. No. 29, Protection and Importation of Birds under Act of Congress approved May 25, 1900, discusses the Lacey Act and refers (pp. 1, 3, 4, and 5) to prohibition of entry of injurious species, including the starling and English sparrow. No. 38, Interstate Commerce in Birds and Game, lists (p. 2) robins, swallows, cedar birds, meadowlarks, flickers, and nighthawks as insectivorous, and longspurs, snow buntings, and shore larks as useful in destroying weed seeds. Ts 27 es aa LA a % 16 INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. — DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY. Circunar 20. [Circular on economic ornithology.]| By Dr. C. Hi: Merriam. [2 pp. of print and 2 blank for answers to questions unnumbered.] July 1, 1885. This circular briefly states the general problem of economic ornithology a ~ the need of information. Questions relating to the food of 9 species of birds Ny denote by implication the economic relations of these birds. The damage done in the South by the bobolink and red-winged blackbird is mentioned. BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. CrrcuLar 1. Circular on the food habits of birds. By Dr. C. Hart Merriam. [3 pp., not numbered.|] July 20, 1886. This circular consists largely of questions relating to the food habits of the crow, the crow blackbird, and the bobolink. Few direct statements are made regarding the food, but much is implied. Crecutar 2. Circular on the English sparrow (Passer domesticus). By Dr. C. Hart Merriam. [1 p., unnumbered.|] July 20, 1886. Consists entirely of questions concerning the food of the English sparrow — and its relations to other birds. Crrcutar 5. Circular to rice growers. By Dr. C. Hart Merriam. [1 p., unnuinbered, 1886. ] Notes damage done to rice by the bobolink and red-winged blackbird and contains queries designed to bring out the nature and extent of the injury. Crrcutar 17. Bird day in the schools. By T. S. Palmer. 4 pp. July 2, 1896. The history of bird day is given, the manner of its observance, and the objects and value of the day. Notes are given on the economic status of hawks, owls, and the English sparrow, and the bad results from bounty laws aimed — against these birds. Crrcutar 34. Laws for the protection of birds and game in the District of Columbia. By T. S. Palmer. 8 pp. Oct. 25, 1901. This circular quotes the Lacey Act, which contains the names of the starling and the English sparrow in the clause prohibiting the importation of injurious species. Crrcunar 56. Value of swallows as insect destroyers. By H. Ww. Henshaw. 4 pp. Apr. 27, 1907. This circular shows the great value of swallows as insect destroyers and the importance of protecting them wherever found. It emphasizes the peculiar yalue of these birds in the war against the cotton-boll weevil, and asks the cooperation of citizens of Northern States, where these birds chiefly nest, in — an effort to increase their numbers. The enemies of swallows, especially the English sparrow, are noted, and suggestions for preventing their attacks, as well as for attracting the swallows themselves, are given. The circular in- . cludes also directions for colonizing martins and for rearing their young. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. PORT CIRCULAR 57. Birds useful in the war against the cotton-boll weevil. By H. W. Henshaw. 4 pp. Apr. 27, 1907. This circular directs attention to the importance of birds as enemies of the boll weevil and to the need of protecting them. Orioles, the nighthawk, and swallows are given special consideration and a few other species known to eat boll weevils are mentioned. Measures for protecting and attracting swallows are given. The suggestions for aiding the purple martin are especially full, including remarks on colonization, food for young, the English sparrow as an enemy, and the provision of martin houses. Crecunar 61. Hawks and owls from the bate of the farmer. By A. K. Fisher. 18 pp. 6 figs. July 18, 1907. This circular condenses the information presented in Bulletin 3 and is a direct revision of the article in the Yearbook for 1894 (pp. 215-232). Brief - summaries of the food habits of 33 species of hawks and owls are given, and 14 others are merely mentioned in the list of those classed as chiefly beneficial. Circutar 64. Destruction of the cotton-boll weevil by birds in win- ter. By Arthur H. Howell. 5 pp. 1 map. June 19, 1908. Thirty species of birds were discovered to feed upon the boll weevil in winter. Every death of a weevil at that season “prevents the production of yery numerous progeny during the early summer and postpones the date when the increase will become so great as to destroy the cotton squares as fast as they appear.” The more important species are the blackbirds, meadow larks, sparrows, titlarks, wrens, and titmice. According to Howell’s estimates titlarks alone destroy about 72,000 boll weevils during the winter on each large plan- tation. The circular ends with a tabulated seasonal record of the birds which had eaten boll weevils. This list of 53 increases by 10 the number of species reported in Bulletin 29. Crrcunar 76. The California ground squirrel. By C. Hart Merriam. 15 pp. 4 figs. (i map). Nov. 25, 1910. Contains a few references to bird enemies of Citellus beechyi, and discusses danger to small birds from poisoned grain laid for the ground squirrels. Crrcunar 79. Our vanishing shorebirds. By W. L. McAtee. 9 pp. 3 figs. April 8, 1911. The value of shorebirds has not been recognized in the past and they have been hunted until only a remnant of their once vast numbers is left. The fact that these birds have a decided economic value is demonstrated in this pub- lication, and their protection is urged. The name ringed plover (Aegialitis hiaticula) near the bottota of p. 4 of this circular should be piping plover (Aegialitis meloda). Circuar 80. Progress of game protection in 1910. Fs T, S. Palmer and Henry Oise 36 pp. 1 fig. (map). June 29, 1911. Classes the starling as injurious. Crecunar 81. Three important wild duck foods. By W. L. McAtee. 19 pp. 19 figs. (3 maps). Sept. 9, 1911. Written primarily to furnish information on the methods of propagating wild rice, wild celery, and pondweeds, this circular briefly notes the importance of these plants as food for 17 species of wild ducks. ‘A table on the first page shows the percentages of the food of 16 species furnished by these plants. 51197°—Bull. 48—13——_3 \ 18° INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. ‘FARMERS’ PULLETINS. Farmers’ BuLLeTIN 54. Some common: birds in their. relation to agriculture. By F. E. L. Beal, B. S. 40 pp. 22 figs. May, 1897. Revised edition. 48 pp. 22 figs. March, 1904. The original edition (1897) contains summaries of the food habits of 28 species and brief references to the nature of the food of 8 others. The revised edition (1904) contains 40 specific summaries and notes on 14 species. Farmers’ Bulletin 54 is the one article on bird food to have if the complete series of bulletins and other publications of the Biological Survey is inacces- sible. Many of the food summaries, though brief, are important, being based on the examination of large numbers of stomachs. Several of them, for in- stance those on the kingbird, cedar bird, robin, and bluebird, are the most com- prehensive statements yet published on the economic relations of these common and important birds. Farmers’ Bulletin 54 has (up to Oct. 15, 1912) been reprinted 39 times, and a total of 595,000 copies has been distributed. Farmers’ Butietin 160. Game laws for 1902. A summary of the provisions relating to seasons, shipment, sale, and licenses. By T. S. Palmer and H. W. Olds. 56 pp. 8 figs. (maps). 1902. — Farmers’ Butietin 180. Game laws for 1903. A summary of the provisions relating to seasons, shipment, sale, and licenses. By T. S. Palmer, Henry Oldys, and R. W. Williams, jr. 56 pp. 4 figs. (maps). 1903. Each of these bulletins quotes the Lacey Act, a clause of which prohibits importation of the English sparrow and starling as injurious birds. Farmers’ Buiietin 197. Importation of game birds and eggs for propagation. By T. S. Palmer and Henry Oldys. 27 pp. 1 fig. (map). 1904. Contains a note on the feeding habits of some capercaillie liberated in Algonquin National Park, Canada. Farmers’ Buutietin 335. Harmful and beneficial mammals of the arid interior, with special reference to the Carson and Humboldt Valleys, Nevada. By Vernon Bailey. 31 pp. 9 figs. Oct. 21, 1908. Among the natural enemies of the Carson meadow mouse (J/icrotus mon- tanus) are listed ravens, magpies, and shrikes. Each of these names can refer to only a single species in the region covered by the bulletin and for this reason is indexed. General references (such as hawks, owls, and birds of prey) are numerous but unfit for indexing. Farmers’ Butietin 352. The Nevada mouse plague of 1907-8. By Stanley E. Piper. 23 pp. 9 figs. Mar. 20, 1909. This bulletin comments on the destruction of many individuals of 5 species of birds by wheat poisoned with phosphorus, which was put out to kill meadow mice. Several birds are listed among the natural enemies of the mice. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 19 Farmers’ Butietin 383. How to destroy English sparrows. By Ned Dearborn. 11 pp. 4 figs. Jan. 20, 1910. A brief review of the food habits of the Hnglish sparrow is given in the introduction. 4 _ Farmers’ Butietin 390. Pheasant raising in the United States. By j Henry Oldys. 40 pp. 17 figs. Apr. 18, 1910. Crow mentioned among enemies of pheasants. Farmers’ Butiterin 456. Our grosbeaks and their value to agricul- ture. By W.L. McAtee. 14 pp. 3 figs. June 30, 1911. = a,» p : An abstract of Biological Survey Bulletin 32, containing brief summaries a of the food habits of five species of grosbeaks. 4 Farmers’ Buuwetin 470. Game laws for 1911. A summary of the : provisions relating to seasons, shipments, sale, limits, and licenses. By Henry Oldys, C. E. Brewster, and Frank L. Earn- shaw. 52 pp. 2 figs. (maps). August 21, 1911. Starling and English sparrow mentioned as injurious. This series of publications comprises the more technical papers, such as monographs of certain groups of mammals and descriptions of new species, in addition to accounts of the scientific results of explorations of certain States or other districts. The annotated lists of birds, which are a prominent feature of the latter class of _ faunas, often contain notes on bird food. These notes are usually definite records of stomach examinations or of observations in the field. They are indexed in detail; hence it is not necessary for users of the index to consult the pages of the faunas themselves, unless they desire to learn the combinations of items in individual stomachs, the quantity of food taken, or details of the feeding habits. iy ‘ ‘ © . NORTH AMERICAN FAUNAS. k a a My ; Fauna 3. Results of a biological survey of the San Francisco Moun- tain region and desert of the Little Colorado, Arizona. 136 pp. 5 colored maps. 13 pls. 2 figs. Sept. 11, 1890. Part 4.—Annotated list of birds of the San Francisco Mountain plateau and the desert of the Little Colorado River, Arizona. By Dr. C. Hart Merriam [pp. 1-101, pls. I-XI, colored maps 1-4]. Fauna 5. Results of a biological reconnoissance of south-central Idaho. 132 pp. 4 pls. (1 colored). 4 figs. July 30, 1891. Results of a biological reconnoissance of Idaho, south of latitude 45° and east of the thirty-eighth meridian, made during the’ summer of 1890, with annotated lists of the mammals and birds, and descriptions of new species. By Dr. C. Hart Merriam [pp.: 1-108, pls. 1-4, figs. 14]. 20 INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. Fauna 7. The Death Valley expedition. Asio accipitrinus, see Asio flammeus. Asio flammeus—Short-eared owl. = Beneficial, Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628; Ybk. 1897, p. 670; Brief account, Bul. 31, pp. 47, 48, 53; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 113 Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 224-225. Feeding on cotton rat (Sigmodon his- pidus texianus), Fauna 25, p. 117; field mice, Bul. 31, pp. 47, 48, 53; Ybk, 1905, pp. 871, 872; (Microtus [INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. hibuteo lagopus lagopus—Old - world pp. 3, 4-5; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 219-- 35 Asio flammeus—Continued. drummondi) Fauna 27, p. 368; mice, Fauna 19, p. 763; rabbits, Ybk. 1907, p. 336; shrews, Fauna 19, p. 76. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 54-55, 86. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 14, 145- 149 (101 stomachs); Rept. 1887, 418 (45 stomachs) ; Rept. 1888, pp. 496-498 (50 stomachs). Asio otus—Old-world long-eared owl. Brief account, feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, pp. 47, 48. Asio wilsonianus—American long-eared owl. Beneficial, Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628; Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, Bul. 31, pp. 47, 48; Bul. 38, pp. 41-42; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 113 Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 224; Ybk. 1900, p. 430. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, pp. 47, 48; Ybk. 1905, p. 371, (Microtus drummondi) Fauna 27, p. 367; rab- bits, Ybk. 1907, p. 336; red-backed ‘mice (Hvotomys dawsoni), Fauna 21 op. sGk- Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 14, 140-145, 165 (107 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, pp. 417-418 (47 stomachs). Astragalinus psaltria hesperophilus— Green-backed goldfinch. Feeding on seeds of wild sunflower, Fauna 7, p. 84. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 78-75, 85 (476 stomachs). Astragalinus tristis—Goldfinch. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 61. Damage to oats, Bul. 15, p. 11. Feeding on mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; weed seeds, Bul. 15, pp. 39, 42; Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 224, 225, 229, Bao Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 14-15, 26, 69, 71, 75-76, 79, 97 (11 stomachs). Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 71-73, 85 (84 stomachs); [also in East, p.. 141. : Astur atricapillus—Goshawk. Brief. account, iCire,. G1. eppiaasees Ybk. 1894, pp. 218, 231; Ybk. 1900, p. 429. Feeding on bobwhite, Bul. 21, p. 22; ground squirrel (probably), Fauna 19, p. 73; poultry, Bul. 21, p. 225 Fauna 5, p. 94; ptarmigan, Fauna 27, p. 354; (Lagopus lagopus) Fauna 27, p. 346; rabbits, Ybk. 1907, . p. 8336; ruffed grouse, Bul. 24, p. 28; Fauna 27, p. 354; squirrel (Sciurus), Fauna 21, p. 76; varying hare, Fauna 27, p. 353. i Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 15, 43-46, 175 (28 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, 405 (6 stomachs), a ae 36 INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD | Astur atricapillus—Continued. Injurious, Bul. 12, pp. 30, 49; Bul. 12 (rev.), pp. 33,°58; YbkK. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628; Ybk. 1897, p. 670; Ybk. 1908, p. 192. Other notes, Fauna 5, pp. 18, 94. Asturina plagiata—Mexican goshawk. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, pa 21s Mibks 2895s sp: 00s Yb. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 85-86. Asyndesmus lewisi—Lewis’s woodpecker. Feeding on grasshoppers, Fauna 7, p. 50. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 28- 29 (23 stomachs). Formal report, Bul. 37, pp. 10, 45-47 (59 stomachs). Asyndesmus torquatus, see Asyndesmus lewisi. Auklet, Paroquet, see Phaleris psittacula. Avocet, see Recurvirostra americana. B. Beolophus atricristatus—Black-crested tit- mouse. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, pp. 9-16); Bul> 25, pp. “9; 14, 15, 21; Bul. 29, pp. 6, 22, 30; Cire. 64, p. 5. Beolophus bicolor—Tufted titmouse. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 89; F. Bul. 54 (rey.), p. 44 (a mere reference). Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 22, 28, 30; Cire. 64, pp. 4, 5; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197. Food habits at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 61, 107. Beolophus inornatus—Plain titmouse. Feeding on noxious insects. Ybk. 1904, p. 253; scale insects. Ybk. 1906, p. 194. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 68— 70 (76 stomachs). Beolophus wollweberi—Bridled titmouse. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197. Baldpate, see Mareca americana. Bartramia longicauda—Upland plover.. Brief account, Bul. 38, pp. 31-32. Economic value, Bul. 22, pp. 15-16; Cire. 79, p. 6. Feeding on billbugs, Cire. 79, p. 6; boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 7, 11, 20, 29, 30; Bul. 38, p. 32; Circ. 64, pp. 2, 5; Cire. 79, p. 6; click beetles, clover leaf weevil, clover root weevil, corn-leaf beetle, cotton worm, cot- ton cutworm, cowpea weevil, Circ. 79, p. 6; crane flies, Circ. 79, p. 4; crayfishes, cutworms, grapevine co- laspis, Cire. 79, p. 6; grasshoppers, Circ. 79, p. 2; Fauna 27, p. 328; wireworms, Cire. 79, p. 6. Bee martin, see Tyrannus tyrannus. Bengalee, see Uroloncha acuticauda. gubernator californicu r Boat-tailed, see Megaquise major. : Brewer’s, see Euphagus cyan cephalus. Crow, see Quiscalus quiscula. European, see Turdus merula. © Redwing, see Agelaius phent- ceus. ee Rusty, see Euphagus carolinus. Tricolored redwing, see Agelaius < tricolor. ee Yellow-headed, see Xanthoce- — phalus xanthocephalus. Blackjack, see Marila collaris. Bluebill, Big, see Marila marila. Little, see Marila aflinis. Bluebird, see Sialia sialis. Mountain, see Sialia currucoides. Western, see Sialia mexicana occi- dentalis. Bobolink, see Dolichonyx oryzivorus. Bobwhite, see Colinus virginianus. Masked, see Colinus ridgwayi. Bombycilla cedrorum—Cedar bird. “Ss he Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 72; F. Bul. 54, pp. 31-32 (152 stomachs) ; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 38-39 (152 stomachs); Ybk. 1900, p. 304. Feeding on cherries, Bul. 32, p. 91; Bul. 34, p. 55; Ybk. 1907, p. 175; grape (Vitis californica), Fauna 7, p. 113; insects, Fauna 27, p. 459; mahaleb cherry (Prunus mahaleb), Bul. 32, p. 65; mulberries, Bul. 32, pp. 64, 65; Fauna 7, p. 113; Rept. 1890, p. 285; scale insects, Yb. ~ 1906, p. 197. aa Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 17, 23, 24, 30, 43, 56, 59, 60, 62, 99 (5 | stomachs). ae Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 417, 436. Formal report, Rept. 1892, pp. 197— 200 (125 stomachs). Frugivorous habits (other, than above noted), Bul. 30, p. 20; Rept. 1890, p. 281. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 304. Bombycilla garrula—Bohemian waxwing. Feeding on berries and insects, Fauna 19, p. 89. Bonasa umbellus—Ruffed grouse. Brief account, Ybk. 1909, p. 194. Feeding on buds, Ybk. 1907, p. 172; of balsam poplar, Fauna 27, pp. — 340, 542; of Lepargyrea and Salir, Fauna 27, pp. 341, 342; catkins of willows, Fauna 27, p. 341; foliage, Bul. 21, p. 52; of Populus balsam- woe Pre a ee ee, ae PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 37 _ifera and Pyrola, Fauna 27, p. 342; of willow, Fauna 27, 341; grass seeds, Fauna 27, p. 341; heads and shoots of Hquisetum, Fauna 27, pp. 341, 342: potato beetle, Bul. 32, p. 47; rose hips, Fauna 27, p. 341; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 231. Formal report, Bul. 24, pp. 17, 23, 25-88 (208 stomachs). Booby, Blue-footed, see Sula nebouxi. Botaurus lentiginosus—Bittern. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 24; Ybk. 1908, p. 193. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 52; frogs and large beetles, Fauna 27, p. 311; injurious rodents, Ybk. 1908, Sp. 193. j Branta canadensis—Canada goose. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 23. Weeding on berries of Hmpetrum. ni- grum, Fauna 27, p. 306. Bubo virginianus—Great horned owl. Bounty laws, Ybk. 1899, p. 281. Brief account, Bul. 31, p. 49; Bul. 38, pp. 43-44 ; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 13, 15-16, Aso bk, 1894, pp. 217, 227, 229) Ybk. 1900, pp. 300-301, 430. Equally beneficial and injurious, Ybk. - 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Feeding on brown bat (Vespertilio fuscus), Fauna 25, p. 211; brown rat, Bul. 33, p. 35; field mice, Bul. 31, p. 49; Fauna 5, pp. 19, 96; Ybk. 1905, p. 371; Ybk. 1908, p. 188; (Microtus drummondi) Fauna 27, pp. 372, 3874; ground squirrels, Fauna 19, p. 76; jack rabbits, Bul. ; 8, p. 44; (Lepus terianus) Fauna 25, p. 154; lemming mouse (Phena- comys orophilus), Fauna 5, pp. 19, 96; pocket gophers, Bul. 5, pp. 20- 21; (Cratogeomys castanops) Fauna 25, p. 133; (Thomomys) Fauna 5, pp. 19, 96; poultry, Bul. 2, p. 122; Bul. 21, p. 22; rabbits, Bul. 2, p. 122; Fauna 19, p. 76; Ybk. 1900, pp. 300-301; Ybk. 1907, p. 3836; Ybk. 1908, p. 188; (Lepus arizone minor) Fauna 25, p. 159; red squirrels, Fauna 19, p. 76; (Sciurus hudsoni- cus) Wauna “27, -p. 372; ruffed grouse, Bul. 24, p. 28; scorpion, Fauna 7, p. 43; shrews (Sorez per- sonatus), Fauna 27, p. 372; skunks, Bul. 2, p. 122; (Spilogale leuco- paria) Fauna 25, p. 198; spermo- philes, Bul. 4, pp. 16-17; varying hares (Lepus americanus), Fauna 27, pp. 373, 374; water beetles (Dytiscus dauricus), Fauna 27, p. 373; white-footed mice, Fauna 5, pp. 19, 96; (Peromyscus arcticus) Fauna 27, p. 372; wood rats (Neéo- toma), Fauna 7, p. 43; (Neotoma micropus) Fauna 25, p. 112. Bubo virginianus—Continued. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 52, 54, 86, 110. Hood of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 430— 431. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 15, 174-182 (127 stomachs); Rept. 1887, pp. 402, 421 (30 stomachs). Injurious, Bul. 12, pp. 30, 36, 49; Bul. 12 (rev.), pp. 32, 33, 43, 58; Ybk. 1907, p. 167. Other notes, Fauna 5, p. 18. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, pp. 300-301. Buffiehead, see Charitonetta albeola. Bunting, Indigo, see Passerina cyanea. Painted, see Passerina ciris. Snow, see Plectrophenax nivalis. Yellow, see Emberiza citrinella. Bush tit, see Psaltriparus minimus. Butcher bird, Big, see Lanius borealis. European great, see Lanius excubitor. Little, see Lanius ludovici- anus. Buteo abbreviatus—Zone-tailed hawk. Formal report, Bul. 3, p. 71 (5 stom- achs). albicaudatus sennetti — Sennett’s white-tailed hawk. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, p. 217; Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 72. Weeding on rabbits, Ybk. 1907, p. 336. Buteo borealis—Red-tailed hawk. Beneficial, Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Buteo Brief account, Bul. 31, p. 43; Bul. 38, ~ p. 38; Circ. 61, pp. 3, 6-7; Rept. 1888, p. 480; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 220-221; Ybk. 1900, p. 429. - Feeding on brown rat, Bul. 33, p. 34; chipmunks (Tamias cinereicollis and T. lateralis), Fauna 3, p. 90; dove (attempt to pick up wounded one), Fauna 7, p. 37; field mice, Bul. 31, p. 43; Ybk. 1905, p. 871; Ybk. 1908, p. 187; (Microtus montanus) F¥. Bul. 352, p. 22; grasshoppers, Bul. 3, Dp. 76; Fauna 7, p. 37; ground squirrel, Fauna 19, p. 73; horned larks, Bul. 28, p. 12; jack rabbits, Bul. 8, p. 44; Jerusalem cricket (Stenopelmatus), lizards (Cnemi- dophorus tigris and Sauromalus ater), Fauna 7, p. 87; (iguanas) Fauna 14, p. 37; pocket gophers, Bul. 5, p. 20; (Thomomys) Fauna 7, p. 37; potato beetle, Bul. 32, p. 47; rabbits, Ybk. 1907, p. 336; (Lepus graysom) Fauna 14, pp. 17, 37; spermophiles, Bul. 4, pp. 15, 16, 17; (Spermophilus tereticaudus) Fauna 7, p. 37; (Spermophilus town | sendi) Faura 5, p. 94; squirrel Fie Vera = ype 38 - INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF 1] D a q 7 rit / Fes on Buteo borealis—Continued. Buteo swainsoni—Continued. = (Sciurus aberti), Fauna 3, p. 90; varying hares (apparently), Fauna 27, p. 3856. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 54. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 429. Formal report, Bul. 8, pp. i1, 12, 48- 62, 87 (562 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, pp. 405-410 (311 stomachs). Buteo brachyurus—Short-tailed hawk. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, De elie | Mibk? 1895," p-0 590% Ybk: 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 11, $8-—84. Buteo buteo—Common old-world buzzard’ hawk. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 44. Buteo latissimus, see Buteo platypterus. Buteo lineatus—Red-shouldered hawk. Beneficial, Bul. 12, p. 30; Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628; .Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, Bul. 12, p. 30; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 33; Bul. 31, p. 43; Bul. Bove. 09.5 Cire, 6i,pp.'3, 627-83 Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 220, 2215 Ybk. 1900, p. 429. Feeding on brown rat, Bul. 33, p. 34; field mice, Bul. 31, p. 43; Ybk. 1905, p. 871; frogs (watching for), Fauna 7, p. 38; horned larks, Bul. 23, p. 12; rabbits, Ybk. 1907, p. 336; ruffed grouse, Bul. 24, p. 28. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 54, 86. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 12, 62-70 (220 stomachs); Rept. 1887, pp. 410-412 (102 stomachs). Buteo platypterus—Broad-winged hawk. Beneficial, Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 31, p. 43; Bul. 38, p. 39; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 93; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 222-228. Feeding on brown rat, Bul. 33, p. 34; field mice, Bul. 31, p. 43; Ybk. 1905, pi ST. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 19; 32; .86, 101. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 429. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 13, 79- 83 (65 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, pp. 412-413 (22 stomachs). Buteo swainsoni—Swainson’s hawk. Beneficial, Bul. 12, p. 30; Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628; Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, Bul. 12, p. 80; Bul. 12 (rey.), p. 88; Bul. 31; p. 43; Circ. 61, pp. 3, 8-9; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 999 Feeding on brown rat, Bul. 33, p. 34; field mice, Bul. 31, p. 43; (Microtus montanus) F. Bul. 352, p. 22; grasshoppers, Fauna 5, p. 95; Ybk. 17, pp. 1895, p. 422; Ybk. 1907, p (Camnula pellucida) Fauna 7, 38; rabbits, Ybk. 1907, p. 33 spermophiles, Bul. 4, pp. 15, 16, Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 12, 72-79 (18 stomachs) ; Rept. 188 p. 412 (4 stomachs). Butorides virescens—Green heron. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 26. — ae Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 23, 24, 58, 81. ae Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 435. Injurious to fish, exempt from protec- tion in Alabama and Pennsylvania, Bul. 12, p. 36; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 43. Buzzard, Black, see Catharista urubu. ‘a Turkey, see Cathartes aura septen- trionalis. my Buzzard hawk, Common, see Buteo buteo. Rough - legged, see Archi- — buteo lagopus lagopus. ce Calearius lapponicus—Lapland longspur. Feeding on weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 226. f Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 45, 54-55 (113 stomachs). ; Calcarius ornatus—Chestnut-collared long- __ spur. ? Feeding on weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. — 2 226. Pulling wheat, Bul. 23, p. 16. Calearius pictus—Smith’s longspur. Feeding on weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 226. Callipepla squamata—Sealed quail. ame Formal report, Bul. 21, pp. 61-63 (47 stomachs). aay Campephilus principalis—Ivory-billed wood- — r 7 pecker. a Brief account, Bul. 387, pp. 62-63. Useful, Bul. 38, p. 46. Canachites canadensis—Spruce grouse. Feeding on bearberries (Arctostaphy- los uva-ursi), Fauna 27, p. 338; > 5 blueberries, Fauna 21, p. 75; (Vac- cinium uliginosum), fern (OCrypto- gramma acrostichoides), Fauna 27, p. 338; heads of Equisetum, Fauna — 21, p. 75; highbush cranberries — (Viburnum), Fauna 21, p. 75; Fauna 30, p. 86; mountain cranber- | ries (Vitis-idea vitis-idea), Fauna — 24, p. 65; Fauna 27, p. 338; pine needles (Pinus divaricata), snails (Lymnea palustris), Fauna 27, p. 338; spruce needles, Fauna 21, p. 75; Fauna 24, p. 65; (Picea cana- densis) Fauna 27, p. 338. om Formal report, Bul. 24, pp. 88-40, 42 (8 stomachs). e Canachites franklini—Franklin’s grouse. Brief account, Bul. 24, p. 40. Canvasback, see Marila valisineria. :pereaillie, see Tetrao urogallus. acara, see Polyborus cheriway. neho, see Polyborus tharus. inalis cardinalis—Cardinal. Brief account, Bui. 38, p. 67; F. Bul. 456. pp. 9, 12. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 25, pp. 9, 12, 20-21; Bul. 29, pp. 6, 19, 26, 30; Cire. 64, p. 5; fruit seeds, Bul. 15, pp. 74, 88; potato beetle, Bul. 32, p. 47; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 192; weed seeds, Bul. 15, pp. 38- 89; Ybk. 1898, p. 230. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 18, 21, 24, 25, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38, Boe -GO: “GL. 62°70) T1, 77, 98. (LO MY - stomachs). oe Formal report, Bul. 32, pp. 5-27, 28, -90, 91 (498 stomachs). Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis—House am finch, ie Brief account, F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 33-34 (987 stomachs); Ybk. 1900, pp. 302-303. Damaging fruit, Rept. 1900, p. 47; Rept. 1901, p. 153; peaches, Fauna dGepp. 50, 2oL. Feeding on cherries, Bul. 34, p. 55; es weed seeds, Bul. 34, p. 85. ‘a Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 12, _: 18-28, 86 (1,206 stomachs). as Injurious, Bul. 34, p. 8; Rept. 1900, ‘ parti. Rept... 1901, \p. ‘153° Ybk. 1898, p. 107. Relation to fruit in California, Ybk. be 1904, pp. 245, 246-248. is Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, pp. 302-303. _ Carpodacus purpureus—Purple finch. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 61; 1900, p. 302. Feeding on buds, Ybk. 1907, p. 173; > climbing false buckwheat, Bul. 15, p. 42; mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; ; ragweed, Bul. 15, p. 42. og Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. e 20, 62, 76-77, 97. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 302; Ybk. 1907, p. 173. Catarina, see Psittacula insularis. _ Catbird, see Dumetella carolinensis. _ Catharista atrata, see Catharista urubu. _ Catharista urubu—Black buzzard. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 36. Feeding on carrion, Bul. 2, p. 110; Rept. 1888, p. 524. Protected on account of useful feed- ing habits, Bul. 12, p. 29; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 32. Cathartes aura _ septentrionalis—Turkey buzzard. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 36. Feeding on carrion, Bul. 2, p. 110; Cire. 76, pp. 9-10; Fauna 7, pp. 33, 34; Fauna 25; p. 201; Rept. 1888, p. 524. YbE. DEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 39 Cathartes aura septentrionalis—Continued. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 53-54, 85. Food of young in captivity, Ybk. 1900, p. 431. Protected on account of useful feed- ~ ing habits, Bul. 12, p. 29; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 32. Catherpes mexicanus punctulatus—Dotted cahon wren. Brief account, Bul. 30, pp. 65-66. Cedar bird, see Bombycilla cedrorum. Centrecercus urophasianus—Sage hen. Brief account, Bul. 24, pp. 23-25. Flesh favored with sage, Fauna 5, p. 93. Centurus aurifrons—Golden-fronted wood- pecker. Brief account, Bul. 37, pp. 63, 64. _ Damage to poles, Bul. 39, p. 10. ! Centurus carolinus—Red-bellied pecker. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 48. Damage to buildings, Bul. 39, p. 133 poles, Bul. 39, p. 11. Formal report, Bul. 7, pp. 8, 10, 11, 23, 25-27 (22 stomachs); Bul. 37, pp. 10, 43, 47-52 (271 stomachs). wood- Reference to vegetarian tastes, Bul. 34, p. 238. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 295. Centurus uropygialis—Gila woodpecker. Brief account, Bul. 37, pp. 63, 64. Damage to poles, Bul. 39, pp. 10, 11. Ceophicus pileatus, see Phleotomus pile- atus. Certhia familiaris americana—Brown creeper. Brief notes, Bul. 38, p. 88; Ybk. 1908, p. 346. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 32, 34, 35, 107. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, pp. 296-297. Certhia familiaris familiaris—Tree creeper. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 191. Certhia familiaris occidentalis—California creeper. Feeding on codling moth, Bul. 34, pp. AO: Food in California, Bul. 30, p. 66 (7 stomachs). : Ceryle aleyon—Belted kingfisher. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 45; Ybk. 1900, p. 428. Feeding on eelpout (Lota maculosa), Fauna 27, p. 378. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 53, 87-88 (5 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 411, 428. 40 Ceryle aleyon—Continued. Injurious to fish, exempt from protec- tion in certain States, Bul. 12, pp. S600 > Bulle ware); ps 43: Chemepelia passerina terrestris—Ground 1 dove. Feeding on weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. Pee Chetura pelagica—Chimney swift. Yeeding on mosquitoes, Bul. 38, p. 9; Rept. 1908, p. 577. Food at Marshall Hall, 24, 25, 35, 39, 40, 91. Insectivorous, Bul. 38, p. 9. Chaffinch, see Fringilla celebs. Chameza fasciata—Wren tit. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. pp. 194, 195. Food in California, Bul. 74 (165 stomachs). Charadrius dominicus—Golden plover. Feeding on crowberries (Hmpetrum Mgrum), Fauna 27, pp. 332, 333; Ybk. 1903, p. 3877; grasshoppers, Cire: 79; p._2. Feeds on caterpillars and cutworms, protected in Hawaii, Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 87. Charitonetta albeola—Buffiechead. Vegetable food, Cire. 81, p. 1. Chat, yellow-breasted, see Icteria virens. Chaulelasmus streperus—Gadwell. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 18. Vegetable food, Cire. 81, p. 1. Chelidon erythrogaster, see Hirundo erythb- rogastra. Chelidon urbica, see Chelidonaria urbica. Chelidonaria urbica—Old-world martin. Value as insect destroyer, Bul. 1. pp. 330, 332, 333, 3386, 346; Rept. 1886, p. 244. Chen hyperboreus—Snow goose. Feeding on club-rush, Fauna 7, p. 18; erowberries (Hmpetrum nigrum), Bul. 17, pp. 1906, 30, pp. 71i- Fauna 27, pp. 298, 301. Chickadee, Black-capped, see Penthestes atricapillus. Carolina, see Penthestes caro- linensis. Chestnut-backed, see Penthestes rufescens. Mountain, see Penthestes gam- beli. Chloris chloris—Greenfinch. Beonomic status, introduction danger- ous, etc., Ybk. 1898, pp. 90, 106, 107, 109. Feeding on caterpillars and corn, Bul. 1, p. 348. Chondestes grammacus—Lark sparrow. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 63. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 25, pp. 9, 2 is, 2h. Bul, 29. np. iG, 19, 30% Cire. 64, p. 5; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, pp. 226, 227, 228, 229. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. — Bie |. Chondestes EE “ Formal Hepert, Bul. 15, PP. 24, @hordeiles achtingaeee teens — Tex nighthawk. Feeding on Ephydra hians, Fauna i, Dees. Chordeiles virginianus—Nighthawk. a Brief account, F. Bul. 54 (rey.), PP. 13-14 (about 100 stomachs). ae Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 25, pp. 8, 9, 13, 20, 21; Bul. 29, pp. 6 21, Zoe O)s aaeie 38, pp. 9, 513; Cire. 5T, pps L; ie Cire. 64, p. 5; Rept. 1906, — p. 404; mosquitoes, Bul. 38, p. 9; Rept. 1908, p. 577; potato beetle, Bul. 32, p:. 47. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 33, 91. Useful, Ybk. 1904, p. 514. Chuck-will’s-widow, see Antrostomus caro- linensis. Ciconia ciconia—White stork. Feeding on field mice, Bul.. 31, p. 53. Ciconia maguari, see Huxenura maguari. Circus hudsonins— Marsh hawk. Beneficial, Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628; Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, Bul. 31, p. 43; Bul. 38, p. 37; Circ. 61, pp. 3, 6; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 2203; Ybk. 1900, pps soi 429, Feeding on brown rat (probably), Bul. 33, p. 34; chipmunk (Tamias min- imus pictus), Fauna 5, p. 943 cot- ton rat (Sigmodon hispidus tewxi- ‘ anus), Fauna 25, pp. 116, 117; field mice, Bul. 4, p. 15; Bul. 3i)p.4se Fauna 7, p. 35; Ybk. 1905, p. 371; horned larks, Bul. 23, p. 12; jack- rabbits, Bul. 8, p. 44; pocket goph- ers, Bul. 5, p. 20; rabbits, Bul: 4, p. 15; Ybk. 1907, p. 336; sper- mophiles, Bul. 4, pp. 15, 16, 17; (Spermophilus townsendi), shrew (Neosorer), Fauna 5, p. 943 squir-— rels, Bul. 4, p. 15. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 54, 55, 86. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 429. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 12, 26-82, 134 (124 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, pp. 403-404 (46 stomachs) ; Rept. 1889, pp. 870-372. j Relation to* orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 301. a Cistothorus palustris, see Telmatodytes pa- lustris. Clangula clangula americana—Golden-eye. Vegetable food, Cire. 81, p. 1. Coccothraustes vespertina, see Hesper- iphona vespertina. ° Coccyzus americanus—Yellow-billed cuckoo. Beneficial, Ybk. 1897, p. 670; = 1904, p. 514. iF oceyzus americanus—Continued. Brief account, Bul. 1, p. 123; Bul. 38, Dp 455) 8. Bull 54 pp, 9-6 (21 stomachs); F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 7-8 (109 stomachs) ; Ybk. 1900, p. 297. Feeding on caterpillars, Rept. 1889, p. 369; Rept. 1898, pp. 39-40; cotton worm, Bul. 25, pp. 19-20; mulber- ries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; potato beetle, Bul. 32, p. 47; Rept. 1889, p. 369; rose beetle, Bul. 32, p. 20; tussock moth, Bul. 1, pp. 108-109, 4 292, 324; Rept. 1886, p. 244; web- - worms, Bul. 1, p. 123. a Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. Ss Bi GANAS UE HA a Formal report, Bul. 9, pp. 7-14 (109 i stomachs). Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 297. Coceyzus erythropthalmus — Black-billed . cuckoo. Beneficial, Bul. 38, p. 45; Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, F. Bul. 54, pp. 5-6 (16 stomachs); F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 7-8 (46 stomachs); Ybk. 1900, pp. 297, 428. Feeding on caterpillars, Rept. 1898, pp. 39-40; tussock moth, Bul. 1, pp. 108, 109; Rept. 1886, p. 244. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 24, : 87. a a Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 428. u . Formal report, Bul. 9, pp. 7-14 (46 stomachs). Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. Relation to orchards, 297. Colaptes auratus—F licker. Beneficial, Ybk. 1897, p. .. 1904, p. 514. gi Brief account, Bul. 12, p. 18; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 25; Bul. 34, p. 25; Bul. 38, pp. 48-49; F. Bul. 54, pp. 7-8, - 10; F. Bul. 54 (rey.), pp. 10-11, 4 13; Ybk. 1900, p. 294. "ae Ybk. 1900, p. 670; Ybk. x Damage to buildings, Bul. 39, pp. 13- er 14; poles, Bul. 39, p. 113 posts, Br. Bul. 739; p: 13: a Distributing poison Rhus seeds, Rept. 4 1890, p. 283. ae Feeding on ants, Fauna 27, p. 388. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 34, 38, 62, 90-91. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 427. A Formal report, Bul. 7, pp. 8, 9, 10, 11, re 16-20, 25, 38 (230 stomachs) ; Bul. : 37, pp. 10, 12, 52-58, 59, 60, 61 (684 stomachs). : Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 294. : - INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 41 -Colaptes cafer collaris—Red-shafted flicker. Brief account, F. Bul. 54, pp. 7-8; F. Bul. 54 (rey.), pp. 10-11. Damage to buildings, Bul. 389, pp. 13-14; Fauna 7, p. 51; poles, Bul. 39, p. 11; posts, Bul. 39, pp. 13-14. Feeding on juniper berries (probably), Fauna 16, p. 116. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 25-28 (118 stomachs). Formal report, Bul. 37, pp. 10, 59-62 (183 stomachs). Colaptes chrysoides—Gilded flicker. Brief account, Bul. 37, pp. 63, 64. Colinus ridgwayi—Masked bobwhite. Brief account, Bul. 21, pp. 46—47. Colinus virginianus—Bobwhite. Brief account, Bul. 38, pp. 9, 34; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 5-6; Ybk. 1900, p. 482; Ybk. 1909, p. 252. Heonomic value, Bul. 38, p. 9; Rept. 1904, p. 294; Ybk. 1902, p. 206; Ybk. 1907, pp. 172, 594. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, pp. 112, 16, Bul. 25; 4pps 8; 03,2215 Bul. 29, pp. 6, 21, 30; Cire. 64,¢p. 5; garden pests, Cire. 81, p. 8; grain, Rept. 1898, p. 39; poison Rhus seeds, Rept. 1890, p. 283; po- tato beetle, Bul. 32, p. 47; seeds, Bul. 22, pp. 12, 13; weed seeds, Bul, Wd: pests Yoke 1S9ss pp: 222. 231-232. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 13, 22, 2, 20,28, a2; oo; 40 GOs G2: 69-70, 71, 78, 83-85, 110, 111 (13 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 432. Formal report, Bul. 21, pp. 9-46 (918 stomachs) ; Ybk. 1903, pp. 1938-204 (801 stomachs). Natural and valuable cultivated foods, Ybk. 1909, p. 194. Columba fasciata—Band-tailed pigeon. Feeding on acorns and berries of Ar- butus menziesii, Fauna 7, p. 31. Columba flavirostris madrensis—Tres Ma- rias pigeon. Feeding on figs and guavas, Fauna 14, p. 35. Columba livia—Common pigeon. Feeding on army worms, Bul. 1, pp. 290-291. Columba palumbus—Wood pigeon. Injurious in England, Bul. 1, p. 335. Colymbus auritus—Horned /grebe. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 79. Compsothlypis americana—Parula warbler. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 77. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 23, 24, 103-104. Condor, California,:see Gymmnogyps califor- nianus. Contopus richardsoni, see Myiochanes rich- ardsoni. Contopus virens, see Myiochanes virens. 42 INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. Conuropsis carolinensis—Carolina paroquet. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 44. Coot, see Fulica americana. Cormorant, Double-crested, corax auritus. Cormorant, Red-faced, urile. Corvus americanus, see Corvus brachyrhyn- chos. Corvus brachyrhynchos—American crow. Bounty laws, Ybk. 1896, pp. 55, 57, 58, 59, 61; Ybk. 1899, pp. 279, 280, 281, 282. Brief account, Bul. 31, pp. 50-51; Bul. 38, p. 56; F. Bul. 54, pp. 3, 15-17; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 3, 22-28, 25; Ybk. 1897, pp. 345, 346-348; Ybk. 1900, p. 424; Ybk. 1907, pp. 170, 075, 177, LT8. Damage to grain, Bul. 12, pp. 36, 37; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 43; Rept. 1898, p. 89; Ybk. 1897, pp. 345, 346-348. Distributing poison Rhus, Rept. 1889, p. 368; and other seeds, Rept. 1890, pp. 282-284. e Equally beneficial and injurious, Bul. 12, p. 49; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 58. Feeding on corn, Bul. 3, p. 9; Bul. 32, p. 91; Rept. 1886, p. 242; cut- worms, Bul. 3, p. 9; eggs and young ‘of bobwhite, Bul. 21, p. 22; of ruffed grouse, Bul. 24, p. 28; of shore- birds, Cire. 79, p. 2; field mice, Bul. 31, pp. 50-51; Ybk. 1905, p. 871; (Microtus montanus) F. Bul. 335, p. 12 20H. bul. pool, Pp. 23 Ybk, 1908, p. 309; figs, Fauna 7, p. 72; insects, Ybk. 1908. p. 347; poison Rhus seeds, Bul. 24, p. 86; poisoned wheat, F. Bul. 352, p. 8; potato beetle, Bul. oa, Dp. 47. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 18-14, 23, 24, 28, 30, 32, 34, 35, 37, $8, 43, 47-48, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57-58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63-64, 65-66, 68, 84, 94, 110. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 424- 425, 436. Formal report, Bul. 6, pp. 1-98 (909 stomachs) ; Rept. 1888, pp. 498-534 (86 stomachs). Injurious, hence unprotected in certain States, Bul. 12, pp. 36, 37; Bul. 12 (rey.), p. 48; Bul. 38, p. 10. Other notes, Rept. 1890, p. 279. Predatory, F. Bul. 390, p. 28. Reference to studies of food, Ybk. 1899, pp. 265, 266. Request for information on economic relations, Hnt. Circ... 20 [p. 1]; Cire. 1 [p. 2] ; Rept. 1886, p. 230. Scalps paid in lieu of taxes, Ybk. 1896, p. 67. Corvus caurinus—Northwestern crow. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 50; pheasant eggs, Rept. 1888, p. 485. see Phalacro- see Phalacrocorax Corvus corax corax—Old-world raven. Feeding on lemmings and voles, Bul. ne 31, p. 50. Cervus corax principalis—Northern raven. Feeding on carrion, Fauna 24, p. 71; Fauna 30, pp. 40, 62, 90; crabs, Fauna 21, p. 47. Corvus corax sinuatus—Southern raven, Feeding on carrion, Fauna 7, p. 71; field mice, Bul. 31, p. 50; (Microtus montanus) F. Bul. 335, p. 12; F. Bul. 352, p. 21; Rept. 1908, p. 573; Ybk. 1908, p. 3809; grasshoppers, Hauna 7, pp. 382th Corvus corone—Carrion crow. Feeding cn eggs and young of Perdizxr perdiz, Bul. 6, p. 41; lemmings and voles, Bul. 31, p. 50. Corvus cryptoleucus—White-necked rayen. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 50; pocket gophers (probably), Bul. 6, Dp: 35. Corvus frugilegus—Rook. Feeding on lemmings and voles, Bul. 31, p. 50. Corvus ossifragus—Fish crow. Brief account, Rept. 1888, pp. 498, 500, 515, 525, 584-585 (12 stomachs). Feeding on cultivated fruit, Bul. 6, p. 82; field mice, Bul. 31, p. 50; su- mach seeds, Rept. 1890, pp. 283- 284. P Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 14, 63. Coturniculus savannarum passerinus, see Ammodramus savannarum australis, Cowbird, see Molothrus ater. Crane, Little brown, see Grus canadensis. Sandhill, see Grus mexicana. Whooping, see Grus americana. Creeper, Black-and-white, see Mniotilta va- ria. Brown, see americana. California, see Certhia familiaris occidentalis. Tree, see Certhia familiaris famili- aris. Crossbill, see Loxia curvirostra minor. White-winged, see Loxia leucop- tera. Crow, American, chos. Carrion, see Corvus corone. Clarke's, see Nucifraga columbiana. Fish, see Corvus ossifragus. Northwestern, see Corvus caurinus. Cryptoglaux acadica—Saw-whet owl. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, p. 217; Ybk. 1895, p. S90; °¥nr 1896, p. 628. Certhia familiaris see Corvus brachyrhyn- Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 50 : Ybk. 1905, p. 371. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 160—- 162 (22 stomachs); Rept. 1887, p. 419 (6 stomachs). . t, yptoglaux funerea richardsoni—Richard- son’s owl. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, pee 2th) Yok. 1895.9 p.n990); Yb. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 159. lreeding on field mice (Microtus drum- mondi), xred-back mice (Hvotomys gapperi athabasce), and white-footed mice (Peromyscus arcticus), Fauna 27; p. 370. Cuckoo, Black-billed, see Coccyzus erythrop- thalmus. Yellow-billed, see Coccyzus ameri- canus. Curlew, Hudsonian, see Numenius hudsoni- cus. Long-billed, canus. Cyanistes ceruleus—Blue titmouse. Admission denied, Ybk. 1905, p. 545. Economie status in view of proposed introduction, Rept. 1899, p. 67. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, pp. 191, 192. Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus—Pifion jay. Feeding on pifion nuts, Fauna 3, pp. 39, 94; (Pinus monophylia) Fauna 7, pp. 73, 337. Cyanocitta cristata—Blue jay. Brigf account, Bul. 38, p. 55; F. Bul. 54, pp. 14-15 (292 stomachs); F. Bul, 54 (rev.), pp. 18-19 (300 stom- achs) ; Ybk. 1907, pp. 171-172. Feeding on boll weevil, Circ. 64, p. 5; brown-tail moth, Ybk. 1907, pp. 171- 172; eggs and young of smaller birds, Rept. 1888, p. 514; English sparrow, Bul. 1, pp. 31, 32, 233, 234; mahaleb cherry, Bul. 32, p. 65; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 24, 29, 32, 35, 38, 40, 60, 938-94 (6 stomachs). Formal report, Ybk. 1896, 206 (292 stomachs). Predatory, Bul. 1, p. 268; Bul. 34, p. 47. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 265. Cyanocitta stelleri—Steller’s jay. Brief account, F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 19-20. Feeding on pifion nuts, Fauna 3, pp. 39, 94. Food in California, Bul 34, pp. 8, 47— 49 (93 stomachs). _ Cyanospiza ciris, see Passerina ciris. _ Cyanospiza cyanea, see Passerina cyanea. _ Cyelorrhynchus psittaculus, see Phaleris & a psittacula. Cyrtonyx montezumze mearnsi—Mearns’s quail. Formal report, Bul. 21, pp. 63-64 (9 stomachs). see Numenius ameri- pp. 197- INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 43 D. Dafila acuta—Pintail. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 20. Feeding on Lymnea palustris, Fauna 2, Ds 290. Vegetable food, Cire. 81, p. 1. Dendragapus obscurus—Dusky grouse. Feeding on ants, Fauna 16, p. 110; bearberries (Arctostaphylos wuva- ursi), Fauna 5, p. 93; Fauna 27, p. 337; currants (Ribes cereum), grass- hoppers and other insects, leaves of willow, Fauna 5, p. 93; (Salix myr- tillifolia) Fauna 27, p. 337; man- zanita: berries (Arctostaphylos neva- densis), Fauna 16, p. 110; moun- tain cranberries (Vitis-idea vitis- idwa), Fauna 27, p. 3387; seeds of Pentstemon gracilentus, Fauna 16, Dp, LL0; Formal report, Bul. 24, pp. 41-44 (45 stomachs). Dendroica «stiva—Yellow warbler. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 77. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 21, 25, 30; Circ. 64, p. 5; mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; seale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, Oey Gul OR BI), Bas awl Gi, Sey eho, 103-104 (7 stomachs). ; Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 47-49 (98 stomachs). : Dendroica auduboni—Audubon’s warbler. Feeding on insects (in cabbage), Fauna 7, p. 119; (noxious) Ybk. 1904, p. 254; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, pp. 194, 195. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 43-46 (383 stomachs). Dendroica czrulescens—Black-throated blue warbler. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 20. Dendroica castanea—Bay-breasted warbler. Feeding on mulberries, Rept. 1890, D: 285) Dendroica coronata—Mpyrtle warbler. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 78. Distributing poison Rhus seeds, 1890, p. 283. Feeding on boll weevil, Cire. 64, p. 5; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, pp. 194, 195 ; seeds, Rept. 1890, p. 282. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 62, 103-104. Food in California, Bul. 30, p. 46 (10 stomachs). Dendroica discolor—Prairie warbler. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 34, 103-104. Dendroica maculosa, nolia. Dendroica magnolia—Magnolia warbler. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 195. Rept. see Dendroica mag- 44 INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. Dendroica magnolia—Continued. . Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 29, 34, 35, 40, 103-104. Dendroica palmarum—Palm warbler. Number of insects eaten per minute, Bul. 17, p. 104. Dendroica striata—Black-poll warbler. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 195. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 23, 24, 29, 34, 35, 39, 40, 103-104 (11 stomachs). Dendroica tigrina—Cape May warbler. Feeding on mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285. Dendroica townsendi—Townsend’s warbler. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 46-47 (31 stomachs). Dendroica vigorsi—Pine warbler, Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 80. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul 17, p. 20. Dendroica virens—Black-throated green warbler. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 20. Dickcissel, see Spiza americana. Dolichonyx oryzivorus—Bobolink, Bounty laws, Ybk. 1896, p. 57; Ybk. 1899, p. 279. Brief account, Bul. 38, pp. 56-57; F. Bul. 54, pp. 4, 17-19; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 4, 28-24; Rept. 1886, pp. 246-250; Ybk. 1907, p. 171. Damage to grain, Bul. 1, p. 70; Bul. 12, pp. 35, 36; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 42; Bul. 32, p. 80; Rept. 1887, pp. 428, 431; Ybk. 1898, pp. 230, 232; rice, BW deep. Gs) Gol, 2. Os ASU, p. 18; Bul? 12 (rev.), pp. 25-26; Bul, 15, p17; Bul. 30, p. 12';. Ent; ire, 20, [p. ale scire, & Lp. 215 Cine, 5 [p. 1]; Rept. 1886, pp. 229, 234, 235, 246-250; Rept. 1900, p. 44; Ybk. 1903, p. 375; Ybk. 1904, pp. 245, 253. Feeding on weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, pp. 200, 202; Wild rice, Bul. i, p. 76; Bul: 3, p: 9; . Bul. 12, p. 18, Wood at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 24, 30, 34, 35, 40, 71, 95 (6 stom- achs). Formal report, Bul. 13, pp. 8, 9, 11, 12-22 (291 stomachs). Injurious, hence exempt from protec- tion in certain States, Bul. 12, p. 386; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 43. Insectivorous, Bul. 12, pp. 14, 24; Bul. 12 (rey.), pp. 22, 31. Other notes, Rept. 1887, pp. 400-401 ; Rept. 1890, p. 279; Ybk. 1904, pp. 245, 253. Request for information on economic relations, Ent. Cire. 20 [p. 2]; Cire. 1 [p. 2]; Cir. 5 [p. 1] 5 Rept. 1886, pp. 2380, 234. Dove, Ground, see Chemepelia passeri terrestris. Mourning, see Zenaidura macroura carolinensis. Ring, see Columba palumbus. Rock, see Columba livia. Dowitcher, see Macrorhamphus griseus. Dryobates arizone—Arizona woodpecker. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 295. Dryobates borealis—Red-cockaded wood- pecker. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197. Formal report, Bul. 37, pp. 10, 22-23 (76 stomachs). Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 295. Dryobates nuttalli—Nuttall’s woodpecker. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 19-21 (46 stomachs). Formal report, Bul. 37, pp. 10, 23-25 (53 stomachs). Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 295. Dryobates pubescens—Downy woodpecker. Beneficial, Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, Bul. 34, p. 17; Bul. 38, p. 46; F. Bul. 54, pp. 6-7, 9; F. Bul. 54 (rey.), pp. 9-10, 138; Ybk. 1900, pp. 292-293, 295, 427. Damage to posts, Bul. 39, p. 13. Distributing poison Rhus seeds, Rept. 1890, p. 283. Feeding on mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, pp. 194, 197. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 24, 33, 34, 35, 38, 40, 47, 59, 60, 61, 62, 76, 88 (13 stomachs). Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 17-19, 20 (80 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 427. Formal report, Bul. 7, pp. 8, 9, 10, 11— 14, 15, 16, 18, 38 (140 stomachs) ; Bul. 37, pp. 10, 11, 12, 17-82, 24 (723 stomachs). Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, pp. 292-293, 295. Tapping trees, Bul. 39, pp. 92—95. Dryobates scalaris bairdi—Texas pecker. Brief account, Bul. 37, p. 63. Damage to poles, Bul. 39, pp. 10, 11; posts, Bul. 39, p. 18. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 295. Dryobates scalaris graysoni— Grayson’s woodpecker. Feeding habits, Fauna 14, p. 43. Dryobates scalaris lucasanus—San Lucas woodpecker. Damage to poles, Bul. 39, p. 11. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 295. Dryobates villosus—Hairy woodpecker. Beneficial, Bul. 38, p. 46; Ybk. 1897, p. 670. wood- INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. Dryobates villosus—Continued. Brief account, Bul. 34, p. 16; F. Bul. 54, pp. 6—7, 9; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 9-10, 13; Ybk. 1900, pp. 292, 293-294. Damage to posts, Bul. 39, p. 138. Distributing poison Rhus seeds, Rept. 1890, p. 283. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 15-17, 20, 22 (27 stomachs). Formal report, Bul. 7, pp. 8, 9, 10, 11, 14-16, 18, 38 (82 stomachs); Bul. 37, pp. 10, 11, 12, 18-17 (382 stomachs). Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, pp. 292, 293-294. Tapping trees, Bul. 39, pp. 92-95. Duck, Black, see Anas rubripes. Greater scaup, see Marila marila. Lesser scaup, see Marila affinis. Mallard, see Anas platyrhynchos. Pintail, see Dafila acuta. Ring-necked, see Marila collaris. Ruddy, see Hrismatura jamaicensis. Spoonbill, see Spatula clypeata. Wood, see Aix sponsa. Dumetella carolinensis—Catbird. Beneficial, Bul. 38, p. 9. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 85; F. Bul. 54, pp. 33-34; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 39-40 (213 stomachs); Ybk. 1900, pp. 303-304, 416. Feeding on fruit, Rept. 1890, p. 281; Ybk. 1907, p. 169; mahaleb cherries (Prunus mahaleb), Bul. 32, p. 653 mulberries, Bul. 32, pp. 64, 65; Rept. 1890, p. 285. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 17-18, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 47, 55-56, 57, 08, 59, 60, 61, 62, 104-105 (74 stomachs). ‘Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 416, 436. Formal report, Ybk. 1895, pp. 405, 406-411, 414, 418 (213 stomachs). Other notes, Bul. 1, pp. 126, 304; Bul. 15, p. 29. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, pp. 303-304. Request for information on economic relations, Hunt. Cire. 20 [p. 2]. HE. Hagle, Bald, see Halimetus leucocephalus. Golden, see Aquila chrysaétos. Gray sea, see Halizetus albicilla. Ectopistes migratorius—Passenger pigeon. Damage to grain, Fauna 27, p. 351. Food of adults and nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p, 431, 45 Egret, see Herodias egretta. Snowy, see Hgretta candidissima. Egretta candidissima—Snowy egret. Brief account, Ybk. 1900, p. 435. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 52. Hlainoides forficatus—Swallow-tailed kite. Beneficial, Bul. 31, p. 45; Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 37; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 4; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 218. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 20-22, 23, 24 (6 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, p. 403 (5 stomachs). Elanus leucurus—White-tailed kite. Beneficial, Ybk. 1895, p.° 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 283 Cire. 61, pp. 3, 4; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 218. Feeding on lizards and snakes, Bul. 2 Deel se Emberiza citrinella—Old-world yellow- hammer. Injurious in New Zealand, Ybk. 1909, Dp 25%. Empidonax difficilis—Westtern yellow-bel- lied flycatcher. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 41—- 44 (141 stomachs). HEmpidonax minimus—Least flycatcher. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 25, pp. 8, 1355 1%. 195920; 21 + Bule29; pp: 6, 14-15, 24, 30; Cire. 64, p. 5; mul- berries, Bul. 32, p. 64; Rept. 1890, p. 285. Empidonax trailli—Traill’s flycatcher. Brief account, Bul. 34, p. 44. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 15, 24, 30; Cire. 64, p. 5. Empidonax virescens—Acadian flycatcher. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 54. Feeding on rose beetle, Bul. 32, p. 20. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 36, 92. Hreunetes pusillus—Peep. Feeding on mosquitoes, C're. 79, p. 2. Erismatura jamaicensis—Ruddy duck. Vegetable food, Cire. 81, p. 1. BLuphagus carolinus—Rusty blackbird. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 59; Ybk. 1897, pp. 351-352. Damage to grain, Rept. 1887, p. 428; Ybk. 1897, pp. 351-352; Ybk. 1898, We 2a0: Feeding on boll weevil, Circ. 64, pp. 3, 5; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 230. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 14, 35, 38, 39, 71, 77, 96. Formal report, Bul. 13, pp. 9, 45-49 (132 stomachs). ; Euphagus cyanocephalus—Brewer’s black- bird. te Brief account, Ybk. 1897, pp. 351-352. Damage to fruit, Bul. 30, p. 13; Ybk. 1904, pp. 246, 248; grain, Bul, 23, 46 Euphagus cyanocephalus—Continued. p. 15; Bul. 29, p. 8; Fauna 27, p. 412; Rept. 1887, p. 430; Ybk. 1897, pp. 351-352; Ybk. 1898, p. 230. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, p. 163° Bul. 25; pp: 9, 10, 11—12) 21); Bull) Zo pp iG;) i,7. 2a, Ai, 20, 29; 30; Cire. 64, pp. 3, 5; cankerworms, Ybk. 1908, p. 345; corn, Bul. 29, p. 8; crumbs in streets and door- yards, Fauna 5, p. 101; grasshop- pers, Fauna 7, p. 78; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 230; wheat, Bul. 23, p. 15. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 59- 65 (312 stomachs). Formal report, Bul. 13, pp. 9, 10, 11, 50-52 (146 stomachs). Relation to fruit in California, Bul. 30, p. 13; Ybk. 1904, pp. 246, 248. Buxenura maguari—Maguari stork. Feeding on mice, Bul. 31, pp. 52-53. x. Falco columbarius—Pigeon hawk. Brief account, Bul. 31, p. 45; Bul. 38, p. 40; Circ. 61, pp. 3, 13, 14; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 227, 228. Equally beneficial and injurious, Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Feeding on crossbills, Fauna 21, p. 76; English sparrow, Bul. 1, pp. 32, 309; field mice, Bul. 31, p. 45; Fauna 19, p. 75; Ybk. 1905, p. 371; red-backed mouse, Fauna 19, p. 75; ruby-crowned kinglet, Fauna 30, p. 38; sparrow, Fauna 27, p. 363; tree sparrow, Fauna 27, p. 364. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 15, 109-113, 114, 115 (60 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, pp. 402, 414 (19 stomachs). Injurious, Bul. 12, p. 30; (rev.), p. 33. Falco fusco-cerulescens—Aplomado falcon. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 15, 114-115; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 13, 14; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 227, 228. Equally beneficial and injurious. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Falco islandus—White gyrfalcon. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 15, 16, 102; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 16; Ybk. 1894, pp 218, 2380. Injurious, Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Faleo mexicanus—Prairie falcon. Brief account, Bul. 31, p. 45; Cire. 61, Bul. 12 Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. pp. 8, 18, 14-15; Rept. 1887, p. 414; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 227, 228- 229. Equally beneficial and injurious, Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Feeding on chicken (chasing), Fauna 5, p. 95; doves (chasing), Fauna 7, p. 40; ducks, Gambel’s quail (watch- INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. Falco mexicanus—Continued. ing), Fauna 7, p. 39; horned larks, Bul. 23, p. 123 Haunal 5, opyohe jack rabbits, Bul. 8, p. 44; spermo- philes, Bul. 4, pp. 16—17. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 15, 104-106 (11 stomachs). Faleo peregrinus—Duck hawk. Brief account, Bul. 31, p. 44; Bul. 38, pp. 10, 40; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 16-173 Ybk. 1894, pp. 218, 230-231. Feeding on Alaska jays, intermediate sparrows, Fauna 19, p. 75; mallard (chasing), Fauna 27, p. 362; marsh hawks, Fauna 19, p. 75; scaup duck (chasing), Fauna 30, p. 88; spar- row hawk (chasing), Fauna 14, p. 38; varied thrushes, Fauna 19, p. 75; white-winged crossbills, Fauna 19, pp. 75, 82. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 15, 16, 106-109, 184 (20 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, pp. 402, 414 (5 stomachs). Injurious, Bul. 12, p. 30; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 33; Bul. 38, p. 103 Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628; Ybk. 1897, p. 670; Ybk. 1908, p. 192. Falco richardsoni, see Falco columbarius. Faleo rusticolus—Gray gyrfalcon. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 15, 16, 102— 103; Cire. 61, pp. 8, 16; Ybk. 1894, pp. 218, 230. Feeding on bird, Fauna 19, p. 74; ptarmigan (apparently chasing), Fauna 27, p. 361. Injurious, Ybk. 1895, -p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Falco sparverius—Sparrow hawk, Beneficial, Bul. 12, p. 30; Bul. 12 (rev.), p.. 33; Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628; Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, Bul. 12, p. 30; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 83; Bul. 31, p. 45; Buk 88, p. 41; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 9-10; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 228; Ybk. 1900, p. 430. Feeding on cotton rat (Sigmodon his- pidus terianus), Fauna 25, p. 116; English sparrow, Bul. 1, pp. 32, 150, 234, 309; Rept. 1886, p. 245; field mice, Bul. 31, p. 45; Ybk. 1905, p. 371; (Microtus drummondi) Fauna 27, p. 365; grasshoppers, Bul. 12, p. 30; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 33; Fauna 3, p. 39; Fauna 5, p. 95; Fauna 7, p. 41; Fauna 16, p. 21350 eee 1907, p. 166; insects, Fauna 3, p. 91; red-backed mouse (Hvotomys dawsoni), Fauna 27, p. 365; — Fauna 7, p. 41. Food at Marshall Hall, 19, 86. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 480, Bul. 17, pp. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. Falco sparverius—Continued. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 13, 115- 127, 192 (320 stomachs); Rept. 1887, pp. 414-417 (133 stomachs) ; Rept. 1888, pp. 491-496 (163 stomachs). Other notes, Bul. 1, p. 150; Bul. 9, p. 16; Bul. 30, pp. 33-34; Rept. 1886, p. 245. Falcon, Aplomado, see Falco fusco- cerulescens. f Prairie, see Faleo mexicanus. Finch, Gray-crowned rosy, see Leucosticte tephrocotis. House, see Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis. Purple, see Carpodacus purpureus. Flicker, see Colaptes auratus. Gilded, see Colaptes chrysoides. Red-shafted, see Colaptes cafer collaris. Florida czerulea—Little blue heron. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 26; Ybk. 1900, p. 435. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 81. Flycatcher, Acadian, see Empidonax vires- cens. Ash-throated, see Myiarchus cinerascens. : Crested, see Myiarchus crini- tus. Least, see Empidonax minimus. Olive-sided, see Nuttallornis borealis. Scissor-tailed, see Muscivora forficata. Traill’s, see Empidonax trailli. Western yellow-bellied, “see Hmpidonax difficilis. madagascariensis — Madagascar weaver bird. Injurious wherever 1904, p. 296. Fratercula corniculata—Horned puffin. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 433. Fringilla ccelebs—Chaffinch. Feeding on caterpillars, corn, Bul. 1, p. 343; seeds, Bul. 1, p. 335. Injurious in New Zealand, Ybk. 1909, p. 257. Fulica americana—Coot. Brief account, Bul. 38, pp. 18, 28-29. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 81-82, Foudia introduced, Rept. G. Gadwell, see Chaulelasmus streperus. Galeoscoptes carolinensis, see Dumetella carolinensis. Gallinago delicata—Jacksnipe. Feeding on click beetles, crane flies, crayfish, Cire. 79, p. 6; Dytiscide, Cire. 79, p. 8; grasshoppers, Circ. 79, p. 4; wireworms, Cire, 79, p. 6. 47 Garrulus glandarius—Old-world jay. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 411. Gavia arctica—Black-throated loon. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 433. Gavia stellata—Red-throated loon. Feeding on fishes, Fauna 27, p. 259. Geococcyx californianus—Road runner. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 51. Geothlypis trichas—Yellowthroat. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 82. Feeding on boll weevil, Cire. 64, p. 5; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 22, 24, 28, 30, 32, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 103-104 (13 stomachs). Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 49-50 (114 stomachs). Insectivorous, Ybk. 1908, p. 344. Glaucidium gnoma—Pygmy owl. Beneficial, Circ. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, Dp. 2273 Ybks 1895," ps 5905 Ybk- 1896, p. 628. Feeding on spermophiles, Bul. 4, p. 16. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 431. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 196-198 (6 stomachs). Glaucidium phalcnoides—Ferruginous pyg- my owl. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, p. 217; Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 199. Glaux funerea richardsoni, see Cryptoglaux funerea richardsoni. Gnatcatcher, Black-tailed, see Polioptila californica. Blue-gray, see Polioptila ce#- rulea. Godwit, Hudsonian, see Limosa hzemastica. Marbled, see Limosa fedoa. Golden-eye, see Clangula clangula ameri- cana. Goldfinch, see Astragalinus tristis. Green-backed, see Astragalinus psaltria hesperophilus. Goose, Canada, see Branta canadensis. Snow, see Chen hyperboreus. Goshawk, see Astur atricapillus. Mexican, see Asturina plagiata. Grackle, Purple, see Quiscalus quiscula. Grebe, Horned, see Colymbus auritus. Pied-billed, see Podilymbus podiceps. Greenfinch, see Chloris chloris. Grosbeak, Alaska pine, see Pinicola enuclea- tor alascensis. Black-headed, melanocephala. Blue, see Guiraca cerulea. see Zamelodia Evening, see Hesperiphona ves- pertina. Gray, see Pyrrhuloxia sinuata. Pine, see Pinicola enucleator leucura. Rose-breasted, see Zamelodia ludoviciana, 48 Grouse, Dusky, see Dendragapus obscurus. Franklin’s, see Canachites frank- lini. Ruffed, see Bonasa umbellus. Sharp-tailed, see Pedicecetes phasi- anellus. Spruce, see Canachites canadensis. Wood, see Tetrao urogallus. Grus americana—Whooping crane. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 538. Grus canadensis—Little brown crane. Feeding on barley, Fauna 7, pp. 20—21; field mice, Bul. 31, p. 53; foliage and rootlets, Fauna 7, pp. 20—21. Grus mexicana—Sandhill crane. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 53. Food of young in captivity, Ybk. 1900, p. 433. Guiraca caerulea—Blue grosbeak. Brief account, F. Bul. 456, pp. 11-12. Feeding on weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 230. Formal report, Bul. 32, pp. 91 (51 stomachs). Guiraca ludoviciana, see Zamelodia ludovi- ciana. Gull, California, see Larus californicus. Franklin’s, see Larus franklini. Glaucous-winged, see Larus glauces- cens. Great black-backed, rinus. Heermann’s, see Larus heermanni. Herring, see Larus argentatus. Laughing, see Larus atricilla. Ring-billed, see Larus delawarensis. 78-85, 87, see Larus ma- Short-billed, see Larus brachyrhyn- chus. Gymnogyps californianus—California con- dor. Feeding on carrion, Fauna 7, p. 33. Gyrfalcon, Gray, see Falco rusticolus. White, see Faico islandus. ne Oe Habia ludoviciana, see Zamelodia ludovyi- ciana. Haliwetus albicilla—Gray sea eagle. Compiled information, Bul. 27, pp. 18- 20. Haliwetus leucocephalus—Bald eagle. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 40; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 13, 14; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 227-228; Ybk. 1900, p. 430. Compiled information, Bul. 27, pp. 6— LT. Equally beneficial and injurious, 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Feeding on crustaceans and mollusks, Fauna 21, p. 43; rabbits, Ybk. 1907, p. 336; spermophiles, Bul. 4, p. 16. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 50, 53. Ybk. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. Halixzetus leucocephalus—Continued. we Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 15, 97-101 | - (21 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, p. 413 ; (6 stomachs). Protected in some States, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. Harporhynchus lecontei, see Toxostoma le- contei. Harporhynchus rufus, see Toxostoma rufum. Hawk, Broad-winged, see Buteo platypterus. Buzzard, see Buteo buteo. Cooper’s, see Accipiter cooperi. Duck, see Falco peregrinus. Ferruginous rough-legged, see Arch- ibuteo ferrugineus. Harris’s, see Parabuteo unicinctus harrisi, Marsh, see Circus hudsonius. Mexican black, see Urubutinga an- thracina. Pigeon, see Falco columbarius. Red-shouldered, see Buteo lineatus. Red-tailed, see Buteo borealis. Richardson's, see Falco columbarius. Rough-legged, see Archibuteo lago- pus sancti-johannis. Rough-legged buzzard, buteo lagopus lagopus. Sennett’s white-tailed, see Buteo al- bicaudatus sennetti. Sharp-shinned, see Accipiter velox. Short-tailed, see Buteo brachyurus. Sparrow, see Falco sparverius. Squirrel, see Archibuteo ferrugineus. Swainson’s, see Buteo swainsoni. Zone-tailed, see Buteo abbreviatus. Heath hen, see Tympanuchus cupido. Heleodytes brunneicapillus couesi—Cactus wren. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 64—65 (41 stomachs). Helminthophila celata lutescens, see Ver- mivora celata lutescens. Helmitheros vermivorus—Worm-eating war- bler. * Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 75. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 195. Food at Marshall Hall, 34, 103-104. Helodromas solitarius—Solitary sandpiper. Feeding on grasshoppers, Cire. 79, p. 4. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 19. Herodias egretta—FEegret. Bul. 17, pp. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 52. Heron, Black-crowned night, see Nycticorax nycticorax nevius. Great blue, see Ardea herodias. Green, see Butorides virescens. Little blue, see Florida caerulea, At ge see Archi- -Hesperiphona E beak. Brief account, Bul. 32, p. 5. Feeding on cedar berries (Juniperus occidentalis), Fauna 16, pp. 123, 139; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 230. Himantopus knudseni—Kukuluaeo. Feeds on caterpillars and cutworms, protected in Hawaii, Bul. 12 (rev.), A p. 87. Himantopus mexicanus—Black-necked stilt. Feeding on bill bugs, crayfishes, Cire. 79, p. 6; Dytiscide, Circ. 79, p. 8; grasshoppers, Cire. 79, p. 4. Hirundo erythrogastra—Barn swallow. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 71; F. Bul. 54, p. 31; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 36-38; Ybk. 1900, p. 418. Destroying nests and brood of English sparrows, Bul. 1, p. 282. Feeding on bayberries, Rept. 1890, p. 282; boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 13-14, 25, 30; Bul. 38, p. 71; Circ. 56, pp. 1—2; Cire. 57, p. 2; Circ. 64, ps5; Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 24, 25, 26, 34, 35, 36, 40, 46, 98-99 (10 stomachs). Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 30—32 ~ (82 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 418. Protection urged, as enemy of boll weevil, Circ. 56, pp. 1-2; Cire. 57, p. 2. Relation to bedbugs, Cire. 57, p. 2. Hirundo rustica—Old-world Swallow. Value as insect destroyer, Rept. 1886, / p, 244, Hirundo urbica, see Chelidonaria urbica. Humming bird, Grayson’s, see Amizilis graysoni, Ruby-throated, colubris. Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis—Black tern. Feeding on imago of cotton-boll worm, Ybk. 1908, p. 194. _ Hylocichla alicie—Gray-checked thrush. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 91. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 24, 29, 32, 34, 35, 38, 108. Hylocichla fuscescens—Veery. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 90. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 20. Hylocichla guttata—Hermit thrush. . Beneficial, Ybk. 1907, p. 169. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 91. Feeding on berries of COelastrus scan- dens, Bul. 1, p. 273; potato beetle, Bul. 32, p. 47. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 20. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 92-93 (68 stomachs). Hylocichla mustelina—Wood thrush. Beneficial, Ybk. 1907, p. 169. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 90. vespertina—Dyening gros- see Archilochus “Eager INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 49 Hylocichla mustelina—Continued. Feeding on mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; potato beetle, Bul. 32, p. 47. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 20. Hylocichla ustulata—Olive-backed thrush. Feeding on potato beetle, Bul. 32, p. 47; spiders, Fauna 27, p. 493. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 29, 34, 38, 40, 108. Food in California, Bul. 86-92 (157 stomachs). Relation to fruit in California, Ybk. 1904, pp. 246, 251. 30, pp. 13, as Ibis, Wood, see Mycteria americana. Icteria virens—Yellow-breasted chat. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 82. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 21, 25, 30; Cire. 64, p. 5. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 18, 24, 29, 34, 35, 37, 38, 40, 103- 104. Icterus bullocki—Bullock’s oriole. Brief account, F. Bul. 54 (rev.), p. 29 (70 stomachs). Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 25, pp. 9, 10-11, 18, 20, 21; Bul. 29, pp. 6, 16, 25, 30; Cire. 64, p. 5; cherries, Bul. 34, p. 54; codling moth, Rept. 1904, p. 293; cotton worm, Bul. 25, p- 20; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194, Food in California, Bul. 68-71 (162 stomachs). Relation to fruit in California, Bul. 30, p. 18; Ybk. 1904, pp. 246, 251. Icterus galbula—Baltimore oriole. Beneficial, Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 59; F. Bul. 54, pp. 23-24 (113 stomachs); F. Bul. 54 (rev.), p. 28 (202 stom- achs) ; Ybk. 1900, p. 298. Feeding on poll weevil, Bul. 22, p. 16; Bul. 25, pp. 9, 10-11, 18, 20, 21; Bul. 29, pp. 6, 16, 24, 25, 30; Bul. 38, p. 59; Cire. 64, p. 5; cherries, Bul. 1, p. 60; cotton worms, Bul. 25, p. 20; grapes, Bul. 1, p. 324; Ybk. 1904, p. 251; mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; peas, Bul. 1, p. 60; scale in- sects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197; tent cater- pillars, tussock moth caterpillars, Bul. 1, pp. 108, 324; Rept. 1886, p. 244, Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 28, 30, 40, 59, 60, 96. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 422. Formal report, Ybk. 1895, pp. 419-420, 426-430 (113 stomachs). Other notes, Bul. 34, pp. 68, 69. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 298. 34, pp. 54, 50 Icterus graysoni—Grayson’s oriole. Feeding on fig, Fauna 14, p. 61; fruit of Cereus, insects, spiders, weevils, Fauna 14, p. 51. Icterus spurius—Orchard oriole. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 59. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 25, pp. 9, LOA 16) 7, £8, 20) 24s Bul, 29; pp. 6, 16, 24, 25, 29, 30; Bul. 38, p. 59; Cire. 64, p. 5; cotton worms, Bul. 25, p. 20; mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 17, 24, 25, 30, 32, 34, 35, 40, 44-45, 49, 55, 56, 59, 60, 61, 96, 110 (11 stom- achs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 422. Request for information on economic relations, Ent. Cire. 20 [p. 2]. Ictinia mississippiensis—Mississippi kite. Beneficial, Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 31, p. 45; Bul. 38, p. 37; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 43; Rept. 1887, p. 403; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 218. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 24-25. Iridoproene bicolor—Tree swallow. Feeding on bayberries, Bul. 30, p. 27 Rept. 1890, p. 282. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 24, 34, 35, 39, 40, 98-99 (5 stom- achs). Insectivorous, Bul. 1, p. 96. Other notes, Bul. 30, p. 27; Circe. 56, pp. 1-2; F. Bul. 54, p. 31; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 36-38. Ixobrychus exilis—Least bittern. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 52. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 19. Ixoreus nevius—Varied thrush. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, pp. 197, 198. J. Jacksnipe, see Gallinago delicata. Jaeger, Parasitic, see Stercorarius parasiti- cus. Pomarine, rinus. Jay, Blue, see Cyanocitta cristata. California, see Aphelocoma californica. Canada, see Perisoreus canadensis. Old-world, see Garrulus glandarius. Pifon, see Cyanocephalus cyanocepha- lus. Steller’s, see Cyanocitta stelleri. Woodhouse’s, see Aphelocoma wood- housei. Junco hyemalis—Snowbird. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 65. Feeding on weed seeds, Bul. 9, p. 17; Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 225, 226, 227 see Stercorarius poma- INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. i Junco hecinalia Sap Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. ee 16-17, 30, 34, 35, 38, (11 stomachs). Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 82-838, 84 (269 stomachs). Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 18, 27, 28, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 80-82 (299 stomachs). Other notes, F. Bul. 54, p. 28; F. Bul: 54 (rev.), p. 32. 71, 78, 74, 75 ES Kea, see Nestor notabilis. Killdeer, see Oxyechus vociferus. Kingbird, see Tyrannus tyrannus. Arkansas, see Tyrannus verticalis. Cassin’s, see Tyrannus yociferans. Kingfisher, Belted, see Ceryle aleyon. Kinglet, Golden-crowned, see Regulus sa- trapa. Ruby-crowned, dula. see Regulus calen- Kite, Everglade, see Rostrhamus’ sociabilis. Mississippi, see Ictinia misaleees sis. Swallow-tailed, eatus, White-tailed, see Elanus leucurus. Kittiwake, Pacific, see Rissa tridactyla pol- liearis. Knot, see Tringa canutus. Kohlmeise, see Parus major. Kukuluaeo, see Himantopus knudseni. see Blainoides forfi- L. Lagopus lagopus—Willow ptarmigan. Feeding on aments of dwarf birch, Fauna 24, p. 66; Fauna 27, p. 342; bearberries (Mairania alpina), Fauna 27, p. 343; blueberries, Fauna 24, p. 66; (Vaccinium uliginosum) Fauna 27, p. 343; buds, Fauna 24, p. 66; of Populus balsamifera, buds and twigs of willows (Salix bebbiana), Fauna 27, p. 343; crowberries (#m- petrum nigrum), Fauna 24, p. 66; Fauna 27, p. 343; foliage, Bul. 24, p. 66; of dwarf birc (Betula nana), Fauna 27, p. 343; of dwarf willow (Salir reticulata), Fauna 27, pp. 342, 343; of grass, Fauna 27, p. 343; of Populus balsamifera, Fauna 27, p. 842; of vetch (Aragallus), Fauna 27, pp. 342, 343; of wild rosemary (Andromeda _ polifolia), Fauna 27, p. 342; fruit of Andro- meda polifolia, mountain cranber- ries (Vitisidwa), mushrooms, Fauna 27, p. 348; seeds of grass, Fauna 27, pp. 3458, 344; of Hedysarum americanum, Fauna 27, p. 348. Formal report, Bul. 24, pp. 44-46 (5 stomachs), = 7 ee le be i Pee baa ail . ; Lagopus leucurus—White-tailed ptarmigan. ‘ Brief account, Bul. 24, pp. 47-48. Lagopus rupestris—Rock ptarmigan. Brief account, Bul. 24, pp. 46-47. Feeding on aments of Alnus viridis, Fauna 24, p. 67; blueberries, Fauna 30, p. 387; buds of willow, Fauna 24, p. 67; Fauna 30, p. 87; buds and twigs of Vaccinium, Bul. 24, p. 67; crowberries, Fauna 30, p. 37; foliage of Dryas, Fauna 24, p. 67; Fauna 30, p. 37; of Ledum, Fauna 24, p. 67; fruit of Cassiope, Fauna SO.sps ale Lanius borealis—Big butcher bird. Brief account, Ybk. 1900, pp. 301-302. Feeding on bird (chasing), Fauna 5, p. 105; English sparrow, Bul. 1, pp. 31, 150, 233, 234, 238; Rept. 1886, p. 245; field mice, Bul. 31, pp. 51-52; meat and camp refuse, Fauna 30, p. 63; robin (chasing), Fauna 27, p. 459; spotted sandpiper (chasing), Fauna 30, pp. 36, 42. Formal report, Bul. 9, pp. 15, 16, 17-20, 24-25, 26 (67 stomachs). Other notes, Bul. 1, pp. 150, 234; Rept. 1886, p. 245. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, pp. 301-302. Lanius excubitor—EHuropean great butcher bird. Brief account, Bul. 9, pp. 15, 19. Lanius ludovicianus—Little butcher bird. + Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 73; Ybk. 1900, pp. 302, 416—417. Feeding on beetles, Bell’s vireo (Vireo belli), blue-gray gnatcatcher (Poliop- tila caerulea), Bul. 2, p. 2383; boll weevil, Bul. 22, p. 16; Bul. 25, pp. 9, 14-15, 21; Bul. 29, pp. 6, 22, 30; G@ire. 64, p. 5; carrion, Bul. 2, p. 233; field mice, Bul. 31, p. 52; Ybk. 1905, p. 371; (Microtus montanus) Hy Bul) 335, pias bh. Bul. 352, p. 21; grasshoppers, Bul. 2, p. 233; grasshopper mice (Perognathus), in- sects, lizards, Fauna 7, p. 114; west- ern chipping sparrow (Spizella pas- serina zonae), Bul. 2, p. 233. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 54, 100-102. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 33-38 (124 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 416— 417. Formal report, Bul. 9, pp. 15, 16, 17, 20-24, 25-26 (88 stomachs). Other notes, Bul. 30, p. 35. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 302. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 51 Lanivireo flavifrons—Yellow-throated ‘vireo. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 74. Uanivireo solitarius cassini—Cassin’s vireo. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194. ; Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 40-41 (46 stomachs). Lark, Horned, see Otocoris alpestris. Meadow, see Sturnella magna. Shore, see Otocoris alpestris. Western meadow, see Sturnella neg- lecta. Larus argentatus—Herring gull. a Hating frozen moose meat, Fauna 380, p. 84. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 53, 80. Food of young in captivity, Ybk. 1900, p. 434. Larus atricilla—Laughing gull. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 4384. Larus brachyrhynchus—Short-billed gull. Feeding on water beetles (Dytiscus dauricus), Fauna 27, p. 268. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 434. Larus californicus—California gull. Feeding on duck [probably carrion], Fauna 7, p. 14; field mice, Ybk. 1908, p. 194. Larus delawarensis—Ring-billed gull. Feeding on field mice, Ybk. 1908, p. 194. Food at Marshall. Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 53, 80. Larus franklini—Franklin’s gull. Feeding on crickets, Ybk. 1908, p. 1943 grasshoppers, Rept. 1887, p. 431; Ybk. 1908, p. 194. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 434. Insectivorous, Rept. 1900, p. 37. Larus glaucescens—Glaucous-winged gull. Feeding on dead salmon, Fauna 24, p. 53. Larus heermanni—Heermann’s gull. Feeding on fish they compelled gannets to disgorge, Fauna 14, p. 24. Larus marinus—Great black-backed gull. Feeding on field mice in Hurope, Bul. 31, p. 53. Leucosticte tephrocotis—Gray-crowned rosy finch. ; Feeding on insects and seeds, Fauna eu Ds S26 Ligurinus chloris, see Chloris chloris. Limosa fedoa—Marbled godwit. Feeding on grasshoppers, Cire. 79, p. 4. Limosa hemastica—Hudsonian godwit. Feeding on horseflies, Cire. 79, p. 4. Linaria cannabina—Old-world linnet. Injurious in New Zealand, Ybk. 1909, p. 257. Uinnet, California, see Carpodacus mexi- eanus frontalis, Old-world, see Linaria cannabina. 52 Lobipes lobatus—Northern phalarope. Feeding on click beetles, clover-root eurculio, Circ. 79, p. 6; crane flies, Cire. 79, p. 4; Dytiscide, Cire. 79, p. 8; grasshoppers, Cire. 79, p. 4; mosquitoes, Cire. 79, p. 2; Rept. 1908, p. 577; Nereis, Cire. 79, p. 8; wire- worms, Cire. 79, p. 6. Longspur, Chestnut-collared, see Calcarius ornatus. Lapland, see Calcarius lapponi- cus. ; McCown’s, see Rhynchophanes mccowni. Smith’s, see Calcarius pictus. Loon, Black-throated, see Gavia arctica. Red-throated, see Gavia stellata. Lophodytes cucullatus—Hooded merganser. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 17. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 53, 81. Lophortyx californica—California quail. Damage to fruit, Ybk. 1898, p. 231; grain, Ybk. 1897, p. 352. Feeding on acorns, Fauna 7, p. 28; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 231. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 9-14 (619 stomachs). Formal report, Bul. (601 stomachs). Killed by eating poisoned wheat, F. Bul. 352, p. 8. Relation to fruit in California, Bul. 30, p. 13; Ybk. 1904, pp. 246, 250. Lophortyx gambeli—Gambel’s quail. Damage to fruit, Ybk. 1898, p. 231. Feeding on waste grain, Fauna 7, p. 29; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 231. Formal report, Bul. 21, pp. 56-58 (28 stomachs). Love bird, Tres Marias, see Psittacula in- sularis. Feeding on seeds of pine and sun- flower, Fauna 16, p. 123. Loxia curvirostra minor—Crossbill. Loxia leucoptera—White-winged crossbill. Feeding on seeds of white spruce, Fauna 27, p. 417. Lunda cirrhata—Tufted puffin. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 483. 17, pp. 21, pp. 9, 47-56 M. Macrorhamphus griseus—Dowitcher. Feeding on Dytiscide, Cire. 79, p. 83 grasshoppers, horseflies, Cire. 79, p. 4; Nereis, Cire. 79, p. 8 Magpie, see Pica pica hudsonia. Mallard, see Anas platyrhynchos. Mareca americana—Widgeon. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 18. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 81. Vegetable food, Cire. 81, pp. 1, 8. Marila affinis—Little bluebill. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 81. Vegetable food, Circ. 81, pp. 1, 8. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 4 ae pr 4 9 Marila americana—Redhead. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 21. , Vegetable food, Cire. 81, pp. 1, 8, 12. ov Marila collaris—Ring-necked duck. pets Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 21. Marila marila—Big bluebill. Feeding on Lymne@a, Fauna 27, p. 283. Vegetable food, Cire. 81, pp. 1, 8. Marila valisineria—Canyasback. — - Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 21. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. — 81, 82. } Vegetable food, Cire. 81, pp. 1, 11-12. Martin, Old-world, see Chelidonaria urbica. Purple, see Progne subis. Maryland yellowthroat, see Geothlypis | trichas. Meadowlark, see Sturnella magna. irae 7-8, Western, see Sturnella mneg- lecta, Megaquiscalus major—Boat-tailed black- bird. Bounty laws, Ybk. 1896, p. 57. Damage to corn, Bul. 29, p. 8; mine, . Rept. 1886, pp. 246-247. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, p. 16; Bul. 25, pp. 9, 10, 12; 203 Bales: pp. 6, 7, 11, 17-18; 29; 30; Cire. 64, p. 5. Formal report, Bul. 13, pp. 9, 10, 70-72 (116 stomachs). Megascops asio, see Otus asio. Megascops flammeola, see Otus flammeolus. Melanerpes carolinus, see Centurus caro- linus. Melanerpés erythrocephalus — Red-headed woodpecker. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 483; F. Bel. 54, pp. 8-9, 10; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 11-12, 13; Ybk. 1900, p. 295. : Damage to buildings, Bul. 39, p. 133 poles, Bul. 39, p. 10; posts, Bul. 39, p. 18. Feeding on rose beetle, Bul. 32, p. 20; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 43, 60, 61, 90. Formal report, Bul. 7, pp. 8, 9, 10, 11, 20-25, 38 (101 stomachs); Bul. 37, pp. 10, 35-42 (443 stomachs). Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. _ 295. Tapping trees, Bul. 39, p. 91. Melanerpes formicivorus bairdi—California woodpecker. Damage to buildings, Bul. 39, p. 14; poles, Bul. 39, p. 11; posts, Bul. 39, p. 138. Feeding on acorns, Bul. 7, p. 20; Fauna 7, p. 50; grasshoppers, Fauna 7, p. 50; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194, Food in California, Bul, 34, pp. 22-24, 28, 49 (75 stomachs). ae er ta ee eee a Pom =e Se Se > ee ee ee ee a ee ae a a 2... 7 itt 2 mae ot ae a Melanerpes formicivorus bairdi—Continued. Formal report, Bul. 37, pp. 10, 48-45, 46 (84 stomachs). Tapping trees, Bul. 39, p. 91. Visiting sapsucker punctures, Bul. 39, p. 92. Melanerpes lewisi. torquatus, see Asyndesmus _ Meleagris gallopavo merriami—Merriam’s turkey. Feeding on gooseberries, pifon nuts, | Fauna 3, p. 89; (Pinus phylla) Fauna 7, p. 337. Meleagris gallopavo silvestris—Wild turkey. Damage to grain, Bul. 24, p. 9. Economic value, Ybk. 1902, p. 206. Formal report, Bul. 24, pp. 48-52 (16 stomachs). Melospiza georgiana—Swamp sparrow. Feeding on boll weevil, Cire. 64, pp. 3, dD: Formal report, stomachs). Melospiza lincolni—Lincoln’s sparrow. Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 15, 86 (31 stomachs). Melospiza melodia—Song sparrow. Beneficial, Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 66; F. Bul. mono- Bulls td; 9p. 8% “(t2 54, pp. 26-27, 28; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), 31-32. Feeding on insects, Bul. 1, pp. 295, 823; Fauna 21, p. 48; mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; sand fleas, Fauna 21, p. 48; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 2238, 224, 225, 226, 220. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. RGN 22, Dy 20; 205180, d2;, So, oF, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 59, 60, 61, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 77, 97 (36 stomachs). Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 84-86 (321 stomachs). Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 138, 15, 21, PEA eka AO, Olle gs hny GOs) oo. 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 82-86 (401 stomachs). Merganser, Hooded, see Lophodytes cucul- latus. Merula migratoria, see Planesticus migra- torius. Micropalama himantopus—Stilt sandpiper. Feeding on mosquitoes, Cire. 79, p. 2; Nereis, Cire. 79, p. 8. Micropallas whitneyi—Elf owl. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, p. 217; Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 200-201. Mimus polyglottos—Mocking bird. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 84; Ybk. 1900, p. 416. Damage to fruit, Bul. 30, p. 53; Rept. 1890, p. 281. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 5 Mimus polyglottos—Continued. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, p. 16; Bul. 25, pp. 9, 14, 21; Bul. 29, pp. 6, 22, 23, 30; Bul. 38, p..84, Cire. 64, p. 5; cotton worms, Bul. 25, pp. 20; 212 » Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 34, 38, 62, 104, 110. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 52-55 (58 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 416. Formal report, Ybk. 1895, pp. 405, 406, 415-416 (15 stomachs). Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. Mniotilta varia—Black-and-white creeper. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 75. Mocking bird, see Mimus polyglottos. Molothrus ater—Cowbird. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 57. Damage to fruit, Bul. 1, p. 246; grain, Rept. 1887, pp. 428, 429, 430-4381; Rept. 1898, p. 39; Ybk. 1897, p. 352; Ybk. 1898, p. 222; rice, Bul. 38. pio. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, p. 16; Bull} 25; spp: 'S3) 93012 2 Bil 293 pp. 6, 7, 18, 28, 30; Cire 64, p. 5; mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; weed seeds, Bul. 29, p. 8; Ybk. 1898, p. 222) » Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 14, SAY BOO, MALI ta uaes Aull Formal report, Bul. 13, pp. 9, 22-80 (544 stomachs). Other notes, Bul. 15, p. 29. Munia nisoria, see Padda oryzivora. Munia oryzivora, see Padda oryzivora. Murre, Pallas’s, see Uria lomvia arra. Muscivora forficata—Scissor-tailed fly- catcher. 3 . Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, p. 16; Bul) 25; pp. 8,0) 23; 195/20, 283) Bul: 29, pp. 6, 15, 26, 30; Circ. 64, p. 5. Myadestes townsendi—Solitaire. Feeding on berries of Juniperus occi- dentalis, Fauna 16, pp. 123, 133, 139. Mycteria americana—Wood ibis. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 52. Myiarchus cinerascens—Ash-throated fly- catcher. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp.. 29-32 (80 stomachs). : Other notes, Fauna 7, p. 60. Myiarchus crinitus—Crested flycatcher. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 53. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 14, 15, 23, 29, 30; Cire. 64, p. 5. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19-20, 23, 24, 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 37, 38, 40, 938. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 426. Myiochanes richardsoni—Western wood pewee. Feeding on flies Fauna 7, p. 64, (Ephydra_ hians), 54 Myiochanes richardsoni—Continued. Z Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 37, 39-41 (137 stomachs). Myiochanes virens—Wood pewee. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 54; Ybk. 1900, p. 427. Feeding on mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 23, 24, 29, 30, 34, 35, 37, 40, 92 (11 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 427. Myna, Common, see Acridotheres tristis. “~ N. Nannus hiemalis—Winter wren. Brief account, Bul. 30, pp. 65-66. Feeding on boll weevil, Cire. 64, pp. 4, 5. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 107. Nestor notabilis—Kea. Killed soon after arrival in Hawaii because of reputation as sheep de- stroyer, Rept. 1904, pp. 296—297. Nettion carolinense—-Green-winged teal. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 19. Vegetable food, Cire. 81, p. 1. Nighthawk, see Chordeiles virginianus. Texas, see Chordeiles acutipen- nis texensis. Nucifraga columbiana—Clarke’s crow. Feeding on beetles, blueberries, cater- pillars, grasshoppers, Fauna 16, pp. 119-121; pifon nuts, Fauna 3, p. 94; seeds of Pinus albicaulis, Fauna 265 ps a9. Food of adults 1900, p. 426. Other notes, Fauna 5, pp. 18, 100. Numenius americanus—Long-billed curlew. Feeding on grasshoppers, Cire. 79, p. 2. Numenius hudsonicus—Hudsonian curlew. Feeding on crowberries (Hmpetrum nigrum), Fauna 27, p. 331; Ybk. 19038, p. 377. Nun, Japanese, see Uroloncha acuticauda. Nutcracker, Clarke’s, see Nucifraga colum- biana. Nuthatch, Pygmy, see Sitta pygmaea. and nestlings, Ybk. Red-breasted, see Sitta canaden- Sis. White-breasted, see Sitta caro- linensis. Nuttallornis borealis—Olive-sided fly- catcher. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 15, 24, 30; Circ. 64, p. 5. Nyctala acadica, see Cryptoglaux acadica. Nyctala tengmalmi richardsoni, see Crypto- glaux funerea richardsoni. Nyctea nyctea—Snowy owl. Beneficial, Ybk. 1895, p. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Cire. 61, pp. 3, 13; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 226. 590; Ybk. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. fee AY Nyctea nyctea—Continued. Feeding on brown rat, Bul. 33, p. 35; . field mice, Bul. 31, p. 50; Ybk. 1905, p. 371; pocket gophers, Bul. 5, p. 21; rabbits, Ybk. 1907, p. 336; sper- mophiles, Bul. 4, pp. 15, 16; vary- ing hares (Lepus americanus), Fauna Pee D: sokoe ; Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 182-187 (38 stomachs); Rept. 1887, p. 422 (6 stomachs). Nycticorax nycticorax crowned night heron. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 26; Ybk.. 1900, p. 435. Feeding on carp, Fauna 7, field mice, Bul. 31, p. 52. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 53, 81. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 435. Injurious to fish, hence exempt from protection in certain States, Bul. 12, p. 36; Bul. 12 (rey.), p. 43. nevius—Black- Dew 20s Oo. Oceanodroma melania—Black petrel. Feeding on refuse from vessel, Fauna 14, p. 28. Oidemia americana—Scoter. Feeding on newly sown millet, Bul. 2, p. 73. Oidemia deglandi—White-winged scoter. Feeding on wild celery, Cire. 81, p. 8. Olbiorchilus hiemalis, see Nannus hiemalis. Olor columbianus—Whistling swan. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 81. Oreortyx picta—Mountain quail. ‘ Formal report, Bul. 21, pp. 58-60 (23 stomachs). Oreoscoptes montanus—Sage thrasher. Feeding on buffalo berries, Fauna 33, p. 241. Oreospiza chlorura—Green-tailed towhee. Feeding on weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 230. Oriole, Baltimore, see Icterus galbula. Bullock’s, see Icterus bullocki. Grayson’s, see Icterus graysoni, Orchard, see Icterus spurius. Osprey, see Pandion haliaétus carolinen- sis. Otocoris alpestris—Horned lark. Brief account, Rept. 1905, pp. 305-306. Damage to grain, Ybk. 1897, p. 352; newly sown wheat, Fauna 7, p. 68. Feeding on weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 230, 232. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 70, 71, 93. Food in California, Bul. 23, pp. 9, 30- 32 (267 stomachs) ; Bul. 34, pp. 44— 47 (259 stomachs). ; Food in Europe (of the subspecies flava) similar to that of American races, Bul. 23, p. 11. Fi Otocoris alpestris—Continued. Formal report, Bul 23, pp. 7-37 (1,154 stomachs); Rept. 1892, pp. 193- 197 (59 stomachs). Killed by eating poisoned wheat, F. Bul. 352, p. 8. Otus asio—Screech owl. Beneficial, Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628; Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Bounty laws, Ybk. 1899, p. 281. Brief account, Bul. 31, pp. 49-50; Bul. 38, p. 48; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 12-13 (254 stomachs); Rept. 1889, pp. 372- 376; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 225-2263; Ybk. 1900, p. 430. Feeding on brown rat, Bul. 33, p. 34; buckwheat, Bul. 2, p. 121; English sparrow, Bul. 1, pp. 32, 150, 238; Rept. 1886, p. 245; field mice, Bul. 31, pp. 49-50; Ybk. 1905, p. 871; horned larks, Bul. 23, p. 12; seeds, wheat, Bul. 2, p. 121. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 32, 56, 86 (5 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 430. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 14, 146, 1638-173 (254 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, pp. 420-421 (94 stomachs). Other notes, Bul. 1, pp. 32, 150, 238; Rept. 1886, p. 245. Otus flammeolus—Flammulated screech owl. Beneficial, Circ. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, p. 217; Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. _ Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 173-174; Rept. 1889, p. 376. Feeding on beetles, other insects, and Scorpion, Fauna 3, pp. 39, 91. Ovenbird, see Seiurus aurocapillus. Owl, American barn, see Aluco pratincola. Barred, see Strix varia. Burrowing, see Speotyto cunicularia hypogea. Elf, see Micropallas whitneyi. Ferruginous pygmy, see Glaucidium phalcenoides. -Flammulated screech, see Otus flam- meolus. Florida burrowing, see Speotyto cunl- eularia floridana. Great gray, see Scotiaptex nebulosa. Great horned, see Bubo virginianus. Hawk, see Surnia ulula caparoch. Long-eared, see Asio wilsonianus. Old-world barn, see Aluco flammeus. Old-world long-eared, see Asio otus. Pygmy, see Glaucidium gnoma. 4 a : Richardson’s, see Cryptoglaux funerea RS : richardsoni. ‘a b Saw-whet, see Cryptoglaux acadica. os Screech, see Otus asio. Short-eared, see Asio flammeus. Snowy, see Nyctea nyctea. / Spotted, see Strix occidentalis. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. eee ee eee ee ae 55 Oxyechus vociferus—Killdeer. Feeding on army worm, billbugs, Cire. 79, p. 6; boll weevils, Bul. 22, pp. 15; 16; Bull 25, pp. 8); 9; 14, 21° Bul. 29, pp. 6, 7, 11, 20-21, 27, 30; Cire. 57, p. 4; Cire. 64, p. 5; Cire. 79, p. 6; click beetles, clover-leaf beetle, clover-root curculio, corn-leaf beetle, cotton worm, cotton cutworm, Cire. 79, p. 6; crane flies, Cire. 79, p. 4; crayfishes, cutworms, Cire. 79, p. 6; Dytiscide, Cire. 79, p. 8; grape- vine colaspis, Cire. 79, p. 6; grass- hoppers, Cire. 79, p. 2; horseflies, Cire. 79, p. 4; mosquitoes, Cire. 79, p. 2; Rept. 1908, p. 577; Nereis, Cire. 79, p. 8; rice weevil, tobacco worm, wireworms, Cire. 79, p. 6. Killed by eating poisoned grain, Ybk. 1908, p. 308. Other notes, Bul. 22, pp. 15-16; Bul. 29, p. 27. Oxeye, see Parus major. 5s Padda oryzivora—Java sparrow. Admission to Hawaii denied, Rept. 1909, p. 542. Damages rice, Ybk. 1906, p. 177. Injurious in Hawaii, Rept. 1902, p. 213. Paddy bird, see Padda oryzivora. Pandion haliaétus carolinensis—Osprey. Bounty laws, Ybk. 1899, pp. 266, 279, 280, 281. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 41. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19) 53: Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 430. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 15, 16, 130- 132 (12 stomachs). Injurious, Bul. 38, p. 10. Protected, or excepted from bounty laws in certain States, Bul. 12, p. 29; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 32; Ybk. 1899, pp. 266, 279. Parabuteo unicinetus harrisi—Harris’s hawk. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, D. 21s Ybko 1895, ph 59038 Ybk: 1896, p. 628. Feeding on cotton rat (Sigmodon his- pidus texianus), Fauna 25, p. 116; rabbits, Ybk. 1907, p. 3836; sper- mophiles, Bul. 4, pp. 16, 17; wood rat (Neotoma micropus), Fauna 25, jee ies Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 47-48 (6 stomachs). Paroquet, Carolina, see Conuropsis caro- linensis. Parrot, Double yellow-headed, see Amazona oratrix. Mountain, see Nestor notabilis, J TONE ee See ee ee eee a 56 Partridge, European common, perdix. Hungarian, see Perdix perdix. Spruce, see Canachites canaden- sis. ; Parus atricapillus, pillus. Parus bicolor, see Bxolophus bicolor. Parus ceruleus, see Cyanistes ceruleus. Parus carolinensis, see Penthestes caro- linensis. Parus gambeli, see Penthestes gambeli. Parus inornatus, see Beolophus inornatus. Parus major—Great titmouse. Admission denied, Rept. 1902, p. 213; Ybk. 1905, p. 545. Economic status, introduction danger- ous, etc., Rept. 1899, p. 67; Ybk. 1898, pp. 90, 104-105, 107, 109, 110. Parus palustris, see Pecile palustris. Parus rufescens, see Penthestes rufescens. Parus wollweberi, see Brolophus wollwe- beri. Passer domesticus—English sparrow. Admission denied, Cire. 34, p. 7; F. Bul. 160, p. 48; F. Bul. 180, p. 42 F. Bul. 470, p. 301; Rept. 1900, p. 41. Admission to West Australia pro- hibited, Rept. 1899, p. 68. Bounty laws, Cire. 17, p. 4; Rept. 1899, p. 65; Ybk. 1896, pp. 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 66, 67; Ybk. 1899, p. 265. Brief account, Bul. 9, pp. 17, 18, 20; Bul. 38, p. 60; F. Bui. 383, p. 6; Ybk. 1900, pp. 420-422. Driving other birds away, Bul. 29, p. ae aint. Circ. 20 [psi218) Cire: 2 [p. 2); Circ: 66, pp. 2,8 }-Circ. 57, pp. 3-4; F.. Bul. 383, p. 6; Rept. 1907, p. 486; Schedule 4 [p. 1]. Eeonomic status, introduction danger- ous, etc., F. Bul. 160, p. 48; F. Bul. 180, p. 42; Rept. 1886, p. 258; Rept. 1906, pp. 406, 415; Rept. 1907, p. 493; Ybk. 1898, pp. 90, 98-101, 104, 108, 109, 110; Ybk. 1899, pp. 287, 290, 292; Ybk. 1904, p. 515; Ybk. 1905, p. 546; Ybk. 1909, p. 249. Feeding on mulberries,. Rept. 1890, p. 285; potato beetle, Bul. 32, p. 47; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, pp. 191, 196 ; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, pp. 223- 224, 225, 232. Food habits at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, un 1%, 20,24, 29, 30; 34, 86, 88, 56, 61, 66, 68-69, 70, 98, 110 (53 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 420- 422, 436. Formal report, Bul. 1, pp. 1-405 (636 stomachs); Bul. 15, pp. 15, 17, 21, 26,727," Ol, S82, '84»-39,140) 48, 49, 50, 92-96 (798 stomachs); Rept. 1886, pp. 285-246, see Perdix see Penthestes atrica- INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. Passer domesticus—Continued. Injurious, Bul. 12, pp. 13, 35, 36; Bul. 12 (rev.), pp. 20; 24, 42% Bald ols pp. 38, 48, 45, 60; F. Bul. 160, p. 48; F. Bul. 180, p. 42; F. Bul. 470, p.- 30; Rept. 1886, p. 258; Rept. 1889, p. 374; Rept. 1891, p. 271; Rept. 1899, pp. 68-69 ; Rept. 1901, p. 160; Rept. 1906, pp. 406, 415; Rept. 1907, pp. 500-501; Ybk. 1895, p. 418; Ybk. 1897, p. 670; Ybk. 1898, pp. 223, 232; Ybk. 1904, p. 595; Ybk. 1905, p. 546; Ybk. 1907, pp. 173- 174, 177; Ybk. 1909, p. 249. Injurious in Australasia, Rept. 1899, pp. 68-69; Hawaii, Rept. 1902, p. 213; Ybk. 1899, p. 290; Tain, Bul. Ap. o0s. Methods of destroying, F. Bul. 383, pp. 6-11; Rept. 1887, pp. 423-426; Rept. 1899, p. 66. Other notes, Rept. 1887, pp. 400-401, 424-426; Rept. 1891, p. 271; Rept. 1899, p. 66; Rept. 1907, pp. 493, 500-501; Rept. 1908, pp. 577-578, 586-587; Rept. 1909, pp. 539-540; Ybk. 1895, p. 418. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, pp. 264-265, 266, 291. Repressive measures employed in Cali- fornia, Rept. 1908, pp. 577-578, 586-587; Rept. 1909, pp. 539-540. Request for information on economic relations, Ent. Cire, 20 [p. 2]; Cire. 2 ip. tie Rept. 1886, p. 231; Schedule 4 [1]. Sparrow hunts, Ybk. 1896, p. 67. Passer hispaniolensis—Spanish sparrow. Injurious in Algeria, Bul. 1, p. 302. Passer indicus, see Passer domesticus (In- jurious in India). Passer montanus—Tree sparrow. Economic status and introduction, Bul. 1, pp. 191-194; Ybk. 1899, pp. 287-— 288. Passerculus princeps—Ipswich sparrow. Formal report, Bul. 15, p. 59 (56 stomachs). - Passerculus sandwichensis—Savanna spar- row. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 62. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, pp. 11, 16; Bul. 25, pp. 9, 213 Bul) 29, pp. 6, 19, 27, 28, 30; Bul. 38, pp. 9, 62; Cire. 64, pp. 3, 4, 5 Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 15, 30, 32, 35, SB,e Tigran. Formal report: Bul. 15, pp. 37, 59-61, 90 (119 stomachs). Insectivorous, Bul. 1, p. 323. Passerella iliaca—Fox sparrow. Feeding on boll weevil, Cire. 64, pp. 3, 5; weed seeds, Bul. 15, p. 27; F. Bul. 54, p. 28; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), p. 82; Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 226, 227. * | | : : rd. ek. -Passerella iliaca—Continued. - -‘—Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. eG, aT: Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 27, 28, 37, 42, 43, 74, 838, 87-89 (127 stomachs). \ Passerherbulus caudacutus—Sharp-tailed sparrow. Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 64-65. a Passerherbulus henslowi—Henslow’s spar- Tow. ieee Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. ss 82, 35, 38, 39. a Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 24, 68-64 (7 stomachs). Passerherbulus maritimus — Seaside spar- “ row. _ Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 65-66 (30 i stomachs). Passerherbulus nelsoni—Nelson’s. sparrow. Mi: Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 64—65. Passerina ciris—Painted bunting. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 25, pp. 9, ee 18.) -20—24 Balj 29) 'pp.6, a 9, 19, 30; Bul. 38, p. 9; Cire. 64, ‘a p. 5. Passerina cyanea—Indigo bunting. Brief account, Bul. 38, pp. 9, 68. cs Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 98. _ Passerina nivalis, see Plectrophenax nivalis. _ Pediccetes phasianellus — Sharp-tailed A grouse. Favorite vegetable foods, Ybk. 1909, p. q 194. 4 Feeding on ants, barley, beetles, Fauna ; 27, p. 350; berries of Viburnum paucifiorum, catkins of alders (Alnus almobetula and A. incana), Fauna = 27, p. 349; leaves, myriapods, b: Fauna 27, p. 350; potato beetle, Bul. i; 32, Dp. 47. 2 Formal report, Bul. 24, pp. 20-23 (43 = stomachs). Peep, see Ereunetes pusillus. Pelecanus fuscus, see Pelecanus occidenta- lis. Pelecanus occidentalis—Brown pelican. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 434— 435. Pelican, Brown, see Pelecanus occidentalis. Pelidna alpina sakhalina—Red-backed sand- piper. yy Feeding on Dytiscide, Nereis, Cire. 79, p. 8. _ Penthestes atricapillus—Black-capped chick- me, adee. , in Beneficial, Ybk. 1897, p. 670. -~ Brief account, F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. . 43-44 (289 stomachs); Ybk. 1900, ee pp. 295-296. 4 _ Feeding on eggs of tall cankerworms, Bul. 17, p. 108; larve of codling moth (probably), Ybk. 1898, p. 105; plant lice, Bul. 17, p. 108; scale in- sects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197, 57 Penthestes atricapillus—Continued. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, pp. 263-264. Relations to orchards, Ybk. 1900, pp. 295-296. Penthestes carolinensis—Carolina dee. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 89. Feeding on boll weevil, Cire. 64, pp. 4, 5; seale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197; seeds of ragweed, Bul. 15, p. 42, Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 23, 24, 34, 35, 39, 60, 71, 77, 107— 108 (7 stomachs). Other notes, F. Bul. 54 (rev.), p. 44. Penthestes gambeli—Mountain chickadee. General nature of food, Bul. 30, p. 71. chicka- Penthestes rufescens — Chestnut-backed chickadee. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 70-71 (57 stomachs). Perdix perdix—HEuropean common partridge. Brief account, Ybk. 1909, p. 252. Perisoreus canadensis—Canada jay. Feeding on carrion, Fauna 380, p. 89; crowberries (Hmpetrum nigrum), Fauna 27, p. 401; refuse and scraps of meat about camp, Fauna 24, p. 71; Fauna 30, pp. 40, 62. Other notes, Fauna 5, p. 18; Fauna 30, p. 89. Useful as scavengers, Fauna 30, p. 61. Petrel, Black, see Oceanodroma melania. Petrochelidon lunifrons—Cliff swallow. Beneficial, Bul. 1, p. 89. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 70; F. Bul. 54, p. 31; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 36-38. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 12-13, 24-25, 30; Bul. 38, p. 70; Cire. 64, p. 5. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 28-30 (123 stomachs). Protection urged, as enemy of boll wee- vil, Cire. 56, pp. 1, 2, 3, 4; Cire. Ds DDa hens Relation to bedbugs, Bul. 29, pp. 8, 13; Cire. 56, p. 23; Cire. 57, p. 23; bees, Rept. 1904, p. 294. Pewee, Western wood, see Myiochanes rich- ardsoni, Wood, see Myiochanes virens. Phainopepla nitens—Phainopepla. Damage to fruit, Bul. 32, p. 61. Feeding on insects, mistletoe berries, Fauna 7, p. 113. Phalacrocorax auritus—Double-crested cor- morant. Feeding on fish, Bul. 38, p. 16. Phalacrocorax urile—Red-faced cormorant. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 434. Phalarope, Northern, see Lobipes lobatus. Wilson’s, see Steganopus tricolor. pee ae ey, atk Ae, ge Ba GAR SITS A ether abe ii ti oh al» +58 Phalaropus lobatus, see Lobipes lobatus. Phaleris psittacula—Paroquet auklet. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 433. Phasianus colechicus—Common pheasant. Feeding on galls, Bul. 24, p. 31. Phasianus torquatus—Ring-necked pheas- ant. Damage to gardens and grain, Rept. 1888, pp. 486, 487, 488; Ybk. 1897, pp. 352-353. Food of young in captivity, Ybk. 1900, p. 482. Pheasant, Common, see Phasianus colchicus. English, see Phasianus colchicus. Ring-necked, see Phasianus tor- quatus. Philohela minor—Woodcock. Brief account, Ybk. 1900, p. 432; Ybk. 1901, p. 449. Feeding on click beetles, Cire. 79, p. 6; erane flies, Cire. 79, p. 4; cutworms, Cire. 79, p. 6; grasshoppers, Circ. 79, p. 4; wireworms, Cire. 79, p. 6. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 21, 24, 38, 82-88. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 432. Phiwotomus pileatus—Pileated woodpecker. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 48. Distributing poison Rhus seeds, Rept. 1890, p. 283. Formal report, Bul. 7, pp. 8, 10, 11, 82, 38, 39 (23 stomachs); Bul. 37, pp. 10, 338-85 (80 stomachs). Relation to trees, Bul. 39, p. 8. Pheebe, see Sayornis phoebe. Black, see Sayornis nigricans. Say’s, see Sayornis sayus. Pica pica hudsonia—Magpie. Feeding on carrion, Fauna 5, p. 99; field mice (Microtus montanus), f Bul. 335, p. 12. Killed by eating poisoned grain, F. Bul. 352, p. 8; Ybk. 1908, p. 308. Other notes, Fauna 5, p. 18; Fauna 19, p. 80. Picicorvus columbianus, see Nucifraga co- lumbiana, Picoides americanus — Three-toed wood- pecker. Brief account, Bul. 7, p. 33. Formal report, Bul. 37, pp. 10, 11, 25- 27 (28 stomachs). Picoides arcticus—Arctic three-toed wood- pecker. Brief account, Bul. 7, p. 33. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197, Formal report, Bul. 37, pp. 10, 11, 25-27 (28 stomachs). Pigeon, Band-tailed, see Columba fasciata. Common, see Columba livia. Passenger, see Ectopistes migrato- rius. Tres Marias, see Columba flaviros- tris madrensis, Pigeon, Wild, see Ectopistes migrator: Wood, see Columba palumbus. Pinicola enucleator alascensis—Alaska Le : grosbeak. Feeding on seeds of alder (Alnus alno betula), Fauna 27, p. 415; dwar birch (Betula det Fauna Zig 414. Pinicola enucleator leucura—Pine =rasneaed Z Brief account, Bul. 32, p. 5. Beas Pintail, see Dafila acuta. Pipilo crissalis—California towhee. ted Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 230. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. Set : (399 stomachs). Pipilo erythrophthalmus—Towhee. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 67. r Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 20, 28, 80; Cire. 64, p. 5; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 230. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 30, 34, 35, 38, 98. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 418. Pipilo maculatus megalonyx—Spurred tow- hee. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194. Pipilo maculatus subspecies—Spotted tow- hees. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 86-89 (139 stomachs). Pipit, see Anthus rubescens. Piranga bidentata flammea—Tres Marias tanager. Feeding on wild fig, Fauna 14, p, 61. Piranga erythromelas—Searlet tanager. ie Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 69; Ybk. © 1900, pp. 418-419. ; Feeding on mulberries, Rept. 1890; p. — 285; potato beetle, Bul. 32, p. 47. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul, 17, pp. 20, 29, 30, 39, 40, 98. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 418— — 419. Piranga ludoviciana—Western tanager. Damage to fruit, Bul. 32, p. 61. Feeding on beetle, Fauna 7, p. 108; caterpillars, Fauna 16, p. 127. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 9, 28-26 (46 stomachs). Other notes, Fauna 14, p. 52. *Relation to fruit in California, Ybk. 1904, p. 242. Piranga rubra—Summer tanager. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 70. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 40, 60, 61, 98. Pisobia bairdi—Baird’s sandpiper. Feeding on clover root cureulio, Cire. 79, p. 6; crane flies, Cire. 79, p. 4; cutworms, Cire. 79, p. 6; grasshop- pers, Cire. 79, p. 4; mosquitoes, — Cire. 79, p. 2. 2 ‘Pisobia fuscicollis — White-rumped sand- piper. Feeding on clover root curculio, Circe. a 79, p. 6; grasshoppers, Cire. 79, p. 4. Pisobia maculata—Pectoral sandpiper. Feeding on Dill-bugs, click beetles, clover root curculio, corn-leaf beetle, Cire. 79, p. 6; crane flies, Circ. 79, ; pee 2s cutworms,. Cirewi9, -p: 63 os Dytiscide, Cire. 79, p. 8; horseflies, aa Cire. 79, p. 4; mosquitoes, Cire. 79, - p. 2; wireworms, Circ. 79, p. 6. Pisobia minutilla—Least sandpiper. Feeding on grasshoppers, Cire. 79, p. 4; mosquitoes, Cire. 79, p. 2. Planesticus graysoni—Tres Marias robin. Feeding on wild fig, Fauna 14, p. 61. Planesticus migratorius—Robin. Beneficial, Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, Bul. 12, p. 23; Bul. 12 ; (rey.), pp. 29-30; Bul. 38, p. 92; a. - F. Bul. 54, pp. 387-38 (330 stom- achs); F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 44-46 (500 stomachs) ; Ybk. 1900, pp. 303, 304, 413; Ybk. 1907, pp. 168-169, Aiea LTS. Damage to fruit, Bul. 30, pp. 11, 20; Rept. 1901, p. 153; Ybk. 1904, pp. 243, 244, 252-253; Ybk. 1907, pp. 168-169, 175, 178; grapes, Bul. 1, pp. 53, 270, 324, Feeding on buffalo berries, Fauna 7, p. 147, cankerworm moths, Bul. 1, p. 110; cherries, Bul. 1, p. 60; Bul. 32, y p. 91; crowberries, Fauna 27, p. a ' 497; cutworms, Bul. 1, p. 286; earthworms, Bul. 1, pp. 86, 94, 264, 275, 297, 305; Ybk. 1895, p. 411; gipsy moth, Rept. 1910, p. 553; mul- berries, Bul. 32, p. 65; Rept. 1890, p. 285; peaches, pears, Bul. 1, p. A 270; peas, Bul. 1, p. 60; potato 2 beetle, Bul. 32, p. 47; tussock moth - caterpillar, Bul. 1, pp. 108, 109, 324; Rept. 1886, p. 244; snowberry (prob- ably), wild grape, Bul. 2, p. 290. 7 Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 14, a O25 30, of, 38, 43, 59, 62, 108-109 (9 stomachs). rE Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 9, 20, “a 23, 98-97 (74 stomachs). “- Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 411, : 413, 436. Insectivorous, Bul. 12, p. 14; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 22; Bul. 38, p. 9. Other notes, Bul. 1, pp. 126, 304; Bul. 30, pp. 11, 20, 94; Ybk. 1908, p. 346. re. Reference to studies of food habits, ag Ybk. 1899, pp. 261-262, 263, 264, a 266. Relation to fruit in California, Bul. 30, p. 20, Rept. 1901, p. 153; Ybk. 1904, pp. 248, 252-253. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 59 Planesticus migratorius—Continued. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, pp. 303, 304; Ybk. 1907, pp. 168-169, 175-178. 5 Request for information on economic relations, Ent. Cire. 20 [p. 2]. Robbed of food by English sparrow, Bul. 1, pp. 86, 94, 264, 275, 286, 297, 305. Plectrophenax nivalis—Snow bunting. Feeding on seeds of grasses, Fauna 27, p. 421; and weeds, Fauna 27, p. 421; Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 226, 227. Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 25, 27, 28, 45, 51-54 (46 stomachs). Pulling wheat, Bul. 23, p. 16. Plover, Black-bellied, see Squatarola squa- tarola. ' Golden, see Charadrius dominicus. Mountain, see Podasocys montanus. Piping, see Aigialitis meloda. Ringed, see Algialitis hiaticula. Semipalmated, see Aigialitis semi- palmata. Snowy, see Aigialitis nivosa. Upland, see Bartramia longicauda. Podasocys montanus—Mountain plover. Feeding on grasshoppers, Cire. 79, p. 2. Podilymbus podiceps—Pied-billed grebe. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 79. Harmless, Bul. 38, p. 14. Pecile palustris—Marsh titmouse. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 191. Polioptila cserulea—Blue-gray gnatcatcher. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 90. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 24, 34, 108. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 84-86 (30 stomachs). — Polioptila californica—Black-tailed gnat- catcher. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, pp. 194, 198. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 84-86 (30 stomachs). Polyborus cheriway—Caracara. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, Delt so V Uk C1 S95. pis. FOO ee Nb 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 128-129. Feeding on carrion, Bul. 2, p. 120; jack rabbits, Bul. 8, p. 44; prairie dogs, Bul. 2, p. 120. Food on Tres Marias Islands, carrion, iguanas, Fauna 14, p. 39; and Lepus graysom, Fauna 14, p. 17. Polyborus tharus—Carancho. Attempting to carry off wounded duck, Bul. 3, p. 128. Poccetes gramineus—Vesper sparrow. Feeding on boll weevil, Cire. 64, pp. 3, 5; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, pp. 226, 227, 229. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, p. 15. Ny => Oe oe ee Pie er 4 y 5 Poecetes gramineus—Continued. Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 28, 37, 45, 56-58, 92 (130 stomachs). Porzana carolina—Sora. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 19, 81. Prairie chicken, see Tympanuchus ameri- canus. Lesser, see Tympanuchus pallidicinctus. Progne subis—Purple martin. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 70; Bul. 30, Dp 27; FR, Bul. 54, p. Si; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 5, 36-38. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 9,,14, 25, 30; Bul. 38, ‘p. 70% Circ. 64, p. 5. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 24, 25, 39, 40, 47, 98-99. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 417. Insectivorous, Bul. 38, p. 9; Bul. 1, p. 96. Nesting boxes, Bul. 29, pp. 9-11. Other notes, Bul. 1, p. 274. Prepared food, Cire. 56, p. 3. Protection urged, as enemy of boll weevil, Circ. 56, pp. 1, 3-4; Cire. 57, pp. 2, 3, 4. Protonotaria citrea—Prothonotary warbler. Insectivorous, Bul. 38, p. 75. Psaltriparus minimus—Bushtit. Brief account, F. Bul. 54 (rey.), p. 44 (66 stomachs) ; Ybk. 1900, p. 296. Feeding on noxious insects, Ybk. 1904, p. 253; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, pp. 194, 195, 198. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 74-80 (353 stomachs). Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, p. 296. Pseudogryphus californianus, see Gymno- gyps californianus. Psittacula insularis—Tres Marias love bird. Feeding on wild fig, Fauna 14, pp. 41, 61. Ptarmigan, Rock, see Lagopus rupestris. White-tailed, see Lagopus leucu- rus. Willow, see Lagopus lagopus. Puffin, Horned, see Fratercula corniculata. Tufted, see Lunda cirrhata. Pyrrhuloxia sinuata—Gray grosbeak. Brief account, F. Bul. 456, p. 12. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 25, pp. 9, 12, 18,21; Bul. 28, pp. 6, 19, 30s Cire. 64, p. 5. Formal report, Bul. 32, pp. 28-33, 90, 91 (74 stomachs). ic. Quail, California, see Lophortyx californica. Gambel’s, see Lophortyx gambeli. Mearns’s, see Cyrtonyx montezumz mearnsi. Mountain, see Oreortyx picta. Sealed, see Callipepla squamata, eT gee PORE ye LS a Querquedula discors—Blue-winged teal. Quiscalus major, see Megaquiscalue major. — Quiscalus quiscula—Crow blackbird. . - 60 INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. : iy BY Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 19. — Vegetable food, Cire. 81, p. 1. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 60; F. Bul. — 54, pp. 4, 24-26 (2,258 stomachs); F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 4, 25, 29-30 (2,346 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, pp. — 428, 429, 480; Rept. 1890, p. 279; Ybk. 1897, pp. 348-349; Ybk. 1900, pp. 412, 423. Damage to corn, Bul. 17, p. 96; Bul. 29, p. 8; grain, Rept. 1887, pp. 428, 429, 430; Rept. 1889, pp. 368-369 ; Rept. 1898, p. 39; Ybk. 1897, pp. 348-349 ; Ybk. 1898, p. 230. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 7, 8 11, 17, 2%, BOs Buleeene 60; Cire. 64, p. 5; eggs and young of other birds, Rept. 1888, p. 5143; English sparrows, Bul. 1, p. 32; mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; rose — beetle, Bul. 32, p. 20; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 230. : Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 14, 21, 23, 24, 30, 32, 35, 37, 47—48, 49, 55, 56, 59, 60, 66-68, 70, 71, TT, 96, 110 (25 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 412-— 413, 423-424, 436. Formal report, Bul. 13, pp. 8, 9, 10, 58-70 (2,346 stomachs) ; Ybk. 1894, — pp. 233-248 (2,258 stomachs). Injurious to grain, henee unprotected in certain States, Bul. 12, pp. 36, 37; Bul. 13 (rev.), p. 43. Other notes, Bul. 15, p. 29; Ybk. 1898, p. 104. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, pp. 263, 264, 265, 266. Requests for information on economic value, Ent. Cire. 20 [p. 1]; Cire. 1 {p. 2]; Rept. 1886, p. 230. R. Raven, Northern, see Corvus corax princi- palis. Old-world, see Corvus corax corax. Southern, see Corvus corax sinuatus. White-necked, see Corvus cryptoleu- cus. Recurvirosta americana—Avocet. Feeding on billbugs, cutworms, Cire. 79, p. 6; Dytiscidae, Cire. 79, p. 8; grasshoppers, Cire. 79, p. 4. Redbird, see Cardinalis cardinalis. Redhead, see Marila americana. Redpoil, see Acanthis linaria. Hoary, see Acanthis hornemanni exilipes. Redstart, see Setophaga ruticilla. Regulus calendula—Ruby-crowned kinglet. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, pp. 197, 198. - Regulus calendula—Continued. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 108. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 48, 81-84 (294 stomachs). is. Other notes, Ybk. 1904, p. 254. _ Regulus satrapa—Golden-crowned kinglet. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 108. ‘ Food in California, Bul. 30, p. 84 (9 stomachs). Other notes, Bul. 9, p. 18; Ybk. 1904, p. 254. Rhynchophanes mccowni—McCown’s long- spur. Feeding on weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 226. Ricebird [American], see Dolichonyx oryzi- yorus, [Javan], see Padda oryzivora. Ringneck, see Adgialitis semipalmata. Riparia riparia—Bank swallow. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 71; 1900, p. 418. Feeding on ants, Bul. 15, p. 32; bay- berries, Rept. 1890, p. 282; boll wee- vil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 14, 24, 25, 30; Bul. 38, p. 71; Cire. 56, pp. 1-2; @ire:, 57, p:.. 2: Circ. 64, p. 5: Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 24, 25, 33, 34, 35, 36, 39, 40, 46— 47, 98-99 (6 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 418. Other notes, Bul. 30, p. 27. Protection urged as enemy of boll wee- vil, Cire. 56, pp. 1-2; Cire. 57, p. 2. Rissa tridactyla pollicaris—Pacific kitti- wake. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 433- 434, Road runner, see Geococcyx californianus. Robin [of the United States], see Planesti- cus migratorius. Tres Marias, see Planesticus gray- soni. Rook, see Corvus frugilegus. Rostrhamus sociabilis—Everglade kite. Beneficial, Ybk. 1895, p. 590; 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 25-26; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 43; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 218. Ybk. Ybk. Ss. Sage hen, see Centrocercus urophasianus. Salpinctes obsoletus—Rock wren. Note on general nature of food, Bul. 30, pp. 65-66. Sandpiper, Baird’s, see Pisobia bairdi. Buff-breasted, see Tryngites sub- Tuficollis, i Least, see Pisobia minutilla. 4 Pectoral, see Pisobia maculata. E Purple, see Arquatella maritima. Red-backed, see Pelidna alpina sakhalina. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. Sandpiper, Semipalmated, see Ereunetes pusillus. Solitary, see Helodromas tarius. Spotted, see Actitis macularia. Stilt, see Micropalama himanto- pus. White-rumped, see Pisobia fus- cicollis. Red-breasted, ruber. Williamson’s, thyroideus. Yellow-bellied, see Sphyrapicus varius. Sayornis nigricans—Black pheebe. Brief account, F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. . 17-18 (119 stomachs). Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 36—39 (333 stomachs). Sayornis phoebe—Pheebe. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 53; F. Bul. 54, pp. 13-14 (80 stomachs); F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 16-17 (156 stomachs) ; Ybk. 1900, p. 426. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, pp. 10; 16; Bul. 25, pp. 8, 13, 21; Bul: 29; pp, 6), 15,026, 3077 ‘Bull 38))'ps 53; Cire. 64, p. 5; mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; rose beetle, Bul. 32, p. 20. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 23, 24, 30, 32, 33, 34, 37, 38, 40, 61, 92-93. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 426— 427. Sayornis sayus—Say’s phebe. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 35-36 (86 stomachs). soli- Sapsucker, see Sphyrapicus see Sphyrapicus Scolecophagus carolinus, see Huphagus carolinus. Scolecophagus cyanocephalus, see Euphagus eyanocephalus. Scoter, see Oidemia americana. White-winged, see Oidemia deglandi. Scotiaptex cinerea, see Scotiaptex nebulosa. Scotiaptex nebulosa—Great gray owl. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, p. 217; Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 50; Ybk. 1905, p. 371; rabbits, Fauna 27, p. 869; shrews, Fauna 27, p. 370. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 157-158 (9 stomachs). Seiurus aurocapillus—Ovenbird. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 29, 34, 35, 103-104. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 416. Seiurus motacilla—Louisiana water-thrush. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 38, 40, 103-104, Seiurus noveboracensis—Water-thrush. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 24, 34, 35, 38, 39, 103-104. Setophaga ruticilla—Redstart. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 83. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 23, 24, 29, 40, 103-104 (5 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 416. Shoveler, see Spatula clypeata. Shrike, Great gray, see Lanius excubitor. Loggerhead, see Lanius Iludovyici- anus. Northern, see Lanius borealis. Sialia arctica, see Sialia currucoides. Sialia currucoides—Mountain bluebird. Brief account, F. Bul. 54, p. 48. Other notes, Bul. 30, p. 100. Sialia mexicana occidentalis—Western blue- bird. Brief account, F. Bul. 54 (rev.), p. 48 (92 stomachs). Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, pp. 194, 198. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 97- 100 (187 stomachs). Sialia sialis—Bluebird. Beneficial, Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 92; F. Bul. 54, p. 89 (205 stomachs); F. Bul. 54 (rey.), pp. 5, 46-48 (300 stomachs) ; Ybk. 1900, p. 413. Distributing poison Rhus seeds, Rept. 1889, p. 368; Rept. 1890, p. 288. Feeding on army worm, Bul. 1, p. 290; codling moth, Bul. 1, p. 320; cut- worms, Bul. 1, p. 290; dogwood ber- ries, Rept. 1890, p. 284; mahaleb cherries, Bul. 32, p. 65; mulberries, Bul. 382, p. 64; sourgum berries, Rept. 1890, p. 285. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 32, 38, 43, 60, 62, 109-110 (7 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 413. Insectivorous, Bul. 38, p. 9; Bul. 1, pp. 96, 126, 304. Other notes, Bul. 1, pp. 94, 297. Reference to studies of food habits,” Ybk. 1899, pp. 263, 266. Siskin, Pine, see Spinus pinus. Sitta canadensis—Red-breasted nuthatch. General nature of food, Bul. 30, p. 68. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, pp. 296-297. Sitta carolinensis — White-breasted nut- hatch. Brief account, Bul. 17, p. 107; Bul. 38, p. 88. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, pp. 194, 197. General nature of food, Bul. 30, p. 68. Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, pp. 296-297. Sitta pygmmea—Pygmy nuthatch. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 67-68 (31 stomachs). | Snakebird, see Anhinga anhinga. Skylark, see Alauda arvensis. Snipe, Wilson’s, see Gallinago delicata. _ Snowbird, see Junco hyemalis. Solitaire, see Myadestes townsendi. Sora, see Porzana carolina. Sparrow, Chipping, see Spizella passerina. 3 English, see Passer domesticus. Field, see Spizella pusilla. Fox, see Passerella iliaca. Golden-crowned, see Zonotrichia_ coronata. Grasshopper, see Ammodramus savannarum australis. Harris’s, see Zonotrichia querula. Henslow’s, see Passerherbulus henslowi. House, see Passer domesticus. Ipswich, see Passerculus princeps. — Java, see Padda oryzivora. Lark, see Chondestes grammacus. Lincoln’s, see Melospiza lincolni. Nelson’s, see Passerherbulus nel- _ soni. , Savanna, see Passerculus sand- wichensis. Seaside, see Passerherbulus mari- timus. : Sharp-tailed, see Passerherbulus — caudacutus. Song, see Melospiza melodia. Swamp, see Melospiza georgiana. Spanish, see Passer hispaniolensis. Tree [American], see Spizella — monticola. Tree [Old World], see Passer montanus. q Vesper, see Poccetes gramineus. White-crowned, see JZonotrichia leucophrys. White-throated, see Zonotrichia albicollis. ’ Spatula clypeata—Shoveler. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 19. : Feeding on larve and pupe of Ephydra hians, Fauna 7, p. 17. ft. Vegetable food, Cire. 81, p. 1. Speotyto cunicularia floridana — Florida burrowing owl. Food of adults and nestlings, Ybk. — 1900, p. 431. Speotyto cunicularia hypogea—Burrowing owl. Beneficial, Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 81, p. 50; Cire. 61, pp. 3, 12, 18; Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 225, 237. Feeding on beetles, Bul. 4, p. 15; — grasshoppers, Bul. 4, p. 15; Fauna 7, p. 44; horned larks, Bul. 2, p. 124; Bul. 23, p. 12; insects, Fauna 5, p. 97; Rept. 1889, p. 373; mice, Bul. 2, p. 124; pocket mice (Perog- nathus hispidus paradorus), Fauna . f _ - . cunicularia hypogzea—Continued. 25, p. 137; scorpions, Fauna 5, p. - 97; spermophiles, Bul. 4, pp. 15-16. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 14, 165, 189-196 (32 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, p. 422 (10 stomachs). Sphyrapicus ruber—Red-breasted sapsucker. - Brief account, Bul. 39, pp. 95-96. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 21— 22, 29 (24 stomachs). } Formal report, Bul. 37, pp. 10, 11, Be 31-32 (34 stomachs). ---—sO Other notes, Bul. 34, p. 8. Be, ' Relation to trees, Bul. 39, pp. 16-21, _ 50-53, 54-62, 86, 98-99. e _Sphyrapicus thyroideus—Williamson’s sap- sucker. Brief account, Bul. 39, pp. 95-96. Formal report, Bul. 37, pp. 10, 11, 32-83 (17 stomachs). ( Relation to trees, Bul. 39, pp. 9, 16— | : 21, 58, 54-62, 66, 98-99. _ Sphyrapicus varius — Yellow-bellied es sucker. E Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 47; Bul. 39, pp. 95-96; F. Bul. 54, pp. 9, 10; ¥F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 12-13; Ybk. 1900, pp. 294-295. Feeding on fruits of cherry, flowering dogwood, grape, and sour gum, Rept. sap- 1890, p. 284; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 197. P. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. ag 19, 33, 62, 88-90, 110. Beis Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 427— 4 428. ; F; ‘Formal report, Bul. 7, pp. 7, 8, 10, 11, 28-31, 38-39 (81 stomachs); Bul. q 37, pp. 10, 11, 27-81, 42, (813 yg stomachs). 4 Injurious, Bul. 34, p. 21; Ybk. 1907, p. 168. _-_ Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. b Relation to orchards, Ybk. 1900, pp. i 294-295. Relation to trees, Bul. 38, p. 47; Bul. 39, pp. 16—21, 21-50, 54-91, 92-95, x 98-99. _ Spinus pinus—Pine siskin. i; Feeding on weed seeds, Fauna 7, p. fee) «85; Yb. 1898, pp. 222, 229. t Spiza americana—Dickcissel. i Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 69; Ybk. i 1900, p. 420. a Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, p. a 16; Bul. 25, pp. 9, 12, 18, 21; Bul. 29, pp. 6, 19, 30; Cire. 64, p. 5; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, pp. 226, 227, 228, 229. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 420. Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 238, 24, 28, 45, 89-92 (152 stomachs). IRS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 63 Spizelia monticcla—Tree sparrow. Beneficial, Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, F. Bul. 54, p. 28; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), p. 32. Feeding on seeds, Bul. 9, pp. 17, 20; of grapes, Fauna 3, p. 96; of weeds, Fauna 3, p. 96; Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 225, 226, 227; Ybk. 1907, p. 172. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 16, 71, 74-75 (9 stomachs). Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 18, 25, 27, 37, 38, 39, 42, 75-76 (517 stom- achs). Spizella passerina—Chipping sparrow. Beneficial, Bul. 38, p. 9; Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 65; F. Bul. 54, pp. 26-27; &. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 31-32. Feeding on cankerworms, Bul. 1, p. 263 ; mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 15-16, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 43, 70, 71, 72-73, 97, 110 (61 stomachs). Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 80—82, 84 (96 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 419— 420. Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 15, 17, 18, 24, 235,24, 26) 27, 28530) 32,33; 76—78 (250 stomachs). Other notes, Bul. 1, p. 98; Fauna 7, p. 119. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 264. Spizella pusilla—Field sparrow. i Brief account, F. Bul. 54, pp. 26-27, 28; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 31-32. : Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 20, 28, 30; Cire. 64, pp. 3, 5; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 223, 225, 226, 228. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 15-16, 24, 26, 27, 30, 32, 34, 35, 40, 41, 60, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 97 (31 stomachs). Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 15, 18, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 33, 387, 39, 42, 78-80 (175 stomachs). Spizella socialis, see Spizella passerina. Squatarola squatarola—Black-bellied plover. Feeding on crowberries (Hmpetrum), Fauna 27, p. 332; grasshoppers, Cire. 79, p. 2: Starling, see Sturnus vulgaris. Steganopus tricolor—Wilson’s phalarope. Feeding on billbugs, Cire. 79, p. 6; erane flies, Cire. 79, p. 4; Dytiscide, Cire. 79, p. 2&3 mosquitoes. Circ. 79, p. 2. ee ee) ee es ee ed eS oe >, fy 64 Stelgidopteryx serripennis—Rough-winged Swallow. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 24, 33, 34, 35, 39, 98-99 (7 stom- achs). Protection urged, Cire. 57, p. 2. Stercorarius parasiticus—Parasitic jaeger. Feeding on beetles, dragon fly, fish, in- sects, and young tern, Fauna 27, p. 261. Stercorarius pomarinus—Pomarine jaeger. Pursuing gulls and terns to rob them of their prey, Fauna 22, p. 78. Sterna fuliginosa, see Sterna fuscata. Sterna fuscata—Sooty tern. Fishing habits described, Fauna 14, p. 25. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 434. Sterna maxima—Royal tern. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 434. Sterna paradisea—Arctic tern. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 434. Stilt, Black-necked, see Himantopus mexi- canus. Knudsen’s, see Himantopus knudseni. Stork, Maguari, see Euxenura maguari. White, see Ciconia ciconia. Strix aluco, see Aluco flammeus. Strix occidentalis—Spotted owl. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3;.Ybk. 1894, p. 217; Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 156-157. Strix pratincola, see Aluco pratincola. Strix varia—Barred owl. Beneficial, Ybk. 1895, p. 590; 1896, p. 628; Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, Bul. 31, pp. 48-49; Bul. 88, “p. 42% Cire; «61, pp. 8; 11-12 (109 stomachs); Ybk. 1894, pp. 217, 225; Ybk. 1900, p. 430. Feeding on Brewer's blackbird, cardi- nal, Bul. 2, p. 121; cotton rat (Sig- modon hispidus terianus), Fauna 25, p. 116; field mice, Bul. 31, pp. 48- 49; Ybk. 1905, p. 371; Leconte’s sparrow, Bul. 2, p. 121; rabbits, Ybk. 1907, p. 336; ruffed grouse, Bul. 24, p. 28. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 430. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 14, 135, 146, 150-156 (109 stomachs) ; Rept. 1887, p. 419 (41 stomachs). Sturnella magna—Meadowlark. Beneficial, Rept. 1890, p. 1897, p. 670. Bounty laws, Ybk. 1896, p. 57. Brief account, Bul. 12, pp. 20-21; Bul. 12 (rev.), pp. 27-28; F. Bul. 54, pp. 21-283 (2388 stomachs), F. Bul. 26-27 (285 stomachs); Rept. 1890, p. 280 (30 stomachs). Exempt from protection in Georgia, Bul, 12 (rey.), p. 27. YDbk. 280; Ybk. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD Sturnella magna—Continued. ; Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, pp 16; Bul. 25, pp. 8, Sad, ae 29, pp. 6, 9; 18, 27-380 Cire. 57, p. 4; Cire. 64, pp. 2, 3 weed seeds, Bul. 15, pp. 37, 38-3 Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 230-231. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 12, 14, 22, 28, 30, 32, 34, 35, 37-38, 40, 70, 71, 77, 94-95, 110, 111 (7 stom-- a achs). G Formal report, Ybk. 1895, pp. 419, r 420-426 (238 stomachs). , Other notes, Ybk. 1904, p. 514; Ybk. 1908, p. 346. Reference to studies of food habits, — Ybk. 1899, p. 266. Relation to clover seed, Rept. 1890, p. 280. Sturnella magna neglecta, neglecta. Sturnella neglecta—Western meadowlark. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, pp. 9, — 16; Bul. 25, pp. 8) 9, 2 2iy eee 29, pp. 6, 9, 18, 27-28, 30; Cire: 64, p. 5. "4 Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 65-68 (91 stomachs). a Killed by eating poisoned grain, Bul. 28, p. 18,3 Cire. <6, my dee Bul. 352, p. 8; Ybk. 1908, p. 308. Pulling wheat, Bul. 23, p. 15. Sturnus vulgaris—Starling. Admission denied, F. Bul. 470, p. 30; — Rept. 1900, p. 41; Rept. 1904, p. 296; Rept. 1907, p. 493; Ybk. 1905, p. 545. Admission to Western Australia prohib- ited, Rept. 1899, p. 68; Ybk. 1898, p. 109. Driving other birds away, Bul. 1, p. — 333. ’ Economic status, introduction danger-— ous, etc., Rept. 1899, p. 68; Rept. 1907, p. 493; Ybk. 1898, pp. 90, 101— 103, 107, 109, 110. : Injurious, Cire. 34, p. 7; Cire. 80, p. 24; F. Bul. 160, p. 48; F. Bul. 180, ~ p. 42; F. Bul. 470, p. 30; Rept. — 1908, p. 587. Injurious in Australasia, Rept. 1899, p. 68; Ybk. 1898, p. 109. Other notes, Rept. 1899, p. 68; Rept. — 1907, p. 493. 1 Repressive measures, Rept. 1908, Dp. 587. { Sula nebouxi—Blue-footed booby. Feeding on fish, Fauna 14, pp. 23, 25, 82. Surnia ulula caparoch—Hawk owl. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, p. 217; Ybk. 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Brief account, Bul. Rept. 1887, p. 422. see Sturnella ¥ 3, pp. 187-189; q ‘ia ulula caparoch—Continued. Feeding on field mice, Bul. 31, p. 50; Ybk. 1905, p. 371; (Microtus drum- mondi) Fauna 27, p. 377; redpolls, ruffed grouse, Fauna 27, p. 377; spermophiles, Bul. 4, pp. 15-16; varying hare, Fauna 27, p. 376. _ Swallow, Bank, see Riparia riparia. ; Barn, see Hirundo erythrogastra. Cliff, see Petrochelidon lunifrons. Huropean, see Hirundo rustica. a, Northern violet-green, see Tachy- cineta thalassina lepida. Rough-winged, see Stelgidopteryx Serripennis. Tree, see Iridoprocne bicolor. Swan, Whistling, see Olor columbianus. Swift, Chimney, see Chetura pelagica. Syrnium nebulosum, see Strix varia. f 4 Syrnium occidentale, see Strix occidentalis. _ Syrnium varium, see Strix varia. “a aoe q Tachycineta bicolor, color. F Tachycineta thalassina lepida—Northern violet-green swallow. “ Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 32-33 5 (74 stomachs). Other notes, F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 37-— yf 38. anager, Scarlet, see Piranga erythromelas. Summer, see Piranga rubra. Tres Marias, see Piranga biden- i i tata flammea. ‘ Western, see Piranga ludoviciana. Tantalus loculator, see Mycteria americana. _ ‘Teal, Blue-winged, see Querquedula discors. see JIridoprocne bi- fla Green-winged, see Nettion carolinense. _ ‘Telmatodytes palustris—Long-billed marsh ” wren. ‘7 Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 33, 34, 35, 38, 40, 43, 107 (5 stom- achs). Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 62-64 (53 stomachs). me: Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 436. Tern, Arctic, see Sterna paradisxa. os Black, see Hydrochelidon nigra suri- Be namensis. aa Royal, see Sterna maxima. pe Sooty, see Sterna fuscata. _ Tetrao urogallus—Capercaillie. Feeding on birches and conifers, F. Bul. 197, p. 15. _ Thrasher, Brown, see Toxostoma rufum. California, see Toxostoma redivi- yum, Leconte’s, see Toxostoma lecontei. Sage, see Oreoscoptes montanus. Thrush, Gray-cheeked, see Hylocichla ali- cie. Hermit, see Hylocichla guttata. fe te Te a eh oo ee. INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 65 Thrush, Olive-backed, see Hylocichla ustu- lata. i Russet-backed, see Hylocichla us- tulata. Song, see Turdus iliacus. Varied, see Ixoreus nevius. Wood, see Hylocichla mustelina. Thryomanes bewicki—Bewick’s wren. Feeding on boll weevil, Circ. 64, pp. 4, 5; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 57-60 (146 stomachs). Thryothorus ludovicianus—Carolina wren. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 86. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, pp. 8, 16; Bul. 25, pp. 9, 14, 21; Bul. 29, pp. 6, 21-22, 29, 30; Bul. 38, p. 86; Cire. 64, pp. 4, 5. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 30, 32, 107. Titmouse, Black-crested, see Bxolophus atri- cristatus. Blue, see Cyanistes cierulens. Bridled, see Baolophus wollwe- beri. Great, see Parus major. Long-tailed, see Aigithalos cau- datus. Marsh, see Pecile palustris. Plain, see Beolophus inornatus. Tufted, see Brolophus bicolor. Totanus flavipes—Yellowlegs. Feeding on grasshoppers, Circ. 79, p. 4. Towhee, see Pipilo erythrophthalmus. California, see Pipilo crissalis. Green-tailed, see Oreospiza chlo- rura. Spotted, see Pipilo maculatus sub- species. Spurred, see Pipilo maculatus megalonyx. T'oxostoma lecontei—Leconte’s thrasher. Food in captivity, Fauna 7, p. 129. Toxostoma redivivum—California thrasher. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 55-56 (82 stomachs). Toxostoma rufum—Brown thrasher. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 86; F. Bul. 54, pp. 34-35 (121 stomachs); F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 40-41 (121 stomachs); Ybk. 1900, p. 415. Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, pp. 11, 16; Bul. 25, pp. 9, 14, 15, 21; Bul. 29, pp. 6, 28, 30; Cire. 64, p. 5; mahaleb cherries, Bul. 32, p. 65. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 32, 38, 56, 60, 105-106. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 415. Formal report, Ybk. 1895, pp. 405, 406, 411-415, 418 (121 stomachs). Other notes, Bul. 30, p. 55. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. Request for information on economic value, Ent. Cire. 20 [p. 2]. ee See ee As 66 Tringa canutus—Knot. Feeding on crayfishes, Cire. 79, p. 6; Dytiscide, Cire. 79, p. 8; grasshop- pers, Circ. 79, p. 4; Nereis, Cire. 79, p. 8. Trochilus colubris, see Archilochus colubris. Troglodytes aédon—House wren. Beneficial, Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, F. Bul. 54, pp. 35-36 (52 stomachs); F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 41-42 (52 stomachs) ; Ybk. 1900, p. 413. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 24, 25, 26, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 45-46, 49, 106-107, 110 (20 stomachs). Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 60-62 (36 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, pp. 413- 415; Ybk. 1902, p. 216. Formal report, Ybk. 1895, pp. 405, 406, 416-418 (52 stomachs). Other notes, Bul. 1, pp. 96, 275; Ybk. 1904, p. 514. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. Trogon ambiguus goldmani—Goldman’s tro- gon. Feeding on wild fig, Fauna 14, p. 61. Tryngites subruficollis—Buff-breasted sand- piper. Feeding on grasshoppers, Cire. 79, p. 2. Turdus iliacus—Song thrush. Admission denied, Rept. 1908, p. 581. Admission to Western Australia pro- hibited, Rept. 1899, p. 68; Ybk. 1898, p. 109. Injurious in Australasia, Rept. 1899, p. 68; Ybk. 1898, p. 109. Turdus merula—Blackbird. Admission to West Australia prohib- ited, Rept. 1899, p. 68; Ybk. 1898, p. 109. Economic status, introduction danger- ous, ete., Ybk. 1898, pp. 90, 106, 107, 109; Ybk. 1909, p. 257. Injurious in Australasia, Rept. 1899, p. 68; Ybk. 1898, p. 109, in New Zealand, Ybk. 1909, p. 257. Turdus musicus, see Turdus iliacus. Turkey, Merriam’s, see Meleagris pavo merriami. Wild, see Meleagris gallopavo sil- vestris. Turnstone, see Arenaria interpres. Tympanuchus americanus—Prairie chicken. Brief account, Ybk. 1900, p. 432. Feeding on potato beetle, Bul. 32, p. 47; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 231. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 4382. Formal report, Bul. 24, pp. 10-18, 23 (71 stomachs). Tympanuchus cupido—Heath hen. Brief account, Bul. 24, pp. 18-19. Tympanuchus pallidicinctus—Lesser prairie chicken. Brief account, Bul. 24, pp. 19-20. gallo- INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 3 Tyrannus tyrannus—Kingbird. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 53; F.. 54, pp. 11-12 (281 stomachs) ; Bul. 54 = (rev.), stomachs) ; Ybk. 1900, p. 426. Feeding on bees, Bul. 34, pp. 32-33; Rept. 1899, p. 69; boll weevil, Bul. 29, pp. 6, 14, 15, 24, 29, 30; Cire. 64, p. 53; cherries, Rept. 1890, p. 282; mahaleb cherries, Bul. 32, p. 65; mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 285; robber flies, Rept. 1899, p. 69; rose beetles, Bul. 32, p. 20. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 17, 22, 23, 24, 26,.30, 31-32, 33, 34; 86, 37, 38, 39, 40, 56, 59, 60, 61, 91-92 (16 stomachs). Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 426. Formal report, Rept. 1893, pp. 233-234 (171 stomachs). bea Other notes, Ybk. 1904, p. 514. Reference to studies of food habits, Ybk. 1899, p. 266. . Relation to bees, Bul. 34, pp. 32-33; Rept. 1899, p. 69. Tyrannus verticalis—Arkansas kingbird. Brief account, F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 15-16 (62 stomachs). Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 32-34 (78 stomachs). Tyrannus vociferans—Cassin’s kingbird. Brief notes on food, Bul. 34, p. 343 F. Bul. 54 (rev.), p. 16. U. Uria lomvia arra—Pallas’s murre. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 433. Urinator arcticus, see Gavia arctica. Uroloncha acuticauda—Japanese nun. Admission to Hawaii denied, Rept. 1909, p. 542. Urubutinga anthracina — Mexican black hawk. Beneficial, Cire. 61, p. 3; Ybk. 1894, p. 217; Ybk, 1895, p. 590; Ybk. 1896, p. 628. Formal report, Bul. 3, pp. 11, 84-85 (6 stomachs). Wis Veery, see Hylocichla fuscescens. Vermivora celata lutescens — Lutescent warbler. ees Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 48, 51 (65 stomachs). Vireo belli pusillus—Least vireo, Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194. Cassin’s, eassini. Vireo flavifrons, see Lanivireo flavifrons. Vireo gilvus, see Vireosylva gilva. Vireo, { 4 ; : see Lanivireo solitarius — pp. 14-15 (420 — eo griseus—White-eyed vireo. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 195. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, a 23, 26, 29, 34, 35, 40, 59, 60, 61, Wis 102 (10 stomachs). _ Vireo huttoni—Hutton’s vireo. -* Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. ~~ 194. ‘3 Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 41-42 == (54 stomachs). _ Vireo, Hutton’s, see Vireo huttoni. _ Vireo, Least, see Vireo belli pusillus. _ Vireo olivaceus, see Vireosylva olivacea. _ Vireo, Red-eyed, see Vireosylva olivacea. _ Vireo solitarius cassini, see Lanivireo soli- a tarius cassini. Vireo, Warbling, see Vireosylva gilva. Vireo, White-eyed, see Vireo griseus. ‘Vireo, Yellow-throated, see Lanivireo flavi- eS frons. _ Vireosylva gilva—Warbling vireo. ie Feeding on mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. 4 285; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. q 194. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 30, 35, 40, 102. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 39-40 (110: stomachs). Vireosylva olivacea—Red-eyed vireo. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 73. Feeding on mulberries, Rept. 1890, p. ae 285; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 195. z Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, g 23, 24, 29, 30, 34, 35, 39, 40, 43, 56, 59, 60, 61, 102 (13 stomachs). : Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 416. _ Vulture, Black, see Catharista urubu. California, see Gymnogyps califor- 17, pp. nianus. Turkey, see Cathartes aura septen- e trionalis. : Ww. _ Warbler, Audubon’s, see Dendroica audu- b- boni. ; x Bay-breasted, see Dendroica cas- 3 tanea. yi Black-and-white, see Mniotilta a varia. Black-poll, see Dendroica striata. " ; Black-throated blue, see Den- y : droica cxerulescens. : see Den- ~~ Black-throated green, : droica virens. Canadian, see Wilsonia canadensis. Cape May, see Dendroica tigrina. -Lutescent, see Vermivora celata lutescens. Magnolia, see Dendroica magnolia. Myrtle, see Dendroica coronata. Palm, see Dendroica palmarum. Parula, see Compsothlypis ameri- cana. Pine, see Dendroica vigorsi. _ INDEX TO PAPERS RELATING TO FOOD OF BIRDS. 67 Warbler, Prairie, see Dendroica discolor. Prothonotary, see Protonotaria citrea. Townsend’s, see Dendroica town- sendi. Wilson’s, see Wilsonia pusilla. Worm-eating, see Helmitheros ver- mivorus. Yellow, see Dendroica sxstiva. Water-thrush, see Seiurus noveboracensis. Louisiana, see Seiurus mota- cilla. Water-turkey, see Anhinga anhinga. Waxwing, Bohemian, see Bombycilla rula. Cedar, see Bombycilla cedrorum. Weaver bird, Madagascar, see Foudia mada- gascariensis. Whippoorwill, see Antrostomus vociferus. White-eye, South African, see Zosterops capensis. Widgeon, see Mareca americana. Wilsonia canadensis—Canadian warbler. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. LOD: Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 20, 29, 34, 39, 103-104. Wilsonia pusilla—Wilson’s warbler. Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, p. 194. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17,,pp. 20, 24, 103-104. Food in California, Bul. 30, pp. 51-52 (52 stomachs). Woodcock, see Philohela minor. Woodpecker, Arctic three-toed, see Picoides arcticus. Arizona, zone. California, see Melanerpes for- micivorus bairdi. Downy, see Dryobates pubes- cens. Gila, see Centurus uropygialis. Golden-fronted, see Centurus aurifrons. Grayson’s, see Dryobates scala- ris graysoni. Hairy, see Dryobates villosus. Ivory-billed, see Campephilus principalis. Lewis’s, see Asyndesmus lewisi. gar- See Dryobates ari- Nuttall’s, see Dryobates nut- 2 talli. Pileated, see Phleotomus pi- leatus. Red-bellied, see Centurus caro- linus. Red-cockaded, see Dryobates borealis. . Red-headed, see Melanerpes erythrocephalus. San Lucas, see Dryobates sca- laris lucasanus. Texas, see Dryobates scalaris bairdi. 68 Woodpecker, Three-toed, see Picoides ameri- canus. White-headed, see Xenopicus albolarvatus. Yellow-bellied, see Sphyrapicus varius. Wren, Bewick’s, see Thryomanes bewicki. Cactus, see Heleodytes brunneicapil- lus couesi. Carolina, see Thryothorus ludoyicia- nus. Dotted cafion, see Catherpes mexica- nus punctulatus. House, see Troglodytes aédon. Long-billed marsh, see Telmatodytes palustris. Rock, see Salpinctes obsoletus. Winter, see Nannus hiemalis. Wren tit, see Chamea fasciata. x. Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus—Yellow- headed blackbird. Brief account, Ybk. 1897, pp. 345, 351, 353. Damage to corn, Ybk. 1894, p. 237 ; grain, Rept. 1887, pp. 428, 429, 430, 454, 455, 456; Ybk. 1897, pp. 345, 351, 353; Ybk. 1898, p. 230. Feeding on weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 230. Formal report, Bul. 13, pp. 9, 11, 30- 88 (138 stomachs). Other notes, Rept. 1887, pp. 428, 429, 430. Xenopicus albolarvatus — White - headed woodpecker. Brief account, Bul. 37, p. 63. as Yellow-hammer [of Europe], see Em- beriza citrinella. Yellowlegs, see Totanus flavipes. Yellowthroat, see Geothlypis trichas. Z. Zamelodia ludoviciana—Rose-breasted gros- beak. Beneficial, Ybk. 1897, p. 670. Brief account, F. Bul. 54, pp. 28-30; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 34-35; F. Bul. 456, pp. 7-9, 12, 13. Beeding on potato beetle, Bul. 17, p. 25; Bul. 34, p. 93; Rept. 1888, pp. 535-536 ; Rept. 1889, p. 369; Rept. 1905, pp. 306, 814; Rept. 1906, p. 415; Ybk. 1907, pp. 173, 175; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, pp. 192, 195; weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 230. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 418. Formal report, Bul. 32, pp. 38-59, 71, 91 (176 stomachs), Zamelodia ludoviciana—Continu Other notes, Bul. 1, p. 323; Faw Reference to studies of food © Zamelodia melanocephala — Black - he Zenaidura macroura carolinensis—Mourn- Zonotrichia albicollis—White-throated spar- Zonotrichia coronata—Golden-crowned spar- p. 449. Ybk. 1899, p. 266. grosbeak. Brief account, F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. ¥e (70 stomachs) ; F. Bul. yrs . 10, 12, 138. ’ Torin on black olive scale, Begt 1905, p. 306; cherries, Bul. 34, p. | 55; codling moth, Rept. 1904, | 4 293; scale insects, Ybk. 1906, Pp. 192, 194. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 93- — 96 (225 stomachs). a Formal report, Bul. 32, pp. 60-77, — 91 (226 stomachs). Relation to fruit in California, Bul. — 20, p. 13; Ybk. 1904, pp. 246, 248, 51. ing dove. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 36; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), pp. 6-7 (237 stomachs) ;— Ybk. 1900, p. 4381. Damage to grain, Ybk. 1897, p. 3525 4 Ybk. 1898, pp. 231-282. Feeding on seeds of bunch grass (Oryzopsis cuspidata). Fauna 7. Baa 32; Hungarian’ grass (Setaria italica), Rept. 1887, p. 429; weeds, — Bul. 12, pp. 16-17; Bul. 12 (rev.), p. 24; Bul. 15, pp. 88-839; Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 281-2382. A Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. — 13, 43, 69, 70, 71, 77-78, 85, poem. Food of nestlings, Ybk. 1900, p. 431. Killed by eating poisoned grain, Bul. 28, p. 18: Cire, 7G; pneu Yok. 1908, p. 308. an Other notes, Bul. 15, p. 74; Ybk. 1904, p. 514; Ybk. 1907, p. 170. row. Brief account, Bul. 38, p. 64. "a Feeding on boll weevil, Bul. 22, pp. 11, 16; Bul. 25, pp. 9, 12, 21; Bul. 29, pp. 6, 19-20, 30; Cire. 64, pp. 3, 5; waste oats, Fauna 33, p. 83; weed seeds, F. Bul. 54, p. 28; F. Bul. 54 (rev.), p. 82; Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 224, 225, 226, 227. Food at Marshall Hall, Bul. 17, pp. 16, — 22, 30, 338, $4, 85)°88, ST, Ta, 7a 75, 77 (17 stomachs). a Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 15, 18, 26, 27, 28, 37, 39, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, | 72-75, 88, 90, (217 stomachs). row. Feeding on weed seeds, Bul. 15, pe 27: Ybk. 1898, pp. 222, 225, 226. Food in California, Bul. 34, pp. 78-7 . 84 (184 stomachs). B 5 ne to fruit in eGalifornia, Ybk. 1904, p. 247. Zonotrichia querula—Harris’s sparrow. Feeding on weed seeds, Ybk. 1898, p. 226. in oa a "Bul. ee pp. 75-77, | . Formal report, Bul. 15, pp. 27, 28, ae one se 8 68-69 (100 stomachs). Zosterops capensis—South African white- é 28, 69-72, 74, 83, 90 (217 eye. Biacaey Feeding on scale insects, Ybk. 1906, r notes, Fauna 7, p. 89. p. 192. ae COPIES of this publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents per copy aut Bat 7 nO aNd L Issued September 19, seh, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BIOLOGICAL SURVEY—BULLETIN No, 44 HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief OF OUR MORE IMPORTANT FLYCATCHERS BY F. E. L. BEAL ee A : Assistant, Biological Survey WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1912 Bul. 44, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate | jate {. KINGBIRD Issued September 19, 1912, Us. DEPARTMENT (OR AGRICULTURE BIOLOGICAL SURVEY—BULLETIN No, 44 HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief FOOD OF OUR MORE IMPORTANT FLYCATCHERS BY Bo. BAe Assistant, Biological Survey Lise z S72 : Zs, (ee A Cpr WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1912 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BIoLocicaL SuRVEY, Washington, D. C., April 5, 191 Sm: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommen publication as Bulletin No. 44 of the Biological Survey, a repo1 the Food of Our More Important Flycatchers, by F. E. L. Beal. more than 90 per cent of the food of the 17 species discussed in paper consists of insects, their economic importance is at once a ent. Unfortunately some of the insects taken by flycatchers food are parasitic and predaceous Hymenoptera, which are to t classed among useful insects. Impartial consideration of the diet of these flycatchers throughout the year, however, leads to the co! tion that on the whole the birds do considerably more good thar harm, and hence should be protected as allies of the farmer and the horticulturist. Ris, Respectfully, Henry W. HENSHAW, q ‘ Chief, Biological Survey. Hon. James WItson, a Secretary of Agriculture. ° CONTENTS. MMMEEAIEMMIRR ER ssc) Rng Peete oe lee sk a eo pewmsor-tailed flycatcher (Musciwora forficata)...........2..2.02--- see ee EMME NUTONILIS LUTGMMNUS)» 9-222 So oot) 4 ad Aol lt. ee Peesuenanane wird. (Tyrannus verticalis).. te be. 018 A ee etd. 2a ee eee eae bind (Tyrannus VOC Erans) 22). 22 bes dan ee ood eae le ge ee Bees uvesteher (Myparchius Crimitus) i244 eens ee os i ee eee Wen-throated flycatcher (Myiarchus cinerascens)....--.2--.-----.-+-¢+--25--+25- REELS HITEOD) (Go a ee ee eee eae Se ye eee ee PERE DCS UNO MIS SANUS): 00 Leal. Sey he 2 oes eae Reem NE OS OUONTUS IAT ICHIIS) 2) Ao. je) ako e ef es oe yes See SSE es Smive-sided flycatcher (Nuittallornis borealis)........-2---2-+-2-2-225 02-226 Re ICEN UMPOCNOIICS VUTCNS). 5202 225i. oe ee ete ene ea gene eee eee Western wood pewee ( Myiochanes richardsont)......-.---------------- Shee ack Yellow-bellied flycatcher (Empidonax flaviventris)........-..---+--------++-+--- Western yellow-bellied flycatcher (Hmpidonax difficilis).....-.-.....--------- mein iyeatcher (Lmpidonax virescens) ..2.-. -2- 22.224 .22255s500 000022 ee Traill’s and alder flycatchers (Hmpidonaz trailli trailla and E. t. alnorum)...--- PEEpedicner (Lin puOnas MINUS)... <2-200005 0-2 5-528¢- 5-25 o5ee see ILLUSTRATIONS: NSS en ee a ae aE acenes ss ~ an sen Ot. Avicaneas kingbird. 2.0.2 /.....00 2.72. 2 ee - <> ae Ist. Crested flycatcher. 22... 2- sds... 2. ag ee 2 ne BY DO con. acs owen ska. ~~ dvd Lame oe - «i dei Mamie wiiahe .2\ dyson vecccaceneses cease au ack phcebe (oe 4 @ FOOD OF OUR MORE IMPORTANT FLYCATCHERS. INTRODUCTION. The flycatchers for the most part inhabit the open country, and prefer to live about gardens, orchards, and sparsely timbered hill- sides. Several species are not averse to human neighbors and make their nests in the crannies of buildings, while a number of others build in covered sites, such as hollow trees, under bridges, or under the overhanging bank of a stream. Many of the species show a strong liking for the vicinity of water, and are frequently to be found in the neighborhood of streams or pools, and in dry parts of the country every watering trough by the roadside has its attendant flycatcher. This fondness for the vicinity of water doubtless arises from the fact that insects are abundant in such situations. Most of the species - are migratory, though some of them within rather narrow limits. These birds are extremely agile upon the wing, and turn in the air with extraordinary facility, which enables them to catch the flying insects; of which their food largely consists. Their favorite method of feeding is to perch upon a post, stake, or leafless twig, and from this outlook watch for their prey, and then to sally forth and snap the luckless insect in midair, often with a sharp click of the bill and a sudden turn back toward the perch. One prominent characteristic, which is more or less marked in the whole family of flycatchers, is the pugnacity they display toward crows, hawks, or other large birds. This is especially shown when the intruders come about the nests of flycatchers, when they are attacked with the greatest vigor and driven off. This trait is particularly marked in kingbirds, so that if a pair of them nest in the vicinity of a poultry yard they serve as protectors of the poultry. Within the limits of the United States there are 31 species of fly- catchers; 1 is of accidental occurrence and 8 are of limited distribu- tion and therefore of little economic importance. For the following discussion of the food of flycatchers 3,398 stomachs were examined, belonging to 17 species. Most of them were obtained in the United States, though a few were taken in British America. The animal food in the whole number of stomachs averages 94.99 per cent and the vegetable 5.01 per cent. In the following table the species are arranged in the order of the amount of their animal food. As some of the species are represented by a comparatively small number of stomachs, this arrangement can not be considered final. 6 FOOD OF THE FLYCATCHERS. Species. Olive-sided flycatcher (Nuttallornis borealis)..............-...----- Western wood pewee (Myiochanes richardsoni) .-..............----- Say’s phoebe (Sayornis sayus).-......--..--.----.------------------ Black phoebe (Sayornis nipricams) ....---.-.:-0.--2---cen--+ieccenes 344 99. 41 Western yellow-bellied flycatcher (Empidonax difficilis)...........- 157 99.31 Wood pewee (Myiochanes virens)...........--.---------+-----0---- 359 98.97 Least flycatcher (Empidonax minimus).................-.-- Sonne 177 97.83 Acadian flycatcher (Empidonax virescens) ...........-------------- 100 97.05 Yellow-bellied flycatcher (Empidonax flaviventris)................. 103 97.01 Scissor-tailed flycatcher (Muscivora forficata).......... Be a gen hanes 129 96.12 Alder flycatcher (Empidonax trailli amorum)............-.--....-- 135 96.05 Crested flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus)....................--.------ 265 93.70 Ash-throated flycatcher (Myiarchus cinerascenms)..............------ 91 92.32 Arkansas kingbird (Tyrannus verticalis)............--..-------.--- 109 90. 61 MOOK AVOMNS PUNE) neat a. -ceece cc ctor cers ensues canescens 370 89.23 Marne bird (iyranns byTannuS))i.3 <¢ osece smccet caemereees oduaeeceke 665 88.93 Cassin’s kingbird (Tyrannus vociferams).......-.--.------------+-- 40 78. 57 CAPA SOLU age Cs et Co i is py lie Ak regs i i caer Rei fe el 3,398 94. 99 5 In the following table the species are arranged in their nats order, with the percentages of the principal elements of the food and the average of each kind in all the stomachs. It will be noted that — Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, and ants) amount to nearly 35 per cent _ of the average diet of the 17 species, or more than one-third of ba “J food. Of 13 of these species Hymenoptera are the largest element in — the diet. Of 1 species Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are — the leading food; in another Lepidoptera (moths and caterpillars) — 4 : are the favorites, and in 2 others Diptera (flies) stand at the head. Hemiptera (bugs) are eaten quite extensively by some, but naturally the ones taken are the larger flying species. Plant lice and scales — have not yet been found in the stomach of any flycatcher, though one ~ bird was shot on a plant covered with lice, with which its bill was filled. Tasie II.—Detailed classification of food of fycattions a a ee =] Fu 3 g é . na. . Slum ies | ot 23\4:| % |B. & Co ec al Ray 42 1o% % | Sa i Be g loc 2 e2|84| 4 |B = re 5 a a) a 21818 |eg| 8 | 5 | fs83) & |S2 2/5) eles/5| 8/52 /8 cee 2/3/28 /B | 8 1/e18 3 P E ele | oil (a) a lS (4° 7a Water: yellow-bellied fly- Seer tailed flycatcher ....] 96.12} 3.88) 13.74 0.17} 3.80 0.39) 4.53) 2.43 a EE Py ee ee eee . 93) 11.07] 25.3 3.77) 3.19 7.70} 1.52) 10.71 Tee kingbird,........ 90.61] 9.39) 17.02 5. 36 - 55 - .99 -24) 9.34 Cassin’s kingbird........... 78. 57| 21. 43) 14. 91 3.41] 2.91 2.51) .34) 19 09 Crested flycatcher .......... 93.70} 6.30) 16.7: 3 3.06 4.88) 4.03) 5.36 Ash-throated flycatcher . . . 68 12.83 1.98} .95) 7.64 lily 2) ent RS SS ee 6.89 8.17} .00] 4.99 Say’s phowbe......... 16. 67 3.46) 1.33) — .. 06 Black phoebe... ...-.. 28. 26 5.43) 23. - 28 Olive-sided flycatcher - 88 1.77) S00) #188 Ww pewee......... 29. 98 2.61) 2.21) .8 Western wood : J ; 44.25 3.23) .24] .06 Yellow-bellied flycatcher...} 97.01) 2.99) 16. & 14. 89 - 98 52) 2.51 22 15 Sp Ren ee cee obs ana 99.31 -69) 8.3 31. «| . 58 Acadian flycatcher .........! 97.05] 2.95) 13.76} é ‘ -99) 2.94 Alder flycatcher............ 96.05} 3.95} 17.89 2.77] .94 Least flycatcher............ | 97.88 83] 2.17 41.36 95} 2.11 AVAL sc cccscaddidas "94.99 99) 5.01 14.31 INTRODUCTION. q Farmers and horticulturists have never accused the flycatchers of _ doing any harm to their crops. The most that has been said against them is that certain of the larger species feed to a harmful extent upon honeybees. Stomach examinations, however, do not sustain this accusation. Honeybees do not form an important percentage of the food, and, moreover, a large proportion of those eaten are drones or males, of which, as is well known, there is in every hive a super- fluity. The real harm, if any, done by this family of birds is in the destruction of predaceous and parasitic Hymengptera. Of the former, however, so few are eaten that their loss is of no practical importance. Some parasitic Hymenoptera are taken by most flycatchers, and with certain of the smaller species they amount to a considerable _ percentage of the food. While theoretically this is harmful to the interests of husbandry, the precise amount of the damage is impos- sible of estimation. The parasites themselves often destroy useful insects, including other parasites, or are themselves destroyed by other insects, so that the question of the final result involves a prob- lem so delicate and complicated as to preclude exact solution. It is a well-known fact that Hymenoptera, aside from the parasitic species, are largely instrumental in the pollenization of plants, and many species are absolutely dependent upon insects for this service. So completely is this true that where cucumbers are raised under glass it is necessary to keep a hive of bees in each house or the crop will fail. In view of this fact the birds must be considered to render a very questionable service in destroying so many of these insects. On the other hand a single insect can pollinate a great many flowers, and as these insects are usually superabundant the harm done by their destruction is less than might at first be supposed. Moreover, this order of insect is not the only one that enjoys the distinction of serving as pollen bearers. Many beetles and flower-loving flies also transfer pollen from flower to flower and so help in this necessary work. . In considering the economic bearings of the food of the flycatchers . one is impressed by the fact that it includes a large percentage of use-- ful insects. The great order of Hymenoptera, which constitutes one- third of the average food of the flycatcher family, may fairly be classed as beneficial. The absolutely harmful species in this group are comparatively few, while the decidedly useful ones are many. As shown in the following pages, however, their food includes many insects other than Hymenoptera which are seriously destructive to crops, and it is believed that, weighing as impartially as possible the injuries done and the benefits conferred by them, their good qualities outweigh the bad and that the flycatchers herein discussed fairly earn the right to live unmolested. SS ee eg a ee SCISSOR-TAILED FLYCATCHER. ( Muscivora forficata.) : SBA ei The scissor-tailed flycatcher is found in the United States, during the months from March to October; casually in western Line ana, western Arkansas, and southwestern Missouri. In winte moves farther south and with few exceptions retires beyond southern boundary. Like the kingbird it prefers the open coun to forests, and seems to be best suited with prairies or rolling cout with scattered trees on which it can nest. In settled territory buildings. While generally a quiet bird that lives on good terr with its neighbors, it ;OSRATE something of the aggressive spil great 2 when they appear near its nest. The following descrip- a tion of some of the bird’s habit! is as good a as has been written: ie aerial seesaw, a line of sharp-angled VVVVVVV's, helping himself at dae short turns by apidly opening and shutting his long white scissors. As he goes up and down he utters all the while a Rte 5 A ‘scream ka-quee’-ka-quee’ uce’-ka-quee “Ea the air, and as you stare after him drops back as antilenshe as he rose. He does = apparently because the spirit moves him, as a boy slings a stone at the sky, but fe , is added by the appearance of a rival or an enemy, for he is much like a Tyrannus in his masterful way of controlling his landscape. He will attack caracaras and white- necked ravens, lighting on their backs and giving them vicious blows while scream- ing in their ears.! nts The following discussion of this bird’s food is based upon the contents of 129 stomachs taken in the months from April to Octcieanet , inclusive. They are rather irregularly distributed, and only one was taken in the latter month. They were collected in the Stat of Texas except one from Florida, which is considerably outside of the bird’s usual range. The animal food amounts to 96.12 per — cent of the stomach contents, practically all of which was made = of insects and spiders. The vegetable food amounts to 3.88 per — cent and is composed of small fruits and seeds. ily = Animal food.—Of the animal food beetles amount to 13.74 per ce and form a rather constant article of diet. Less than 1 percent b to theoretically useful families. The others are practically all ¢ harmful species. Diabrotica 12-punctata was found in 1 stomach This is the well-known 12-spotted cucumber beetle, which often does great injury to that plant, as well as to squash vines, corn, clove beets, beans, peas, and asparagus. Snout beetles, or weevils, we 1 Bailey, Florence Merriam, Handbook of Birds of the Western United States, p. 247, 1902. ED ge ee cotton-boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis), an insect which for the last 10 years has threatened the whole cotton industry of the South. _ The month of greatest beetle consumption is May, while June shows the least, but as only 2 stomachs were taken in that month the record is perhaps not reliable. Hymenoptera (bees and wasps) are eaten to the extent of 12.81 per cent, which is the lowest record _ but one for this item among the flycatchers. As arule, Hymenoptera constitute one of the most important elements of the flycatcher’s diet. As these insects, except the ants, are almost constantly on the wing during daylight, they are peculiarly adapted to the flycatcher’s method of feeding. Those eaten by the scissortail are mostty of the larger kinds, i. e., bees and wasps, with very few of the smaller _ parasitic species. Hemiptera (bugs) amount to 10.17 per cent of the diet and were found in 47 stomachs. At least 9 families were identified, but Pentatomide (stinkbugs) were the most abundant and were found in 22 of the 47 stomachs. In 2 stomachs was identified that disa- greeable pest the squash bug (Anasa tristis). This creature is not classified by entomologists in the stinkbug family, but as far as dis- gusting odor is concerned it is well qualified for that honor. As is well known, it is a great pest upon squash vines and other cucurbi- taceous plants. Most of the other bugs identified are harmful. Diptera (flies) do not seem to appeal to this flycatcher as articles of food. They were found in the stomachs taken in April, May, and September only, and amount to but 3.80 per cent. Diptera occurred in only 14 stomachs, in 8 of which they were identified as robber flies (Asilidze), an insect which will be more fully discussed in rela- tion to the kingbird. Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are evidently the favorite food of the scissortail. They were found in the stomachs of every month, with a good percentage in all except April. The average for the year is 46.07 per cent—the highest for any flycatcher. The 1 stomach taken in October contained 86 per cent of these insects, but it is probable that the month of maximum consumption is July, when they amount to over 65 percent. As this bird is said to seldom light upon the ground, it follows that these insects must be captured when they take their short flight or jumps. Melanoplus femur- rubrum was identified in 1 stomach and was probably contained in many more but too badly broken for recognition. This is the well-known red-legged grasshopper that often does great harm to grass and grain crops. In general grasshoppers and crickets are eaten to the greatest extent by the ground-feeding birds, such as the meadowlark, while the flycatchers take the flying Hymenoptera. In this case the rule seems to be reversed. Of the 129 stomachs 88 41895°—Bul. 44122 | . contained piel (eee or eae and 8 hel | 0 pillars, with a few moths, constitute a small but rathe, article of diet with the scissortail. They amount to 4.61 ] for the year and were found in the stomachs of every mont October. In several stomachs the cotton leaf worm (Ala argillacea) was identified and the cotton bollworm (Heliothis | leta) in another. Both of these are well-known pests of the | plant and also feed upon a number of other cultivated plants, sweet corn of the garden. It also preys upon tomatoes and sionally upon beans and peas. A few dragon flies and some miscellaneous insects and spiders make the rest of the animal f 4.92 per cent. ; Following is a list of the insects identified in the stomachs a the number of stomachs in which each is contained: HYMENOPTERA (bees and wasps). oo pa one a oeged 1 | Ophion sp...-.......---«.55 ee Si an a Tacle 8 gait ian aa ais 1 | Pogonomyrmer gp ..-..:-_5.-. eee con COLEOPTERA (beetles). Cicindela rectilatera.........-------- 2 | Euphoria inda......._.<.... ee Cicindela schauppii.....------------ 2 | Stenosphenus delosus............---- rma maelata . .'/.,. 2 === «te «ae 1 | Cyllene crinicornis....-..2.:21.¢ sna" Coccinella abdominalis......--..----- 1 | Cyllene robiniz-.._-...-5..55e a Hister abbreviatus............-.-.--- : 1 | Leptura sp..+......-.. ee oe _ Acmzodera militaris........-.-.------ 1 | Oberea sp....._....... seen eee ] PRIVENTNMECONPUBEG. -..... 2 22 2 ane 1 | Cryptocephalus cribripennis........--. aie. 2 Chauliognathus marginatus........-- 2 | Diabrotica 12-punctata............-. Canthon leconiet......-.---.--.----~. 4 | Macrobasis albida........-22J.. eee Canthon cyanellus..............--... 1 | Epicauta lemniscata........2) eee bp Sh Sen Lie, -------- = 1 | Epicauta funebris.........-...-.- Pa SME wo SUoR <2 ba oe eee ee 2 | Epicauta sp..-..-...-:-2.- + see if Onthophagus pennsylvcnicus........ 1 | Ophryastes tuberosus......-.--.------ a Peerophague sp.... 0-01... J2020s23. 1 | Phacepholis elegans.......-.-..----- wed WEROOCETAS. JOTCIUS. ooo. 5-5. on es sae 1 | Anthonomus grandis.......-.....---- 1 Dachelonyoha 6D: ..2..-.--.------- «+ s- 1 | Balaninus sp....-.----- ‘> dan ee = EN OE ere ) Calandra oryzz........«..+..0s00ee eiphoria fulgida...........2-..-2..- 1 | LEPIDOPTERA. Cotton leaf worm (Alabama argil- Cotton bollworm (Heliothis asia! SS 52) Fey SE 3 HEMIPTERA (bugs). Cicada sp... echeeensseseeen--- 1 | Muechistus ap......__. 2 seen ; Rilncisd droraia. | 1 | Thyanta enstator..........-.------5 me) Stiretrus anchorago..........-.-..--- 1 | Anasa tristis.......- ..... . Cthatie pugnat:) 122.5226 20-52... aee 1 | Phymata sp.....-2. 3... 2 Weis Foe ee THE KINGBIRD. 11 ORTHOPTERA (grasshoppers, crickets, etc.). - Syrbula memhicornis...1 22.2 Tol. 1 | Chortophaga viridifasciata........-. 1 Melanoplus femur-rubrum.....-.---- tt hr Rettigideor tateralisee\ 22 t. hk Piet 1 3 IMGIANODIUS SP ia. 22. - 2 2s s-2-s Re ets GUE LOES SID) Sa oot Ate ae Ns eee 9 ‘4 NEUROPTERA : Bee Mantispa brunnea........---------- Sf Manes pas 6 oes eae es il Vegetable food.—The vegetable food consists of small fruit, or berries, and a few seeds. The total percentage, 3.88, indicates that __ this is not the favorite kind of food, but is taken for variety. _ Summary.—tit needs but little study of the food of the scissor- tailed flycatcher to show that where the bird is abundant it is of much economic value. Its food consists almost entirely of insects, including so few useful species that they may be safely disregarded. its consumption of grasshoppers is alone sufficient to entitle this ___ bird to complete protection. THE KINGBIRD. (Tyrannus tyrannus.) The kingbird (frontispiece), sometimes known as the bee martin, inhabits nearly the whole of the United States and extends north far into British America. It is much less abundant in the southwestern part of the country, having never been taken in Arizona and rarely in California. In winter it passes beyond the southern boundary of the United States. It is one of the largest of our flycatchers and probably the most common one east of the Rocky Mountains. The favorite haunts of the kingbird are orchards and open pastures, and it will often nest in the near-vicinity of farm buildings. Many cases are on record where chickens and other poultry have been saved from hawks by the timely interference of kingbirds that were nesting near by. This habit of the bird was noted by observers more than two centuries ago. Thus we find in Josselyn’s Voyages to New England (published in 1675, p. 96) the following account: “There is a small Ash-color Bird * * * that falleth upon Crows, mounting up into the air after them, and will beat them till they make them cry.” The kingbird seems to be by nature very pugnacious and noisy, and when it nests in orchards in the vicinity of robins, a constant warfare is kept up between the two species. While the plumage of this bird is not conspicuously colored, it has upon its head a con- cealed crown patch of brilliant orange or scarlet which can be brought into view by the erection of the coronal feathers. In the investigation of the food of the kingbird 665 stomachs were examined. They were taken in the months from March to October, ee > ae The other Leary were well Bae ci Geographicaliaas t distributed through 29 States, the District of Columbia, and British America. The food is compoted of 88.93 per cent of animal m. tter to 11.07 of vegetable. The former is made up of insects and a few spiders, the latter is mostly small fruit. Animal food.—Useful beetles, mostly the predaceous ground : beetles (Carabide), amount to 4.64 per cent for the whole period. — The 1 stomach taken in October contained 12 per cent, but in July, when 157 stomachs were examined, the average was less than 7 per cent. The rose chafer, more commonly known as the rose bug (Macrodactylus subspinosa), is not much eaten by birds. It comes, usually in swarms, about the month of June when the roses bloom. _ It is very destructive to roses and some other flowers. The kingbird seems to have a special liking for this insect, as it was found in 24 stomachs and 1 contained 40 individuals. Other beetles identified, that are of special economic importance, are the asparagus beetle — (Crioceris asparagi), the spotted cucumber beetle (Diabrotica 12- _ punctata), and the locust leaf miner (Odontota dorsalis). The last sometimes completely defoliates locust trees. One stomach held over 100 specimens of a small dung beetle (Aphodius inquinatus), which sometimes flies in swarms in the late afternoon, when it is probably __ taken by the kingbird. A fewstomachs were collected in the cotton fields of Texas, and 4 of them contained remains of the notorious cotton-boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis). Several other stomachs contained the clover-leaf weevil (Phytonomus punctatus) and the imbricated snout beetle (/picerus imbricatus). All of these are pests, and the latter seems to feed upon nearly every variety of fruit and vegetable. Sphenophorus zex, the corn weevil, which feeds upon ei og roots and stalks of corn, was identified i in 1 stomach. ‘ Perhaps the most surprising and unexpected components of this bird’s food are the blister beetles (Meloide). They appearin thefood tosome extent in every monthin which stomachs were collected (except the 1 stomach in October); and in September, when 46 stomachs were taken, they amount to 11.55 per cent of the whole food for that month. For the entire eight months they aggregate 2.69 per cent, which is not a large percentage, but the wonder is that they are eaten at all, As is well known, these insects contain the drug commonly known as cantharadin, which beside its property of blistering the skin produces other peculiar physiological effects when taken internally. Itseems hardly credible that a bird could eat without harm an insect that causes a blister when crushed upon the human skin, but that this bird does eat them, and apparently as many of them as it can get, isshown by the fact that 8 of these beetles were found in 1 stomach, 10in another, 11 in each of 2 others, 13 in each of 4, and 14 in another, __ They were found in 70 stomachs, or over 11 per cent of the whole,and __ . +. % a % THE KINGBIRD. . 13 in 1 stomach they constituted 97 per cent of the contents and in several others the percentage was nearly as great. The species identified from the stomachs are EHpicauta trichrus, FE. cinerea, E. pennsylvanica, Macrobasis unicolor, Nemognatha nilivicollie. and Meloe americanus. Other beetles, all of which belong to more or less harmful families, amount to 18.02 per cent. If to these we add the Carabide and Meloide, we have an aggregate of 25.35 per cent of beetles in the diet, the largest item but one. Hymenoptera amount to 32.39 per cent of the food, the largest item. Of these probably about one-fourth are parasitic species that must be reckoned as useful insects. Of the others the one which has attracted most attention in connection with the kingbird is the common honey- bee (Apis mellifera). The bird has for years had the reputation of catching honeybees to an injurious extent; indeed, some bee keepers declare that if left to prey upon the bees unmolested it will destroy the whole colony. The testimony upon this point, however, is very contradictory, and other observers equally reliable say that the bird takes few, if any, bees, and still others declare that it takes only the useless drones. The following are samples of testimony upon this point: Mr. I. N. Arnold, writing from Richmond, Ohio, under date of September 5, 1885, says: The bee martin, or kingbird, is very destructive to bees. * * * Ihave seen the kingbird bring its young as soon as they could fly and stay close to the apiary and feed exclusively on bees. They are most destructive to bees that are coming in laden, and they are liable to catch a valuable queen when she is out to mate. I am running a large apiary, and have been annoyed a great deal by the bee birds. Mr. P. R. Staunton, of Le Roy, N. Y., says: The kingbird feeds upon bees. It is especially dangerous when bees are swarming, as there is danger then of losing the queen. Every apiarist keeps a gun in his yard ready to entertain the kingbird. The bird will hover in the air and snap up bees as rapidly as they come within reach. * * * Every snap of the bill means a bee lost. The following from Mr. J. P. H. Brown, of Augusta, Ga., under date of September, 1886, gives a different view of the subject: In regard to birds feeding on the honeybee, I can speak positively on the subject. I keep from 150 to 200 colonies of Italian bees, and make the breeding of queen bees a specialty. For the last 15 years I have made the habits of the birds infesting my apiary astudy. They are mocking birds, bee martins, redbirds, and catbirds. They build their nests in the shrubbery and trees in my apiary. Bee keepers generally give these birds a bad reputation and exterminate them. I have watched the bee martin, the worst reputed bird of the lot, at times when I thought I saw him take a bee, shot him, and quickly opened his crop. Thus far I have failed to find anything in it like a worker bee. I have often detected the remains of drone bees and other insects; hence I have ceased to destroy the birds and allow them to have full liberty. The drone or male bees have no sting, and birds, as well as very young chickens, can soon learn to distinguish a drone from a worker. Of 665 stomachs examined, honeybees were found in 22. The total number in these 22 stomachs was 61, of which 51 were drones, 14 FOOD OF THE iE VORNO Re eS 8 were workers, and 2 indeterminate. When we consider that probably three times that number would be nearer ae rial 1 at once be seen that the proportion of honeybees in the kingbird diet is small. PRY Other Hymenoptera in the kingbird’s food are ordinary bunibilee bees, wasps, and hornets of various species, of which probably the | best that can be said is that they perform a useful function in the | fertilization of flowers. As there is little danger that there will ever — be too few of them for this service, the birds are doing no great harm in feeding upon the surplus. WE ie ( Hemiptera (bugs) are not an important element of the kingbisdlies: food, though they were found in the stomachs of every month except — ; March. In April they amount to 7.25 per cent, which is the highest __ of any month. The average for the year is 3.77 per cent. Asmight be expected, the species are such as can be taken on the wing and do _ not include such sedentary creatures as scales and plant lice. Stink- bugs (Pentatomidz) and cicadas, with a few assassin bugs Se Bat viidee), make up the bulk of this item. rag Diptera (flies) are eaten by the kingbird in only moderate quan- tities, though they appear in the stomachs of every month except _ the one taken in October. The maximum percentage, 8.36, occurs in May, and the average for the year is 3.19 per cent. They belong to several families, but one is of especial interest in relation to the kingbird and honeybees. This is the family of the robber flies (Asilidz), most of which are large, long-bodied, hairy creatures that fly with a loud, buzzing sound and are usually seen about flowers in bright sunshine, preying upon the insects that come to the flowers for honey. They might be thought to be useful insects were it not for the fact that some species have a special liking for honeybees, which _ they kill in considerable numbers. The late Dr. Riley states that one species (Promachus fitchii) has been known to kill 141 honeybees i in a single day. Mr. T. J. Parrish, writing from Gainesville, Tex., in ea 1886, refers to robber flies as follows: ae The kingbird does not feed upon bees, but an insect about three times as large as the bee, which carries off honey-laden bees, kills them, and appropriates the honey. Itisa hump-backed, long-tailed, spider-legged monstrosity, of rapid flight, and it in July and August. Prof. A. J. Cook, a well-known authority on bees, in an article on the natural enemies of the honeybee, speaks of these flies as follows: Among Diptera the family Asilidse (robber flies) afford the most serious pests to the os apiarist * * *, There are at least 3 species of Asilus, 2 of Mallophora, 2 0f Proma- chus, 2 of Laphria, and 2 of Hrar that catch and kill bees. These predaceous flies eee work the most serious mischief south, but are not exempt from blame even as far — north as Ontario.! MSs #7 re an 1 American Naturalist, XV, p. 200, 1881. by THE KINGBIRD. 15 Robber flies were found in 19 of the stomachs, and 1 contained 6 individuals. In all, 26 were identified, which would seem to be abundant payment for the 8 worker bees. A few syrphus and tachinid flies and a number of the long-legged crane flies (Tipulide) make up the rest of the Diptera of the kingbird’s diet. Lepidoptera (moths, ‘butterflies, and their larve) form 3.18 per cent of the food of the kingbird. Most birds eat adult Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) but sparingly, preferring their larve, com- monly known as caterpillars. The flycatchers, however, eat quite a number of moths as well as caterpillars. They were found in the stomachs of the kingbird in nearly every month except March and October, when but few stomachs were taken. Beginning with a maximum of 5.60 per cent in April, they decrease quite regularly to a minimum of 2.87 per cent in July, after which they again increase to 4.61 per cent in September. The cotton worm (Alabama argil- lacea) is the only insect of this order found in the stomachs which is of any special interest. This was found in a few stomachs of birds taken in the cotton fields of Texas and was in the larval or caterpillar state. Other Noctuids (cutworms) either as adults or larve were identified in seven stomachs. Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, etc.) stand third in importance in the kingbird’s food and during July and August exceed any other element. None were found in the stomachs taken in March and October, but in April they amounted to 2.40 per cent, from which they gradually increased to 32.83 in August, and then rapidly decreased and disappeared. The average for the year was 11.83 per cent. Like many other eastern birds, the kingbird takes advantage of the abundance of grasshoppers in July and August and replaces some other articles of diet with them. Besides the insects already enumerated, the kingbird eats some dragon flies and ephemerids, with an occasional raphidian, and now and then a scorpion fly (Panorpa), in all making 1.52 per cent of the diet. The bones of a tree frog, those of a lizard, a few crustaceans (Oniscus), commonly known as sow bugs, and the shell and lingual ribbon of a snail were alsofound. These last were evidently not regular articles of diet and amounted to only 1.29 per cent. Following is a list of the animal food identified in the stomachs and the number of stomachs in which each species occurred: HYMENOPTERA (wasps, bees, etc.). BION CN ne tie dence nae nan (20 | Mégachile sp... oncdveu asd cduwubiee 1 Bombus vagans.......---.---- Cee 1. | Celoxys 8-dentata...22 22 cnc a2050 000s 1 EID tel eh ee ie ann LS PATMITCHE BP. 5. oe cs Moe ee 2 OPSROUCH BY s 2 13's 3 alas 6 2 mnie oem S| AGAPOSLCMNON BP. .s8 an nicks sae Rete 3 TOI Sass tm ae aie aya mam iL} Holichis Sp... 2-2-8. Sosa ieee 3 of ESE ES ae eee TN RCUNCIELEDD cova koe soak eee p ETL E UP EVIE soo ac oam Xu mais aim sine ar eC ROUEO RN Less oc a ea ee 2 Bemben fasciata........-..-------- even _ Ammophila gryphus Ro He Mls Ammophila varipes...-.-..------ AMMOPRUGED. 12222 A eS iPanpilussp. 2355.88 ae Leva Vespe Germanied....-: 3. 2 Jassehsie VETO TCL DL Le ae See aa ae ESM PSTORINDS 2k a ae ape a ag de DAG] eee ee UVDGE VG a NIN re ore Aphexnogaster fulva....--- PTH Fi Aphezxnogaster tennesseense...... - - nanoguster BP..-.-.--.-.------ Mowindela purpurea.....-......-.- Cincindela vulgaris. .........--.-- Cicindela 12-guttata............... Cicindela punctulata........- Calosoma calidum.......-------- TE ie AIRE LSE aie ool Mclerostichtis PAYi.2 2... -.205-2- <5! BETORONUA BD... 20-6 = -)- =n = = BONGO PVOTOIC.- 2.2. ine mane <= <8 Amara impuneticollis ........----- ON Se a a eS Sa eee DMCC Dron apo n= -~-------+-s Geopinus incrassatus.........---- Cratacanthus dubius...........--- Agonoderus lineola.........-.-..- Agonoderus pallipes........--.-- Harpalus pennsylvanicus.....-.-- DMEM ED iia po. sous ke sade Anisodactylus rusticus........--.-- Anisodactylus discoideus........... Anisodactylus baltimorensis..... ..-- Anisodactylus sp......-..-------- Spheridium scarabxoides........- Necrophorus guttata.........-..+.- COLEOPTERA (beetles). Camponotus sp. Lasius alienus. isis Lasius'sp...2 225.2 Ee Formica fusca...-.--- TS is Formica integra. ..--------- Lampronota ap... - «+ -}.. ae Pimpla sp ........ <7: - ape Xylonomus sp. ...--.---------25 Ophion bilineatum......---.--- pe Ophion sp... 0s. 12. Limneria sp.:.2. .:: AG: Sea ie Paniscus geminatus......-....-.--- é Tremex. columba...--.~.) -ba sae en Tremez Sp. .-.------===5 555s Staphylinus cinnamopterus Staphylinus sp Philonthus sp Coccinella 9-notata Coccinella sanguinea var. munda..... Anat ocellata. ........-s-0 eae ca Bs Hister cenosus......--.-.--=0ee _ Fister abbreviatus. :. -... 2 eaeeee By Hister americanus.......2+.+2+-+-- aap i Saprinus assimilis........+..-++++-++- re Trogosiia virescens. .- - - +. ---s5aeee anil “I ee i Phengodes fusiceps.......----++--- a Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus.-... nd Telephorus carolinus...........-.-+25 Telephorus rotundicollis........---- Telephorus bilineatus....-. ; Amphicerus punctipennis....-..----- -- 5 aaa ata UEC TES (Eo, crs aii eases 1 | Gerris marginatus ESB ES laa aS Se ities 7 | Bydromeira sp--.-..-.2 7222 eeeeee ORTHOPTERA (grasshoppers, crickets, etc.). Melanoplus femur-rubrum...-------- 19 Tettiz sp....0..----- 22 TS OES | aa aaa 24 | Udeopsylla robusta.....-.-.---<--+-55) Chortophaga viridifasciata.......-..-- 4 | Nemobius vitiatus........-..-.-.-- Camnula pellucida... .-.....2--.---% 1 | Gryllus sp.....-----. 5 een aie Dissostewa carolina......------------ 2 | Gcanthus sp....--.---.---+-----208 CHILOGNATHA. Wimmera; (milloped). .--- oe. ee ten ola ee eee ead eee cee ARACHNIDA (spiders). 1 a i i AR ea es 1 | Lycosa'sp.... -.2..3. 5. as. Vegetable food.—The vegetable food of the kingbird anneal 11.07 per cent of its diet, and consists of small fruit, with an sional seed. Altogether it was found in 302 stomach None y contained in the three stomachs taken in March nor in the one t in October, but beginning with less than 2 per cent in April is a steady increase to 35.50 per cent in September. Of uncultiv small fruits 25 species were identified, not counting the rubus f (raspberries and blackberries), which may have been either c¢ vated or wild. These last were found in 74 stomachs, whic more than in any other species. Cultivated cherries Were ident in 11 stomachs; strawberries, which may have been wild, in 2; in 1; and currants in 1. Grapes were contained in several stome but were apparently all of wild species. A few seeds were found some bits of rubbish, but these were probably swallowed acca with an insect or other food. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) .... 1 | Alternate-leaved dogwood ( coms Common elder(Sambucus canadensis). 5 alternifolia).........: 2.0.05 Elder(Sambucussp.)........-------- 6 | Panicled dogwood (Cornus panic- Common nightshade (Solanum ni- wlata) .\....0..0054. 5 0ee > BS) 68 eee 1 | Rough-leaved dogwood (Cornus asper- Blueberry ( Vacciniwmsp.)......---.. 19 vfolia).. Lk. sd gee Huckleberry (Gaylussacia sp.)...... 4 | Kinnikinnik (Cornus amomum).... 2 Ae Dogwood (Cornus sp.)...--.+--:---- 5 _ ARKANSAS KINGBIRD. 19 June berry (Amelanchter canadensis):. 5 Fox grape (Vitis vulpina)....-..--- 1 | Chokeberry (Pyrus sli pee a 1 Frost grape (Vitis cordifolia) ........ 6 | Currant (Ribessp.).. Bene I! _ Northern fox grape (Vitis labrusca)... 1 | Spicebush (Benzoin Paine Sameera 8 Virginia creeper (Psedera quinque- Sassafras (Sassafras vartifolium)... . - - 18 OSS Secs SE aa 5 | Pokeberry (Phytolacca decandra).....- 10 Bluewood (Condalia obovata).-...--- 1 | Amaranth (Amaranthussp.).-.------ 1 Buckthorn (Rhamnuslanceolatus).... 4 | Fig (Ficus sp.).....---.-.--+------- vail: Prmmreese (RIES SY)> 2 oo = =. 20 = ofa <'= = = 1. | Mulberry ( Morussp:).. 2.2: 422-2 saa Domestic cherry (Prunus sp.)..------ 11 | Bayberry (Myrica carolinensis)... ... 3 Bird cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica).. 4 | Foxtail grass (Setariasp.)........---- 1 Chokecherry (Prunus virginiana).... 10 | Red cedar (Juniperus virginianus).. 2 Wild black cherry (Prunus serotina).. 8 | Sedge (Rhynchospora sp.)....------- 1 Blackberry and raspberry (Rubus Grass seed not further identified....- 2 Ee in on 2s wins = win cence ob 74 | Fruit pulp not further identified.... 42 Strawberry (Fragaria vesca).....----- 2 | Seeds not further identified........ Uf Summary.—F¥rom the above discussion of the vegetable food of the kingbird it is evident that the bird’s economic status is to be deter- mined entirely by its animal food, as the vegetable portion is practi- cally neutral. Of the animal part the largest item, Hymenoptera, is composed largely of insects indirectly beneficial to the interests of man. A portion of them are parasitic upon caterpillars and other injurious species and probably are largely instrumental in holding these in check. On the other hand, they parasitize useful insects, and even the parasites themselves are destroyed by other parasite (hyperparasites). Other members of the order, such as wasps and bees, perform a useful function in pollenizing flowers. For these reasons the destruction of Hymenoptera in general can not be con- sidered altogether desirable. In the destruction of other kinds of insects the kingbird is con- ferrmg an almost unmixed blessing. A few of the beetles are theoretically useful, but bugs, grasshoppers, flies, and caterpillars embrace some of the worst pests to agriculture, and these, with the harmful beetles and a few miscellaneous insects, constitute 50 per cent of the kingbird’s food. The internal relations of the other 50 per cent of the food are such as to render it neutral as a whole, thus leaving a balance of 50 per cent to the kingbird’s credit. ARKANSAS KINGBIRD. (Tyrannus verticalis.) The Arkansas kingbird (Pl. II) occupies during the breeding season the western portion of the United States from the Pacific Ocean eastward as far as Minnesota, Kansas, and Texas, though stragglers have been taken east of this line. It extends northward into British America, where it breeds, but in winter it retires entirely It is a bird beyond the southern boundary of the United States. 20 i ss FOOD OF THE FLYCATCHER of the open country and avoids forests. A hilly country takes kindly to civilization and the vicinity of gardens aud bui Not rarely it nests in trees on the village streets and in some cases actually places its nest upon the structures of man; but in genera it is less domestic than its eastern relative, whose nest is so often built in an orchard. It does not seem to have that antipathy to hawks and other birds so characteristic of the eastern kingbird, and a case is on record where it has built its nest on the same tree with a hawk and a Bullock’s oriole.! For the investigation of the food of the Arkansas kingbird 109 stomachs were available. They were collected in the months of March to October, inclusive, with 3 taken in December. The greater number of them are from California, but a few were collected in 6 other States. The food is found to consist of 90.61 per cent of animal matter to 9.39 per cent of vegetable. Of the animal portion, — Hymenoptera (bees and wasps), Coleoptera (beetles), and Onhteaae a (grasshoppers) constitute over three-fourths. a Animal food.—Beetles of all kinds amount to 17.02 per cent of the Be food, and include 5.47 per cent of useful species, mostly Carabidae — and Cicindelide. For a flycatcher this is a large record of these _ useful beetles, as they are largely ground-inhabiting species and not — so often on the wing as most others. The remainder, 11.55 per cent, are either harmful or neutral. No special pests were found among _ them. Hymenoptera (bees and wasps) are the largest item of animal food and amount to 31.38 per cent. They form a good percentage a of the food in every month except August, when they are pa replaced by grasshoppers. A few of the parasitic species were found, — but not many. Honeybees (Apis mellifera) were noted in 5 stomachs. - In all, there were 31 bees, of which 29 were males, or drones, and 4.4 were workers. This bird has been accused in California of eating — honeybees to an injurious extent. It was said that the bird lingered _ near the hive and snapped up the honey-ladened bees as they returned — from the field. This statement is not borne out by the facts phe a above. Hemiptera (bugs) are a small but rather regular constituent a the food of the Arkansas kingbird and were found i in the stoma of every month except October. March appears to be the month | of maximum consumption, 19 per cent, but this can not be taken — as proved, for only 3 stomachs were taken in that month. June, — with 9.86 per cent from 28 stomachs, is more likely to be the month — of true maximum. They belong to the stinkbug family, the leaf bugs (Capside), and the shield-backs (Goutal lari with a few. 3 cicadas. Altogether bugs amount to 5.36 per cent of the food. — NM +?) 180€C0@80DN TT a 1 Bendire, C. E., Life Histories of North American Birds, I, p. 246, 1892, Bul. 44, Biological Survey, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. Plate I ARKANSAS KINGBIRD. "ARKANSAS KINGBIRD. 21 ‘Diptera (flies) constitute 0.55 per cent of the diet. In June 3.21 per cen+ were taken, but in no other month do they reach 1 per cent, and in March, September, October, and December none at all were eaten. This bird is apparently not much of a “flycatcher.” _ Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), including both adult moths and caterpillars, amount to 7.31 per cent of the food. When eaten at all _ they appear to constitute a fair percentage of the daily diet, but they are entirely absent from the stomachs of March, September, and _ Oetober. A greater number of stomachs, however, might give a somewhat different result. _ Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, etc.) stand next to Hymenop- _ tera in the diet of the Arkansas kingbird. March appears to be the month of least consumption, as the 3 stomachs taken then showed _ only 3.33 per cent while the 3 taken in December contained 44 per cent. In all the other ménths they constitute a good percentage of the food, and, as seems natural, August is the month of maximum consumption, with 61.58 per cent. The total for the year is 27.76 per cent. It is a singular fact that several western species of fly- catchers eat more grasshoppers than do the meadowlark and black- birds, which obtain their food almost wholly upon the ground. The _ Teverse is the case with the corresponding eastern birds. The _ orthopterous food consists almost entirely of grasshoppers with very few crickets. _ Dragon flies and a few other miscellaneous insects, millepeds and spiders, the bones of tree frogs in 3 stomachs, and egg shells, apparently those of a domestic fowl, make up the remainder of the animal food, 1.23 per cent. Following is a list of the insects identified and the number of - stomachs in which each was found: HYMENOPTERA (bees and wasps). ee pia mellifera.......-.-------------- 5 | Prosopis afinis.....---2.- RARE il Meeiciiesodes Sp__-.-....---.----------- eV iGry giaes Saye be e215 i 1 MeNFOPOUA HP ..-....------:------ pitid Ophion 6ilineatus) 252035. 5) eee 1 MEINTENG BD... --..--.-.--..-------- i hOphion. speek ss er COLEOPTERA (beetles). Mee vatynusep.....--.-.-........---- 1) Oniho phagus sp 2200 22) i) 4 ees 2 _ Anisodactylus baltimorensis........- - (1 | Aphodius fimetarius.....-2..-2225--- 2 _ Anisodactylus semipunctatus.......- lil Aphodius'sp. 2902. 1635 eee 2 _ Agabus sp.. Sep se es 2 i ke Rolboceras faretus., 0. 4:5 ae eee ae 1 Fydatieus stagnalis. - PLE, YSeane 1. Geotrupes sp... 3.4223... meeiupharamosa....-.--.-.-.-.------ 1 | Amphicoma ursina...---.--------+- 5 Staphylinus siverrelliss a1 NA Sole ae I. | Baphoria didi. 0230 28 eae 1 B Staphylinus lostevpes.. "35.5 LL a 5 Lee ahora sp. us 2) 1 _ Hister americanus.. Beni sens OL NC TemMIstachilud Spas: cis. Ut. eee 3 | Megapenthes turulentus.. bene ed. Lepiura- stabs. 22. ososn eee 1 Memon [2Vis.......-..----1.---2-- dy | NDF GTi AC] 1 glen laces ea See ete i) _ Onthophagus hecate.........-.-.---- 1 | ROMMINUS EDL. occ cccciesdtevsece= a) keee ae FOOD OF THE FLYCATCHER DIPTERA (flies). ‘ oinbylnis apes. 2202 AS ee a ee, eee eae eae HEMIPTERA (bugs). Hurygaster alternatus......--------- 1: Nezara'sp. .....2 2. 2 bb Podisus modestus........-.0222.2.... ° 1) Calocoris rapidus........2. 22 HTMACINSEUS SCTUUS? 32. dc 5-21 ck 2088 1 one (eae Seeds wad skins = elderberries (Sambucus) were ce found in 11 stomachs, woodbine (Psedera) in 2, hawthorn berries ; (Cratzgus) in 1, an olive in 1, and skin and pulp me fruit not ie identified in 2. vs The following fruits were efi ue in the stomachs: _ ie Virginia creeper (Psedera quinque- Elderberry (Sambucus sp.).......-. I rem ae ese Oc) > s3-iadesh ~2¢ 2 | Olive (Olea europxa).......-...---- Hawthorn (Crategus BW astan~ Laacases ut Summary.—The vegetable food of the Arkansas kingbird is one ea little economic importance that it may be dismissed without further — comment. The animal food is open to adverse criticism in only | “ one point—the useful beetles. But even if it be admitted that the — destruction of these is harmful to man’s interests, the amount of damage i is so small as to be completely “verbaluiibel by the wood 9 done in other directions. The charge that the bird destroys honey-— bees is not sustained by the results of this investigation. On the — whole, it appears that the Arkansas kingbird is one of the mas useful birds in the region where it is found. Loa CASSIN’S KINGBIRD. - (Tyrannus vociferans.) Cassin’s kingbird occupies in the breeding season the western por-— tion of the United States from the eastern slope of the Rocky Moun- tains westward to the Pacific and north to central California and southern Wyoming. It is rather irregularly distributed in this region and is entirely wanting over considerable areas. Like the | two preceding species it prefers open, parklike country to forests but it is said to be more of a mountain bird and to breed at hi rr altitudes. The habits of the bird must differ somewhat in different localities or at different seasons. Maj. Bendire says of it: ‘‘Cas- sin’s kingbird is neither as noisy nor as quarrelsome as the preceding” species” [ 7. verticalis]. ny é AL, v7 yi . “wd 1 Life Histories of North American Birds, I, p. 250, 1895. CASSIN’S KINGBIRD. 23 Speaking of the same species, Dr. Edgar A. Mearns says: On the Mogollon Mountains I saw them attack crows and western red-tailed hawks and drive them from the neighborhood of their nests after the spirited fashion of the eastern kingbird.? Only 40 stomachs of Cassin’s kingbird were available for the study - of its food. They are distributed very irregularly over the year, and none were taken in April, May, July, and August. While this scanty supply of material may give us some information as to what the bird eats, it can not furnish reliable data as to relative propor- tions. The food was found to be composed of 78.57 per cent of animal matter to 21.43 of vegetable. Animal food.—Beetles of all kinds amount to 14.91 per cent of the food. Of these, about 1 per cent are of species that are more or less useful (Carabide). The others are Scarabeide, Cerambycide (Saperda sp.), Elateridz, and Histeridee (Hister sellatus). Hymenop- tera amount to 21.61 per cent and consist for the most part of wild bees and wasps. No honeybees were found, but several predaceous or parasitic species were identified, such as Tuphia wnornata and Myzine 6-cincta. As with many other flycatchers, Hymenoptera are the largest item of food. Hemiptera (bugs) are eaten rather irregularly and not in large quantities. They amount to 3.41 per gent. The only ones identified were of the family Pentatomide (stinkbugs). Diptera constitute only 2.91 per cent of the diet, 3 which again illustrates the fact that some flycatchers do not catch 4 many flies. They belong to the long-legged crane-fly family (Tipu- lidge) and the family of the house fly (Muscide). | Lepidoptera, i. e., moths and caterpillars, amount to 18.21 per cent of the food, which is a high percentage for a flycatcher; for while moths may be caught on the wing, caterpillars must be picked from the surface on which they crawl, unless they let themselves down from a tree by a thread and so hang in mid-air. Caterpillars were found ~ in 11 stomachs and moths in 6. Of the latter, 21 individuals were made out in 1 stomach. They are probably a very popular article of diet with this bird, as they appear in the food of every month, but in rather irregular amounts. More stomachs would probably give a more regular record. Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are apparently eaten rather irregularly, but as nearly every month in which they appeared at all showed a goodly quantity, they would seem to be a favorite food, and it is probable that a greater number of stomachs would give a more regular showing. In January they amount to 47.50 per cent in 4 stomachs, while the 1 stomach taken in February shows none at all. It is not probable, however, that Janu- ary is really the month of maximum consumption of grasshoppers. 1 The Auk, VII, p. 255, 1890. a L € would ee been considerably on A few oe ie ie . som spiders make up the balance of the animal food, 2.85 per cent. ay Vegetable food.—Although Cassin’s kingbird eats more vegetable — olives in 2, elderberries in 1, blueberries (Vaccinium) in 1, and pul not further identified in 4. With the exception of some grapes: found in 1 of the March stomachs, all the fruit was eaten in the months from September to January, inclusive. Summary.—In the choice of its animal food Cassin’s kingbird doar but little harm, as it eats only a few predaceous or parasitic insects, nor, so far as this investigation shows, does it attack honeybees. In Sieckine its vegetable food it shows considerate fondness for culti- vated fruits, but no bird so thoroughly insectivorous as this ys catcher will ever become a menace to fruit culture. CRESTED FLYCATCHER. (Myiarchus crinitus.) The crested flycatcher (Pl. III) occupies practically all that port tion of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains and oxic is northward into southern Canada. It is somewhat more of a bird of ; the forest than the kingbirds, but, like them, frequents the open country and delights in orchards, especially if they be old with many _ hollow trees to serve as nesting sites. While extending over a vast area of country it is very irregularly distributed, being abundant in _ some portions and rare or wholly wanting in others. In winter it leaves the United States almost wholly, a few individuals only remaining in southern Florida and Texas. , For the investigation of the food of this bird 265 stomachs were — available, which were obtained during the 6 months from April 65 September, inclusive. They were collected in 20 States, the District _ of Columbia, and Canada. In the first analysis the food divides ree 93.70 per cent of animal matter to 6.30 per cent of vegetable. Animal food.—Beetles constitute 16.78 per cent of the food, and ahi these 0.24 per cent are useful species. The remainder are mostly. of i an injurious character, some of them very harmful. The notorious cotton-boll weevil (Anenionine grandis) was found in 2 stomachs — taken in Texas, the strawberry weevil (A. signatus) in 1, and the plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) in 2. Besides these pests were the locust leaf miner (Odontota dorsalis) and species of Balaninus, — 4 which have been discussed in previous pages. While the record does _ ' not indicate any special preference for the harmful beetles, it does — show that they are eaten as often as the average of the different a FE By Bul. 44, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. Plate tl. CRESTED FLYCATCHER CRESTED FLYCATCHER. . 25 “species. The month of maximum consumption of beetles is June with 25.81 per cent. After this they gradually decrease, but main- tain a fair percentage through the season. Representatives of 12 _ different families were identified. _ Hymenoptera amount to 13.69 per cent; more than 3 per cent less _ than the beetle food. Only one other flycatcher under investigation, _ the scissortail, eats more beetles than wasps and bees. Some of the q useful parasitic species are included in this item, but the proportion is not large. Sawflies in the larval form were fame in 6 stomachs _ and were the entire contents of 1. These are destructive insects. _ One worker honeybee was found, which was the only indication that _ the bird ever preys upon the occupants of the hive. May appears to _ be the month of maximum consumption of Hymenoptera, but every _ month shows a good percentage. Diptera (flies) amount to only 3.06 _ per cent, and while they are eaten to some extent in every month the amount is small, and the maximum, which occurs in July, is only 6.32 per cent—another illustration of the fact that flycatchers catch _ more of other insects than of flies. No species of special interest were - noted, except one robber fly (Asilidz), which can be taken as an offset to the honeybee. MHorseflies (Tabanidze) were noted in 14 stomachs, which would seem to indicate that they are the favorites _ among Diptera. Hemiptera (bugs) constitute 14.26 per cent of the diet. They belong to the usual families of stinkbugs, tree hoppers, _ leaf hoppers, and cicadas, with a few assassin bugs. The cicadas were 4 more than usually abundant, being found in 8 stomachs, and in 1 _ they were the entire food. Stinkbugs (Pentatomide) were found in 44 stomachs, and 1 was entirely filled with them. These highly flavored - insects are often eaten by birds, but usually only a small quantity is _ found in each stomach. Orthoptera, i. e., grasshoppers, crickets, and _katydids, seem to be one of the favorite foods of the crested fly- catcher. They were found in 45 stomachs and constituted the only food in 3. Beginning with 8.64 per cent in April the con- _ sumption steadily increases to September, when it is 23.18 per cent, _ though August is but a trifle less. The average of all the months _ is 15.62 per cent. Only 2 flycatchers have a greater record of grass- _ hoppers than this. _ Lepidoptera (moths and their larve) are the largest item of the food. Caterpillars were found in 73 stomachs and the adults, as _ moths, in 48. This last is a somewhat unusual showing, as adult moths and butterflies are not a favorite food with birds in general. It is evident that the larve—i. e., caterpillars, are generally pre- ferred to the adult insects, but the fact that the adults can fly and so can be taken on the wing apparently recommends them to birds _ that take their food in the manner of flycatchers. The aggregate _ of this food for the year is 21.38 per cent, a somewhat larger showing - than that of any other of the flycatchers under consideration. Two q 41895°—Bul. 44—12-4 . stomachs were entirely filled with caterpillars and in sev they exceeded 90 per cent. As practically all caterpillars ar it is evident that this bird is doing a good work. . Dragon flies, lace-winged flies, and a few other odd neha ma Dragon flies were found in 18 stomachs, which — is a large record, for such agile insects can be taken only by ve Spiders were found in 47 stomachs, and while th creatures are eaten frequently but in small quantites, 1 stoma was filled with them, and in another they amounted to 77 per ¢ Altogether they amount to 4.03 per cent of t food. Three stomachs contained the bones of a lizard (Anolis These, with a few eggshells, make up 0. 74 per cent up 4.14 per cent. active birds. of the contents. carolinensis). and complete the saad food. Following is a list of the animal food identified in the stomachs: — HYMENOPTERA (bees and wasps). 2 Eos SSA Se ia Ree Glypta rufiseutellaris..........-..--- Ephialtes sp...-.- ee tee RII EE iain eo a a2 Kim el mio Camponotus pennsylvanica.......-.- OT eh a i COLEOPTERA (beetles). Cicindela 6-gutiata.......-..-.--+---- Agonoderus pallipes......-.......-- Adalia bipunctata.......-.--..-.----. PMMIUE CHUNDERS.. 0222. 20 ee Sse Hololepta fossularis.........-....-.-- NNO isis w Oi iw pr deed oben x « = Ore SO TT a ae a ee Melanotus communis.........-.--.--- SMEG Bony panwe ences <> sees cui mramonwe grisélie..............22...% Damontus auripilis........2..06. .2.6. Corymbites hieroglyphicus............- rnb ian en ike peep Pecionota cyanipes........---..-.-.. Chauliognathus marginatus........... Phanzus carnifer................-++- Onthophagus hecate................. Aphodius fimetarius............-....- Trox sp... aera ee weer Dukslonycha eottiita. . RE, RAE ET Dichelonycha elongata................ memenenmgenae BP. ... 62... eS TMCMADGETHAMD 2 ood. a a Anomala oblivia............6.065..5 ‘FOOD OF THE FLYCATCHERS. Tiphia inornata........ -. 5. ssn Myzine sp--......-..+-.405 ee Chrysis sp-........ 0.) 2 Halictus sp. <0. -.35: A Nomads sp...-< - 5 :s'+<- ae Bombus sp..i.<.-,.-. - i. Sas a Apis mellifera .........--:=455 Cotalpa lanigera........:--4 +455 Euphoria sepulchralis...........-..-. Euphoria inda...........--) see Elaphidion sp....:...-..i.1. ee Strangalia luteicornis.............-- Typocerus zebratus.......--..+--.2s0- Monohammus sp. .......-..2.55ee a Dorcaschema alternatum......-..+...+ Thopug variegatus....-.:...s. see Cidionychis petaurista..............-- Colaspis brunnea... .... 2.2... eee Nodonoia sp. ...-..'«+- .«. 14s ee eee Gastroidea ap.....~.----... 5555 Odoniota dorsalis. .......-...00s5eee Coptocyela bicolor. .....'.....50snaeee Epitragus tomentosus...........-...+ Meloe angusticollis.......-..2..+2..++ Attelabus bipustulatus. ............. Tanymecus lacena....-.. i. ...95ee Artipus floridanus.........-«.s5eeeee Anthonomus signatus..............- Anthonomus grandis.............-+-+ Lemosaccus plagiatus.............+. Conotrachelus nenuphar ..........-.-- a Conotrachelus sp........---+-+ --s+s- Balantnue SP... crsusss nase onve e ORESTED FLYCATCHER. ef ek DIPTERA (flies). SUT PRUS BP. -..-- 2... MDs | APD CUNESHEIOINE Re eee clea acl oke 2 E | LEPIDOPTERA (butterflies, moths). ; Nadata gibbosa...-.- Pie es sie eet a 1 | Dryocampa rubicunda.........--..-- 1 HEMIPTERA (bugs). DEE MEE ORTH 2522.25 522) in s| sBroehkymend arbonea2. 3s! 4 223 ae Beet a) MBER CMLOT OSS ho: ue hh Ae SMM OB Ple ss alo Se A a MPCRENE Seas fo a sea ob 8 CORESOMOUDOUG .. 20 Sad Sat) eae i MMM oe ue A Ree UNE. oo ee i RTS 31a ee nee ieee? ORTHOPTERA (grasshoppers and crickets). Bete ra R.|-2-- 2 ---- 3-2 2-2 = - A Petiie spel 22.3. ls. ee NEUROPTERA (lace-winged flies, etc.). 2 Ci TES) Oe 2) |) Manitispe sp s.j22.2h¢) ica 1 VERTEBRATE. 4 Lizard (Anolis CEEOULIVEIISTS yr ea! Ee IB cto Uae ENE a adds cao Oe eas oo 3 7 Vegetable food—The vegetable food consists of small fruits and a ‘little rubbish. Thirteen different species of fruit were identified, but -_- no one was eaten to a much greater extent than the others. Some fruit was eaten in every month except April, but more than half of 1 all was taken in August, when it amounts to 16.62 per cent of the food of that month. For the year it aggregates 5.36 per cent. Rub- __ pish is only 0.94 per cent and is probably accidental. - The following fruits were found in the stomachs: Mulberry (Morus sp.)....-...-------- S'\kGrape:(Vitisisp.) i Aes oa ee 2 Pokeberry (Phytolacca decandra)... - - 2 | Rough-leaved cornel (Cornus asperi- . Pemanaesiyras Veron) 22%, 2 |) folia).. 2. tancescsene. sae eee 3 4 Spicebush (Benzoin xstivale)....-. <-- L | Huckleberry (Gaylussacia sp.)...-.-- 2 i Blackberry and raspberry (Rubussp.) 3 | Blueberry ( Vacciniwm sp.).-...----- 4 ; Chokecherry (Prunus virginiana).... 2 | Elderberry (Sambucus canadensis)... 2 " Wild bird cherry (Prunus pennsyl- Fruit not further identified.......... 3 3 MeN ee se SU a ae iy od eee 2 ; Virginia creeper (Psedera quinque- ‘ : RN ib 3 ofc 0 ral ci slasar ao 1 ; 4 Summary.—From the foregoing it is evident that the crested flycatcher does little if any harm. It is a very desirable bird to have about the orchard or garden, since it does not attack any cultivated crop. As its natural nesting site 1s a cavity in a partially decayed tree, it can probably be induced to nest in properly constructed boxes, if such are placed in the orchard or other suitable situations. Thus it can be induced to live in orchards and woodland not now frequented by it because of the lack of nesting sites, and eventually no doubt a substantial increase in its numbers can be effected. . a di . x in fs FOG Ne Sra OPE ea Bight Done ent gia RR : he a ey ie RD hat lat ose ef 298 ‘001 ae ees a ‘ er ASH-THROATED FLYCATCHER. (Myarchus cinerascens.) and as far north as Washington and Utah. Like the kingbirds, it is Bei a bird of the open parklike country, and is particularly partial tothe vicinity of abandoned ranches, in the buildings of which it is pleased to build its nest, while it forseed in the orchard and about the desertec garden and cattle yards. Normally it builds in natural cavities in trees and in the abandoned holes of woodpeckers. a For the determination of the character of this bird’s food only ol a stomachs were available, taken in the months from April to Decem- ber, inclusive. So few, spread over so long a time, can give onlya tentative idea of the food. In the first analysis the food dividesitself into 92.32 per cent of animal matter to 7.68 of vegetable. Of the animal portion all but a few spiders is made up of insects, strictly _ speaking. Some fruits and seeds compose the vegetable part. | Animal food.—The ash-throat is one of the lesser beetle eaters among — the flycatchers. Beetles aggregate only 7.26 per cent of the food, and - of these 2.15 per cent can be considered as of useful species. These last consist of predaceous ground beetles (Carabide), found in 3 stomachs, _ and a ladybird (Coccinellide) in 1. The bird evidently does not hunt for these insects, or it would find more of them. Other beetles” oe k belonging to 7 different families were found in 60 stomachs, or two- “a thirds of the whole number. This raises the question as to the erite- ~ rion for the palatableness of any article of food—the frequency with ‘s 3 which the bird takes it or the amount eaten. Hymenoptera amount to 26.94 per cent and are the largest item of animal food. Wildbees and wasps make up the bulk of this item, with a few of the per oo Species. No honeybees were found. That Hymenoptera are a favorite food is shown by the quantity taten and by the facts thaé they were found in 55 stomachs and that they were well distal over the season. Hemiptera (bugs) amount to 20.11 per cent, which 4 is the highest record for this item among the flycatchers now considered. pee i ‘ them were many of those queer beechnut-shaped little bugs com- monly known as buffalo tree hoppers (Membracide). These creatures are as agile as fleas, and would seem to be too nimble to be taken by — x most species of birds, but the ash-throat is evidently very successful — in catching them, as thay were found in 23 stomachs, while the slug- gish stinkbugs (Pentatomids) were in only 13. Cicadas were found in 13 stomachs, jumping plant lice (Psyllide) in 7, leaf hoppers (Jas side) 1 in 7, shield bugs (Scutelleride) in 1, assassin bugs (Reduviidee) f in 1, and negro bugs (Corimelsenide) in 1, They were all taken in . - aa De 4 ASH-THROATED FLYCATCHER. 29 ihe 5 months from April to August, inclusive, ae the average per - month, if those 5 alone be considered, is 36.19 per cent. Diptera (flies) amount to 12.83 per cent of the food, and were eaten in every month except August and September, but this excep- tion is probably accidental. Those identified belong to the house-fly family (Muscide), the Syrphide (Erisialis tenaz), and the robber flies (Asilide). These last were found in 2 stomachs only. Alto- gether Diptera were found in 24 stomachs. Lepidoptera (moths and their larvee) were eaten in all the months but 3 (August, Septem- ber, and October), but this is probably only accidental. A greater number of stomachs might show a regular consumption throughout the season. They amount to 17.11 per cent of the seasonal diet and were found in 29 stomachs. Of these, 22 contained caterpillars and -7moths. No special pest was identified. Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) were eaten in the 4 months, April to July, and a few in December. The total is only 5.14 per cent, and the maximum, 18.07 per cent, occurs in July. Raphidians, dragon flies, and spiders together make 2.93 per cent, the balance of the animal food. The first-named are queer, long-necked, grotesque- looking creatures found in this country only in the far West. They are carnivorous in their habits and are said to prey upon the codling moth. In any event, they do not appear to be numerous in this country at present, and the only specimens the writer ever collected were in the stomachs of birds. The ash-throat appears to eat more of them than any bird yet examined, as they were found in 10 stom- -. achs. One stomach contained 5, and in all there were 16 individuals. Dragon flies were found in 6 stomachs, about the usual proportion for a flycatcher, and spiders in 17, a rather large showing for such sedentary creatures. Vegetable food—The vegetable food of the ash-throat may all be summed up in two words, fruit and seeds. Elderberries (Sambucus) were found in 5 stomachs, cissus in 1, black nightshade (Solanum) in 1, fruit not identified in 2, and seeds unknown in 3. Food of nestlings.—Besides the examination of the stomachs of the ash-throated flycatcher some observations were made on the feeding of nestlings. A nest of 4 young, about a week old when first observed, * was watched in hour periods for several days, and the results are given in tabular form below. oa cea a ei Sah tei yo et eins Las » eT em > = : : Num . - e. Date, | First and ae —_ during arte es Date, | First and ve ees during eee : ; ings. , ings. 4 1906, 1906. % June 18 | 12.59 p. m.— 1.45 p. m.....-.- 9 27 | 5.15 a. m.— 6.13 a. m..-.---- 28 22 | 10.48 a, m.—11.39 a. m........ 14 27 | 11.27 a, m.—12.22 p. m.....-.. 9 OPA e207 pam 3i07 Dp! nb.wee 2s: 9 97 | 4.47 p.m.— 5.26 p.m........ 9 a, 26 | 2.13 p.m.— 3.11 p.m........ 18 28) 5.26 a.m.— 6.18 a. m.......- 16 26} 5.56p.m.— 6.21 p.m. (half hour). 119 Average number of Fodinee per hour, 14. After the fi feeding on the morning of June 27, the mother bird was a shot, but the father carried on the feeding to a successful is os the young left the nest about noon on the 28th. balance is greatly 1 in the binds favor. Its ape 7 food hints al lutely no economic interest. PHGBE. (Sayornis phebe.) There are but few birds in the United States more endeared to the rural and village population than the common phebe (PI. IV). ] habit of associating itself with man and his works, its trustful di position, and the fact that it is never seen to prey upon any produc of husbandry have rendered it almost sacred. It is distributed ov the eastern United States as far west as central Texas, northern Hag ew Mexico, and Nebraska, and extends north into British America, where it spreads farther west than it does in the United States. ‘ breeds in the whole of this region except the southern parts of the Gulf States. It spends the winter in the Gulf States and beyond our southern boundary. It is not generally a bird of the forest, but liv about farms and gardens, where it chooses a nesting site in cranni of buildings or walls, under bridges, in quarries, or in other simila1 sheltered places. st the bird is very partial to the vicinity of hip a bridge naturally becomes a favorite nesting place, and from this — habit it is often spoken of as the ‘‘bridge phebe.’”’ As the phoebe — : is in such close association with man and spends a large portion of | the year in fields and gardens, it follows that its food is likely to be of considerable economic interest. For its investigation 370 stomachs : were available, collected in 19 States, the District of Columbia, and — Canada. They represent every month i in the year and are fairly well — distributed. ies The food was found to consist of 89.23 per cent of animal matter to 10.77 of vegetable. The animal portion is composed of indeaiall » with some spiders and myriapods, a gordius, and one bone of a tree — frog. The vegetable part is made up of small fruits or berries, “A a few seeds, all of them probably of wild species. 3h ss Animal food.—Useful beetles, consisting of tiger beetles (Cicin- — delide), predaceous ground beetles (Carabide), and ladybirds « (Coccinellide), amount to 2.68 per cent. Other beetles, belonging _ : to 21 families that were identified, make up 12.65 per cent. They appear to be eaten very regularly in every month, but the most are — taken in spring and early summer. May is the month of maximum — consumption with 23.67 per cent. Beetles altogether amount | 0 PHBE. 81 .33 per cent, which places them as second in rank of the items of animal food. The notorious cotton-boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis) was found in 6 stomachs taken in the cotton fields of Texas and Louisiana, and 5 individuals of the strawberry weevil (A. signatus) _ were taken from one collected in Texas. Many of the other beetles contained in the stomachs are by nature equally harmful, but are not so widely known. Such are the corn leaf-beetle (Myochrous den- ticollis), which feeds upon corn; also the 12-spotted cucumber beetle (Diabrotica 12-punctata) and the striped cucumber beetle (D. vittata), both of which seriously injure and sometimes destroy cucumber and squash vines. The locust leaf miner (Odontota dorsalis) has been re- ferred to before. It is sometimes so numerous that all the locust trees over large areas are blasted as by fire. In the phebe’s diet Hymenoptera stand at the head, as is the case with most of the flycatchers. They are eaten with great regularity and are the largest item in nearly every month. A few of them are the useful parasitic species, which are, however, offset by quite a number of sawfly larve, which are very harmful insects. Ants, which are a nuisance, were found in 24 stomachs. No honeybees were identified, but testimony has been received to the effect that the pheebe sometimes eats bees. The following is from a letter written to the Biological Survey by Mr. S. J. Walcott, and dated at Waverly, N. Y., November 30, 1891: Having an apiary attached to our place, have often watched common pheebe birds gorge themselves to repletion with honeybees and in two minutes eject the entire mass through the mouth and again resume business with their former relish, and con- _ tinue this practice for a long time, thereby weakening and sometimes entirely annihi- lating healthy colonies of bees. a) “a ’ aS, j The maximum amount of Hymenoptera was taken in August, when they aggregated 39.66 per cent. They constituted the entire con- _ tents of 7 stomachs, and were found altogether in 225, which would seem to establish these insects as the favorite food a the phoebe. : In bulk they amount to 26.69 per cent of the yearly diet. } Diptera aggregate 6.89 per cent, and are a very constant, though 4 small, element of the food. The ene occurs in June, when they > amount to 17.90 per cent. The minimum of 1.40 per cent comes in December, when, as is well known, flies are not very abundant. _ The long-legged crane flies (Tipulide), a few horseflies (Tabanide), some house flies (Muscidz), and several other families make up this item. They were found in 79 stomachs and although they do not appear to be very appetizing, they constituted the entire contents of 3 stomachs. Hemiptera (bugs) seem to be sought for rather more than flies, as they were found in 151 stomachs, but only 1 was entirely filled with them. Very curiously these were leaf hoppers (Jassidee), lively little creatures that live on grass and leaves and jump mk Be y like fleas. In all, 16 families were represented in the stoma stinkbugs (Pentatomidee) take the lead, being found in 42. in summer other and more appetizing insects can be obiaiiee Hs of all that were eaten were taken from November to February, inclu sive, but a fair percentage was found in the stomachs of every month. _ The average for the year is 10.38 per cent. ze Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) form 12.91 per cent of | the pheebe’s food, but are eaten very irregularly, and while foundin _ the stomachs of every month they vary greatly from one month to — 4 the next, and are found in the greatest amount when least expected. _ January is the month which shows the highest consumption, 24. 19 Bs per cent, while July is practically the same, 24.15 per cent. August, — which with most eastern birds is the great month for eating grass- . 4 hoppers, in this case shows only 6.37 per cent, while in June only 1.50 per cent were taken. There is no apparent logical reason for this irregularity. It is probably an accident, and a larger amount = : of material would almost surely give a more even result. Grass- “a hoppers were found in 125 stomachs, crickets in 23, and locusts in 6, which would seem to indicate a reasonable fondness for this order of. insect. The only kind that was specifically identified was the red- legged grasshopper (Melanopus femur-rubrum), a well-known and very destructive insect. Lepidoptera (moths and caterpillars) are eaten much more regu- ; larly than grasshoppers, but not in such large quantities. — amount to 8.86 per cent of the food of the year, and were found in si 118 stomachs, of which 47 contained adult moths and 71 held eaten pillars. One stomach was entirely filled with a large moth. June, — with 14.90 per cent, was the month of greatest consumption, but all 4 the months show a fair percentage and none of them fall greatly below _ the average. A few miscellaneous insects, such as dragon flies, — caddis flies, and ephemerids, amount to 2.39 per cent, and while not eaten extensively were taken to some degree in every month. a Spiders constitute quite a steady article of the pheebe’s ding Ticks and millepeds also are eaten. None of these creatures can 4 taken when they are on the wing, as they can not fly, but spiders may 4 sometimes be picked up when they are sailing through the air upheld “a by their gossamer threads or they may be found on the top of a tall _ reed as the bird flies past. But ticks and millepeds must be taken a from the ground or some other surface. The aggregate of these — creatures for the year is 5.78 per cent. March is the month of greatest __ consumption with 11.94 per cent, but April stands nearly as high, while every month shows a fair percentage except June, which has _ but 1 per cent. Spiders were found in 76 stomachs, millepeds in 7, ie \ bea * - ? a Bul. 44, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate IV. PHOEBE Ee eT OE ks ee ae ee ee Oy ee ee F or ey eee ee F annulatus) in 1. PHBE. 33 wood ticks (Ixodes scapularis) in 2, and a catile tick (Margaropus Maj. Bendire says: Dr. Ralph tells me that in Florida the phcebe frequently alights on the backs of them in search of insects.! ‘ cattle and follows them around, catching the flies on these animals and fluttering above This may possibly explain the presence in the stomachs of such a unlooked-for creatures as ticks. - were taken were collected in Florida. The stomachs from which the ticks The following animal food was identified in the stomachs: BRMSOUGHII® SP --../---.200-+22--42- HYMENOPTERA. LL RDU CE Saar ee eS Camponotus pennsylvanicus.....-..-. 3 Baap. 2 eS Ichneumon Spe 232525552 1 GH: OS a Cryptus sp... - - DE ee oo cs: 4 DIS) Ser Mesostenusispscc (2222) ee ee 1 en MUCHIGLG .- =.=... 222-2 no Ophion' spo a s8 5 eee 2 | UES G2 a Cam poplem sp: s5 2 s.sa2 ee 1 Lg PLE Eee Ae eee TAMU SPs 5525.20 oe ee 1 Myrmica scabrinodis.......--------- PERUSCUS ED 7s. Sa G05 oa ae eee il EMECROQUSLET SP) 9-22-2202 - =~ Hass Herelastes spss. 324.88 es eee 1 COLEOPTERA. pemiiela G-guitata.........---.----- Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus. ...... d: Cicindela 16-punctata.......--------- Chauliognathus marginatus.......-..- 4 Micindela reponda........--- +--+. Lelephorus bilimeatus. .-...- 2250). oe SEG a ae Collops --maculatus. 2.222224 I ASAD CHU ee en ; Canthonmleviss. 2. sia noe 1 5 eee Canthon viridis.- ou. 2. os a REAL iis 2 -HENLOLUS.. .--..--2s0s0e Coprismminutan .u.32522 2. eee 2 US re ae Onthophagus-hecate. =.= 222-2 ee 5 BMI) onc la act eec ose eee Onthophagus tuberculifrons....-.-.-- 1 Anisodactylus rusticus....-.-.-.---- Onthophagus pennsylvanicus.....---- 4 Anisodactylus sp...-..- ES ean es Onthophaqus'sp.2: ots. 222 eee 4 Hydroporus undulatus..........---- At2entus TMmUTICOlUSs <2 cece eee 1 meryaroplitus glaber..........+.-.:.- Atenius cylindrus: 2:35. 2 ee BOI TULCULOLD = 2 22 a eins 6 2s 2 ns Aphodius jimetarws.2..222-22-2=se 19 Hippodamia convergens.....--.----- Aphodius granarius. =. 32. 252s 1 Coermelia 9-notata:.-...022-2 220125 Aphodius inquinatus........-------- 19 LODE IG a 1A phodius bicolor 3255). aca ee 1 Beige lo- PUNCLOIG. ..-.--s0-2-0-254s Aphodius Spis- 6242-4 eeo gee 8 EIS GCPUTOLOT 2... ooo sc0 eee e cee s = Dichelonycha Sp ceo. 3s. ae 1 SNCS De coi als ha we os wows Macrodactylus subspinosus....-.-- areaele CSN Se a ae Diplotagisisps. o352. 2.3. ee eee 3 WGReTUUS ELCQONS 2. le oe cow's os Lochnosterna sp... 2-232 S522 eee Dolopius marginatus........-.-..--- Valous canilienlatus..... i 5-228ee A IIAROLUE ED... 22 2 an. ~- 22-0 eee a~s PR MOlodes 8) 2.0.0 ee: oe LUN OUEST LAG PUS SPececicise ais <= 2 = Oe ee eee 1 UTMORTUS QUercinus.-.........+----- POGGnOcherus Opes: 2... .- 52-2 ae eee 1 Ofsodacima airaoe. . 0-22) se wae 2 1 Life Histories of North American Birds, II, p. 273, 1895. 41895°—Bul. 44—12—_5 Ree CUMINYS DIO 2 = 2 os Oe sae pee Sy t} _ Crytocephalus venustus........------ 1 Myochrous denticollis..........-...-. 2 Diabrotica 12-punctata.......-...---. 3 SULT OVA PUM. 20 ons cay See as & IG ECHACOBA Biles co aya ovine is old. 2 Gaps 3 | Conotrachelus posticatus..... lepUMTIaa Thos. 3... - 2-3-2 -ben ear Lit pChaleadermus sp...-2.-. eee Disonycha caroliniana......-..------- 2 | Aealles carinatus.....-. 525588 MEATHNOLE GOTSQNS. .- 2-2 es lesen 1 | Rhinoncus pyrrhopus......----- LEED TR Ca pS a bei eae i Le 2 | Balaninus victoriensis.....-..--- Chelymor pha cribraria......-..-.-.-- 1 | Balaninus sp-...-.:..---55neeee 2 i ae .. 1 | Sphenophorus compressirostris. - - Tricrania sanguinipennis.....-..----- 1 | Sphenophorus sp - .. -.- =.- 25am Negalius marmoratus..........----- -- 1 | Rhodobxenus 13-punctatus .......- Epicauta pennsylvanica........-...-- 1 DIPTERA. Scatophaga stercoraria........-.--.-- 1 | Eristalis sp......--.---.++----- 222-25 vj HEMIPTERA. Cicada sp......----.-.-------------- 2 | Metapodius femoratus. oo e Oncometopia undata......-.---------- 1 | Myodocha serripes........----+------- _ Aulacizes irrorata.........-.-- Sats ait 1 | Nabis subcoleoptratus........-..----- pasorizes lateralie.. 0250.22.22 205023 - 1 | Sinea diadema Tettigonia sp ....-.....-.--..--.-.... 1 | Milyas cinctus . Phuschistus ep.s2+--222-.22..-.-5.-2.\ 1 | Hygrotrechue sp........-.022seeee PPACHYUMENG SPs oz. 2 ols’. DTS 1 a) ORTHOPTERA Melanoplus femur-rubrum.........-- ae | eee ee eo sal ODONATA be SNUBS. ss wincacnscncsss smepannhandhpt s+ +00. ss st noe een ACARINA. Irodes scapularis.................-.. 2 | Margaropus annulatus.......-.- Vegetable food—The veendible food of the phaebe may be pla two categories, fruit and seeds. Fruit amounts to 4.99 per cent. May and June, the months of strawberries and cherries, no fruit ¢ at was taken. Tn July 1 per cent was eaten, and from this poin’ increases slowly to December and January, with 10.73 and 10.84 cent, respectively. The only thing found suggestive of culti v fruit was the seeds of blackberries or raspberries contained | stomachs. Of small wild berries 17 species were identified, bes number of seeds, but nothing of any economic value was f There were = species of seeds, but the only ones of interest the poison ivy and poison sumac, whose seeds the birds distr _ » ¥ ? i E a 4 PHBE. 35 but they were found in only a few stomachs. The great bulk of the vegetable food was taken in the fall, winter, and early spring months: The following fruit, seeds, etc., were enced in Sige is of the phebe: Juniper (Juniperus virginiana)...... 1 | Dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina)....... 1 Panic grass (Panicum sp.)..---------- 1 | Smooth sumac (Rhus glabra)......... 2 Greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox)..-.-.-- 2 | Poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron)....- - 12 Bayberry (Myrica carolinensis) ....-.. 15 | Poison sumac (Rhus vernix)...-.---- ul Wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera)..--.-.--- 4°) Sumae:sp;CRRUS sp: )-.2-2 5 sea 20 Mississippi hackberry (Celtis missis- Dahoon holly (Ilex cassine).......-.-- 2 166 GAPS eg es ee a 1 | Virginia creeper (Psedera quinque- Western hackberry pk occiden- folie) 205345... REIN ee 1 talis)- . 5 2 | Rough-leaved dogwood eee as- pease (2S sp. oe. oe ee ae a perifolia).. Sante Me Pokeberry (Phytolacca decandra)...- - 4 | Blueberry Gee = %) Lot ae eae 3 Carolina moonseed (Cocculus caro- Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). - 1 [O28 2 ta cl, Se mR MRS de a a 1 | Horse sugar (Symplocos tinctoria).... 1 Fever bush (Benzoin benzoin).-.-.-.- 1 | Virginia plantain (Plantago virginica) 1 Sassafras (Sassafras variifolium) .-.... - 2 | Arrowwood (Viburnum dentatum).... 1 Shadbush (Amelanchier canadensis)... 2 | Elderberry (Sambucus sp.)..--------- 4 Blackberry or raspberry (Rubus sp.). 5 | Ragweed (Ambrosia sp.).......------ 1 Wild black cherry (Prunus serotina).. 2 | Fruit not further identified.......... 22 Peete COssii S.)-- 22-222 p--2o- aces Food of nestlings —Among the stomachs examined were those of four newly hatched nestlings, which merit passing notice. The stomachs contained no vegetable matter whatever, but were com- pletely filled with insects and spiders. The largest item was young grasshoppers, which constituted 63.75 per cent of the contents of the four stomachs. Next to these were spiders, which amount to 14.25 per cent. Flies, partly in the shape of grubs or maggots, came next with 9.75 per cent. Hymenoptera (wasps) amount to 5.25 per cent; caterpillars, to 4.50; two beetles, one adult the other larval, to 1. 75; and parts of a bug ori a moth, to 0.75. Note the soft frou a the food. The grasshoppers were all young, partly grown, and very soft bodied. The spiders and caterpillars also were soft, the Hymen- optera were somewhat harder, but the only really hard food was the one adult beetle. Summary.—It seems hardly necessary to say anything in favor of a bird already firmly established in the affections of the people, but it may not be amiss to point out that this good will rests on a solid foundation of scientific truth. In the animal food of the phabe there is such a small percentage of useful elements that they may be safely overlooked; while of the vegetable food it may be said that the products of husbandry are conspicuous by their absence. Let the pheebe remain just where it is. Let it occupy the orchard, the garden, the dooryard, and build its nest in the barn, the carriage house, or the shed. It pays ample rent for its accommodations. 36 FOOD OF THE FLYCATCHERS. SAY’S PHBE. (Sayorms sayus.) Say’s phebe is an inhabitant of western North America from the Pacific Ocean eastward as far as western Texas, Kansas, and Nebraska, © and extends northward into Alaska. In the warmer southwestern — portions of the country it usually migrates northward, or else goes up into the hills or mountains in the breeding season. For this reason it is not often seen in the valleys in California during the summer. It is a bird mostly of the open, though sometimes taken in timber country. After the season of reproduction the pairs apparently separate, and each alone is engaged in its perpetual hunt for insects. It is domestic in its tastes, and in California, when it returns from its summer range, it is apt to attach itself to some house or other building and remain in that immediate vicinity all winter, roosting at night in a cranny under the cornice or wherever it can find snug, covered quarters. For the determination of this bird’s food, 111 stomachs were taken, representing every month of the year, but while too few to give exact results, they will probably fix the bird’s economic status with a reasonable degree of accuracy. In the first analysis the food was found to consist of 99.78 per cent of animal food to 0.22 per cent of vegetable. Animal food.—Beetles of the three most useful families—Cicin- delide, Carabide, and Coccinellide—amount to 5.95 per cent of the food. ‘This is a surprisingly large percentage to be eaten by a fly- catcher. They were found in every month except May and July, and these months would no doubt have shown some had there been more stomachs, They were found in 5, 26, and 15 stomachs, respect- ively; that is to say, the greatest flyers, the cicindelids, which one > would suppose to be the most easily taken by a flycatcher, are chosen the least, and the coccinellids, which live on trees and fly sluggishly, — are taken less than the carabids, that live almost wholly upon the ground. Other beetles amount to 9.72 per cent, and are either harmful or neutral species. Hymenoptera are the largest item of food, and with a greater number of stomachs would undoubtedly hold that rank in every month. We have, however, only two stomachs taken in May and one in July, and these contain no Hymenoptera at all. In all the other months there is a good percentage, and the average for the year is 30.72 per cent. They are mostly bees and wasps, with a few ants. No honeybees were found. Hemiptera are eaten very irregularly and in small quantities. The total amounts to 4.45 per cent. Five families were represented, a Ba eh ss re ee Se Oy Pe ee ee he cris _. ad SAY’S PHBE. 37. ut the stinkbugs (Pentatomidz) were contained in the most stomachs. | Diptera (flies) appear to be more popular than bugs with Say’s : phebe. The aggregate is 16.67 per cent, while for the eight months | in which they were eaten the average amount is 25 per cent. The . kinds eaten are mostly of the families of the house fly, the crane fly, and the robber fly. One stomach was entirely filled with members of the house-fly family (Muscide). Caterpillars and moths amount to 12.12 per cent of the diet of Say’s phebe. Here for the first time is found a flycatcher that eats more of the adults (moths) than it does of the larve (caterpillars). The former were found in 19 stomachs and the latter in 17. None were in the stomachs of July and August, but as only three stomachs were collected in those months, the record can not be accepted as final. Most of the other months show a fair percentage, and May and June appear to be the months of greatest consumption. Grass- hoppers and crickets seem to be well liked, as they occurred in 48 stom- achs, were the total contents of one, and amount to 15.36 per cent of the food. They are probably eaten in every month, but none were found in the few stomachs taken in January, June, and July. The average for the nine months in which they occur is over 20 per cent. Dragon flies, spiders, millepeds, and a few sowbugs, together amount to 4.79 per cent of the food, and make up the remainder of the animal quota. The following animal food was identified in the stomachs: COLEOPTERA. Peermarinlemnrscata.....2...-.-0-2.- 1) Buphoria nda... 2 ea Dyschirius gibbipennis.........-.--- Ly | Lepturaimstabilis: 32. 5-.0% oe Hae 8 1 AMM PMICE SINUS... 2. 2 | Gastrodea' sp. 2. 220) OL eee 1 meee ee Shoe. eke 1) | Ghdionychis miniata: 2220. 222) ee al Anisodactylus rusticus.....-.-.----- Ly) lalitenifoliaceass i's 2. ee eee 1 Hippodamia convergens......------- ZW BLGDSHNUS BD ei. 21. esa oo ee 3 oecmclia californica. .... 202222. 6- 3 || Lptcauta stuartt--~- Lt \ Leptung rubric... 22... 02 ee Psyllobora 20-maculata.....-.-------- Goes ebilis ao. \ 123 2 sak ee Chilocorus biwulnerus.....-.--------- 1 | Hemonia nigricornis...........----- Hyperaspis undulata......--.------- Li |) Anomealaticlavios 255: 325 ee PIG BCHAS DIS QEMING. ©. 22. =+ 22 4->2))2'<2 1 | Cryptocephalus guttulatus.........-- ieisier subrotvundus......--+---------- 2, |, COlaS NS SD... = 22se- soba oe eae 1 | Diabroties 12-punctata. . 2222. 2e ere Platysoma lecontet. Saprinus sphxroide Ips fasciatus. ..... Drasterius dorsalis - Soc vossacecssct nes erasODOLhTis PUstlla.....- 0-20-09 Agrilus arcuatus. - - PAGE UES OUUUNCQLUS acs 3-5 e nt dae me Agius SP... ---- ESOICTOS SP... ---- ee ee Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus....... Chauliognathus marginatus..........- Chauliognathus americanus.........- Chauliognathus sp. Podabrus frater... . Clerus 4-guttatus. . Thanasimus dubius ee | i) Diabroticatitiatas ae eee 2 |) Diabroticalongicorniss).- 22 see =e Zo. | Systena frontalis: 2.52225 sae eee 1) Odontota dorsalis. ._2.¢ 2: 2a ee 1 | Odontota rubra. 2.3222.) Li}, Odontota, Nervosa... «<.-..'si=- = L | Odontota quadrata..t..-42.22-2 eae 2 |. Cassia Omitiata: -. 1.2.2 a. seen | Haplandrus femoratus: 2.2 222s 10:| Androchirus fuscipestis.....22 32-28 aaa 9: Mordellaiserval:) 32. 2-3: ace eee My | sMondella: Spat macs eters ec ete eee 2 | Attelabus nigripes.....)- 222-2258 it) Sutones hispudulus: .....<2-- 222 oeeee 1 | Phytonomus punctatus......--------- 1} Lemosaccus’plagiatus . 2.21.22 <:is2 29s 1 | Conotrachelus nenuphar.....-------- 1 | Conotrachelus seniculus AT Ag ae ee lapathi... es ae Pionins oclatus.... 129. ee Py RURURUS O Per CUlavIs. keke et ec ee eal - Celiodes acephalus ..........------- 1 Rhinoncus pyrrhopus.....----------- 2 PMT UUSIEO SOLE Ca, wate EHO PNOMUS COL 2.022.122 eee see iH CARESS 0 OR ee ee Buetlia cesar. o.oo > i ee | MI MARES Ne osc ome anew ee ain ee 2 | Sapromyza vulgaris. .....-.--2=eeee et DOIN TS SORES ee ea aa eae i! n HEMIPTERA. “OED, Stop gS ae ee 1 | Euschistus sp 4 SUE) A) a 1 | Nezara hilaris ; Stictopelia tripunctata.......------- 1. | Corizus lateralis. ....0225.. eee Corimelena pulicaria......-.-.------ 1 | Sinea diadema........5..--=--===eeeee BPUBCNISTUS SUUNOSUS oo mien m wm a 0 we'd 1 | Aygrotrechus sp... ..0-95 =e ed i ORTHOPTERA. LM ll i i a aie eae 1 | Vetttx sp......--- 2 eseeee ee berries and seeds. Couns ree ae IB AGISTSURALGEE oo ne ee ee oa DIPTERA. Vegetable food—The vegetable food consists entirely of a No trace of any product of cultivation was four as) res Platypus flavicornis....... Tomicus calligraphus. --- -. Tomicus Pini = 22 oc 2 2 Tomicus avulsus...-.------- ae Tomicus grandicollis fae Scolytus 4-spinosus......--------- except possibly 2 seeds of raspberry or blackberry found in 1 stom but these were probably wild. .The only possible criticism that be made is that the bird may distribute a few poison-ivy seeds, for | 1 seed of this noxious plant was found in 1 of the stomachs. . ca The following fruits and seeds were identified: re Elderberry (Sambucus canadensis) . . 2 Poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron).....— x Blueberry ( Vacciniwm sp.)..-------- 1 | Blackberry or raspberry (Rubus sp.). Alternate-leaved dogwood come Poke berry (Phytolacca decandra)....— aiterniolta)..........----- 1 | Panic grassseed (Panicum sp.)..--- Rough-leaved dogwood (Cornus . as- ‘ I ete ow ae nme 1 Food of nestlings —Among the stomachs were those of 2 broods nestlings, and these were separately considered to discover poss differences in diet. One brood of 2 was labeled ‘‘just hatched,” the food was found to consist of grasshoppers, 52.50 per cent; (Hemiptera), 32.50; and spiders, 15 per cent. The other babar was simply designated as ‘‘nestlings,” with no hint as to their Their food consisted of grasshoppers and crickets, 66.25 per ¢ flies (Diptera), 12.50 per cent; caterpillars, 17.50; and spiders, , percent. This food does not differ essentially from that of the adi except that the softer elements have been selected. The grassh pers were, many of them, immature, and they entirely filled stomach. : “WESTERN WOOD PEWEE. 49 é Beary. —The one point most open for criticism in the food of the wood pewee is that it eats too many parasitic Hymenoptera. _ There is no doubt that all birds which prey upon Hymenoptera at all destroy some of the useful species, but the proportion in the food of this bird is greater than in other birds whose food has been investi- gated. As these insects are for the most part smaller than the more common wasps and bees, it would seem natural that they should be _ preyed upon most by the smaller flycatchers, which very likely accounts for the fact that the wood pewee eats more of them than the kingbirds. But even so the bird does far more good than harm. The loss of the useful Hymenoptera can be condoned when it is remembered that with them the bird takes so many harmful or annoying species. WESTERN WOOD PEWHE. (Myrochanes richardson.) During the breeding season the western wood pewee ranges over the western portion of the United States from the Pacific coast east- _ ward as far as the western part of Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, and the r Dakotas, and north to Alaska. In its fall migration it passes entirely beyond the southern boundary of the United States. The bird is seldom found in the forest, but rather on the edge of woods and in groves and open park country. Since the introduction of fruit | growing it has taken kindly to orchards and gardens, and frequently builds its nest in fruit trees. Like its eastern relative, virens, it builds in the open upon the branch of a tree, instead of in a hollow limb or under some overhanging projection, as do so many other flycatchers. Like virens it prefers an orchard or grove where insects abound and the trees offer a number of dead twigs to serve as look- outs from which to sally forth to catch insects. The writer once observed a pewee flying forth for insects from one of these perches, and noted the number caught in three minutes. In the first minute 7 were taken, in the second 5, and in the third 6, or 18 in three minutes. These observations were made at 10 a. m., when the air was warm and many insects were on the wing. At 9 a.m. the next day the same perch was again watched, and 17 captures were noted in 8 minutes. This morning was much cooler than the previous one and fewer insects were abroad. The mean of these two observations is 4 insects per minute, and if this rate is kept up for even 10 hours a day, the total is 2,400 insects. It seems hardly possible that one bird can eat so many unless they are very small, but this bird is rarely seen when it is not hunting. When there are young in the nest to feed, the havoc among the insects of that immediate vicinity must be something enormous. The western wood pewee remains on its northern range only about six months in the year, but fortunately that is the season when insects wil are most numerous, and the number that are annually de this species alone i is almost beyond calculation, available for study. They were collected in 8 States, date m 6 ¢ them were taken in California, and are fairly well distinae a over tk 1 six months from April to ents The food is made up of 9 per cent of animal matter and 0.07 per cent of vegetable. _thatis, less than 1 per cent of ea beetles. "The rest hile to hao ful families, though no special pest was noted. achs, of which 17 contained no other food. Parasitic species were 3 ed i in 8 stomachs and ants in 10. No trace of a honeybee % found. Maj. Bendire quotes Mr. F. Stevens as saying of this species: I have known apiarists to be compelled to shoot a great many to protect their bees; one in San Diego County told me that he shot several hundred in a season. They capture both workers and drones, and I have examined many stomachs which hae stings sticking in them.! z It would seem that conditions must have been very exceptional to . cause such a destruction of honeybees, for the writer has never yet — heard any complaints against the bird on this score and the Sh a contain no honeybees. : Diptera (flies) are the largest item of this pewee’s food. They are 4 eaten in every month of the bird’s stay in the north and form a high | percentage in all but one. They amount to 44.25 percent of the food, — which is the highest record for this item in the food of any one of the q 17 flycatchers under consideration. This bird is well entitled to the 4 name, for it certainly does catch flies, and 30 of the 162 stomachs were entirely filled with them. They were so much broken that species — could not be recognized, but five families were distinguished. These — were the horseflies (Tabanan): the snipe flies (Leptides) , the crane flies (Tipulidee), the robber flies (Asilidze), and the house flies (Mus- . cide). Diptera and Pyeng piers together constitute 84.06 per cent _ of the western pewee’s food. ~ Hemiptera (bugs) are apparently not to the taste of this pewee. ; They were eaten only in the months from June to September, and — amounted to but 1.79 per cent of the food. They were contained in 39 stomachs, and consisted of such families as stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, tree hoppers, and negro bugs, with probably others indeterminable. 1 Life Histories of North American Birds, II, p. 292, 1895. oppers” and aatdkota) are conspicuously absent e food of this bird. Not a trace of this order of insects was _ lin any of the stomachs. This is the more remarkable as grass- rs are one of the staple articles of diet with a large number of sectivorous birds, and western flycatchers in general eat more of these insects than’ most other fly-catching species. _ Lepidoptera (moths and caterpillars) are eaten to a somewhat eater extent than Hemiptera, though contained in a less number stomachs, 29. They were taken in every month of the season and 10unted to 5.17 per cent. Moths were found in 24 stomachs and terpillarsin 5. Dragon flies (Raphidia), lace-winged flies (Chryso- dz), May flies (Ephemerida), white ants (Termes), and spiders, cluding one of the bristly jointed spiders (Solpugida), together ake 3.47 per cent, and complete the quota of animal food. The following are the insects identified in the food and the num- er of stomachs in which each was found: HYMENOPTERA. TN gE we wha ee in aes = Bie pe ban ae gene oe 1 COLEOPTERA. Paha ayes yaraaar eye Lo) Agrilus'sp.s-2 oS)... eer ss pe ik Wee 1 |" Pilinus basitis. 932° eee Hippodamia transverso-guttata........ Canthow spi. toi. 20.2 eae il Coccinella 9-notata var. nevadica..-. - Aphodius wittatuss. 2.23) 8 ee ee Bi - Coccinella aig i EN de a anc Aphodius sp: 3.2.5.-.-¢ 32432 see 1 Coccinella sanguinea. . Gastoiden Sp: 9.2 2s) 2 eee al PMOMIECHNOLUS. =. 5a nn ge ss Blapstinus' sp 2=...-2..) bs. 305 geen ae uf meegrius plenus...... 2-22-22. 22: Baris rubripesss. 22. ee 1 _ Carphophilus hemipterus..........---- Balannie sp 72.0 2 Beye 1 CT SS anes | se ISOPTERA. ER Spe eta armies oe aus Sbleisiers Kiclee eh waleies Ceo ae ahaa eee i NEUROPTERA. TES Baik ee eee eee 3. |,. Chrysopa spas. ly. - =< ncaa eenn Vegetable food Vegetable matter, called by courtesy food, was - found in 4 stomachs. In one of these it consisted of 3 seeds of elder- tries (Sambucus); in another, of a bit of fruit skin, with a trifle of rubbish; in another, of one seed of wild oats; and in the fourth, of tten wood. It may be possible that this bird occasionally eats a little fruit, but evidently not often. — Summary.—While the western pewee inhabits orchards, it does t go there for fruit, but only in search of the insect enemies of the ees. It eats but ee useful insects, and does not, as far as this in- — stigation shows, attack any product of inaustey. If, under ceptional circumstances, it destroys honeybees, the occasions are rare that the bird should not be blacklisted. YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER. _ (Empidonaz flaviventris.) The yellow-bellied flycatcher inhabits the northeastern States and Eastern British America in the breeding season, but migration occurs over most of the country east of the Rocky Mov 1 tains. It is a lover of cool, shady forests and mountains and _ probably the most retiring and shy of the flycatchers. Its n usually built in a damp mossy crevice of rocks or on the grout among the upturned roots of a fallen tree, but always in a retire place and is carefully concealed. Living apart from man and his wo it does not come into contact with the farmer’s crops nor his b so its food, like the bird itself, is interesting chiefly to the bird st For the study of this bird’s food only 103 stomachs were avail They were collected in 11 States, the District of Columbia, Onts New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. They were taken as far south) as Texas and as far northwest as Wisconsin. They are fairly distributed over the five months from May to September. The fo was found to consist of 97.01 per cent of animal matter to 2 99 vegetable, or practically of 97 to 3. Insects and spiders make un ] animal food and small fruit and seeds the vegetable. Animal food.—In the animal food, beetles amount to 16.53 p cent. Of these the useful species aggregate 1.91 per cent and co of a few Carabide and Coccinellide. Most of the others are harmful, while some are neutral. Beetles were found in 65 stomachs and we eaten pretty regularly in every month. Dviabrotica vittata, the strip a) squash beetle, which is such a pest on squash, cucumber, and melon : vines, was found in 8 stomachs, and snout beetles, or weevils, were — noted i in 25. All of these are more or less injurious. In 10 stomae: were identified weevils of the genus Balaninus, which lay in me various kinds their eggs from which are hatched those fat whi grubs so common in chestnuts. Hymenoptera amount to 46.25 per cent of the food and were fou in 81 stomachs. Of these, 48 contained ants, which amounted t | 13.42 per cent of the whole. Parasitic species were noted in 9 — stomachs, and they made up 2.12 per cent of the contents. Hymen- — optera as a whole form the largést item of food in every ma This bird is probably the greatest eater of ants of any of the flycatchers and stands near the head in the eating of Hymenoptera in general. — Hemiptera were found in 33 stomachs only, and amount to 4.16 cent of the food. Stinkbugs were found in 9 stomachs and asss bugs in 12, of which 10 contained a single species (Sinea diade with as many as 6 in 1 stomach. The assassin bugs, like the st: bugs, prey upon other insects, and so are to a certain extent us IED FLYCATCHER. 53 ts, but Sinea diadema is said to have the bad habit of preying upon honeybees when near the hive. The yellow-bellied flycatcher does not select its bugs with the same good judgment that it shows when taking beetles, wasps, etc. Leaf hoppers and tree hoppers were the _ other families observed. _ Diptera were contained in only 29 stomachs, but amounted to _ 14.89 per cent, or three and a half times as much as Hemiptera, although foundinfewerstomachs. They belonged to several families, _ including the house fly, horsefly, and the long-legged crane fly. They __were eaten in eyery month, but June and July showed the greatest - consumption. Lepidoptera were found in 28 stomachs, of which 4 contained the adult moths and 24 their larve or caterpillars. The amount for the season was 5.68 per cent. In one stomach was found a cricket’s jaw, _ in another parts of a locust, and in a third some remains that were 4 doubtfully referred to Eohcee, and these were all the material Bpend that could be assigned to Orthoptera. As the percentage was _ very small, it was included in miscellaneous insects, which are made q up of eee with a few May flies and a little unidentifiable matter, in ~ ‘all 0.98 per cent. _ Spiders are eaten by this bird to a greater extent than by any of the other flycatchers. They amount to 8.52 per cent of the food and are taken quite regularly through the season. Beginning with 2.21 _ per cent in May they gradually increase to 14.28 per cent in Septem- ber. Hymenoptera alone stand higher in the food of that month. _ With the exception of certain nestlings no other species of bird yet _ studied shows so high a percentage of spiders in its food, though _ wrens and titmice and some warblers approach it. Probably many of these were caught from their webs in mid-air. They were found in 30 stomachs—just one-third of all. In 13 stomachs they consisted of those peculiar species called ‘‘ harvestmen” (Phalangida), or perhaps more commonly known as “‘daddy longlegs.” These must have been picked from the ground or some plant, as they spin no webs. The following insects were identified: 4 ¥ ‘= 7 ee a 5 HYMENOPTERA. MPEOHCIUS Sp. ......-.2......-0--25-% 4 Camponotus sp): <5 22-60 .6e5 35a 3 Meenuamena Bp................-....- 1) Formica fusca)... 2.22. ee 1 4 eee eee W Wenitteles saps 28... 2.222 ee 2 mee evespamaculata..................... TO Crapiis speakiaes: 2): 0a. a ae 1 “a Reese te ct oe Fae |, SP hatessas pl. ive es s.00- 2a eee 1 meeiyeine G-Cincia...-...-....-.------- TS eX I OTONINLA Bphee 22) scat ee ee Ls hy T iphia INTIRDLD eae as sehen Se eae i) phion Sper oseae s SS ee aerate 2) _ Aphexnogaster sp.........--..------- i, AL oe > eee ee “A past tee a oe ee ahs 4 * Peek Piston SPotts coh eee oer phociees Coptotomus interrogatus......------- 1 | Anomala binotata....- 1 Cryptopleurus UOTAS Eee ce ee 1 | Paria aterrima.......-- 1 MCGMILO MaCwIetOe eho eee Bae T | Paria sp... aes ee 1 Hippodamia 15-maculata.....-..-.- 1 | Diabrotica vittata..........-- er 8 Coccinella 9-punctata....--. rat Seen .-- 1 | Cerotoma trifurcata. - Ss a 1 Coccinella abdominalis.....--.- - -5--: 1 | Galerucella decora..._---.- 7 seme 1 Anatis 15-punctata.... - -- mayne 1 | Crepidodera helaines.. -22=-5aee a Chilocorus bivulnerus.....-..-------- 1 | Crepidodera cucumeris. . . .. i Agrilusegenus. 2! 602220. b 8 - 1 | Odontota sp.....-..- Rae hoc Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus....... 1 | Sitones sp.......--------- a Wodabrus pumctatal.. - =. 2)53- Joi oe a 1 | Conotrachelus clegans....--.-- MAAR ROTUSY TALIM <= ois 2s. wa = 5 Sena 2 | Cnemogonus lecontei.....--.--- Pele phorus COTOUNUS. . . . 2-2 2-25~=* 1 | Baris 2rea.....<.-.-2-- =e Oenmhon DIS. oo. - 22222522 2-e 1 | Madarus undulatus.....-.---- Onitopnagus SP. 2----=+----2-+--2+- 2 | Balaninus uniformis......------ Aphodius fimetarius......-.-.------ 2 | Balaninus nasicus.........--- Aphodius inquinatus.........------- 1 |' Balaninus sp... «.. Sie -. LO OP a Re 3 Dichelonycha sp... - LEPIDOPTERA. ONS ne 1 | Tortrig 8p... ~-2-.--=<-s5== en OL a t HEMIPTERA. Pachistus Sp../...-...-.2ssceee22-. 2 | Acholla muliispimosa: 72 yee UMCMROUAGEMIO. . tJ. 222i Jel de ete oS 10 Vegetable food.—The vegetable food consists of a few small f none of which are of domestic varieties, a few seeds of sient some cedar foliage, some scales from a bull and rubbish. The pois ivy is the only thing of any interest and that was found in only stomach. -* val The following fruits and seeds were found in the stomachs: *§ Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana).... 1 | Dogwood (Cornus sp.).....------- = Poke berry (Phytolacca decandra).... 1 | Blueberry (Vaccinium sp.)..... : Poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron)..... 1 | Fruit unidentified. ............ Frost grape (Vitis cordifolia)........ 2 | Cedar foliage. ................. Rough-leaved dogwood (Cornus as- Bud scales........:-.: 2eeeean PILED) Hos iain «2 on’: PES SIE 1 Summary.—So retiring are its habits that the yellow-belli catcher is seldom brought into contact with man, and hence it can have only restricted economic interest. Its bill of fare insects of a number of species which are injurious to garden, or forest, as the striped squash beetle, several species of weev paterpillars, and leaf rollers. WE YE LLIED FLYCATCHER. 55 is THE WESTERN YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER. (Empidonaz difficilis.) he western yellow-bellied flycatcher occupies the western part of e United States from the Pacific coast eastward as far as the eastern sothills of the Rockies and as far north as Alaska. It is found on summer range about eight months of the year and in winter in exico. While somewhat partial to the recesses of the forests it takes kindly to the open, when other conditions suit, and since the advent of civilization it finds orchards quite to its mind as foraging grounds. Like the Richardson’s pewee it prefers a bare dead twig for a perch, where it sits and watches for flying insects. Like all catchers it has keen eyesight, for it often sees and darts at an ect which is so far away as to be invisible to the human eye. e nest is built in various places, but usually in a covered site. A llow tree, a bracket of a house porch, a beam under a bridge, a evice among the roots of an overturned tree or under the over- nging banks of a stream are fair illustrations of its nesting sites. _ No complaints have been lodged against this bird by the farmer or orchardist—in fact, it is too small to be able to do serious injury to rm crops, and if it ate fruit it could injure only a few of the smaller probably too large to serve as its prey. For the study of the food of the western yellow-bellied flycatcher 7 stomachs were collected, mostly from California, with a few from her Western States. They were taken in the months from March October and were very fairly distributed in time. The food was und to consist of 99.31 per cent of animal matter to 0.69 per cent of vegetable. The animal portion is made up of insects with a few spiders, while the vegetable part consists of a few seeds and some _ Animal food.—Useful beetles amount to 2.45 per cent of the food, and consist of predaceous ground beetles (Carabide) found in 8 stomachs and ladybird beetles (Coccinellide) in 24 or 16 per cent of ie whole number. This would seem to indicate that this bird has a decided taste for coccinellids, though the percentage is not large. _ As few other birds eat so many of these useful beetles, it is to be inferred that this species selects them intentionally. It must be _ understood that any bird that eats beetles in California is likely to - get a large number of coccinellids, even if it takes indiscriminately all beetles that come in its way, for the family is wonderfully abundant in that State. Other beetles amount to 5.94 per cent and are eaten _ with considerable regularity through the season. The genus Bala- varieties. Nor has it been accused of eating honeybees, which are hart species were identified, Hymenoptera amount to 38.76 per cent, and were stomachs, of which 7 contained no other food. They wasps oad bees, though ants were contained in 19 stoma was entirely filled with them. But few parasitic species were f This is the largest item of food and is eaten in considerable quai in every month. Hemiptera were eaten in the months fae April, to Septem quite regularly, but not in large quantities. They were found n stomachs, of which 2 contained nothing else, and ei hoppers, and leaf hoppers. The 2 stomachs that contained Hemip t alone were entirely filled with stinkbugs. 4 Diptera are the second largest item of food and are eaten in month and more regularly than any other. They were found in stomachs and in 5 there was nothing else. They average 31.22 cent of the seasonal food. Most of them were in such a state 2 one a horsefly (Tabanide), a ee Tachina flies (Tachinidse), a a soldier fly (Stratiomyiide). . Gal Lepidoptera were found in the food of every month except Mar ar but i in July and August 1 in very small quantities only. i y © worthy of mention that larve of the codling moth (Cangas poca; pomonella) were found in 3 stomachs and were probably contai a number more but unrecognizable. It is not improbable tha of the adult moths were of this species also, but too badly m for identification. In all, Lepidoptera amount to 6.59 per « the food, and are eaten in every month except March, July, August. ‘ie Orthoptera were found in 2 stomachs taken in August and | September. They amount to 0.62 per cent of the food. Raphi and a few unidentified insects make up 0.71 per cent. & were found in every month but March and were contained stomachs. They amount to 4.58 per cent and complete the ¢ food. The following insects were identified: HYMENOPTERA. SEES PMMA Eo 5 see [E waaryal * COLEOPTERA. sodactylus piceus ne Sone ete on SDT NG HIG NSA Se SE: LG hte 1 drus sp.-- Diabrotica 12-punctata...... .------- 1 vara bimaculata.....-.---------- Dichraticarspnor tatos: 2s. P a Ae gs 1 odamia 5-signata........------- Diabrotica Spr: souls: ame). . a ae 1 ippodamia ambigua.......-.------ iIMOnotiG SOrdig.8 <4. Woes ee aig | ypodamia convergens....----------- ELGliicabUnOngin atlases = ee 1 occinella californica AQUCe: TOMOCCINE.. .. x eos se 1 oie Spee ap a a i pUnGe Se 2-20-52 Se ee onius infuscatus - ERElavisrypipese.: 232 SOL eae eae A lephorus divisus:.......-.....----- Blapsiinius rijficeps; <.2-42- 2. ee 1 i Rhiynchites olasiinius-.. 2. ee al MUPIASSEPICS. =. ee Sifories Spictc os. 2. \. soe 1 MEPEIIPM PYONCO...---2----------+- BalOniNUs So. vo.00 222 oes ce 8 astroidea sp 3 DIPTERA. atiomyia maculosa..........-++++-- i |S Tebanus punctifer..2.. ee 1 LEPIDOPTERA. PRE EDIVCUIG S Jae tate Sele ww arle ns eel dee a aend © odie oe aides eee eee 3 _ Vegetable food.—Vegetable matter was found in 19 stomachs, but not all of it can be called food. In 1 stomach were a few seeds of Rubus (blackberry or raspberry), in 8 were seeds of elderberries, in 2 were skins of fruit not further identified, in 1 a seed of tar weed -(Madia), and in 7 were bits of rubbish. The Rubus fruit consisted of 2 seeds which may have been wild and in any case could have but 4 ttle economic importance. j _ Food of nestlings —Included in the 157 stomachs discussed in the foregoing pages were those of 9 nestlings. These were separately ulated and were found to vary somewhat from the adults in the portions of food elements. One brood of 4, thought to be about hours old, had been fed upon beetles, 0.25 per cent; flies, 16.25 cent; leaf hoppers, 39 per cent; raphidians, 1.75 per cent; cater- ars, 6.75 per cent; and spiders, 36 per cent. The soft character this food is noticeable. A few bits of a beetle fed to one nestling co onstituted the only hard element. Not even wasps or ants were found. Another brood of 3, somewhat older than the last, had been upon beetles, 5.67 per cant flies, 50.33 per cent; wasps, 24.67 cent; caterpillars, 13.67 per cent; and spiders, 5.66. Here the d elements have been increased by the greater amount of beetles and by the introduction of wasps. Two other nestlings, supposed to be about 10 days old, had been fed with wasps and bees to the extent of 92.50 per cent, with no other animal food. Besides these there was in one Stomach what appeared to be a mass of rootlets amounting to 7.50 me cent, and both stomachs contained a few gravel stones. It part fa the feeding, and the young were fed 24 times " th As this was about the middle of the forenoon, it may fairly be at least 336 times every day, or supposing that there were 3 of 1 112 times apiece. As the nest was situated in a garden and ore the insects eaten were taken from the very place where they we have done the most mischief. ; ACADIAN FLYCATCHER. (Empidonaz virescens.) The Acadian flycatcher breeds throughout the eastern portion. the United States as far north as southern New York, Michiga and Wisconsin, and as far west as eastern Nebraska, Kansas, a Texas. It appears to extend farther north in the interior than does in the east, for one stomach was received from Minnesota one from Ontario. It winters beyond the southern boundary of the trees are not large seems to be the ideal place of residence. For the study of its food 100 stomachs were available. They were collected in 14 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and fra April to October. The food was found to consist of 97.05 per cent of animal matter and 2.95 per cent of vegetable. pie Animal food.—Beetles are eaten to the extent of 13.76 per cent ¢ the whole food. Of these 1.66 per cent are of the three prominei useful families (Carabide, Cicindelide, and Coccinellide). The othe were of more or less harmful families and include such well-knoy pests as spotted cucumber beetle (Diabrotica 12-punctata), rose be (Macrodactylus subspinosa), rice weevil (Calandra oryze), scolytid. Beetles were found in 76 stomachs and were atl q regularly till October, when none were taken. Wasps, bees, and ants amount to 39.93, or practically 40, per cen the bird’s food, and are eaten so regularly that no month’s consw: tion falls much below the average. They were found in 76 stom or 84 per cent of all, and 4 were entirely filled with them. Ants contained in 29 stomachs and parasitic species in 13, but some of latter may have been overlooked, owing to their broken conditioi Hymenoptera as a whole are the largest item of animal food with this as well as most other flycatchers. Flies (Diptera) amount to ACADIAN FLYCATCHER, 59 “per cent of the food, and are not taken as regularly as Hymen- a and in October are not eaten at all. They were noted in 39 tomachs and were the sole contents of 1. Most of them are of the yusefly family, but a few long-legged crane flies were found in 5 omachs. Bugs are eaten still less than flies. They amount to 6.03 per cent, but are not taken very regularly and not at all in Octo- They were contained in 29 stomachs and consisted of such ilies as the leaf hoppers, tree hoppers, stinkbugs, and assassin gs. i Orthoptera were found in 1 stomach taken in Florida in April and 2 collected in Pennsylvania in September, but the percentage in each q of these 3 stomachs was so great that the amount for the whole season is 6.38 per cent of the food, or more than the last item. The contents of the Florida stomach could not be determined further than that 1ey were orthopterous, but the contents of the other 2 were identified _as Gicanthus niveus, the snowy tree cricket, known in some places as : “the August bird. ‘As these creatures are ee nocturnal in their habits and not much given to flying at any time, it is rather surprising t0 find that a flycatcher had nearly filled its cornet with them. _ Moths, in both the adult and larval form (caterpillars), are second 2 n importance in the animal food. They are taken pretty regularly in every month, but with some falling off in July. The amount for the whole season is 18.87 per cent. They were found in 38 stomachs, of which 31 contained caterpillars and 8 held moths; 3 contained no q other food. No special pest was observed among them. A few miscellaneous insects, such as dragon flies, scorpion flies, and a few ins ects not identified, amount to 0.99 per cent, and have no special interest. Spiders and millepeds were eaten in moderate quantities from April to August. They amount to 2.94 per cent and complete the quota of animal food. As usual, many of them were the long- seged harvestmen or daddy longlegs. The following insects were identified: HYMENOPTERA. r I aS nh aha opin me I. Camponotus Specs ol: 1. aarek ore 3 0 a eee I Poricd sp. ese. 226. oe i _ Myzine 6-cincia........-.... ast ess L Cry piusisps. 222542. 22 2hi2 4 1 muphia mornata...........-.---- Pgs er’ COLEOPTERA. _ Hippodamia 15-maculata............- 1 | Limonius plebejus.....-.-.--- oh eee 1 meme Orpunctota..........-22.--..- 1 | Anthaxia viridifrons.......-.--.----- 1 F Gm gs-punctata: 2.22.22. Lt Del Antae i Sp. See 2) +. SPR ae AS umm VIIETUS <4223225.4. - nl | Agrilussps. si))%-5.558-YASs: 3 achycantha quadrillum....-.-.-.--- 1 | Photinus scintillans .......-- yea 1 achycantha ursina......----------- 1 | Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus......- 1 4 Scymnus oe Se ae eaeaeimet apes 1 | Chauliognathus marginatus......----- J ee pe ae ee a Telephorus carolinus......-.-.+------ ase ae Chariessa pilosa......----- S Ate A rade as Crepldodets helxe Cathophayus sp... ..'- 225 see. oe 1 | Crepidodera sp.......---- Aphodius fimetarius......---------- 2 | Odontota dorsalis.......-- Aphodius mquinalus....-.--=--.-%. 1 | Odentota sp.....-- saseee é DRPCISYCUE SPs. 2 =. 52-2 ees = aoe 2 | Orchestes pallicornis....-.-- Macrodactylus subspinosus....-.- - - 1 | Conotrachelus posticatus.-...- Prichius pigers....2.02.-222...2.-2.. \1 | Cryptorhytichus parochape eee LEZ TL TON CUE (2 11 ia ae Oe keene es 1 | Cryptorhynchus apiculatus. -- . - TCP oa ao wie a mem we 1 | Balaninus sp. ..-..-- 23a PEM CONS DETSE.. on - Spe ee on ns 1 |. Calandra oryzz.. 2.2.2 ae NA oe Set Line ee re ee 1 | Scolytus muticus.-.-2>- eee Rs DIPTERA. Se mppeiiis ap) 62.5... 222 eas ee hi. 2 Lo ee See ORTHOPTERA CRCAUAUS TICUS. «2 = = on = i oe i nin eee on oo ol a & MECOPTERA SS 2 RE SRS ree ome Lee len dl teee ses soe ne aos en te Vegetable food —Fruit was found in 5 stomachs and vegetable ref in 1. There were a few seeds of blackberries or raspberries, and tk were the only things that could have been the product of cultiva The rest was wild fruit of no economic value. Summary.—tThe habits of the Acadian flycatcher do not it to the garden or orchard, and its food has little direct econc interest. It does not cateh: many useful insects and, as it does 1 prey upon any product of cultivation, it may well be considered | AS | of those species whose function is to help keep the great flood of i life down to a level compatible with the best interests of other 1 of life. TRAILL’S AND ALDER FLYCATCHERS. (Empidonaz trailli trailli and Empidonaz trailli alnorum.) — The Traill’s and alder flycatchers, one or the other of the two fe occupy in the breeding season the whole of the United States e2 the southeastern part south of northeastern Texas, Arkansas, and mountains of West Virginia, and extend north into British An In winter they retire entirely beyond the southern boundary United States. .While the two subspecies differ in their geogre range, they agree with each other, and differ from most oth catchers, in a preference for bushy thickets along streams rather for more open country. Unlike most flycatchers they do not u select a naked twig or stake for a perch, and the nest is generally built vo forms had been clearly distinguished, it is not practicable to ‘separate them now. In determining the food of this species there were available 135 omachs collected in 17 States, the District of Columbia, New Bruns- f ck, Nova Scotia, and Ontario. California represents the farthest point west and ees the farthest south, but the Texas bird was probably migrating. The stomachs are il distributed through the months from May to September. One was taken in October, but as a s contents were somewhat exceptional it was not include in the nvestigation. In the first analysis the food was found to consist of 96.05 per cent of animal matter to 3.95 of vegetable. Nearly the whole of the vege- able food was taken in August and September, and more than three- fourths of it in the latter month, just previous to and during migra- tion. _ Animal food.—Beetles of all kinds amount to 17.89 per cent. Of iene a few were the useful ladybird beetles that eat plant lice and cales, but an overwhelming majority were harmful species, among ‘which were three specimens of the notorious cotton-boll weevil -(Anthonomus grandis) from a stomach taken in Texas, also the western spotted cucumber beetle (Diabrotica soror), locust leaf miner (Odontota dorsalis), and Lema trilineata. 'The last was the beetle that fed upon nd injured the potato before the introduction of the potato beetle ; from Colorado. Besides these are a number of harmful weevils, including 1 scolytid or engraver. Beetles were found in 108 stom- es and 1 was entirely filled with them. They constitute a good percentage of the food in every month, with the least in September, 4 when vegetable food is at a maximum. _ Hymenoptera are the largest item of animal food, not only in the aggregate but in eyery month. They are mostly in che form of wasps and bees, but there are a few of the parasitic species and some ants. They amount to 41.37 per cent of the food, a record which is exceeded _ by but 2 other flycatchers. oie es of all kinds were found in 93 stomachs and were the sole contents of 1. Diptera, such as crane flies, robber flies, house flies, and dung flies, cre found in 47 stomachs ad were the entire contents of 4. They - amount to 14.20 per cent of the food and are eaten very regularly in _ every month except September, when they fall to 8.05 per cent. _ Hemiptera, mostly stinkbugs, but with representatives of several _ other families, were contained in 44 stomachs, and amount to 7.24 per “cent of the food. The most interesting point noel a this item Bi: is that the remains of Abe ee (Blissus leucopterus) w In one 12 individuals were identified, ai showed that there were many more. too fragmentary to be counted, but the bulk of the rem 2 stomachs. indicate at least as many. Lepidoptera, that is moths and caterpillars, were fouled stomachs, of which 18 contained moths and 25 held caterpillar containing both. The aggregate of both is 7.73 per cent. No In the other stomac pest was found among them, but practically all caterpillars harmful. Orthoptera, made up mostly of small grasshoppers of the insects are relished but that their size prevents them from bata eat more extensively. They were contained in 16 stomachs, 12 of ce | was done. A few odd insects, such as dragon flies and some ephemerids, 1 occasionally taken, and altogether amount to 2.77 per cent of the: A cattle tick was found in 1 stomach and a snail in another, Spiders and millepeds were eaten to the extent of ( per cent and complete the animal food. The following animal food was identified: identifiable. HYMENOPTERA. Halticus sp.........+--+----- 1 | Agapostemon texanus..........++++- ie COLEOPTERA. EC SS ee Corymbites triundulatus.....:.--...-- ES CT a Agrilus sp- ..--+-=--- =s5==eeen Hippodamia convergens.....---------- Brachys ovata. ..-.-.=2-=.-5-550neee aS Hippodamia 13-punctata.........---- Chauliognathus marginatus ......... Z Coccinella 9-notata............--2.--- Podabrus sp..:.....-22). 252 Adalia bipunctata.............-.---- Telephorus fraxini.........2. See : Paylloboratedala. 55... .4-- a2 26s Telephorus flavipes...-..<3:. 99a . Brachycantha ursina....-.-...------- Languria mozardi.........--.-.--- “ee Wermestes CANINUS.-2....-..----2-55-- aoeer Wo-erumbuge. 025.2. 2 ees Mister QMETUONUS....-...~.- ee ee oe Haprinius lubrieus. : 0.0. 2.2 4)-\. = 0 EP TERNOGES TREICOTIIS. «=. ~~. -- 2. pae« Delopius marginatus..........----+- ORS BD swan cidddes'<'os suieeu's'n on Telephorus bilineatus..........--.-. Canthon simples. .......<.-.2aeseeeee Onthophagus sp.....-.-<<-s55.5eeee Aphodius fimetarius......------ Pat, Aphedius granarius........----+--+-- Aphodius inquinatus.........-.- ke Dichelonycha elongata.........- \ sl Dichelonycha sp.....-.-----+++++- ie e Diplotavis BD. -+.+-- 0 ++ 0t a cee 1 | Crepidodera ceived MM gece a pay 1 onset Da Sqystena elongataszs.. 52 be foes oduct sed Bee che SRN ea it Microrhopala dimidiata. <2. 20.2 es ca or ce a in UO iOdantol a dana lis 128 300. ask ean a sieges fe |, ETLCHANSePTOSO PUSS is Ux o. peem yatta pe ae A DRC UIGUTOLE oases. ees ae i SS ea Paes Wes HP gnOusSCh MOTT. 2.02. eee ee bie Liat suis 1 | Coleocerus marmoratus...........2.. 1 pe jel cease Lal Satomes favescenss 2.2 5a Seek Ver ee al Tee ea ae Net A OPLONLUS LOPICOL IS. < ug: ae a Spleen 4 | Anthonomus grands. <2 2-22-2255 eee oR ate a al i | Pyloderma joveolatum.--. -- -=. eee eee bate SAREE ASE Ee) CE if) RACRONCUS PYTTHOPUS 2... 26. aae ee Pees eee ees Ral ip |) -Pseudobarts farcta 2 Wa). ee Ls | Sealy tis mantocuss 3) 2e eis eae eee 2 US See ee ele ee eee i DIPTERA Eee eee ee en es Ae «Basico tise Seek sae ae ee w HEMIPTERA. Si gt ea, ASG Ik L) Sines, diadema: 222 e222. = ee ORTHOPTERA. MRE eames eb ecuis! AIG Aisi. oi cis ii. ok esses LSS eee 2 ACARINA Bao elsialsiate na Sielayaal bic Sir Ayal c at 28 Bae eee Senate eae 1 MOLLUSCA oe IN eet 08 5.50.8 aia ook eosin ane wie wae wn lo is a Me wd aie win GS OE 1 _ -Vegetable food.—The vegetable portion of the food amounts to _ but 3.95 per cent of the whole and was mostly eaten in September. Elderberries were found in 6 stomachs, blackberries or raspberries ‘in 2, dogwood berries in 1, juniper yeapee in 1, fruit not further identified j in 3, seeds anknown in 2, and rubbish in 1. The last two items were probably taken nae with other food. The following fruits were identified: uniper berries (Juniperus virginana) 1 | Rough-leaved dogwood (Cornus as- erberries (Sambucus canadensis). . : perifolia).. ooh 6502220 lerberries (Sambucus glauca)...... Blackberries foone (Games ree Summary.—lIt is evident from the nesting habits of this species that is not likely to injure any product of industry, and the contents of the stomachs examined corroborate this observation. The bird’s unction in nature then is to assist in keeping insects down to such a level of abundance as consists with the best interests of both plants and insects. LEAST FLYCATCHER. (Empidonax minimus.) The least flycatcher is one of the smallest of the sroun ane d of the most domestic, though, owing to its unobtrusive habits, it not so well known as the noisier phcebes and kingbirds. It breeding season it.is found over the eastern portion of the Uni States and Canada as far west as the Rocky Mountains and in a fey cases as far south as Texas and North Carolina. It frequents t Y open country and prefers orchards and the vicinity of buildir thick woods. When not molested by the English sparrow, it fine congenial surroundings in villages and the suburbs of larger towns Orchard trees, or the shade trees on lawns, afford nesting sites to its taste, for as a usual thing it does not build very high. I typical flycatcher in food habits, but like most others of the fa it does not take all of its food upon the wing. The writer has one scrambling about on the trunk of a tree and catching inse from the bark like a creeper. ¥! For the determination of the food of the least flycatcher stomachs were available. They were collected from 13 States, — District of Columbia, Ontario, and Nova Scotia, and were t within the months from April to September. They are fairly e distributed through the 6 months, but fewer were taken in April more in May. The food consisted of 97.83 per cent of animal ma’ and 2.17 of vegetable. ae Animal food.—Useful beetles, in this case mostly ladybird beetle (Coccinellidzs) with a few predaceous ground beetles (Carabid amount to 1.41 per cent. They were eaten in every month exe June, the most in September. Coccinellide appeared in 25 stomac only 3 families (Chrysomelide, Scarabeide, and weevils) being fo in more and these not in many more. As this family i is not especi abundant in the eastern part of the country, it is hard to expl how the bird gets so many unless it seeks for them. The aggre in bulk does not appear large, but a good many individuals are tak and 10 species were identified. Carabide were found in 13 stom Beetles belonging to various families, but all harmful, amount 19.94 per cent. Among these are some rather noted pests. | cotton-boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis) was found in 6 ston taken in Texas. In all, the stomachs contained 22 individual we The striped squash beetle (Diabrotica vittata) and the 12-spotte cucumber beetle (D. 12-punctata) were both identified, as well as imbricated clover weevil (Epicerus imbricatus) and the plum ¢ culio (Conotrachelus nenuphar). All of these do much damage ey: year. ~~ = BAST FLYCATCHER. 65 ! H. menoptera are the largest item of insect food. They are eaten eadliy and regularly during every month in which stomachs were cted. April was the month of greatest consumption and June the least. The average for the six months is 41.10 per cent. ymenoptera of all kinds were found in 117 stomachs. Of these, 27 ntained parasitic species and 42 contained ants. Three stomachs were entirely filled with ants and 4 with other Hymenoptera. Para- ic species were eaten to the average extent of 11.66 per cent per onth, but were taken very irregularly, and in June none at all were aten. This percentage is higher than is desirable and is probably e to the small size of the bird, which leads it to select small insects its food. Hemiptera are eaten throughout the season, but in widely varying antities. Beginning with 4.67 per cent in April, they increase ehtly in May, and rise suddenly to 32.74 per cent in June, after hich they drop to nearly their former level and so continue through eseason. The average for the six months is 11.12 per cent. While _ a few of the larger forms, like the Pentatomide, are eaten, the bulk of this item is made up - Membracidz (tree fone peeks (leaf ¥ hoppers), with a few Capside (leaf bugs), and others of the smaller species. Most of these are probably picked from leaves, trunks, and _ branches of trees, though a few may be taken on the one Diptera amount to 11.34 per cent of the food and are eaten with j - considerable regularity from April till August, when they drop sud- denly to 1.50 per cent. They rally a little in September, but evi- _ dently their season ends with July. Most of them were too badly _ mangled for further identification, but a few were crane flies (Tipulide). _ Orthoptera are not cxtereively. eaten by the least flycatchers, prob- 4 ably because they are rather large insects, and do not as a rule visit _ the flycatchers’ haunts. Most that were eaten belong to the Tettix group or are the young of the larger species. They begin with a fraction of 1 per cent in May and increase to August, when they attain a maximum of 9.58 per cent and then disappear. The average _ for the season is 2.59 per cent. _ Lepidoptera, in the forms of moths and caterpillars, are eaten in every month of the season. Beginning with 0.67 per cent in April they rise gradually to 10.97 in July and do not fall much below that pet during the remainder of the season. They were found in 47 _ stomachs, of which 21 contained the adult moths and 28 held cater- ‘pillars. Eom of the caterpillars were identified as cutworms (Noc- idze), but no special pest was noted. The average consumption for € season was 7.27 per cent. Ephemerids found in one stomach, dragon flies found in 3, and an unidentified insect in 1, make up 0.95 per cent, One stomach was entirely filled with a large dragon eoent heii ra ated pees flies on the vy are too wary to be taken sitting. Spiders are oes ti In June, which was t maximum consumption, they amounted to 6.26 per cent, season they reached 2.11 per cent. The following insects were identified: in every month in the season. CATCHER aye Cy avlve a0 a HYMENOPTERA. PME IROTNALG. 02. Pe). Sb Ophion sp u Camponotus pennsylvanicus......--- Chelonus sp...---. _- tiene COLEOPTERA. PA AOTGOCNUSIS Dein coeme = 1-012 ims ose 1 |. Lina seripia....... 22). eee ae Harpalus pennsylvanicus.....--.---- 1 | Gonioctena pallida............. Anisodactylus rusticus.......------- 1 | Diabrotica 12-punctata.........- Anisodactylus baltimorensis...-....- 1 | Diabrotica balteata...........-... Cymbiodyta fimbriata.........-...-.. 1 | Diabrotica vittata.......... haa Hydrobius fuscipes...-..--.-------- 1 | Disonycha glabrata...........- 3a Hippodamia 15-maculata.........---- 1 | Disonycha sp. -. ...--e eee . Hippodamia 18-punctata...........-. ,1 | Halticasp..-......._ oe neemelia 9-notata_... 2.222 sees 2 | Cremrdodera helaines > -7 71a eeeem Coccinella sanguinea...........---.--' 1 | Crepidodera sp..._..=-- 2 aaa Coccinella abdominalis...........--..1:| Graptedera sp... =: .2302eeeeee UPHIOED os be kde hens 1 | Chetocnema sp ..--..:. 240s ia Adalia bipunctata................-.. 5 | Odontota nervosa. ......-. ni cee el Anutis 15-punctata.........-.-..---- 1,| Odontotasp..-.......-- eee . PMIROCEUMIE Je... 2. 24-2 es eo t 2. 1 | Coptocycla bicolor... -.. 22. eee Scymnus americanus........-.-..---- 1| Coptocycla signifera...........-.. én) Seymnus brulert........-.---.-.----- 1 | Cryptocephatus sp: +. 3a LN FEST es 1 | Bruchus prosopis... ...-. 20a fs Monocrepidius vespertinus.......-..- 1 | Epicerus imbricatus...........- P Lal NOS 212i pat i eel aa anata re ae 3 | Otiorhynchus ligneus.............-- Chauliognathus marginatus. ......-..-- 2 | Tanymecus confertus. ..1 7-2 se eee sora Chauhtognathus sp....-...-.-.---.... "1 | Sitones tibialig -~/.. 22 eee PROBhOPUSIED. ~¢0h0 050. - 2s aha 2 | Phytonomus nigrirostris.......... i! PEWS SD. .tv..-.---------2-----~ ? sl |. Macropssp- .5:%)2. 2) een “a Aphodius fimetarius..........------ 4 | Barytychius amenus......-..-.--+ Aphodius ruricola...... aN eS ee 4 | Endalus xratus ........--..----« a Aphodius inquinatus..........------ 10 | Anthonomus grandis.........----- PphodMa Epes. 2)... ---- ede ... 2 | Conotrachelus seniculus........... CREIONYERGIED nas cr: |. =» -[/onye os sk 2 | Conotrachelus nenuphar.........- PETA CORB PENBO. 2c... Sas 2 oie 2 | Ceutorhynchus sp......-:-ssseeee Pachybrachys othonus.........-...-- 1 | Rhinoncus pyrrhopus.......-.--- re WMetathroma sp.....-..-.-..-----,--. 1 | Baris wrea.....0.=-<----.5aen Driaupis Pruvnedse 2.2... 2 SIL 1 | Balaninus wniformis......------ WWononola tristiseic.s5o0. Mees 20S A DIPTERA. Bluebottle fly (Lucilia cxsar)........--..- eee cme n cece nese ees eceneee See or le food—Fruit amounts to 1.83 per cent, and consists of — Is found in 2 stomachs, elderberry seeds in 2, pokeberry | 1, rough-leaved cornel in 1, and fruit skins not further iden- 4. Various seeds were contained in 6 stomachs, and rub- | ; altogether they amount to 0.34 per cent.. c lowing fruits and seeds were identified: . rood sorrel (Oxalis stricta)... 1 | Elderberries (Sambucus canadensis). . erries or raspberries (Rubus Pokeberries (Phytolacca decandra).... Knotweed (Polygonum sp.)..-.----- Timothy (Phleum pratense).......-..- Foxtail grass (Chzxtochloa sp.) mmary.—In the food of the least flycatcher there is no evidence ct injury to the farmer or horticulturist. The bird eats no nd practically no fruit or other product of husbandry. It be allowed that the bird destroys more useful insects than (eee COPIES of this publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., at 20 cents per copy LL SURI iY— BULLET N No. 45 “HENRY W. HENSHAW, Cie PROTON AND MIGRATION OF NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES BY \ WELLS W. COOKE Assistant, Biological Survey NN SNS SWANS AS SS ... ‘WASHINGTON. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE y Oe) ees Ute ti pee) SCP Sa AP en, Sse eee Ee Bll? U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BIOLOGICAL SURVEY-—BULLETIN No. 45 HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES BY WELLS W. COOKE Assistant, Biological Survey WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1913 Issued Mav 24, 1913. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Department or AGRICULTURE, Bureau or BroLocicaL SURVEY, . Washington, D. C., February 3, 1913. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, for publication as ulletin No. 45 of the Biological Survey, a report on “The Dis- ribution and Migration of North American Herons and Their Allies,” by Wells W. Cooke, Assistant in the Biological Survey. ormerly widely distributed in the United States, and very abundant certain localities, the herons in recent years have everywhere been greatly depleted in numbers, chiefly because of the demand for their plumage for millinery purposes. Several species of egrets bearing the coveted “aigrettes” have, indeed, been almost exterminated, and the few that remain in the United States owe their existence to protective laws and to an aroused public sentiment. This bulletin aims to give precise information as to the range of the several species, especially the breeding range, and in regard to their migra- tion. These data are believed to be amply sufficient to form a basis for protective legislation by the States inhabited by the various - species. ; . Respectfully, Henry W. Hensuaw, Chief, Biological Survey. Hon. James WIitson, 3 Secretary of Agriculture. a - rr. ie ne va ae tar, © n'y me eS hy k Ba ee ey i aoe Oe Si , ets, ; feiss a * ta oe ; see Nak ~ 4 1. = % a”, J . : s ~) Le ; 3 Eat - si - ‘qe : : . a \ ~ ~ 7 7 ‘ \ ’ ‘ j j ‘ j Me - : )' ee se 4 e SS ee COE es. a) s toh SA pe eee sees ures ey a Sori American herons and their allies.................2.0...200-0ee0000-- 4 Miamange (Phoenicopterus ruber)... ....-....-- 2. be. eedn eden nse s ess ets a Ewaeaie spuonbill (Ajaia ajajo)..2. 2... 2.2... ee 4 MERA RR ER (a ORO NIUM) noo ke oe os Lo RO ot ok ee erent (G EN PUNT)... 2s 2. Sa A ae bs eke ce tie Palsey apis (Ee legads autwmnals) +894 =... Sesh Ai leo et ee White-faced glossy ibis (Plegadis guarauna)........-.-.-----------+--+---- MME EMP ES (NCLERTG QILETICOND). — a2 oes. bcs elb ee cise oe wwe Dae ie Wayenne ibis (Harpiprion cayenmengis) (i222)... 2022-52 ee ee PE MRIMMUEEL TU FUL UL CLENIO) 2. ee cer ees bas 2s So pA ae Setar, (Cbotaurus lentiginosus)::.22200252. 2.2 PSR eS Pinnated heron (Botaurus pinnatus).........-.--.------- wo cis ka oer Mesalinern CLVOOTYCHUS EVILIS) 2252202 2223 SER ae eo ee Wory least bittern (7zobrychus neowenus). ..-.2- 2-222 5222-22-22 ee oe eaeat white heron (Ardea occidentalis): 22.22... 2-22 ee ee Great blue heron (Ardea herodias herodias)............------+++++-+-++++++-- oarmneran (Anica herodias wardt) ses se. ea ee oe 02 ee ee soe iresanzg heron (Ardea herodias treganzoi).. 2. 0-255. .e see ee te ae oe Northwestern coast heron (Ardea herodias fannini)...........------------- California great blue heron (Ardea herodias hyperonca)............-------- West Indian great blue heron (Ardea herodias adoxa).........-..---.----+-- Mexican great blue heron (Ardea herodias lessoni)........---------+-++-+-- Lower California great blue heron (Ardea herodias sanctilucae).........---- Galapagos great blue heron (Ardea herodias cognata)...........------------ aMEAEROVIETO (CATOCH CHINCTCO) a oi ioe ign oe wen ees «eile Sly ey ee RRMA ERIS CULCIHE) on on are cae Wit eimc2 = = <= a nia Iolani = we om alee eager Petmeeeeret (MGT CONAIMISSIMO). 2... 2 cee ee eee been eens Reddish egret (Dichromanassa rufescens)......-----+--+-+--2200-- 2 eee eee Louisiana heron (Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis).......-...-.------+++--+---- “ WMemi-ecpres (Hiydranassa tricolor tricolor) -...-.- 2-2 <-~.s-ogecee-- +s ete Little blue heron (Florida caerulea)..........- ee AR 9 94 Seid mene tinea Maar? a meredonpoatbill (Cochlearvus zeledont)........ 5222 ---- 5.2 b- beeen ee eee x eeated beron (Pilkerodius pileatus).-..... 1.2 2ee ee pees lee geen ee Toe fy Green heron (Butorides virescens virescens)... ...-202.6- 22-2. oe eee eee! : Anthony green heron (Butorides virescens anthonyi)....-.-..-.-------.---- ; Frazar green heron (Butorides virescens frazari).......-----------+--+-+++++- Green heron (Butorides virescens subspp).....--------------+-----+++++-- Lembeye green heron (Butorides brunescens).......----------++++--+--- Sammie heron (Ditorides siriata)o.. 22.5... 21.2220. 0. 2 eee Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax naevius)....---- gz eee MEO UN CAGOINIC CUO Uae tens Ste An s.i as doele 2 2S oy Se dS Re Yellow-crowned night heron (Nyctanassa violacea).........-...--------+-- Lineated tiger-bittern (Tigrisoma lineatum)............--.---+-----2+---- Nicaraguan tiger-bittern (Tigrisoma excellens)........-..------+2+---++-- Mexican tiger-bittern (Heterocnus mevicanus) ..........-----2---+++-+++-- eRe oe ia lie cies at eR LI BS OS Oe Jade PA de a ana ILLUSTRATIONS. DISTRIBUTION MAPS. i) hie a Fie. 1. Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber)......---+----+-+--++-++-+- Roseate spoonbill (Ajaia ajaja).... White ibis (Guara alba)... 2202.......----228e—-+ eae . Scarlet ibis (Guare rubra). 0, . Glossy ibis (Plegadis autumnalis).........-:...-.:--+---0me-==seeeee White-faced glossy ibis (Plegadis guarauna)......-.. Wee Wood ibis ( Mycteria americana).......-...-----------++--+ Bee Jabiru (Jabiru mycteria) Bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) ..........---------- eae. ) Least, bittern (Jrobrychus exths). .....-: 2: 2-2 on oe ee aes 11. Cory least bittern (Ixobrychus neorenus).....--.-.---------- ur 12. Great white heron (Ardea occidentalis)............---+--+-- ’ 13. Great blue heron (Ardea herodias)..........-----+<--+-senee jas Here (Herodias egretta)... = Seis on on on ee ae ee BR. 15. Snowy egret (Egretta candidissima).........-------++-+-++++--- 16. Reddish egret (Dichromanassa rufescens).....--------+++-++++++: 17. Louisiana heron (Hydranassa tricolor)........-..-.-----+--+-+--- 18. Little blue heron (Florida caerulea).....---- 2 aie ee 19. Green heron (Butorides virescens)........-.------- a aee » sitesi 20. Black-crowned night heron ( Nycticorax nycticorax naevius). - Scie’ 21. Yellow-crowned night heron (Nyctanassa violacea)........+++ 6 ee eT Ge Oe ie pec roa = : DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF NORTH AMERICAN % HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. E INTRODUCTION. be The herons have attracted wide attention during late years, particu- | larly because of the earnest efforts that have been made to prevent the ter destruction of the aigrette-bearing members of the family. The horrors necessarily attending the collection of the aigrettes have _ aroused bird lovers to unprecedented activity. As a result, in some _ parts of the Union stringent laws have been enacted, and the State _ machinery for bird preservation has been supplemented by large _ private subscriptions. Probably no family cf birds ever had fuller _ protection on the statute books than is now enjoyed by the herons, _ while certainly no birds have ever been the recipients of more zealous _ eare than is now accorded to the remaining colonies of the larger _ and smaller egrets. The friends of the birds became aroused none too soon. The large ‘ ee recding colonies of egrets have been completely destroyed, and only _ a few scattered remnants exist to serve as centers for reestablishing - he species. _ Most herons are colony breeding birds, and this fact has been one of the most potent factors in bringing about their destruction. A colony could easily be discovered by watching the lines of flight to and _ from the feeding grounds, and the succeeding operations were woe- fully simple. The hunter merely waited until the eggs hatched and _ then, taking his stand within the colony, shot the parent birds as they brought food to the young. No matter how much shooting was done, _ the old birds—then bearing the nuptial plumes in their greatest _ perfection—continued to return to their hungry young until the last one was killed. The starving of the young and the utter extinc- _ tion of the colony were necessary sequels. So long as these plumes could be sold for their weight in gold and there was an unlimited market for them, neither State laws nor the efforts of zealous game wardens availed much in checking the _ slaughter. More hopeful conditions are being secured at the present 7 8 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. ae time by decreasing the market, Already in several of the States has been made unlawful to sell the aigrettes or even to have them in ~ possession with intent to sell. Could such a law be made general throughout the United States, the killing of aigrette-bearing birds would cease, because the slaughterer would have no market for his plumes. The birds will never be safe until this condition exists. The larger egret and the snowy egret are the two species that have suffered most severely from the persecutions of the plume hunters, but the millinery trade has also levied a heavy toll on many other ~ members of the group. The flamingo has ceased to breed anywhere — in the United States. The roseate spoonbill has become extinct over — more than half of its former range in the United States, and its total numbers are probably less than 5 per cent of what they were 50 years ago. The reduction of numbers in the other herons and in the ibises has not been so pronounced, but several of the species haye been driven from the northern two-thirds of their former breeding range ~ and are now restricted to the wildest and most inaccessible parts of — the Gulf States. 3 The food habits of herons and heronlike birds have not been thor- — oughly investigated. The flamingo is believed to subsist largely on — shellfish and crustacea. The spoonbill and the ibises partake of the — same fare, but add insects to the bill. The larger wood ibis feeds — also on frogs and fishes. All of the true herons are fond of fish, but in addition they con- sume many injurious creatures, such as crawfish, water snakes, - meadow mice, and other rodents. In the West the great blue heron — spends much of its time hunting for pocket gophers. There is no — doubt that the herons—especially the black-crowned night heron and — the great blue heron—do much damage about fish hatcheries and — ponds used as fish preserves, and in such places they should be held in check. But their food habits have redeeming features, and pend- ing conclusions based on careful study of the whole subject, no general aggressive measures against the birds should be permitted. DISTRIBUTION. The herons and their allies as a whole are tropical birds, barely extending to the warmer parts of the southern United States. This bulletin treats of 32 species, all that are known to occur in North America south to and including the West Indies and Panama. One of these, the European heron, is accidental in Greenland; two are stragglers to the southern United States; and several have neyer been taken within the limits of the United States, Scarlet ibis (Guara rubra). Acci- dental five times in the United States. Cayenne ibis (Harpiprion cayennensis). Jabiru (Jabiru mycteria). Accidental -_ once in the United States. Zeledon boatbill (Cochlearius zeledoni). _Pinnated heron (Botaurus pinnatus). Lembeye green heron (Butorides bru- nescens). mingo (Phoenicopterus ruber). No longer breeds in the United States, but occurs as a rare visitor. _ Roseate spoonbill (Ajaia ajaja). E White ibis (Guara alba). ; _ Glossy ibis (Plegadis autumnalis). _ Wood ibis (Mycteria americana). _ Great white heron (Ardea occidentalis). | White-faced glossy ibis (Plegadis gua- _ rayna). Bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus). Least bittern (Ixobrychus exilis). # Cory least bittern (Jzrobrychus neoxr- MIGRATION. 9 _ SOUTHERN SPECIES NOT RANGING NoRTH TO THE UNITED STATES. Striated heron (Butorides striata). Agami heron (Agamia agami). Pileated heron (Pilherodius pileatus). Lineated tiger-bittern (Tigrisoma line- atum). Nicaraguan tiger-bittern (Tigrisoma excellens). 5 Mexican tiger-bittern (Hceterocnus ca- banisi). Species OCcuRRING DURING THE BREEDING SEASON NOT FARTHER NORTH THAN THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE UNITED STATES. Snowy egret (Egretia candidissima). Reddish egret (Dichromanassa rufes- cens). Louisiana heron (Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis ) . Little blue heron (Florida caerulea). Yellow-crowned night heron (Nycta- nassa violacea). _ SPECIES oF WipE RANGE IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA DURING THE - BREEDING SEASON. Great blue heron (Ardea herodias). Green heron (Butorides virescens). Black-crowned night heron (Nyctico- raz nycticorar naevius). enus). ; SUMMARY. : i Species of wide range in the United States_______________________ 7 i: Species ranging north to the southern United States______________________ 12 a Species not ranging north to Thesvnnied: Sta tegseewc — Cee ee 10 ‘i Tropical species occurring as stragglers in the United States_____________ 2 "a Species occurring as a straggler from Europe____________________________ 1 i eee mie A eee) TRO Ce oti ss Cory tp 32 MIGRATION. The herons that breed south of the United States are for the most part nonmigratory. The same is true of the herons breeding in the tropical parts of Florida and Texas. All herons breeding farther north are at least partially migratory, for although a few individuals may remain through the winter in the vicinity of the nesting site, 10 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIBS, yet the great majority retire at this season to more genial climes. Those breeding north of the Gulf States are almost completely migra- tory, though occasionally a bittern, a great blue heron, or a blacl crowned night heron elects to spend the winter where eee swamps or warm springs offer a precarious livelihood far north of the freezing line. The most striking peculiarity of the migrations of the herons is — their northward movement in the fall. Though not universal, yet it is a common habit for the young herons to wander in the late summer and early fall long distances, even several hundred miles, — north of the district where they were hatched. They remain from a week to a month at their picnic grounds and finally depart for — their winter home. so A still more remarkable migration habit is that of the snowy egret. Numbers of these birds migrate in the spring far north of the © breeding range and remain throughout the summer in these northern districts as nonbreeders. The birds are, of course, adults, and some- times they are found during the summer 500 to 1,000 miles north © of the nearest known breeding grounds of the species. This habit — of the snowy egret seems not to be shared by any other North : American species. $ The data in this bulletin on the distribution and breeding of the several species have been obtained largely from the printed records — in ornithological literature. The extended migration tables are made — possible by the reports of many hundred observers who have filled out migration schedules for the Biological Survey. Occasion is taken herewith to extend-to these observers well-merited thanks for — their painstaking care and for the large amount of time they have devoted to the study of bird movements. NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. Flamingo. Phoenicopterus ruber Linnzus. Range.—F lorida, Yucatan, and the Bahamas, and southeast through the West Indies to Venezuela, the mouth of the Amazon, and the ~ Galapagos; accidental in South Carolina and Louisiana. Breeding range.—The flamingo is not a migrant in the ordinary sense of the word, and its occurrence outside of the breeding range is due to its wandering into contiguous regions in search of food. — The species nested formerly among the keys of southern Florida — in the vicinity of Indian Key (Audubon), and Cape Sable (Scott), but was driven away many years ago, and there seems to be no certain record of breeding in Florida during the past 20 years. oe The principal breeding range seems to have been the Bahamas, — which furnished in abundance the peculiar natural conditions re- — o De Deee ake ae e t oe pa 2 en ie Sia. vs se 3 2 Bee fe, Breton ae = = 7 i im = ate a oe ar =e: ie Tae aos ~ Ras Fl - ) ~ « . e. 5 T ‘FLAMINGO. 11 quired for the nesting site. Nests have been known throughout the ahamas from Great Abaco (Allen), on the north to Great Inagua (Bryant), on the south, and as late as 1905 the birds were still nest- ing in considerable numbers on Andros Island (Riley). Large breed- ing colonies have existed in the vicinity of Cienfuegos, Cuba, and this port has been for many years one of the principal places of shipment _ for live flamingos. The flamingo is also known to have nested on the | Isle of Pines (Gundlach) ; Rio Lagartos, Yucatan (Boucard) ; Bon- aire Island, off the coast of Venezuela (Hartert); near the mouth _ of Waini Creek on the coast of British Guiana (Lloyd); on the coast of French Guiana near Cayenne (Waterton); and south to ar Fic. 1.—Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber). the vicinity of the mouth of the Amazon River at Praia de Cajutuba, Brazil (Pelzeln), and to the Galapagos Islands (Beck). Eggs have been found in the Bahamas, May 14, 1884 (Maynard) ; June 7, 1886 (Blake) ; and May 8, 1904 (Chapman) ; young out of the nest in the Bahamas, May 28, 1898 (Chapman); young on the Galapagos, April 1, 1902 (Beck). Migration range.—Outside of the breeding season the flamingo used to be not uncommon on the west coast of Florida north to Tampa Bay (Scott), and a few probably still visit Florida, for they were noted at Upper Matecumbe Key, March 7, 1906 (Brodhead), and Lake Worth, May, 1905 (Ryman), but none probably winter any- where in Florida. The flamingo has been noted also at Warrington, _ Fila. (Stone) ; Charleston, S. C. (Audubon) ; Georgetown, S. C., Sep- tember, 1876 (Loomis); and at Cameron, La., December 6, 1910 12 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. (McAtee). One visited Bermuda September 24, 1849 (Hurdis, and the species has been recorded as a visitor to Jamaica (March) Haiti (Ritter), Porto Rico (Gundlach), Guadeloupe, Antigua, ag Anegada (Clark), Colombia (Masquera), and the Orinoco River in Venezuela (Burger). he Roseate Spoonbill. Ajaia ajaja (Linneus). Pi 3 a Range.—F lorida, Louisiana, Texas, and central Mexico, south to southern Patagonia; formerly north casually to South Carolina and Indiana; accidental in Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Kansas, Colo- rado, and Califor. Breeding range.—The roseate spoonbill as a breeder in the United States was confined to the extreme southern parts of Texas, Louisi- ana, and Florida. It has been known to nest in the lower Rio Grande _ Valley (Merrill) ; Grigsby, near Beaumont, Tex. (Rachford); Cal- casieu (Kopman), Lake Arthur (Beyer), and Bayou Sara,, La. (Beckham) ; and on the coast of southern Florida north to Indian River (Bryant) and Anclote Keys (Scott). Though sadly depleted in numbers and on the verge of extinction, yet the species probably still breeds near Cape Sable, Fla. (Bowdish), and Lake Arthur, La. (Beyer, Allison, and Kopman), while as late as July, 1910. a flock of about 50 was seen at the Indian Key Bird Reservation in Tampa Bay, Fla. (Pillsbury). Tate records in Texas are at Rockport, August, 1905 (Howell) and at Brownsville June, 1907, and August, 1909 (Smith). The pink curlew, as this bird is often called, has a wide diseniba tion south of the United States. It is resident on both coasts of Mexico and on the large lakes of the interior, ranging on the Pacific Coast north to Mazatlan (Lawrence). It is known to breed in Nicaragua (Ridgway) and Costa Rica (Nutting) and has been re- corded as occurring in Guatemala (Goss), Panama (Sharpe), and — Colombia (Robinson). It used to be a common breeder in Great Inagua Island, Bahamas (Cory), in Cuba (Gundlach), and on the Tsle of Pines (Poey), but is now rare if not extinct throughout this region. It has been recorded as a rare visitant to Jamaica (March), Haiti (Tristram), Porto Rico (Bowdish), and several of the Lesser Antilles including Trinidad Island (Leotaud), while from the coast of Venezuela (Ernst) south to Bahia Blanea, Argentina (Barrows) and to Santiago, Chile (Philippi), it is not rare either on the coast or in the interior on the larger rivers. A few have wandered south to the Falkland Islands (Abbott) and the Strait of Magellan (Balt ter and Hudson). The breeding season is evidently exceedingly variable and oat F extended. The National Museum contains eggs taken near Key } ls ‘ 3 a , 3 : Uitte ieee Ae Se ae? Pel ees ae ee 26 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. — and Paraguay to Cordoba, Argentina (Dabbene); and to : Aires, Argentina (Hudson). It also ranges west to central (Taczanowski). Eggs were taken October 10, 1904, on the Chaco « Argentina (Hartert and Venturi). @ BREEDING © OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER + WINTERING ~~ OCCURRENCE IN WINTER > RESIDENT 120 Fic. 9.—Bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus). Bittern. -Botaurus lentiginosus (Montagu). Range.—Nearly the whole of North America, from Panama and the — Greater Antilles north to British Columbia, Mackenzie, and New- foundland. aime Breeding range.—The bittern is one of the most northern breed- ing members of its family. During the summer it ranges north to a o, BITTERN. i 3 the southern part of the Cariboo District, B. C. (Brooks) ; Peace River Landing, Alberta (Macoun) ; Fort Norman, Mackenzie (Pre- _ ble); Prince Albert, Saskatchewan (Ferry); Fort Churchill, Kee- -watin (Clarke); Fort George, on the east side of James Bay _ (Selwyn); Godbout, Quebec (Comeau); Anticosti Island, Quebec _ (Verrill) ; Humber River, Newfoundland (Porter) ; and St. John, _ Newfoundland (Howley). It was once seen at Cape St. Francis near _ the Strait of Belle Isle (Bigelow). The southern boundary of the _ normal breeding range extends from Buena Vista Lake, Cal. (Gold- - man); Pahranagat Valley, Nev. (Merriam), and Utah Lake, Utah (Johnson), east to Barr Lake, Colo. (Felger), Wichita, Kans. _ (Matthews), Henderson, Ky. (Alves) ; Variety Mills, Va. (Micklem), _ and Cape May, N. J. (Hand). South of this normal summer range, the species has been found breeding at Lerma, Mexico (Goldman) ; _ Alamitos, Los Angeles County, Cal. (Robertson); Mormon Lake, _ Ariz. (Mearns); Raleigh, N. C. (Brimley); and Yemassee, S. C. _ (Wayne). Winter range—tThe principal winter home is in the southern _ United States, from which a few pass south throughout Mexico and as far south as Coban, Guatemala (Salvin) ; Reventazon, Costa Rica _ (Bangs); Cariblanco and Turrucares, Costa Rica (Lankester) ; _ Laguna de Ochomogo, Costa Rica (Carriker); and Isthmus of _ Panama (Lawrence). The species is not rare in western Cuba _ (Gundlach), the Isle of Pines (Gundlach), and the northern Ba- _ hamas (Bonhote). It winters north to Marysville, Cal. (Belding), the lower Ohio Valley, and North Carolina; and is rare or casual at Canton, Ill. (Cobleigh), and Washington, D. C. (Coues). One - was seen December 28, 1904, at a warm spring near Fort Morgan, Colo. (Felger), far north of the usual winter home. Migration range.—Specimens have been taken in Jamaica (Denny) and Porto Rico (Gundlach), though the species is not known to - occur regularly in either of these islands. Many individuals have _ found their way, spring and fall, to Bermuda (Jardine), though their - appearance there is so irregular as to suggest accident rather than design. A straggler to Piddletown, England, became the basis of . _ the original description of the species. Spring migration. Number “ante of Earliest date Place. of seats sprin ofs spring | ords SDene arrival. Bemaiaieiph N.C... .../.......9.....--. PETE: hte inl. Sih ea eae 9] Apr. 1] Mar. 19,1908 “4 Res ah N: pee ee ae ne ee UN eT ck cs Le la | A ES ee Feb. 11,1901 ~ ~ Spring migration—Continued. ; Average | 1... Number | Place. of years’ ments records. rae) | Northen New Jerseya- <2 sas222-2 sass = as One sae eee eee - = eee Sete 3 | Apr. 11 | Mar. Ga INNS Vae SRS 2S Ee Ree SDs ee Se ee ee Ensen ee eee Bei ne ere Mar. 28, Canandaigua, INA RY S(O AT) Se ate aici (sete oe ee eee eee see. vc eee 12 | Apr. 22 | Apr. Jewett City; /Connts(mean) 2322 5.4 2: See es ee i 2a ees 7 | Apr. 21 | Apr. Beverly, Mass.. 2. -.----.---- see gears». <\5)2 ee 9! Apr. 20 | Apr. Wiest, Groton, Mass py issih : ftsgi 22 4ds ie ee. eee! : : SS ee 7 | Apr. 22 | Apr. Monadnock, ROMER te ek oe 4 eee 2| Apr. 16 | Apr. Phillips, Mie bah: ae dat fo ae 5 | Apr. 25 | Apr IBitiS ie GMOS oS 2. on. weitere ais ane io n Cee ene += + 2 Sh gees 3.| May 8 ay RortikKent,¢Mesc. 2.2. ah 2.238) st ad. AL eee ee oi ds Ca es ee ee May Montreal \Wanadas oa. -c eee ose ne nen So Oe mse cel= + = aie Caer eee 5 | Apr. 25 | Apr. QueheciCanada gb fe...) 225.2 28. 20 Lede eee Pee ae 2| Apr. 27 | Apr. | IPTC LOU sy Neier ere eae sel tao oe ie CS ES Se a = = yee ae 9 | Apr. 22 | Apr. PEL ANIT aR VING SSS be Ue ac Soe. <2 ot Ree eee Ske foci eto 3| May 7 | May Blackville, N. 1 Sri G0 2) ee gee eo EER Se Sener 22 a oe oe 3 | May 11 | May | NorthyRiveriP: (Bib. ! see bec ce tlk. Se... Ee Se ee May 20, Godbout; Quebecsss.- 2. ses teae beeen cc etc asec ee eee eee ++ ss ec soe eee Seren seeks eee May 12, Fayetteville, ApKS Soop: ahd: SU Boe Reet Lt ee SEES SS Mar. 31 IMonbeen IMO: 2232 aceg sees 4 2 bse dele on + Bras 2. ee ae ane eee ee Mar. Odin, ill. phe tut. .° Coon Leeann S| AE 2) Apr. 5 | Apr. Canton, Meas ele teste wlclige sc eet ani oS mice = Dera eee epasies © Sab 2) = eS Se se See 8) dees Jan. Vincennes, Mini die S.6f7ss 2. Eee tte ia bee Yok. ee eee 2| Apr. 4 Apr. Oberlin Ohi Os sae ese cse en icesne = aste ge eae MPa ese 4| Apr. 10 | Mar Detroit, CSC TOG a NT ER Ta | SCC LE So 3 ar. 31 | Mar Vicksburg, MA Ch. FoR isi p. ch cee eo sec eo re lie eee ean cly.k sas a ee es 7| Apr. 7 | Mar Point Pelee} Onts2-2 0. oh 3. iSSt it. EEL aS ks he Sa eee eee Jan. (Garelpy, (One ene eee naan mat eel. gees eae een oe meee ys sen op eee 4| Apr. 21 | Apr. (Qije yey CO hee miss RSE EES Pe ee Oe 52 e958 Vee Sok Bee tie Be ee So 16 | Apr. 24 | Apr. Dannie, Wo ooo a a an ae ee ee asc weal wine Gee ae ene a2 3 | Apr. 10 Pe Chicago AUR, PRS Ea Js Ley 2 ee 16 | Apr. 19 ° IRs OC NES a ees tcedsecudss-Secee “6 seeosbesorc. ssSsemeeee omer deci ecocesos: foccec cs Apr. ANCEOSSG;AVWIS2 2a a= co smctacen =< dee emene 5 | Apr. 22 ane (ebay Ue aoe socio enereee- 2 ay 6 a Central Towa... 12 | Apr. 17 | Apr. Heron Lake, Minn. 6| Apr. 20 | Apr Elk River, Minn..... 4| Apr. 23 | Apr. Lake Andrew, Minn. 4| Apr. 24 |) Apr. Wihite banths Milt: 5922953523. .5.5e tease. 2 to 6 eee Ge eee ee Apr. Central Kansas. . 6| Apr. 17 | Apr. Rcancas Crip Mid..248.) GA Aa ee ea, BIOS 4| Apr. 18 | Apr Wulentine, Nebr. (mear)..---..----.--.--.---.- Se 8. Sae ete ae aeease 4| Apr. 27 | Apr TEN UNG) 00 folg 1D) ee OR Serpe enor soe an Se eee re nee oe 3 | Apr. 17 | Apr Bamimaitalls Soak tae eC shoe eR a a 2\ Apr. 11} Apr. PFarnispurey IN| Dak. (mean)2: 3.4: ..celte leet eeeeeet es -- 2h. ate oe 6 ay 2) Apr ESTGT ER ENSIG) Se ER eee Ge ccerc Hodeeeouac Gas SosegeeranBear cstce 10 | May 3] Apr. Indian Head, Sask: (nese) isi t. Sik Sl ce Ae. AO. oe ee 6 | May 11 ay Denver, DONG 2c ahs eae cae ooh ee. ae 7 | Apr. 20 | Apr. Galida, Golo... :.c-.-.--. soc Pbk. ERCLL Oye. CO. O05. TN Sr Apr: Utah Lake, UGA oan ain «Sein leis aie awn m Bape a mein Relea afk moses ain ete sta S| aan en MourypMont-§ - SUSS Ss LLC te cis: Ss OS CORSE Pe. SOLE SS | Apr. Edmonton, Alberta anism Swi che eto teh = wade age ee OeeS ones -'b ee ere 4| May 21 Fort Providence, Mag 8 3..258 8s ea R.A 2|/ May 9] May one One SSC CRR ER eee Sec codcr BEere on: oSORBROe © oes. Carer 4 | Mar. 28 | Mar. Ss Harbor, edb b eae fale ck coed Ce eR ee So os fect dine dis op aetehhe ee ris 4 Chil iwack, B. C Dplsenieys aloe kge oes oe ae creme ee cle REE S + - 58 be en cae see ee ar. Okanagan ec Bi OSFIRLE. be kT SE SERS 2) Apr. 26 | Apr. The last bittern seen in the spring at Nassau, Bahamas, was on March 6, 1902 (Bouhote) ; Frogmore, S. C., April 4, 1887 (Hoxie); _ New ‘Salen ad La., April 7, 1904 (Allison); Whitfield, Fla., Ape eon . 1903 pean) e 1883 (Gitbantery Magdalen ee Quebec, July 14, ee Cecheny: Kewanee, Ill., May 22, 1893 (Murchison) ; Fays pee Mich., May 30, 1894 iatlans) : Detroit, Mich., May 21, 189 (Swales) ; Leech Lake, Minn., June 6, 1902 (Currier) ; Julesbur . Colo., May 17, 1899 ar sae Risa Los Angeles County, Cal. May 14, 1899 (Robertson) ; Fort Crook, Cal., May 12, 1861 ae LEAST BITTERN. 29 mens in U. S. National Museum) ; near Crane Lake, Saskatchewan, June 7, 1905 (Bent). Young out of the nest were found at Guelph, Gialario, at the early date of June 1, 1901 (Walker), and ‘young a week old at Meridian, N. Y., May 31, 1898 (Tabor). Fall migration. Average Number datclat Latest date Place. of years’ of the last the last records. one seen.| 2° Seen. ae 1B) sO aE Ae Se RISE ESE SUES ©) ea (AO rae er a a Dec. 19,1889 ice Rte sree to Oc aa Marstonmoor, N. Dak Sioux Falls, S. Dak.. | SRERASISNT PE UC ) e ee , ee eS LOPS URIS SG)g 9 2G Digi ea a a eae PR EN Montreal, 7G tS oS «SI aaa: eae ean Je eae oe sos Scotch Lake, N. Braet ovei as Moet Nee aa Se Ue ae a a EP TEIES Io 1 SIs SO gO SS Ss EDS ESEGUCG, 4 Oke UTA fe eee Ree A cre ery Ge a oa ee a ee wa Th) ESTEE REI Cea A aR CISPR, Resa emma |) ens Nov. 3,1896 ere PTEer Rae hott aera ees EN Ph os We a Ns Oct. 30,1905 The first in fall migration arrived at Frogmore, S. C., August 26, 1886 (Hoxie), and at St. Marys, Ga., September 12, 1905 (Arnow). [Pinnated Heron. Botaurus pinnatus (Wagler). This species ranges in South America, in Argentina, Brazil, and Guiana, and has one somewhat doubtful record for Nicaragua (Lawrence).] Least Bittern. Jxrobrychus exilis (Gmelin). Range.—North America north to Oregon, Saskatchewan, and New Brunswick, and thence south in winter to Chile and southern Brazil. _ Breeding range.—The least bittern is a regular and common breeder in the eastern United States north of latitude 39° and west of New England. The breeding range extends north to St. John, N. B. (Chamberlain) ; Ottawa, Ontario (White); Grand Rapids, Mich. _ (Milliken); Ripon, Wis. (Cooke); White Earth, Minn. (Cooke) ; _ Crane Lake, Saskatchewan (Macoun); and probably in southern _ Manitoba. Its western limit is near the hundredth meridian at Hays, Kans. (Lantz); Long Pine, Nebr. (Bates); and Roscoe, S. Dak. _ Throughout the Rocky Mountain region the species is absent as a Pi. ..” but appears again in small numbers along the Pacific coast & t San Luis Rey, Cal. (Sharp) ; Los Angeles, Cal. (Grinnell) ; and , etre Teh RETRO NT ae ae ee p - 2 ea Taio een ae pts ") . ' @ BREEDING © © OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER | + WINTERING @ RESIDENT Fic. 10.—Least bittern (Ivobrychus evilis). ate A LEAST BITTERN. 31 ae Oreg. (Bailey). It breeds rarely along the Atlantic coast ke Ellis, NSC: (Philipp), nel more coranteteles on the coast of . uth Carolina (Wayne), in Georgia (Perry), throughout most of Florida, and along the Gulf coast to the mouth of the Rio Grande ; (Merrill). There is thus a large part of the eastern United States south of the thirty-ninth parallel and back from the coast in which _ the species is either lacking or very rare. The least bittern nests locally in a few places in central Mexico— - Ocotlan, Jalisco (Nelson) ; La Laguna, Jalisco (Nelson) ; Patzcuaro, _ Michoacan (Stone) ; and the valley of Toluca (Goldman). It breeds ‘ also i in Cuba (Gundlach) ; and Porto Rico (Gundlach). : _ Winter range.—The least bittern winters north to Micanopy, Fla. _ (Baynard) ; ; and Orlando, Fla. (Hyer) ; also in the Bahamas (Bon- - hote). In Mexico it occurs in winter north to San Blas, Tepic i _ (Lawrence) ; Lake Patzcuaro, Michoacan (Jouy) ; and the valley of - Toluca (Goldman). Thence it ranges south to Lion Hill, Panama | (Sharpe) ; Georgetown, Guiana (Loat) ; ; Iguape, Brazil Ghee _ Paraguay (Berlepsch and Stolzmann); and to Valdivia, Chile (Boeck). _ Migration range.—Records of migration or of wandering have been made at Halifax, N. S., March 16, 1896 (Piers) ; Quebec City, Can- ; ada (Dionne) ; Pee ie Ghani (Fleming) ; Shoal Lake, Mani- - toba, June, 1901 (Chapman) ; San Angelo, Tex., September 10, 1885 _ (Lloyd); Fort Thorn, N. Mex. (Henry) ; Boulder Colo., ee 25, 1910 (Betts); Cheyenne, Wyo. (Knight); Truckee Walley, Nev. _ (Ridgway); Malheur Lake, Oreg. (Bendire); Mazatlan, Sinaloa, _ September (Lawrence) ; San Jose del Cabo, Lower California, com- mon in the fall (Brewster). é Spring migration. Number | AY¢F8e | Parliest date Place. of years’ tinie of records. pases arrival. — (Can Boer A eas BGM hte 3 eS SC Aen te eee Me 19 Apr. 5,1888 Beets Sao ene nein ans nies SRO Eni ps fa ee ewice ae May 18] May 9,1889 ME tare a aa cee s tas oats sawancwcldcn sds ec-[ascaccceud| ae saee es se May 11,1908 i. oe rea ne 32 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. Eggs have been taken at Fort Thompson, Fla., Manel 25, 1 18s # (specimens in U. S. National Museum) ; Teele Fla., A 0 1905 (Worthington) ; St. Johns, Fla., April 18, 1902 (Bese R ney, Miss., May 10, 1887 (Mabbett) ; Raleigh, N. C., May 23, 1893 (young in fei) Garni: ; Philadelphia, Pa., May 29, 1907 (Miller) ; : Portland, Conn., June 10, 1883 (Neff) ; Oak Forest, Ind., May a1, q 1902 ( Elbmecken) ; Cae Ill., May 28, 1884 (Cobleigh) ; Des Moines, — Iowa, May 26, 1885 (Keyes) ; Detroit, Mich., May 26, 1891 (Wood); Fort Snelling, Minn., May 28, 1903 (specimens in U. S. National — Museum) ; Mud Lake, Minn., June 3, 1887 (Brownell). Eggs have — been found in Porto Rico on May 7 (Gundlach); in Jamaica from — “May 29 (Field) to June 25 (Scott) ; in Guatemala June 1 (Oates); — and at Purissima, Lower California, May 17, 1909 (Thayer). 7 Fall migration —The latest fall date of the least bittern at Mon- — treal, Canada, was on September 2, 1897 (Wintle); Middletown, — R. I., September 14, 1901 (King); Erie, Pa., September 25, 1902 — (Todd) ; Washington, D. C., September 19, 1881 (Richmond) ; Wa- — terloo, Ind., October 1, 1906 (Link); Vicksburg, Mich., October 5, — 1903 (Corwin) ; Oberlin, Ohio, October 17, 1909 (Jones) ; Indianola, — Towa, October 18, 1902 (Jeffrey) ; Toronto, Ontario, November 28, — 1894 (Fleming) ; Dunlap, Cal., September 24, 1890 (Eaton); Sioux — Falls, S. Dak., October 8, 1911 (Larson) ; Lincoln, Nebr., September — 20, 1900 (Wolcott) ; Corpus Christi, Tex., September 29, 1886 asi 4 nett) ; and Bermuda, October 23, 1847 (Hiardtaye q The earliest fall record at Lima, Peru, was on October 10, 1889 q (Berlepsch and Stolzmann). Cory Least Bittern. Jxobrychus neoxenus (Cory). The Cory least bittern has a strange distribution, judging from the — little as yet learned about the species. It is known to breed at the northern limit of the range in Ontario and also at its southern limit — in Florida. It is known as a migrant only in the intervening region and is not known in winter anywhere. It has been found nesting near Toronto, Ontario, and near F ort Thompson, Fla.; at the former place eggs were fount June 15, 1898 (Fleming), and at the latter, young in the nest, June 8, 1890 (Scott). Near Toronto about 16 specimens have been taken in the summer, — the earliest date being May 14, 1897, and the latest September 9, 1899, and young birds have been found from August 3 to 17. One speci- — men. has been secured at each of the following localities: Watkins Lake, Jackson County, Mich., August 8, 1894 (Watkins) ; St. Clair Flats, Mich., May 14, 1904 (Tav aay ; Toledo, Ohio, May 25, 1907 (Ruth- ven) ; Lake Koshkonong, Wis., May 22, 1893 (Cherrie) ; “and Scituate, — CORY LEAST BITTERN. 33 ass., May 18, 1901 (Brewster). The above are probably all the. cords that have been published for this species north of Florida. . The records in this latter State come from a restricted area in the ‘vicinity of the western side of Lake Okechobee and extend over the _ three summer months from May 19, 1890, to August 15, 1891. A number of specimens have been taken, showing that the bird is not _ rare in that region, but so far there are no winter records for the species anywhere, and nothing to indicate where the birds spend the time from Sep- tember to May. Great White Heron. Ar- dea occidentalis Audu- bon. - ‘The great white heron has the most restricted range of any of the herons of North America. It is confined during the breeding season to the extreme southern part of Florida, where it has been known to nest from Indian Key (Audubon); west to | e@ srecoins Marquesas Key (Fow- (©. occurrence ler); and north to IN SUMMER Cape Romano (Scott). It is normally non- . _ migratory, but a few individuals have wandered north on the east - coast of Florida to Brevard County (Chapman) ; in the interior to _ Cypress Lake (Palmer); and on the west coast to Anclote River _ (Scott). South of the United States it has been taken on the Rio _ Lagartos, Yucatan (Brown), in Jamaica (March), and near Trini- _ dad, Cuba (Chapman). Eggs have been taken on the Florida Keys _ from October (Scott) all through the winter and spring to the middle _ of June (Thayer). Great Blue Heron. Ardea herodias herodias Linnzus. Fie. 11.—Cory least bittern (Irobrychus neorenus). ___~Range.—The great blue heron with its several subspecies ranges from ocean to ocean and north to southern Canada and southern 80652°—13——3 84 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. ‘Alaska. It occurs throughout Mexico, Central America, Bermuda, - the Bahamas, and the West Indies, while a few birds have been re- _ corded from northern South America and from the Galapagos Islands. . OE Breeding range.—The typical form herodias breeds north to Bad- deck, N. S. (Dwight) ; Magdalen Islands, Quebec (Job) ; Chatham, N. B. (Baxter); Quebec City, Canada (Dionne) ; Cobalt, Ontario (Hubel) ; Riding Mountain, Manitoba (Seton) ; Osler, Saskatchewan (Colt) ; and Spotted Lake, Alberta (Loring). It has been known ~ to occur north to Anticosti (Schmitt) ; Godbout, Quebec (Comeau) ; Moose Factory, Ontario (Turner) ; and Fort Chimo, Quebee (Tur- ner). It breeds south on the Atlantic coast to Mount Pleasant, S. C. Fic. 12.—Great white heron (Ardea accidentalis). (Wayne), and south in the Mississippi Valley to Winnebago County, Iowa (Abbott). It occurs west in migration to Prospect Lake, B. C. (specimen in American Museum of Natural History), and probably breeds in southeastern British Columbia. The species once nested in Bermuda in 1846 (Wedderburn), but has since then been known there as a migrant only. Winter range.—The regular winter range of typical herodias ex- tends south to Micco, Fla. (Bangs) ; Castleberry, Ala. (Matthews) ; and to Camargo, Tamaulipas (Goldman). The species ranges north in winter to Raleigh, N. C. (Brimley) ; Cape Charles, Va. (Chap- man); and to Fayetteville, Ark. (Harvey). In mild winters some individuals remain much farther north, as far as the lower Ohio Valley (Butler) and New Jersey (Fisher), while stragglers have been noted at Randolph, N. H., December 31, 1910 (Allen) ; Milton, Vt., December 22, 1884 (Howe); Boston Harbor, Mass., January 1, Bs GREAT BLUE HERON. 35 4 1882 (Job); West Roxbury, Mass., January 1, 1890 (Faxon) ; Point Judith, R. I., December 11, 1899 (Hathaway); Bridgeport, Conn., fd i i if aH , Sry “| \ : } se \ ! e 4 . & . i Hed te wy ¢ / ; ; a \ f ~ : ay on . Sate pr aN Se ry \ S f Se : LS | @ BREEDING © OCCURRENCE JN SUMMER 8 [ \ Fic. 13.—Great blue heron (Ardea herodias). Subspecies: 1, herodias; 2, wardi; 3, tre- ganza; 4, fannini; 5, hyperonca; 6, adozra; T, lessoni; 8, sanctilucae; 9, cognata (Galapagos, not shown on map); 10, South American birds not yet determined or named, a January 1884 (Foster) ; Madison County, N. Y., January 12, 1900, 4 and December 27, 1900 (Embody); Frankfort, Ind. January 14, _ 1903 (Ghere); Lansing, Mich., December 23, 1897 (Hawkinson). ey Se PN ee ae ee eee Oe 7 ao 36 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. Ward Heron. Ardea herodias wardi Ridgway. The form of the brea blue heron breeding in Florida has received the name of wardi. It includes not only all the Florida breeding — ’ birds, but also those breeding on the Atlantic coast north to Hilton- head, Beaufort County, S. C. (Prentiss); along the Gulf coast to — Corpus Christi, Tex. (Sennett) ; and up the middle of the Missis- sippi Valley to Knox County in southwestern Indiana (Ridgway) ; and Henry County 1 in southeastern Iowa (Savage). 1 This form is resident throughout its range with the exception of — : those individuals that migrate up the Mississippi Valley. These retire in the fall to spend the winter on the Gulf coast. A specimen taken December 25, 1902, at Ocotlan, Jalisco (Nelson and Goldman), — apparently represents a bird that had wandered far from its normal _ range. . Treganza Heron. Ardea herodias treganzai Court. The large, dark, great blue herons of the Mississippi Valley are cut off from those of the Pacific by a small pale form occupying the Great Basin and the semiarid regions to the eastward. This form has been separated under the name of treganzai, and birds of this ; character breed north at least to Douglas, Wyo. (Dwight) ; Gallatin, Mont. (Richmond) ; and Grace, southeastern Idaho (Walcott) ; and south to the Salton Sea, Cal. (Grinnell). During migration it spreads westward into California to the Sac! 4 ramento Valley (Williamson). It ranges south in winter to the lower Rio Grande Valley of Tease (Dwight) ; and in northern Mexico south to Colima (Nelson and Goldman); while it remains in winter north to Fort Clark, Tex. (Mearns); Dona Ana, N. Mex. (Henry); and St. George, Utah (Bailey). Northwestern Coast Heron. Ardea herodias fannini Chapman. As its name implies, the northwestern coast heron is confined to the Pacific coast. It is known to breed north to Glacier Bay, Alaska (Grinnell), and it probably breeds still farther north, for it was seen y occasionally during the summer of 1906 near Yakutat Bay (Black- welder) ; and at Hope, Cook Inlet, during August, 1900 (Heller). This form breeds south to Cape Flattery, Wash. (Trowbridge); and to Nisqually Flats near Tacoma, Wash. (Rhoads). a Alaska is deserted in winter, and most of the individuals spend this 4 season in the vicinity of Puget Sound north to Chilliwack, a C. (Brooks). GREAT BLUE HERON. 37 California Great Blue Heron. Ardea herodias hyperonca Oberholser. a The great blue herons of the Pacific coast from Oregon to southern California have lately been segregated by Oberholser under the name of hyperonca. A specimen from Oregon (Peale) without any defi- nite locality indicates the probability that the coast-breeding birds of that State should be assigned to this form, and thence it extends south to San Diego, Cal. (Cooper). How far back from the coast this form ranges, and to which form should be assigned the great blue herons of the interior valleys of California are points not yet decided. . West Indian Great Blue Heron. Ardea herodias adoxa Oberbholser. According to Oberholser, who has recently described this form, this subspecies includes all the breeding birds of the entire Greater and Lesser Antilles, with the addition of the Bahamas on the north and Curacao Island off the coast of Venezuela on thesouth. A strange fact in the life history of this form is that it is a pronounced migrant. Tt is known in the winter season as a not rare visitant to the whole Lesser Antilles, but is not known to breed on any of them, nor is it probable that it breeds on either Porto Rico or Haiti. While fairly common in winter on many of the Bahamas, it has not yet been found breeding on any of them, though birds have been noted at what might have been and probably was the breeding season. The species is recorded as more common in Jamaica during the winter than in summer, hence no great numbers probably leave this island. . : The status of the birds of the Isle of Pines and of Cuba, in which latter country it is a common breeder, remains entirely unsettled, nor is it known whether they belong to this new form or to wardi. The most that can be said at present is that the great blue heron is | _ a winter resident in Haiti, Porto Rico, and the Lesser Antilles south | _ to the islands of Trinidad and Curacao, but that there is nothing certain known as yet concerning the summer home of these in- dividuals. Mexican Great Blue Heron. Ardea herodias lessoni Wagler. Many years ago the great blue herons of the mainland of Mexico were named as above and these birds breed in favorable localities over much of Mexico south to Guerrero and east to Campeche. They occur as migrants and winter residents throughout the whole of Central America to central Costa Rica. The status of the great blue herons of northwestern South America is not yet settled, but the bird occurs in the breeding season from 38 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. Merida, Venezuela, to the Canal Zone, Panama, and also winters in this region and on the islands off the north coast of Venezuela. __ Lower California Great Blue Heron. Ardea herodias sanctilucae Thayer and Bangs. : a The name sanctilucae applies to the birds of the Cape region of Lower California, where they have been found breeding on San Jose and Espiritu Santo Islands and wintering south to San Jose del Cabo. ee a. Galapagos Great Blue Heron. Ardea herodias cognata Bangs. 3 Restricted to the Galapagos Islands, where it is a constant resident. Migration and breeding of the Great Blue Heron and its subspecies. The following records of migration and breeding are not separated according to subspecies, but it is easy to tell from the preceding statements of range which particular form is intended. Spring migration. Average Number Earliest date Place of years’ pit of spring records arrival, val. QR OH AING (Soe es fo epee coc. Peep aware -yadee ceseers Monee nae ote PIVEN UIRU ARIES INO Srey, Coe cet ae Ce Rennes eee ae eee = 3 ROCIO Oe OH 2 S w _ Om ON RO OI ROO Coo z -t J E Ee pe = 8 Bez . 43443 8 > 3 _ _ > - = - S =] > ia 2eeg orate Pee >> gebeoe! oF S- arya 3 a 5 es See Saata _ & Ee © PEE: os ayer) 828 & e S 8 = & y. Shs 1 en Oi SG ra TS DAtrOtG ATR seco a csi ces Seas cen en + eee EMaee es ators vs wn 2 a ee { WACKA DUES ML OM cP oe ce ois aon on Ae eek Te ose poe eee | OLGraDUNe. MLGh 6-22. bole a, 2 Soc eaee ee meee erat he Plymouth, Mich...... Plover Mills, Ontario. Dunnville, Ontario. Guelph, Ontario.... SR OTOT ED) OM MATOS Saas 5.602 5 ss as meee eI UR AG 6. 5 hee Meee . _—~ 3 FREES Ome COI ht 5 GREAT BLUE HERON. 39 \ Spring migration—Continued. Average * Number Earliest date Place. of years’ casio! of spring records. | SPiwar | arrival. aaa OTT RTS i See ea a CE 504/218 5 a ee eee aN RS ree AN 15 | Apr. 11] Apr. 3,1909 Ste. ESEre SOMtAnI ON cae ea a eames 8 Be oly oo ee leer oe oe Me SS Apr. 19,1884 Plillsbore, FEW actor ee eee ee ios Ae A ee he See 5 | Mar. 25 ar. 22,1897 RETESTED SMe ee IL Sea eee 5 | Mar. 26 | Mar. 21,1901 Grinnell, CASPE, Lien eal LOE, Mas INS e on i pct Feb. 12,1890 CONE ic ae a ee eT es 2( 0) 2 1 ue 5 | Mar. 29 | Mar. 21,1886 BOW VMMISE (LIGAL) = Moyo 75a SNE A SEN oe Sea ec Boece 8 | Apr. 9] Apr. 1,1892 SURE Smee ee Fad Sy ORM 2 Sic 2 hos Wind DS Sead, ene ae elk kine ee Apr. 5,1897 BP ATIOPO MeN LTTOS © Foe Se) 50 Ste UR oe ns he es bee eS 7 | Apr. 3] Mar. 27,18 [alice itn ee i eae °°. eric 7| Apr. 5 Apr 1, 1889 Elk River, Lag i icath eos RE Tog NN ee SS 7| Apr. 5 ar. 21,1907 Mmierborthe Nantes 22) 2 ok ee og bo este ge[be uote cL | 2 Se Apr. 14,1882 Richmond. eee (liesin) hee LO ve ae ek ee ls ee a 7 | Mar. 25 ar aa Nebraska Gy, pet aan Eo ea ea aE RE SS oo DAU a ee 4| Apr. 11 | Mar. 21,1896 RUGS MPT EM AtIODA se) ea. os ea a eee oo eS 5 | Apr. 19 | Apr. 15,1902 Indian Head, Dai hewas Rats tee ees _. mpc ern 3| May 91] Apr. 20,1907 SNPS REO Eee eRe 8 Do il ce I en PES DE a Mar. 19,1909 Bipievolewalor (HEAL) We s.2 06h aT RS ere 2 op og abe nese 8 | Apr. 2] Mar. 24,1908 WHEVENNE NW YOu o22 25.5 eee see Fs ERG 5 os 2 aR a ede (ie Le ayaa a a REI Apr. 3,1885 - Sheridan, we nae Wincor, MA aS CME NEM Ty so. 2s a ae Goulet al Se Ape 13, 1907 ED Gg RiLSTUT i See eI wae 2 521 eae aE 4| May 7 ay 2,1905 Brownfield, PASC ete oie ee at AW 2 Ye ON vl! 5) a Bmp ela SM RS Ce, || es Si May 7, 1907 In the southern part of the breeding range the time of nesting is variable. Gundlach found eggs in Cuba through all the months from September to January. Eggs were taken on the Galapagos September 2, 1897 (Rothschild and Hartert). The young found February 5, 1910, at Upper Matecumbe Key, Fla. (Brodhead), were hatched from eggs that must have been laid in December, while at Charleston, S. C., Wayne says that the earliest eggs are deposited the middle of March and that eggs are most common in late March. Young were in the nest May 25, 1875, at Cobb Island, Va. (Bailey) ; eggs at Wilmington, Del., April 29, 1906 (Pennock); Tully, N. Y., April 29, 1884 (Dakin); Penn Yan, N. Y., May 3, 1896 (Burtch) ; Oneida Lake, N. Y., May 1, 1884 (Northup) ; Little Spruce Island, Me., May 16, 1896 (Knight) ; Kentville, N. S., May 10 (Bishop) ; Camden, Ind., May 21, 1883 (Evermann); New Bremen, Ohio, April 27, 1908 (Henninger) ; Dorset, Ohio, May 12, 1900 (Keck) ; Sunfield, Mich., May 2, 1891 (White); Minneapolis, Minn., May 8, 1888 (Morrison); San Jose Island, Lower California, February | 15-18, 1909 (Thayer); Refugio County, Tex., late February, 1896 . - ieimacker): Beaumont, Tex., March 22, 1887 (Rachford) ; Laramie, ® #Wyo., May 12, 1901 (Gilmore) ; : Terie Mont., April 23, 1905 (Terry); San Biikco, Cal., April 24, 1861 (Goopery: Napa, Cal., _ April 4, 1901 (Hottel) ; Malhiehr Bikes Oreg., April 16, 1875 (Bend- ire); and Sumner, Wash., April 20, 1905 (Bowles). Young were noted at Isabella Island, Mexico, April 10, 1905 (Bailey) ; fledged young at Redwood City, Cal., April 14, 1907 (Carriger and Pember- - ton); and young three weeks old near Salt Lake City, Utah, April 9, 1907 (Treganza). 40 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. Fall migration. Average Number aatcian Latest date Place. of years’ | the last | of the last records. oneseen.| ne Se MAS tat vANberbas see 4. = < silo cok cooks te ene. on So es ieee beak te Sept, 23, 194 ie Terry, Niontst set dds fo. Me. ee eee! Seas 2 | Sept. 21 | Sept. 24,1905 Littleton, COND ne ee ea eee ee. se by A 2 i epeianag | i pesca! | Nov. 3,1908 Margaret, Mento Die. edose ice He be cei oc or) re oes 3 | Sept. 13 | Sept. 35, 1910. <4 Bisnsc Kalle!’ Sublakiy eo kG ene gee 2| Oct. 26 | Oct. a Nebraska City, INGE iii ee ocala ons ie I = ws cic oe wt Nov. #F 190 ig anechong sNiinntc (0) 0.00. 4 5 | Sept. 17 | Oct. 1,18 Keokuk, A a ic a aan MR VRS Ve SM 4} Oct. 10 | Noy. 11,1 Lake Forest, Ne ee hak ee a ee. LC a ca Noy. 22, 1906 Ottawa, Giterins ele, 1 i BO eee” ea 1 Southwestern Ontario Vicksburg, Mich... ... Northern Ohio. . Noy. 12] Dec. 19,1910 North River, Prince Edward Island Oct. 16 et. 20,18 Pictou, Nova Scotiass¢c:...-.-.2.. 1. Oct. 11,1894 Scotch hake, "New Brunswick..¢2225).202. SoeSeeee eee 4| Nov. 5] Nov. 8,1904 | Gis tahun: Mow Brunswick... 2... ee. eae 7 | Oct. 14] Oct. 30,1889 Quebec City, Canade nen ke ec eis Oct. 4,1894 Montreal, Canada. jess Seige le eh es 7 | Oct. 31 | Noy. 13,1897 Pittsfield, IMO2 527 om al eee eee hio yea) - eenrOe s Scene aeaeen 4} Oct. 24 | Nov. 13,1896 Woods Hole, Masshs se ios ts zee ok Ree er ome 12 en eee ee 4| Nov. 1] Nov. 21,1891 nore ef ais eee Bie ERA DEORE CS Fee se 4| Oct. 17 | Nov. 10,1911 nie wha yee te ethos cee Sica A ee 2. Se Nov. 22) 1902 Washington, DEO ee fe Soke pace Sees ee ee Dec. 5,1894 Weaverville, 1 | nn ohne ime VIMO men nr Wee Se Oct. 11, 1390 a European Heron. Ardea cinerea Linneus. The European heron is entitled to a place in the list of North | American birds solely on the strength of its occurrence in Greenland, where it has been taken several times. It is recorded from Nanor- talik, 1856, Godthaab, 1862, and January 14, 1877, and Nunarsuit, 1888, all these places being on the west coast; Fe Eggers Island, at fie south extremity of Gneaibend: the fall of 1893; and once from the east coast. 7 This heron has a wide distribution in the Eastern Hemisphere, 7 ranging north in Europe and Asia to about latitude 60°, and south to southern Africa, Madagascar, southern Asia, the Malay Islan and Australia. Egret. Herodias egretta (Gmelin). Range—The Gulf States and Mexico and north to Oregon, Wis- — consin, and New Jersey; the West Indies, Middle and South Amer- — ica to Patagonia; has wandered north to Manitoba and Nova Scotia. — Breeding range.—In the case of the egret a distinction must be — made between the present and the former breeding range, because — this is one of the species which has been almost exterminated for the i sake of obtaining the dorsal plumes known as aigrettes that are borne at the breeding season. Fifty years ago, before the demand of fashion had called for its slaughter, the egret nested in ; colonies in Florida, the other Gulf States, and several States of the , © BREEDING a | qs ed : ee a i, t (Herodias egretta). oe 49 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. Mississippi Valley. The nests were usually placed on large tr growing in water, and hence the colonies were restricted to heavy swamps near the coast or to the bottom lands of the larger — rivers inland. The birds nested commonly north along the Atlantic coast to Charleston, S. C. (Audubon). They undoubtedly nested in some of the many favorable localities on the coasts of North Caro-_ lina and Virginia, where actual records are very few, and thence — north to southern New Jersey, where in Wilson’s time a small colony ~ bred near Cape May. The egret once nested in Arlington Comeuey a Virginia, near Washington, D. C. (Wm. Palmer). a The bottom lands of the Mississippi River and its larger = taries furnished an abundance of suitable nesting sites, and here — were the largest colonies outside of Florida. As many as a thousand © birds have, been seen in a single colony in Daviess County, Ind. So — generally distributed were these herons in Indiana that they have been known to nest in Knox, Gabson, Daviess, Dekalb, Steuben, Noble, Jasper, Porter, Lake, and Starke Counties. The southern ~ third of Indiana marked the northern limit of the larger breeding — colonies, but smaller colonies nested north to northern Indiana and ~ even two-thirds of the way up the western shore of Lake Michi- — gan to Two Rivers, Wis. (Kumlein and Hollister). The egret also— nested as far north as Grand Ridge, Ill. (Soule) ; Canton, Ill. (Cob- — leigh); Lincoln County, Mo. (Widmann); and Texarkana, Tex. (Oberholser). . The Great Plains and the Rocky Mountain region offered little inducement to the egret, and it seems to have been absent during the breeding season from the whole of this great area except that a few nested near Great Salt Lake, Utah (Ridgway). A few small colo-— nies existed in California, at Buena Vista Lake (Linton) ; Summit. Lake (Goldman) ; and Sacramento (Ridgway) ; also in the Truckee — Valley, Nev. (Ridgway) ; and north to Malheur Lake, Oreg. (Bend- ire), which was formerly the home of probably the largest colony — on the Pacific slope. Here, contrary to their habit in most parts of — their range, the birds were necessarily forced to nest among the reeds. South of the United States the former breeding range of the egret seems to have included all of Central America and the whole ~ of South America south to Port Otway, Patagonia (Sclater and Salvin). It is to be understood, of course, that the species was very local throughout this whole region, being restricted to the few places favorable ee nesting sites situated principally on the coasts, the larger lakes, and the borders of the lower parts of the larger rivers, especially the Parana, the Paraguay, and the upper Orinoco. The egret nested on the four large islands of the Greater An- | tilles, but seems to have been rare in the West Indies east of © EGRET. Tay 43 Porto Rico, though recorded from Dominica (Verrill), Barbados (Manning), and Trinidad (Leotaud), and from the islands of New _ Providence, Andros, Eleuthera, Watlings, and Long, in the Bahamas (Riley). It nested on the Galapagos (Rothschild and Hartert). __ Many herons have the strange habit of migrating northward after _ the breeding season and are often common for several weeks in the - fall in districts far north of the breeding range. The egret is a conspicuous example of birds with this habit, and these northward _ movements in the fall have brought them to many places in Ohio, _ New York, and New England, and north to Halifax, N. S. (Jones) ; _ Grand Manan, N. B. (Deane) ; Calais, Me. (Boardman), near Port- _ land, Me. (Knight) ; Godbout, Quebec (Comeau) ; Montreal, Canada _ (Wintle); Rockcliffe, Ontario (MclIlwraith); Lake Nipissing, On- _ tario (Seton) ; Rondeau, Ontario (MclIlwraith) ; Kalamazoo, Mich. (Gibbs) ; Lanesboro, Minn. (Hvoslef); also northwestward in the _ Missouri River Valley to Emporia, Kans. (Kellogg); Fairbury, _ Nebr. (Swenk) ; Colorado Springs, Colo. (Aiken); Denver, Colo. _ (Rockwell); Barr, Colo. (Hersey and Rockwell); Badger Lake, _ Iowa (Lewis and Clark); Fort Lincoln, N. Dak. (Grinnell) ; and even north to Lake Winnipegosis, Manitoba (Seton). __ The above statement represents the range of the egret before the _ demands of the millinery trade had so woefully depleted its numbers. Now the great colonies are entirely a thing of the past. The plume hunter has made a clean sweep of all the heronries that were large enough to make their exploitation profitable. Nor has the de- struction been confined to the birds of the United States. The same story of wholesale slaughter comes from Mexico, Central _ America, the West Indies, and lastly from South America. It is _ probable that the largest colonies still in existence are to be found in - Venezuela or near the equator, but even in these regions, remote and - difficult of access, the high market value of the plumes has proved a _ sufficient incentive for the overcoming of all hardships, and the _ colonies remaining are but a small part of the original numbers. A 4 few small colonies still exist in widely separated parts of Florida, _ where breeding birds have been reported during the last few years _ from Monroe County (Bent) ; Kissimmee (Beers) ; Sebastian (Chap- _ man); Orange Lake (Baynard) ; and Tallahassee (Williams). The species nested in 1910 near Charleston, S. C. (Wayne) ; a small flock _ was seen during the breeding season of 1909 near Ellis Lake, N. C. _ (Philipp); and a few birds nested in 1911 near Orton, Brunswick - County, N. C. (Brimley). It nested in 1908 near the delta of the _ Mississippi, La. (Bowdish) ; and there were a few nests in 1910 at _ Walkers Lake, Ark. (Widmann). On the Pacific slope, the great _heronry at Malheur Lake, Oreg., has been wiped out, except a few is ap ESTE) OTe Re ay on Se 44 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. Bae birds that still lingered in the vicinity in 1911, and the few rem ing birds of California are to be found in the vicinity of Tulare | (Goldman) and Clear Lake (Finley). Birds still wander north | occasionally in the fall and during the last 10 years have been re- corded from Eastham, Mass., 1911 (Cobb); Plymouth, Mass., 1911 (Farley) ; Marshfield, Mass., 1911 (Barrett) ; East Greenwich, R. I, August 16, 1904 (adie) = : Point Judith, R. I., August 2, 1909 (Howe | Gadnectent 1911 (Howes) ; Montauk, N. Y. , July 93, 1900 (rant ; lin) ; Ontario County, N. Y., August, 1905 (Reed) ; Bast Windham, © N. Y., July 18, 1906 (Weber) ; Ridgwood, N.J., July, 1902 (Hales): q Wading River, N. J., August, 1905 (Stone) ; Englewood, N. J., July 22, 1906 (Lemmon) ; Black Point, N. J., July 6, 1908 (Howe) ; Sea- bright, N. J., August 5, 1908 (Howe); Berwyn, Pa., July 26, 1902 © (Burns) ; Bristol, Pa., July 20, 1906 (Harlow) ; Ashbourne, Pa., July 30, 1906 (Harlow); Washington, D. C., August 19 to 24, 1912 (Appel); Cincinnati, Ohio, August, 1902 (Stone); West Huron, Ohio, September, 1911 (Klein); Waterloo, Ind., April 22, 1905 — (Link); Nehawka, Nebr., May 2, 1905 (Swenk); near Denver, Colo., April 26, 1907 (Rockwall): and Lawen, Oreg., May 5, 1909 (Hibbard). Winter range.—The egret is resident throughout its range in Cen- — tral and South America and the Greater Antilles. In the United — States it winters in the southern half of Florida north to Gainesville © (Chapman); on the coast of Louisiana (Beyer); on the coast of Texas (Audubon) ; and in southern California north to Santa Cruz — (Breninger) ; and San Rafael (Mailliard). One was taken January 8, 1878, near Fort Klamath, Oreg. (Mearns), but the species ea Hos winter regularly in that locality. Spring migration—The egret breeds so little north of its winter home that its regular migrations are short and quickly accomplished. — Most of the movements are in March and early April, as shown by — the following dates of spring arrival: Cumberland, Ga., March 7, 1902 (Helme) ; Charleston, S. C., March 28, 1909 (Weston) ; Rodney, — Miss., March 22, 1889, and March 19, 1890 (Mabbett); St. Louis, Mo., ‘April 9, 1886 (Widnisamia Porton, Ill., April 11, 1895 (Cob-— leigh) ; Biesnineton, Ind., April 10, 1887 (Kivermaanee near Vin-— cennes, Iowa, April 17, 1894 (Currier) ; Tucson, Ariz., April 23, 1881 (Brewster) ; Bepsut County, Cal., April 5, 1890 (Eaton) ; , and ; Stockton, Cal., April 1, 1878 (Belding). The egret breeds through such a wide range of latitude, both ness : and south of the equator, that it is natural that the nesting dates should show a wide variation. At the south end of the range in Chile and Argentina the height of the nesting season is in October and November; British Guiana, eggs in June (Lloyd); Haiti, Feb- ruary 18, 1895 (Christy); Cuba, March to June (Gundlach) ; Port SNOWMEHGBET. har. 45 enderson, Jamaica, June 25, 1890 (Field) ; Lake Okechobee, Fla., February 4, 1896 (Stone); Gainesville, Fla., June 14, 1893 (speci- mens in U. S. National Museum) ; near Charleston, S. C., April 7, 1910 (Wayne) ; Brownsville, Tex., young half grown May 15, 1877 F. (Sennett) ; eggs near Corpus Christi, Tex., April 4, 1882 (specimens in U. S. National Museum) ; Camp Fe Grex April 16, 1877 ; (Bendire). Fall migration—The northward migration after the close of the q breeding season begins in early July, and by the middle of the month the young birds are far north of the home of their birth. These _ wanderings last for a month to six weeks, and by late August or early 1 September most of the birds have Returned to the winter home. Oc- . casionally a few birds remain in the north much later: Stockton, - Cal., December 7, 1878 (Belding) ; near Richmond, Me., August 20, ; 1896 (Knight) ; Nantucket, Mass., September 20, 1890 (Mackay) ; Ipswich, Mass., November 22, 1892 (Vickary); Orleans County, _N. Y., November 28, 1883 (Davison) ; Marcy, N. Y., November 10, 1889 (Ralph and Bagg) ; Jamaica Bay, N. Y., October 1, 1897 (Brais- lin); Ocean City, Md., September 23, 1894 (Taylor) ; and St. Louis, : Mo., September 2, 1896 (Widmann). Snowy Egret. LHgretta candidissima (Gmelin). 4 Range.—The Western Hemisphere from Chile and Argentina north to the Gulf States and Mexico; has wandered north to Nova Scotia, Ontario, and British coe . Bealing range.—The snowy egret is another plume bird which, _ like the larger egret, has been sadly diminished in numbers by the 4 demands of fashion for the beautiful aigrettes that are carried during the breeding season. In fact, the snowy egret has suffered a severer persecution than any other heron and has been practically extermi- ae over large areas where once it was common. Formerly this species had a wide distribution, breeding abundantly in the Gulf j States and commonly along the Atlantic to Charleston, S.C. (Wayne). 7 Smaller colonies occurred on the coast of North Carolina and Vir- - ginia, and a large colony near Cape May, N. J., marked the northern limit of the breeding range. This last colony was visited by Wilson in 1812 and found to cover an extensive area. It was still well _ populated in 1886, but in 1888 only one pair remained, and the ex- planation was: “They have been almost exterminated, though for- _ merly very abundant, one ornithologist having recently shot 73 birds in one day” (Parker). _ Though abundant as a breeder near the mouth of the Mississippi, the snowy egret seems never to have nested in large colonies far ~ back from the coast. In Audubon’s time the bird was fairly common }: north to Memphis, Tenn., but only a few have nested to the north- _ ward, and their northern limit seems to have been reached in Knox Te SMS ¢ ia ous ae 7 SNOWY EGRET. | 47 County, Ind. (Ridgway).- The nesting of this species, June, 1895, at Lincoln, Nebr. (Eiche), was probably fortuitous. - West of Louisiana numbers of this species become less, though it nested at favorable localities along the whole Texas coast, and _ there was a large colony near the mouth of the Rio Grande (Merrill) ; it also nested up some of the larger streams to Tarkington (Gaut) - and Texarkana (Oberholser). As a breeder it was absent from the 3 whole Rocky Mountain region and Pacific slope of the United States, the northern limit of the breeding range on the Pacific being found near San Jose Island, Lower California (Brown), and Rosario, Sinaloa (Nelson). __ The snowy egret nested on both coasts of Mexico and on the larger interior waters. These breeding haunts were invaded by the plume . . hunters after the United States birds had been killed off and for several years furnished large shipments of aigrettes. Even as late as 1900 some of these colonies had not yet been destroyed. In the spring of that year, at Paligada, Tabasco, the owner of a tract of land containing a large heronry sold for a thousand dollars the right to shoot them, and the birds were exterminated that season. The _ breeding range also included the lower parts of Central America and ~ South America, south to Valdivia, Chile (Boeck), and to Cape San Antonio, Argentina (Gibson). The species was also a common 4 breeder in the Greater Antilles and less common in the Lesser An- tilles, but seems to have been rare in the Bahamas, being recorded only from Inagua (Cory) and Great Bahama (Cory), while only a few specimens have been taken 1 in Bermuda at the times of spring ' and fall migration. _ The snowy egret has the same habit as the larger egret (Herodias _ egretta) of migrating north of the breeding grounds, though the number of such migrants has not been so great nor have the wander- _ ings been so extensive as in the case of the larger relative. There are some half dozen records for Long Island, N. Y. (Braislin), and _ one for Buffalo, N. Y. (Eaton). The species is recorded from Strat- ford, Hartford, Saybrook, and Groton Long Point, Conn. (Mer- iam); Nantucket, Mass., March, 1882 (Purdie); St. Albans, Vt., _ October, 1890 (Howe); Grand Manan, N. B. (Boardman) ; near Halifax, N. S., 1868, and Windsor, N. S., 1872 (Downs) ; in each of _ the counties in Ghia along Lake Higie (J neal ; Dunnville and Long Point, Ontario (McIlwraith) ; Keokuk, Iowa (Praeger) ; Des Moines, Iowa (Keyes); Lake Koskonong, Wis., August, 1886 (Skavlem) ; Topeka, Kans., August 15, 1872 (Hinitien) Fremont, Nebr., Sep- tember 4, 1893 (Trostler); near Laramie, Wyo., early May, 1902 ; ea; Buffalo, Wyo., about April 11, 1904 (Felger) ; near Cal- std , Alberta, May 11, 1901 (Dippie) ; Bont Inlet, B. C., May, 48 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. differ from those of the larger a in ranean the pen of adult birds rather than of newly fledged young. The same thing is shown still more strongly by the Colorado records. More than 50. ‘instances of the occurrence of the bird in the State are on record, showing that it is a regular visitant, and nearly half are in the spring—earliest April 15, 1906, near Nucla (Warren)—and the re- mainder at intervals through the season to October 4, 1897, the latest at Pueblo (Doertenbach). Yet the bird is not known to nest in Col- orado and probably does not breed anywhere within 500 miles of the - State. The same conditions occur in California, where at Stockton — the bird was found common in 1878 from March 6 to November 20 (Belding), yet did not nest. Thus it seems that in the case of the snowy egret many adult birds went north at the time of the spring — migration far beyond the regular breeding range of the species and — spent the summer there as nonbreeders. This species is an exception to the general rule that “all birds breed at the northern limit of — their range.” This remaining of nonbreeders throughout the sum- mer north of their breeding range is just the opposite of what hap- — pens among the shore birds, many of which remain as nos all summer far south of the breeding range. . The snowy egret produces plumes selling for more than their weight in gold, and consequently the birds have been persistently persecuted until in the United States they have reached the verge of extinction. A few small colonies still remain, however, to serve as” centers of distribution now that better laws and a better public sen- timent in favor of bird protection bid fair to allow this beautiful species a chance to reoccupy its former range. Within late years the - birds have been known to breed in Florida, near Cape Sable, in 1903 (Bent) ; Charleston, S. C., 1910 (Wayne) ; on the Audubon bird res- ervation at the mouth of the Mississippi River, La., 1908 (Kopman) ; the species probably nested in 1909 near Beaufort, N. C., where they were seen June 23 (Bowdish) ; and a few nested in 1911 near Orton, Brunswick County, N. C. (Brimley). The largest colony now existing in the United States is on the great bird refuge of Avery Island, La., where in 1910 it was estimated that fully 2,000 pairs were nesting (Ward). Some other late records of migrants or wanderers have been made near Deming, N. Mex., November 5, 1906 (Munson); Sapillo Creek, N. Mex., October 21, 1908 (Bergtold) ; Delair, N. J., July 16, 1904 (Miller) ; and San Quintin Bay, Lower California, isaac 1910 (Howell). Hl Winter range—The snowy egret remained throughout the winter in full numbers in southern Florida, but from central Florida north- ward most of the birds retired during the cold season. A few were found in winter at Anclote Keys, Fla. (Scott); Gainesville, Fla, —* REDDISH EGRET. 49 Chapman); and at St. Marys, Ga. (Helme); while in Audubon’s . a few wintered as far north as Charleston, S. C. The birds er rarely on the coast of Louisiana (Beyer), but, even in the rly days when they were abundant, only a few remained through e winter near Galveston, Tex. (Audubon), or even as far south as rownsville, Tex. (Merrill). In western Mexico the snowy egret is sident as far north as it breeds, and seems to be nonmigratory roughout all of its range in Central and South America. Spring migration—The northward movement began in early arch: Cumberland, Ga., March 7, 1902 (Helme) ; Warrington, Fla., arch 22, 1885 (Stone) ; Frogmore, S. C., average date of arrival for e years March 23, earliest March 22, 1889 (Hoxie) ; southern New _ Jersey, arrived in early May (aduban\: ; Rodney, Miss., April 18, 1887, April 13, 1888 (Mabbett). i: ‘The nesting season is exceedingly variable in different parts of the extensive breeding range; in the extreme south, at Buenos Aires, _ Argentina, eggs are laid in November (Gibson) ; Man-o’-war Cay, _ British Honduras, young nearly grown May 8, 1862 (Salvin) ; Cuba, nests from June to October (Gundlach) ; Tarpon Springs, Fla., eggs August 26, 1886 (Scott); Charlotte Harbor, Fla., May 6, 1886 - (Scott) ; Kissimmee Lake, Fla., April 19, 1908 (Nicholson) ; Charles- ton, S. C., April 27, 1910 (Wayne) ; Cape May, N. J., May 19, 1812 (Wilson) ; Louisiana, eggs April 10 to June (Baird, Brewer, and | Ridgway); Brownsville, Tex., young just hatched May 15, 1877 (Sennett) ; San Jose Tlnnd ewer California, eggs June 19-24, 1908 _ (Thayer). _ Fall migration —The presence of nonbreeding birds throughout the summer north of the normal breeding range obscures the records of the northward migration of the young birds in the fall, but this seems to have taken place in July, as in the other species of herons, but never to have been on a large scale. The Long Island records eo from July 1 to August 4 (Braislin); latest in Maryland at Marlboro, August 25, 1893 (Kirkwood); Frogmore, 8. C., October 4, 1886 (Hoxie) ; @unhdiats River, Okla., still common September 3 to 5, 1820 (Long). Reddish Egret. Dichromanassa rufescens (Gmelin), ? The range of the reddish egret extends from the Gulf States to ae the Bahamas, and the Greater Antilles. This bird is more restricted than most of the herons in its breed- ‘ing range, which includes Florida north to Pelican Island (Bryant) ; and lower Suwanee River (Brewster and Chapman); the coast of . Louisiana (Beyer); Corpus Christi, Tex. (Sennett); and Browns- me 80652°_13- 4 50 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. ~ ville, Tex. (Merrill). It breeds somewhat commonly in bein Caicos (Cory) on the south; is rare in Cuba (Gundlach), ana 4 recorded from Jamaica (March) and Haiti (Cory). It breeds at 4 San Jose Island, Lower California (Brown) ; near San Blas, Tepic — (Nelson) ; and on the coast and islands of Yucatan (Selva Law- rence, and Nelson). It has been taken at Chiapam, Guatemala (Sal- — vin) ; and at Tehanntepec, Oaxaca (Sumichrast) ; and, as the species — is largely nonmigratory, probably it breeds at or near both these : localities. A few instances have been noted of the wandering of the reddish 4 egret north of its breeding range. Several were seen in August, 1875, Sa IE / Ao © BRccoine © occuRAENCE in SUMMER ic. 16.—Reddish egret (Dichromanassa rufescens). near Cairo, Ill. (Nelson); one was taken near Colorado Springs, — Colo. (Aiken) ; and one near Golden, Colo. (Berthoud) ; and several — were seen at San Quintin, Lower California (Anthony). j It is partially migratory along the north limit of the bwend iad range, and few, if any, remain in Louisiana through the whole of — the winter, but ‘the species does winter in southern Florida (Scott) and in Mexico as far north as Mazatlan, Sinaloa (Lawrence), and — La Paz, Lower California (Belding). , Eggs were found near Corpus Christi, Tex., March 24, 1878 (Sennett) ; young in the nest, May 3, 1890, at Contains Past Fla. (Jamison) ; and young on the wing, April 15, 1901, Cozumel Island, a Yucatan (Nelson). Gundlach says that in Cuba it nests from July 4 to October. a LOUISIANA HERON. . 51 Louisiana Heron. Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis (Gosse). § % The Louisiana heron, as a whole, ranges from the Gulf States and _ Mexico south to northern South America. It has been separated into _ North Carolina, Texas, and central Mexico, and south throughout | the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and Middle America to Ecuador and Venezuela. The principal breeding range of the Louisiana heron in the United _ States is found in Florida and along the Gulf coast to Texas. On _ the Atlantic coast it is common north to Charleston, S. C. (Wayne), _ and in Audubon’s time it was considered abundant on the coast of nore tb Seah fas Fic. 17.— Louisiana heron (Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis). _ North Carolina, where it was still not uncommon near Beaufort in 4 1898 (Pearson), and nested commonly near Orton, Brunswick County, in 1911 (Brimley). This seems to be the northern limit of the _ breeding range. In the Mississippi Valley it has nested north to Rodney, Miss. _ (Mabbett) ; and Texarkana, Tex. (Oberholser). It seldom wanders _ far north of its breeding ground, but a few have been noted at Cobb Island, Va. (Ridgway) ; Patchogue, N. Y., the summer of 1836 (Gi- _ raud); Sand Ridge, Clark County, Mo., April 13, 1890 (Currier) ; _ near Hanna, Ind., June 26, 1876 (Nelson) ; Stockton, Tex. (Dres- _ ser); and Terlingua, Tex. (Oberholser). e. eae! ihe 52 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES, The Louisiana heron breeds along the whole eastern coast of Mex ; ico and north on the west coast to Mazatlan, Sinaloa (Lawrence gin La Paz, Lower California (Belding) ; and Santa Margarita Islanc 1, nd, Lower California (Bryant). It breeds south throughout cael’ ~ America to the Rio Sabana, Panama (Salvadori and Festa) ; Don , Diego, Santa Marta, Colombia (Allen); the islands of Aruba and . Margarita, off the coast of Venezuela (Cory) ; and to Vaqueria in northwestern Ecuador (Hellmayr). It is one of the commoner herons in the Bahamas north to Berry Island (Cory) ; abundant in Cuba (Gundlach); abundant in Jamaica (Field); and in Porto Rico (Gundlach). The Louisiana heron is only partially migratory. While many of the most northern breeding birds retire a short distance southward in winter, a few remain at this season at Charleston, S. C. (Wayne) ; Matamoras, Tamaulipas (Phillips) ; Mazatlan, Sinaloa (Lawrence); and La Paz, Lower California (Belding). On the other hand, it is | stated that the birds do not winter in Louisiana (Beyer, Allison) and — Kopman) nor on the Texas coast, even as far south as Brownsville (Merrill). Young have been taken in June in Jamaica (Scott); and eggs in Cuba from June to October (Gundlach) ; young a quarter grown at Brownsville, Tex., May 15, 1877 (Sennett); eggs at Nassau, Ba- hamas, May 17, 1902 (Bonheleja Old Tampa Bay, Fla., March 15, 1880 (Scott) ; Sarasota Bay, Fla., March 30, 1874 (Bryant); ; Tarpal Springs, Fla., August 26,1886 (Scott) ; Micanopy, Fla., December 8, 1859 (specimens in U. 8. National Museum) ; Charleston, S. C., April 7, 1910, two weeks earlier than usual (Wayne) ; Rodney, Miss., _ April 16, 1888 (Mabbett). At places where the birds do not winter — the first arrived in the spring as follows: Tallahassee, Fla., March 25, 1901 (Williams); New Orleans, La., March 11, 1894 (Beyer) ; Rodney, Miss., March 23, 1889, and March 21, 1890 (Mabbett). Demi-Egret. Hydranassa tricolor tricolor (Muller). The typical form, tricolor, is restricted to the Guianas and Brazil, occurring in the latter country south to Cajutuba and Garape (Pel- — zeln). Little Blue Heron. florida caerulea (Linneus). The little blue heron is common throughout tropical America, — breeding north to South Carolina (formerly to New Jersey), Arkan-— ’ sas, and central Mexico, and south to Argentina and Peru; has wandered to Nova Scotia, Wisconsin, and Nebraska. ee ie The little blue heron is one of the commoner herons now found in . the southern United States, and is most common in Florida and in — the immediate vicinity of the Gulf coast, thence to Texas. Along — LITTLE BLUE HERON. © 53 5 a Rte wea | | eae || aan 7 ay x eet oleh tel . aN 31 ° 1 polmctiagy IS | || TT Beemer | CELI ey @ BREEDING ret | —s Iigg] 2 «OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER tt |) «Resipentr Fig. 18,—Little blue heron (Florida caerulea). 54 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. the Atlantic coast the bird breeds commonly as far north as Ch ) ton, §. C. (Wayne), Orton, Brunswick County, N. C., 1911 (Briml and used to be common as a breeder even to Cueritack Sound, N ae (White). In Wilson’s time a few nested near Cape May, N. J. This heron penetrated inland to breed to a greater extent than ‘many of the species and has been known to nest near Chester, S. C. (Loonnis) ; Greensboro, Ala. (Avery) ; on the Mississippi River as far north as Osceola, Ark. (Richardon) ; and in Texas as far as Texarkana (Ober- — holser), and Long Lake (Oberholser). The breeding range extends along the eastern coast of Mexico and on the western coast north to San Blas, Tepic (Nelson); thence — throughout Central America and northern South America south to — Santa Elena, Uruguay (Aplin) ; Mercedes, Argentina (Burmeister) ; _ and Tumbez, Peru (Taczanowski) ; also in the whole of the West — Indies and in the northern Bahamas, Andros, and New Providence — (Cory). ; The little blue heron is another of the species that has the habit 3 of wandering north in fall far beyond the breeding range. At this — season it is tolerably common along the Potomac near Washington, — D. C., from July 7, 1894 (Richmond) to September 24, 1911 (Preble), — and has occurred north nearly to Baltimore, Md., October 7, 1892 — (Fisher) ; Maplewood, N. J., July 27, 1897 (Owen) ; Seaford, N. Y., August 13, 1902 (Braislin) ; Old Lyme, Conn., July 21, 1899 (Brock- way); Saybrook, Conn., August 12, 1881 (Clark) ; Warwick, R. IL., July 13, 1878 (Deane); Stoughton, Mass., August 22, 1908 (Me- — Kechnie) ; Amherst, N. H., April 28, 1897 (Melzer); Vinalhaven, Me., April 1, 1902 (Arey); Whitneyville, Me., August 16, 1906 (Knight) ; Scarborough, Me., September, 1881 (Brown); once in Nova Scotia (Downs); L’Anse au Loup, Quebec, May 23, 1900 — (Bangs) ; near Quebec City, Canada, October, 1881 (Dionne) ; abun- dant in southeastern Missouri July to September (Widmann) ; Sey- — mour, Ind., October 8, 1911 (Peter) ; Loramie Reservoir, Ohio, July 16, 1909 (Henninger) ; near Oberlin, Ohio, one about 1882 (MeCor- | mick); Aylmer, Ontario, August 15, 1901 (Ames); Detroit, Mich., May 2, 1882 (Taverner); Racine County, Wis., August 28, 1848 (Hoy) ; Cedar Rapids, Iowa, fall 1903 (Berry) ; near Omaha, Nebr., — August 15, 1903 (Trostler) ; Neosho Falls, Kans. (Goss) ; Howard Creek, Tex., August, 1902 (Hollister) ; and Montrose, Colo., Septem- ber 14, 1910 (Walker). In Bermuda it has been taken in April, May, September, and October (Hurdis). ' The little blue heron was found building in April on Tobago. Island, West Indies (Jardine) ; eggs have been taken in Porto Rico, May to July (Gundlach) ; Grenada, West Indies, April 14 to June 21 LITTLE BLUE HERON. 55 undlach) ; Alachua County, Fla., April 8, 1890 (Pearson) ; Tar- n Springs, Fla., August 26, 1886 (Scott) ; Charleston, S. C., April 1910, much earlier than usual (Wayne); Avery Island, La., May 4, 1895 (Knight) ; Corpus Christi, Tex., June 12, 1884 Cectlenee in a U. S. National Museum). Winter range—This species remains in winter throughout the _ larger part of its coastal breeding range in the United States, stay- ing north regularly and commonly as far as Charleston, S. C. _ (Wayne), and a few on Currituck Sound (McAtee). It is not rare | in winter on the coasts of Louisiana and Texas (McAtee), though | q the larger part of the breeding birds in all the above-mentioned _ places retire farther south for the winter. The winter range on the _ Pacific coast of Mexico includes the district north to Ocotlan, Jalisco - (Goldman), and to Mazatlan, Sinaloa (Lawrence). Spring migration—The arrival of the species in the spring was noted at Whitfield, Fla., March 21, 1903 (Worthington) ; Chipley, ; Fla., March 12, 1903 (Pleas); Cumberland, Ga., March 8, 1902 _ (Helme) ; Frogmore, S. C., average of four years March 81, earliest _ March 22, 1886 (Hoxie); New Orleans, La., average March 13, earliest March 11, 1894 (Beyer); Bay St. Louis, Miss., March 18, — 1902 (Allison) ; St. Louis, Mo., April 30, 1880 (Hurter) ; and Bide: nell, Ind., April 18, 1896 (Chiansler’. 5 The ast two datdes taken in connection with several others already given, show that a few little blue herons migrate or wander north in _ the spring beyond the normal breeding range, but there are no dates to indicate that such birds remain the rest of the summer in the - north as nonbreeders, and probably they soon return southward. _ The birds of the southern part of the range have been separated as the subspecies cwrulescens (Latham), which includes all of South ~ _ America and parts of the Antilles and Central America. The divid- ing line between these two forms is not yet definitely known. [Zeledon Boatbill. Cochlearius zeledomi (Ridgway). ¢ The Zeledon boatbill occupies nearly the whole of Mexico and Central Amer- ica from Sinaloa (Mazatlan), Tamaulipas (Alta Mira), and Yucatan (Cozumel 4 “sland), south and east to Porto Bello, Panama (Goldman).] [Pileated Heron. Pilherodius pileatus (Boddaert). This heron is a South American species that was once taken 50 years ago 4 _ along the line of the Panama Railroad (Lawrence). Since it has not been - noted by the many collectors who have visited Panama in the last few years, _ it is probably now extinct in that country. The range in South America ex- _ tends south to Peru (Pebas, Santa Cruz, and Nauta) and to Sao Paulo, Brazil.] 56 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. 2 : Green Heron. Butorides virescens virescens ( a a: pang Range.—The green herons as a whole include several forms : . range over most of the United States, all of Mexico, Central Amer- ica, and the West Indies, and in South America are fe - in north- eastern Colombia, northern Venezuela, and northeastern Brazil. _ Breeding range—The typical form, true virescens, breeds north — to St. John, New Brunswick (Chamberlain); Montreal, Canada (Wintle) ; Loughboro Lake, Ontario (Clarke); Guelph, Ontario (Klugh); Kelley Brook, Wis. (Shoenebeck) ; Minneapolis, Minn. t (Grant) ; ; and pears S. Dak. (Agersborg). In the west the species seems to be absent as a breeder from the western part of the plains and the whole of the middle and northern Rocky Mountains. — The breeding range extends westward to about the ninety-ninth — merdian, except in the Rio Grande Valley, up which the species ranges to the Rio Conchas (J. W. Audubon). The birds have wan- — dered north in summer to Prospect, Nova Scotia (Downs), and on — April 15, 1881, after a storm, they were actually common at West- — port, hes Scotia (Chamberlain). They have also been seen north 4 to Ottawa, Ontario (White) ; Neebish Island, Mich. (Boies); Fort — Sisseton, S. Dak (McChesney) ; and west to Loveland, Colo., July — 23, 1895 (Preble) ; Rinconada, N. Mex. (Surber); and Pecos City, — Tex. (Donald). { The breeding range extends south to include the whole of Florida — and the Gulf States, eastern Texas, the eastern coast of Mexico, the — whole of southern Mexico, Yucatan, and south to Duenas, Guate- — mala (Salvin and Sclater), and east to Ceiba, Honduras (Bangs). The species breeds also on the west coast of Mexico north to Tepic — (Nelson and Goldman). Winter range.—The green heron winters throughout its range in Mexico and Central America, but no migrating birds from the United — States seem to pass any farther south in winter than the region in- habited by the species in summer. Not even in Cuba or the Ba-— hamas has the form of the green heron breeding in Florida and the eastern United States been as yet detected. Since the species is very — rare in winter in southern Florida and southern Texas and is absent at this season from the rest of the Gulf States, it follows that nearly — all of the tens of thousands of green herons that breed in the eastern — United States must reach a winter home in Yucatan and southward — by a direct flight across the Gulf of Mexico. The species has been © noted in winter north to Gainesville, Fla. (Chapman); Sarasota — Bay, Fla. (Bryant); Capers Island, S. C. (Wayne); and Browns. 8 ville, Tex. (Merrill). B GREEN HBRON. 57 Spring migration. | Average ‘ Number Earliest date Place. of years’ cele of spring records. aerial arrival. 5 | Mar. 17 | Feb. 8,1905 3 | Mar. 23 | Feb. 8, 1902 Rp Pe so 2? | Breese 6 8 Mar. 23,1906 _ 10 | May 7} Apr. 24,1899 4| Apr. 25 | Apr. 18,1909 10 | Apr. 30 | Apr. 23, 1893 2| Apr. 20 | Apr. 18,1906 9| May 4] Apr. 24,1890 10 | May 11] Apr. 21,1900 4/May 8 ay 7,1890 5 | Apr. 29} Apr. 27,1886 5 “ee 28 | Apr. 26, 1896 us 9 ay 5 | Apr. 25,1899 _ Fitehburg, 6| May 7] May 65,1907 TIDE Te MIRCEA as 2 oe Ree pe Bani Sen oe meine ae Eel |S LIE relay oa Aer Aare Randolph, Vt 5 6 _ Portland, Me Cen Ae cl eS een nee nee I tS AEE RRP MNase ees 5 SA ey te teas BOR EROTIC Vessco 1 UR AT peace aon Ula A. CN 3 She Le ney ip TEENS SE BaD aos Sls is lead a eee ea ont hale 4 Cranes Se SRR ers Hue arena, SLES OS) Meee a ee 3 2 Be Behe SEGUE SH SECM EUE OS HOSE a 5 UNE BO ia PAnE mane Bars 7 Jeo Se Ca Sear lettre aay 7 Nal Ue ean ig ee ey 4 Seles tae ape UL en St pce tg A i va ea ee 5 CISC ES oes AE Sea Se geile ED Ee 8 A ee ee 6 oe Be SSUES eae See el ae cee epee ra es Nae 5 RE oriog Sinden Hear) (6.5)... ldch ioc ykioe oye a 9 (SRE O IPUTE ape Be RCO ce a 4 SGC SONIDO se acts Cas chin once ee ae cedoincee o coc cde cocoate 5 NENTS 01 Toy aa Sie SR 2 St IRs 2s mA aI ee A be 5 Be aa ee bein eee tice Seon re 2 oo DORIS EB: 10 3- Chas RGAB SE COBE BREE e eS He GE Ie 4 ae emanate Epes on. 8 Bigoured 5 24, 1884 aes 12 Se OE a eae a Apr. 20,1896 7| May 5] Apr. 26,1901 5 | May 41] Apr. 23,1885 Kerrville, Tex... _ Manhattan, Kan SS beri URGES Fey BIN al See ese ee ean ig ‘Sou tern Nebraska : Q0 GO Cx ST = i) | va >>> Lo} Let bo = e co S ng & _ Eggs have been found at Manatee River, British Honduras, April _ 21,1906 (Thayer) ; Sarasota Bay, Fla., April 18 to June 1 (Bryant) ; _ near Orange Hammock, Fla., March 23, 1895, well incubated (Pal- mer); Frogmore, S. C., April 13, 1870, and June 11, 1886 (Hoxie) ; _ Chatham County, N. C., April 20, 1886 (Brooks) ; Baltimore, Md., _ April 22, 1881, to June 12, 1894 (Kirkwood) ; Holland Patent, N. Y., _ May 16, 1890 (Williams) ; Canaan, Conn., May 15, 1886 (Tobey) ; Sunapee, N. H., June 16, 1886 (Bowles); Avery Island, La., April 9, 1893 (specimens in U. S. National Museum) ; Bernadotte, IIl., May 5, 1891 (Knight) ; Bloomington, Ind., May 11, 1903 (McAtee) ; 2 he: 58 NORTH AMERICAN HBRONS AND THEIR ALLIES. ~ Sedan, Ind., May 14, 1897 (Hine) ; Philo, Ill., May 21, 1905 (He Polo, IIl., May 25, 1884 (Kline); Seneca County, Ohiag May 10, 1904 (icemmees Vicksburg, Mich., June 1, 1904 (Rapp); Charles- — ton Lake, Ontario, June 14, 1899 (Clarke) : aiavengiee Towa, May | 7, 1892 (Wilson) ; Brownsville, Tex., May 2, 1877 (specimens in U. S. — Matioael Museum) ; Manhattan, fens: wis 13, 1884 (Lantz) ; Fam, Nebr., June 2, 1882 (Taylor and Van Vleet). 4 Fall migration. er ORL ORD AO srt Fo aoa oct ak bores eee en = «see Pittsfi eld, ? 1s ere oleae SE es, Se ERS 22 ee es ST Set 19} 0 Sept. 13 | Sept. Sept. 16 | O Sept. 24 Sept. 19 B a7 _ 9 5 2 A REED POMONA SAE BR oc se Os Sane Se se we un dee Coe Ue 4 New Pataidoese, TEES FR es yt hee Sa EA TET 4 6 5 Anthony Green Heron. Butorides virescens anthonyi (Mearns). The breeding range of the Anthony green heron extends north to Ukiah, Cal. (McGregor), and to Colusa, Cal. (Hollister). The spe- cies has wandered north to Yreka, Cal., August 20, 1883 (Townsend), — and to Fort Klamath, Oreg., May 4, 1887 (Merrill). It breeds south — as far as the Coronados Islands, Lower California (Anthony), Yuma, — Ariz. (Coues), and Tombstone, Ariz. (Willard), and northeast to — Big Sandy, Ariz. (Stephens), and Camp Verde, Ariz. (Mearns). It winters in Mexico from Ocotlan, Jalisco (Nelson and Goldman), — and the Valley of Mexico (specimen in U. S. National Museum) — south to Zamora, Michoacan (Nelson and Goldman), and to Tehuan- tepec, Oaxaca (Lawrence). 1 In migration it occurs at San Jose del Cabo, Lower Calidentiin’ | (Brewster), and Victoria, Tamaulipas (Sennett). A specimen taken November 27, 1896, at San Jose, Costa Rica, is undistinguishable from _ the Mexican bird. GREEN HERON. 59. In spring migration the earliest appearance at Tombstone, Ariz., was on April 22, 1909 (Willard) ; Sebastopol, Cal., March 12, 1885 (Belding) ; Stockton, Cal., average April 9, earliest April 4, 1885 (Belding). Eggs are in the U. S. National Museum that were taken May 24, 1890, at Silver Lake, near Tucson, Ariz., and eggs were taken on the Sespe River, Ventura County, Cal., May 12, 1910 (Peyton). Frazar Green Heron. Butorides virescens frazgari (Brewster). The Frazar green heron is restricted to the southern end of Lower California, where it is resident at La Paz, in the region around Mag- dalena Bay and north to San Ignacio (Nelson and Goldman). Eggs were taken near La Paz May 8 to 26, 1910 (Thayer). Green Heron. Butorides virescens (subspp.). The two forms of the green heron virescens and anthonyi are the only ones that occur in the United States. These two forms include the migratory green herons, which have a wide range and perform migrations extending often more than a thousand miles. In south- ern Central America, northern South America, and throughout the whole of the West Indies the green herons seem to be strictly resi- dent, and as a consequence they have become modified into a large number of local forms or subspecies. Mr. H. C. Oberholser has recently made an extended study of the green herons, and his conclusions as to the ranges of the various forms are given below: Chihuahua Green Heron, Butorides virescens eremonomus Ober- holser. Chihuahua and Durango, Mexico, in summer; south to Michoacan, Mexico, in winter. Nicaragua Green Heron, Butorides virescens mesatus Oberholser. Western Nicaragua. Panama Green Heron, Butorides virescens ae Oberholser. Costa Rica, Panama, and northern South America, south to Medellin, Colombia, and Para, Brazil. Swan Island Green Heron, Butorides virescens saturatus Ridgway. Swan Island, Caribbean Sea. San Miguel Green Heron, Butorides virescens ihangawtt ange Oberholser. San Miguel Island, Panama. Bahama Green Heron, Butorides virescens bahamensis (Brewster). The Bahama Islands. Cuba Green Heron, Butorides virescens cubanus Oberholser. The Greater Antilles and east in the Lesser Antilles to Guadeloupe Island. St. Christopher Green Heron, Butorides virescens christophorensis Oberholser. St. Christopher Island, Lesser Antilles. Dominica Green Heron, Butorides virescens dominicanus Ober- i holser. Dominica Island, Lesser Antilles. 60 Martinique Green Heron, Butorides virescens maculatus — daert). Martinique Island, Lesser Antilles. a St. Lucia Green Heron, Butorides virescens lucianus Oberhol St. Lucia Island, Lesser Antilles. ADD. holser. Barbados Island, Lesser Antilles. SARE | Grenada Green Heron, Butorides virescens grenadensis Oberholser, — Grenada Island to St. Vincent Island, Lesser Antilles. q TSA es eee © BALLDING © OCCURAENCE IN SUMMER Fic, 19.—Green heron (Butorides virescens). Subspecies: 1, virescens; 2, anthonyi ; 34 frazari; 4, eremonomus ; 5, mesatus ; 6, hypernotius; 7, saturatus; 8, margaritophilus; 9, bahamensis ; 10, cubanus; 11, curacensis; seven other subspecies are on as many | islands of the Lesser Antilles. Tobago Green Heron, Butorides virescens tobagensis Oberholser. Tobago Island, Lesser Antilles. . ag Curacao Green Heron, Butorides virescens curacensis Oberholser. Curacao Island, off the coast of Venezuela. (aga [Lembeye Green Heron. Butorides brunescens (Lembeye). Resident in Cuba and the Isle of Pines. ] ‘ j 4 [Striated Heron, Butorides striata (Linneus). iia A resident species occurring commonly in northern South America south to Peru and Argentina. The only record north of South America is that of a spe ch , men taken May, 1904, on the savanna of Panama (Thayer and Bangs).] ma? eal Black-crowned Night Heron. Nycticorar nycticorar naevius (Boddaert). 4 Range.—The black-crowned night heron, including all of its yari- ous forms, is one of the most widely distributed of birds. In the A ey el . ~ « eee. = | _ BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON. | 61 vances eS ae Oo a y , pe aS corel i S ¥ ; i, O° a6, Bs | ¥ ci | - a; \, 2 tat | ae a ewes a ‘ia p | i B U ae we. i fs | @ BREEDING ~ ‘Hl | © occurReNcE IN SUMMER Heo] + WINTERING | @ occurrence in winTER A | @ Resioenr . Fic, 20,—Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorar nycticorar naevius). bi : 62 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. ern and central Europe and thence east across Asia to Chass an 7 Japan. The subspecies naevius occupies nearly the whole of th os Western Hemisphere, north to southern Canada and south to Patagonia. . Breeding range.—The black-crowned night heron breeds north to © Woodstock, N. B. (Adney) ; Quebec City, Canada (Dionne) ; Ottawa, — Ontario (White) ; Toronto, Ontario (Nash); Rochester, Mich. — (Bretherton) ; Oak Center, Wis. (Hatch); Lake Andrew, Minn. — ( end Shoal Lake, Manitoba (Gunn) ; Sterling, Colo. (Cary); — Laramie, Wyo. (Knight) ; ; Bear Lake, Utah (Bailey) ; Ruby Valley, — Ney. (Bailey) ; and Willows, Oreg. (Bailey). Stragglers have been — noted north to Halifax, N. S., about November 18, 1888, and July, 4 4, 1889 (Austen) ; St. John, N. B., January 5, 1887 (Chamberlain), aid April 20, 1888 (Banks) ; Saunt Stewart, Pringh Edward Island (MacSwain) ; Gaspe, Quebec, July 14, 1881 (Brewster); Lake Mis- — tassini, Quebec, August 6, 1885 (Macoun) ; near Burks Falls, Ontario, — May, 1899 (Fleming) ; 140 miles west of Winnipeg, Manitoba (Tal- — bot) ; Portland, Oreg., July 29, 1908 (Jewett) ; and Douglas County, ; Wash., early June, 1906 (Bowles). The breeding range includes Mexico, Central America, the whole of South America south to the Falkland Islands (Wagler) and southern — Patagonia (Oustelet), the Greater Antilles, several of the Lesser — Antilles—Granada (Sharpe), Trinidad (Leotaud), St. Christopher — (Cory), St. Vincent (Sharpe), Tobago (Jardine), and Antigua — (Cory)—and the Hawaiian Islands (Henshaw). Winter range.—Throughout the larger part of its extensive breed- _ ing range, the black-crowned night heron is nonmigratory, but it re- _ tires for the winter from much of its United States summer home — and occurs at that season in Florida, the entire Gulf coast, and north — on the Atlantic coast to Pea Island, N. C. (Bishop), and on the Pacific slope to Marysville, Cal. (Belding). A few have been noted — in’ winter in Bermuda (Hurdis); at Cambridge, Mass, (Allen); — Providence, R. I. (Billson) ; Shelter Island, N. Y. (Griffing) ; Tren-— ton, N. J. (Abbott) ; Anna, Ill. (Butler) ; Barr Lake, Colo. (Smith) ;_ Provo Lake, Utah (Yarrow and Henshaw) ; and Fallon, Ney. (Mills). The Zoological Park at Washington, D. C., has a large flying cage in which many black-crowned night herotis live all the year out-— doors. A year or two after this was built, herons appeared on the 4 outside as well as the inside of the cage, at these wild birds ha become rather common through the summer and a few remain a winter, BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON. 63 Spring migration. Number | 4.V¢8e | warliest date Place. - of years’ ae of spring records. | orriy. arrival. Polel ater ae (MEAL): Laon ok I oe il lee. 9 | Apr. 22 | Feb. 15,1902 EYEE) BLES Tes a a A NS | Sg 3 | Apr. 22 | Apr. 19,1885 | Si Eoghan a ae 3 | Apr. 10 | Mar. 23,1884 MRPHOUKA NEV. Mea) en is | SU ee elke een e 8 | Apr. 16 | Mar. 4,1895 Hartford, Conn conse hte (an MUbtoN, REEL”. ie aaa ete 7| Apr. 9 | Mar. 28,1902 Providence, R PNR Se ne ley sere ho SI TERMI oa dc ae 2 icine Slcicleielees 6} Apr. 6 | Mar. 17,1907 Southeastern SSS FAURE Re Ue Oe. Ames esta Da 9 | Apr. 24 | Mar. 28, 1893 MSHAGHOCKSE NG Hie eno Ie Peo S ee NEe aka Fe aN hh. Ci cea oc ape Apr. 11,1902 Bs es eau ES Rn ie. aa en tno lia GR Ca lala ‘Apr. 18,1906 Quebec City, CORTE Y0 Ye NOR Co aM EI ae 2 a 3 | Apr. 14 | Apr. 10,1905 RBG PMUSG Etat Se Se Ne cle as ee eed = oe als ad uin cistelcniec 2) Mar. 24 ar. 22,1 Shh Ld OR Se ee ae ee S452 ee et 3 | Apr. 22) Apr. 20,1886 vhs Toee Uae teale IE) lal any 2 ar. 31 26, 1904 Pookie, Ulsscocessusdagesessecbecaned s2egesec0 a2 sesusebeedseasesece|boqsoseses| bee seeded Apr. 5,1890 Shbiey Jo lsat SD On ee 5 6 a ee ee eee 9 | Apr. 23 | Apr. 8, 1894 ethic Eisueys (CO a |e ial nes a ey age an I ie 3 | Apr. 16 | Apr. 14, vag (Die ooo 8 2p ae so gecc se ecco essences 2 sc S5scaseescedascdss- 2) Apr. 24 | Apr. 18,1894 TEASE) thy LGU ec as ale Se ee 22 SE ee 3} Apr. 17] Apr. 8, 1887 BEES Lb yi OW Ae cfs cts) ecites tee Swine sale erase ees. =. tae ed ered levee deepal eee Apr. 3, 1897 LELGDOD LORE Oe A ee ee 5 = ae a oe 9} Apr. 12 | Apr. 6,1890 BETAS HACE TUTE RCATISAS 2 ay eo ape tare ei usc wi olan te Oe al a 5 | Apr. 19 | Apr. 15,1907 Basi EEN DOTASKA). 22s fone Sole a secs ee ee aaa wien Yee eclels eases 5} Apr. 22] Apr. 2,1904 PsP Peiig. Nj LDS MEE Se aS are cs ee ea OR = ns Ae SMP EPS Pao eg SNC Wg my i ea aN ay 1,1893 PISTOL CTOAT) ois a OR pee gee eee cle | LION Seal 5 | Apr. 25 | Apr. 21,1906 As would be expected from a species with such an extended range, the eggs are deposited at widely different times in different parts of the breeding range. While eggs are most commonly found in Chile during the months of October and November (Germain), in Cuba, the eggs are usually deposited in April and May (Gundlach); San Mateo, Fla., March 29, 1882 (specimens in U. 8S. National Museum) ; Alachua County, Fla., April 18, 1890 (Pearson) ; Charleston, S. C., _ April 25, 1908 (Wayne) Charleston, S. C., April 7, 1910 (Wayne) Gaenswally early) ; Mattamuskeet Lake, N. on April 30, 1908 (Pear- son) ; Baltimore, Md., April 30, 1892 (Gray) ; Sgictad N. Y., May 14, 1881 (Rich) ; Portland, Conn., April 17, 1872 (Merriam) ; Fisdex County, Mass., May 12, 1896 (Mann) ; Penobscot Bay, Me., May 26, 1897 (Knight); Philo, Ill., May 12, 1902 (Hess); Manawa Lake, Towa, May 15, 1904 (Trostler) ; near San Francisco, Cal., April 21, 1904 (Finley). Eggs were just hatching April 13, 1895, at Tallahassee, Fla., which q ‘must have been laid in March (williane) young just out of the q _ tember 15, 1901, at Alameda, Cal. (Cohen) ; full-grown young April F 23, 1878, at Eositith Tex. (Sennett). The average date of finding | eggs at Barr Lake, Colo., was May 12, earliest May 9, 1909, but young in nest May 24, 1907, indicated that some eggs had been laid | at a still earlier date (Rockwell). 64 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. Fall migration. Place. Bhiladelphia: Pa.(near)) oc 5 neigh = eee: ~ << - SaeeeeitS New York N.- WEANIGAT) Sec ecn eS ee ee 58 I ay 4 ‘Hartford ~ Conti: so 2 on bt wean ate at one ae eee - - 2 a eee] Sole e eee eee ce) Providence, R. De een e ae eda t lene cae ee RAC - - Pac eee Nopneastern. Massachusetts: .- 2. 6229.22 sso ees. - .s 1 SS Durham fond, M H ee ee ee ed be es Ce wer wwe ces e ewe wee eee ee ew ee ee tee eee tee wee ee teen eens ale Wiss Lc aaep ease sachet ss coe cues... - meee pron (ake. inn se Ss. nce ctees Seem; . . Se Ee eee oleae Richmond Kans Site n ade any eees adnan soe a cee ss... Selene eee Lincoln In, Nebr fees pete SORE Pe PE ERS ec ge bel [ate PON 5s HKG coe eo ob ans un coe eee LED EE... aun eeee ee ee ee Sioux Walle, 8, Dak..2.........-.001.2.cs0cc0doeec.. .... -cdane te des sal oe eee en Barr Lake, oo a RE REE” RUMBA [Agami Heron. Agamia agami (Gmelin). ‘ vy oft A nonmigratory species ranging west to Palenque, Chiapas (Nelson and Gold- . man), and to Rio Coatzacoalcos, Vera Cruz (Sumichrast). It is rare and local — in British Honduras, Guatemala, and Costa Rica, more common in Panama, 4 and has a wide range in northern South America, south to Yurimaguas, Peru, and to Matto Grasso, Brazil.] ee a Yellow-crowned Night Heron. Nyctanassa violacea (Linnweus). Range.—Temperate and tropical America, north to South Carolina, 4 : Tllinois, Kansas, and Lower California; south throughout the West 7 Indies and Central America to Brazil and Peru. ; Breeding g range. —The yellow-crowned night heron is a common. Fort oh Okla. (Merrill) s Gurley, Tex. (Howell) ; and . Tex. (Butcher). The northern limit of the breeding range on pt) Pacific coast is found at Mazatlan, Sinaloa, at Magdalena Bay, Loy California, and on Socorro Island. The species is a common bree in the Bahamas and the West Indies, and less commonly and so what locally throughout Central Asporica and northern South Amet south to Paranagua, Brazil (Pelzeln) ; and Tumbez, Peru (Ts nowski). * Winter range——The yellow-crowned night heron seems to des the United States during the winter, though an injured bird sp the winter of 1909-10 at Upper Matecumbe Key, Fla. (Brodhea and two birds were seen during January, 1912, near Brownsy ' YELLOW-CROWNED NIGHT HERON. 65 OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER WINTERING Fic. 21.—Yellow-crowned night heron (Nyctanassa violacea). 7 = © 80652°—13 —_5 66 NORTH AMERICAN HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. Tex. (Smith). It winters, however, in Cuba (Gundlach) ;_ Island, Bahamas (Bonhote) ; Santa Ana, Vera Cruz (Ferrari-Pere: Watatlan, Sinaloa (Lawrence); and La Paz, Lower Cali (Brewster). Polk County, Fla. F ebruary 14, 1901 (seemed in U.S. National « seum) ; Sivanask: Ga., March 28, 1909 (Perry); Charleston, S. e.3 . average March 25, bari Meath 23, 1907 (Wayne) ; New ie 4 La., average March 19, earliest March 9, 1895 (Allison) ; Bognay, | Miss., average March 25, earliest March 20, 1890 (Mabbett) ; Louis, Mo., Ape il 10 (Hurter) ; Bicknell, Ind., April 13, 1908 (Chae 4 ler); Corpus Christi, Tex., March 8, 1877 (Sennett) ; Galveston, — Tex., March 20, 1892 (Lioyd 3 ; Dallas, Tae , March 28, 1898 (Mayer) ; S x Crooked Creek, Kans., April 17, 1878 (Goss). 3 The yellow-crowned night iron is apt to appear in districts north of the breeding range, as shown by the following records: — Bermuda, April, 1848, September, 1849 (Hurdis); Raleigh, N. C., June 25, 1894 (Brimley); Cobb Island, Va. (Rives) ; Washington, a DD. C., August, 1901 (Palmer); W cisttbades N. J., May 28, 1892 : (Stone) ; Freeport, N. Y., April, 1893 (Dutcher) § Bellport N. 74 1897 (Babson); Wading River, N. Y., April, 1901 re Orient, N. Y., May 4, 1905 (Braislin) ; Newport, R. L., June 15, 1778 © (Howe) ; Tiverton, R. I., April 23, 1886 (Howe ee Sturtevant) 5 Lynn, Mass., October, 1862 (Allen) ; Provincetown, Mass., March 8, 1891 (Small); Deering, Me., April 13, 1901 (Brock) ; Portland Me., f April 11, 1906 (Norton) ; ; Hawk Point, N. S., late March, 1902 (Ken- j nard) ; Sable Island, N. S., April 13, 1904 (Bontelier) ; Toronto, — Ontario, August 15, 1898 (Williams) ; near Council Bluffs, Towa, May 10, 1843 ( Audubon), and May 1, 1892 (Trostler) ; Sabula, Towa, | September 15, 1892 (Giddings) ; Beatrice, Nebr., ‘Jal 19, 1901 4 (Swenk) ; Florence Lake, Nebr., August 23, 1903 (Trostler) ; Salida, Colo., May 1, 1908 (Warren). a The above dates indicate that at the time of the spring migration | it is no rare thing for individuals of this species to journey farther — north than they usually breed. These birds probably return in a few © days to the normal breeding range, and then in July and August a — second northward migration of a smaller number of individuals — occurs after the breeding season. Eggs are deposited in December in Brazil (Euler); San sige | Island, Panama, March 14, 1904 (Thayer); Grenada, W. L, April — and May (Wells) ; Cuba, April and May (Gundlach) ; Port derson, Jamaica, June 12, 1890 (Field); near Passage Key, ri, | April 18, 1906 (Pearson) Alachua County, Fla., April 25, 1) (Pearson) ; Charleston, S. C., April 20, 1896 (Wayne) ; Wheatlar Ind., April 27, 1881 (Ridgway); Mount Carmel, Ill., May 6, sid “ou a EA CIN MEMO eso en ire RM pe oe eh MEXICAN TIGER-BITTERN. 667 elson) ; Nueces County, Tex., May 22, 1884 (Benners) ; Socorro d, Mexico, fledged young May 14, 1897 (Anthony). An unusu- 7 early nesting was that of birds which had already laid their gs by March 23, 1907, at Charleston, S. C. (Wayne), while the eggs that were found Reich’ March 5, 1890, at Key West, Fla., must have been laid in early February. Be [Lineated Tiger-bittern. Tigrisoma lineatum (Boddaert). The lineated tiger-bittern ranges north to Panama, where it has been taken Lion Hill, March, 1900 (Brown), and at Rio Indio, February 23, 1911 (Gold- — man). ‘Thence it spreads over much of northern South America, south to Peru a (Pebas and Yurimaguas) and to Barretos, Sao Paulo, Brazil.] iy Ha [Nicaraguan Tiger-bittern. Tigrisoma excellens Ridgway. 4 i Restricted to Middle America, where it has been taken from the Segovia Pe River. Honduras (Townsend), to the Rio Escondido, Nicaragua (Richmond).] [Mexican Tiger-bittern. Heterocnus mexicanus (Swainson). _ The Mexican tiger-bittern is one of the common members of the family in i - Mexico and Central America and ranges north almost to the United States, to _ Alamos, Sonora; Victoria, Tamaulipas; and Cozumel Island, Yucatan. The southern limit is found in Panama, where it has been taken east to the Bay of Panama (Kellett and Wood) and to the line of the Panama Railroad (McLean- _inan).] F “Anthony green heron. _ Ardea cinerca....-..-- fannimi Little... - - Boatbill, Zeledon .-.- _ Botaurus lentiginosus . a pinnatus.-.. Butorides brunescens . : mescens, Butorides - rulea, Florida...-... i hlearius zeledoni... ry least bittern. ... . anthony, Butorides virescens.....-..+-------+ OTL a ech ras Bae NS A ET OUUES aver oe CS So pepe Bu Lower California great......-.-.- MGRICATUOTOS fare oasis) Sone ts West Indian preat..... 5-28 CUNO ee se kkion ss soe se WU TAUCULT AS, sche ae yaaa Ba ‘ifornia great blue heron...........------- lidissima, Egretta..........-------------- ennensis, Harpiprion......-.------------- ata, Ardea herodias.......-...--2+-2002-0: ee ee ee es 26 Heron, Frazar green heron -.-. frazari, Butorides virescens .-...-..-..-------- Galapagos great blue heron.....-...- go arta he Glossy ibis) 22. 2))..5.. Galapagos. ossueese se ae Lower California........... guardung, Plegadis 2: 32533 ske ere ee Harpiprion cayennensis Herodias egretta....---- | herodias adoza, Ardea. - COGROLE VATA CO ee epee eee VOnitiny, ATACO.. <2 2. s nasa eee ae herodias, Ardea hyperonca, Ard lessoni, Ardea. Mm oe oes toes St sanchiiuene, Arden: 9. ye eee ENCGONZOD ATIC eee ee eee ee eee wardi, Ardea. - Black-crowned California great MIP ss 2 te see blies 2c. se eee Galapagos great blue_..-....-.---..- Great blue... - r ead i a, oe i ‘ % ‘ 70 | -—-«- NORTH AMERICA} fe re ee) ; ome Ve, one Page. | _— bee oe No j (Herpiis, Stile ouie ace ae ee eee 52 | Night heron, Black-crowned.. it Lomisiaua en Sioa ice S less eee 51 Yellow-crowned.. Lower California great blue.....-.-- 38 | Northwestern coast heron... ........ Mexican great blue.........--- —elboe 87 | Nyctanassa violacea.......-. Hees Northwestern coast:.......-...-.--- 36 | Nycticorax nycticorax naeviuls...~-.. Paleated sen tee eee ee ee 55 | occidentalis, Ardea............-----. PANN ATCC soe sy see eae ee oe 29 | Phoenicopterus ruber........--.- Striated soo. stash seo bs ee sae 60: |"Eileated. herent=...--.- saeeeers PEM C PATI Zee ti eee oe eee 36 | Pilherodius pileatus............ RV Ax hed re rye Re sae aC oe ee ao” | Pinnated heron: =~... --a.eneee a West Indian great blue... .-.-.-..--- 37 | pinnatus, Botaurus........--.---.- Yellow-crowned night..........-.-.- 64 | Plegadis autumnalis.......... cee Herons, distribution... 52 soese wee chat 8 GUATOUMNGE « «32 sath sasereee PPT OLIOD, ie erry la abe eee 9 | Reddish egret............... cKuee tablesofranges.-20-ce ee ee 9 | Roseate spoonbill .......... ceaeeeee Heterocnus mericanus ...~....---220.2++----2- 67 | ruber, Phoenicopterus.............- Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis......-..-------- GY | rubra, Guard.3s2scanc eden eee tricolor. .2 < secure se 52 | rufescens, Dichromanassa........-- hyperonca, Ardea hcrodias.......-...--.----+- 37 | ruficollis, Hydranassa tricolor ...... EDiss Cayenne. <0. isu pcrcs chic wcesee sees eee 24 | sanctilucae, Ardea herodias........... NN Glossy soe sce tet ten oe'ys Hee bls Soe 17.| Searlet.ibis........--i..2cecee eee ae [TNL ie ian eee tiae hata aE ME tS 16 | Snowy. egret. ...ssssscsccueveew We eco wee enewereaessteccsscef © MAF] Spoonbill, Rosestesi.. 20.0 eee Wihite-fa0Od P1OSSY Ss insane us Wbies De wear 19 | striata, Butorides............... ' WOO occ cnn ac ny SOS eee eee eee eas 22'| Striated heron... ....¢ss./s2nseeee eee mroprychie exilin. 2.55 S928 Aa 29 | Tiger-bittern, Lineated.......... ’ TEDL OTN ain cei tere cs 32 Mexican..«:+.ccee umes : LT CALIC i CSE ENA Ae ey OR 82 aso See 24 Nicaraguan./:22 722i. fe SS Ee A a oe aE oe) Be 24 | Tigrisoma excellens............--<: COG DDT Malayan a an cueeieuehexdwaetsccesen 29 LineQtwM . .snvevianseee Ge ne CN Oe ee ie ne $2 | Treganza heron.......s.c...syeue Ree, Lembeye green heron...............--..-.-.- 60 | treganzai, Ardea herodias.......... eeiag lentiginosus, Botatirtie.... 16.2 --as-2--0e--0es 26 | tricolor ruficollis, Hydranassa.....-...+-+ legson, Ayden Rerodiae jos olen. 2 es secs a i tricolor, Hydranassa......-.-+--+-» Lineated tiger-bittern.........2420000. 00008 67 | violacea, Nyctanassa.........-...... rrseees BAR TIGHOTNE . oicaetnvadcdonsd nas eeten op jp rmeecene isi Butorides...-.-.0-00 MASEL WIG ON aan orn eres eevone st anis 52 et Buona oS ae Osan NerON sie esereerseuss Pe se ive c nas ee 51 rescens, BtWortee xa, Stews phe Ward heron. ..,..0isv 32 | zeledont, Cochleariue......-.«ssssuvaneeeen Nicaraguan tiger-bittern....................-. 67 is O 5 A’? it x q ‘A, 4 Ue et aN i t UL pee \ . , 4 e ‘ 7 * . ‘ ‘ 1D 2? 20 Biva as eNVAV Khe Ss te PD) BPI Y)ODY) Pras’? PRP 2) Bars Th TH p> Psypaer | messy 2) BID JP “OM Poe “A. ere’ im >) Di yD), >» P a pI YY - I >> >) BD Jd» ad DP BPP aE \PHIDY aD pwa DY PIP WILVI” DID DID PW WP D DYP sa D Eee ee ») I PPI DIY | KB Wy d > > ; D) yD DX ) »2» > » > _) ») a d o» > OVP DP DIVO PD VAP YD PPyyyrd - Py ypP DWYAIM yw? abd a D) ,p° ar J DPPFP> DP AVP seep 22 2 » yp be iD>»> ~P DW WP Pp») asd bP, i> DD)» =) DAP PD SD BP) PD Wily) B® PDAS Dep 395) i poy » ae ee wd 4)» ge J. & f4 2 »/y yD) D”, 9D» PDP 7) YD 2 PWS) DW BVI YH LID ~~ << PED) PIB IW DY DTD 4 Lie yp od s > DLW ys Bye D D 20% » 24 DVD 2 DD DWV? YD Dea) yD ye | Vg? sD . Vy p) 2 bi% » 2 via sy wZ9 JD pC dD . » 2 ue ye LILY DD” DWP Wy ee ae ) +2) , Ve ” > ai yn) AY ; Pie ai > i PLO PLP TVS 2) SPP 2 ; Ba »% pros — wy 2.9? aa ve F ma i LWP, > BPP MMP _WDI DLV Dy a) pYp Ww ba Viyw DP: PP > peat ”. py) YY BPD ID LW, «J BD Fy , . BWI» 272) ‘9a 2 YD) pp ZV LW. £55". 3'}° > DP i>» J PS. »y PID Pp». wy)... 4 pre yD >» D J aS) Ee >)». d 4 >> ») d » »» SS. ae IZ IVS I) Dd. yy » >) ee VP.9 D> Gd) Bis ie DODD» VRP YD DIN YY B94 38.5? 2 — Pda tD> pm? PRP ew B Pow) >> SYS YW VD. D SR PD 2 YY 20 IR) 9 YW dy» Fi > p Leo PY DP IS WPYWy PRW» | Dy»? 2» BD) YH YI yop yb ymper ? mrs) »») me?) » )» = ie *. "“y)-_ »». ¥ yy) Dd JP BIW DD PP pod Hyp wer | LIPDYP IVP II DID DI) DD pwygY YIWWI LVL” DIP DIM sy LDP wD SYPDM ePPDwDIsS Dp DW) YF) WwW wa »)) ») J2. ae NS oe he - > = e fgg ets reer aah Ni om 2 Ag! wet a pl Age aac ~ AA, a ty. p a0 ; . as co FP Nange SASRSAPAD GG a, ae ORS AR A ATSAE Aa ve 4 Pry Wy \ pane 4a 4G oft a» ef Saw 4, um 1e +n O-ay San ci AL AB AVAL PR Vay ae | Tie * Z of a mam al oa wes a= “# | = > - Me ATT a, PR AK ay pve? A ws aKa eee MAG? 9 ie en | om aheoss Lee) tt : _ LR ARA. Pa \. f al a A SAR oN NA cap Ng par 4g a! AYNAI | ot i id ALar™. é ae Ua oy a jee as) OAs , ds De Pa, \ yes a Spavapaacea? i pan pg PAE eae 5 di eg li Nea Y) PL aa “gh per bs a , eB sates al 6? NADA SAAAS DS Aga tay Oe inet PY ft SLY

oe ae fe Ge oie Coe ae 2: & i v Or the Wey 4A ee vyyYry oN prow” i beg. . v= ven ant SELES renga ~~ AS cee = ee ae rap | aS 4 we NY YY athe, fi. a para? mnt 7 - oma ae ay wipe £.. pp re SAAR AR TRAE Bye onl Via oe 4 Aa @ Ayan’ _™ “ ana gn es = a" b” 4 Ax a @ “A. ALS SAN SAAR ad Ap RAH eaMraryet: ra ay alia. oe ules, AAS S gu Pu ‘> : r ee | . vy Nge a A f oy oS é < a at es _ Ne - a —<~ a AENEAN An AAR 22 Aan AS OG Ag a ARQ anAanmene MAS AAs ‘ RAS s ys . a me Le AN, Rane 2 Aig AA im alae ae pasate: Ai Aga Dc ARo ms? As Me Ai gy gi allel RENN SY a Ahn wy a “ae am yr ¥ ~ A ay an -~—m_ St PSP lp “Yay a a a, 4 4 a I “Vay Le 4a Age Aa. a! AN gp , a \, AY ee NT NY mol ~ “Ya mas Rr inf maa, “s ann Po Nn al ae ® avn Y\ - 4) ony assy Say gua Ay 8 Ta ve AAA AL V. Apr ® a ~~ Mans ex. COIN: eA aa. 15 As | aa A ay Ye 5 Vi ie ~l. a ~ { y Ad aaa mm a hpe, my 4,8 a ’ as: a a w+, a! ’ Ls aN ay = ~ . _ ny. 7 A & ia qe al RLS Ce a -< . me < ¥ , Fmd = x ae a ae , ‘ / =) ae aT efi 2 ae a! VAAL a Sat Ser "rege Same C o We ge 4 oe, f Ree a2. ~_= - ond a, Titbh , a ~ : ~T an, A : V0 : a oe smu : . > he a. =. awed fT sa - = wi Wi 9088 01629 2443