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"apr WV Y- - ey ' =~ wh, ‘ tev \ = 2 = - ~ . >. — : vey mn ww. we 5 we x, wv “9 aye “> — oe ss Poant.% a 4, = b ‘ _ oo ~w uy _—_ "sr \ rec - Rs =e | ap ee _ > ‘i if Ee ae er Wr [ee ria ~- - yw Ww wa AGS \w . te ce oS VID Se Oot ae te 8 petted JN be Sia Shh ABE ES SoS ee: eee sf ee sd : ee LNA MPa Ris ean if i BN anes J S. 3, DEPARTMENT ‘OF AGRICULTURE DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMATALOGY — PRELIMINARY REPORT F..E. L. BEAL Lee ASSISTANT ORNITHOLOGIST _. THE TONGUES OF WOODPECKERS BY F. A. LUCAS CURATOR, DEPARTMENT COMPARATIVE ANATOMY U.S. NaTIONAL MusEUM WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1895 Bull. 7, Div. of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PILEATED WOODPECKER OR LOGCOCK (Ceophlwus pileatus). FRONTISPIECE. — ie S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE : DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY yd NTN F. E. L. BEAL /e.”™ « f ws ASSISTANT ORNITHOLOGIST a ~~< a 4 > THE TONGUES OF WOODPECKERS BY F. A. LUCAS ‘ CURATOR, DEPARTMENT COMPARATIVE ANATOMY U.S. NATIONAL MusEuM WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1895 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. _ UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Washington, D. C., May 15, 1895. :I have the honor to transmit, as Bulletin No.7 of this division, ary report on the Food G Woodpeckers, by Prof. F. E. L. sistant Ornithologist. The report is accompanied by a short e on the ‘Tongues of Woodpeckers,’ prepared at my request by A. Lucas, Curator of the Department of Comparative Anatomy, | tates National Museum. spectfully, C. HART MERRIAM, Chief of Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy. J. STERLING Morton, Secretary of Agriculture. TORI BOAT R= 2 ter ot ey 6 Mm CO OTE NES: : Page, bet [of Woodpeckers. By F. DRO Beale oS cs): Peele aa eae Lala eam er eS aysccee nhl as tep i SOR Lae AON SRO Re OPO ERO gee SARI ESD Hs 3 ngues of Woodpeckers. By F. A. Lucas. J DAE a es i alittin oat) SU aaa 35 — : ILLUSTRATIONS. Text jigures. ; pie. 1. Hairy Woodpecker (Dryobates villosus). 1 2 3. Red-headed Woodpecker ( Melaner pes erythrocephalus). 4, Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (Spkyrapicus varius). Plates. Frontispiece. Pileated Woodpecker (Ceophlaus pileatus). Plate I. Tongues of North American Woodpeckers. II. Tongues of North American Woodpeckers. III. Tongues of North American Woodpeckers. i E F : ; '‘ - PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS. By F. E. L. Bra, Assistant Ornithologist. GENERAL REMARKS. With the possible exception of the crow, no birds are subject to more adverse criticism than woodpeckers. Usually no attempt is made to discriminate between the numerous species, and little account is taken of the good they do in destroying injurious insects. The name ‘Sap- sucker’ has been applied to two or three of the smaller kinds, in the _ belief that they subsist to a great extent upon the juices of trees, obtained from the small holes they make in the bark. There can be little doubt that one species, the Yellow-bellied Woodpecker (Sphyra- picus varius), does live to a considerable extent upon this sap. Obser- vation does not show that other species have the same habit, but it is a difficult point to decide by dissection, as fluid contents disappear quickly from the stomach. Many observers have testified to the good work these birds do in destroying insects, while others have spoken of harm done to fruit or grain. Both are correct within certain limits. Field observation on the food habits of birds is attended with so many difficulties as to render it a very unreliable source from which to draw general conclusions. The most conscientious and careful person is often deceived, not only as to the quantity of a particular kind of food eaten by a bird, but as to the fact that it is eaten at all. The further difficulty of keeping a number of birds, or even a Single one, under constant observation makes an estimate of relative proportions of different kinds of food impossible. When much mischief is done the fact is apparent, but there is no way to find out how much good is done during the same time. For these reasons it often happens that _ reports on food habits, based on observations of wild birds, not only conflict with each other but also disagree with the results obtained from stomach examinations. This last method must be taken as the court of final appeal, and it is evident that a collection of stomachs covering every month in the year, and as nearly as may be all points 7 > 8 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS. of the birds’ range, becomes more and more trustworthy as it inoee Use! in size; in other words, the more stomachs examined the nearer correct will bo the result as to the birds’ annual diet. The present paper is merely a preliminary report, based on the exami- nation of 679 stomachs of Woodpeckers, and representing only 7 spe- cies—all from the eastern United States. These species are the Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens), the Hairy Woodpecker (D. villosus), the Flicker or Golden winged Woodpecker (Colaptes awratus), the Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus), the Red-bellied Woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus), the Yellow-bellied Woodpecker (Sphyrapicus varius), and the Great Pileated Woodpecker (Ceophleus pileatus), Examination of their stomachs shows that the percentage of animal food (consisting almost entirely of insects) is greatest in~ the Downy, and grades down through the Hairy, Flicker, Pileated, Redhead, and Yellow-bellied to the Red-bellied, which takes the smailest quantity of insects. Prof. Samuel Aughey stated that all of these species except the Pileated (which was not present) fed upon locusts or grasshoppers during the devastating incursions of these insects in Nebraska. The vegetable matter, of course, stands ininverse — order. The greatest quantity of mineral matter (sand) is taken by the Flicker, somewhat less by the Redhead, very little by the Downy and Hairy, and none at all by the Yellow-bellied and Pileated. x . The stomachs of all of the 7 species except the Redhead and Red- ‘ bellied contained the substance designated as ‘cambium’ in the ‘ accompanying list of vegetable food. This is the layer of mucilagi- nous material lying just inside of the bark of trees, and from which a both bark and wood are formed. It is supposed by many to be the main object sought by woodpeckers. Except in the case of a single species the stomach examination does not bear out this view, since cam- a bium, if present at all, was in such small quantities as to be of no ¢ practicalimportance. The Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, however, is evi- ; dently fond of this substance, for in the stomachs examined it formed ‘ 23 percent of the whole food of the year. It was found in 37 stomachs, most of which were taken in April and October. Of 18 stomachs col- ay lected in April, 16 contained cambium, and one of the remaining con- : tained no vegetable food whatever. Moreover, as the true cambium is : a soft and easily digested substance it is probable that what is usually | found in the stomachs is only the outer and harder part, which there- fore represents a much larger quantity. The extent of the injurydone by destroying cambium must depend on the quantity taken from indi- a vidual trees. It is well known that woodpeckers sometimes do serious . harm by removing the outer bark from large areas on the trunks of fruit trees. The rings of punctures often seen around the trunks of apple trees are certainly the work of the Sapsucker, though sometimes attributed to the Downy and Hairy Woodpeckers. But the bird is not sufficiently numerous in most parts of the country to do much damage. ae GENERAL REMARKS. 9 It is a difficult task to summarize the results of the investigations herein detailed, more especially if an attempt is made to decide as to the comparative merits or demerits of each particular species. The stomach examinations do not always corroborate the testimony received from observers, and many no doubt will be inclined to think they have seen more harm done by some members of this family of birds than is shown by the data here published. If birds are seen feeding repeatedly on a certain kind of food the inference is that they are particularly fond of it, but the truth may be that they are eating it because they can find nothing they like better, and that a collection of their stomachs from many localities would show only a small per- centage of this particular food. In reviewing the results of these investigations and comparing one species with another, without losing sight of the fact that comparative good is not necessarily positive good, it appears that of 7 species considered the Downy Woodpecker is the most beneficial. This is due in part to the great number of insects it eats and in part to the nature of its vegetable food, which is of little value to man. Three-fourths of its food consists of insects, and few of these are useful kinds. Of grain, it eats practically none. The greatest sin we can lay at its door 1s the dissemination of poison ivy. . The Hairy Woodpecker probably ranks next to the Downy in point of usefulness. It eats fewer ants, but a relatively larger percentage of beetles and caterpillars. Its grain-eating record is trifling; 2 stomachs taken in September and October contained corn. For fruit, it seeks the forests and swamps, where it finds wild cherries, grapes, and the berries of dogwood and Virginia creeper. It eats fewer seeds of the poison ivy and poison sumac than the Downy. The Flicker eats a smaller percentage of insects than either the Downy or the Hairy Woodpecker, but if eating ants is to be considered a virtue, as we have endeavored to show, then surely this bird must be exalted, for three-fourths of all the msects it eats, comprising nearly half of its whole food, are ants. It is accused of eating corn; how little its stomach yields is Shown on another page. Fruit constitutes about one-fourth of its whole fare, but the bird depends on nature and not on man to furnish the supply. Judged by the results of the stomach examinations of the Downy and Hairy Woodpecker and Flicker it would be hard to find three other species of our common birds with fewer harmful qualities. Not one of the trio shows a questionable trait, and they should be protected and encouraged in every possible way. Fortunately, only one, the Flicker, is hable to destruction, and for this bird each farmer and landowner : should pass a protective law of his own. 4 The Redhead makes the best showing of the seven species in the kinds of insects eaten. It consumes fewer ants and more beetles than any of the others, in this respect standing at the head, and it has a pro- nounced taste for beetles of very large size. Unfortunately, however, its 10 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS. _ fondness for predaceous beetles must be reckoned against it leads in the consumption of grasshoppers; these and beetles » forming 36 percent of its whole food. The stomachs yielded e corn to show that it has a taste for that grain, though not enor h indicate that any material damage is done. It eats largely of wild fen and also partakes rather freely of cultivated varieties, showing som preference for the larger ones, such as apples. In certain local : particularly in winter, it feeds extensively on beechnuts. No charge can be brought against it on the score of injuring trees by pecking. The Red-bellied Woodpecker is more of a vegetarian than an the others. In certain localities in Florida it does some damag oranges, but the habit is not genera]. On the other hand, it eats q tities of ants and beetles. : The Yellow-bellied Woodpecker seems to show only one questi able trait, that of a fondness for the sap and inner bark of re Both field observations and the contents of the stomachs prove 1 tl charge against it, but it is not probable that forest trees are exten sively injured, or that they ever will be, for aside from the fact the the bark of many trees would be unpalatable an immense number ¢ ' birds would be required to do serious damage. But with fruit tre the case is different. Their number is limited, and there are no sup fluous ones as in the forest. In localities where the bird is abunda | pleasing to its taste. ny The Pileated Woodpecker i is more piece: a forest bird than a The aces is speci bie veil a és Goneany ies of the forests. In describing the stomach contents of the different rood pec quantity of material is classed under the term ‘rubbish.’ The great bulk of this stuff is rotten wood and bark, picked up in digging for i insects in decayed timber, and apparently swallowed accidentally wit oe the food. Ifthe 6 woodpeckers which had eaten rotten wood are com- | pared with respect to the quantity of this material contained in th ee stomachs it.is found that the Hairy Woodpecker stands at the hes with 8 percent, the Downy next with 5, the Flicker with 3, the Redhe oe is and Yellow-bellied with 1 percent each, and the Pileated with only trace. From thisit appears that the Hairy Woodpecker is preeminently a woodpecker, while the Redhead and Yellow-belly do much less of ti kind of work. The difference in habit is obvious to the most casi observer. The Redhead is ordinarily seen upon a fence post or graph pole hunting for insects that alight on these exposed su fac and watching for others that fly near enough to be captured in mi : Unlike other woodpeckers, he is seldom seen digging at a rotten branch except in spring, when he prepares a home for the family he intends — to rear. The Yellow-bellied, as will be shown presently, does mu ch wood (or bark) pecking. but of another kind. F i “ er as . DOWNY WOODPECKER. : 11 The following tables show the food percentages of the stomachs examined : ; Percentages of food of 7 species of woodpeckers. o Percentage of S stomach con- Percentage of different insects. ‘3 tents. a 8 a ea D a & D A x 8 q ED #2) ; a o 2 3S a 5 3 , Bb Name of species. 2 + ce op. ee Bt 8 i-e~ 2 an o, (>) a B = of = BH 3 5 ae 4 eg 8 3 Spe ulliak= elh Sl igSS alies a | gs a | re Bs Basia ws aS =) 2s = a, eau (eon ea | Pee | Sec Bea oe s|zel@| & |> |S 1B | Be |) Bo, es te IM el lel lh tee isp | tS iy Sey ees Downy Woodpecker (Dry- obates pubescens) ..------ 140 | 74 | 25 1 23 24 16 3 4 1 3 Hairy Woodpecker (Dryo- | bates villosus)..-.-------- 82 | 68 | 31 1 i 24 21 | Trace. Ph I es a 4 Flicker (Colaptes auratus) -| 230 | 56 | 39 5 43 10 1 1 | Trace. | Trace. 1 Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythroceph- | GET). GOCE OEE SRO 101 | 50 | 47 3 11 3l 1 5 a Mewes teres 1 Red-bellied Woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus)..-| 22 | 26 | 74 | Trace. iL 10 | 4 | Trace. | Trace. ...--..- Trace. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker | | (Sphyrapicus varius) ..--| 81 | 50 | 50'|....---- 36 5 2 i 1 | 3 2 Pileated Woodpecker | | (Ceophleeus pileatus) .-... 23 | 51) 49 |.--.---- | 30 15 2 | Trace. 4 Trace. | Trace. Relative proportions of larval and adult beetles (Coleoptera) in stomachs of 7 species of woodpeckers. fa | 2 ae . 0.5 me) ao aR | sO =i Percentage of encoun ae : a8 | 8s o's whole number. jist i Name of species. os esi le le 3 eLUi Bo) eee Ba | bas | ose Cain ees iz 3 iz | z du arve.! ult. | Larvee. Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens) - 140 50 60 38 43 11 13 Hairy Woodpecker (Dryobates villosus) .... 82 ail 46 33 56 | 6 18 Flicker (Colaptes awratus)....-------------- 230 67 18 25 8 8 2 Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes ery- PIPREIBE ILL IES) hain Ssetate- tafe seein ice cin atsi= es oye 101 CEM eee Boreas el Bie eeeesae Red-bellied Woodpecker (Melanerpes caro- WMS) =o 35 ocgaDes Soe oneene odesgecesecr 22 6 4 27 18 7 3 Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus ’ TIIIG EEE aeiomton cine cos nares ancisnise meine. 81 15 1 19 1 5 | Trace. Pileated Woodpecker (Ceophleus pileatus) . 23 4 | 12 17 52 2 i} DOWNY WOODPECKER. (Dryobates pubescens. ) This little woodpecker is the smallest, not only of the 7 species under consideration, but of all those inhabiting the United States. He is also one of the most familiar, being no stranger to the shade trees about houses and parks, while his fondness for orchards is well known. He is so quiet and unobtrusive that the first notice one has of his presence may be a gentle tapping or scratching on the limb of a tree within two or three yards of one’s head, where our diminutive friend ,, eh aay eB ee 12 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS has discovered a decayed spot inhabited by Woot bale la colony of ants. One hundred and forty stomachs of the Downy Woodpecke a been examined. They were collected during every month in the | ye poe in 21 States, the DSEriah of Columbia, Ontario, and New Brum from fanen Columbia, have been included. The stomachs contai 74 percent of insects, 25 percent of vegetable matter, and 1 perce of mineral matter or sand. The insects belong to the following orders Ants (Hymenoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), bugs (Hemiptera), . i (Diptera), caterpillars (Lepidoptera), and grasshoppers (Orthopter Spiders and myriapods were also present. While all of these we eaten to some extent, they appear in widely different proportions. T ants constitute almost one-third of all the animal food, or about 23 y cent of the whole, indicating a very decided taste for this rather a and highly flavored article of diet. Beetles stand a little higher order of importance, amounting to about one-third of the entire inse food, or somewhat more than 24 percent of all. Many of these belo: to fie family of May beetles, a few were the predaceous ground beetl but by far the greatest number were wood-boring larvee, a fact showing that this little bird while securing his dinner is doing good work foi the forest. One-fifth of the animal food, or 16 percent of the total consists of caterpillars, many of which apparently are wood- bori species; others are kinds that live on stems and foliage. Amonginsects — the most interesting are the bugs (Hemiptera), which are represente ed a in the stomachs by several species, notably by plant lice (Aphides), which in several instances were found in considerable quantities, amounting to 4 percent of the whole food. From the minute si and very perishable nature of these insects it is evident that th must disappear from the stomach iv a very short time, and it is fair to infer that many more were eaten than shown by the food remains. — Spiders, including harvestmen or daddy longlegs, were eaten freely and amounted to nearly one-tenth of thewhole. A few bits of sna shell were found in one stomach. Eleven Downy Woodpeckers from Kansas collected in winter (De a cember) deserve special notice. Eight of them had eaten the eggs o: fA grasshoppers to an average extent of 10 percent of all their food. — This, besides being in itself a good work, emphasizes the fact that this bird resorts to the ground for food in case of necessity. Be Prof. Samuel Aughey examined 4 stomachs of the Downy Wo 0 nd pecker in Nebraska, all of which contained grasshoppers. The late Dr. Townend Glover, entomologist of the Sparel 4 7 Agriculture, states that the sional of a Downy Woodpecker shot. l February “was filled with black ants.” He states further, “On o1 occasion a Downy Woodpecker was observed by myself making a My number of small, rough-edged perforations in the bark of a young ash ~ me - “DOWNY WOODPECKER. 13 tree, and upon examining the tree when the bird had flown it was found that wherever the bark had been injured the young larve of a wood-eating beetle had been snugly coiled underneath and had been destroyed by the bird.”! In the matter of vegetable diet, the taste of the Downy Woodpecker is varied, prompting him to eat a little of a good many things rather than alarge quantity of anyone. The following is alist of the vegetable — substances that were identified : Grain: Miscellaneous: Indeterminable. Poison ivy seeds (Rhus radicans). Fruit: Poison sumac seeds (Rhus vernix). Dogwood berries (Cornus florida), (C. alternifolia), and (C. asperifolia). Virginia creeper berries (Partheno- cissus? quinquefolia). June or service berries (Amelanchier Harmless sumac seeds (Rhus sp.?). Mullein seeds (Verbascum thapsus). Hornbeam seeds (Ostrya virginana). Nut, unidentified. Flower petals and buds. canadensis). Galls. Strawberries (Fragaria). Cambium. Pokeberries (Phytolacca decandra). Seeds, unidentified. Apples. Rubbish. Unidentified. Material believed to be fragments of grain was found in 2 stomachs but the quantity was so small that it may be dismissed without further comment. Fruit is by far the largest item of vegetable diet, forming one-tenth of the whole food. Strawberry seeds were found in only 1 stomach, apple pulp was supposed to be identified in 2, and the other varieties mentioned in the table were distributed in about the same proportion; so that no great economic interest can attach to this part of the birds’ diet. The seeds and other things included under the head ‘Miscellaneous’ constitute about one-twelfth of the total food. Seeds of poison ivy were found in 20 stomachs and poison sumac in 1. These plants, far from being harmful to the birds, seem to form a very agreeable article of diet, and are eaten by many species. Unfortunately these seeds are protected by a hard, horny covering which successfully resists the action of the stomach, so that they pass through the ali- mentary canal uninjured. It is probable that we owe to birds, more than any other agency, the presence of these noxious plants beside fences, copses, and hedge rows. The remaining vegetable food, about 5 percent, was classed as rubbish, and will be discussed in connection with some of the other woodpeckers. i No beechnuts were found in any of the stomachs examined, but Dr. Merriam informs me that in northern New York they feed extensively on this nut, particularly in fall, winter, and early spring. On April 5, 1U.8. Agr. Rept. for 1865, 1866, p. 37-38. 2Commonly called Ampelopsis. See (List of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta), prepared by a committee of the Botanical Club of the A. A. A. S., 1893-94, which has been followed in all questions of botanical nomenclature. 14 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS. 1878, Dr. Merriam “shot 4 Downy Woodpeckers all of whose gizzards ~ were full of beechnuts and contained nothing else. The birds were often seen on moss-covered logs, and even on the ground, searching for the nuts exposed by the melting snow.” Dr. Merriam states also that he has seen this woodpecker in the fall eat the red berries of the moun- tain ash. HAIRY WOODPECKER. (Dryobates villosus.) This woodpecker is as common as the Downy in most parts of the United States, and to the ordinary eye can only be distinguished by its greater size, its color and markings being almost exactly the same. Fic. 1.—Hairy Woodpecker. The Hairy is a noiser bird, however, often making his presence known by loud calls and obtrusive behavior and by rapid flights from tree to tree. Like the Downy, he has been accused of depredations on fruit, but the stomachs examined do not show that cultivated varieties form —_——" HAIRY WOODPECKER. 15 any considerable part of his fare. Beside the general resemblance between the two birds there is also a remarkable similarity in their food habits, as shown by the stomach contents; the greatest difference being that the Hairy eats a smaller percentage of insects than the Downy. Eighty-two stomachs have been examined, collected during every month in the year, except February; and coming from 19 States, the District of Columbia, Ontario, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia; though most were from the northern United States. The proportion of different kinds of food is as. follows: Animal, 68 percent; vegeta- ble, 31 percent; mineral, 1 percent. The insect material was made up of ants, beetles, caterpillars, bugs, and grasshoppers. Spiders and myriapods also were present. An inspection of the percentages shows that ants are not so highly prized by the Hairy as by the Downy, since they constitute only about 17 percent of the whole food, or one-fourth of the insect portion. Beetles, both larval and adult, stand relatively higher than in the case. of the Downy, comprising 24 percent of all food, or more than one-third of the insect matter. Caterpillars were eaten in greater quantities, both actually and relatively, amounting to 21 percent of the whole food, or more+than. one-third of all the insect material. Spiders are well represented, and aggregate nearly 6 per cent of the entire food. Among the miscellaneous insects were a few aphids or plant lice. Grasshoppers were. found in, only 1 stomach, but Professor Aughey ued them in 4 out of 6 stomachs examined by him in Nebraska. Mr. F. M. Webster states that he has seen a Hairy*°Woodpecker suc- cessfully peck a hole through the parchment-like covering of the cocoon of a Cecropia moth, devouring the contents. On examining more than 20 cocoons in a grove of boxelders he found only 2 uninjured. The Hairy Woodpecker selects a somewhat larger variety of vege- table food than the Downy, though of the same general character. The following list of fruits and seeds found in the stomachs does not indicate that the bird visits orchards and gardens for fruit so much as swamps and thickets, where wild grapes, woodbine, and dogwood bound: Grain: Fruit—Continued : Corn. Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus). Fruit: Pokeberries (Phytolacca decandra). Dogwood berries (Cornus florida and Unidentified. C. asperifolia). Miscellaneous: Virginia creeper berries (Partheno- Poison ivy seeds (Rhus radicans). cissus quinquefolia). Poison sumac seeds (Rhus vernix). June or service berries (Amelanchier Harmless sumac seeds (Rhus glabra). canadensis). Barngrass seeds (Chameraphis. sp %). Spice berries (Benzoin benzoin). Hazelnuts. Sourgum berries (Nyssa aquatica). . Seeds unidentified. Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina). Cambium. Choke cherries (Prunus virginiana). Spruce foliage (Picea). Wild grapes (Vitis cordifolia). Rubbish. 16 THE FOOD OF Sai cay The only grain discovered was corn, which was four in achs. In one case it was green corn in the milk, but this % sufficient to prove the habit of eating corn. Fruit aggregates a li more than 11 percent of the food of the species, and is fairly distri’ uted among all the items in the above list. Since blackberries are t only kind of cultivated fruit found in the stomachs, and since they ¢ wild in abundance, it is evident that the Hairy Woodpecker does not at present cause any great damage by his fruit-eating habits. The sub- stances in the miscellaneous list form about 11 percent of the whole foo d, and are- practically of the same character as in the case of the Downy. Poison ivy seeds were eaten by 7 birds, and poison sumac by only 1, so that not so many seeds of these undesirable shrubs are distributed by the Hairy as by'the Downy. The weed seeds in the stomachs we few in number, but in lowa both the Hairy and the Downy Woodpecker I feed largely on weed seeds in winter, stomachs taken then containing little else. Rubbish amounts.to about one-twelfth of all their food, which is the largest percentage shown by any species. 4 Dr. Merriam informs.me.that in northern New York the Hairy Wood- pecker, like the other woodpeckers of the Adirondack region, feeds largely on beechnuts. In late fall, winter, and early spring following 4 good yields of beechnuts the nuts form the principal food of ba peareckoEs. FLICKER. (Colaptessauratus. ) This bird, one of the largest and best known of our woodpeckers, is more migratory than either the Hairy or Downy, in winter being scarce or absent frour its breeding range in the Northern States, where it is very abundant in summer and early fall. The Yellow-shafted Flicker is distributed throughout the United States east of the Rocky Mou f tains. In the West it is replaced by the Red-shafted Flicker, which may be considered the same so far as food habits are concerned. Under one or the other of its. various titles of Flicker, Golden-winged Woodpecker, High-holder, Yellow-hammer, Pigeon Woodpecker. 2 4 Hairy-wicket, it is. known to every farmer and schoolboy and, unfortu- nately, to certain so-called sportsmen also, for this is the one woodpecker r that is often seen in city markets. In most places it is a much aby bird than either of the preceding, and while it frequents the farm a approaches buildings. freely it “ogee more in the tops of the trees.and does not allow so near an.approach of its greatest enemy, man. This is particularly true in the northeastern part of the country, where | bags of Pigeon Woodpeckers are annually made among the wild che trees in which the birds feed. The Flickers soon learn whom they hay to fear, and such knowledge seems to be hereditary. They are v prolific, rearing from six to ten young at a brood, and so keep on ably abundant in most parts of the country. The Flicker is the mos Bee on PRICKBIR, 17 terrestrial of all the woodpeckers, in spite of his high-perching and high-nesting proclivities, and may often be seen walking about in the _ grass like a meadow lark. In the investigation of its food habits 230 stomachs were examined, taken in every month of the year, although January and February have but 1 each. They were collected in 22 States, the District of Columbia, and the Northwest Territory, and are fairly well distributed over the region east of the Rocky Mountains. They contained 56 per cent of animal matter, 39 percent of vegetable, and 5 percent of min- eral. It will be seen that the quantity of animal or insect material is less than in either of the preceding species, and the mineral matter somewhat greater. The following orders of insects were represented: Fic. 2.—Flicker. _ Ants (Hymenoptera), beetles (Coleovtera), bugs (Hemiptera), grasshop- _ pers and crickets (Orthoptera), caterpillars (Lepidoptera), May flies ( Ephe- merida) and whiteants (Isoptera). Spiders and myriapodsalso were pres- ent. An inspection of this insect matter shows the rather remarkabie fact that more than three-fourths of it, or 43 percent of the whole food, - consists of ants. If the mineral matter is thrown out as not being prop- _ erly food, we find that more than 45 percent of the Flicker’s food for q the year consists of ants. Among the stomachs examined several 2 contained nothing but ants. In two of these the actual number of ants present in each stomach exceeded 3,000. These were mostly small species that live in burrows in the earth, so that it is evident that when Flickers are seen upon the ground they are usually in search of 18269—No. 72 ‘ A 18 = ~~ «-‘THE FOOD OF WOODPECKEI ants, although the other insects found in the ec 1c part for this ground-feeding habit. Prof. Samuel Aughey stomachs of Flickers in Dixon County, Nebr., in June, 1865, — them contained grasshoppers, and the number ih each stomach from 15 to 48. As a ee part of the food of bs 7 bala ste i these insects, anil they nave such Hidely different habits, tat i t difficult to make any assertion that will apply to all, but it is s afe say that many kinds are decidedly harmful, because they atten tect, and help to spread plant, root, and pak lice of various spec These lice are among the worst enemies of plant life, and everyt which tends to prevent their destruction is prejudicial to the inter of agriculture. Other species of ants destroy timber by burrow it; still others, in warmer climates, do much harm to fruit tre cutting off the leaves and undermining the ground. Many s infest houses and other buildings. Apparently, then, birds do no ha in destroying ants, but on the contrary probably do much good by kee ing within bounds these insect pests, whose greater abundance w ] be a serious injury to man. The Flicker takes the lead in this work, eating ants to the extent of nearly half of his whole food. a Next in importance to ants are beetles, which form about 10 pe of all the food, less than half the quantity eaten by the Hairy Downy Woodpeckers. Among these were May beetles and their a and a few snapping beetles, but the greater number were Carabit predaceous ground beetles, Most of these were in the adult form, I some larvie of tiger beetles were identified. As these last live i ra rows in the sand, and as Carabids live upon the ground, their pres in the stomachs again points to the terrestrial habits of the bird. Th same is true of the grasshoppers and crickets. None of the other inse mentioned were eaten to any great extent, the whole aggregating 01 about 3 percent. Two stomachs abuiaaned each a single bedbug Where they were obtained it is as difficult to surmise as it is to stand what motive could prompt the bird to swallow such an in Five stomachs contained each a few bits of snail shell. . In the matter of vegetable diet the Flicker has the most exte list of any of the 7 woodpeckers, and many of the articles of can only be obtained on the ground or among low bushes. Follo’ is a list of all the vegetable substances identified in the Flic stomach: . , pe I » hoa Grain: Corn. Buckwheat. Fruit: Dogwood berries (Cornus florida and C. asperifolia). Virginia creeper berries (Partheno- cissus quinquefolia). Hackberries (Celtis occidentalis). Black alder berries (Ilex verticillata). Sourgum berries (Nyssa aquatica). Cat or greenbrier berries (Smilax glauca). Blueberries (Vaccinium sp.). Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.). Pokeberries (Phytolacca decandra). June or service berries (Amelanchier canadensis). Spice berries (Benzoin benzoin). Elderberries (Sambucus canadensis and S. pubens). Mulberries (Morus). Wild grapes (Vitis cordifolia). Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina). Choke cherries (Prunus virginiana). FLICKER. . 19 Fruit—Continued. Blackberries (Rubus) Unidentified. Miscellaneous: Poison ivy seeds (Rhus radicans). Poison sumac seeds (Rhus vernin). Harmless sumac seeds (hus copallina and f. glabra). Waxberries or bayberries (Myrica cerifera). Juniper berries (Juniperus virgini- anda). Knotweed or smartweed (Polygonum _ convolvulus, P. persicaria, P. lapa- thifolium). Clover seed (Trifolium repens). Grass seed (Phleum). Pigweed seed (Chenopodium). Mullein seed ( Verbascum thapsus). Ragweed (Ambrosia). Magnolia seed (Magnolia grandiflora). Acorns (Quercus). Seed unidentified. Cambium. Rubbish. Cultivated cherries. Of the two kinds of grain in the above list corn was identified in 5 stomachs, buckwheat in 1. Oneof the stomachs containing corn was taken in March and the bird had made a full meal of it, probably because he could get nothing else. Three of the others were collected in September, and the corn was evidently ‘in the milk.’ The fifth was taken in October, and is of a somewhat doubtful nature. The Department of Agriculture has received. a number of reports that implicate woodpeckers in damage done to crops. The only one of any consequence is from Dr. E. 8. C. Foster, of Russell County, Kans., who states that the Red-headed and Golden-winged Woodpeckers dam- age corn in the roasting ear by tearing open the husks. He does not say for what purpose the husks are torn open, though some observers have declared that the object is to obtain the grub which sometimes infests the ear. The testimony furnished by the stomachs does not indicate that the Golden-wing has much to do with corn stealing, for it appears that out of 98 stomachs taken in September and October, the season of harvest, only 4 contained corn at all, and these in quantities ranging from 4 to 30 percent of the stomach contents. The buckwheat was eaten in September. The Flicker has a rich and varied list of fruit, embracing at least 20 different kinds, nearly all of which are wild. The two items of grain and fruit together constitute about 25 per cent of the whole food, the grain, however, being of little consequence. With all this fruit eating, the Flicker trespassed upon man’s preserves for cherries only, and these were found in only 1 stomach. Several 20 THE FOOD OF _ percent of the whole food of this bird, and like the fruit list, of a variety of elements. Poison ivy seeds were found in 20 ston poison sumac in 5, and bayberries in 14. AIl these seeds are: with a white substance resembling wax, and while the quantity is sm compared with the size of the seeds, it is probably rich in nutri ee, for the seeds are a pepe te article of winter diet with : unfortunately they occurred in only one or two stomachs each, aa may be considered as merely picked up experimentally in default something better. It is possible that a series of stomachs taken in The mineral element of the stomach contents is larger in the Fliel than any of the others, forming 5 percent of the whole, and consis principally of fine sand. It was noticed that the greatest quantity w present in stomachs containing ants, showing that the sand was picked up accidentally in gathering the ants from their hillocks. . RED-HEADED WOODPECKER. (Melanerpes erythrocephalus.) England. He is a familiar bird on sstnaeagtl poles and fence posts, — and seems to prefer these rather unpicturesque objects to other appa: ar- ently more fruitful hunting grounds. He feeds largely on insects found 1 upon these bare surfaces, but the vegetable matter in his stoma shows that he forages in other pastures also. Fifty years ago Giraud stated that on Long Island the Red-hea Woodpecker arrives early in April, and during the spring “sub sists chiefly on insects. In the summer it frequents the fruit trees, ri cherries and pears seeming to be a favorite repast. In the fall it fee on berries and acorns, the latter at this season forming a lange pol of its food.” ! In its fondness for mast it resembles its relative, the California V Me pecker, whose habit of storing acorns is one of its most conspiet traits. Inthe northern part of its range,where the oak is replaced by beech, the Redhead makes the beechnut its principal food. Dr. C. 1 Birds of Long Island, by J. P. Giraud, jr., 1844, p. 180. RED-HEADED WOODPECKER. 21 Merriam has given much testimony under this head.! He states that in northern New York, where it is one of the commonest woodpeckers, it subsists almost exclusively on beechnuts during the fall and winter, even picking the green nuts before they are ripe and while the trees are still covered with leaves. He has shown that these woodpeckers invariably remain throughout:the winter after good nut yields and migrate whenever the nut crop fails. He says: “Gray Squirrels, Red- headed Woodpeckers, and beechnuts were numerous during the winters SS TAN sas TAS ISHS ———> TS—= —— ——— CS Xa == SS ——— SG WIG SIM |i! Jy ie La oy Pod Fic. 3.—Red-headed Woodpecker. of 1871-72, 1873-74, 1875-76, 1877-78, 1879-80, 1881-82, 1883-84, while during the alternate years the squirrels and nuts were scarce and the woodpeckers altogether absent;” and adds that in Lewis County, N. Y., ‘‘a good squirrel year is synonymous with a good year for Melanerpes, and vice versa.” In early spring, following nut years, when the melting snow uncovers the ground, they feed on the beechnuts that were buried during winter. On April 5, 1878, at Locust Grove, N. Y., he shot6 whose gizzards contained beechnuts and nothing else. 1 Birds of Connecticut, 1877, p. 66; Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club, Vol. III, 1878, p. 124; Mammals of the Adirondacks, 1884, p. 226. to ripen, the aaron were almost constantly on the win; ‘ from the beeches to some place of deposit. They hid the nuts i every conceivable situation. Many were placed in cavities in ] decayed trees; and the felling of an old beech was certain to pro a feast forthe children. Large handfuls were taken from a sing: hole. They were often found under a patch of raised bark, and s nuts were driven into cracks in the bark. Others were thrust cracks in gateposts; and a favorite place of deposit was behind slivers on fence posts. In a few cases grains of corn were mixed beechnuts. Nuts were often driven into cracks in the ends of railr ties; and the birds were often seen on the roofs of houses pound nuts into the crevices between the shingles. In several instances f! space formed by a board springing away from a fence was nearly with nuts, and afterwards pieces of bark and wood were —— driven over phe nuts as if to hide them from poachers. peained,” He has also seen a: ee pees pasate on the pais in : @ pasture. od Dr, A. K. Fisher saw several Red-headed Woodpeckers feeding o grasshoppers in the streets at Miles City, Mout., in the latter part: July, 1893. Several of the birds were seen capturing these insects n the hotel throughout the sd part of the forenoon. From a their prey, sometimes eating them on the ground, but more of returned to their former post to devour them. The following interesting observation was made by Dr. G. 8, 4 Ae borg, of Vermillion, 8. Dak. ? Last spring, in opening a good many birds of this species with the object of as taining their principal food, I found in their stomachs nothing but young g hoppers. One of them, which had its headquarters near my house, was obse x making frequent visits to an old oak post, and on examining it I found a large e where the woodpecker had inserted about 100 grasshoppers of all sizes (for futu use, as later observation proved), which were put in without killing them, but were so firmly wedged in the crack that they in vain tried to get free. I told th a couple of farmers, and found that they had also seen the same thing, and sho me posts which were used for the same purpose. Later in the season the we 1 pecker whose station was near my heuse, commenced to use his stores, and to-day (February 10), there are only a few shriveled-up grasshoppers left. : Mr. Charles Aldrich, of Webster City, Lowa, states that he sawa B headed Woodpecker catching grasshoppers on the prairie half. an le from timber. In Nebraska grasshoppers were found in 4 out of 6 stomachs examined by Prof. Samuel Aughey. a, ' Auk. Vol. IV, 1887, pp. 194,195. * Bull. Nuttall Ornith, Club, Vol. III, 1878, p. 97. ; 4 RED-HEADED. WOODPECKER. 23 Besides depredations vpon fruit and grain, this woodpecker has been accused of destroying the eggs of other birds and even of killing the young; and from Florida comes a report that it enters poultry houses and sucks the eggs of domestic fowls. Mr. Charles Aldrich, of Webster City, lowa, says that a Red-headed Woodpecker was seen to kill a duckling with a single blow on the head, and then to peck out and eat the brains.’ In view of such testimony remains of eggs and young birds were carefully looked for in the stomachs examined, but pieces of eggshell were found in only 1 stomach of the Flicker and 2 of the Redhead. A very unusual trait has been recorded by Dr. Howard Jones, of Circleville, Ohio. Dr. Jones says he has seen the Red-headed Wood- pecker steal the eggs of eave swallows, and in cases where the necks of the nests were so long that the eggs were out of reach the woodpecker made a hole in the walls of the nest and so obtained the contents. In a colony of swallows containing ‘dozens’ of nests not a single brood of young was raised. One of the woodpeckers also began to prey upon hens’ eggs, and was finally captured in the act of robbing the nest of a sitting hen.” ~ No traces of young birds or of any other vertebrates were discovered in the stomachs of any of the 7 species under consideration, except bones of a small frog which were found in the stomach of a Red-bellied Woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus) from Florida. The Redhead has been accused of doing considerable damage to fruit and grain, and both charges are fairly well sustained. In northern New York Dr. Merriam has seen it peck into apples on the tree, and has several times seen it feed on choke cherries (Prunus virginiana). Mr. August Jahn, of Pope County, Ark., writes that it has damaged his corn to the amount of $10 or $15, and Dr. J. R. Mathers, of Upshur County, W. Va., says that the same species feeds on cherries, straw- berries, raspberries, and blackberries, and that its depredations are sometimes serious. According to Mr. Witmer Stone, of Germantown, Pa., Red headed Woodpeckers have been observed to strip a black- berry patch of allofits fruit. Mr. W.B. McDaniel, of Decatur County, Ga., also reports that the Sapsucker and Redhead eat grapes and cher- ries, the loss being sometimes considerable. These examples show the nature of the evidence contributed by eye-witnesses, the accuracy of whose observations there is no reason to doubt. That the stomach examinations do not reveal more damaging points against the species is not surprising, for a person seeing a bird eating his choice fruit, or in some other way inflicting damage, is more impressed by it than by the sight of a hundred of the same species quietly pursuing their ordinary vocations. Thus an occasional act is taken as a characteristic habit. 1Am. Nat.,.Vol. VI, No. 5, May, 1877, p. 308. 2 Ornithologist and Oologist, Vol. VIII, No. 7, 1883, p. 56. 24 : THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS, One hundred and one stomachs of the Redheatl were exa specimens collected throughout the year, although the bir¢ Canada, and are fairly well distributed over the whole region | the Rocky Mountains. The contents of the stomachs consis Animal matter, 50 percent; vegetable matter, 47 percent; m matter, 3 percent. The animal and vegetable elements are nea balanced, and the mineral element is larger than in any except t Flicker. The insects consist of ants, wasps, beetles, bugs, grasshoy pers, crickets, moths, and eaterpillars. Spiders and myriapods a were found. Ants amounted to about 11 percent of the whole food, whi is the smallest showing of any of the 7 species under considera and isin harmony with the habits of the bird, which collects its - upon exposed surfaces where ants do not often occur. Beetle reme vi formed nearly one-third of all food, the highest record of any o the 7 woodpeckers. The families represented were those of the mon May beetle (Lechnosterna), which was found in several stoma the predaceous ground beetles, tiger beetles, weevils, and a few othe ‘ae! , Among the May beetle family is a rather large, bridle green beetle, ney: known to entomologists as Allorhina nitida, but commonly called = the less dignified name of ‘June bug.’ It is very common during th early summer in the Middle and Southern States, but less so at North. This insect was found in 11 stomachs, and 5 individuals 1 identified in a single stomach, which would seem an enormous meal f a bird of this size. Another large beetle eaten by this woodpecker the fire-ground beetle (Calosoma calidum), a predaceous beetle of lar size and vile odor. Passalus cornutus, one of the staghorns, a 1 insect, was also found, as well as a pair of mandibles belonging Brionus brevicornus, one of the largest beetles in the United States. — preference for eed beetles is one of the pronounced characteristics of this woodpecker. Weevils were found in 15 stomachs, and in several — cases aS many as 10 were present. Remains of Carabid beetles we found in 44 stomachs to an average amount of 24 percent of the tents of those that contained them, or 10 percent of all. The fact tl 43 percent of all the birds taken had eaten these beetles, some of f] to the extent of 16 individuals, shows a decided fondness for insects, and taken with the fact that 5 stomachs contained Cicindeli or tiger beetles forms a rather strong indictment against the bird. Grasshoppers and crickets formed 6 percent of the whole om larger percentage than in any of the other 7 species. The aggre; for all other insects is 4 percent, and the most important kinds ¢ insects on the wing! it is probable that the wasps were taken Ss hi way. ‘See Merriam, Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club, Vol. III, July, 1878, p. 126; oe and Stream, Vol. IX, January 17, 1878, p. 451. “e RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER. 25 _ The yegetable food of the Redhead presents considerable variety, and shows some points of difference from that of the other wood- _peckers. The following is the list of substances identified : _ Grain: Fruit—Continued. Corn. Apples. Fruit: Pears. Dogwood berries (Cornus candidissima Unidentified. and C. florida). Miscellaneous: Huckleberries (Gaylussacia). Strawberries ( Fragaria). Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus). Mulberries (Morus). Elderberries (Sambucus). Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina). Sumac seeds (Rhus copallina and R. glabra). Ragweed seeds (Ambrosia). Pigweed seeds (Chenopodium). Acorns (Quercus). Seeds unidentified. Choke cherries ( Prunus virginiana). Galls. Cultivated cherries. Flower anthers. Wild grapes (Vitis cordifolia). Rubbish. Corn was found in 17 stomachs, collected from May to September, inclusive, and amounted to more than 7 percent of all the food. While it seems to be eaten in any condition, that taken in the late sum. mer was in the milk, and evidently picked from standing ears. This being the largest percentage of grain shown by any of the 7 species corroborates some of the testimony received, and indicates that the Redhead, if sufficiently abundant, might do considerable damage to the growing crop, particularly if other food was not at hand. While the fruit list is not so long as in the case of the Flicker, it includes more kinds that are, or may be, cultivated; and the quantity found in the stomachs, a little more than 33 percent of all the food, is greater than in any of the others. Strawberries were found in 1 stomach, blackberries or raspberries in 15, cultivated cherries in 2, apples in 4, and pears in 6. Fruit pulp was found in 33 stomachs, and it is almost certain that a large part of this was obtained from some of the larger cultivated varieties. Seeds were found in but few stomachs, and only a small number in each. RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER. (Melanerpes carolinus.) The Red-bellied Woodpecker is a more southern species than any of the others treated in this bulletin. It is not known to breed north of the Carolinian fauna, and is abundant in Florida and the Gulf States. Curiously enough it sometimes migrates north of its breeding range to spend the winter. Only 22 stomachs of this species have been obtained by the division. These were collected in 9 States, ranging from Florida to Michigan and | from Maryland to Kansas, and in every month except April, June, and July. Anexamination of their stomachs shows: animal matter (insects) Ney ea SEER eA dey pg ema ies 26 THE FOOD OF WOODP gravel was found in 7 stomachs, but was not reckoned as f were found in 14 stomachs, and amounted to 11 percent: taken in Florida. v4 Dr. B. H. Warren states that the stomachs of 3 Red-bellied peckers captured in winter in Chester and Delaware counties, - tained black beetles, larvee, fragments of acorns, and a few wild grapes. The stomachs of 8 adults from the St. Johns - mee contained red seeds of 2 species of palmetto, but no il metto ant | amepenaiae saearna and numerous joints of a myzi é probably Julus.' pecker killed in December “ pieces of acorns, seeds, antl gravel, bus insects. Another, shot in December, contained wing-cases of Bupre: shot in May, was filled with seeds, pieces of bark, and insects, ar seem was an nue Lachnosterna, or May bug.”? 22 hekannd examined by the division consisted of the following § and fruits: Grain: Fruit—Continued. Corn, Saw palmetto (Sabal verrulata). Fruit: Holly (Jlea opaca). Mulberries (Morus rubra). Wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicau a Wild grapes ( Vitis cordifolia). Bay berries (Myrica cerifera). Virginia creeper ( Parthenocissus quin- Pine (Pinus echinata). quefolia). Poison ivy (Rhus radicans). Elderberries (Sambucus canadensis). Ragweed (Ambrosia sp.). Rough-leaved cornel (Cornus asperi- folia). Corn was found in only 2 stomachs. The other items were well ¢ tributed, and none of them appear to be specially preferred, unl may be fia poison ivy, which was found in 6 stomachs, and amount nearly 12 per cent of the whole food. Although 8 of the 22 birds: collected in Florida, no trace of the pulp of oranges was discovered, that oranges are eaten by them is shown by the following interest notes, ' Birds of Pennsylvania 2d ed., 1890, pp. 174, 175. 2U.S. Agrié, Rept. for 1865, 1866, p. 38, RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER. 27 _ Dr. B. H. Warren states that in Florida the Red-bellied Woodpecker is commonly known as ‘Orange Sapsucker’ and ‘Orange Borer.’ Dr. Warren collected 26 of these woodpeckers in an orange grove near ‘Volusia and found that 11 of them contained orange pulp. Three con- tained nothing else; the others had eaten also insects and berries. Corroborating Dr. Warren’s account, Mr. William Brewster states t that at Enterprise, Fla., in February, 1889, he saw a Red-bellied Wood- _ pecker eating the pulp of a sweet orange. Mr. Brewster states that the _ woodpecker attacked the orange on the ground, pecking at it in a slow and deliberate way for several minutes. On examining the orange it was found to be decayed on one side. ‘In the sound portion were three holes, each nearly as large as a silver dollar, with narrow strips of peel between them. The pulp had been eaten out quite to the middle of the fruit. Small pieces of rind were thickly strewn about the spot.” Upon searching closely he discovered several other oranges that had been attacked in a similiar manner. All were partially decayed and were lying on the ground. He was unable to find any on the trees which showed any marks of the woodpecker’s bill.' Mr. Benjamin Mortimer, writing of the same bird at Sanford, Fla., says: 7 i? a During February and March, 1889, while gathering fruit or pruning orange trees, I frequently found oranges that had been riddled by this woodpecker and repeatedly saw the bird at work. I never observed it feeding upon fallen oranges. It helped itse]f freely to sound fruit that still hung on the trees, and in some instances I have found ten or twelve oranges on one tree that had been tapped by it. Where an orange accidentally rested on a branch in such away as to make the flower end acces- sible from above or from a horizontal direction the woodpecker chose that spot, as through it he could reach into all the sections of the fruit, and when this was the case there was but one hole intheorange. Butusually there were many holes around it. It appeared that after having once commenced on an orange, the woodpecker returned to the same one repeatedly until he had completely consumed the pulp, and then he usually attacked another very near to it. ThusI have found certain clusters in which every orange had been bored, while all the others on the tree were untouched. Anold orange grower told me that the “‘ Sapsuckers,” as he called them, never touch any but very ripe oranges, and are troublesome only to such growers as reserved their crops for the late market. He also said that it is only within a very few years that they have shown a taste for the fruit; and I myself observed that, although Red-bellies were very common in the neighborhood, only an individual, or perhaps a pair, visited any one grove.? 1 The Auk, Vol. VI, 1889, pp. 337-338. 2The Auk, Vol. VII, 1890, p. 340. 28 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS. YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER OR SAPSUCKER. (Sphyrapicus varius. ) This species is probably the most migratory of all our woodpeckers, breeding only in the most northerly parts of the United States, and in some of the mountains farther south. In the fall it ranges southward, spending the winter in most of the Eastern States. It is less generally distributed than some of the other woodpeckers, being quite unknown in some sections and very abundant in others. For instance, Dr. C, Hart Merriam states that in the Adirondack region during migration it ¢ C} * (1, 0\ g) t t \ i hot Ap be e DE atl CU | t 40 e 0 Bie i() t}€ © f)\* ta €\ Seale 0 U re \ \ € | Qi ie z 3 \\o O10 Oe Ay |\ od Oey ‘, ral tT W) ne © Qe \C oie ye 0 4 MARR \ tI Fia. 4.—Yellow-bellied Woodpecker or Sapsucker. outnumbers all other species of the family together, and throughout the summer is second in numbers only to the Hairy Woodpecker; and at Mount Chocorua, New Hampshire, Mr. Frank Bolles found it the most abundant species. In Minnesota also it is very common, On the other hand, near my home in Massachusetts only two or three were observed each year; and during a residence of eight years in lowa it was noted only three or four times. om : YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER. 29 Tt is to this species that the term ‘Sapsucker’ is most often and ‘most justly applied, for it drills holes in the bark of certain trees and drinks the sap. It feeds also on cambium, insects, and wild fruits and berries. In writing of the habits of these woodpeckers in northern New York _ in 1878, Dr. Merriam states: _ They really do considerable mischief by drilling holes in the bark of apple, thorn- _ apple, and mountain ash trees in such a way as to form girdles of punctures, some- times 2 feet or more in breadth (up and down), about the trunks and branches. * * * The holes, which are sometimes merely single punctures, and sometimes squarish spaces (multiple punctures) nearly half an inch across, are placed so near together that not unfrequently they cover more of the tree than the remaining bark. Hence, more than half of the bark is sometimes removed from the girdled portions, and the balance often dries up and comes off. Therefore it is not surprising that trees which have been extensively girdled generally die, and mountain ash are much _ more prone to do so than either apple or thornapple trees, due, very likely, to their more slender stems. The motive which induces this species to operate thus upon young and healthy trees is, I think, but partly understood. It is unquestionably true that they feed, to a certain extent, both upon the inner bark and the fresh sap from these trees, but that the procurement of these two elements of sustenance, gratifying as they doubtless are, is their chief aim in making the punctures I am inclined to dispute. As the sap exudes from the newly-made punctures, thousands of flies, yellow jackets, and other insects congregate about the place, till the hum of their wings suggests a swarm of bees. If, now, the tree be watched, the woodpecker will soon be seen to return and alight over the part of the girdle which he has most recently punctured. Here he remains, with motionless body, and feasts upon the choicest species from the host of insects within easy reach. * * * In making each girdle they work around the trunk, and from below upwards, but they may begin a new girdle below an old one. They make but few holes each day, and after completing two or three remain over the spot fer some little time, and as the clear fresh sap exudes and trickles down the bark they place their bill against the depen- dent drop and suck it in with evident relish—a habit which has doubtless given rise to the more appropriate than elegant term Sapsucker, by which they are commonly known in some parts of thecountry. I haveseveral times watched this performance at a distance of less than 10 feet, and all the details of the process were distinctly seen, the bird looking at me, meanwhile, ‘out of the corner of his eye.’ When his thirst is satisfied he silently disappears, and as silently returns again, after a few hours, to feast upon the insects that have been attracted to the spot by the escaping sap. This bird, then, by a few strokes of its bill, is enabled to secure both food (ani- mal and vegetable) and drink in abundance for an entire day; and a single tree, favorably situated, may suffice for a whole season.! The late Frank Bolles has published some interesting detailed obser- vations respecting the food habits of the Sapsucker. His conclusions are: That the Yellow-bellied Woodpecker is in the habit for successive years of drill- ing the canoe birch, red maple, red oak, white ash, and probably other trees, for the purpose of taking from them the elaborated sap, and insome cases parts of the cam- bium layer; that the birds consume the sap in large quantities for its own sake and not for insect matter which such sap may chance occasionally to contain; that the sap attracts many insects of various species, a few of which form a considerable _ part of the food of this bird, but whose capture does not occupy its time to any- 1 Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club, Vol. IV, January, 1879, pp. 3-5. 30 THE FOOD OF WOOD: thing like the extent to which sap drinking occupies its a alg _ trees attacked by them generally die, possibly in the second or third y _ that the total damage done by them is too insignificant to justify their p in well-wooded regions. ! 7 Mr. Bolles shot 8 Sapsuckers in J uly and August, 1890. achs ‘were well filled with insects.” Some of these were exa Mr. Samuel H. Scudder, who states: The insects in the differentstomachs are in all cases almost exclusively comp the harder chitinous parts of ants. In acursory examination I find little else, tho one or two beetles are represented, and No, 4 must have swallowed an entire w: of the largest size, his head and wings attesting thereto.? i In a subsequent article Mr. Bolles gives the result of an attemy keep several young Sapsuckers alive on a diet of dilute maple Unfortunately for the experiment, the birds obtained and g1 devoured numerous insects attracted to the cage by the sirup. many of the insects were eaten was not known, but all of the died within four months. Examination of their bodies showed - degeneration of the liver—a condition said to be usual in cases of | vation. Mr. Bolles states: . The most probable cause of this enlargement of the liver, which seems to h been the reason for the death of the 3 Sapsuckers, was an undue pro or sugar in their diet. In a wild state they would have eaten insects every day kept their stomachs well filled with the chitinous parts of acid insects. restraint they secured fewer and fewer insects, until, during the last few we : their lives, they had practically no solid food of any kind.* Mr. Bolles has thus proved by experiment that concentrated sap (saturated with sugar) is not sufficient to sustain life, even with addition of a small percentage of insects. The logical inference i that sap, while liked by the birds and consumed in large quantities, holds asubordinate place as an article of food. > The Yellow-bellied Woodpecker is represented in the collection by: 81 stomachs, distributed rather irregularly through the year. None were taken in February, March, or November, and only a few in January June, and December; the great bulk were collected in April, Augu September, and October. They were obtained from 15 —— ; District of Columbia, and Nova Scotia. All were from the North States, except a few from North Carolina, Virginia, and the Distri Columbia. Unlike any of the preceding species the vegetable elem of the food here exactly equals the animal part. The insect m was made up of ants, wasps, beetles, flies, bugs, grasshoppers, oan and mayflies. Some spiders also were present. Of the whole fo od, percent consisted of ants, a higher percentage than in any other y r pecker except the Flicker. Beetles amounted to 5 percent, and Pie appear to be a favorite food. Flies (Diptera) in various forms ' The Auk, Vol. VIII, July, 1891, p. 270. 2The Auk, Vol. VII, July, 1891, p. 269. 3The Auk, Vol. IX, April, 1892, p. 119. YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER. ot eaten in larger numbers than by any of the others. Among them were _ several long-legged crane flies (Tipulids). Spiders were eaten to a small extent only, and most of these were phalangers or ‘daddy-longlegs,’ _ which, taken with the crane flies, would indicate a slight preference for long-legged prey. Bugs, wasps, caterpillars, crickets, and mayftlies F collectively amount to about 6 percent, no one of them reaching any _ yery important figure. Prof. Samuel Aughey examined 5 stomachs of _ the Yellow-bellied Woodpecker in Nebraska, all of which contained grasshoppers. The number in each stomach varied from 15 to 33. Mr. William Brewster states that at Umbagog Lake, Maine, ‘“‘ After the young have hatched, the habits of the Yellow-bellied Woodpecker change. From an humble delver after worms and larve, it rises to the proud independence of a flycatcher, taking its prey on wing as uner- tingly as the best marksman of them all. From its perch on the spire of some tall stub it makes a succession of rapid sorties after its abun- dant victims, and then flies off to its nest with bill and mouth crammed full of insects, principally large Diptera.”? The vegetable food of the Sapsucker is varied. The following fruits and berries were found in the stomachs: Fruit: Miscellaneous: Dogwood berries (Cornus florida). Poisonivy seeds (Rhus radicans). Black alder berries (Ilex verticillata). Mullein seeds ( Verbascum thapsus). Virginia creeper berries (Parthenocis- Juniper berries (Juniperus virginiana). sus quinquefolia). Buds. Wild black cherries ( Prunus serotina). Seeds unidentified. Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus). Cambium. Unidentified. Rubbish. _ The quantity of fruit found in the stomachs formed 26 percent of the entire food, but the only kinds identified that might possibly be culti- vated were blackberries and raspberries, and these were in only 2 stomachs. Unidentifiable fruit pulp was found in 12 stomachs. Mis- cellaneous seeds to the amount of 5 percent complete the list of sub- stances eaten by this species. Poison ivy seeds were found in only 1 stomach, and most of the other things were distributed in about the © same proportion. | _ Dr. Merriam informs me that in the fall in northern New York the Sapsuckers feed on ripening beechnuts, the small branches bending low with the weight of the birds while picking the tender nuts. ' Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club, Vol. J, 1876, No. 3, p. 69. GREAT PILEATED WOODPECKER. (Ceophleus pileatus. ) with such power of destruction as is sometimes shown by a s dead trunk on which it has operated for ants or boring larva. — Only 23 stomachs of the Pileated Woodpecker have been ob all taken in the months of October, November, December, and Ja: and collected from 6 States, the District of Columbia, and (including New Brunswick). Fifty-one percent of the cont these stomachs consisted of animal matter or insects; 49 perce vegetable matter. The insects were principally ants and beetles, few of some other orders. The ants were mostly of the larger s that live in decaying wood. 5. Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides arcticus). Mlinois. 6. Gila Woodpecker (Melanerpes uropygialis), Fort Huachuea, A 6a. Another specimen showing variation due to wear of conti del Cabo, Lower California. 7. Hairy Woodpecker (Dryobates villosus). 8. White-headed Woodpecker (Xenopicus albolarvatus), Clarks Fe bia River, Washington. ; 9. Pileated Woodpecker (Ceophleus pileatus), Louisiana. . 10. Gilded Flicker (Colaptes chrysoides), San Jose del Cabo, Lower € 11. Delattre’s Woodpecker (Ceophleus scapularis). Tabasco, Mex: 42 Bull. 7, Div. of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. TONGUES OF WOODPECKERS. PLaTE III. Fig. 1. Hyoid of Flicker (Colaptes auratus) (adult, x 2), ; 2. Hyoid of Flicker (Colaptes auratus) (recently hatched, X 2). 3. eich of Red-naped Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius nuchalis) aa (X 4). 5. Tongue of fully-fledged nestling of Downy Woodpecker (Di cen 6. Tip ee of fully-fledged nestling of Downy Woodpeckans pubescens) (X 6). 7. Tip of tongue of adult Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates p 8. Spines from dorsal tract of tongue of Red-headed Woodpecker ( erythrocephalus) (greatly enlarged). a By 9. Spines from dorsal tract of tongue of Ladder-back Woodpecker bates scalaris) (greatly enlarged). 44 o Se a Bull. 7, Div. of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. PLATE III. <> yu y m Nh fovry yy 4 TONGUES OF WOODPECKERS. sgh bis aes sil he < i" * . a a le . a eS ee ee ee ae ee a eee » et : ta ya. mes e: Ee ee Bis Oe g e = a - ~-T.S. PALMER, M. D. Assistant Chief of Division. = } ius 05 NG (4913395 Aq ydesBojoud wos 4) "S681 ‘SI HOYVI| ‘ONSSY4 Lv SAIYQ AWYY GNVYD SHI ‘VINNYOSIIVO ‘AATIVA NINDVOP NV 3H1 NI ONIAING LiIasvYy eg. ah t = eee 2? VAR LE * tge "A93aIdSILNOY4 ‘einyjnousy ‘ydag °s “p ‘Adojeuwey pue Az UW “AIg 'g 11Ng S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE wh DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY TEE LE UNITED STATES T. S. PALMER, M. D. Assistant Chief of Division WASHINGTON z «GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ee kn LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. _ UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ws DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY, a Washington, D. C., October 19, 1895. oe I have the honor to transmit and to recommend for publication etin No. 8 of this division a report on The Jack Rabbits of United States, by Dr. T. S. Palmer, assistant chief of division. Imer has prepared the whole bulletin and is responsible for all ments made, including opinions respecting the status of the vari- species. . _ Respectfully, C. HART MERRIAM, Chief of Division. Hon. J. STERLING MORTON, : Secretary of Agriculture. keh ee Ee The damage done to crops by rabbits has been illustrated very forcibly during recent years by the losses sustained by farmers and -orchardists in the arid regions of the West through the depreda- tions of the large native hares, or jack rabbits. The introduction of - irrigation and the cultivation of large tracts of land have favored the increase of rabbits in several States by furnishing a new source of - food supply. To such an extent have their depredations increased that the extermination of jack rabbits has become a serious question in California, Colorado, Idaho, Oregon, and Utah. __ The objects of this bulletin are: (1) To give a general account of the _ distribution and habits of the various species found in the United “States; (2) to show the methods which have been used to exterminate the animals and to protect crops from their depredations; and (3) to bring together facts and figures concerning the economic uses of rab- bits in general, for the purpose of indicating how our native species B may be more generally utilized. _ Yhe disastrous results of the introduction of the common European z rabbit into Australia some thirty years ago are known the world over, S and nowhere have the methods of destroying rabbits and protecting __erops been so carefully investigated as on that continent. While the Old a World rabbit belongs to an entirely different species from the jack rab- bits of the West, and differs from them in habits, some of the Austra- lian methods might be used with advantage in our own country. The * commercial utilization of rabbits has been attended with considerable success in Australia; large quantities of rabbits are used for food, and _ an immense number of skins are annually exported to England, some _ of which find their way to the markets of this country. Therefore, _ when possible, reference has been made to experiments in Australia _ which are likely to be of benefit in the United States. It is obviously impracticable to mention the many persons who have _ contributed data, but acknowledgments are due to all who have aided in the preparation of this report. The author, however, is under special a obligations to Maj. Chas. Bendire and to Messrs. M.S. Featherstone _ of Goshen, Cal., Henry Lahann of Traver, Cal., Geo. W. Stewart and SOK. Zamwalt of Visalia, Cal., A. Van Deusen of Lamar, Colo., and : 5 OPE ES ee al ee at ae td i Kes to oe a mM Tey Tees t Ee . to Vernon Bailey and J. Ellis McLellan, tield agen s of the many valuable notes. More than five hundred letter The statistics given in the last two chapters are only appro necessarily incomplete, but any corrections or additions comed, particularly in the case of the lists of rabbit drive is desirable to make as complete as possible. v3 Page. “ys ENTREE YO OO CHE OD tater eel eR ee er os eae ar ee eee a Baralesh a eu Seren ae ere erence er ieee eee ae an ee Shek Soe cn wat eels 11 Pape Se Origen pe ty eee eae arp Me me ogi Ce NS aealns & SUV ey ee 12 TOE TA TREC ERUDITE ee rs aca a es oP 13 Beeeres tound inthe United! States... 2.52.22 2222 sce ceee tet ee eee 18 Prairie Hare or White-tailed Jack Rabbit (Lepus campestris) ....----.---- 14 ‘California Jack Rabbit (Lepus californicus).........-----.--------+------- iff Black-tailed or Texan Jack Rabbit (Lepus texianus)..-.-.---..----.-.------ 19 Black-eared Jack Rabbit (Lepus melanotis)....--.------------------------ 21 Pounce abbot (Lepus alent) saa. 2ss cee ese e ees Seat SaaS eecscesee 22 CHAPTER II.—ABUNDANCE AND RAPIDITY OF INCREASE ...-..-.---.-------- 24 Pee MUMeMINMOLUS! 1--)5 5 SS oa eee. Seek sessbies ae es osc eae oaeeL ween See 25 MESO yOMMS IReaAbbela oo. se Jeo de nous cose ys es jo ek eae 25 SRMHcrOlm EE Mes Ao eee Se ceee ss ware naw sea coe ee se MRSS e ee 27 CHAPTER IiI.—InguRY TO CROPS AND MEANS OF PROTECTION....-.--------- 30 PMPPEveto oval, -OLChARCS Cb. so..%. cia. Sciss aco. casts S-e css ee Si esee sees 30 Protection of orchards andl 0) ee 32 IO? TRSPOVOSS Soe Se Ss 5 ee See ee ee ee en ee emer 33 EAD LeEC MONROE SING 6+ bECOS# 22-252 502552 hace e sc ck neces deen el seen sees 34 SUMBRITIS Soo es Sk SS AC oo RAI a nies A em onl Po i Ree ee 34 € | Cuartre Iv. EB ODS Oly WHSTRUCTION tcs4- cess secs se aescees s use ees 36 | Bee fee ee ace R Ae a ea nods eee eee eee Mele te eee 36 ' Aeihode RES Clea nP ANE SOT ch Mealsp yarns ys lay oo powell oer OL red ace te a ee 37 1 a eee a i ie Hens wee oe Le es Sk ho Sn ae iapaina 38 Reman pene meee eye ese cies ae Ot Yo ee ae Ue eh ea ee AO Re CDR RUC Eni CNwe Pen Mee anime atest ie Es el ena en Ae gE Sones ieee is ai 40 MEET etree Sra 5 ces allio wn el aaln ends gy eee e sees eee heses mole esae 41 eS. ERE AT RS Be ee a cp MG a he er ote eee es 42 a ERs ear Soe re ee oe eee oe ee alee Bea 42 % De ME er eee ay Mele a ahr a Se ag oe ese. a ee 43 BEAPONCbuLes an AT Straliaiy.:i2eoccc. Goer see so Selanne <6 eee Soe asee 43 Re CHCIILCA = 5 25) 2 5 2a)ay sisi lane a in a op cim ola eines ool Non easels 44 - Pe MRM MRP dee Ele SR fa BS Se Ue hs stat ba cae a cca ete 45 BeCHArTER V.—RABBIT DRIVES AND HUNTS...-...,----------.-+-.255-5-2-22- AT IC nite gee ey) ST A Or ets oe ae a LIVES GUS ALG ET NSIS te le a eg pny EE eC ep pe Eee pre e a 52 : LRCESEEI IGS) COPS HAYS) OER CetS hes Sree ea se ees eI ee EA 57 Ne ae ee ey bod cr oe ns me A ns ered a yA ea hy oes ete ot ee 59 | Pos LOTR TanTW bg fs ps Pi es pee ee ka a ne eee Gea SC i age nL tenes Ee ae 60 pment ete ice ee ee oe Ws eS og ia 60 RAEN PME SY tee tre ees are as Sai Sa mene aie eae tN oe aay Sata ae Sue, ee Re ee 62 ULC IR ec ae ener Sa RR er ae PERE See en Ge oes pA ee 63 MMUME MN Mse ao See gu Gay OL an aad oem uaa Salon, cee esas 64 Vie VALOR Or THE) JACK RABBIT’.22 05.005 2 Gices. ss hee 65 NT TRE ee ree Ne ae orn Se Nee tant aE Coa 66 Re UHM IMME IR et ie SY fe ale ns ns Sede esis eos DO «BE ono ee aoe 68 ___ Jack rabbits as game..........-. eae SO IND PU GNC A Bae MN Sar ae ae Tn Oe SB qa a TAOS IIE ig 5 2c la Be em ey ss 1 i RR a BE ce 71 How the game is killed and shipped. ---..2----..2.-255.222-2 22205262 72 UGG FHI GFE CSE ee a RN Ee 32h ER A a RR eR oS 74 BGeneral summary and. conclusions --.-.---- =: 2... ---scle. eee sees ee eee 78 POR TWONEIS Cop a1 RAN OILS acl sae aa Meer UH UT Peel nt gre ag 80 : 7 ee 4 7 A ne ie re Ss ‘ see iM at id 1 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. ioe Opposite page— ‘rontispiece. Rabbit driving in the San Joaquin Valley, California—The srand Army drive at Fresno, March 12, 1892. (From photograph by Stiffler. ) ou pee distribution of jack rabbits in the eet Siatess= 2.7 58a. 11 oe of the Grand Army rabbit drive at Fresno, Cal.—20,000 rabbits Peakileds (Krom photograph by Stifiler)=- 2222-2222. 22.22. Js. o2 eee 51 c Map showing location of rabbit drives in southern California---..------- 5d Result of the jack rabbit hunt at Lamar, Colo., December 22, 1894—5,142 rabbits killed. (From photograph by Hallack)..--...-------------- 63 - TEXT FIGURES. gram showing form of corral used in the rabbit drive at Bakersfield, . Pal ydatinary 15, 1888... (From Am. Pield, 1888): -. .2.5.--5-----2255- 49 agram showing form of portable corral used by the Goshen Rabbit Drive ime hiran M.S. Weatherstoney.:: 2222002. sie2e- ones ss hoo 50 SJUNFL pussoariqg @ Sige Wee = peirey-youlg exeL orsqwarz a (j i HES il i : ] | it 286 \001 ut "| 3LV1d "ainy/nousy ydaq ‘Ss *p_ ‘Adojewwey pue ABojoynwig “aig ‘g “ing Pree eet “he “4 - % 4 . THE JACK RABBITS OF THE UNITED STATES. By T. S. Patmer, M. D. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. _ he Great Plains and deserts of the western United States are inhabited by several species of large hares, commonly known as ‘jack rabbits.’ These rabbits occur almost everywhere, except in the higher - mountains and in wooded regions, from the ninety-fifth meridian west _ to the Pacific, and from the Plains of the Saskatchewan southward over _ the table-land of Mexico to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The resem- _ blance of their large ears to those of the well-known pack animal of the _ West bas suggested the common names of ‘jackass hares,’ ‘jack rab- _ bits,’! or ‘jacks.’ In some parts of California jack rabbits are called - ‘narrow-gauge mules’ and ‘small mules,’ but fortunately these absurd _ terms are very local, and not likely to come in general use. In the South- west and beyond the Rio Grande the large hares are called ‘liebres’ by the Mexicans, to distinguish them from the cotton-tail rabbits, or $eonejos.’ GENERAL HABITS. Jack rabbits may be seen abroad at almost any hour of the day, and hence are likely to be recognized by the most casual observer, and are perhaps better known than most other nativemammals. Living as they do on the open plain, where they are compelled to rely for safety on quickness of hearing and on speed, their ears and hind legs are devel- oped to an extraordinary degree. This gives them a somewhat grotesque appearance, but in reality few animals are more graceful as they bound along when once thoroughly alarmed. In spite of an unfortunate name and seeming awkwardness of gait, a closer acquaintance with their *This name seems to have been first introduced by Audubon and Bachman in 1851. In referring to one of the species found along the Mexican border they say: ‘‘This species is called the jackass rabbit in Texas, owing to the length of its ears.” (Quad. & from the Texans and from our troops in the Mexican war the name of jackass rabbit, __incommon with Lepus callotis.” (Ibid., III, p. 157.) an 11 _N. Am., II, 1851, p. 99); and again, inreference to Lepus texianns, ‘‘This hare received Se ea Te ee 12 JACK RABBITS OF THE UNITED STATES, ‘ Bes habits will reveal many points of interest and will arouse adm for the way in which they seem to overcome every adverse con of life, so admirably are they adapted to their surroundings. Unlike the cotton-tails, or the common rabbit of Europe, tk hares do not live in burrows, but make ‘forms’ under bushes 01 patches of weeds, where they find protection from the weather, also bring forth their young. Certain shrubs in the West belong tothe genus Bigelovia are commonly known as ‘rabbit brush,’ beea they grow in dense thickets, in which rabbits are fond of hid Where there are no bushes, the rabbits seek the shade of any obje which can shield them from the burning rays of the sun. A traveler the Southern Pacific Railroad, crossing the barren plains of the 8: Joaquin Valley in California, where large stretches of country 2 devoid of bushes, may sometimes see the jack rabbits crouching in shadows of the telegraph poles, evidently alarmed by the train, uncertain whether or not to forsake their shady spots and seek safe in flight. Extremes of climate apparently do not affect them to any grea : extent. Some species are at home on the deserts of Arizona and Ca a 3 fornia; others, as the Prairie Hare, contrive to exist in the intense col lc of a Saiderqge ei when thie gr rhein is haope with — and they the streams. Food.—Like other rabbits, they feed almost cxclusively on the bl 2: and leaves of shrubs and on herbage, and hardly any land is too } ‘ 00 ed to supply this food in some form. On the Great Plains, buffalo and grama grass and such herbs ¢ they can find constitute their principal fare, but this is supplemented in winter by the bark of willows. In the deserts of the Great Bas they seem to be especially fond of the tender annual species of grea wood (Atriplex) and several species of cactus. If nothing bettie obtainable, however, they can subsist on Sarcobatus, and shrubs which other animals seldom touch. Sometimes it is difficult to see where the can obtain sufficient food, but lack of water and of green herbage se only to reduce their numbers and rarely cause their complete absence from any region. Among the greasewood on the alkali flats northwest of Great Salt Lake, or on the cactus-covered deserts of Arizona, the B jack rabbits are almost as fat and sleek as when feeding in th e alfalfa patehes and vineyards of southern California. If necesss ry they can travel long distances for food, but as they seldom d ink, s scarcity of water causes them little inconvenience, and the juicy « Ca ac tus ‘pads’ or ordinary desert herbage furnish all the moisture ne CeS- sary to slake their thirst. They are fond of vegetables and alfalfa, ai nd when these canbe had they quickly abandon their usual food and establish — themselves near the garden or cultivated field. Their fondness for tend bark makes them particularly destructive in the orchard and vineya SPECIES. yk Ey here they are likely to do irreparable injury by girdling young fruit a _ trees and vines. As jack rabbits multiply rapidly they often become great pests. They have comparatively few natural enemies, and if not held in check by other agencies would doubtless overrun the country. Their undue increase is prevented-ordinarily by lack of food, by unfavorable climatic conditions, or by disease. Many die during ciety severe winters; a cold, wet spring is disastrous to the young, and thousands of young - and old perish during the epidemics which occasionally break out among them over large sections of country. Nevertheless, they can adapt themselves to circumstances to such an extent as to be able not only to hold their own under most unfavorable conditions, but to increase rapidly whenever food is abundant. . & j ee ee es ee ES Se ony Depredations.—The experience of settlers in the San Joaquin Valley, California, along the Arkansas River in southeastern Colorado, and in southwestern Idaho has shown that where new land has been culti- __-yated or irrigated jack rabbits fairly swarm in from the surrounding 3 country, and instead of being driven out by advancing civilization, at first multiply so enormously that radical measures have to be adopted to protect the crops from destruction. Some idea of the extent of these injuries can be formed, when it is stated that the damage caused by jack rabbits to the crops in Tulare County, Cal., during a single year has been estimated at $600,000, and one county in Idaho has actually expended more than $30,000 in boun- ties on these pests! The money spent by individual farmers in the West on rabbit fences and other devices for protecting crops would aggregate a very large sum, which it is impossible even to estimate. But the thou- sands of rabbits destroyed for bounties and the tens of thousands killed in the large hunts and by epidemics seem to diminish the abundance of the species only in localities where a large part of the land is under cultivation and the animals are systematically killed off year after year. Jack rabbits are largely used for food and for sport. In a fair race they can outstrip all but the best hounds and can even keep abreast of a railway train running at a moderate speed for some distance. For coursing the native species are considered equal, if not superior, to the Old World hares. Large quantities are shipped to market every year as game, and the trade is capable of considerable increase. The skins night also be saved with profit, but the value of jack rabbits, whether for food or for fur, by no means offsets the immense damage which they do to crops. : ee SPECIES FOUND IN THE UNITED STATES. This group of rabbits is unfortunately in a somewhat chaotic con- dition, and it will be impossible to treat the species satisfactorily until they have been subjected to a thorough revision. 4 4 ny JACK RABBITS OF THE UNITED STATES. frequently so light im color as to closely resemble the aoe Texan Rabbit. _ The Black-tailed Jack Rabbit is found in the Great Basin from t Rocky Mountains west to the Cascade Range in Oregon and to | Sierra Nevada in California, and from central Idaho and southeas Washington south to Mexico. Its range extends eastward into we ern Texas and some distance down the Rio Grande. West of t Sierra it has a most remarkable distribution in a narrow strip along” bottom of the San Joaquin Valley from the Tejon Mountains nearly far north as latitude 38°. It gains access to the valley from the Mohay ina Desert by way of Walker Pass (altitude 5,300 feet) and probably also. an by the Cafiada de las Uvas (altitude 4,300 feet). It is distinetly an animal of the deserts and plains and nowhere ascends to very Bes altitudes. a In southern Arizona and on the Colorado Desert in California th he we Texan Jack Rabbit is usually seen singly or in groups of only two a. or three individuals, while in Kansas, eastern Colorado, and some portions of the Great Basin large numbers are often found togeteua . Its abundance or scarcity is usually governed by local conditions—an of unusually cold winter, an epidemic or a dry year in which food is _ scarce, may so reduce its numbers as to make the species appear rare e where ordinarily it is abundant. When food supply or other conditions — ; favor its increase it is gregarious to a high degree, and occurs in immense numbers. Forty years ago Dr. George Suckley found these rabbits very atoeili dant south of the Boise River, on his trip through southwestern — Idaho, in September, 1854.'_ He says: “ They are so numerous thatour command of 60 men subsisted on them for nearly a week. In ashort ride of an hour’s duration to see 30 near the trail was nothing remark- able. * * * This hare breeds in great numbers on the vast sage — plains at the South Boise River, between it and the Snake River.” a More recently, in 1878, Maj. Chas. Bendire found them in immense numbers in the Payette Valley, in southwestern Idaho, where fully 150 were seen together one morning néar Payette River Ferry. At this point there was a small grass-covered island to which the rabbits could — cross from the river bank by a bridge. When startled they merely — loped away for a few yards and then stopped to ascertain the cause of * the disturbance. A writer in ‘Forest and Stream’? states that in the vicinity of Austin, Nev., jack rabbits are exceedingly abundant, and that 487 had been killed in eight hours by a party of 12 hunters. 44 But the Texan Jack Rabbit is most abundant in the southern part of — the San Joaquin Valley from latitude 37° southward, where the condi- a tions for its existence are so favorable that it is still able to hold | a its ground in spite of the great numbers annually slaughtered by drives. 2 ‘Pacific Railroad Reports, XII, Book 2, 1860, Chap. II, p. 105. * ® Vol. XVIII, Apr. 20, 1882, p. 229, BLACK-EARED JACK RABBIT. ae In the summer of 1891 I saw large numbers just south of the town of Bakersfield. At least a hundred were in sight at once, and were so tag and would allow a person to approach within a few feet before moving. Dr. A. K. Fisher and Mr. Vernon Bailey also saw thousands of jack rabbits between Bakersfield and Visalia only a few weeks later. At one point just north of Delano, Tulare County, at least 100 scampered away at a single discharge of a gun. Referring to the habits of the Black-tailed Jack Rabbit in Arizona, Dr. Coues! writes: At Fort Whipple, the species is very common the year round, and almost every sort of locality is frequented by them, though they chiefly affect grassy meadows and open glades, interspersed with copses, or clumps of oak trees, or patches of briery undergrowth. The gulches, or ‘washes,’ as they are called, leading out of mountain ravines, and thickly set with grease-wood (Obione [Atriplex] canescens), are favorite resorts. They feed much upon this plant, and by their incessant coursings through patches of it they wear little intersecting avenues, along which they ramble at their leisure. When feeding at their ease, and unsuspicious of danger, they move ___-with a sort of lazy abandon, performing a succession of careless leaps, now nibbling _ the shrubs overhead, now the grass at their feet. They are not at all gregarious, _ though peculiar attractions may bring many together in the same spot. They do not burrow, but construct a ‘form’ in which they squat. I do not think these are permanent; but rather that they are extemporized, as wanted, in some convenient bush; though the case may be different during the season of reproduction. It has been stated by some authors, that only two or three are produced at a birth, which I know to be at least not always the case, having found as many as six embryos in the multipartite womb of a pregnant female. In the latitude of Fort Whipple the young are brought forth in June. * * * Tt has a long, swinging gallop, and performs prodigious leaps, some of them over bushes 4 feet high; now in the air, its feet all drawn together and _ downstretched; now on the ground, which it touches and rebounds from with _ marvelous elasticity. It will course thus for a hundred yards or so, and then stop as suddenly as it started; and, sitting erect, its long, wide open ears, vibrating with excitement, are turned in every direction to catch the sound of following danger. Black-eared Jack Rabbit or Bastern Jackass Hare (Lepus melanotis Mearns. ) The Black-eared Jack Rabbit is simply the eastern form of the Black- tailed Rabbit of the Great Basin region, and was described only six years ago, in 1890, by Dr. E. A. Mearns, from a market specimen sup. posed to have been killed near Independence, Kans.? The differences between it and the common Black-tailed Jack Rabbit are only apparent after a careful comparison of a series of specimens, but Lepus melanotis is described as having a richer coloring and shorter ears than its West- ‘Am. Nat., I, Dec., 1867, pp. 532-533. ; ‘Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., N. Y., II, Feb., 1890, pp. 297-300. The average measure- Be ments of two specimens from Independence, including the type, are: Total length, _ 234 inches (590™™"); tail, 3 inches (77™); ear, 53 inches (142™™), The ear averages nearly 30™™ shorter than in L. texianus, 22 3 ‘ ern representative. Whether it should be recognized as a full sy or merely a subspecies need not be considered here; but it m explained that under this name are included all the black- tailed rabbits occurring east of the Rocky Mountains and from central T northward to Nebraska. . This hare is found on the Great Plains from eastern Kansas to - Rocky Mountains and western Texas, where its range probably mer; into that of Lepus texianus. In some parts of Kansas and in sow eastern Colorado it is very abundant and is killed in large numbe When full grown it weighs about 6 pounds and is the black- tailed r r bit most commonly seen in the markets of Eastern cities. Its habits are similar to those of other jack rabbits. According Mr. H. P. Attwater it is sometimes captured when young and keptali but is always wild and very pugnacious. It is much used in coursing, and is igi one of the best rabbits for this Bp An interest dear BS eeu about 160 kes east of Denyers " (Bevana hares wer turned loose after having a drop or two of anise-seed oil rubbed on the Pir feet, aud as soon as they were out of sight a pack of five hounds was — Marto’ in ghana The first and Payee age: were run down i overhaul the tied: ‘an old hiptk tail? The writer adds that bene rabbits run in circles as a rule. They make a spurt for the first two bi miles, but then begin to weaken, and if the scent is not lost they are — certain to be overtaken by the hounds at last. Allen's Jack Rabbit. (Lepus alleni Mearns.) Allen’s Jack Rabbit is the largest and finest of the hares of the South: west. Even at a distance it may be readily distinguished by its gray ~ sides and the white on the hind part of the body. Its lengthis about — 254 inches (643""); tail, 22 inches (69™™); while the ears measure — about 73 inches (195"") The color above is yellowish brown mixe with black, but this area is restricted by the gray of the sides, and i autumn (November) specimens is a beautiful dark steel gray. Thi species was also described by Dr. E. A. Mearns, in 1890° from a spe men collected May 8, 1885, at Rillito Station, on the line of the Souther Pacific Railroad near Tucson, Ariz. Allen’s Hare is found in the deserts of southern Arizona and Sonor in the region extending from Phcenix southeastward to the Santa Ca alina and Santa Rita mountains, and thence south into Mexico almost — as far as Guaymas. It has been collected in Sonora at Oputo, on the — 1Am. Field, XLII, July 21, 1894, p. 53. ® Average of three specimens, including the type, collected by Dr. amar § Bull. Am. Mus. Nat, Hist., II, Feb, 1890, 294-297, 300, af more oo. 0 a eenere ees has wee aqui River, at Magdalena, Hermosillo, and Ortiz, and probably 4s over the greater part of the State. Little is known as to the rn limits of its range, or the injury which it may do to crops when e country becomes more thickly settled. Concerning its habits Mr. W. Price says: ‘This splendid hare is abundant about Tucson and in lower portions he desert belt. It is found both on the gravelly hills bordering the i ito at Fort Lowell, and on the immense mesquite and Larrea plains of f Tucson. It is peut shy, and hard to secure, except with arifle. quick, rapid flight of L. terianus. It has a slow, apparently awk- peettbed. ioe 1 Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., VII, 1895, pp. 201-202. . iin rarely comes uponitsuddenly. I have never seen it start up with ard gait, but its leaps are long, and it gets over the ground with rising rapidity. In color and habits it is so very different from any er American hare, the wonder is that it shoule have so long remained : CHAPTER II. ABUNDANCE AND RAPIDITY OF INCREASE. parts of California, Idaho, Nevada, and South Dakota. Sim instances might be mentioned for southeastern Colorado and centre Utah. But the best illustrations of extraordinary abundance in lim- ited areas can perhaps be found in California. In Modoe County, in a. the northern part of the State, nearly 25,000 jack rabbits were s: . to have been killed in three months on a tract of land only 6 by miles in extent; this was during the period when the bounty law ifr in force. A still more remarkable case has been recorded in the 8 Joaquin Valley. Some of the early drives near Bakersfield took pla on a ranch less than 1 square mile in extent. In the first drive, on thal ha afternoon of January 2, 1888, 1,126 rabbits were killed; as soon as the animals were dispatched, the same field was passed over again and 79 more killed. A week later, on January 10, there were two drives on t a a same ground, the first resulting in the destr uction of 2,000 rabbits, the second in more than 3,000; in the latter an adjoining field was als D driven over. It was estimated that altogether about 8,000 rabbits — 5 were killed on this ranch in nine days. The ‘Kern Counts Echo’ 0 1 ae March (8 ?), 1888, stated that a total of about 40,000 rabbits had been killed in the dives about Bakersfield from Tanane 1, 1888, up to that — date, and referred to an estimate that two-thirds of the rabbite killed in the drives were females and the average number of young of each of these was 34. On this basis it was computed that had these 40,000 rab ee bits lived two months they would have increased to 135,000. When — _ it is considered how much injury @ single rabbit can do, ‘the damag a which such an army of rabbits is capable of inflicting would hai less than that caused by a grasshopper plague. Surprise is sometimes expressed that jack rabbits are not entirely exterminated in regions where they have been mercilessly slaughte for years, and it might be supposed that animals which live on a open plains without even the protection afforded by burrows or ne les. of any kind, could easily be kept within bounds, though they have comparatively few natural enemies. But experience has shown 4 | this is no easy matter. Ada County, Idaho, which has been we _ ically killing off the jacks for fifteen years under the bounty s received more scalps and expended more money for this purpose pa ing 1895 ad in any year since the bounty law first went into effect in 187 a : iss oa aT BREEDING HABITS. + 2a view of these facts it may be worth while, before considering the ject of depredations or the methods used in extermination, to dwell every ind. Naturally their breeding habits and the rate at iyinel the animals increase should be considered in this connection. BREEDING HABITS. The breeding habits of the Old World hare and rabbit are well _ known and have been determined repeatedly by observations on ani- mals kept in confinement, so that the period of gestation, the number _ of young in a litter, the number of litters born in a year, and the age _ at which each Species begins to breed are known with considerable - accuracy. According to Sir Richard Owen, the period of gestation in . the Old World hare (Lepus timidus) and the rabbit (Lepus cuniculus) varies from thirty to thirty-one days, and it is probably much the same in the case of our native species. The common European rabbit breeds from four to eight times a year and the number of young varies from 3 to 8 in each litter; it begins to breed when ont @ 6 months old and attains an age of 7 or 8 years. | . The breeding habits of the various jack rabbits are so much alike that the account of those of any one species will serve as an illustration of the others. The following description is taken from Dr. Coues’ paper _ on the Prairie Hare in Montana, to which reference has already been made: In the regions where I have studied this hare, the female brings forth in June and : early July—oftener the latter—and apparently only one litter is produced each ‘Season. The number of young is 5 or 6, asarule. ‘The form is simply constructed, without burrowing, in the grass beneath some low, thick bush or tuft of weeds. The young are said to suckle and follow the mother for a month or more. They are agile little creatures, even when only a week or two old, and it is only when very young that they can be caught by hand. In traveling along the Milk River (where _ the species was abundant), early in July, I had several little ones bronght to me, and - some I kept for atime inabox. * * * Though only 5 or 6 inches long, they had all the motions and attitudes characteristic of the parents, and made shift to run about quite cleverly. They could not eat, but some of them could be coaxed to lick - a little milk. (Bull. Essex Inst., VII, 1875, p. 81.) Much still remains to be learned in regard to the number of young per annum, the exact time when they are born and particularly the num- ber of litters per year. The interest in this subject is not restricted to the naturalist, for itis a matter of practical importance to the orchardist or the farmer to know when his efforts at extermination will be most i - effective. 4 Number of young in a litter—Compared with the domesticated rabbit the jack rabbit does not increase very rapidly. Writers, however, iffer widely concerning the number of young and the frequency with ich the different species breed. Most of the statements seem to be = 1Flower & Lydekker, Mammals Living and Extinct, 1891, p. 494. Jon . ' : bs 4 Cer. f aa ae Be ie i 26 JACK RABBITS OF THE UNITED STATES. largely matters of opinion. Mr. H. P. Attwater states that the aC rabbit on the southeastern coast of Texas is supposed to have only Survey, notes that ay eR found along the Mexican border brie forth but 2 or 3 young at a time, and these usually late in the summ The writer, in the ‘Kern County Echo,’ referred to above, says: “ these rabbits breed every six weeks, as is asserted by many, or at © outside, three times a year, * * * every farmer iu this end of th valley without a rabbit-tight fence will be compelled to surrender h ranch to the pests.” As very little positive data seems to have been given by most observers, recourse was had to the specimens in the collections of Dr. _ G. Hart Merriam, the United States Department of Agriculture, and the American Museum of Natural History,! to supplement the few — published notes. Altogether about 50 specimens were available for — this purpose, consisting first of 15 adult females with young, which h been examined in the field and a note made of the number of pee : which each contained. These furnish the most accurate data possible. : png the seh of young. pea other Specimens, 36 in number, * days old, which may be utilized to shee roughly the dates of birth. | The data thus collected are shown in the following tables: | ne 4 Table showing number of Jack Rabbits in a litter (based on dissection of females with y young). * | | Num- | ber of Species. on Date. Locality. bryos see EE eee ees sa Sad Lepus californicus..... 4 Mar. 19, 1894 | Jolon, Cal. Lepus campestris ...... 4 | May 5,1890 Bridger Pass, Wyoming. “hk So 4 | May 30, 1894 Forks of Cheyenne, South Dakota. melanotis (?)*... Li Dec. 28,184 San Antonio, Tex. Lepus lexianus .......- 1 | Jan. 24,1891 Death Valley, Cal. Lo Oe ee 6 | Mar. 25, 1891 Do. DOO cade os pence vase 6 | Apr. 16,1891 Panamint Mountains, Cal. TO code catsna un nine 4) May 1,1891) Salt Wells V alley, Cal, BROS va wneln oxiin saie 4} May 8,1893 Raymond, Cal. BGT) ctatieonsdnce- 3 | May 9, 1893 Do. UT) MR ees 2 | May 25,1892 Fort Huachuca, Ariz. WG edavaecset clus 6 Fort org 75 Ariz, (Cones). DD as ss sehincnnaes uae 3 | July 9,1890 Blackfoot, Idaho. BIO cunde\andecee aes 3 | July 31,1891 25 miles west of Benton, Cal. eee Cee : 2 | Sept. 5, 1889, San Francisco Mountain, Arizona, * Specimen in American Museum of Natural History, New York. The number of young as shown by these 15 specimens varies from 1 to 6—never more; in fact itis probable that 6 is rather exceptional, 1, although found in three of the cases mentioned above. The average — obtained from the table is between 3 and 4 (3,5), but this result is pro ably not accurate. It will be noticed that all the cases of 3 young or ' Through the bindness of Dr. iy: ie Allen, ourator of : mammals in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, I have had an opportunity of —_— ie jack rabbits in that collection. TIME OF BIRTH. oO ess are in the desert region of the Great Basin or Arizona, or else epresent second or third litters. Dr. E. A. Mearns, United States riny, who has examined many specimens in Arizona, states that it is very common to find only 1 young and that 2 is the usual number in that region. Farther north, however, both in the case of the Prairie Hare and the California Jack, 4 is probably not too high an average for the first litter, but it is doubtless true that later in the season the a jitters are smaller. Time of birth.—The evidence at hand not only fails to substantiate the view that jack rabbits breed every six weeks in the year, but thereis every reason to believe that each species has a regular breeding season anda definite period of rest. Certainly no data have been found which 7 show that the young are born in the United States in October, Novem- a ber, or December. Itis almost impossible to determine the exact dates of birth unless the animals are kept in captivity, but the time can be estimated approximately. As already stated, the period of gestation is about thirty days, so that the specimens mentioned in the last table can be utilized for this purpose by adding thirty days to the dates given and the results will be within a month, and probably within two __ or three weeks of the true time. Furthermore, it may be assumed that _ jack rabbits attain their full size (but not weight) in about two months, and the size of the adults and of the young at birth being known, the measurements of a young animal may be taken as a rough index of - itsage. The following table is based on an examination of 36 young rabbits selected for this purpose. No specimens were included which seemed to be much more than half grown, and nearly all those given may be assumed to be less than thirty days old and hence the date of birth less than a month earlier in each case. The collection contains several specimens which illustrate the size and condition of the young at birth. Perhaps the most interesting are 4 foetal Prairie Hares collected at Bridger Pass, Wyoming, May 5, - 1890, evidently but a day or two before birth. The average measure- ments of these specimens are: Total length, 149™™; hind foot, 36™™, The animals are entirely covered with hair and the eyes are open. In one, at least, the front teeth (incisors) are cut, and nearly all the molars in the upper jaw are just breaking through the gums. The specimens _ having been preserved in alcohol for four years are somewhat shrunken a and the total length is probably about 25"™ too short. A specimen of the Black-tailed Rabbit (Lepus texrianus) from Panamint Valley, Cali-. fornia, collected January 10, 1891—evidently only a few days old—meas- ures only 192™™ in length, and hind foot 47™™. Another of about the same age from Santa Rosalia, Chihuahua, taken September 21, 1893, measures 185™", hind foot, 43"", Thus, the young at birth average a little less than 200™™ in length; the hind foot about 40 or 45™™, The q dates of birth can be approximated from the following table with suf- 4 4 ficient accuracy for present purposes by comparing the difference 28° with the difference obtained by subtracting the measurements of t young from those of the adult of that species. List of young Jack Rabbits, showing time of birth. “In Merriam collection. = Sp2cies. | Date Locality. ia faut Remarks. | Mm. | Mm. Lepus alleni ....--- | June 12,1892 | Riliito Creek, Arizona....| 455 110/ Adult: Len | i hind foot, 1 Lepus ee erne | Mar. 18, 1892 | San Fernando, Cal 375 | 105 af Do. ..| Mar. 23, 1894] Jackson, Cal.......-...--- 405 | 104 | Adult: ‘& th 5 Apr. 15,1894] Oakdale, Cal ......... 390 | 87 |) Nid foot. 436. Apr. 18,1894] Chinese Camp, Cal......-. 420 | 108 { hind foot, 1 May 1, 1894] Priest Valley, Cal........- 410 | 116 | May 23, 1894| Newcastle, Wyo .......--.. 344 95 | May 24, 1894|..... Oe tees sad ee eae 350 99 | Adult:} Length ) May ob 188 | Port erne § Dale] 8 | ep | hind foot am [ghee Sea Ae, | Sept. 10, 1887 | Fort Buford, N. Dak....-.. 265 |....-- Lepus melanotist. | Mar. 4, | San Antonio, Ses a> Abas enka lite’ | One: third grown D 0) a ee Mar. 9,1891| Onaga, Kans.............. feations [eee Bigs es Apr. 12, —| San Antonio, Tex.......-. |. 2664) css BO sweetie oes July 6,— sO ss cee we bom ae sees | ceearels eee (Adult: Length RMN alata biwictoielns | Apr. 26, 1894 Vv ernon, WGK Age hea. wre 206 46 /( hind foot, 130. LET ele re | July 30, 1892} Cairo, ya eA ea 405 | 109 PGS: ees CLE : Sept. 3,1890| Onaga, Kans..............|..----. ER ae: RO action tony | Sept. 17, —| San Antonio, Tex......... Laie alee DES _ Unborn (2). Dot ..........--| Sept. 17, ——|-.-.. . TT Pe Pe ee Py pe OTE eee Oot, Th —— 1. L . O ck neeainct soph ee ee | Few ed Gave old. Lepus texianus ..... Jan. 10,1891 Pecan Valley, Cal..... 192) 47 | Be coe cine e on Mar. 27,1891} Grapevine Mountains, Nev} 379 98 1 eS ee Apr. 10,1891} Furnace Creek, Cal ....... 200 51 _ Siete nie pice aay Apr. 27, 1892 “Ag Hoachuey, Ariz: 0 380 mA Oh | Sea A aaa |May 9,1891 averdam, Ariz.......... 300 ; Ue May 18, 1889| Phoenix, Ariz............. 410 | 102 | me f Long? th Grosecsspuweds | May 22,1889) Carson, Nev ..............].--.--- 109 mS RS 7 Te re | June 11,1891! Lone Pine, Cal............ 295 84 MSs dere enlaces es uly 17,1894 | South Fork, Pitt River, Cali 281 77 | . LU eee rere July 26,1890| Arco, Idaho...........-.-. | 240; 651 iicckten ces eee e Sept. 21,1893 | Santa Rosalia, Chihuahua. 185 | 43 Lepus sp (?)...-.--- Jan. 23,1892| Matagorda, Tex........... 260; 80 ity essen | Sept. 20, 1x8 | Rockport, Tex :...-....... Diba Meaty, One-third grown (2). Do Sepia s 6 eer Aug. 14,1892 | San Luis Potosi, Mexico 195 ; ay Se Seas i Bre GO \siuvnclven~ ee HOcs active Gucunesuelon ss 198 48 tIn American Museum of > Natural History, New York. | Average of 6 specimens from Wyoming. It would have been desirable to have a much larger number of speci- — mens, but the localities and seasons are well distributed and com: pensate in a measure for the small series. The earliest date of birth — indicated in these tables is about the beginning of January in the eas se of three specimens—one taken in Panamint Valley, in the desert ron of southern California, the others in southern Texas, at San Antonio — and Matagorda. The latest dates (September), are represented by spe May, anil J une, Specimens born after the Ist of July are froin northern part of the Plains, from the Great Basin, from southern Texe from elevated regions, or fromm the table-land of Mexico. There is noticeable absence of data from the low deserts of southern A and southern California, apparently indicating at least a partial pe of rest during the hot, dry summer. The tables also fail to show th ~ Z0n: - Oe r tf BREEDING SEASON. 29 jack rabbits are born before the lst of February in California west ‘the Sierra, or before the 1st of April north of Kansas and central Nevada. The length of the breeding season in southern regions indi- ites that several litters are born each year, but in the northern United _ States the number is probably not more than two, or at the most, three. The practical bearing of these generalizations is obvious. Drives or - hunts organized for the extermination of rabbits should take place - before the beginning of the breeding season, if they are to accomplish the desired end. Just after the young are born the rabbit population ina given place may be two or three times what it was six weeks pre- vious, and the killing of 1,000 rabbits then would be only one-half or one-third as effective as the destruction of an equal number earlier in the season, when all the animals were adults. Drives in southern Cal- _ ifornia should therefore be made in December, January, February, or early in March—the earlier the better, if the weather.is favorable; _ Jater in the season more rabbits may be killed at one time, but a cer- _ tain proportion will be young. In Colorado and Utah, hunts made _ before the 1st of February will accomplish much more than those in _ April, while in Idaho they may be postponed somewhat later. _ Similarly, when killed for game, the rabbits from southern California or Arizona are not likely to be in the best condition after the 1st of _ February or March, while those from the northern Plains may be _ shipped up to the 1st of April. On the other hand, the young will hardly be in condition for market before October except in southern regions, and there the hot weather is likely to interfere with their ship- ment. ae ee i Sant a , . é rp paneer eae : ri 1) oa CHAPTER III. INJURY TO CROPS AND MEANS OF PROTECTION. INJURY TO GRAIN, ORCHARDS, ETC. With the settlement of the West the jack rabbit has found — several cultivated crops furnish food which is better and more ea obtained than the wild plants on which it formerly fed, a fact tha too often demonstrated by the ravages committed in orchards — vineyards. Like the cottontail, it seldom ignores a neighboring 4 field or vegetable garden, and if unmolested can do a surpri amount of damage. Melons, cabbage, carrots, alfalfa, cotton, swe potato vines, young grain, grapevines, and trees suffer most frequent from its visits. The dainage is most severe, however, in the you orchard set in newly broken ground, for here, deprived of its ordina food by the cultivation of the land, the rabbit is forced to seek a new supply, and finds it in the tender bark of the young trees, <= MAreepMONbHsrIS86" + Jo6S. a sscce we csss ss -ss serene: 27, 559 3 826. 77 Ham bermardino.. --|)-Ang,.25 to Deen 6)18932 2k. ean ence ewmeeciafocecens aise 208) sss seee Hastie oe ee ace cle Wilkny Til ew bie: Wale rea WU eh a cone sooosenecol|lbasededsoc 5 342. 55 Sa ered Pap IEEE) hud ard a7 CGY We ee Aue a ein ot Cl FOE 1 BE 8 | +3, 040. 42 AMATO os mise xiao Oct..31,1891, to Nov., 18942... .. 222 - cies eee _----| * 200, 000 13) 3,000. 00 * Estimated from amounts expended. tIncludes also bounties on gophers and ground squirrels, at 5 cents per scalp. IDAHO. Two counties in Idaho—Ada and Canyon—are now paying bounties on jack rabbits at the rate of 3 cents per scalp. Mr. Charles 8. Kings- ley, county clerk, has kindly supplied the figures for the expendi- tures in Ada County, and wrote, under date of August 24, 1895, as follows: “The county began the payment of bounty July, 1878, and from that time until October, 1886, paid $8,129.75; from the latter date to the 42 JACK RABBITS OF THE UNITED STATES. 8th day of July, 1895, the county paid the sum of $22,963.69, making — an aggregate of $31,093.44. ‘‘T have myself been much interested in these figures, and find that during the 33 quarters embraced in the first period stated the average quarterly amount was $232.27, while during the 35 quarters embraced in the last period the average quarterly payment amounted to $850.50. It is noteworthy that during 1887 (latter part), 1888, 1889, and part of 1890 the average quarterly payments dropped to approximately $100. This was due to the very great destruction of rabbits during the winter of 1887 by extreme cold. It is thus seen that the average has been growing larger, notwithstanding the bounty, and the figures for the last quarter are $2,520.65; that, with the current quarter, are of course the heavy quarters of the year, and it is possible the total average per quarter for the year [1895] will not exceed $1,000. These figures seem to indicate that the bounty is not a success in the matter of exterminating the pests,”—and yet at the rate of 3 cents apiece more than 1,000,000 rabbits must have been destroyed. OREGON, Under the session laws of Oregon, 1887, a bounty varying from 1 to 5 cents was offered for jack rabbits. The law specially stated that this bounty was to be paid for the Black-tailed Rabbit, and none seems to have been paid on the Plains Jack Rabbit (Lepus campestris), which occurs in the same region. During the years 1888, 1889, and 1890, Lake County paid bounties on 54,000 rabbit scalps at the rate of 4 cents each, amouuting in all to $2,160, a ire. TEXAS, In April, 1891, the legislature of Texas passed “An act to protect stock raisers, farmers, and horticulturists,” which provided— That hereafter when any person shall kill any wolf, either coyote or lobo, pan- ther, Mexican lion, tiger, leopard, wild-cat, catamount, or, jack rabbit, he shall be paid in the county in which he kills such animal or animals the sum of two dollars for each coyote, and the sum of one dollar for each wild-cat or catamount, and the sum of five dollars for each panther, lobo, Mexican lion, tiger, or leopard, and the sum of one dollar per dozen for jack rabbits, and fifty cents per dozen for prairie dogs so killed.' The sum of $50,000 was appropriated and expended in carrying out the provisions of this law. Unfortunately it has not been possible to obtain the amounts paid for each of the animals named, so that the total bounty on jack rabbits can not be stated. The burden of this expenditure fell so heavily on some of the southwestern counties of the State that the law was repealed in March, 1895, and a new act substi- tuted which made the payment of bounties optional with the counties, and omitted jack rabbits and prairie dogs from the list of proseribed animals. 1 Gencral Laws of the State of Texas, 22d legislature, 1891, p. 160, chap. 100, see, 1. EXPENDITURES IN AUSTRALIA. 43 UTAH, Section 2114 of the laws of Utah for 1890 authorized the county - __ courts to offer bounties for the destruction of jack rabbits and certain other injurious animals. On September 1, 1893, a bounty of 5 cents _-—__—s per sealp was placed on rabbits by the court of Boxelder County. This s rate was maintained until January 28, 1895, when it was reduced to 2 cents per scalp. The county clerk reports that ep to December 51, 1895, bounties had been paid on 111 coyotes at 50 cents each, while more than $500 had been expended for rabbits, as follows: Table showing expenditures for Bounties in Utah. | Number | Rate per | Amount County. Date. ,of scalps.) scalp. expended. Cents. Beaelicr ese eteiae AT SOpu sel Gosh ananassae meee asimiceeto ise 716 2 | $14. 32 os SU ee Sept. 1, 1893-J Bos Bod se cme ae mnie cise epics cis sie 9,179 5 458. 95 De Bee a eia ea. | Jan. 28-Dec. 31, IgGeppeeeen as: RCW Teck eons A 2, 863 2 57. 26 | —— | | Total .......- | sia eB ea US SS a ae a a Me 12) 758) aad at aes $530. 53 Bounties represent the only expenditures made by counties or States in this country for the destruction of rabbits. As shown above, the _ totals, including the State bounty of Texas, which was paid on several other species of animals, aggregate about $100,000, an amount which is insignificent when compared with that spent in Australia. EXPENDITURES IN AUSTRALIA. The common rabbit of Europe (Lepus cuniculus) was introduced into Australia about the year 1864 at Barwon Park, near Geelong, Victoria.! _ -___ In the course of a few years it spread over Victoria and westward into South Australia, crossing the Murray River in 1878. The following oe year legislative action for the destruction of the pest was inaugurated by South Australia, and the example was soon followed by Victoria, New South Wales, New Zealand, Queensland, and Tasmania. No less than 19,182,539 rabbits were destroyed in New South Wales alone in 1887.2 But in addition to the direct payment of bounties, the govern- ments of the colonies have expended large sums for poisons, for experi- ments on various methods of destruction, and have built several thousand mniles of rabbit-proof fences. As shown by the following table, the total amount expended up to 1888 was £1,093,890 (more than $5,000,000) in addition to £96,264 (nearly $500,000) for fences. s 1According to Hon. James M. Morgan, formerly United States consul-general at Melbourne, rabbits were first introduced in western Victoria about 1860, for the purpose of sport. (Consular Reports for Dec., 1886, XX, p. 482.) 2 Circular on Rabbit Destruction. Committee New South Wales Comm. Pastoral and Agr. Ass., Jan., 1888. 44 JACK RABBITS OF THE UNITED STATES. Government Expenditures for Destruction of Rabbits in Australia and New Zealand, 1879-1888 .* Colony. | Date. | Amount. Remarks. 1p SE Ee Be New South Wales.....--. 1883-1888...........-- | + £732,236 | £23,997 also expended for fences. Queensland ......-...-..-.- Up to Dec., 1887..--..- (2) £59,737 for fences. South Australia.......... PBST=I1995 "2 O18) SE ee | 128, 595 | Watton sal. 2522 s- a2 4 nees TSTD—IRBB. se 131,724 | On unoccupied Crown lands. New Zealand............- 1GBE—TR58. Ube coe ee oee 18,453 | £12,530 also expended for South | Canterbury fence. WaAnMAMIA - oo. ols. 552% | May, 1883-Jan., 1888 .- 82, 882 SEBUBLE perce coa ns omen ten ceteaion bam ee dion mene 1,093,890 | Add £96,264 for fences. *Progress Rept. New South Wales Royal Com. Inquiry Exterm. Rabbits, 1890, App. I. pp. 190-192. t Hon. J. H. Carruthers, Minister for Lands, gives £831,457 4s. 1d., as the total amount expended from the passage of the rabbit act in 1883 to June 30, 1890. ‘Lhe figures for each year are less in nearly every case than in the statement quoted above. but represent the sums disbursed “‘ solely for the pur- pose of attempting to get rid of the rabbit.’’ From July 1, 1890, to December 31, 1894, the expenditure amounted to only £22,761, which was devoted to fences. (Rept. Conference Rabbit Pest in New South Wales, 1895, p. 6.) t Total expenditures up to 1894 (largely for fences), £136,484 8s. (Year Book Australia for 1894, p. 145.) NATURAL ENEMIES OF JACK RABBITS. Birds of prey seldom molest the larger hares. Among those which are known to feed on jack rabbits are the barn owl (Strix pratineola), Audubon’s caracara (Polyborus cheriway), prairie faleon (Falco mexi- canus), and western red-tailed hawk; but remains of the Texan rabbit have been found in the stomach of the red-tail in only three cases among a large number examined. The western horned owl (Bubo virginianus subarcticus) and the golden eagle (Aquila chrysetos) should also be mentioned. The marsh hawk (Circus hudsonius) occasionally attacks rabbits, and Mr. J. Alden Loring shot one at Vernon, Tex., while in the act of killing a young jack rabbit which weighed a pound and a half. The mammals in this list are likewise few in number, the most important being the coyote (Canis latrans), gray wolf (Canis nubilus), long-eared fox (Vulpes macrotis), gray fox (Urocyon), and wild-eat (Lynx). Skunks, weasels, and badgers may occasionally destroy the young, but seldom, if ever, the full-grown hares. The badger, an inde- fatigable hunter of the ground squirrel and the prairie dog, is too slow of foot to overtake the jack rabbit in a fair race, and is unable to eor- ner him in a hole, as he can a burrowing animal. On the Great Plains the gray wolf undoubtedly destroys large num- bers of jack rabbits in the region from Colorado northward. In Mon- tana, according to Dr. George Bird Grinnell,' “The abundance or searcity of the prairie hare in any district depends almost altogether on the number of wolves to be found in the same tract of country. Where all the coyotes and gray wolves have been killed or driven off, the hares exist in great numbers; but where the former are abundant, the latter are seldom seen. We saw none near the Missouri River, where the EPIDEMICS. os A Baker, where there were scarcely any wolves, the hares were very common.” The coyote is a most effective rabbit destroyer and accomplishes more good in this way than he usually receives credit for. His true value, however, is beginning to be appreciated by fruit growers. The following notes contributed by Mr. Vernon Bailey show how coyotes: sometimes prey on jack rabbits. Mr. Bailey says: In trapping on the greasewood flats about Kelton, in northern Utah, during the latter part of October, 1888, I noticed in many places that jack rabbits (Lepus texianus) had been killed and eaten by some animal. The feet, bits of skin, and fur were usually all that remained, but I immediately attributed this destruction to coyotes, and later on was able to verify the conclusion by finding remains of rabbits surrounded by fresh coyote tracks. In a walk of a mile it was common to see where a dozen had been eaten, and I could even see where the coyotes had run and caught the rabbits. I was surprised at the number killed, although both rabbits and coyotes were numerous. As I walked through the brush jack rabbits would jump j up and run every few minutes, and coyotes were frequently seen. In this particular spot the numerous bunches of greasewood (Sarcobatus) scattered over the smooth valley bottom gave the coyotes a great advantage, enabling them to approach close to the rabbits and probably catch them before they got fairly started. It is very doubtful if a coyote can catch a jack rabbit in a fair race on open ground. About five years ago the State of California offered a bounty of $5 each for coyote scalps. The act was passed March 31, 1891, and pro- vided that such scalps should be deposited with the clerk of the board of supervisors of the county in which the animal was taken, within three months after the date of capture, and must be accompanied by an affi- davit showing the time and place that the animal was killed. The law practically remained in force up to September 30, 1892, when the State board of examiners refused to pass on any claims for scalps taken sub- sequent to that date. The State controller reports that the sum paid for scalps during the eighteen months that the law remained in effect was $187,485, and that up to June 30, 1894, no less than 71,723 coyote scalps had been presented, with claims for bounty amounting to $358,615.. This immense destruction of coyotes has permitted the increase of the smaller animals on which they feed. Complaints have been made that the rabbits are increasing in numbers and that the damage done by them is greater than that caused by the coyotes. As already stated, the county of San Bernardino in 1893 offered the unusually high bounty of 20 cents apiece on the rabbits, which, as a result of this wholesale destruction of coyotes, had so greatly increased in numbers. In this remarkable case of legislation a large bounty was offered by a county in the interest of fruit growers to counteract the effects of a State bounty expended mainly for the benefit of sheep owners! EPIDEMICS. Jack rabbits are subject to epidemics, which occasionally reduce their numbers very materially. These outbreaks are more or less local, but are reported every few years. According to Mr, George Watkins, 46 JACK RABBITS OF THE UNITED STATES. rabbits were found in large numbers in Ash Meadows, Nevada, pre-— vious to 1891, but in the spring of that year they were very rare. He attributed the decrease to the prevalence of an epidemic, which had been so severe as to render these animals almost extinct. In north- eastern California Mr. A. C. Lowell, of Fort Bidwell, Modoc County, mentions seeing many dead rabbits in the autumn of 1893. A similar occurrence is reported by Mr. F. Stephens, near Beck- worth Pass, Plumas County. Speaking of a trip through northeastern California in August, 1894, he says: “The epidemic among hares was” widespread through all the region I passed over north of Beeckworth Pass, being perhaps most noticeable in the Madeline Plain on the South Fork of Pitt River and near the Nevada line south of Surprise Valley. In all these places I saw daily dozens of carcasses near the road. The only cause of death that I could see was the abundant warbles (Cutere- bra) present in nearly all. It would seem, though, that these could only operate by lowering the state of health generally and that some contagious disease was present.” Dr. J. A. Allen' speaks of an outbreak that occurred in the vicinity of Great Salt Lake in 1870-71, destroying large numbers of Lepus texianus and L. campestris; and Prof. Mareus E. Jones states that another occurred in Utah in 1885 or 1886. A similar instance of the destruction of the Prairie Hare (Lepus campestris) has been mentioned by Mr. Gibbs and Dr. Cooper, which occurred in Washington north of the Columbia River about 1853.' Mr. Clark P. Streator, while at Pasco, Wash., near the mouth of Snake River, learned that another epidemic had occurred among the rabbits in the vicinity during the summer of 1890. Maj. Chas. Bendire states that the inhabitants of the Payette Valley, Idaho, claim that epidemics occur among the jack rabbits in that region every five or six years. The following table gives briefly the epidemics which have been reported in the West during the last forty years, but the list is very incomplete: Partial List of Rabbit Epidemics in the West. State. Locality. Date. | Authority. Fresno County. ..cccss.seccee- Autumn, i892..... | Geo. B. Otis, Selma. Modoc County .......-.2+...+: Autumn, 1893..... | A.C. Lowell, Fort Bidwell. - Modoc to Plamas County.....) August, 1894...... F. Stephens. Payette Valley.........-....- (Frequent) 1878...) Maj. Chas. Bendire. Ash Meadows, Nye County... Spring, 1891....... George Watkins, Ash Meadows. Near Great Salt Lake. ...-.... Ty OW, ee Re gs | J. A. Allen, Mon. N. Am. Roden- | tia, 1877, p. 372. ee ae Tron County .. is jcesracvn sen FATT vinn de ah dens dies M. Richards, jr., Parowan. BPD is ein Central Utahns... sowextnucasxe 1885 or 1886 ....... | Marcus E. Jones, Salt Lake City. Washington... North of the Columbia........ About 1853 ....... Cooper & Gibbs, Pac. R. R, Repts., | XII, Pt. II, 1860, pp, 87, 181. Ue mays cas Near mouth Snake River...... Summer, 1890 ..... Clark P, Streator, ' Monographs of American Rodentia, 1877, p. 372. Tape? ee ‘WWHHOO 3HL ONINSLN|A SLIGSVY—"P68 1 °g AVIN ‘VINNOSITVO “W| aLvid ‘oNSau4 YV3N ZAINQ LiIssvy MOVE V {LSE ot ewwey pue Adojouyusd A a's “Ing CHAPTER V. RABBIT DRIVES AND HUNTS. CALIFORNIA. In certain parts of California where jack rabbits are found in great numbers the ‘drive’ has proved the most successful means of exter- mination. Rabbit driving seems to have been first introduced in the an Joaquin Valley, near Tipton, Tulare County, in 1882, but did not attract much attention until the winter of 1887-88. This was during the ‘boom’ in southern California, and it is probable that the influx of ‘people from the East, many of whom settled in the San Joaquin re Valley, was one of the causes of the sudden interest in rabbit drives. _ Large tracts of land were brought under cultivation in sections where jack rabbits were very abundant, and it became absolutely necessary __ toadopt some effective means of protecting the newly planted orchards and vineyards. The origin of the method, however, is somewhat obscure. It is said that the Mission Indians formerly hunted both cottontails and jack - rabbitson horseback. A dozen or more Indians armed with clubs would engage in such a hunt, and, riding at full speed through the under- brush, would start the rabbits from their hiding places. The cotton- tails, confused by the clattering of the horses’ hoofs and the shouts | of the riders, would turn this way and that, and either dodge into their holes or squat close to the ground, only to be dispatched by a swift blow from a club. The jack rabbits, on the contrary, usually made for the open plain, where they were turned in their flight, and soon sur- unded and killed. Long before the settlement of the country by the whites, the Indians "were accustomed to capture large numbers of jack rabbits with nets, | a tho animals being surrounded and driven into an inclosure, where they P- were killed with clubs. One of the earliest accounts of this custom _ is contained in Townsend’s ‘Narrative of a Journey across the Rocky a Mountains,’ published in 1839 (p.327). In speaking of the Blacktailed _ Jack Rabbit found near Walla Walla, Wash., he says: “The Indians _ kill them with arrows, by approaching them stealthily as they lie con- _ cealed under the bushes, and in winter take them with nets. To do this, some one or two hundred Indians, men, women, and children, collect i and inclose a large space with a slight net, about 5 feet wide, made of q 47 a asia it his oma! After these arrangements are completed, a large n nun Indians enter the circle, and beat the bushes in every direction. frightened hares dart off toward the nets, and, in attempting to are knocked on the head and secured. Mr. Pambrun, thesuperinten of Fort Walla Walla, from whom I obtained this account, says t has often participated in this sport with the Indians, and has several hundred to be thus taken in a day. When captured al does not scream, like the common gray rabbit (Lepus sylvatieus). The Indians of southern Oregon also carried on rabbit drives years ago, especially near the Oregon-Nevada boundary line, ne: McDermitt. Several hundred rabbits were killed at a time and w ized for food, while their skins were made into clothing. During second expedition, Col. J. C. Frémont found the same method of | turing rabbits used by the Piutes of Nevada and eastern Cali In describing one of his camps on the east slope of the Sierra Ney evidently near the head of the Truckee River, he says, under d au January 31, 1844: “We had scarcely lighted our fires when the ¢ was crowded with nearly naked Indians; some of them were 1 ished with long nets in addition to bows, and appeared to have out on the sage hills to hunt rabbits. These nets were perhaps ¢ 40 feet long, kept upright in the ground by slight stakes at inter and were made from a kind of wild hemp, very much resembli manufacture those common among the Indians of the Saecran Valley.” ee Maj. Chas. Bendire, while returning from Deep Spring Valle ip Camp Independence, Cal., in November, 1866 or 1867, saw the Ind engaged in driving jack rabbits on the east side of Owens Valley, a miles south of Bishop. A corral had been made by stretching low between stakes placed about 20 feet apart. Into the inelosure thus formed the animals were driven from a considerable area in the va and it was estimated that 300 or 400 rabbits were killed in this dh The nets were made by mg pape: and each hunter was require furnish his quota. Mr. . Coville, botanist of the Death Valle; Expedition, learned that oa nets were formerly used by the Inc of Ash Meadows, Nevada, These nets were made from the Indian k (Apocynum cannabinum), which furnishes a strong and excellent fi The same material was evidently used by the tribes in the eastern p of the State, for Bancroft, in speaking of the Indians near the Uta boundary, says: “‘The Gosh Utes take rabbits in nets made of fi twine, about 3 feet wide and of considerable length. A fence of ; brush is erected across the rabbit paths, and on this the net is hung. The rabbits in rapning quickly along the trail become entangled in the ' Rept. Expl. Expd. to Oregon and Calif, 1845, p. 297 (House Doe. No. 100 a PLAN OF THE DRIVES. 49. _ meshes and are taken before they can escape.” (Native Races of the _ Pacific States, I, 1874, p. 428.) The Moki Indians, of northeastern Arizona, have practiced rabbit driving for a number of years. The hunts are made both on foot and with horses, and the rabbits are simply surrounded instead of being driven into an inclosure. A peculiar kind of weapon, resembling a boomerang, is employed in these hunts, and is thrown with such accu- racy that it proves very effective in the hands of Indians accustomed toits use. Similar drives were also made by the Indians in northern New Mexico, near Espanola. The Piutes and other tribes in Utah used to assemble in large numbers in a valley near Cedar City, where they engaged in a grand hunt each November, killing thousands of rabbits for their skins and for food. The modern ‘rabbit drives’ are conducted on much the same plan as those of the Indians, but precautions are taken beforehand so that no escape is left for the ani- mals when once surrounded. A. square or triangular in- closure, open at one end, is constructed of wire netting —or of laths securely fas- tened close together. Often a corner of some old corral is simply made rabbit-tight, and from the open end of the pen diverging fences or wings are carried out in the form of a wide-mouthed V, sometimes for a distance of 2 or 3 miles (see fig.1). The fences are occasionallymade 3B in sections, so that they can ‘Fie. 1.—Diagram showing form of corral used in rabbit be transported from one Fe ene NC fe ae long; C, iat place to another, and thus D, drivers; E, entrance to corral; R, rabbits. (From Am. used for several drives. The Fil4. 1888.) Goshen Rabbit Drive Club, organized in the spring of 1888, had an ‘outfit’ which cost about $150, and was considered one of the best in the San Joaquin Valley; it was used mainly near Goshen, but was also moved to Huron, Fresno County, where it did duty for sometime. This outfit consisted of 1 mile of wire netting 28 inches wide, and 400 iron stakes three-fourths of an inch in diameter and 3 or 4 feet long. The stakes were set 15 or 20 feet apart, and the netting fastened to them. At the apex of the wings a circular corral was built 60 to 200 feet in a diameter and provided with a sliding gate (see p. 50). Mr. Charles 8. Greene, in describing the drive at Traver on April 8, 1892,' states that the wings used on that occasion were made of wire ‘Overland Monthly, 2d ser., XX, July, 1892, p. 54. 8615—No 8 4 50 JACK RABBITS OF THE UNITED STATES. netting and were not more than 2 feet high. Although he saw rabbits leap much higher during the early part of the drive they made no attempt to escape over the fences when the wings were reached, the animals evidently being too wearied, as they had been driven for some distance. On the other hand, in a oe drive which took place near Claremont on September 9, 1893, no wings or corral were built, but an attempt was made to utilize a corner of a stone wall 3 or 4 feet in height instead. The rabbits were driven only a short distance and when the wall was reached it is said that most of them went over it like sheep, and comparatively few were killed. In the great drive at Wildflower, Fresno County, the wings, made of wire netting, were 3 feet in height and extended for a distance of 7 miles, converging toward a circular corral at the apex. ! A drive always means a gala day, and is a favorite way of celebrat- ing some special occasion. The announcement is the signal for a gathering of the clans from all the neighboring country and the population of the place is increased to sey- eral times its normal size when such an event takes place. Excursionists are at- tracted in large numbers by the special rates offered by therailroads,and sometimes Tia. 2.—Diagram showing form of portable corral used by come from points as far the Goshen Rabbit Drive Club. i A, B, wings of wire netting each half a mile long; Cc, Gistant as San Franciseo corral 60 to 200 feet in diameter; E, sliding gate. (From and Sacramento. Upon the M.S. Featherstone.) . appointed day large num- bers of people turn out armed with sticks and clubs, and, scattering over a considerable area, start the rabbits and drive them toward the mouth of the corral. Every available vehicle is pressed into service, but the larger part of the throng is usually on foot. The lines grad- ually close in, and the frightened rabbits, urged on by blows and shouts, rush blindly into the opening between the wings and are grad- ually crowded toward the narrow end of the pen where they are soon dispatched with clubs. Firearms are seldom used either in driving or killing, as clubs are cheaper, safer, and equally effective. The drives take place in winter or spring, and the number of rabbits killed varies from a few hundred up to ten or even twenty thousand in a single day. The town of Traver regularly celebrates its birthday in April by a rabbit drive and barbecue. On April 8, 1892, it was estimated that no less than 6,000 persons were present, and more than 4,000 people and 1,000 teams took part. - ; — ——__—_____ — ———$ ‘See figure in Scientific American, LXI, No. 19., Nov. 9, 1889, p. 295. © A | ee —s oe ee *A| aALW1d (18134195 Aq udesBojoud wos 4) ‘GAT SLIBSVY MOVE 000‘0Z—VINHOSINVD ‘ONS3SH4 LV 3AING LISSVY AWYY GNVH5 3H1 4O 11NS3Y ‘ainyinousy ydaq ‘Ss ‘pf ‘Adojewwey pue Asojoujius oa Q red ' DRIVES IN CALIFORNIA. Spars) as A writer in the Chicago Tribune of October 1, 1893, thus graphic- ally describes one of the largest drives which has taken place in the vicinity of Fresno, Cal.: A close fence forming the corral is built about 500 yards square, with an opening or entrance for receiving the drive at one end, the opening being perhaps 50 feet wide. This is the finishing point of the drive, and will hold thousands of rabbits. From this opening diverge two fences, close enough to keep the rabbits from jump- ing through, about 5 feet high. These two fences diverge from the entrance for about 3 miles, increasing in their distance apart as they increase in distance from the entrance. * * * ; By 7 o’clock in the morning all is bustle and preparation for the drive. Some men have heavy sticks and some heavy clubs, but no pistols or any kind of firearms are allowed, and no dogs. The sticks and clubs are used to beat the brush and to kill the rabbits at the finish. A general is appointed to give orders, and under him are those who keep the lines in order. But sometimes they are anything but orderly. The order to start being given along the line, the cavalcade rushes forward. Boys with hoots and cries run hither and thither, wielding their sticks. Men on foot in advance lines are followed _ by those on horseback and in vehicles. Those on foot seem to have the best success in putting up the rabbits. * * * After advancing a few miles the commencement of the fences diverging from the corral can be seen. The scene is humorous at times, when a horseman is seen dash- ing at full speed after a jack rabbit and a man on foot running in another direction after another. Now hundreds of the poor creatures are easily discerned as the fences appear on the left and right, miles apart. Many try the back track only to meet death in the attempt. All the horsemen gallop in cowboy style, some with long sticks in their hands. Great numbers of rabbits dash in every direction in front of the advancing hosts, and far ahead the long ears of hundreds more can be seen racing for life, occasionally crouching and then starting ahead again, but still surely advancing into the inevitable death-trap. The close. proximity to the finish makes the chase exciting. Those on foot are heated and eager. The fence on each side is closing in fast, and although still some distance from the corral the screaming of the poor creatures can be heard as they find their retreat cut off. The climax of the drive isnow at hand. Hundreds of men and boys rush in every direction. The horsemen and carriages partly hide the view. The clouds of dust are stifling. Now the screeching of the rabbits can be heard above everything, and the ground is covered with dead rabbits by the dozen. At the corral entrance the scene is indescribably pitiful and distressing. * * * Toslash and beat the poor screaming animals to death is the work of but a short time, but it brings tears to many an eye, and makes the heart sore to witness the finish. It is a relief to every- body when all is still, when the trying day is at anend. The result of the drive at Fresno was 20, 000 dead rabbits. The rabbits killed in the drives are utilized in various ways. If they are in good condition some are dressed and shipped to market where they find a ready sale. But usually the drives are carried on solely for the purpose of exterminating the pests. In localities where a bounty has been offered the ears are collected for ‘scalps’ and the bodies not saved for food are either used for fertilizing purposes, fed to hogs, or thrown away. Drives have occurred in nine counties of California, viz: Inyo, Los Angeles, Modoc, Fresno, Kern, Kings, Madera, Merced, and Tulare. With the exception of those in Inyo, Los Angeles, and Modoc, all have 52 JACK RABBITS OF THE UNITED STATES. taken place in the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley. Data are available for only a few drives east of the Sierra Nevada, one being the Indian hunt already mentioned, which took place in 1866, near Bishop, Inyo County, and the others in Modoc County in the extreme northeastern corner of the State—in Surprise Valley, just east of the Warner Mountains, and near Likely, on the South Fork of Pitt River. It may also be noticed that the drive at Claremont, Los Angeles County, is the only one which has occurred at a point well within the range of Lepus californicus, and although it resulted in the destruction of only — about a hundred rabbits is especially interesting, as it seems to be one of the few drives in which the California Jack Rabbit alone was killed. All the large drives have been made in localities where the Texan Jack Rabbit is the predominant if not the only species. The largest drives have occurred in the vicinity of Bakersfield and Fresno. They usually extend over considerable country, and one of the Fresno drives has been described by Mr. Charles H. Townsend, in which nearly 2,000 horsemen took part. This hunt covered some 20 square miles, and about 15,000 rabbits were driven into a central corral and killed. (Forest and Stream, XXX VIII, March 3, 1892, p. 197.) ORIGIN OF THE DRIVES, The feasibility of driving jack rabbits into a corral for wholesale destruction was demonstrated about twenty years ago; but rabbit driv- ing as now carried on, began within the last decade. At first the ani- mals were shot instead of being killed with clubs, and these hunts were known as shotgun drives. Mr. George W. Stewart, editor of the Visalia Delta, has kindly con- tributed the following notes concerning the early drives in California: The first rabbit drive in the San Joaquin Valley, and probably in the State, occurred in the year 1875. The firm of Haggin & Carr had begun to farm a large body of land in Kern Couyty, at the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley, which up to that time had been used only as a cattle range. The manager, a Mr. Souther, was much annoyed by the ravages of thousands of jack rabbits on what is known as Kern Island [a tract of land about 15 miles long] formed at that time by branches of Kern River. Mr. Souther collected a large number of his vaqueros and other ranch hands, and these men, mounted and on foot, surrounded a large territory and gradually closed their lines toward a large cattle corral, into which the rabbits were driven. Many rabbits escaped through the line, but the result of this first drive was 1,200 rabbits and 2 coyotes. * * * The next great slaughter of jack rabbits occurred eleven years later near Han- ford, now the county seatof Kings County. Notice had been given beforehand, and on March 3, 1886, about 250 men from Hanford and the adjacent country, armed with shotguns (rifles and pistols were barred), surrounded a large area of country 6 miles south of the town. As the circumference of the circle gradually lessened, the shooting commenced, and when less than a mile in diameter the firing was incessant, the continuous discharge making the noise of a small battle. When the last jack rabbit had been shot the army halted fora lunch. A number of men had shot as many as 50 rabbits each, and it was estimated that 3,000 had been slain, In the afternoon a fresh supply of ammunition was secured and another smaller tract of ORIGIN OF THE DRIVES. ‘es 5a country was surrounded and the battle continued. The result of the afternoon’s work was 1,000 hares, making 4,000 for the day. One result of this exciting day was arealization of the danger of using guns in this manner; several people were peppered with shot, but none were seriously injured. * * * The following year, 1887, the rabbits had become so destructive on the great Miller & Lux ranch, on the west side of Merced County, that men were employed to kill them. The hunters were supplied with horses, wagons, and ammunition, and were paid 5 cents for every rabbit killed. Over 7,000 were killed on that one ranch during the season. The first large rabbit drive on the plan afterwards adopted took place near Pix- ley, in Tulare County, on November 14, 1887, a year and a half after the Hanford slaughter. Firearms of all kinds were forbidden, and dogs were not allowed within the lines. A corral of rabbit-proof wire was made, and from its entrance two V-shaped wings extended a distance of a mileandahalf. Into this space the rabbits were driven. Many hundreds stampeded and broke through the line, but the result of the drive was 2,000. The modern method of driving rabbits into a corral seems to have originated with Mr. W. J. Browning, a professional hunter, of Tipton, Tulare County. Stimulated by an offer of $1,000 for 1,000 live jack rabbits for coursing, Mr. Browning undertook to capture the animals. by driving them into a corral made by stretching fish nets between posts. In a letter dated January 15,1895, he says: ‘I commenced the busi- ness of trapping jack rabbits with a corral drive net, with wings about half a mile long, during the summer of 1882. I have shipped many thousands to all parts of the country, alive, for coursing purposes. * * * In driving, I use six or eight men mounted on good horses, and in this manner usually trap from 50 to 500 jacks. The big drives of this State were patterned after my system, as the first drive I ever heard of outside of my own was made [at Pixley] in this county in . 1887, in the month of November.” ‘ In order to obtain all the information possible on the subject of rab- bit driving, Mr. J. Ellis McLellan, a field agent of the division, was detailed to visit Merced, I'resno, Bakersfield, and other points in the San Joaquin Valley in the autumn of 1894. Mr. McLellan gathered many facts of interest, and the following brief account has been mainly: condensed from his reports, while the list of drives on pages 55-57 is largely the result of his energy in collecting data. Early in the autumn of 1887 the question of taking measures for a wholesale destruction of jack rabbits was discussed in Kern County, but nothing was done for some months, and the project would probably have proved a failure through apathy or opposition had it not been vigorously agitated bythe press. In the meantime, however, an exper- 3 iment was made at Pixley, Tulare County, and the first public drive took place there on November 14, 1887. Two thousand rabbits were killed, and it was demonstrated that jack rabbits could be successfully driven into a corral. Another drive took place on December 3, and 1,000 more were slaughtered. Rabbit driving began in earnest in Kern County on January 2, 1888. The first drive was made near 54 JACK RABBITS OF THE UNITED STATES. Bakersfield, and was followed by others at intervals of a week or ten days with such success that the method attracted widespread atten- tion throughout the valley. Great interest Was aroused in Tulare County, and on February 25 the ‘Pioneer Rabbit Drivers’ Club’ was formed and driving was undertaken by various towns in quick suecces- sion. The first drive near Tipton took place January 28, at Tulare on February 1, at Waukena February 11, at Visalia March 16, and at Traver April 7. Not to be outdone by Kern and Tulare counties, the citizens of Fresno met on February 8, and decided to arrange for a rabbit drive and barbecue, which was held on March 16, An association for rabbit driving was also organized in Merced County, and the first drive took place at Merced on March 24. During this time the matter seems to have been dropped at Pixley and the credit of originating the novel method of rabbit destruction was claimed by several other towns. In February and March, 1888, rabbit driving seems to have reached its height in the San Joaquin Valley. It was estimated by the news- papers that nearly 20,000 rabbits were killed in Tulare County during March alone; while about 40,060 were destroyed in Fresno, and 70,000 each in Kern and Tulare counties during the spring of 1888. With the close of this season there was a noticeable falling off in the num- ber of drives, either through lack of interest or because the rabbits had decreased in numbers to some extent. Comparatively few took place in 1890 and 1891, but in the spring of 1892 several large ones were made in Fresno County. The largest on record occurred between Easton and Oleander, 10 or 15 miles southwest of Fresno, and formed the closing event of an encampment of the Grand Army of the Republie at Fresno, March 12,1892. Itis said that 8,000 people were present, and the estimates of the number of rabbits killed vary from 20,000 to 30,000 (see PI.IV). The central location of Fresno makes it an easy matter to bring together large numbers of people at short notice. Since 1892 there has been a still further decrease both in the number and size of the drives, and except at Traver, hardly any large ones have taken place in the State. The custom has been somewhat revived during 1893 and 1894 in Modoe County, where it is said a few drives were held in 1889, It is impracticable to give a complete list of all the drives or an accurate statement of the number of rabbits killed. The figures pub- lished in newspapers are probably often exaggerated, but in most eases afford the only data available. With the assistance of many correspondents statistics for about a hundred and fifty of the more important drives have been collected.'! As shown by the following table, more than 370,000 rabbits have been destroyed, but these prob- ably represent only a small proportion of the total number actually killed in California. iThe writer is indebted to many persons for aid in the preparation of the follow- ing list. Besides those named below should be mentioned Messrs. Charles H. Shinn, of Berkeley, Walter E. Bryant, of Oakland, and F, H. Holmes, of Berryessa, who have assisted in various ways. > oe ee , Bull. 8, Div. Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S. Dept. Agriculture. 7 4, ~ ES ) Spt t~ ; Not Wr ai A S Gf WY ~ > ake= S: Zz Wh, —s) Zs 2 Ad! = Uf MONE Lg} th: Ye Hi Wy fae Sry eh is Tim os . —— N > t Neri AS Ly = EZ ZU YY al vens) = ‘ \ = Toke) y (t NES = , [nip es Vl Mwy YY, ZB=\s ae ig a , 22S AY o/, Zi, UL pe Vi WEE a Me , \ » A\)S NE >= Angele : | PLATE V. —_ =. \ htt ny NZ N NY \ yy wil Uy WI t va Y \ ys Y ment \\ 2 = HN Wy Fifi K\( .y Ny SS A) jp Mage Z| | -J i Vi, 7] | { Ml \ \ Wr ~ ~~ \ mI § \ / WR Claremont)’ > oe MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF RABBIT DRIVES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. Drives have occurred at each place marked with a black spot. ee 4 - % DRIVES IN CALIFORNIA. List of California Rabbit Drives. Weekly Fresno Expositor, Feb. 17, 1892; Forest and Stream, XX XVIII, Mar. 3, Photograph by F. M. Stiffler, Oakland. . 22, 1892. Fresno Daily Republican, Mar. 17, 1888; Fresno Daily Republican, Mar. 25, 1888. Fresno Daily Republican, Apr. 13, 1888. Fresno Daily Republican, Mar 24, 1889. Photograph by E. R. Higgins. Fresno. Daily Evenin g Expositor, May 5, 1894. Tulare County Times (Visalia), July 16, 1891. 1888. Scientific Am., LXI, Nov, 9, 1889, p. 295. Press, Jan. Weekly Kern County Echo, Feb. 16, 1888. Weekly Kern County Echo, Oct. 8, 1888. Weekly Kern County Echo, Jan. 24, 1889. Weekly Kern County Echo, May 7, 1891. Weekly Kern County Echo, May 21, 1891. Weekly Kern County Echo, June 14, 1894, Geo. W. Stewart, editor Visalia Delta. Weekly Kern County Echo, Jan. 19, 1888. Weekly Kern County Echo, Jan. 26, 1888. Weekly Kern County Echo, Feb. 2, 1888. Weekly Kern County Echo, Feb. 9, 1888. Weekly Kern County Echo, Feb. 16, 1888. - Weekly Kern County Echo, Feb. 23, 1888. Weekly Kern County Echo, Mar. 2, 1888. Weekly Kern County Echo, Mar. 8, 1888. 28, 1889, 13, Locality. Date. Bache Authority. Fresno Oounty. Caruthers (6 miles west)....-| Feb. 22, 1892 7,460 | Alvah A. Eaton. Easton (12 miles southwest | Feb. 13, 1892 114, 000 of Fresno). 1892, 197—15,000. Do . 12, 1892 220, 000 DOK cae Prerdecaise Hae Sao setae . 18, 1892 32,000 | Weekly Fresno Expositor, Mar F 500 Fresno (5 miles south) . 16, 1888 5 1, a00¢ Expositor, Mar. 22. Do . 24, 1888 414,723 Do . 12, 1888 300 Do . 25, 1888 1,200 | Fresno Expositor, Apr. 25, 1888. Fresno (10 miles south) . 23, 1889 151 Fresno RPS SOS hem sea eeaee WO yasese eo ct eee omc: Mar. 18, 1893 10,500 | Chicago Daily News, May 10, 1893. TOC Senos. aaesoha uae May 5, 1894 1, 000 SERMON coe ae ecco. cai July 12, 1891 2,500 Winldebilower-er oe s-. ss a2 Mar, 145188822 e ieee see: Weekly Visalia Delta, Mar. 29, Oe eee vices ee ee.e's Mar. 1,1889 512, 000 Kern County. 61,1262} San Francisco Mining and Sci. IBAKOTSHEIO <= -csiom onic cio 2- is = Jan. 2, 1888 ; 796 28, 1888, p. 51. g Di a 2 ae Jan. 10, 1888 ; ee: 30S Do. 1D ing aa e eons ae eee Feb. 9,1888 3, 500 Bakersfield (Houghton dairy)| Oct. 1,1888 81, 600 Bakersfield (4 miles west) .-..| Jan. 20,1889 200 Bakersfield (Rosedale, 3 | May 3,1891 1, 500 miles north). ID RSE Bae eaee ea eraae May 16, 1891 2,500 Woeecee sesso seke cee ce June 6,189] 3,500 | Gus. Kratzmer, Bakersfield. Bakersfield (5 miles south) --; June 10, 1894 1, 000 Bakersfield (6 miles south- | Dec. 9, 1894 350 | C. A. Nelson, Bakersfield. east). LDQ sn choctabanesaeeseneres Dec. 16, 1894 500 | B. L. Brundage, Bakersfield. LO Sco Scsbsoceteseesoneen Dec. 238, 1894 200 Do. HU CHAN Geese onsen Sa cele ee) Feb. 4, 1888 5,500 | Delano Courier, Feb. 10, 1888. Delano (10 miles southwest) ..| Feb. 19, 1888 5,500 | Delano Courier, Feb. 24, 1888. Delano (9 miles west)........ July 13, 1888 10,000 | Delano Courier, July 20, 1888. SMUT cinoe 1.75- 2.66 Hebs 23— Mian. (251895 5.2 ose ~ | seeeeee ac cea 1. 75— 2. 50 : SRE SNVEANTol esse Sol cher seem terete tet i= la a) \arafok mics imin ine ane wicloretaise cieyh allie emia aicie aiclmesaal Seine S aiacmemtale ; A a 2. ay EN Pity MUMS sesh otkbe Se coS5| RASA SAS ee nese Eta Pe eee es ener an Ane mee roe mE ee, 1, 75- 3.00 a DRE, MIG loose. cenagacsece| 2 goes bee aecne Sapo ee gee CoSeDr ShenobEeagonoe jsacocoonaooacs 2. 25 SBGStON NUASS os cise 2 =~ «ala a= Jan. 26-Feb. 2, 1895.......... SON 25=S0 050 eee eevee set 1. 50- 3.00 New York, N.¥....-.------, Dee, 20, 1994 ST] foo tgs CITIES ado 8.48 Washington, D..C.--.--.....--- Jan, 26=Keb;,2; 1895) F cvece<22|-s-ccts scene 3. 00 3.00 *Returns for Boston, New York, and Chicago are taken from the market review in the American ve iculturist, Vols. LIV and LV; for San Francisco, from the Pacific Rural Press, Vols. XLVIII and % XLIX; figures for St. Louis have been kindly furnished by the St. Louis Poultry and Game Company; 2 a St. Lae by RK. E. Cobb; for New Orleans, by Messrs. H. & 8. Blum, and for Denver, by ne O. unger & Co. ; As might naturally be supposed, some of the largest markets for ___ jack rabbits are in the cities of California where the game is sold at a lower price than elsewhere. San Francisco probably uses more than ____ any other single city in the United States, and it is said that this game j is received during the winter months at the rate of 100 to 150 dozen’ per day. An estimate obtained by the board of trade from the com- ___- mission merchants places the total number consumed per annum at q about 96,000. The game is supplied principally by the counties of _. Fresno, Merced, and Tulare, in the San Joaquin Valley. Los Angeles y - is supplied by the southern counties of Los Angeles, Orange, River- side, San Bernardino, and San Diego. The number sold as estimated by the Chamber of Commerce, averages from 12 to 15 dozen per week _ the year round, or approximately 7,500 to 9,200 per annum, most of ____-which is received during the winter months. An estimate furnished by the Chamber of Commerce places the num- ber of jack rabbits sold in Salt Lake City, Utah, during the winter of 1894-95 at 10,000 to 15,000. Many more were given away, and the sec- retary, Mr. E. F. Colburn, explains that perhaps more were consumed than usual, owing to the fact that the rabbits were slaughtered in large numbers in regular hunts and were donated to the poor. In Denver, Colo., large numbers of jack rabbits are donated to the poor, but many are also sold as game. One commission house reports that for the last _ ten years they have handled from 13,000 to 15,000 each season, although large quantities are rarely found in market at any one time. The game comes from the eastern part of the State and from western Nebraska and Kansas. Omaba, Nebr., is supplied by the western part of the City, Mo., are at hand, the estimates ranging from a few hundred up to apant 75,000. _ Texas probably furnishes most of the rabbits sold in the mage its principal towns as well as some of those in New Orleans. O limited number of ‘jacks’ are used in New Orleans—probably not n than 25 per cent of the total number of rabbits sold—and these shipped mainly from points along the Kansas City, Fort Soave ; Memphis Railroad. Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minn., receive their main shipmemae fr North and South Dakota and Minnespte It is reported that 12,000 j rabbits (1,000 dozen) were handled by a single commission house in : Paul during last winter, probably nine-tenths of which were obtain from the Dakotas, the remainder being received from Minnesota a Towa. Estimates of the number of jack rabbits sold in the markets of so of the cities west of the Mississippi River have been obtained from boards of trade, chambers of commerce, or reliable commission mae chants, and are shown in the following table. Such figures are only approximate, but in most cases are based on the sales of the oT 1894-95 : 4 Estimates of Jack Rabbits sold in Western Cities. Ri vo | Number of | . City. rabbits. | Authority. Ss BEA AMP OION, OAL. saw. annnanearnnenas dessrmeee- 7, 509-9, 200 | Chamber of Commerce. Bet eANOISGD, Cal. acs. d.ckeecaekn se ssee 96, 000 | Board ot Trade. PEE OAT AOOIO 6 J. cha cncne phe nank none pinwaas dees 30,000 | H.O. Munger & Co. MM ls Fok onc iosce cde ieicten ad 1, 000 | Jno, M. Killin & Co. Pe PICT AG «ait o> octets nakank ope Spaeeein Oe 2,500 | Bennett & Co. RIOR NOMS GOT IM «w/o decane a aonchnh anne 25,000 | Produce Exchange. re Otis MAINE 2S oe pt cuchaleeesae chek oes *12,000 | R. E. Cobb. Eg pe RUC Oa eho ns wee canes aks e ae 725, 000 Ae SETS ae et EE ae ERE RE IS CAR 35,000 | St. Louis Poultry and Game Co. REE Ds aoe a at yb nee wee Se 60,000 | Pe yoke Bros. ~ Gait teukte Olty, Wtab2.s.0...-cales-wccepacdss | 10, 000-15, 000 | J. P. White. } * Handled by a single commission house. | Approximate. Most of the jack rabbits sold in Chicago, St. Louis, New Yor Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington seem to come fi , the Gaent Plains—from Kansas to North Dakota—but the attempt - to_ secure accurate statistics from Eastern cities is almost hopeless, as quantities of the large Varying Hares (Lepus americanus) are a received and sold indiscriminately with jack rabbits under the ae f hares. These data will give some idea of the extent to which jack rs are shipped to market. The total number sold in the cities 1 tioned above is about 300,000. Allowing an equal number for loc cousumption in small towns and for those sold in other cities CONSUMPTION OF RABBITS IN AUSTRALIA. | 77 give 600,000 as a very rough approximation of the total number con- sumed in the United States per annum. Estimated at the rate of $1.50 e to $2 per dozen the total value would be about $75,000 or $100,000. This, however, is only a small proportion of the total number of rabbits used as game, since cottontails are sold everywhere in much larger quantities. In connection with these figures it will be interesting to compare the number of rabbits sold in one of the large cities of Australia. Mel- bourne, the capital of Victoria, according to the census of 1891, had a population of 490, 896—somewhat more than that of San Francisco, Cal. The following table from the Victorian Year Book for 1893 (Vol. I, p. 262) Shows the number of rabbits sold in Melbourne during the seven years from 1886 to 1893: : Number of Rabbits shipped to markets of Melbourne, Australia. Number of couplesof rabbits— Year. Gare Sold. darned: Total. Rese Me EDIE taicha|« ayatelayeaiminiaisia. a elala'aye eie)s ciaicicl jn wisiciaainiaiaicicwaiesikesiee 5 346, 856 4, 460 351, 316 De ee tees an oe cto wen so seiskeae bb cerclisedldee stews ses bites 418, 618 2, 272 420, 890 Spgs: 1 ZL aS se Ma Sere 0 en Oa ee ee 474,384 | 13, 458 487, 842 USES 2 ceccinnacee eee aaa ee eg ee 606,568 | 11,567 618, 135 USEUet - poneddsbeto test aatcege jose 2 S06 Se eoge SECO cot Bes ae Ra ceee 676, 796 5, 955 682, 751 FUDD, a De Soe eat a ee 572,426 | 17,977 590, 403 CUBEAYS) ooo. choepae cnecono de cOOd DUD ODD ESOC rboe eae SSCCUOGSSEeH Ose See! 617, 773 19, 275 637, 048 JD Gas cecSetribticod ced cob casobenesoos bool besenco espe 3, 713, 421 74, 964 3, 788, 385 coool cag] TPALFE 2 Aes SR SERIES i eg a | 7,426,842 | 149,928 | 7,576,770 FAREED CHI CE ANTNIT 2 = = nln a)oleie im al=) es bie wi . ee Page APTA COs ea)e)--(ais\ssieis/- since maine sees === 24-25 Ada County, Idaho, bounty..-..-.--------- 41-42 Paiensiiack Rabbit........-2-.-2.-----2-% 22-23 AZ Ons LIdian ATIVES 2. 2-45-22 --..2c0+ sn 49 Australia, commercial utilization in...-- 65, 70, 77 SMPENOLUENCS a= asec se) seca n\oese sore 43-44 BepOmin Ole SKINS| son 2n= 22 esse-esern === 70 introduction of rabbits -.-..--.-------. 43 Laer Le ri@ i ite op se pS pSeaeeceeroencer 4344 methods of destruction.........-....-.- 37, 39 AMUN CIGES 20 3) 52s )-:5)< cle sa)s lz seis else 43-44 LSet) th (Ge Gee ee Seater nes Seee eS ose es orce 80-81 Black-tailed Jack Rabbit --...--...--..---. 19-21 Bladder worm...-.-..--- Pe nkasite sie eeie demas 36 SES TAIDPIANES Paseo Ae oa =. ole cet A ae ed *30a1dSILNOY ‘ainqinouBy yo ‘ydaq ‘Ss */M ‘Aeaing eo1Zololg “6 “ING CUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN THEIR RELATION TO AGRICULTURE By F. E. L. Beal, B. S. By Sylvester D. Judd, Ph. D. THE FOOD OF CUCKOOS THE FOOD OF SHRIKES Prepared under the direction of Drv Ga Ak MERRIA M CHIEF OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY AS) Daw on aad = S ey Nees Ape aS R= S WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1898 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, _ DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY, Ba . Washington, D. C., June 15, 1898. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and recommend for pub- tion as Bulletin 9 of this Division, two papers on the food habits _ of birds, based on investigations conducted in the laboratory of the _ Biological Survey by Prof. F. E. L. Beal and Mr. Sylvester D. Judd. Respectfully, C. HART MERRIAM, Chief, Biological Survey. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. ’ ae, fan sk FO og cS 5 hse CONTENTS. THE FOOD OF CUCKOOS. PeEEE UDL ES snes Oe ese oe Jain pe nto ena Oa am Soe oe Se wl PPO M ORSTOMACHS: soc ce Sacco eos Seale eee wees Sal cee eae 8 PomeaaatuSoCh L000) OF CUCKOOS-29252..5-.025- 252k fan see aS. cee See eee 11-14 TEDL TUDE: en eae gee oe et we te ee ian cee ee 11 RUSSEL EMIDLCLO race sala walstas Sole see eae oes tae See scinise ee ee see 12 TSSOP POLS: (OPELOPLET.M) ene is nee oO Ree ena e eee noe ee 12 PS henpillcn seers sae ose es tence aE Seem ce euee ee aus a aesmes 12 Miscellaneousnsectsiee = sere van Scene eke oh chee Mew eet one aie 13 Insects identified in the stomachs of cuckoos .-...--.---------------- 14 THE FOOD OF SHRIKES EUISRE Cup (SUED SB we SN a ae ae ee ee ee emp eR te 15 Worthern shrike or butcherbird .-....2225.2----25---- 5. eile era ee eee 17 Ppirs caren iy phe bubcherbird.:. 2 =.=. oasis eccs cas 222 Se egh- a sae 17 Mammals eaten by the butcherbird.-.-..-.-.-..-.--.-----------.--+- 19 inscetsveahen, by ible DMbCHeEDITds2-220 225 oe eo oo. Se ee ee 19 ties perernead SHEMKey 22 22 alan Js eee socked soe esins ceee sess voedenlceeses 20 ipirameaten. py tue lomererheads 222. 2.2252 eo. 2. ol sk Ses es ee 262 228s 20 Mammals eaten by the loggerhead...--..-----. .---2+-------. --- 2 = a 21 Other vertebrates eaten by the loggerhead .._......-..---.---------- 21 Insectsreaten: by thelosperhead:s senses. sstec2 se eee so sea ener 22 Food of nestling loggerhead shrikes............-..------ +--+ +--2-+ 24 SSTBREERLEL CDT: Yors eo oh oats ae Ee ae oop Sat ae acme ats fees Siac oe taba 24 List of invertebrates destroyed by the butcherbird..._--..--..------- 24 List of insects destroyed by the loggerhead....--....---.------------ 25 Other invertebrates destroyed by the loggerhead .....-....---..----- 25 Table showing percentages of pemeaeal elements of food of the butcherbird and loggerhead, calculated by volume .-.-..-...---..--- 26 ILLUSTRATIONS. _ Page. PERE DCNOLUILON: 2 22 o8et Aline oss meee oe clos fone lcisesoeeeeeene Frontispiece. Fic. 1. Yellow-billed cuckoo -......-..---.---.----+------+- +--+ -+++------+--- 7 PUUKOOS AND SHRIKES IN THEIR RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. Pipe FOOD: OF GUCKOOS: By F. E. L. Bran, B.S. GENERAL NOTES. - Cuckoos are quiet and rather shy birds. While they do not avoid the haunts of man, they nevertheless have a way of concealing them- hs ANH 1 IN ¥Fia. 1.—Yellow-billed cuckoo. selves in foliage, seldom aiighting on naked branches or in exposed places, and hence are not often seen. Their favorite resorts are open groves or woods, the edges of forests, orchards, and clumps of trees or shrubs. They often visit shade trees about houses, and are frequently heard in the trees along village streets or even in city parks. In many parts of the country they are known as ‘ Rain Crows’ or ‘ Kow-kows,’ the syllables kow-kow being an imitation of their notes. The cuckoo’s nest is usually built in bushes or small trees at no great height from the ground, and is a flimsy affair, composed of a few sticks, forming a mere platform for the eggs, which vary in number from two U a 8 CUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. to four. The European cuckoo, like our cowbird, lays its eggs in the nests of other birds; a reprehensible habit not shared by its American | cousin, although occasional instances of such parasitism have been observed. Our cuckoos do not ostensibly rear more than one brood in a season, but they frequently lay their eggs at intervals, so that the - young hatch successively, the later eggs being incubated in part by the _ young. ; ; Three species and two subspecies occur in the United States. Of these, one species and one subspecies are restricted almost entirely to — the southern coast of Florida, and are properly West Indian birds. — The others occupy practically the whole country, except the plains and deserts, though in winter they are found in the extreme southern part only. The yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus) breeds from the Gulf of Mexico to southern Canada; the black-billed (Coccyzus eryth- _rophthalmus) ranges still farther north. The northward migration does not begin until spring is well advanced, and is usually completed by the end of May. Most of the birds leave the Northern States in August, but some linger through September and even into October. From au economic standpoint cuckoos rank among our most useful birds. Their habit of remaining concealed in foliage suggests, and - close observation proves, that their diet consists for the most part of insects—very largely caterpillars—found on trees and shrubs. EXAMINATION OF STOMACHS. In the laboratory of the Biological Survey 109 stomachs of the yellow- billed and 46 of the black-billed cuckoo were examined. All were taken between May and October, inclusive, except one of the yellow-billed collected in Texas in January. These stomachs were obtained in twenty States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and were fairly distributed over the country from Louisiana and Texas to Canada, and from Massachusetts to Kansas and Nebraska. A greater number would have been desirable, but the contents of those examined were so uni- form that it seems fair to infer that they give a reasonably accurate idea of the general food of the species. It has been deemed best to treat the two species together, since they prove to be very much alike in diet. The greatest difference is that the yellow-billed cuckoo eats more beetles (Coleoptera) and fewer bugs (Hemiptera). The seasonal variation in diet is much less than in most birds. Of the 155 stomachs otf both species examined, only one contained any vegetable food, and this only two berries of the wild rough-leaved cornel (Cornus asperifolia). One other stomach contained a bit of rubbish, probably taken accidentally with some insect. Drs. C. Hart Merriam and A. K. Fisher have seen the yellow-billed species feeding on mulberries in Westchester County, N. Y.,! and Dr. B. H. Warren found ‘berries’ in ‘Annual Report, U. 8. Dept. Agriculture for 1890, p. 285, 1891. INSECT FOOD OF CUCKOOS. | 9 one of the nine stomachs examined by thin, ' These observations show that cuckoos do at times eat fruit, but the results of our investigation indicate that it is not their usual hemit: 3 The insect food of cuckoos consists of beetles, grasshoppers, cicadas, bugs, ants, wasps, flies, caterpillars, and spiders, of which grasshoppers and caterpillars constitute more than three-fourths. The great majority of the insects found in the stomachs were harmful kinds. Caterpillars, katydids, and tree crickets are exactly the prey that cuckoos might _ be expected to secure from their peculiar method of hunting in foliage, while the large numbers of grasshoppers eaten furnish additional proof of the fact so often illustrated that birds are particularly fond of grass- hoppers, and that species not naturally ground feeders become so during the grasshopper season. It is a matter of common observation that cuckoos feed Jargely on caterpillars, and stomach investigations not only confirm this but show that unlike most other birds they eat freely of hairy and bristly species. Nearly half of the cuckoo’s food was found to be caterpillars. An attempt was made to obtain an approximate idea of the actual number in the stomachs by counting the heads and jaws, but in many cases this was nearly impossible, as many of the insects were very young and the jaws consequently minute. The result of this estimate, however, showed that no less than 2,771 caterpillars were contained. in 129 stomachs, or an average of more than 21 in each. If the whole num- ber of stomachs (155) is considered, the average is reduced to 18, and it is absolutely certain that this is much below the actual number. During May and June, when tent caterpillars are defoliating the fruit trees, these insects constitute half of the cuckoo’s food. When cuckoos visit the nests of the tent caterpillars they apparently eat as many of the occupants as possible. Most of the stomachs that contained the _larve at all were filled with them, some having more than 100 indi- viduals. Mr. Otto Lugger, formerly of the Department of Agricul- ture, examined one stomach which was so full that he concluded that the bird had devoured the whole colony, as there were several hun- dreds of these hairy caterpillars. _ Perhaps the most curious insects found in the cuckoo stomachs were the larvie of the Io moth. These caterpillars are thickly covered along the back and sides with spines growing from tubercles, which are not only very sharp but poisonous, and sting the hand quite severely when carelessly touched. Nevertheless, they were found in _ five stomachs, one of which contained seven, another three, and the others one each. It is noticeable that the larve of moths, particularly hawk-moths _ (Sphingide), are eaten much oftener than those of butterflies. Whether _ this comes from preference and selection on the part of the bird or _ from the greater abundance and more conspicuous habits of the insects ' Birds of Pennsylvania, 2d ed., p. 161, 1890. still remains to be determined. As to the kinds of caterpillars eat it may be said that the hairy and spiny species far outnumber the smooth, but this may be due either to the greater abundance of the __ hairy ones or to the bird’s preference. 7 _ This diet of hairy caterpillars has a curious effect upon the birds’ . stomachs. A cuckoo’s stomach, unlike that of seed-eating species, has only a thin muscular coat on the outside, and the usual smooth lining a is almost entirely devoid of ruge or folds so characteristic of the stomachs of many birds. This inner layer is almost always found pierced by at least a few caterpillar hairs; often by so many as to be completely furred and the membrane itself almost entirely concealed. Incidentally this hairy lining affords an excellent means of determining the motion of the food during digestion. If a stomach is divided in the plane of its two greater diameters the hairs on each half will be found brushed around a center like the nap on the top of a silk hat, indicating that the whole mass of food revolves in this plane. It may also be noticed that the skins of caterpillars taken from the stomachs of birds— are always twisted like a cord or rope, and often require considerable untwisting before their characters can be determined. In a review of the food of cuckoos the most striking point is the great number of caterpillars or lepidopterous larve which enter into the year’s diet. These insects are crude feeders, eating immense quan- tities of vegetable tissue, and are usually so distended with it that the amount of real nutrition in any one of them must be small. In fact, stomachs of birds that have eaten largely of caterpillars always show a quantity of this finely cut vegetable matter derived from the insects’ stomachs. As digestion in birds is rapid it would seem necessary to fill the stomach several times a day with such quickly digested and slightly nutritious food as this, while the number of caterpillars found in a stomach at any one time probably represents but a small portion of the actual daily consumption. From these considerations it appears that cuckoos must eat an enormous number of larve in the course of a season. If the contents of all the stomachs examined are regarded as so many daily meals of the same bird, then the result indicates that the bird has eaten 2,771 caterpillars in 155 consecutive days, at the rate of only one meal each day, and some days not eating any. Now, 155 days is about the length of time that cuckoos remain in their summer range; moreover, as indicated above, one cuckoo must eat sey- eral meals a day, so this number (2,771) probably falls far short of the actual number of caterpillars devoured by each cuckoo during the = season. In view of such considerations it seems hardly possible to overesti- mate the value of the cuckoo’s work. All caterpillars are harmfal, many of them are pests, and any of them are likely to become so. The common tent caterpillar formerly fed upon the wild cherry, but has now turned its attention principally to apple trees, sometimes com- GENERAL INSECT FOOD OF CUCKOOS. 11 pletely defoliating them. What this caterpillar has done, many others may do. In the cuckoos we probably have one of nature’s most effi- cient checks on the increase of these harmful species. It is said that hairy caterpillars are protected by their coats from the attacks of the ichneumon flies; if this be true, the work of the cuckoos in destroying the hairy species is complementary to that of the ichneu- mons, which help to destroy the smooth-coated caterpillars. Consider- ing the number of grasshoppers, locusts, and other insects that cuckoos eat in addition to caterpillars, it is evident that from an economic point of view these birds are two of our most valuable species, and as they have not been convicted of doing any harm, they should be protected and encouraged in every possible way. Besides insects proper, a number of spiders were found in the stomachs examined, most of them the long-legged kinds commonly known as ‘daddy longlegs’ or harvestmen (Phalangide). One stomach contained seven, the mass of tangled legs looking like a bunch of coarse hair. When we consider the disgusting odor of these spiders, their long legs, and the fact that their bodies have the texture of sand- paper, we are again forcibly reminded that tastes differ. But the most remarkable thing which the cuckoos had eaten was a small tree frog (Hyla) which had been swallowed whole! In view of Audubon’s accusation that the yellow-billed cuckoo sucks the eggs of other birds, it may be said that eggshells were found in several stomachs taken in July and August, but only in very small quantities—no more than found in the stomachs of nearly every species that has been examined. It is probable that these were merely empty — shells eaten for the sake of the lime they contained. It may be added that one stomach disclosed a snail shell, which was probably taken for the same purpose. A number of stomachs contained each from one to three bits of gravel, but why the stones were swallowed was not appar- ent. Cuckoos do not eat hard seeds, and even if they did their stomachs are not muscular enough to act as a mill for grinding, as are those of gallinaceous and fringilline birds. GENERAL INSECT FOOD OF CUCKOOS. BEETLES. The beetles found in the stomachs belong to several families, no one of which forms any important percentage of the total food. The stomach taken in Texas in January contained 17 percent of beetles belonging to five different families, all harmful. Beetles constitute 14 percent of the food in May, but later in the season decrease, and after July practi- cally disappear. The useful Carabidae are rarely eaten, which is easily explained by the fact that they live on the ground, while the cuckoos feed mainly in trees. One bird, however, had eaten a specimen of Calo- soma scrutator, one of the largest and most predatory of these beetles, 12 CUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. _— which, it may be added, is one of the most disgusting in odor. This was probably the most useful insect that the birds had eaten. Scara- — beide were somewhat more numerous than other beetles. The most ~ noticeable of these was the goldsmith beetle (Cotalpa lanigera), which was found in 3 instances—6 specimens in one stomach and 3 in each of the others. Two stomachs contained each 2 specimens of the Colorado potato beetle (Doryphora 10-lineata). Elateride, Buprestidae, - Tenebrionide, Cerambycide, Lampyride, and a few Rhynchophora, or snout beetles, were also found. Among the latter was 1 specimen of the rice weevil (Calandra oryze). Altogether beetles constitute a little more than 6 percent of the year’s food. “BUGS (HEMIPTERA). Hemiptera, or bugs, are represented by cicadas, pentatomids, and a few others. The great bulk is made up of cicadas, or dog-day harvest 3 flies, which seem to be a favorite article of food, as no less than 5 were found in one stomach and 4 in another. Stink-bugs (Pentatomide) were found in quite a number of stomachs, but not in large quantities. A few assassin bugs (Reduviide) were also detected. No Hemiptera were contained in the stomachs collected in January, but in the May stomachs they amount to 12 percent, and do not vary much until after August, when they begin to disappear. They amount to about 64 percent of the food of the year. GRASSHOPPERS (ORTHOPTERA). The Orthoptera eaten by the cuckoos consist of common grass- hoppers, katydids, and tree crickets. The common grasshoppers are evidently favorites, as is the case with so many other birds. Several stomachs contained from 10 to 20 of these insects—a good meal for so small a bird. Katydids and their eggs were found in many stomachs, and often several individuals in a single stomach. The snowy tree cricket ((canthus niveus) is another insect that would seem naturally to fall in their way, and which their stomachs prove that they often eat. Orthoptera collectively were found in 86 of the 155 stomachs” examined, and constitute about 30 percent of the year’s food. Begin- ning with about 3 percent in May, they increase to over 43 percent in July, and do not fall much below this point during the remainder of the year. CATERPILLARS. Nearly half of the yearly food (48.5 percent) consists of caterpillars, — which were found in 129, or 83 percent, of the 155 stomachs examined. The stomach taken in January contained 15 percent; in May the per- centage rose to 60; in July and August it fell off a little to make room for grasshoppers, and in September reached the maximum of 75, One of the most conspicuous and interesting of these larve is the MISCELLANEOUS INSECTS EATEN BY CUCKOOS. 13 - common tent caterpillar (Clisiocampa americana), which was recognized in 17 stomachs, and was almost certainly contained in many more, though the remains were too fragmentary for positive identification. When it is considered that this species can be obtained only during May and June and that only 50 stomachs were collected in these a months, it will be seen that more than one-third of all the birds that could get these insects had eaten them. Tbough the remains in many stomachs could not be identified with certainty, there is no reasonable doubt that these caterpillars constitute at least half of all the food during this period. Another caterpillar which appears very frequently in the cuckoo’s diet is the destructive fall web-worm (Hyphantria cunea). In one stomach 217 heads of this insect were counted, and the fragments of q _ others indicated that 250 would be nearer the correct number. The larve of the white-marked tussock moth (Orgyia leucostigma) are also 2 frequently eaten. One stomach contained remains of a number of army worms (Leucania unipuncta), but as these caterpillars feed upon grass, grain, and other plants that grow in the open, they do not nat- urally fall in the way of cuckoos. It is probable that army worms would be more extensively eaten if the fields infested with them were in the immediate vicinity of woods. Besides eating caterpillars of ordinary size, cuckoos often indulge in a meal of the larve of the larger moths and hawk moths. Of the latter, Protoparce carolina and Deilephila lineata were found in several stomachs. In fact, sphingid larve appear to be favorites, and make up a large proportion of the hairless cater- pillars eaten. Giant silkworms were represented by one larva of Telea polyphemus, the lo moth (Hyperchiria io) by 13 larve, and royal moths by 1 of Hacles imperialis, each as large aS a man’s finger. Only 3 butterfly larvz were identified, one the black spiny larva of Vanessa . antiopa, another the well-known Limenitis disippus, the third the larva of a skipper, Hudamus tityrus. While cuckoos eat many larve of Lepi- doptera, remains of the adult insects were found only once. In this case the stomach contained the heads of several small moths of the Arctiide, a family whose larve are hairy. MISCELLANEOUS INSECTS. _ A little more than 5 percent of the food is made up of miscellaneous 2 insects, consisting of Diptera, Hymenoptera, and a few others. Tipu- _ lids, or crane flies, constitute the greater part of the Diptera; they are _ found in quite a number of stomachs, but do not amount to much in _ bulk. Among the Hymenoptera, the most interesting, as well as those _ most frequently found, are larve of sawflies (Tenthredinide). These so _ ¢losely resemble caterpillars that entomologists call them ‘false cater- i _ pillars’; and it seems probable that this resemblance explains why the - cuckoo eats them. They do not, however, appear distasteful, for one _ bird had eaten over 60. Larve of our largest species of sawfly (Cimbex americana) were found in several stomachs. Ants, too, are - e eaten; probably captured when crawling over leaves or b possibly when tending their dairies of plant lice. One stomacl Division of Entomology, as belonging to the genus Cryptooapeee genus is not known from the United States, but is abundant in Me and the West Indies. The bird was probarly. a late migrant. Af ceptible portontnets There were ‘ale some spiders, mainly Phalangeda As a matter of interest to the entomologist, as well as the orni thologist, a list of insects identified in the cuckoos’ stomachs appended : INSECTS IDENTIFIED IN THE STOMACHS OF CUCKOOS. Coleoptera : Lepidoptera: Calosoma secrutator. Lachnosterna sp. Osmoderma sp. Cotalpa lanigera. Gnorimus maculosus. Euphoria melancholica, Dichelonycha sp. Lucanus sp. Sandalus petrophya. Lina scripta. Disonycha abbreviata. Chrysomela scalaris. Doryphora 10-lineata. Romaleum atomarium. Prionus sp. Leptura sp. Buprestis sp. Chauliognathus sp. Phytonomus nigrirostris. Tyloderma wreum. Pissodes sp. Calandra oryze. Cratoparis lunatus. Hemiptera: Brochymena sp. Euschistus sp. Nezara hilaris. Cicada pruinosa. Cicada tibicen. Orthoptera: (Edipoda sp. Pezotettix sp. Ceuthophilus sp. (Ecanthus niveus. Anisota senatoria. Anisota virginiensis. Alypia octomaculata. Acronycta americana. Hyperchiria io. Eacles imperialis. Clisiocampa americana. Cerura sp. Datana ministra. Datana contracta. Dryocampa rubicunda. Deilephila lineata. Eudryas unio. Edema albifrons. Heterocampa manteo, Hyphantria cunea. Leucania unipuncta. Nadata gibbosa. Notodonta sp. Orgyia leucostigma, Psychomorpha epimenis, Smerinthus sp. Protoparce carolina. Spilosoma virginica. Telea polyphemus. Eudamus tityrus. Vanessa antiopa. Limenitis disippus. Hymenoptera : Pelecinus polyturator. Lophyrus sp. Cimbex americana, Camponotus sp. Cryptocarus sp. eS oe wees ee ee ee a he ee ee ee ee ee any 4 ? ? | a as i et, thik FOOD OF SARIKES: By SYLVESTER D. JupDD, Ph. D. HABITS OF SHRIKES. Two species of shrikes inhabit North America. One, the loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus et subspec.), is a permanent resident in the United States; the other, the butcherbird (Lanius borealis), visits us from the north in winter. Hither might be mistaken for a mocking bird, but upon close inspection is seen to have the hooked beak of a hawk; instead of possessing talons, however, it has weak and slender feet, thus combining characters of a bird of prey with those of a song bird. During cold weather the shrike in wait for prey takes his stand on some high perch that commands a wide view. In this position he watches, ready to pounce on the first bird that twitters in the briers, or mouse that rustles in the grass. When the quarry has been secured, it is carried to a sharp twig or thorn and spitted, and then the hunter, ever eager to satisfy his desire for the chase, goes off to the hedgerows to search for more game. In Germany it is said that a closely allied species daily kills and impales nine victims, from which belief came the common name ‘ Neuntddter’ or Ninekiller. It is well known that the shrike kills and hangs up in his shambles more than he ean utilize. But _ this apparently wanton slaughter may often be the salvation of many a shrike whose hunt over snow-covered fields has yielded no return. This habit of impaling its prey is well described by Mr. Benjamin Mortimer who, in writing from Orange, Fla., says: In March, 1889, two instances of the loggerhead shrike’s killing smaller birds _ came under my notice. In both cases the victim was a grasshopper sparrow, although birds of this species were few and scattered at that time, while the Savanna sparrow was very abundant. The sparrows were impaled by the neck upon orange thorns, and there were no wounds on any other part of the body. * * * This bird (the shrike) impales its prey not only when it wishes to preserve it, but iE also when it intends to devour it immediately, and the long slivers on fresh pine stumps are commonly selected for the purpose wherever they can be found. The bird flies to a stump with its victim, usually a beetle, and forces it upon a sliver, _ just behind the thorax, thus having a convenient place to stand and a convenient fork to hold the morsel while he breaks open the hard shell and eats the softer parts. _ The same stump is resorted to many times by the same bird, so that it is common to find quantities of the legs and wing cases of beetles about these curious dining tables, 15 16 CUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE The habit of killing small animals and hanging up their bodies h given the shrike the appropriate generic name Lanius, which means— ‘butcher.’ The name ‘ Butcherbird’ is more properly applied to the - larger northern bird, while to the smaller and more southerly species the title ‘ Loggerhead’ shrike is given. Sabah eed Different diets affect in time the structure of an animal. Special parts are developed for procuring and digesting food. But the réle — that food habits play in the production of such variations has not yet — been fully worked out. All structures are necessarily developed and maintained in direct relation to function. Shrikes have special struc- tures suited to their peculiar feeding habits. So long as the northern shrike or butcherbird is yestricted to an animal diet, because of the relative scarcity of insects at the North during most of the year, it must be more of a meat eater than its southern cousin, the loggerhead. The struggle for existence in the North is so keen that the butcher- bird, during.cold weather, must hold itself in readiness to fly at the first bird or mouse that is sighted. The food habits of the shrikes, so far as determined from the exami- nation of 155 stomachs, collected during every month of the year, from Saskatchewan to Florida and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, are very similar to those of the sparrow hawk; that is to say, the food con- sists of mice, small birds, and insects, the latter mainly grasshoppers. Both birds are much less insectivorous in cold than in warm weather— the oncoming of winter and consequent increasing scarcity of insects necessitating a change in food. In discussing the insectivorous habits of the shrike, it is hardly nec- essary to state that the destruction of grasshoppers is a great service — to the farmer. The shrike also devours a large number of beetles, and often eats caterpillars, wasps, and spiders. Since it takes practically no vegetable food, it can not injure crops, unless indirectly, by killing _ birds and insects that prey upon insect pests. The birds selected, however, are for the most part seed eaters and consequently less valu- able than the insectivorous kinds; and if it be granted that the harm done by the destruction of one of these birds is counterbalanced by the killing of one mouse, then it follows that the harm done by the shrike in killing birds is completely offset. Furthermore, the attacks of the shrike are often directed against the English sparrow, now so — obnoxious in many parts of the United States. Concerning the insect food, it may be safely stated that the percentage of noxious grass- hoppers is four times as great as that of the useful ground beetles. In considering the relation of the shrikes to agriculture, it must be remembered that one inhabits a fertile country where cultivation yields __ heavy crops, while the other lives in a northern region where agricul- _ ture amounts to very little. Therefore, the good or harm done by the — northern butcherbird must be mainly accomplished when it migrates — south into the United States. From the present limited investigation, if NORTHERN SHRIKE OR BUTCHERBIRD. i ‘appears that the beneficial qualities of both shrikes outweigh the injuri- ous. Furthermore, it is probable that when it is possible to study the _ summer food habits of the butcherbird, this species, like its southern relative, the loggerhead, will be found to be a destroyer of quantities of grasshoppers and other noxious insects. NORTHERN SHRIKE OR BUTCHERBIRD. The northern shrike is a bird of the Hudsonian zone, breeding from Labrador to Alaska, and visiting the United States in winter only, when its food supply fails at the North. During its winter sojourn it renders a threefold service by killing grasshoppers, English sparrows, and mice. The birds and mice together amount to 60 percent, and insects to 40 percent, of the food from October to April. Grass- _ hoppers constitute one-fourth of the food, and are equal to twice the combined amounts of beetles and caterpillars. Apparently no mineral or vegetable matter is intentionally swallowed. Indeed, its exclusively animal diet makes it, practically, a bird of prey, and therefore we must consider what animals it destroys. BIRDS EATEN BY THE BUTCHERBIRD. ; The Chippewa Indians call this shrike ‘big cannibal bird,’ and sev- eral instances of cannibalism are recorded. In one case a hungry butcherbird pounced upon and carried off his companion, which had been shot and laid on the top of a log cabin. The butcherbird, when impelled by extreme hunger, becomes very bold, and has been known to enter a room and decapitate a caged canary. In the stomachs of the 67 butcherbirds examined 28 species of seed- eating birds were found. Of these 3 were tree sparrows, 5 juncos, and 7 English sparrows; the others could not be named with certainty. The tree sparrows and juncos were found in shrikes that had been taken in rural districts. On the other hand, English sparrows were - found only in stomachs of birds that had been collected in cities. In speaking of the enemies of the English sparrow, Prof. W. B. Barrows says: Probably the most useful bird in this respect is the northern shrike (Lanius bore- _ alis), which visits most of our northern cities in winter and feeds freely on the _ sparrow. At one time this shrike became so abundant on the Common and public _ parks in Boston that it threatened to destroy all the sparrows, but the shortsighted authorities kept a man busy shooting the shrikes, until several dozen had been killed, and the useless sparrows were considered safe. . It is to be hoped that in other cities this enemy of the sparrow will be protected instead of persecuted. If there were 6 butcherbirds in _ each of 20 New England cities, and each butcherbird killed 1 sparrow _aday for the three winter months, the result would be a removal of _ 10,800 sparrows. Since 2 sparrows could raise under favorable condi- tions four broods of 5 each, the increase would be tenfold, so that those 3225 No, 9-—2 destroyed by the butcherbirds, if allowed to Hive, would have at the end of the first year to 118,800, and at the end of the secon to 1,306,800 individuals. The Stee is at work every winter cities of the northern tier of States, killing the sparrows which t¢ increase until they become so abundant that more are obliged to reso to the country for food. In a number of instances where English spa: rows had been devoured, their stomachs, containing seeds and gravel, — were found within the butcherbirds’ stomachs. A golden-crowned kinglet’s stomach also was detected, filled with fragments of a beetle and scores of tiny gnats. Mr. Frank M. Drew, in an article enti ‘Field Notes on the Birds of San Juan County, Colorado’ (Bull. Nut Ornith. Club, vol. 6, p. 89), says that this shrike lives by foraging oi little troops of titmice. Dr. G. 8S. Agersborg, of South Dakota, states (The Auk, vol. 7, p. 279) that it seems to follow the wake of the tre sparrows (Spizella monticola), and leaves in the spring at the same t they do. Prof. F. E. L. Beal while at Ames, Iowa, noted the butcher- bird attacking birds only once, although he had time and again recordé their killing mice. In this exceptional case the victim was a dow woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens) which the shrike had hung in a eroteh while devouring the brains. The most remarkable account of the | butcherbird’s not molesting birds also comes from Professor Beal at the same station. A shrike was perched on a telegraph wire aboy Ly a rank weed patch which was all a-twitter with hundreds of natiyv sparrows. ial now and then the shrike would leave the wire t perch. He paid no attention to the spartows, and they comet signs of apprehension. : Following is a list of birds that the butcherbird has been known O kill: Chickadee ( Parus atricapillus).' Bush tit ( Psaltriparus). English sparrow ( Passer domesticus ).” Tree sparrow (Spizella monticola).* Snowflake ( Plectrophenax nivalis). Downy woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens). Vireo (Vireo sp.). Junco (Junco hyemalis).* Kinglet (Regulus satrapa).? Field sparrow (Spizella pusilla).? Goldfinch (Spinus tristis).? Siskin (Spinus pinus).? Yellow-rumped warbler (Dendroica coronata),? Mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura). Cardinal ( Cardinalis cardinalis). Longspur (Calcarius).° Shore lark ( iaiteg tte 4 3 1Dr. J. Dwight, jr. 2Identified in the laboratory. — ’ Ornithologist and Oologist. FOOD OF THE BUTCHERBIRD. 19 MAMMALS EATEN BY THE BUTCHERBIRD. The stomach of a shrike that has recently eaten a mouse is found to be filled with a large ball of fur, with bones in the center. It is impos- sible for these large masses to pass through the small intestine, there- fore they are expelled through the mouth. A number of birds, includ- 9 ing the European shrike (Lanius excubitor), are known to disgorge pellets after the manner of birds of prey. Mice were found in one-third of the stomachs examined, constituting one-fourth of the food, and were eaten most frequently in March. Of these mice 15 were identified as follows: 1 white-footed mouse (Pero- myscus), 1 harvest mouse (heithrodontomys), and 8 meadow mice (Mierotus). This last mouse is the one that oftenest falls a victim to hawks and owls. Mr. William Brewster, of Cambridge, Mass., states in The Auk (Vol. XI, p. 329) that he saw a shrike seize a large meadow mouse by the back, drag it across the snow, and then drop it. The mouse, instead of trying to escape, sprang at the shrike and drove it back several feet. Finally the bird, by several well-aimed passes, suc- ceeded in intimidating the mouse, and then, as the latter turned to run away, caught it by the neck and worried it to death, as a terrier would arat. The mouse was afterwards borne off in the shrike’s claws and fixed in the fork of a tree. Meadow mice, besides consuming grass and grain, also girdle fruit trees, and the house mouse, in addition to wast- ing corn in the granary, wantonly destroys grain standing in the shock. Dr. EK. A. Mearns, United States Army, states in a letter that shrikes in Minnesota during March live exclusively upon meadow mice (Micro- tus), and Mr. W. L. Scott (The Auk, Vol. I, p. 158) cites an instance 5 in which a butcherbird was caught in the act of giving chase to a chipmunk (Tamias striatus). Carrion is sometimes eaten. Prof. F. E. L. Beal, while at Ames, Iowa, in January, 1880, saw a butcherbird fly over the brown frozen prairie to a carcass of a cow, where it lit on one of the ribs and greedily tore off shreds of the flesh. INSECTS EATEN BY THE BUTCHERBIRD. * Active insects are much more liable than sluggish ones to fall victims to the butcherbird, because objects which at rest can not be discrim- inated are instantly seen when moving. Thus it happens that flying grasshoppers and running beetles form a large proportion of the food of this bird. Grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera), which are eaten _ during every month from October to April, form 24 percent of the total _ volume of food, and for October and November together these insect _ pests form more than half of the food. Compared with Orthoptera, the beetles (Coleoptera) eaten are of minor importance, amounting to only _ 6 percent of the food. More than half these beetles belong to the _ family Carabide, the members of which prey upon insect pests. Cater- 20 CUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. — pillars were contained in one-fifth of the stomachs examined, and during the months of January and February amount to 8 percent of the vol- ume of the stomach contents. Dr. A. K. Fisher collected in March two stomachs that were full of caterpillars. Even the bristly Isabella caterpillar is eaten, an object apparently as edible as a chestnut bur. — Xs Cutworms were found in several instances, but moths were seldom met with. Ants, wasps, flies, and thousand legs are sometimes eaten, and spiders constitute 3 percent of the food; but bugs (Hemiptera) were not detected during our laboratory investigations, though a cicada sup- posed to have been impaled by a shrike was found by Mrs. Musick, at Mount Carmel, Mo. Important as is the study of the food of nestlings, it must, for lack of material, rest on the work of other writers. Audubon states that caterpillars, other insects and spiders, together with small fruits, form the first food of young butcherbirds. It seems odd that a bird which eats no fruit itself should feed its young on berries. The log- gerhead shrike, as far as my investigation shows, neither takes vege- table food nor gives it to its young; and furthermore, our fruit-eating © birds, so far as known, never begin by feeding their young on fruit, The present investigation shows that beneficial birds form less than one-fourth of the food of the butcherbird. It also shows that the butcherbird, in addition to being an enemy of mice, is a potent check ‘on the English sparrow, and on several insect pests. One-fourth of — its food is mice; another fourth grasshoppers; a third fourth consists of native sparrows and predaceous beetles and spiders, while the remainder is made up of English sparrows and species of insects, most of which are noxious. THE LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE. The geographic races of the loggerhead shrike have almost identi- cal habits, and consequently will be considered together. During the breeding season the loggerhead, the southern representative of the butcherbird, inhabits the United States, northern Mexico, and the southern part of the interior of Canada. It is smaller and differs in minor details of color: the lower mandible is black, while that of the butcherbird is yellowish; and the black bars on the side of the head meet across the forehead, but fail to do so in the butcherbird. In fall the loggerheads wander southward, but in spring they return to their breeding grounds and nest in thorny shrubs. BIRDS EATEN BY THE LOGGERHEAD., Only 7 birds were found in the 88 loggerhead stomachs examined. One of these was an English sparrow, another a tree sparrow, and most of the others, which were not specifically identified, were also seed-eating birds, VERTEBRATES EATEN BY THE LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE. 21 Following is a list of birds reported to have been killed by the loggerhead: English sparrow (Passer domesticus). Tree sparrow (Spizella monticola). Yellow-winged sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum passerinus). Song sparrow (Melospiza fasciata). Western chipping sparrow (Spizella socialis arizone).! White-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis).? Young chicken.® Canary (Serinus canarius).* Chimney Swift (Chetura pelagica).4 Ground dove (Columbigallina passerina terrestris). Bell’s vireo (Vireo belli). Snow bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis).° Blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila cwrulea).' MAMMALS EATEN BY THE LOGGERHEAD. From the laboratory investigation there is no evidence to show that shrews are eaten, but Mr. Robert Ridgway has seen shrews that had been impaled by the loggerhead. Mice are often found in stomachs of birds killed in winter, at which season they form 50 percent, and for the whole year 16 percent, of the food. The pretty white-footed mice are favorites. Bones, skin, and two tails of this mouse were taken from one stomach. The loggerhead is a good mouser during cold weather, but owing to its weaker bill is not so successful as the butcherbird in its battles with the large meadow mice. Cases have been recorded where loggerheads ate carrion. Mr. William Lloyd, in an article entitled ‘Birds of Tom Green and Concho counties, Texas’ (The Auk, Vol. IV, 1887, p. 295), states that in the severe January of 1884 he found a loggerhead shrike so gorged from feeding on a dead sheep that it could not fly. OTHER VERTEBRATES EATEN BY THE LOGGERHEAD. Lizards were found in 6 of the 9 stomachs collected south of the lat- itude of Nashville, Tenn. One of the lizards was the so-called chame- leon (Anolis principalis). Snakes, fish, and frogs are occasionally eaten. On this subject Mr. H. G. Gedney writes: * * * “I have often seen them (loggerheads) return to lizards and tree toads which they had impaled * * *. I saw a loggerhead attack a snake of the genus Lepto- phis, nearly two feet long, and after a sharp contest succeed in dis- patching it.” It is not at all uncommon for loggerhead shrikes to kill snakes. In The Osprey for April, 1897, is a picture of an impaled garter snake (Hutenia sirtalis) beside a loggerhead’s nest, and several observers have told me that they attack snakes and impale their bodies. Prof. W. G. Johnson, of the Maryland Agricultural College, William Lloyd. 3 Florida Dispatch. 5 W. H. Collins. 2 William Palmer, 4 Robert Ridgway. 22. CUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO ) AGRICT has observed the loggerhead impale enakes on a barbed- At times loggerheads feed upon fish. The stomach of a bird ] Utah on a cold winter’s day contained nothing but minnow’s | and Bachman speaks of the shrike’s impaling fish that have been by fishermen. ‘a INSECTS EATEN BY THE LOGGERHEAD. The larger part of the insect food of this shrike consists of Orthopi (grasshoppers and crickets), and the remainder is principally beet In summer, when grasshoppers are abundant, the loggerhead does 1 seem to attack birds. The fact that in time of plenty more insects killed and impaled than can be utilized indicates that the percent: of these pests destroyed is much greater than the laboratory exami tions show. The same statement would not hold good in the case the destruction of birds, because during cold weather when birds ai killed there is a scarcity of food, and all the spoils of the chase 2 probably utilized. Grasshoppers and crickets were found in ‘dimees! fourths of the stomachs examined, and 14 of the 88 shrikes had fe exclusively upon these pests. Most of the Orthoptera eaten are grass-_ is hoppers, though some crickets are taken. Most of the grasshoppers: i: found in stomach contents are flying species, among which have been noted the dust-colored Dissosteira carolina which, when rising from we 5 road, shows beautiful yellow underwings, and the red-legged grass- oa 7 hopper (Melanoplus femur-rubrum) which is so conspicuous in hay fields. a The pellucid grasshopper (Camnula atroxr), which is somewhat migra- tory, is frequently captured, and also an ugly grasshopper (Hippiseus). In Arizona Dr. Horn has seen loggerheads catch grasshoppers | and — impale them on cactus spines. One of the largest insects devoured by _ this bird is a sand cricket, the so-called Idaho devil. The mole riche likewise a large insect, is attacked and eaten by the shrikes of the — southeastern United States. The fact that they take these en EP insects shows that whatever food becomes available in any locality is . generally utilized. Beetles and their larvie are found in about one-fotiaial of the. stomachs, and constitute 20 per cent of the bulk of the food. Most He the beetles are eaten in spring before grasshoppers become abundant. — Half the beetles and their larve destroyed are useful carnivorous species that prey upon insect pests. Some of the largest of these beneficial beetles have been found stuck upon the splinters of the - stump of a felled tree. There were taken from one loggerhead’ ‘ stomach 112 jaws of the larvie of a large predaceous beetle, and from — another stemach the remains of the useful tiger beetle. It is probable that the killing of useful beetles is more detrimental to agricultu ral interests than the destruction of birds. Although half the beetle S eaten are beneficial, most of the others are injurious. Among thi latter class may be mentioned large, bright-colored, wood-boring b INSECTS IMPALED BY THE LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE. 23 tles (Buprestide), with the adult beetles of wire worms, weevils, and some allies of the May beetle. There are also eaten some of the harm- less species closely related to this last group of beetles, as for instance the little dung beetles (Aphodius) and the large green-and-gold tumble- bug (Phaneus carnifex). Darkling (Tenebrionide) and carrion beetles (Silphide) are frequently caught, and the latter insects have been found stuck upon a barbed-wire fence. The insect food of the loggerhead, like that of the butcherbird includes about 11 percent of caterpillars, wasps, and spiders. In the stomach of one bird was the abdomen of a large wasp with its sting sti attached. That the loggerhead is given to catching large insects is shown by the fact that one stomach was distended with a large grass- hopper (Schistocerca americana), another contained a mole ericket, and a third was filled with an enormous saw fly (Urocerus). This last wasp- like insect does much damage by puncturing trees, thus making an opening for wood-boring insects. Loggerheads relish caterpillars; they destroy canker worms (Geome- tride), cut worms (Noctuide), and even bristly caterpillars (Arctiide) ; but as far as this investigation goes they have not been known to take adult Lepidoptera, although Bachman says he has seen them seize but- terflies and moths on the wing. To complete the items of the inverte- brate food there should be added crane flies, ants, dragon flies, May flies, thousand-legs, snails, and cray fish. These, though occasionally eaten, never form any significant percentage of the food. To this account of the loggerhead shrike are added the following field notes kindly written for this paper by Mr. EB. A. Schwarz, of the U.S. - Department of Agriculture: Insects impaled by Lanius ludovicianus excubitorides in southwestern Texas. From April 24, 1896, the date of my arrival at San Diego, Duval County, Tex., up to May 21, I do not remember having seen any impaled insects. During this time the weather was extremely dry, but quite a number of large-sized insects abounded. On May 21 a copious rainfall occurred and brought out myriads of specimens of the Scarabzid genus Canthon (tumble bugs). These seem to be greatly relished by the shrikes, and large numbers of specimens could now be seen impaled every day. Other species of impaled insects observed at the time were Pasimachus, Dicewlus, and a single Hymenopter (Glis). No impaled grasshoppers were seen at this season. The shrubs more especially selected by the birds are Celtis pallida and Prosopis juliflora, dead shrubs being preferred to living ones. However, the number of impaled insects in early summer is small in comparison with that seen toward the end of October. Impaled grasshoppers abound now, but there is no lack of other terrestrial insects, especially Carabide. Some soft-bodied insects are also among them, notably various terrestrial spiders and larve of Cara- bidous Coleoptera. Finally, there are numerous lizards and horned toads. It was also then noticed for the first time that the barbs of wire fences are used for impaling ; insects. Most of the impaled specimens are never eaten by the birds, and remain for many weeks on the thorns. It would seem that the bird has acquired the habit of impaling insects without having the intention of eating them. FOOD OF NESTLING LOGGERHEAD SHRIKES. A female parent and 6 half-grown young were collected for pose of ascertaining whether, as is commonly believed, young shi are fed upon song birds. Three-fourths of the conten of e these stomachs were insects, mainly grasshoppers. Parts of a m low mouse had been fed to 2 of the nestlings. Mr. F. H. King, w h made extended ee on. the food of hinds) cites an instance lings, found no birds, but many beetles, grasshoppers, and br caterpillars. The caterpillars belonged to the family Arctiide, were covered with spines. It is very important that the few birds — which will eat such caterpillars should be rigorously protected. = SUMMARY, The food of the butcherbird and loggerhead, as shown by 155 s on - achs collected during every month in the year, and in an area exten ‘ ing from California to the Atlantic coast, and from Saskatchewan | Florida, consists of invertebrates (mainly grasshoppers), birds, an mice. During the colder half of the year the butcherbird eats bi ae and mice to the extent of 60 percent and ekes out the rest of its foo bs hal with insects. In the loggerhead’s food birds.and mice amount to only 24 percent. It will readily be seen from the table on page 26 that t Instead of being persecuted it should receive protection. LIST OF INVERTEBRATES DESTROYED BY THE BUTCHERBIRD, Orthoptera: Grasshoppers (Acridiida) } 4 gn Crickets (Gryllide). Coleoptera: Ground beetles (Carabidae), Tiger beetles (Cicindelide). Darkling beetles ( Tone"): Diptera: Flies. Hymenoptera: Ants (Formicidae). Wasps. Lepidoptera: Cut worms (Noctuida). Bristly caterpillars (Arctiida), Arachnida: Spiders. Myriapoda: Thousand-legs (Julus). Crustacea : Sand fleas (Amphipoda), INSECT FOOD OF THE LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE. LIST OF INSECTS DESTROYED BY THE LOGGERHEAD.! - Orthoptera: Melanoplus femurrubrum. an Camnula atrox. Acridiide -. - ie ‘ ’ Dissosteira carolina. Grasshoppers. --- - ; y Schistocerca americana. Locustide. Crickets and mole crickets (Gr glide). Coleoptera: Anisodactylus. as. Amara interstitialis. : Y Lebia. Ground beetles (Carabide) --... Harpalus. Pierostichus. - . Carabus ?. ‘ May beetles. Scarabzids Tumblebugs-- ee Geotrupes. One beetles (Aphodius hyper boreus). Flower beetles (Huphoria). Histerids (ister). Longicorn beetles (Ceramtycidw). Rove beetles (Staphylinida). Tiger beetles (Cicindelide). 4 Click beetles (Hlateridw) [Melanotus]. Carrion beetles (Silphidw) {ee CET. q Necrophorus marginatus. a Weevils (Rhynchophora). . Darkling beetles (Tenebrionide) .-- -| Upis ceramboides. a Eleodes tricostata. Hemiptera: Bugs (Heteroptera). Odonata: Dragon flies... i Hos % Trbellula. Lepidoptera : i Cutworms (Noctuide). g Canker-worms (Geometridw). i, Arctiide. Bs Hymenoptera : a Dis. ees ---- Camponotus pennsylvanicus. Myrmicide. a Wasps (Vespina, Sphecina, Urocerus). Diptera: Crane flies (Tipulida). Ephemeride : May flies. OTHER INVERTEBRATES DESTROYED BY THE LOGGERHEAD. Spiders. Snails. Thousand legs. | Some of these insects are from records sent in by Mr. Ernest Seton Thompson. 3225—No, 9 3 26 CUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO iCUL Table showing percentages of principal elements of food of the butcherbird a calculated by volume. f 2 a 2 |g DQ a a ) — ae Bola Se) eee Ziel] \eglee m5} 3 | 3 : Name. A. |e PalSs) a] 5 8 = Be Month. e(f/ 2] 2 /aelgel | Zles| a |e | BIE|E|E 2 [Bel a2 (s2| 2/3 Pi\disi|a 6 bb |e EIS |lalo || | Butcherbird .....-. 77\93|92|55)..... 8| 3| 1] 6] 4] 1 Oe Poarorbead cn 0 (a4) 85 a8 7) | || 8) 41g yoseesnme and Butcherbird -.-.--- 7 258 ‘ Loggerhead... --- lel ’o| os Sloe} of 2{ a1 | a4] ae Mar: and Apr... Do SE a ease e eee 11]89| 3|.---. 8| 7] 3]---.| 4) 7] 4| Mayand June- the a a eae Rear —2}67| 2| 4| 1| 5|19| duly, Aug, an Butcherbird .......| 27| 73 |11|16'....|57| 4|....| 6| 4) 2 oct and: Noe Loggerhead.....--- 10°) 90" {225.] LO SS OOM bal Rapes tent, di i intake Butcherbird .| 60 | 40 | 26| 34 |....|24| 38| 2) 6| 4| 1| Average Oct. toApr., Loggerhead -| 28 | 72 | 16 8 | 4} 39) 4] 3) fl 9|13 Average forthe whole =) e STILE UNITED STATES. = : j =e BY mals = C. HART MERRIAM | ._ Bae ae ae Biological en: ; fr = 2 : RULE ; 4 aon us : es S me : ee sree ene as WASHINGTON por a Ine ee ‘GOVERNMENT PRINTING. ORFICE. Beh i eee m tb * - < * = € y i aoe y 4: 2 ee. BSS % ‘ Bo I \ ~ NS + < cre ‘ b oe : 7 > ~ ro: Sod Z - + ° ne =. ie y 7 ey i = = ae a 5 as | / Corrected to December, 1897. ar. LIFE ZONES 0: C.E 30° 85° 80° 715° 70° 65° 60” 55° Transition. Upper Austral a Lower Austral Gulf Strip of Lower Austral Tropical | 25° eS The dotted parts of the Austral Zones east of the Great Plains wdicute the extent of the humid adivistons of these Zones, krowi Tespec- tively as the Alleghantan,Carolintar and Aus- tcrorepartan faunas. Theundotied parts of the same Lones are known as the Transition, Upper Sonoran and Lower Sonorar . aa 20° JULIUS BIEN & CON Y. 90° 85° 80° 75° 70° UNITED STATES RRIAM. Boreal ema t ay ie arene ects nO i re: -pMtss 25% e £ Meg ce! Rotioo bevy Oe - ae y : Ae Transition N Srna | \ Ui pper Austral Lower Austral as a Gulf Strip of Lower Austral Tropical The dotted parts of the Austral Zones east Of the Great Plains widicute the extent of He humid divistons of these Zones, known respec tively asthe Alleghantare,Carolinian and Aus crorppartan faunas. Theundotied parts of He same Lones are known as the Transition, Upper Sonoran and Lower Sonoran. JULIUS BIEN & CO.NY, Corrected to December, 1897, LIFE ZONES OF THE UNITED STATES BY C. HART MERRIAM. —. =< | BULLETIN No. 10 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY LIFE ZONES AND CROP ZONES OF ie be eee a Abies BY C. HART MERRIAM Chief, Biological Survey faN2 COMMER) WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1898 se LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BIOLOGICAL SURVEY, Washington, D. C., June 20, 1898. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith for publication, as Bul- letin No. 10 of this division, a report on the work of the Biological Survey in its relation to practical agriculture, comprising a reprint of the article on the subject in the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1897 and considerable additional mat- ter. This report is accompanied by a new map of the life zones of the United States, corrected to December, 1897, and consists of four parts, as follows: I. Relations of the Biological Survey to practical agriculture. II. Life zones of the United States: Boundaries, native species, and important crops. : III. Laws of temperature control of the geographic distribution of animals and plants. IV. Crop tables. ‘ It is hoped that this report, with its accompanying zone map and crop lists, will serve to emphasize the extreme wastefulness of indis- eriminate experimentation, by which hundreds of thousands of dollars are thrown away each year in futile attempts to make crops grow in areas totally unfitted for their cultivation. Respectfully, . C. Hart MERRIAM, Chief, Biological Survey. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. Pe ee al na CONTENTS. Page RTD EMO RIO Na Soaps ow eee tA cde Mee eee oe ee iy eis te eee eat a PART I RELATIONS OF THE BIOLOGICAL SURVEY TO PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. -.._- 9 ME MaeMIVCrSiiCaionl OF CLOPS «so 2- Pets oe S02 A oe 9 Sea Island and Egyptian cotton for new sections ..-_-..--.----------.--- 1 irantaple crops for difteront climates -— |... 2... 2. 222222225. 22e2e. Muaiwnetarmen needs to KNOW. .-- =:~-=20 2222-4 e-2 222k elena 12 MER o ACI CMA rePIONSe= 2s) Sas. iow ec oe ce 12 Development of agriculture in California _._______-_.__-------..--_----. 14 TLE STPIL TREYETROVISE 5 oho eae ARIAS SSIS eu Sry arn sea Ne Neaeale ne get AC egreniae eLeeiae s 15 Special value of narrow extensions of ane Betis a Ne Le) ree Bee ae eee 15 PART II. LIFE ZONES OF THE UNITED STATES: BOUNDARIES, NATIVE SPECIES, AND [GvHEO TNT INTs CPx OASIS ag A ear ie ye et a Ss mC Cg I eee 18 fe HOPAT Cie Alpine ZOMG 22) ta es. See es. oe ee ee he ee POM UaSOnNtATZONC = eee: Ue ne Laat Sell Boy Vase ies 19 PATEL @ ANACI ANE Z ONG. = = tet eo cea ee Min Oat ae AE es Ue ie ne ae 19 PPC eLrAnsittON: ZONOy: cet. |e wine oe alee ee eae Da AN eh cae i 20 (Methe: Alechanian:fannal-ared yo. 3 se oe ee ee a oe 20 Crops of the Alleghanian faunal area _______.__---_.----------- 21 (b) The arid Transition faunal area - EIS igh a ie Sa ne OLE a Crops of the arid Transition Epona AREA eh te ae eee eee en 20 (e), Che Pacifiecoast- Lransition taunal areas: +2. 222 7a eee 27 Crops of the Pacific coast Transition faunal area ._____-------- 29 DaLHesUinper Austral’ ZO) ases =o ees 2b rhlst AA e een a ine eee 30 (?)eche:Carolinian taunalvarean. oe 222 eee et ee ee Crops ofthe Carolinian faunal area -) 2 5-)- =e al (One lippensonoran fatnal, area sis ee oe ee eee ere 36 Crops of the Upper Sonoran faunal area__--_.---.------..------- 37 eehEeniower Austral One! fi) be si aa eee eee eae eee ee 41 (a). che Lower Sonoran‘faunal area. ss 252s 5 2 41 - Crops of the Lower Sonoran faunal area ______ ._____..-___---- 42 (OP therAustroriparian faunaliarease:. 35-32). oo eee AG Crops of the Austroriparian faunal area __.._..------.-------- 46 {co SCLLO peal or Gili Strips. . Jeie'= ee oe ee Phe Austral resion.. 2: oie ee bh The ‘Tropical-region 32 22223 ee Oe ee eee Apples 22.20. os Shae sole i ek Wherries. ). 220252805 eo 2 eRe ee GITADES 283 oes c seas Do So eee on oe IN Ut tie SO es OS Se Ne ee ee en oe ILLUSTRATION. Map showing life zones of the United States -_.......-...--....---. INTRODUCTION. For ten years the Biological Survey (and its predecessor, the Divi- sion of Ornithology and Mammalogy) has had small parties in the field traversing the public domain for the purpose of studying the geographic distribution of our native land animals and plants and mapping the boundaries of the areas they inhabit. The present report is intended to explain the relations of this work to practical agriculture and to show the results thus far attained—it does not deal with other investigations carried on by the Survey. It was early learned that North America is divisible into seven transcontinental belts or life zones and a much larger number of minor areas or faunas, each characterized by particular associations of animals and plants. It was then suspected that these same zones and areas, up to the northern limit of profitable agriculture, are adapted to the needs of particular kinds or varieties of cultivated crops, and this has since been fully established. When, therefore, the natural life zones and areas, seemingly of interest only to the naturalist, were found to be natural crop belts and areas, they became at once of the highest importance to the agriculturist. A map show- ing their position and boundaries, so far as ascertained at the close of the field season of 1897, accompanies this report, and lists of the more important crops of each belt and its principal subdivisions are here for the first time published. The matter relating to the native animals and plants has been reduced to a fragmentary outline, for the reason that this branch of the subject is of comparatively little inter- est to the farmer and fruit grower. Under the head ‘Important crops,’ and in the corresponding ‘ Chon tables’ at the end of the report, great care has been taken to make the lists accurate and trustworthy as far as they go. One of the chief difficulties encountered is that nearly all of the published matter relating to the distribution of crops is arranged by political divisions, as States or counties, and consequently is of little assistance as a guide to climatic or zone requirements. Another difficulty is the over sanguine attitude of many fruit growers and horticultural socie- ties, particularly in the West, where innumerable varieties are re- ported as succeeding in places where they have not been tested a sufficient length of time. The intention in the present report has been to omit doubtful records, and since reliable information from specific localities of known zone position is exceedingly searce, it is 7 Sh Ske Stee INTRODUCTION. obvious that tke lists are very incomplete. They should be taken a base on which to build. ; Statistical information has been freely furnished by Mera ohn Statistician of the e Department. The data on the distributio: cereals I have corp? ¥“od from a study of the manuscript maps accom panying a report vy Prof. C. 8. Plumb, about to be published by the Biological Survey. The data on fruits and other crops have be obtained from various sources, published and unpublished. Amo the former may be mentioned the ‘ Catalogue of Fruits’ of the Ame can Pomological Society (Bull. 6, Div. Pomology, U. S. Departments Agriculture), reports of several State boards of horticuiture, an¢ reports of the State Board of Trade of California. Special ‘eee tion on Arizona has been contributed by Prof. J. W. Toumey; 01 Florida, by Mr. Herbert J. Webber; on California, by Prof. E. J Wickson; on Washington, by Mr. Jesse Baker, and on the Sna River Valley at Lewiston, Idaho, and adjacent parts of Washingt by Mr. E. H. Libby, president of the Lewiston Water and Power Company, and Henry H. ee! of Almota, Wash. But most of United States Deja nieat of Aces and particularly to Mr. William A. Taylor, assistant pomologist, who has kindly gone over * and corrected the various fruit lists with me and has made the nomen- _ clature conform to the rules of the American Pomologieal Society. Without Mr. Taylor’s invaluable assistance these lists would not have — i. been fit for publication. eae Corrections and additions are earnestly desired in order that sul sequent editions of the report, ‘which is intended to serve as a guid and index to the crop adaptations of the various life zones and areas, — may be made more complete and useful. The list of miscellaneous — crops here given is regrettably meager, and nothing whatever is said of the varieties of tobacco, tomatoes, eggplants, pumpkins, squashes, i ' beans, pease, potatoes, or other garden vegetables. It is hoped the — necessary data on these will be obtained in time for me in th next edition. Cc. H. M. PART 7 RELATIONS OF THE BIOLOGICAL SURVEY TO PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. The Biological Survey aims to define and map the natural agricul- tural belts of the United States, to ascertain what products of the soil can and what can not be grown successfully in each, to guide the farmer in the intelligent introduction of foreign crops, and to point . out his friends and his enemies among the native birds and mammals, thereby helping him to utilize the beneficial and ward off the harmful kinds. No fact is better recognized by thoughtful students of our resources than the need of diversifying our agricultural products, with a view not only to remedying the present unequal apportionment of stand- ard crops throughout the United States, but also with a view to the introduction of new kinds. This is the more important because of the varying market values of standard crops from year to year, prices frequently falling so low as barely to cover cost of production, bringing hardship if not financial ruin to the producer. In order to obviate so far as possible the disastrous effects of such years it would seem the part of wisdom to be prepared with two or more crops, so that if one fails by reason of unsuitable seasonal conditions or low price the other can be depended on for sufficient revenue to bridge over the period of loss from failure of the first. Farms so favorably situated that absolute reliance can be placed on a single crop, or so little diversified that all parts are equally fitted for this crop, are few and far between; and even in such eases there is danger of overproduction. As a rule, if the major part is well adapted for corn, wheat, cotton, sugar, or tobacco, the crop chosen is subject to material fluctuations in yield and value, and minor areas are better fitted for some other use. NEED OF DIVERSIFICATION OF CROPS. The Statistician of the Department, in his last report to the Secre- tary, calls attention to the marked geographic concentration of agri- cultural productions, and points out that ‘‘twenty-five States, or just half the total number, produce 98 per cent of the cotton, 95 per cent ; 9 10 LIFE ZONES AND CROP ZONES. of the corn, 95 per cent of the barley, 93 per cent of the oats, and from 2g eight-tenths to nine-tenths of the wheat, rye, buckwheat, tobacco, potatoes, and hay produced in the entire country.” This certainly is an unfortunate state of affairs, and one which, in the light of present knowledge of crop adaptations, seems unnecessary. At thesame time, it is well to keep in mind the distinction between crops raised for home consumption and those raised for export. If, for instance, the twenty- five States and Territories now producing collectively less than 5 per cent of the total output of cereals can, by selecting proper varieties, grow enough for their own use, they may be able to raise for export fruits or other crops far more valuable to them than an excess of cereals. . For several years prior to 1897! the price of wheat in the North and West was so low.as hardly to cover the cost of harvesting, while in the Southern States not enough was raised for local consumption, and the price was correspondingly high. Thus, in 1894 the price of wheat on the farm in the Dakotas, Oregon, and Washington ranged from 39 to 46 cents per bushel, while in South Carolina, Alabama, and Georgia it brought from 76 to 87 cents, and in Arizona $1. If a wheat can be found which may be depended upon to mature a good yield on suit- able soils in the Southern States great benefit to the people should accrue therefrom. Recent investigations carried on in the Biological — Survey by Prof. C. 8S. Plumb show that Fultz wheat and the spring or May wheats (including red May, early May, late May, big May, and others) may be grown successfully, except in the lowlands, in what is known as the Austroriparian zone, a belt which covers the greater part of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and central Texas; and that Sonoran and Australian wheat do well in the Lower Sonoran belt in Arizona and southern California. Similarly, oats, in the main a Northern crop, has been found to do well in the Austroriparian belt of the Southern States if proper varieties are chosen; and these varieties are the Burt and Red Rust Proof. In the case of corn, Moseby’s Prolific, Golden Dent, and White Gourd Seed seem well adapted to the same belt. So there appears to be no reason why cereals can not be grown in the Southern States in quantities more than sufficient for local consumption. Cotton is the staple crop of the South, far exceeding all others in money value. But during 1897 the price of cotton was so low as to yield no profit, while at the same time wheat was so high that if a fair division of acreage had been made between the two, the Southern planters would have realized handsome profits instead of suffering financial distress. Attention must be called also to the facet that in 'In 1897 the price of wheat was so high that in Oregon and Washington the farm value was 7() cents per bushel, and the crop was so large (more than 38,000,000 bushels) that its farm value in Washington was $13,684,761, and in Oregon $13,071,622, or a total for the two States of nearly $27,000,000, fe CROPS FOR DIFFERENT CLIMATES. Bites the face of the very large crop and extreme low price of cotton in 1897, when our export amounted to $212,640,769 (and similarly in 1894, when - we exported $210,000,000 worth), enormous quantities were imported from Egypt. This, while inferior to our Sea Island cotton, is of higher grade than our ordinary product and is used ‘‘for goods requiring smooth finish and high luster. It gives to fabries a soft finish somewhat like silk.” During the fiscal year 1896 the value of the Egyptian cotton imported into this country was more than $5,000,000, and in 1897, $4,277,618. This brings up the important question whether we can not, with the aid of irrigation, raise these high-grade varieties in certain parts of the arid Southwest—in south- ern Arizona and the desert region of southern California. SEA ISLAND AND EGYPTIAN COTTON FOR NEW SECTIONS. The history of Sea Island cotton is interesting, as showing how the intelligent introduction and cultivation of choice crops in suitable climatic areas may yield rich returns. Dr. Walter H. Evans states that the Sea Island cotton, whose fiber is so highly prized, ‘‘is indige- nous to the Lesser Antilles, and probably to San Salvador, the Baha- mas, Barbados, Guadeloupe, and other islands between 12° and 26° north latitude. By cultivation it has been extended throughout the West Indies, the maritime coast of the Southern States, Central Amer- ica, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, ete., southern Spain, Algeria, the islands and coast of western tropical Africa, Egypt, Island of Bourbon, East Indies, Queensland, New South Wales, ete. It may be cultivated in any region adapted to the olive and near the sea, the principal requi- site being a hot and humid atmosphere; but the results of acclimati- zation indicate that the humid atmosphere is not entirely necessary if irrigation be employed, as this species is undoubtedly grown extensively in Egypt.” Although the area in which Sea Island cotton is produced in the United States is very small, and although a large quantity is manu- factured in our country, still the value of the crop exported amounted in 1894 to nearly $3,000,000, in 1896 to $3,816,216, and in 1897 to $4,078,044. It is quite probable that both Sea Island and Egyptian cotton could be cultivated with profit in parts of southern California and southwestern Arizona. PROFITABLE CROPS FOR DIFFERENT CLIMATES. But wheat and cotton are not the only crops to be grown with advantage in the South, for the list of fruits, fiber plants, and other agricultural products fit for the climatic conditions of the Austroripa- rian belt is a long one, and a wise selection with reference to home consumption and convenient markets is bound to place agriculture in the Southern States on a very different plane from that which it now occupies. 12 LIFE ZONES AND CROP ZONES. In northern New York and Wisconsin! the dairying industry is one — of the chief sources of revenue, and cheese is a staple product. In years like the present, when cheese sells at the factory for 8 or 9 cents—and still worse a few years ago, when it sold for 4 cents—the farmer is left at the end of the season without return for his labor. Yet, most of the lands now devoted almost exclusively to dairying are situated in the sugar-beet belt, and are also adapted to several excel- _ lent varieties of wheat and other crops to which little or no attention ~ _ is now given. ae WHAT THE FARMER NEEDS TO KNOW. vs The farmers of the United States spend vast sums of money each _ year in trying to find out whether a particular fruit, vegetable, or cereal will or will not thrive in localities where it has not been tested. Most of these experiments result in disappointment and pecuniary loss. It makes little difference whether the crop experimented with _ comes from the remotest parts of the earth or from a neighboring — State, the result is essentially the same, for the main cost is thelabor of cultivation and the use of the land. If the crop happens to be one that requires a period of years for the test, the loss from its failure is" proportionately great. The cause of failure in the great majority of cases is climatie unfit: ness. The quantity, distribution, or interrelation of heat and moisture may be at fault. Thus, while the total quantity of heat may be ade- quate, the moisture may be inadequate, or the moisture may be adequate and the heat inadequate, or the quantities of heat and mois- ture may be too great or too small with respect to one another or to the time of year, and soon. What the farmer wants to know is how to tellin advance whether the climatic conditions on his own farm are fit or unfit for the particular crop he has in view, and what crops he can raise with reasonable certainty. It requires no argument to show that the answers to these questions would be worth in the aggregate hundreds of thousands of dollars yearly tothe American farmer. The Biological Survey aims to furnish these answers. MAPPING AGRICULTURAL REGIONS. From the study of the geographic distribution of our native animals and plants it has been learned that the United States may be divided into seven transcontinental beltsand a number of minor areas, each of which is adapted to particular associations of animal and vegetable life. _ It has been found also that each of these belts and minor areas, except _ the coldest, is adapted to the needs of particular agricultural products, 'In 1890 New York produced 48.3 per cent and Wisconsin 21.3 per cent of the total output of cheese for the country. The New York output in that year was 124,086,524 pounds. MAPPING AGRICULTURAL REGIONS. “t3 and that the distribution of native animals and plants may be coordi- nated with the successful distribution of cultivated crops. In other _ words, the study of the geographic distribution of our native or indig- enous fauna: and flora has resulted in the establishment of a number of agricultural belts, each of which comprises several minor divisions fit for particular varieties of fruits, cereals, and breeds of live stock. Through the intelligent efforts of man the slow processes of nature have been hastened, so that most fruits and cereals have been made — to yield varieties adapted to a diversity of climatic conditions. The happy outcome of this artificial selection is that, while certain varieties of wheat, oats, corn, apples, pears, grapes, and so on, thrive only in certain limited areas, different varieties thrive in other areas, a very large proportion of crops having varieties fit for each of the natural agricultural belts of the country. The same is true, though perhaps in less degree, of poultry and live stock. The Biological Survey is engaged in tracing with as much precision as possible the actual boundaries of these belts and areas, in prepar- ing lists of the native or indigenous species, and of the fruits, grains, vegetables, and other agricultural products that are adapted to each. In this undertaking it aims to point out such exotic agricultural and horticultural products as, from their importance in other lands, are likely to prove of value if introduced on fit soils and under proper climatic conditions. In view of the fact that all of the climatic life zones of the world, except the hottest tropical, are represented in our own country, there can be little doubt that an intelligent study of the agricultural products and adaptations of distant lands will result in the discovery of fruits, vegetables, fibers, farm crops, and breeds of stock which may be introduced into the United States not only with profit, but which by diversifying our products and leading to the development of new industries will render our agricultural resources far more stable and certain. . The colored maps prepared by the Biological Survey furnish the first rational basis the American farmer and fruit grower has ever had for the intelligent distribution of seeds and the only reliable guide he ean find in ascertaining beforehand what crops and fruits are likely to prove successful on his own farm, wherever it may be located. These maps, in connection with the work of the Entomologist, show also the belts along which noxious insects are likely to spread, fore- warning the husbandman of impending danger. In studying crops with relation to the zones or areas in which they may be most profitably cultivated considerable progress has been made. The results of an investigation of the zone adaptations of several hundred varieties of fruits and nuts form a part of the pres- ent report, and by cooperation with Prof. C. 8. Plumb, director of the agricultural experiment station at Lafayette, Ind., the more impor- tant results of a similar study of the varieties of corn, wheat, and oats are also given. 14 LIFE ZONES AND CROP ZONES. DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. The history of the development of agriculture in California affords an excellent example of. the changes in staple products that come with increased knowledge as to the fitness of particular areas for par- ticular crops. In the early days California was distinctly a grazing State, and hides and wool were the chief exports. Then wheat came to the front, and soon formed the staple product. Later it was learned that large areas were particularly well suited to the needs of fruits, and the fruit industry rapidly grew, until at the present time it exceeds even the wheat crop in money value. But the fruits from which so large a revenue is now derived are only in part those first introduced. Fifteen years ago wine grapes were perhaps the most important fruit; now they are of secondary consequence. For a time deciduous fruits were the principal ones deemed worthy of attention; now citrus fruits are of even greater value, the output of oranges and lemons in 1896 being 3,780,000 boxes. Almonds, walnuts, olives, and raisins have also come to be important crops. Twenty-five years ago all our raisins were imported; now California produces annually from 90,000,000 to 100,000,000 pounds. The development of the prune industry is instructive as an illus- tration of a common class of cases where products worth hundreds of thousands of dollars annually to a single State have been introduced by chance rather than as a result of scientific study. The first prune cuttings are said to have been brought from France, along with cut- tings of grapes and other fruits, by a Frenchman who settled at San Jose about the end of 1856. For some years little was thought of this introduction, and it was not until 1880 and 1881 that serious attention was given the cultivation of prunes. But from 1893 until the present year the annual output in dry fruit has ranged from 44,780,000 to 64,500,000 pounds. ! It is hard to resist the temptation to dwell on the marvelous expan- sion of the fruit industry that has taken place in California sinee the climatic adaptations of her various agricultural belts began to be understood; but for present purposes a statement of the exports of a few of her many products for the year 1895 will suffice to give a fair idea of the magnitude this industry hasattained. In 1895 California shipped 6,625 carloads of fresh deciduous fruits; dried fruits, 6,152 carloads; raisins, 4,638 carloads; canned fruits, 3,129 carloads; citrus fruits (mainly oranges), 11,582 carloads; nuts, 1,553 carloads; wine and brandy, 8,056 carloads.* 1Statistics from California Fruit Grower. *Figures from Fifth Biennial Rept. California State Board of Agriculture, 1896, ®’From California State Board of Trade. VALUE OF NARROW EXTENSIONS OF FAUNAS. Ad) THE ARID REGIONS. While considerable progress has been made in ascertaining what agricultural products are adapted to the climatic conditions of south- ern California and southern Arizona, this has been done at great cost, and nothing like a complete knowledge of the subject has been attained. Before this will be possible the life zones and their sub- divisions must be accurately mapped and corresponding arid areas in Africa, Arabia, Persia, India, Chile, and Australia must be studied with reference to agricultural productions which might be introduced with profitin proper zones in our arid Southwest. Nature has not been overgenerous in the distribution of water in this part of our country, but she has been lavish in her gifts of soils and climates. The fruit erowers of California were long in finding out that their State com- prises all of the agricultural belts of America except the humid tropical, and that its different areas are naturally adapted to a great diversity of agricultural and horticultural products; and even at the present day few realize that in the southern half of the State hun dreds of farms might be so laid out with reference to the mountain slopes that each would embrace sections of all the agricultural belts, enabling the fortunate husbandman to produce not only early and late ripenings of small fruits and garden vegetables, but also an astound- ing diversity of crops, from the apples, cherries, potatoes, and hardy cereals of the upper Transition and lower edge of the Boreal belts, to — the oranges, lemons, almonds, olives, and cotton of the Lower Sonoran zone, and in certain localities the pineapple, date, and citron of the arid Tropical areas. It is probably not too much to say that an accu- rate map of the agricultural belts of California in the early days would have saved the State in the aggregate millions of dollars that have been expended in finding out what crops are best adapted to particular areas, and although much has now been learned by per- sistent and costly experiments, such a map would still be of very great value. SPECIAL VALUE OF NARROW EXTENSIONS OF FAUNAS. In looking at the map of the life zones (see frontispiece), it will be seen that nearly all of the belts and areas send out long arms which penetrate far into the heart of adjoining areas. When such arms occupy suitable soils in thickly inhabited regions, so that their prod- ucts may be conveniently marketed, they are of more than ordinary value, for the greater the distance from its area of principal produc- tion a crop can be made to succeed, the higher price it will command. Hence, farms favorably situated in northern prolongations or islands of southern zones, or in southern prolongations or islands of northern zones, Should be worth considerably more per acre than those situated within normal parts of the same zones. The obvious reason is that 16 LIFE ZONES AND CROP ZONES. by growing particular crops at points remote from the usual sou of supply, and at the same time conveniently near a market, the c increased. Among the numerous faunal arms which ener ae adjacent belts are the Hudson, central New York, and Michigan extensions of the Caro- linian fauna, and the arms of the Lower Sonoran fauna which occupy the valleys of the Pecos and Rio Grande in New Mexico and the val- oy ley of the Lower Virgin in Utah. The latter is a good ease for illus- — 7 tration. It is not only the sole Lower Sonoran area in Utah, but lies nearly 300 miles in a straight line, and a little more than 1,000 miles” k y by railroad, from the nearest point where similar crops and fruitsare commercially produced. It is an insular pocket or basin, completely hemmed in by mountains, and marks the extreme northeastern exten- sion of the typical Sonoran desert fauna and flora. The creosote bush, mesquite, desert willow, Gregg acacia, and other Sonoran — shrubs, and the Gambel quail, Le Conte and crissal thrashers, mock- ing bird, cactus wren, yellow-headed tit, Abert chewink, black phaino- pepla, vermilion flycatcher, and Texas nighthawk serve as a guide to its faunal position. The valley is traversed by the Virgin River and its tributary, the Santa Clara, which, together with copious springs, afford water for irrigation. It contains the Mormon settle- — ments St. George, Santa Clara, Toquerville, and a few others of smaller size, with an aggregate population of about 3,000. Among ; the important products are cotton, tobacco, raisin grapes, almonds, — olives, and figs; and among the ornamental shade trees are the pep- per tree, tobacco tree, and China tree or Pride of India. The fertility — of the soil is marked and the limit of its agricultural capacity, meas- ured either by number of varieties or quantity of output, is still far in the future. Nevertheless, present production greatly exceeds the possibilities of local consumption, as shown by the cotton crop, which, for the year 1896-97, was no less than 123 bales of 500 pounds each, and was worth $4,305.' A feature of special interest in relation to i the future possibilities of the valley is the fact that the yield of cot-_ ton per acre is very much higher than in any other State of the Union, and more than double that of the Gulf States. What is true of cot- ton is true in greater or less degree of fruits and other crops. There — can be little question, therefore, that when railroad connection with — northern Utah is established, the St. George Valley is bound to play | an important part in the history and commercial prosperity of the 2 young State. af The case of this remote valley brings into prominence the necessity _ for studying a much neglected subject, and one on which profitable if, ‘Statistics from John Hyde, Statistician, Dept. of “Agric., in Cire. 8, Div. of } Statistics. ‘NECESSITY OF ZONE MAPS. ed agriculture very largely depends. It is not enough to succeed in growing crops well adapted to a particular locality, for bountiful erops are of little value unless they can be profitably marketed. But in order to reach the best markets it is necessary to ascertain the prices various products bring from year to year in different parts of the country, to make quantitative studies of production and con- sumption, to avoid overproduction, to study statistics of our imports and exports, and give thoughtful attention to questions of transpor- tation; in short, to study commercial geography, at least so far as it relates to the products of one’s own farm. The number and value of the exotic crops now grown successfully in the United States, sweiling our revenue by many millions of dol- lars, is a monument to the industry, perseverance, and determination of the American people, but affords little clue to the multitude of failures and the enormous sums of money lost in experimentation. And it must be admitted that a very large proportion of these costly experiments have been conducted blindly, or at least without the aid of the scientific knowledge so necessary to success. As Professor Hilgard states in a recent report, ‘‘the farmer is left to his own devices to find his way as best he may; and we grope along laboriously gath- ering driblets of information here and there, and gradually, tenta- tively putting them together into a more or less connected whole.” It is not so with other industries. Railroad corporations planning new lines study topographic maps and employ skilled engineers that they may ascertain the most feasible routes; capitalists having in view the purchase of mining properties employ experienced mineral experts that they may learn the direction, extent, and value of the mineral- bearing rocks; manufacturers employ not only skilled artisans, but also expert machinists, chemists, and electrical engineers that their apparatus and methods may yield the fullest returns. But the farmer in his struggle with the soil has none of these resources, and as a rule has little capital to risk in experiments. The Biological Survey aims to assist him by laying before him maps of the agricultural belts and their subdivisions, with lists of the crops suited to each. These maps, studied with reference to the commer- cial availability of the different agricultural areas, including the various arms or extensions of the life zones, and with due respect to the density of population and facilities for transportation, are believed to contain much that will be found useful to the progressive student of agriculture. 1002—No. L0-——2 PART II. LIFE ZONES OF THE UNITED STATES: BOUNDARIES, NATIVE SPECIES, AND IMPORTANT CROPS. The continent of North America may be divided, according to foes : distribution of its animals and plants, into three primary transconti- nental regions—Boreal, Austral, and Tropical. The Boreal region (colored green on the map) covers the whole of the northern part of the continent, from the polar sea southward to ss near the northern boundary of the United States, and farther ae ; occupies a narrow strip along the Pacific coast and the higher parts — of the three great mountain systems, the Sierra-Cascade Range, the Rocky Mountains, and the Alleghanies. The Austral region (colored blue, yellow, and brown on the map) covers the whole of the United States and Mexico except the Boreal mountains and Tropical lowlands. The Tropical region (colored red on the map) covers the southern part of the peninsula of Florida, the greater part of Central America, the lowlands of southern Mexico south of the table-land, and a nar-— ze row strip on each side of Mexico, which follows the coast northward into the United States. ry The fauna and flora within each of these three great regions are not _ homogeneous, but present marked differences, which have led to the — subdivision of each region into a number of minor belts or areas, char- acterized by particular associations of animals and plants. Thus, the —_ Boreal region is divided into three transcontinental belts or zones, known respectively as the Arctic, Hudsonian, and Canadian; the — Austral region, into three transcontinental belts, known as the Tran- — sition, Upper Austral, and Lower Austral. The Tropical region is likewise divisible, but the tropical areas within the United States are — of such small extent that the divisions need not be here considered. Hence, in North America north of southern Mexico, the total number of transcontinental life zones is seven, of which three are Boreal, — three Austral, and one Tropical. Beginning at the north, these zones _ » SI may be described as follows: 1. THE ARCTIC-ALPINE ZONE. The Arctic or Arctic-Alpine zone lies above the limit of tree growth and is characterized by such plants as the arctic poppy, dwarf willow, and various saxifrages and gentians. In the far north the snow bunt- — ing, snowy owl, ptarmigan, polar bear, arctic fox, polar hare, lemmings, — 18 Ye the eo” ne aS a ax Nahe « S a ¢ ae a ? A} a us \. c Soe Ae Ag THE HUDSONIAN AND CANADIAN ZONES. lee ee) musk ox, and barren-ground caribou or reindeer, are characteristic animals. Within the United States the Arctic-Alpine zone is restricted to the area above timber-line on the summits of high mountains. It is inhabited by arctic-alpine plants and animals, and is far too cold for agriculture. ° 2. THE HUDSONIAN ZONE. The Hudsonian zone comprises the northern part of the great trans- continental coniferous forest—a forest of spruces and firs stretching from Labrador to Alaska—and the upper timbered slopes of the higher mountains of the United States and Mexico. In the north it is inhab- ited by the wolverine, woodland caribou, moose, rough-legged hawk, great gray owl, great northern shrike, pine bullfinch, white-winged erossbill, white-crowned sparrow, and fox sparrow. In the eastern United States the Hudsonian zone is restricted to the cold summits of the highest mountains, where it occurs in the form of a chain of widely separated islands reaching from northern New England to western North Carolina. In the western United States it covers the higher slopes of the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra-Cascade system, and is the home of the mountain goat, mountain sheep, coney or pika, alpine flying squirrel, Clark’s crow or nutcracker, evening grosbeak, and Townsend’s solitaire. Like the preceding, this zone is of no agricul- tural importance. 3. THE CANADIAN ZONE. The Canadian zone comprises the southern part of the great trans- continental coniferous forest of Canada, the northern parts of Maine, New Hampshire, and Michigan, a strip along the Pacific coast reach- ing as far south at least as Cape Mendocino in California, and the greater part of the high mountains of the United States and Mexico. In the East it covers the Green Mountains, Adirondacks, and Catskills, and the higher mountains of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Virginia, western North Carolina, and eastern Tennessee. Inthe mountains of the West it covers the lower slopes in the north and the higher slopes in the south. In the Rocky Mountain region it appears to reach con- tinuously from British Columbia to west central Wyoming; and in the Cascade Range, from British Columbia to southern Oregon, with a nar- row interruption along the Columbia River. Among the many charac- teristic mammals and birds of the Canadian zone are the lynx, marten, poreupine, northern red and pine squirrels, varying and snowshoe rabbits, star nose, Brewer’s and Gibb’s moles, water shrew, voles, and long-tailed shrews of various species, northern jumping mice, Belding’s and Kennicott’s ground squirrels, white-throated sparrow, Blackburnian, yellow-rumped, and Audubon’s warblers, olive-backed thrush, three-toed woodpeckers, spruce and dusky grouse, crossbills, and Canada jays. Counting from the north, this zone is the first of any agricultural importance. Wild berries—as currants, huckleber- 20 LIFE ZONES AND CROP ZONES. ries, blackberries, and cranberries—grow in profusion, and the beech- — nut (in the East) is an important food of the native birds and mam-— mals. In favored spots, particularly along the southern border, white _ potatoes, turnips, beets, and the more hardy Russian apples and cereals may be cultivated with moderate success. ’ 4. THE TRANSITION ZONE. The Transition zone (colored blue on the map) is the transconti- nental belt in which Boreal and Austral elements overlap. From New England to the northern Rocky Mountains its course is fairly even and regular, but west of the Great Plains it is tortuous and irregular (see map). ‘The zone as a whole is characterized by com- paratively few distinctive animals and plants, but rather by the oceur- rence together of southern species which here find their northern limit and northern species which here find their southern limit. It may be subdivided into three faunal areas, which, although grading into one another, are in the main strikingly different: (@) An eastern humid or Alleghanian area; (b) a western arid area; (c) a Pacific coast humid area. Inthe Transition zone we enter from the north the true agricultural part of our country, where many vegetables, the sugar beet, chicory, oats, and numerous varieties of apples, plums, cherries, pears, grapes, white potatoes, and cereals attain their highest perfec- tion. These will be considered more in detail under the subdivisions of the zone. (a) THE ALLEGHANIAN FAUNAL AREA. The eastern humid or Alleghanian area comprises the greater part of New England, southeastern Ontario, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, eastern North Dakota, northeastern South Dakota, and the Alleghanies from Pennsylvania to Georgia. Its fauna and flora are not homogeneous, but point to an important subdivision west of Lake Michigan, where numerous species occur that do not inhabit the area east of this lake. A glance at the aecompany- ing list of apples, where a cross in front of the variety indicates its absence from Wisconsin and Minnesota, may be taken as an index to the horticultural importance of this Upper Mississippi subdivision. In the Alleghanian faunal area the chestnut, walnut, oaks, and hickories of the South meet and overlap the beech, birch, hemlock, and sugar maple of the North; the Southern mole and cottontail rabbit meet the Northern star-nosed and Brewer’s moles and varying hare, and the Southern bobwhite, Baltimore oriole, bluebird, eatbird, chewink, thrasher, and wood thrush live in or near the haunts of the bobolink, solitary vireo, and the hermit and Wilson’s thrushes. Several native nuts, of which the beechnut, butternut, chestnut, hazelnut, hickory nut, and walnut are most important, grow wild in this belt. Of these, THE TRANSITION ZONE. Om the chestnut, hickory nut, and walnut come in from the South (Caro- linian area) and do not extend much beyond the southern or warmer parts of the Alleghanian area. CROPS OF THE ALLEGHANIAN FAUNAL AREA. Varieties prefixed by a cross(+) do not thrive in the Upper Missis- sippi section of the Transition zone (Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the eastern Dakotas), except in eastern Wisconsin in the vicinity of Green Bay. Those followed by the letters (7) or (s) in this and the follow- ing lists are practically restricted, respectively, to the northern or southern parts of the areas under consideration. Similarly the letter (h) indicates that the variety is confined to the hottest parts of the zone and belongs more properly to the zone below. Credit is due to Mr. William A. Taylor for marking the fruits in accordance with this plan. The numerals (2) and (3) indicate that the cereals thus marked are second or third rate in the area under consideration. CEREALS. Wheat. Australian (2). : Red Fife. +Clawson. Saskatchewan Fife. Fultz (3). Scotch Fife. Ladoga. Oats. --American Banner. Welcome. Black Tartarian. White Russian. Lincoln. Corn. Angel of Midnight. Pride of the North. +Canadian Kight-Row Yellow Flint. Squaw (2). King Philip. Stowell Evergreen (2 and local). Longfellow. : 5 Barley. Rye. Buckwheat. FRUITS. ! Apples. Alexander. -+ Benoni (s). +Bailey Sweet (s). -+Bietigheimer (s). ‘+Baker. +Blenheim. +Baldwin. -+Blue Pearmain. 1The nomenclature of fruits is that adopted by the American Pomological Society (Bull. 6, Div. Pomology, U. 8. Dept. Agriculture, 1897). Synonyms (indicated by parenthesis) and all descriptive terms which will be eliminated eventually, are printed in italics. A comma indicates a transposition of part of the name. 22 FRUITS—continued. | Apples—Continued. +Bullock (American Golden Russet). +Canada Reinette. +Chenango (s). +Clyde Beauty. +Cogswell (s). +Danvers (s). -+Domine (s). +Dutch Mignonne (s). +Dyer (Pomme Royal) (s). + Early Harvest. -+Early Ripe (s). +Early Strawberry (s). +Esopus Spitzenburg. --Ewalt (s). +Fall Pippin. -+Fameuse. + Garden Royal. +Golden Russet. +Golden Russet (N. Y.) (s). +Golden Sweet. + Gravenstein. +Green Sweet. Haas (Fall Queen) [Mississippi Val- ley]. +Hightop Sweet. -+-Hubbardston. — +Hunt Russet. +Jefferis (s). +Jefferson County. +Swaar (s). +Jewett Red. Tetofski. +Jonathan (s). +Tolman Sweet. -+Keswick (s). +Tompkins King. Longfield. +Twenty-Ounce. +Lowell (s). +Vandevere (s). +Mclntosh. +Wagener. McMahon. Wealthy. +Maiden Blush (s). Westfield. +Margaret, Karly Red (s). +Williams Favorite. +Melon, Norton (s). +Wine, Hays (s). + Minister. Wolf River. +Montreal Peach. Yellow Transparent. +Moore Sweet (s). Crab apples. Beach. Minnesota. Brier. Montreal. +Elgin. Orange. Excelsior. Red Siberian. Gibb. Transcendent. -+Hyslop. +Van Wyck. . Martha. Whitney No. 20. Marengo. Yellow Siberian. \ +Ontario. -+Perry Russet. -+Mother (s). aK +Newtown epiiceneaee (3) «cee -+Northern Spy. Ke: +Ohio Nonpareil (s). j Oldenburg, Duchess of. +Peck Pleasant. Pewaukee. +Pomme Gris. +Porter (s). +Primate (s). +Pumpkin Sweet (Pownd Soeet). +Rambo (s). +Red Astrachan. +Red Canada. +Rhode Island Greening. +Ribston. +Rolfe. Roman Stem. +Roxbury. +Saint Lawrence. +Scott Winter. +Shiawassee. - +Sops of Wine. +Sterling (American Beauty). +Summer Pearmain (s). +Sutton. = eg aes THE TRANSITION ZONE. . -_Archduke. Bessarabian. + Black Heart (s). +Buttner, Yellow (s). +Choisy, Belle de. +Coe Transparent (s). +Donna Maria (s). +Downer (s). -+-Dyehouse (s). +Eagle, Black (s). 4+Early Purple Guwigne (s). -+Elton (s). +EKugenie, Empress (s). -+Florence (s). +Hortense, Reine (s). +Hovey (s). Albert, Prince. +Cherry. +Fay Prolific (s). Holland, Long Bunch. +London Red (s). Red Dutch. Champion (s). English (s). Agawam. -+Barry. Brighton. Champion. Clinton. Concord. Cottage. +Diana. _ Lindley. _ +Andrews. +Angouleme, Duchess de (s). + Anjou (s): +Bartlett (s). + Bose (s). +Boussock (s). +Brandywine (s). +Buffum. +Clairgeau (s). +Clapp Favorite (s). FRUITS—continued. Cherries. Late Kentish. Lutovka. +Magnifique, Belle (s). +Mayduke (s). +Montmorency Large. +Montmorency Ordinaire. Morello, #nglish. + Napoleon (s). -+Olivet (s). -+Philippe, Lowis (s). -+Plumstone Morello (s). Richmond. -+Tartarian, Black. -+_ Windsor. -+W ood, Governor. Cranberries. Currants. -+Red Grape. +Versaillaise. Victoria. White Dutch. White Grape. _ Black currants. Naples (s). + Wales, Prince of (s). Grapes. + Martha. Moore Early. +Salem. Vergennes. Victor, Early. -+ Wilder. Winchell (Green Mountain). W orden. Pears. +Columbia (s). +Dana Hovey (s). -- Diel. +Dix. +Elizabeth, Manning. +Flemish Beauty. -+-Fulton. +Giffard (s). +Goodale. +Howell (s). 23 a eee er a ee . : 24 LIFE ZONES AND CROP 2( : FRUITS—continued. Pears—Continued. +Julienne (s). +Lawrence (s). -+Louise Bonne de Jersey. -+Lucrative (s). +McLaughlin. + Madeleine (s). -+Malines, Josephine de (s). +Onondaga (s). +Osband Summer (s). +Arctic, Moore. Aubert, Yellow. +Bavay Green Gage. De Soto. +Diamond, Black (s). Downing, Charles. +Drap d’Or (s). +Duane Purple (s). +Englebert (s). Forest Garden. +German Prune (s). +Golden Drop, Coe (s). +Grand Duke (s). Green Gage. +Hudson River Purple Egg (s). +Hulings Superb (s). +Imperial Gage (s). +Jefferson (s). +Kingston (s). +Lawrence Favorite (s). Lombard. Orange (Apple) (s). Bubach No. 5. Crescent. Cumberland. Downing, Charles. Eureka (s). Haverland. Jessie. Flax (s). Hops. Maple sugar. Sorghum (s). Plums. (Quinces. Strawberries. MISCELLANEOUS. cd +Pound. +Rostiezer (s). +Seckel (s). = es. -+Sheldon (s). “Guat +Souvenir du Congress (s). + Sterling. : s +Summer Doyenne (s). -+Tyson. +McLaughlin. Moldavka. +Monroe Egg (s). +Orleans (s). +Ottoman (s). +Pond (Hungarian Prune). +Purple Gage (s). +Quackenboss (s). Richland. Rollingstone. +Shropshire (s). +Smith Orleans (s). +Transparent Gage (s). +Wales, Prince of (s). +Wangenheim (s). +Washington (s). Weaver. Wolf. Wyant. Yellow Egg. Michel Early (s). Miner. Princess. Sharpless. Warfield. Wilson. Sugar beet. Sweet corn. White potatoes. THE TRANSITION ZONE. 25 (6) THE ARID TRANSITION FAUNAL AREA. The western or arid division of the Transition zone comprises the western part of the Dakotas, northern Montana east of the Rocky Mountains, southern Assiniboia, small areas in southern Manitoba and Alberta, the higher parts of the Great Basin and the plateau ‘region generally (except the Boreal Mountains), the eastern base of the Cascade-Sierra system, and local areas still farther west, in Ore- gon and California, where it merges into the humid Pacific Coast division. Sets In the western arid Transition area the true sage brush (Artemisia tridentata) is the prevailing type of vegetation, although extensive tracts are covered with noble forests of the yellow or bull pine (Pinus ponderosa) and subspecies.‘ The sage hen and sharp-tailed grouse, green-tailed towhee, white-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus campestris), pal- lid voles (subgenus Lagurus), and certain ground squirrels are char- acteristic species. In the northern parts of the Great Basin (northern and eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, and northwestern Idaho) the large Columbia or Lewis and Clark ground squirrel (Sper- mophilus columbianus) is common in the Transition zone, whence it ranges northward into the Boreal. East of the Rocky Mountains, on the northern plains (in North Dakota, northern Montana, and parts of Assiniboia and Manitoba), it is replaced by a very different spe- cies (S. richardson), which resembles a small prairie dog (Cynomys) _ so closely that it is often mistaken for that animal. CROPS OF THE ARID TRANSITION FAUNAL AREA. [Lists very incomplete. | CEREALS. Wheat. Ladoga. Saskatchewan Fife (2). Red Fife. Scotch Fife. Oats. American Banner. — Welcome. Black Tartarian. White Russian. Lincoln. Corn. Angel of Midnight (2). Longfellow (2). Canadian Hight-Row Yellow Flint (2). Squaw. King Philip (2). Stowell Evergreen (2). 1 Among the distinctive humbler plants which recur throughout the pine belt from Arizona to Oregon two small shrubs, Berberis repens and Ceanothus fendlert, are conspicuous. Gilia aggregata, a small plant with handsome red flowers, is also common in this belt. 26 Ey oe LIFE ZONES AND CROP |! : CEREALS—continued, = ~ Barley. ~ Career: Rye. Buckwheat. FRUITS. ! Apples. Alexander. Porter. Baldwin. Primate. Dutch Mignonne. Rambo. Dyer (Pomme Royal). Red Astrachan. Early Harvest. Rhode Island Greening. Early Strawberry. Roman Stem. Esopus Spitzenburg. Rome Beauty. Fameuse. Roxbury. Golden Russet. Sops of Wine. Golden Sweet. Summer Pearmain. Gravenstein. Swaar. _ Hightop Sweet. Tetofski. Hubbardston. Tolman Sweet. Jefferis. Tompkins King. Jonathan. Twenty-Ounce. Keswick. Wagener. Longfield. Wealthy. Lowell. Westfield. Maiden Blush. Williams Favorite. Monmouth. Wine, Hays. Mother. Winesap. (?) Newtown Spitzenburg. Wolf River. Northern Spy. Yellow Newtown Pippin. Oldenburg, Duchess of. Pewaukee. Archduke. Choisy, Belle de. Wilder. Angouleme, Duchess de Anjou. Bartlett. Bose. Boussock. Brandywine. _ Clairgeau. Clapp Favorite. Columbia. 1 At the present time the culture of fruits enumerated under the Ari : faunal area is confined largely to western Montana, Idaho, eastern eastern Oregon, and parts of Utah. Yellow Transparent. Cherries. Ostheimer Weichsel. Grapes. ~ Worden. Pears. Easter Beurre. Flemish Beauty. Lawrence. Lucrative. Onondaga. Osband Summer. Seckel. Tyson. Winter Nelis. 1 : , , THE TRANSITION ZONE. 27 FRUITS—continued. Plums. De Soto. Forest Garden. Strawberries. Bubach No. 5. Jessie. Captain Jack. MISCELLANEOUS. White potatoes. Flax. Sugar beet. (c) THE PACIFIC CoAsT TRANSITION FAUNAL AREA. The humid Pacific Coast division of the Transition zone comprises the western parts of Washington and Oregon between the coast moun- tains and the Cascade Range, parts of northern California, and most of the coast region of California from near Cape Mendocino south- ward to the Santa Barbara Mountains. To the south and east it passes into the Arid Transition, and in places into the Upper Sonoran. In the Pacific Transition area unusual conditions prevail. The region as a whole is one of great humidity, and in places on the north- west coast the annual rainfall reaches 100 inches. The northern and more humid part is covered by a magnificent coniferous forest, car- peted with moss and ferns, and often choked with undergrowth. The prevailing trees are Douglas fir, Pacific cedar, Western hemlock, and Sitka spruce, whose majestic trunks attain an average height of more than 200 feet. There are also many broad-leaf maples, tree alders, madronas and Western dogwoods, and numerous kinds of shrubs,' a goodly proportion of which aspire to the size of small trees. Among the birds which inhabit these forests are the dark Pacific Coast forms of the great-horned, spotted, screech, and pigmy owls, the sooty grouse and handsome Oregon ruffed grouse, Steller’s jay, the chestnut-backed chickadee, and the Pacific winter wren. Among the mammals are the Columbia black-tail deer, Western raccoon, Oregon spotted skunk, Douglas red squirrel, Townsend’s chipmunk, peculiar species of pocket gophers and voles, the curious Gibb’s mole, and the remarkable tailless sewellel (Aplodontia rufa). In the Puget Sound region and most of the cultivated parts of western Washington the annual rainfall is 50 to 60 inches; in western Oregon it is still less, decreasing in the Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue River valleys from about 50 to less than 30 inches.? In the ‘Among the small shrubs perhaps none are more characteristic and wide- spread than the salal (Gaultheria shallon), thimble berry (Rubus nootkanus), salmon berry (Rubus spectabilis), Oregon grape (Berberis nervosa), and in wet places the devil’s club (Echinopanax horridum). * Rainfall of the Pacific Slope and the Western States and Territories, by Gen. A. W. Greely, Chief Signal Officer, and Lieut. W. A. Glassford, assistant, 1888, 28 LIFE ZONES AND CROP ZONES. last-mentioned valleys the summer rainfall (May to September) is less : than 5 inches, while in western Washington (not including the coast — or mountains) it varies from 5 to 10 inches. The region as a whole is one of relatively uniform temperature, the wide seasonal differences usual in other parts of the Transition zone being unknown. The temperature of the summer season, the hottest part of the year, is phenomenally low for the latitude, enabling northern or Boreal types to push south as far as latitude 35°. On the other hand, the summer sea- son is so prolonged (from the standpoint of temperature) that the total quantity of beat for the entire season is phenomenally high for the latitude, enabling southern or Austral species to push north as far as Puget Sound, where the total quantity of heat is even greater than at Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Cleveland, and Omaha, although Puget Sound is 500 miles north of the latitude of these places. Even at Cape Flattery—the extreme northwestern point of the United States— which is exposed throughout the year to the cold coast fogs, the total quantity of heat is 500° F. greater than at Eastport, Me., although the latter is the more southern locality and has the higher mean summer temperature. The low summer temperature along the Pacifie Coast permits northern species to come far south, while the high sum total of heat enables southern species to push northward as far as Puget Sound. Such an extensive overlapping of Boreal and Austral faunas does not occur elsewhere in North America, and for the evident reason that no area approaching it in extent has so equable a temperature. In most parts of the United States it is easy to distinguish the boundaries between the Transition and Upper Austral zones, but in the Pacific Transition area these distinctions are nearly obliterated, a large proportion of the species ranging in common over both belts. To the southward, particularly away from the coast, where the Pacific Transition area receives less moisture and more summer heat and the seasonal changes of temperature are greater, the faunal rela- tions become more and more complex. The decrease in humidity allows Arid Transition species to creep in, while the increase in total quantity of heat brings with it a marked increase in the number of Upper Sonoran species, so that types ordinarily characteristic of the humid Pacific Transition, the Arid Transition, and the Upper Sonoran oceur together.! The total quantity of heat in most parts of the Wil- lamette and Rogue River valleys is about 2,000° F. more than in the Puget Sound region, and is as great as on the adjacent plains of the Columbia and slightly greater than at St. Louis, Mo., and Wash- ington, D. C. These warmer and less humid parts of the Pacific Transition area, 1 Hood River, at the north base of the Cascade Range in Oregon, is situated in the belt of overlapping, where the humid Pacific Transition of the gorge of the Columbia meryes into the arid Upper Sonoran of the adjacent Great Basin. gt Jj abs THE TRANSITION ZONE. 29 as the Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue River valleys in Oregon, and numerous small areas in California, are adapted to a much wider range of agricultural products than normal parts of the same zone, and are conspicuous for the large number of Upper Austral fruits which may be cultivated with success. In passing southward from the Puget Sound region this increase in Austral varieties is very marked, but it is poorly indicated in the following list: CROPS OF THE PACIFIC CoAST TRANSITION FAUNAL AREA. CEREALS. Wheat. Red Fife (2). Oats. American Banner (2). Welcome. Black Tartarian (2). White Russian. Lincoln (2). - Corn. King Philip. Stowell Evergreen (2). Pride of the North (2). Buckwheat. FRUITS. Apples. Baldwin. Rambo (s). Ben Davis (s). Red Astrachan. Blue Pearmain. Red June (s). Early Harvest (s). Rhode Island Greening. Esopus. Sops of Wine. Fall Pippin (s). © Swaar. Gravenstein. Tompkins King. Jonathan (s). Wagener. Keswick. Wealthy. . Maiden Blush. Winesap (s). Monmouth. Yellow Bellflower (s). Northern Spy. Yellow Newtown Pippin (s). Oldenburg, Duchess of. Yellow Transparent. Cherries. Advance, California. Richmond (Kentish). Bing. Rockport. Centennial. Spanish, Yellow. Coe Transparent. Tartarian, Black. Elton. Windsor. Lewelling (Black Republican). Wood, Governor. Napoleon (Royal Ann). Cranberries. Currants. Black Naples. Red Dutch. _ Cherry. Victoria. Fay Prolific. White Grape. pat 30. LIFE ZONES AND CROP Z FRUITS—continued. Gooseberries. Grapes. ¥ Concord. Moore Early. Isabella. Peaches. Hale. Pears. Bartlett. Flemish Beauty. Bosc (s). Seckel (s). Boussock. Tyson (s). Clairgeau (s). Winter Nelis (s). Clapp Favorite. Plums (including prunes). Agen (French, shee etc.) (s). Italian (Fellenberg) (s). Columbia. Pond (Hungarian Prune). Dosch. Silver Prune (s). German Prune. Tragedy (s). Golden Drop, Coe (s). Yellow Egg. Golden Prune (s). Strawberries. Bubach, No. 5. Monarch. Clark Seedling.' Perry. é Crescent. Sharpless. Everbearing. Vick. Jessie. Wilson Albany. MISCELLANEOUS. Alfalfa (s). Sweet corn, Hops. White potatoes. Sugar beet (s). 5. THE UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. divided into two large and important faunal areas—an eastern hu or Carolin tan area and a western arid or Ei ae Sonoran area, w dredth meridian. They may be described ‘separate (a) THE CAROLINIAN FAUNAL AREA. The Carolinian faunal area (colored yellowish, spotted with red, the map) occupies the larger part of the Middle States, except t! mountains, covering southeastern South Dakota, eastern Nebrask Kansas, and part of Oklahoma; nearly the whole of Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Maryland, and Delaware; more than half of West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and New Jersey, and larg areas in Alabama, Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, Pennsylyv: 'Markedly successful at Hood River, Oregon, where the Pacific or hamid « sion of the Transition zone merges into the arid Upper Sonoran. a” | ae io = Carley eee THE UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. 31 New York, Michigan, and southern Ontario. On the Atlantic coast it reaches from near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay to southern Con- necticut, and sends narrow arms up the valleys of the Connecticut and Hudson rivers. A little farther west another slender arm is sent northward, following the east shore of Lake Michigan nearly or quite to Grand Traverse Bay. These arms, like nearly all narrow north- ward prolongations of southern zones, do not carry the complete ian 4 Tac a faunas and floras of the areas to which they belong, but lack certain species from the start and become more and more dilute to the northward till it is hard to say where they really end. Their north- ern boundaries, therefore, must be drawn arbitrarily or must be based on the presence or absence of particular species rather than the usual association of species. Counting from the north, the Carolinian area is that in which the sassafras, tulip tree, hackberry, sycamore, sweet gum, rose magnolia, red bud, persimmon, and short-leaf pine first make their appearance, together with the opossum, gray fox, fox squirrel, cardinal bird, Caro- linawren, tufted tit, gnateatcher, summer tanager, and yellow-breasted chat. Chestnuts, hickory nuts, hazelnuts, and walnuts grow wild in abundance. The area is of very great agricultural importance. CROPS OF THE CAROLINIAN FAUNAL AREA. Cereals do well in the Carolinian area, particularly wheat and corn. The sugar beet is an important crop in the northern parts, but fails to develop sufficient sugar for profitable culture in the southern parts. Fruits thrive almost everywhere, and in great variety, as shown by the following list: CEREALS. Wheat. Clawson. Mediterranean. Fulcaster. Turkey Red [Mississippi Valley]. Fultz. Velvet Chaff. Oats. Lincoln (2). Welcome. Red Rust Proof. White Russian (2). Corn. Bloody Butcher. St. Charles White [Mississippi Valley) Golden Dent (2). (2). Hickory King (2). Stowell Evergreen. King Philip (2). White Gourd Seed (2). Leaming. Barley. Rye. Buckwheat (2). Le By i hea _ LIFE ZONES AND ( =. . ‘ FRUITS. Apples. Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig). _ Kinnaird. Bailey Sweet. Lady. Baldwin (7). Lady Sweet. Belmont. . Lansingburg. 4 _ Ben Davis. Late Strawberry. ws Benoni. Lawver (Delaware Red Wint Bentley. Limber Twig. : Bonum. Lowell. Bough, Sweet. | McAfee. Bradford Best (Kentucky Red). McLellan. Broadwell. Maiden Blush. Buckingham. Mangum. Cannon Pearmain. * Margaret, Early Red. Champlain (Nyack). Milam. Clayton. ; Missouri Pippin. Cornell Fancy. Meion, Norton (n). Cullasaga. Monmouth. j Domine (7). Moore Sweet. . Dyer (Pomme Royal). Mother. Early Cooper. Newtown Spitzenburg. Early Harvest. Nickajack. Early Joe. Northern Spy (7). Early Pennock. Ohio Nonpareil. Early Strawberry. Oldenburg, Duchess of. Edward Early. Ontario (7). Esopus (7). Ortley. Evening Party. Otoe (7). Ewalt. Perry Russet (7). Fallawater. Porter. Fall Orange. Primate. Fall Pippin, Pryor Red. Fall Wine. Ralls Genet. Fanny. Rambo. Fink. Ramsdell Sweet. Fulton. Red Astrachan. Gilpin. Red June. Golden Russet (7). _ Red Séripe. Golden Sweet. Rhode Island Greening (n). Green Cheese. Romanite, South. Green Newtown. Roman Stem. Grimes Golden. Rome Beauty. Haas (Fall Queen). ~ Shockley. Hewes Crab. Smith Cider. Hightop Sweet | Mississippi Valley]. Smokehouse. Hoover. Sops of Wine (7). Horse. Stark (7). Hubbardston (7). Summer Pearmain. Jefferis. Summer Queen. Jersey Sweet. Summer Rose. Jonathan (7). Sutton (7). me July (Fourth of July). Swaar (7). Keswick. Sweet Winesap. —-—, OT wn ad " " r g 4 _ THE UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE, FRUITS—continued. Apples—Contgnued. Tetofski. Tompkins King (7). Trenton Early. Twenty-Ounce (7). » Vandevere. Wagener (7). Walbridge (Edgar Red Streak). Westfield (7). White Juneating. White Pearmain. Hyslop. Martha. _ Alexander [Mississippi Valley]. Breda. Budd [Mississippi Valiey]. Early Golden. Gibb [ Mississippi Valley]. Archduke (7) Black Heart. Carnation. Choisy, Belle de. Coe Transparent (n). Downer (7). Dyehouse. Eagle, Black. Early Purple Guigne. Elton (7). Eugenie, Empress. Hortense, Reine. Knight Early. White Pippin. Willow Twig. Wine, Hays (1). Winesap. Wythe. Yellow Bellflower. 39 Yellow Newtown Pippin (Albemarle). Yellow Transparent. York Imperial. Craba pples. . Transcendent. Yellow Siberian. Apricots. Harris. Hemskirke. Large Early. Moorpark. Peach. Cherries. Late Kentish. Magnifique, Belle. Mayduke. Morello, English. Napoleon (Royal Ann). Olivet. Plumstone Morello. Richmond (Kentish). Rockport (7). Spanish, Yellow. Tartarian, Black. Windsor (1). Wood, Governor. Cranberries. [ While cranberries are an important crop in parts of New Jersey and a few other States within the general boundaries of the Carolinian fauna, they grow only in cold bogs which have the proper temperature of the Transition or even Boreal zone. | Agawam (n). me Barry (7). ; Brighton. Catawba. _ Champion. _ Clinton (7). Grapes. Concord. Cynthiana (s). Delaware. ' Diamond (7). Diana (7). Duchess. 1002—No. 10: 3 1OF little account in the Eastern States, because of too early flow-ring, with _ consequent danger from frost. BAe ene LIFE ZONES AND CROP ZONES. FRUITS—continued. Grapes—Continued. : Elvira (s). Noah [South Mississippi Vall Gcethe (s). Norton Virginia (s). | Iona (7). Pocklington (7). es Isabella. Prentiss (v). - Ives. Salem. Jefferson. Telegraph. Lindley. Ulster (7). Missouri Reisling (s).? Worden (7). Moore larly. ~- Wyoming. Niagara. Peaches. Alexander. : Late Rareripe. Beers Smock. Morris White. Bilveu. _ Mountain Rose. Chili, Hills. Oldmixon Cling. Early Crawford. ir: Oldmixon Free. Elberta. Red Cheek Melocoton. Foster. Reeves Favorite. ; George IV. Richmond. Globe. Rivers. Golden Drop. Salway. Grosse Mignonne. Smock. ; Hale. Sneed. j Heath Cling. Stevens Rareripe. 3 Hoover. Strawberry. Kenrick Heath. ) Stump. f Large York. St. John, Yellow 4 Late Admirable. Susquehanna. j Late Crawford. Nectarines. . Boston. Stanwick. Elruge. ; Pears. Angouleme, Duchess de. Gray Doyenne (7). ; Anjou (n). ~ _Hosenschenk. ; Bartlett (7). Howell. Bloodgood. Julienne. Bose (7). ' Kieffer. 2h = Boussock (7). Kirtland (7). 2 Brandy wine. Lawrence. Buffum (7). Louise Bonne de Jersey. — ; Chambers. Lucrative (7). 2 Clairgeau (7). Madeleine (7). tan Clapp Favorite (n). Malines, Josephine de (n). 3 Columbia. Marguerite, Petite (n). mi Comice, Doyenne du (n). Mount Vernon (x). f Diel. Napoleon (7). P- Easter Beurre. Onondaga (7). ; ale f Garber. Osband Summer. oo Giffard. ‘Paradise d'Automne (n). -Rostiezer. _ Rutter. NA Seckel. ‘Sheldon. _ Summer Doyenne.. Abundance. Agen (French, Petite, etc.) (7). Archduke (7). a Bavay Green Gage (n). _ Bleecker Gage (n). Bradshaw (7). -_ Burbank. Chabot. _ Clinton. Columbia (7). Copper (7). ~ _ Damson. __ Diamond, Black (n). — _Drap d’Or (7). Duane Purple (n). __Englebert (7). German Prune (1). _ Golden Drop, Coe. — Grand_Duke (7). e- Lland (7). . _ Hudson River Purple Egg (n). Hulings Superb (n). __ Imperial Gage (7). Italian (Fellenberg) (1). Jefferson. Kerr (Hattankio 2). _ Kingston (7). ae tL. 3 Champion. Missouri Mammoth. Bubach No. 5. Crescent. _ Cumberland. Downing, Charles. Enhance. Eureka. Gandy. _ Greenville. _ Haverland. - THE UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. 35 FRUITS—continued. Pears—Continued. Superfin (7). Tyson. White Doyenne (7). Winter Nelis. Plums. Lawrence Favorite (n). Lombard. Miner. Monroe Egg (n).. Newman. Ogon. Orleans (7). Ottoman (n). Peach (7). Prince Yellow. Purple Favorite (7). Purple Gage (7). Red Nagate. Richland. Robinson. Saratoga (7). Saunders (7). Satsuma. Shropshire. Smith Orleans (7). Transparent Gage (n). Washington (7). Wales, Prince of (n). Wangenheim (7). Wild Goose. Willard. Yellow Egg (7). Quinces. Orange (Apple). Rea. Raspberries. Strawberries. Jersey Queen. Jessie. Michel Early. Miner. Parker Earle. Sandoval. Sharpless. Wartield. Wood, Beder, 36 LIFE ZONES AND CROP ZONES. : NUTS. * Peanuts! (h). MISCELLANEOUS. Cowpeas. Sugar beet. Flax. Sweet potatoes (h). Hemp (Cannabis sativa). Tobacco. Lima beans. White potatoes. Sorghum. : (®) THE UPPER SONORAN FAUNAL AREA. covers most of the great plains in eastern Montana and wane southwestern South Dakota, western Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, and eastern Colorado and New Mexico. In Oreo sae rf JE Joaquin valleys and forms a narrow belt along the eastern boundat of the Colorado and Mohave deserts; in Utah it covers the Salt La and Sevier deserts; in Idaho the Snake Plains, and in Nevada and Arizona irregular areas of suitable elevation, as will be seen by t map. Except in California, the most conspicuous vegetation of t Upper Sonoran areas is the true sagebrush (Arlemisia tridentata which, however, is equally abundant in the Transition zone. Seve a of the so- -called ‘greasewoods’ (Atriplex confertifolia, A. canes A. nuttalli, Tetradymia canescens, Sarcobaltus vermiculatus, pa Grayia spinosa) are characteristic of suitable soils, and nut pin iS (pifon) and junipers occur here and there, mostly on the mountain slopes. Among the characteristic birds and mammals are the burrowing ae Brewer's sparrow, Nevada sage sparrow, Lazuli finch, sage thrashe Nuttall’s poor-will, Bullock’s oriole, rough-winged swallow, five-te kangaroo rats, pocket mice, grasshopper mice, sage chipmunk, sag ; cottontail, Idaho rabbit, black-tailed jack rabbit, and the Oregon, a Utah, and Townsend’s ground squirrels. Some parts of the Upper | . Sonoran in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho have so hot a climate tha they might almost be considered Lower Sonoran. The locallitic veferred to are Alvord Desert in southern Oregon, and certain pa of the valleys of the Snake and Columbia rivers, including the lo part of the canyon of the Des Chutes. While Alvord Desert is adire continuation of the Sonoran deserts of Nevada, the areas along t Columbia and Snake rivers are Poetry isolated and wide { Pesaunits are not of much commercial Papoeianee in this zone, though grown. a small scale locally in Michigan, Nebraska, New Jersey, Delaware, and a fe other States. THE UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. sir removed, geographically, from the Lower Sonoran. Nevertheless, hot stretches in these valleys have been reached by the canyon wren (Catherpes mexicanus conspersus) and other southern species, and have been found adapted to the needs of a number of Lower Sonoran fruits. Thus, in the Snake River Valley at Lewiston, Idaho, and Almota, Wash., almonds, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and a variety of Lower Austral fruits do as well as several hundred miles farther south. This is well shown by the fact that the Sweetwater; Alexan- dria, Muscat of ; Malaga; Peru, Rose of ; Tokay, Flame; Zinfandel; and Thompson Seedless grapes thrive in this part of the valley. CROPS OF THE UPPER SONORAN FAUNAL AREA. The Upper Sonoran area, notwithstanding its aridity, is of consid- erable agricultural importance. Fruits and cereals succeed wherever water may be had for irrigation, and in the less arid parts wheat, corn, barley, and rye yield their heaviest returns. Kafir corn (a kind of millet) thrives without irrigation, particularly on the great plains, and alfalfa with irrigation matures several crops a year, though not so many as in the Lower Sonoran. CEREALS. Wheat. Australian. Red Fife (2). Fultz (3). Sonora. May wheats (3). Turkey Red (2). Mediterranean (2). Velvet Chaff (3). Oats. Lincoln (2). Welcome (2). Red Rust Proof (2). White Russian (2). Corn. x Hickory King (3). Pride of the North (3). King Philip (2). Squaw (3). Leaming (7). Barley. Rye. FRUITS. Apples. Alameda, Beauty of. Ksopus Spitzenburg. Belmont. Fall Jenneting. Ben Davis. Fall Orange. Blue Pearmain. Fall Pippin. Cook Seedling. Fall Wine. Dyer (Pomme Royal). Gloria Mundi. Early Harvest. Golden Russet. Early Pennock. Golden Sweet. Early Strawberry. Grimes Golden. B80: 2S (Sire one FRUITS—continued. ay Apples—Continued. Haas (Fall Queen). Hawthornden. Red Astrachan. he Hightop Sweet. Red Canada. Pay Holland Pippin. Red June. = Hubbardston. Rhode Island Greening. Jersey Sweet. - Roman Stem. Jonathan. Rome Beauty. Keswick. Smith Cider. Lady Sweet. Summer Pearmain. Lawver (Delaware Red Winter) Summer Queen. Limber Twig. Summer Rose. Lowell. Swaar. Maiden Blush. Tetofski. McAfee. Tompkins King. Marshall Red (Red Bellflower). Twenty-Ounce. Missouri Pippin. ; Wagener. Monmouth Pippin (Red Cheek Pippin). Wealthy. Mother. Westfield. Newtown Spitzenburg. White Pearmain. Nickajack. Wine, Hays. Northern Spy. Winesap. Oldenburg, Duchess of. Wolf River. Porter. Yellow Bellflower. Primate. Yellow Newtown Pippin. Ralls Genet. Apricots. Alexander. Montgamet Early. Blenheim. Moore Early. Breda. Moorpark. Budd. Newcastle. Eureka. ° Peach. Gibbs. Pringle. Hemskirke. Royal Golden, Brier. Large Early. St. Ambroise. Montgamet, Alberge de. _ Vestal Moorpark, Cherries. Archduke. Morello, English. Bing. Napoleon (Royal Ann). Centennial. Olivet. Choisy, Belle de. Ostheimer, Weichsel. Cleveland. Richmond (Kentish). Early Purple Guigne. Rockport. Late Duke. Spanish, Yellow. Lewelling (Black Republican). Mayduke. Montmorency Large. Montmorency Ordinaire. Rambo. Tartarian, Black. Thompson Seedling. Windsor. Wood, Governor. THE UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. ao FRUITS—continued. Grapes. Agawam. Alexandria, Muscat of (h).! Mission. Moore Harly. _ __ Black Ferrara. Norton Virginia. 7 Black Hamburgh. Pierce (Isabelia Regia). = Catawba. Peru, Rose of (h). = Chasselas, Red. - Prince, Black. -_ Chasseias Rose. Royal Muscatine (i). we Concord. Salem. * Delaware. Sweetwater (i). Se Bivira. Thompson Seedless (h). f Emperor (i). Tokay, Flame (h). Isabella. Victor, Early. . Ives. Worden. q Malaga (i). Zinfandel (h). ; Massasoit. Peaches. Alexander. McKevitt Cling. F- Beers Smock. Muir. 4 Bilyeu. Newhall. 4 Brandywine. Nichols Cling. . Chair Choice. Orange Cling. Early Crawford. Picauet Late. Early York. Reeves Favorite Elberta. Rivers. Foster. Runyon Orange Cling. Garey. St. John, Yellow. Garfield. Salway. Globe. Smock. Golden Cling. Strawberry. Garland, Governor. Stump. Hale. Susquehanna. Heath Cling. Tuskena (Tuscany). | Late Crawford. Waterloo. ; Lovell. Wilkins. Malta. Nectarines. Hunt Tawny. dee Dy tel et ee Angouleme, Duchess de. Red Roman. Pears. Clapp Favorite. Anjou. Columbia. Bartlett. Dana Hovey. Bose. Diel. Boussock. Easter Beurre. Brandy wine. Flemish Beauty. Clairgeau. Glout Morceau. d z 2 3 P. : 1As explained on page 21, varieties marked (h) succeed only in the hottest locali- ties, as at Lewiston and Almota, in Snake River Valley. They are in reality not Upper Sonoran varieties at all, but belong to the Lower Sonoran area. bia site d UGE S AND CROP ZO : ay Sie ye a> ; a“ 3 FRUITS—continued. i . , yn Pears—Continued. ; Idaho [local in Idaho]. Osband Summer. — Lawrence. Patrick Barry. Louise Bonne de Jersey. Seckel. Lucrative. _ Vicar of Winkfield. Margaret. White Doyenne. a Ae Onondaga. Winter Nelis. F Plums (including prunes). Agen (irench, Petite, etc.). ' Kanawha. Bavay Green Gage. Lombard. Eradshaw. McLaughlin. Cherry. Peach. Columbia. Pond (Hungarian Prune). Clyman. Sergent, Robe de. German Prune. ’ Shropshire. Golden Drop, Coe. Silver Prune. ‘ Golden Prune. Tragedy. Imperial Gage. Washington. Italian. . Yellow Egg. Quinces. Champion. Portugal. Orange. Raspberries. Strawberries. Bubach No. 5. Longfellow. ' Captain Jack. Monarch. Clark Seedling. Parker Earle. Crawford. Sharpless. Jessie. Thompson No, 7. NUTS. European chestnuts. Combale, Marron. De Lyon, Marron, European walnuts. Chaberte. Parisienne. Franquette. Proeparturiens. Mayette. Serotina. Filberts and hazelnuts. Du Chilly. . Purple Leaf. Lambert. Red Aveline. Piedmont. , MISCELLANEOUS. Alfalfa. Sorghum. Cowpeas. Sugar beet (n). Kafjir corn. Sweet potatoes. Hemp. Tobacco. Lima beans. White potatoes. THE LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. Al 6. THE LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. The Lower Austral zone occupies the southern part of the United States, from Chesapeake Bay to the great interior valley of Califor- ~nia. It is interrupted by the continental divide in eastern Arizona and western New Mexico, and is divided, according to conditions of humidity, into an eastern or Austroryparian, and a western or Lower Sonoran, area. (a) THE LOWER SONORAN FAUNAL AREA. The Lower Sonoran area begins with the arid region of Texas in the . neighborhood of latitude 98°, and stretches westerly to the Rio Grande Valley, in which it sends an arm northwest to a point a little north of Albuquerque, N. Mex. Another arm reaches up the valley of the Pecos. West of the Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico the Lower Sonoran is interrupted by the continental divide. It begins again in eastern Arizona and sweeps broadly westward below the high plateau, covering southern and western Arizona, the deserts of southern Nevada and eastern California, and the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys. Followed more in detail, the Lower Sonoran in western Arizona sends a narrow tortuous arm eastward in the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, which expands to cover the lower levels of the Painted Desert, and another arm northward, which enters the extreme southwestern corner of Utah, where it is restricted to the St. George or lower Santa Clara Valley, and is of much agriculturalimportanee.! From western Arizona it spreads over southern Nevada, pushes northerly into Pahranagat Valley, sends an arm by way of Oasis and Sarcobatus valleys all the way to the sink of the Humboldt and Car- son rivers, fills the whole of Death, Panamint, and Saline valleys and part of Owens Valley, and thence curving southwesterly follows the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, Tehachapi, and Tejon mountains, and covers the whole of the Mohave and Colorado deserts and all the rest of southern California except the mountains. It sends an arm ‘southward over most of the peninsula of Lower California, and another northward over the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys. The Lower Sonoran area comprises the most arid deserts of North America, and is characterized by a fauna and flora of extreme inter- est. Among the commoner plants are the creosote bush, mesquites, acacias, cactuses, yuccas, and agaves. Among the characteristic birds are the mockingbird, road runner, cactus wren, canyon wren, desert thrashers, hooded oriole, black-throated desert sparrow, Texas nighthawk, and Gambel’s quail. Among.the distinctive mammals are the four-toed kangaroo rats, Sonoran pocket mice, long-eared desert fox, and the big-eared and tiny white-haired bats. The region, wherever water may be had for irrigation, is of great agricul- tural importance, particularly for fruit. 1Cotton, tobacco, raisin grapes, almonds, olives, figs, and other Lower Sonoran crops are raised successfully in the St. George Valley. red Sane ae oats, and the white gourd seed corn, do wall tobacco, pyrethrum, and the opium poppy thrive in certain lo and alfalfa,-cowpeas, and canaigre (a plant valuable for ta better than in any other area. | CEREALS. Barley (2). Corn. Oats. Rye (2). Wheat. Australian. Sonora. White Gourd Seed (2). Red Rust Proof (2). FRUITS. Avocado (Aguacate). (h)! Apples. Marshall Red (Red Bellflower). Yellow Bellflower. Sexton Golden. Yellow Newtown Pippin. Skinner Seedling (Santa Clara King). Apricots. Breda. Roman. Hemskirke. Royal. . Hinds Seedling. Royal Golden, Brier. Montgamet, Alberge de. Sparks. Montgamet Early. St. Ambroise. Moorpark. Vestal Moorpark. Peach. Cherries. Early Purple Guigne. Carob. Cherimoyer. (h)! Citron. Dates. (h)' ' There are several hot pockets in the Lower Sonoran in which tropiceti 0! tropical fruits may be grown with greater or less success. The best kn these is near Santa Barbara, Calif., where the following are said to flourish: cado (Persea gratissima), onpullin (Prunus capuli), cherimoyer (Anona | « molia), kai-apple (Aberia caffra), mango (Mangifera indica), Moreton: Bay « nut (Castanospermum australe), pepino (Solanum muricatum), Queensland (Macadamia ternifolia), rose apple (Eugenia jambos), sapodilla (Achre tree tomato (Cyphomandra betacea), and zapote blanco (Casimiroa - ulis Adriatic. S Genoa, White. Gentile. Ischia, White. Alexandria, Muscat of. Black Hamburg. Emperor. Feher Szagos. 2 Gordo Blanco. Herbemont. Huasco. Malaga. Mission. Cattley (Strawberry). - Eureka. Genoa. Mexican. Satsuma. Black Spanish. Downing. he _ Bahia (Washington Navel). Hart Late (Haxcelsior). a ~ Malta Blood. Maltese Oval. Mediterranean Sweet. THE LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. -FRUITS—continued. _ Figs. Marseillaise, White. Mission, Black. Monaco Bianco. Smyrna. San Pedro Black. Turkey, Brown. Granadilla. Grapes. Muscat-Hambure. Peru, Rose of. Prince, Black. Sultana. Sweetwater (Fontainebleaw). Thompson Seedless. Tokay, Flame. White Muscat. Zinfandel. Guavas. Chinese (Mexican). Japanese persimmons. [Numerous varieties. ] Jujube. Kumquat. Lemons. Sicily. z, Villa Franca. Times. Tahiti. Loquat. Mandarin oranges. Tangerine. Mulberries. Persian. Olives. [Numerous varieties. ] Oranges. Paper Rind St. Michael. Ruby Blood. St. Michael. Valencia Late. 43 FRUITS—continued. Peaches. r Alexander. Henrietta. Early Crawford (7). _ Late Crawford (7). Early York. Lemon Cling. Elberta. Muir. * Foster (7). St. John, Yellow. Garland, Governor. Strawberry. Hale. Susquehanna. Heath Cling. . Nectarines. Boston. Early Violet. ; Downton. ‘ Elruge. Early Newington. Hardwicke. Pears. Angouléme, Duchess de. Louise Bonne de Jersey. Bartlett. Lucrative. Bosc. Patrick Barry. Boussock. Pound. Brandywine. Seckel. Clairgeau. Superfin. Easter Beurre. Tyson (?).! Glout Morceanu. White Doyenne. Howell (?).! Winter Nelis. Lawrence. Pepino (Solanum muricatum). Pineapple (?).! Pomegranates. Pomeloes. {Several varieties] Plums (including prunes). Agen (French, Petite, etc.). Italian (Fellenberg). Caddo Chief. J efferson. Columbia. * ‘Peach. El Paso. : ; Sergent, Robe de. — German Prime. Simon (Prunus simonii). Golden Drop, Coe. Strawberries. Australian Crimson. Monarch. Burt. Sharpless. Longfellow. ey Tamarind. : 'The interrogation point (?) signifies that the variety or species so nu included in the list upon information sufficiently positive to make such necessary, but lacking such full verification as would permit the listing qualification. ie: eo ree Csi’ Tee THE LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. 45 NUTS. f Almonds. Blowers. McCoy. Brier. Ne Plus Ultra. Drake. Nonpareil (£xtra). Golden State. Gray [southwest Utah]. Paper Shell. Routier, New. Harriott. Soft Shell, Routier. IXL. Supremo. King Soft Sheil. Tarragona. Languedoc. Twin, Routier. Lewelling. Huropean walnuts. Bijou. Mayette. Chaberte. Mesange (Paper Shell). Cluster. Mission (Los Angeles) Ford. Parisienne. Franquette. Proeparturiens. Gant (Bijou). Santa Barbara. Kaghazi. Serotina. Peanuts. az Pecans. Pistachio nut. . MISCELLANEOUS. Alfalfa. Opium poppy. Biack wattle (Acacia decurrens). Pyrethrum. Canaigre (Rumexw hymenosepalus) . Ramie. Castor-oil bean. Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa). Cork oak (Quercus suber). Sorghum. Cotton. Sugar cane. Cowpeas. Sweet potatoes. Flax (seed). Tagasaste (Cytisus). Hemp. Tobacco. Mustard. (6) THE AUSTRORIPARIAN FAUNAL AREA. The Austroriparian area occupies the greater part of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. Beginning near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay it covers half or more than half of Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, the whole of Mississippi and Louisiana, eastern Texas, nearly all of Indian Territory, more than half of Arkansas, and parts of Oklahoma, southeastern Kansas, south- ern Missouri, southern Illinois, the extreme southwestern corner of In- diana, and the bottom lands of western Kentucky and Tennessee. The long leaf and loblolly pines, magnolia, and live oak are common on the uplands; the bald cypress, tupelo, and cane inthe swamps. Here the mocking bird, painted bunting, prothonotary warbler, red-cockaded woodpecker, chuck-wills-widow, and the swallow-tail and Mississippi kites are characteristic birds, and the southern fox squirrel, cotton rat, rice-field rat, wood rat, and free-tailed bat are common mammals. 46 eae LIFE E "ZONES AND sue This is the zone of the cotton plant, sugar cane, ri peanut, and of the scuppernong grape and oriental pea and Kieffer). The more important crops are mentioned in ing list: 5 | Pee CEREALS. — Barley (2). Corn. Golden Dent. St. Charles White 2) [ Miss: Hickory King. ley]. Leaming (2). Stowell Evergreen (2). Mosby Prolific. White Gourd Seed. Oats. Burt. Red Rust Proof. Rye (2). Wheat. Fultz (2). Mediterranean (3). May wheats [away from coast]. FRUITS. Apples. Bonum (7). Mangum. Bradford Best (Kentucky Red). Manomet. Bruce. Mason Stranger. Buckingham. Mattamuskeet. Cannon Pearmain. Maverack. Carter Blue. Nansemond. Champlain (Nyack) (7). Nickajack (7). Clark Pearmain. Oconee. Cornell Fancy (7). Oldenburg, Duchess of. Cracking. Ralls Genet. Cullasaga. Red Astrachan. Disharoon. Red June. Farrar (Robinson Superb). ~ Romanite, South. ee Ferdinand. Shockley. - Gilpin (7). Stephenson. Pe: ae wr Green Cheese. Switzer | Mississippi Valley). Hall. Taunton. Hockett. Watson. Hoover (7). Waugh Crab. Horn. White Juneating. Horse. Willow Twig. Jennings. Winesap (7). Julian. Yates. July (Fourth of July) (n). Yellow June. Junaluskee. Yellow Transparent. Limber Twig (7). Yopp. McAfee (7). York Imperial (7). THE LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. AT FRUITS—continued. Apricots.! Breda. Orange. es Early Golden. Royal. _ Hemskirke. St. Ambroise. Moorpark. — Turkey. Musch. : Cherries. Archduke (7). Magnifique, Belle (n). Black Heart (7).— May duke (7). Choisy, Belle de (n). _ : Moreilo, English (n). Early Purple Guigne (n). Richmond (Kentish) (). Late Duke (7). Chinese quince. Dewberry. Lucretia. Figs. Brunswick. Turkey, Brown. Green Ischia. Grapes.” Berckmans. Lenoir. Brighton (7). Lindley (7). Brilliant [Mississippi Valley}. Missouri Reisling [Mississippi Valley]. Catawba. Moore Early (n). Cynthiana. Niagara (7). Delaware (7). Norton Virginia. Diamond, Moore (1). Salem (7). Elvira. Scuppernong. * Flowers. Tenderpulp. Goethe (7). Thomas. Herbemont. Triumph. Jefferson (1). Wylie, Peter. Japanese persimmons. Costata. — Okame. Hachiya. Yemon. Mulberries. | . Downing. euge Stubbs. Hicks. ‘Apricots are too often injured by late spring frosts to be a profitable crop in the Austroriparian. ' ? Varieties followed by the letter (7) belong to the Car Sates area, but thrive also along the upper edge of the Austroriparian. Alexander (7). Amelia. Austin. Blood Cling. Blood Free. Cabler Indian. Chinese Cling. Columbia. Early Crawford (7). Early York (7). Elberta. Hale (7). Heath Cling (1). Angouleme, Duchess de (n). Garber. Julienne (7). Kieffer. Lawrence (7). Abundance (Botan). Berckmans. Burbank. Caddo Chief [western]. Caradeuc, De. Chabot. Cumberland. El Paso [western]. Georgeson (Hattankio). Golden Beauty. Kerr (Hattankio 2). Bubach No. 5 (7). Cloud | Mississippi Valley]. Crescent. Gandy (7). Hoffman. ' Almonds are grown in the Austroriparian area, but are not a comme! c ‘ fs a * P ZONES. — Bee eter SE ee Peaches. Hoover. Kerr, Jessie. Late Crawford. oo Lee, General. — athe te Lemon Cling. : Mountain Rose (17). Oldmixon Cling (7). Pallas. Picquet Late. Sneed. St. John, Yellow. Thurber. Tillotson. Pears. Le Conte. Magnolia. Rostiezer (n). Seckel (7). Tyson (7). Plums. Indian Chief, Lone Star. Marianna. Miner. Newman. Red Nagate. Satsuma. Transparent, Yellow, Weaver. é Wild Goose. Pomegranates. Strawberries. Michel Larly. Parker Earle. ase Thompson, Lady. Seren Warfield [ Mississippi Valley NUTS. Almonds. ' English walnuts. Pecans. Peanuts, a Ree ay ee + ee THE LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. AY MISCELLANEOUS. Castor bean. Sorghum. China grass. Sugar cane. Cotton. Sweet potatoes. Cowpeas. Tea.! Jute. Tobacco. Lima beans. Turpentine. Rice. (c) SEMITROPICAL OR GULF STRIP. The Gulf strip, or southern part of the Austroriparian area (col- ored orange on the map), reaches from Texas to southern Florida, covers a narrow strip in southern Georgia, and probably follows the coastal lowlands northward into South Carolina, though not so indi- cated on the map. It has a semitropical climate and is the home of a number of plants and animals not found farther north, among which — are the cabbage palmetto, Cuban pine, ground dove, white-tailed kite, Florida barred and screech owls, Chapman’s nighthawk, the Florida and boat-tailed grackles, and several small mammals. = CROPS OF THE SEMITROPICAL OR GULF STRIP. The Gulf strip, though small in area, is of very great importance from the standpoint of agriculture and horticulture. Itis the belt in 4 which rice, sugar cane, and the much-prized Sea Island cotton are pro- duced in greatest quantity and value; and, as a fruit belt, has no competitor except the Lower Sonoran areas of California and Arizona. Bitter oranges, loquats, granadillas, figs, Japanese persimmons, pecan nuts, and numerous varieties of peaches and grapes thrive here, and the citrus fruits (oranges, mandarins, lemons, limes, and shaddocks) are grown successfully in the warmer parts, particularly in peninsular Florida, but in the northern parts have suffered severely from frosts. The more important agricultural products are mentioned in the fol- lowing list: CITRUS FRUITS. Bergamot oranges (P)?. Bitter oranges. Lemons (P). Belair. | Sicily. Eureka. Villa Franca. Genoa. : Tea is grown successfully at Summerville, near Charleston, S. C., and would - doubtless thrive in other parts of the Austroriparian belt; but the cost of pick- ing the leaves is so great as to discourage its general cultivation. _ 2 The letter (P) indicates that the fruit after which it is placed is cultivated suc- cessfully in peninsular Florida only, except in a few cases where it thrives also in the Mississippi delta below New Orleans. 1002—No. 10 4 CITRUS FRUITS—continued. — Cleopatra (P). Dancy Tangerine (P). 5 Kange<(P). Bahia (Washington Navel). Beach No. 5. Bessie. Bcone Early. Buttercourt. Centennial. Circassian. Colmar. Cunningham. Drake Star. - Dulcissima. Du Roi. Foster. Hart Late ( Excelsior). Higley Late. Imperial Blood. Jafta. Aurantium. Blood. Forbidden Fruit. Hart. Josselyn. Jennings. Adriatic, White. Celestial. Elvira. Flowers. Herbemont. Scuppernong. oO) A ate, J Mandarins. Satsuma. Tangerona (P). Oranges (P). Jafta Blood. Lamb Summer. Magnum Bonum. Maltese Oval. Mediterranean Sweet. Nonpareil. Oblong, Early. Old Vini. Parson Brown. Pineapple. St. Michael. St. Michael Blood. Star Calyx. Thorpe Trophy. Valencia Late. Vinous, Madame. Pomeloes (P). Mammoth. Seedless. Triumph. Walter. OTHER FRUITS. Apples. Red Astrachan, Chinese quince. Dewberry. Lucretia, Figs. Magnolia. Marseillaise, White. Granadillas. — Grapes. Tenderpulp. Thomas. Wylie, Peter. ‘THE TROPICAL REGION. 51 OTHER FRUITS—continued. Guavas (P.) . Chinese (Mexican). Japanese persimmons. Tane Nashi. Tsuru. Yedo-ichi. Yeinon. Zengi, Kumquats (P.). Loquats. Peaches. # Angel. Gibbon. _ Bidwell Early (P.). Honey. : ; Bidwell Late (P.). Imperial. - Cabler Indian. Maggie Burt. ina. Onderdonk. _ Countess. Pallas. Baty China (P.). Peento (P.). _ Ferdinand. . Waldo. _ Florida Crawford. . Pears. Le Conte. Magnolia. Plums. « Wild Goose. Satsuma Pomegranates. Strawberries. offman Neunan. % ‘2 — Cotton. China g grass [ior fiber]. Thompson, Lady. NUTS. Peanuts. Pecans. MISCELLANEOUS. Sorghum. Sugar cane. Sweet potatoes. Tobacco. 7. THE TROPICAL REGION. a _ The Tropical region within the United States is of small extent and is restricted to three widely separated localities—southern Florida, _ extreme southeast Texas (along the lower Rio Grande and Gulf coast), California areas are dilute arid tropical. ee the ae trees that grow in southern Florida are th ae birds in Seieaatn Texas is ois direct renal of the ae ous extension of the Tamaulipan arid tropical fauna from Mexico in Texas. The extension of the arid tropical along the lower Colora only desert mammals and birds can live there. sufficiently studied, but is characterized by giant cactuses, desert at cias, palo verdes, and the Washington or fan-leaf palm. CROPS OF THE TROPICAL REGION. With irrigation the arid tropical areas are found to be as produe- tive as the humid tropical, but they have been cultivated so short. time that their capabilities can only be inferred from the cireumstan that bananas, citrons, dates, guavas, lemons, loquats, oranges, a Mexican limes do well in the Arizona-California arm. No informa tion is at hand relating to the Texan or Tamaulipan arm. ; - Tropical Florida, with its handsome cocoanut palms and extenate p _banana fields, has been longer under cultivation, but its full capaci t is still unknown, and the following list must be regarded as far fr on complete: + Crops oF TROPICAL FLORIDA, CITRUS FRUITS. Bergamot Orange (Citrus ber, gamium). Citrons. Oranges. Lemons. Pomeloes. Limes. OTHER FRUITS. Avocado (Aguacate). Mandarins. Carob or St. John’s bread (Cerato Amatungula (Carissa arduina). siliqua). Banana. Cherimoyer. Barbados gooseberry (Pereskia acu- Cocoanut. a leata). Custard apple (Anona reticulata), Caraunda, Christ thorn (Carissa ca- Date. Rot randas). Downy myrtle (Rhodomyrtus Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana). tosa). Cashew nut, Egg fruit. 3 _. THE TROPICAL REGION. Sime is: | OTHER FRUITS—continued. Ginep or Spanish lime. © Pepino (Solanum muricatum) adilla. Pineapple. FUGUE. ; Pond apple (Anona glabra). Hog lum (Ximenia). Rose apple (Eugenia jambos). umquat. Sapodilla (Achras sapota). J Soursop (Anona muricata). immee apple. Southern dewberry (Rubus trivialis). mmee sapota. - - Strawberry tomato (Physalis alke- : i keng?). _ Melon papaw (Carica papaya). Sugar apple (Anona squamosa). _ Monstera deliciosa. Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora). Otaheite gooseberry (Phyllanthus dis- Tamarind. MISCELLANEOUS. ! mphor. Sisal hemp. Tobacco. age aya Fees PA eit LAWS OF TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF THE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS.' Apart from obvious mechanical barriers, such as oceans, tempera- ture is the most important single factor in fixing the limits beyond which particular species of animals and plants can not go. Investi- gations conducted by the Biological Survey have shown that the north- ward distribution of terrestrial animals and plants is governed by the sum of the positive temperatures for the entire season of growth and reproduction,” and that the southward distribution is governed by the mean temperature of a brief period during the hottest part of the year.* ZONE TEMPERATURES. THE BOREAL REGION. Arctic, Hudsonian, and Canadian zones.—The distinctive tempera- tures of che three Boreal zones (Arctic, Hudsonian, and Canadian) are not positively known, but the southern limit of the Boreal as a_ whole is marked by the isotherm of 18° C. (64.4° F.) for the six hottest _ consecutive weeks of summer. It seems probable, from the few data available, that the limiting temperatures of the southern boundaries of the Hudsonian and Arctic zones are, respectively, 14° C. (57.2° F.) and 10° C. (50° F.) for the same period. 1 Abridged from a paper by the author entitled ‘ Laws of temperature control of — the geographic distribution of terrestrial animals and plants,’ National Geo- graphic Magazine, Vol. VI, pp. 229-238, 3 colored maps, December, 1894. 2In computing the sum of the positive or effective temperatures a minimum tem- perature of 6° ©, (48° F.) has been assumed as marking the inception of the period of physiological activity in plants and of reproductive activity in animals. The effective temperatures or degrees of normal mean daily heat in excess of this mini- mum have been added together for each station, beginning when the normal mean daily temperature rises higher than 6° C. in spring and continuing until it falls to — the same point at the end of the season. The sums thus obtained were platted on alarge scale map of the United States and connected by isotherms, which were found to conform in the most gratifying manner with the northern boundaries of __ the several life zones. ‘ ’The exact length of this period has not been determined. It must be short enough to fall within the hottest part of the summer in high northern latitudes, and probably increases in length from the northsouthward. For experiment, the — mean normal temperature of the six hottest consecutive weeks was arbitrarily chosen and platted on a large scale map. Isotherms were then drawn, which con- formed so closely with the southern boundaries of the Boreal, Transition, and Upper Austral zones that the matter was not carried further. 54 ales a. TEMPERATURE OF AUSTRAL AND TROPICAL REGIONS. 55 THE AUSTRAL REGION. Transition zone species require a total quantity of heat of at least 5,500° C. (10,000° F.), but can not endure a summer temperature the mean of which for the six hottest consecutive weeks exceeds 22° C. (71.6° F.). The northern boundary of the Transition zone, therefore, is marked by the isotherm showing a sum of normal positive tempera- tures of 5,500° C. (10,000° F.), while its southern boundary is coinci- dent with the isotherm of 22° C. (71.6° F.) for the six hottest con- secutive weeks. Upper Austral species require a total quantity of heat of at least 6,400° C. (11,500° F’.), but apparently can not endure a summer tem- perature the mean of which for the six hottest consecutive weeks exceeds 26° C. (78.8° F.). The northern boundary of the Upper Austral zone, therefore, is marked by the isotherm showing a sum of normal positive temperatures of 6,400° C. (11,500° F.), while its southern boundary agrees very closely with the isotherm of 26° C. (78.8° F.) for the six hottest weeks. Lower Austral species require a total quantity of heat of at least 10,000° C. (18,000° F.). The northern boundary of the Lower Austral zone, therefore, is marked by the isotherm showing a sum of normal positive temperatures of 10,000° C. (18,000° F.). THE TROPICAL REGION. Tropical species require a total quantity of heat of at least 14,400° C. (26,000° F.); and since the tropical life region is a broad equatorial belt, it is probable that both its northern and southern boundaries are marked by the isotherm showing a sum of normal positive tem- peratures of 14,000° C. (26,000° F.). Governing temperatures of the zones. v7 Governing temperatures. Northern limit. Southern limit. ee onene Zones: Sum of normal Normal mean mean daily tem- | temperature of peratures above | six hottest con- 3° 43° F.). secutive weeks. °C oh: Oz oR. lotoy o'er) ie ee STR CAG Se om aye ne ee set ests Aas Mla BOR 110 150 EUS Omnia le ee ee eee gees Soa ne epee Rees | A eee 114 157.2 Wanadian x2 ose usec ss sett Sous ee aoe etal ace eee 18 64.4 PANABET AL sco se DranSibloMles> = 2 seen) oes os eee ect 5,500 | 210,000 22 71.6 WUippenAustral ss: 222-555). -S bess 6, 400 71,500 26 78.8 HOW eA SLi ales Mek swe 2 et SE ae 10, 000 18 3000 {| 22 hea: eee ee PEPOPICd 3 are se hee Fe ape ops oe ORs ION tN pee bane 14,500 26; OM) eee eer ee eee 1 Estimated from insufficient data. 2The Fahrenheit equivalents of centigrade sum temperatures are stated in round numbers to avoid small figures of equivocal value. PARA Ne CROP TABLES. particular crops (as cereals, apples, pears, and so on), the zo: of the more important varieties. Fruits having very limited ranges, aS oranges and guavas, are not included, because they a easily found under their appropriate zones in ie 8 text. while a few varieties, as the Red Nupiethatn apple and Paci Seckel pears, have wide ranges, thriving in as many as three. the vast majority are restricted to two, and a considerable nue a single zone. Additions and corrections are earnestly desired. CEREALS. Cereals taken collectively thrive best in cool climates and are successful in the Transition and Upper Austral zones. Thisis parti larly true of oats and wheat. Corn, while no exception to the rl has more varieties adapted to the Lower Austral, as ope int accompanying table. Zone ranges of oats, wheat, and corn. [Kry.—(2) and (3) of second or third rate in the area. ] Ke TRANSITION ZONE. Transition areas as a whole. Transition areas as a whole. Oals: Wheat—Continued. American Banner. . Saskatchewan Fife. ‘ Black Tartarian. Scotch Fife. Lincoln. Corn Welcome. Aries of Midnight. White Russian. Canadian Eight-Row Yellow Flint. Wheat: King Philip. : Australian (3). Longfellow Clawson. ore of the North. Fultz (2). ete a. Stowell Evergreen (2 and local). UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. Carolinian area. Upper Sonoran area. — Oats: Oats: Lincoln (2). Lincoln (2). Red Rust Proof. Red Rust Proof (2). Welcome. Welcome (2). tures White Russian (2). : White Russian (2). 56 CEREALS AND APPLES. 57 Zone ranges of oats, wheat, and corn—Continued. UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE—Continued. Carolinian area. Upper Sonoran area. Wheat: \ Wheat; Clawson. Australian. Fulcaster. Fultz (3). ww Fultz. May wheats (3). Mediterranean. Mediterranean (2). ‘Turkey Red | Mississippi Valley]. Sonora. Velvet Chaff. Turkey Red (2). , Velvet Chaff (2). Corn: Corn: Bloody Butcher. Hickory King (3). Golden Dent (2). King Philip (2). Hickory King (2). Leaming (2). = King Philip (3). Pride of the North (3). Leaming. ~ Squaw (3). St. tities White [Lower Mississippi Val- ley] (2). Stowell Evergreen. White Gourd Seed (2). LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. Lower Sonoran area. Austroriparian area. Oats: Oats: Red Rust Proof (2). Burt. Red Rust Proof. Wheat: Wheat: Australian. ; May wheats [away from coast}. Sonora. Mediterranean (3). . Fultz (2). Corn: Corn: W hite Gourd Seed (2). Golden Dent. Hickory King. Leaming (2). Mosby Prolific. St. Charles White aes Valley] (2). Stowell Evergreen (2). White Gourd Seed. . APPLES. Apples rank among the staple crops of the United States. A mul- titude of varieties flourish in the Transition and Upper Austral zones and a smaller number in the Lower Austral, as may be seen from the following table. One variety, the Red Astrachan, is remarkable for the wide range of climatic conditions it is able to endure, as it ‘appears to thrive in all the zones and in all the areas except the most arid. Many varieties are restricted to a single zone, but the greater number are common to two adjoining zones, as the Transition and Upper Austral; or the Upper and Lower Austral. Crab apples are almost restricted to the Transition zone, only four varieties being known to flourish farther south, and all of these are Transition varieties. 58 LIFE ZONES AND CROP ZONES. [Kry.—Cross (+), do not thrive in the Upper Mississippi Soren (Wisconsin, Minr the eastern Dakotas) except in eastern Wisconsin in vicinity of Green Bay; (7), part only; (s),in southern part only; (7), information sufficiently positive to make- necessary, but lacking such full verification as to require qualification. ] TRANSITION ZONE. Zone ranges of apples. as Alleghanian (eastern) area. Alexander. + Bailey Sweet (s). Baker. + Baldwin. + Benoni (s). + Bietigheimer (s). + Blenheim. + Blue Pearmain. +Bullock (American Golden Russet). -++ Canada Reinette. + Chenango (s). +Clyde Beauty. + Cogswell (s). + Danvers (s). -+ Domine (s). } + Dutch Mignonne (s). + Dyer (Pomme Royal) (s). -+ Early Harvest. -+-Early Ripe (s). + Early Strawberry (s). -+ Esopus Spitzenburg. + Ewalt (s). -+ Fall Pippin. -+- Fameuse. -+ Garden Royal. -+- Golden Russet. iB -++ Golden Russet [New York] (s) + Golden Sweet. -+-Gravenstein. + Green Sweet. Haas ( Fall Queen) {Mississippi Valley]. ' Et Bean Sweet. +-Hubbardston. + Hunt Russet. -+ Jefferis (s). ++ Jefferson County. + Jewett Red. -++ Jonathan (s). -+- Keswick (s). Longfield. + Lowell (s). -++- McIntosh. McMahon. -++- Maiden Blush (s). -+ Margaret, Harly Red (s). -+ Melon, Norton (s). + Minister. -++ Montreal Peach. -+-+ Moore Sweet (s). -++ Mother (s). -+- Newtown Spitzenburg (s). -+- Northern Spy. -+-Ohio Nonpareil (s). Oldenburg, Ducless of. -++ Ontario. -+ Peck Pleasant. -++ Perry Russet. Pewaukee. | -+-Pomme Gris. + Porter (s). + Primate (s). + Pumpkin Sweet). + Rambo (s). -+-Red Astrachan. + Rh Canada. Sweet (Pound Rhode Island Greening. Ribston. -+- Rolfe. Roman Stem. -+- Roxbury. -+-St. Lawrence. -+-Secott Winter. -+ Shiawassee. Arid Transition area. Alexander. Baldwin. Dutch Mignonne. Dyer (Pomme Royal). Early Harvest. Early Strawberry. Esopus Spitzenburg. Fameuse. Golden Russet. Golden Sweet. Gravenstein. Hightop Sweet. Hu He baed stan Jefferis. Jonathan. Keswick. Longfield. Lowell. Maiden Blush. Monmouth. Mother. Newtown Spitzenburg. Northern Spy. Oldenburg, Duchess of. Pewaukee. Porter. Red Astrachan. Rhode Island Greening. Roman Stem. Rome Beauty. Roxbury. Sops of Wine. Summer Pearmain Swaar. Tetofski. Tolman Sweet. Tompkins King. Twenty-Ounce. Wagener. Wealthy. Westfield. Williams Favorite. Wine, Hays. Winesap (?). Wolf River. Yellow Newtown Pippin. Yellow Transparent. Baldwin. Ben Davis (s). Blue Pearmain. Early Harvest (s). Esopus Spitzenburg. Fall Pippin (s). Gravenstein. Jonathan (s). Keswick. Maiden Blush. Monmouth. Northern Spy : Oldenburg, Ti cneee Br is re Rambo (s). Red Astrachan. ‘ Red June (s). Rhode Island Greening. Sops of Wine. Swaar. Tompkins King. — Wagener. Wealthy. ed Yellow Bellflower ( s). Yellow Newtown Pippin (s). | Yellow Transparent. APPLES. tei) Zone ranges of apples—Continued. TRANSITION ZONE—Continued. Alleghanian (eastern) area. Arid Transition area. -+Sops of Wine. .+Sterling (American Beauty). +Summer Pearmain (s). + Sutton. + Swaar (s). Tetofski. 2 +Tolman Sweet. + Tompkins King. + Twenty-Ounce. -+ Vandevere (s). + Wagener. Wealthy. Westfield. + Williams Favorite. + Wine, Hays (s). Wolf River. Yellow Transparent. Crab apples: Beach. Brier. -+ Elgin. Excelsior. Gibb. + Hyslop. Martha. Marengo. Minnesota. Montreal. Orange. Red Siberian. ese eudent. + Van Wyck Whitney No. 20. Yellow Riberi pian. Pacific Transition area: UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. Carolinian area. Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig). Bailey Sweet. Baldwin (7). Belmont. Ben Davis. Benoni. Bentley. Bonum. Bough, Sweet. Bradford Best (Kentucky Red). Broadwell. Buckingham. Cannon Pearman. Champlain (Nyack). Clayton. Cornell Fancy. Cullasaga. Domine (7). Dyer (Pomme Royal). Early Cooper. Early Harvest. Early Joe. Ear ip Pennock. Early Strawberry. Edward arty. Esopus (7). Evening Party. Ewalt. Fallawater. Fall Orange. Fall Pippin. Fall Wine. Gokion Russet (1). Golden Sweet. Upper Sonoran area. Alameda, Beauty of. Belmont. Ben Davis. Blue Pearmain. Cook Seedling. Dyer (Pomme Royal). Early Harvest. Early Pennock. Early Strawberry. Esopus Spitzenburg. Fall Jenneting. Fall Orange. Fall Pippin. Fall Wine. Gloria Mundi. Golden Russet. Golden Sweet. Grimes Golden. Haas (Fall Queen). Hawthornden. Hightop Sweet. Holland Pippin. Hubbardston. Jersey Sweet. Jonathan. Keswick. Lady Sweet. Lawver (Delaware Red Winter). Limber Twig. Lowell. Maiden Blush. McA fee. Marshall Red (Red Bellflower). Missouri Pippin. Monmouth Pippin (Red Cheek Pippin). Mother. Newtown Spitzenburg. Nickajack. - Zone ranges of apples—Continued. vee | 5 4 _UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE—Continued. Carolinian area. Green Cheese. Green Newtown. Grimes Golden. Haas (Fall Queen). Hewes Crab. Hightop Sweet [Mississippi Valley]. Hoover. Horse. Hubbardston (7). _ Jefferis. Jersey Sweet. Jonathan (n). July (Fourth of July). Keswick Kinnaird. Lady thes ‘Sweet. Lansingburg. Late Strawberry. Lawver (Delaware Red Winter). Limber Twig. Lowell. McAfee. McLellan. pident Blush. - Mang Margaret, Early Red. Milam. Missouri Pippin. Melon, Norton (1). Monmouth Moore Sweet. Mother. _ Newtown Spitzenburg. Nickajack. Northern Spy (7). Ohio Nonpareil. Oldenburg, Duchess of. Ontario (7). Ortley. Otoe (”). Perry Russet (7). Porter. Primate. Pryor Red. Ralls Genet. Rambo Bamnadell Sweet. Red Astrachan. Red June. Red Stripe. Rhode Island Greening (n). Romanite, South. Roman Stem. Rome Beauty. Shockley. Smith Cider. Smokehouse. Sops of Wine (7). Stark (7). Summer Pearmain. Summer Queen. Summer Rose. Sutton (7). Swaar (7). Sweet Winesap. Tetofski- Tompkins King (1). Trenton Early. Twenty-Ounce (7). Vandevere. Wagener (7). Wa Bes (Edgar Red Streak). Westfield (7). White Juneating. White Pearmain. White Pippin Willow Twig. Wine, Hays (n). Winesap. Wythe. Northern Spy. Oldenburg, Duchess of. Porter. Primate. Ralls Genet. Ps Rambo. Red Astrachan. Red Canada. Red June. Rhode Island Greening. Roman Stem. Rome Beauty. Smith Cider. Summer Pearmain. Summer Queen. Summer Rose. Swaar. Tetofski. Tompkins King. Twenty-Ounce. Wagener. Wealthy. Westfield. White Pearmain. Wine, Hays. Winesap. Wolf River. Yellow Bellflower. Yellow Newtown Pippin. = APPLES. ie 61 Zone ranges of apples—Continued. UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE—Continued. Carolinian area. Upper Sonoran area. Yellow Bellflower. Yellow Newtown Pippin (Albemarle). Yellow Transparent. York Imperial. Crab apples: Hyslop. Martha. Transcendent. Yellow Siberian. LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. Lower Sonoran area. Austroriparian area. Gulf strip. Marshall Red (Red Bellflower). | Bonum (n). Jennings. Sexton Golden. Bradford Best (Kentucky Red).| Red cracna Roe Seedling (Santa Clara g)- Yellow Bellflower. Yellow Newtown Pippin. Bruce. Buckingham. Cannon Pearmain. “| Carter Blue eae (Nyack) (n). Clark Pearmain. Cornell Fancy (7). Cracking. Cullasaga. Disharoon. Farrar (Robinson Superb). Ferdinand. Gilpin (7). Green Cheese. Hall. Hockett. Hoover (1). es (Fourth of July) (n). Junaluskee. Limhber Twig (7). McAfee (7). Mangum. Manomet. Mason Stranger. Mattamuskeet. Maverack. Nansemond. Nickajack (7). Oconee. Oldenburg, Duchess of. Ralls Genet. Red Astrachan. Red June. Romanite, South. Shockley. Stephenson. Switzer [Mississippi Valley]. Taunton. Watson. Waugh Crab. White Juneating. Willow Twig. Winesap (7). Yates. Yellow June. ’ Yellow Transparent. opp. : York Imperial (7). APRICOTS. Apricots require a warm climate and do best in the dry heat of the Upper and Lower Sonoran areas. They blo and are easily injured by frosts, for which reason they are a p crop in the Eastern States. Zone ranges of apricots. UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. Carolinian area. { Upper Sonoran area. Alexander [Mississippi Valley]. Alexander. Breda. : Blenheim. Budd [Mississippi Valley]. Breda. Early Golden. Budd. Gibb [Mississippi Valley]. Eureka. Harris. Gibbs. Hemskirke. Hemskirke. Large Early. Large Early. Moorpark. rite ‘Alberge de. Peach. Montgamet Early. Moore Early., ‘Moorpark. Newcastle. Peach. Pringle. Royal] Golden, Brier. St. Ambroise. “ Vestal Moorpark. LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. Lower Sonoran area. Austroriparian area. — Breda, . Breda. Hemskirke. Early Golden. Hinds Seedling. Hemskirke. Montgamet, Alberge de. Moorpark. Montgamet Early. Musch. Moorpark. Royal Orange. Peach. St. Ambroise. eae, Turkey. Ro yal Royal Golden, Brier. St. Ambroise. Sparks. Vestal Moorpark. CHERRIES. Cherries like a warm temperate climate, and do best in the Austral zone, although some varieties flourish in the Transitic others in the Lower Austral. In both of these extremes, howey will be observed that by far the greater number are confined to1 parts of the zones which lie nearest to the Upper Austral ‘(as in cated by the letter (s) in the Transition list, and the letter (7) Austroriparian Salk CHERRIES. 63 Zone ranges of cherries. [Key.—Cross (+), do not thrive in the Upper Mississippi section (Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the eastern Dakotas) except in eastern Wisconsin in vicinity of Green Bay; (7), innorthern part only; (s). in southern part only; (7), information sufficiently positive to make the listing neces- sary, but lacking such full verification as to require qualification. | TRANSITION ZONE. Alleghanian (eastern) area. +Archduke. Bessarabian. +Black Heart (s). +Buttner, Yellow (s). +Choisy, Belle de. +Coe Transparent (s). +Donna Maria (s). +Downer (s). +Dyehouse (s). +Eagle, Black (s). +Early Purple Guigne (s). +Elton (s). +Eugenie, Empress (s). +Florence (s). +Hortense, Reine (s) + Hovey (s). Late Kentish. Lutovk&a. +Magnifique, Belle (s). +Mayduke (s). +Montmorency Large. +Montmorency Ordinaire. Morello, English. + Napoleon (s). +Olivet (s). +Philippe, Louis (s). +Plumstone Morello. Richmond (Kentish). --Tartarian, Black. + Windsor. +Wood, Governor. Arid Transition area. Archduke. Choisy, Belle de. Bing. Ostheimer Weichsel. Pacific Transition area. Advance, California. Centennial. Coe Transparent. Elton. Lewelling (Black Republican). Naneloon (Royal Ann). Richmond (Kentish). Rockport. Spanish, Yellow. Tartarian, Black. Windsor. Wood, Governor. UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. Carolinian area. Upper Sonoran area. Archduke (7). Black Heart. Carnation. Choisy, Belle de. Coe Transparent (1). Downer (7). Dyehouse. Eagle, Black. Early Purple Guigne. Elton (7). Eugenie, Empress. Hortense, Reine. Knight Early. eee se entish.. 5 agnifique, Belle. Mayduke. Morello, English. Napoleon (Royal Ann). Olivet. Plumstone Morello. Richmond. Rockport (7). Spanish, Yellow. Tartarian, Black. Windsor. Wood, Governor. Archduke. Bing. Centennial. Choisy, Belle de. Cleveland. Early Purple Gwigne. Late Duke. Lewelling (Black Republican). Mayduke. Montmorency Large. Montmorency Ordinaire. Morello, English. Napoleon (Royal Ann). Olivet. Ostheimer Weichsel. Richmond (Kentish). Rockport. Spanish, Yellow. Tartarian, Black. Thompson Seedling. Windsor. Wood, Governor. Zone ranges of cherries—Continued. LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. +e poy pes Sa: Re = h D CROP ZO] ot 7 t - . SS heel Lower Sonoran area. Early Purple Guigne (7). Grapes of high excellence and in great variety flourish in table contains only the more important varieties, and might b extended, particularly in the Lower Sonoran area: Zone ranges of grapes. ‘[Kry.—Cross (+-), do not thrive in the Upper Mississippi section (Wisconsin, Mi the eastern Dakotas) except in eastern Wisconsin in vicinity of Green Bay; (h), in he only; (n), in northern part only; (s), in southern part only]. ; Alleghanian (eastern) area. Agawam. +Barry. _ Champion. Clinton. Concord. Cottage. +Diana. -+ Martha. Moore Early. +Salem. Vergennes. Victor, Early. + Wilder. Winchell (Green Mountain). Worden. Wilder. Worden. Archduke (7). Black Heart. - : eee Cer ; be arly Purple Guigne (1). Tate vuee Belle (n) : agnifique, Belle (1). Mayduke (7). Morello, English (n)- Richmond (Kentish) (7). GRAPES. TRANSITION ZONE. Arid Transition area. Pacific Transiti Concord. Isabella. Moore Early. UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. Carolinian area. Agawam (17). Barry (1). Brighton. Catawba. Champion. Clinton (7). Concord. Cynthiana (s). Delaware. Diamond (7). Diana (7). Duchess. Elvira (s). Goethe (s). Iona (n). S- Upper Sonoran area. | Agawam. Alexandria, Muscat of (h). Black Ferrara. Black Hamburg. Catawba. Chasselas Red. Chasselas Rose. a Concord. Delaware. Elvira. Emperor (i). Isabella. Ives. Malaga (i). Massasoit. GRAPES AND PEACHES. Zone ranges of grapes—Continued. UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE—Continued. 65 Carolinian area. Upper Sonoran area. Isabella. Ives. Jefferson. Lindley. Missouri Reisling (s). Moore Early. Niagara. Noah [Southern Mississippi Valley.] (s). Norton Virginia (s). Pocklington (7). Prentiss (7). pom 2 elegrap Ulster (7). Worden (7). Wyoming. Mission. Moore Early. Norton Virginia. Peru, Rose of (h). Pierce (Isabella Regia). Prince Biack. Royal Muscatine (h). Salem. Sweetwater (Fontainebleau) (h). Thompson Seedless (h). Tokay, Flame (h). Victor, Early. Worden. Zinfandel (h). LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. Lower Sonoran area. Alexandria, Muscat of. Black Hamburg. Emperor. Feher Szagos. Gordo Blanco. Herbemont. Huasco. Malaga. Mission. Muscat-Hamburg. Peru. Rose of. Prince, Black. Sultana. Sweetwater (Fontainebleau). Thompson Seedless. Tokay. Flame. White Muscat. Zinfandel, Austroriparian area. Gulf strip. Berckmans. Elvira. apieou (2). Flowers. Brillant [Mississippi Valley]. | Herbemont. Catawba. Norton Virginia. Cynthiana. Scuppernong. Delaware (7). Tenderpulp. Diamond, Moore (n). Thomas. Elvira. Wylie, Peter. Flowers. Goethe (7). Herbemont. Jefferson (7). Lenoir. Lindley (7). Missouri Reisling [Mississippi Valley]. Moore Early (7). Niagara (7). Norton Virginia. Salem (7). Scuppernong. Tenderpulp. Thomas. Triumph. Wylie, Peter. PEACHES. Peaches require a warm climate, and are one of the most important fruits of the Upper and Lower Austral zones. In the Transition zone, except along the southern edge, where the Transition shades into the Upper Austral, they can not be depended on. But in the Paeifie Coast division of the Transition, which, as elsewhere explained, receives more heat than the other parts of this zone, peaches are grown in certain localities, and the Hale is said to do well. Sonoran. 1002—-No. 10-5 Nectarines follow peaches, except in the humid areas, but are of little consequence in the Eastern States. development and greatest commercial E COU Be IUGHCE in the arid Lower They reach their highest pees Like vONie Ce onoe oe co Zi) —- . —.- ‘ Zone ranges of peaches. [Key.—(n), in northern part only.]_ z UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. : A Carolinian area. Alexander. Alexander. ¥ m Beers Smock. Beers Sock. ee ilyeu. 3 Bilyeu. re Chili, Hills. ; Brandywine. : a Early Crawford. Chair Choice. Elberta. Early Crawford. Foster. Early York. George IV. Elberta. Globe. ; Foster. Golden Drop. arey. Grosse Mignonne. Garfield. ‘ Hale. Garland, Governor. Heath Cling. Globe. Hoover. Holden Cling. Kenrick Heath. Large York. Heath Cling. ieee Admirable. Late Crawford. Late Crawford. Lovell. Late Rareripe. Malta. Morris White. McKevitt Cling. Mountain Rose. Muir. Oldmixon Cling. Newhall. Oidmixon Free. Red Cheek Melocoton. Reeves Favorite. Picquet Late. Richmond. Reeves Favorite. Rivers. Rivers. Salway. Runyon Orange Cling. Smock. St. John, Yellow. Sneed. Salway. Stevens Rareripe. Smock. Strawberry. Strawberry. stump. Stump. St. John, Yellow Susquehanna. Susquehanna. Tuskena (Tuscany). Nectarines: Waterloo. Boston. Wilkins. Elruge. Nectarines: Stanwick. Hunt Tawny. Nichols Cling. Orange Cling. Red Roman. +e known to thrive in the Transition zone. LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. Lower Sonoran area. Austroriparian area. Alexander. Alexander (7). Early Crawford (n). Amelia. Bic et Early (?). © Early York. Austin. Bidwell Late (P). Elberta. Blood Cling. Cabler Indian. Foster (7). Blood Free. ax. Garland, Governor. Cabler Indian. Countess. Hale. Chinese Cling. Early China (P), Heath Cling. Columbia. Ferdinand. Henrietta. Early Crawford (7). BeBe Crawford. Late Crawford (7). Early York (7). Gibbon Lemon Cling. Elberta. Honey. Muir Hale ( in). a St. J rola: Yellow. Heath Cling (n). Maggie Burt Strawberry. Hoover. erdonk. Susquehanna. Kerr, Jessie. Pa Nectarines: Late Crawford. Peen-to (P). Boston. Lee, General. Waldo. Downton. Lemon’ Cling. ; Early Newington. Early Violet. Mountain Rose (7). Oldmixon Cling (7). .Elruge. Picquet Late. Hardwicke. Sneed. St. John, Yellow. Thurber. Tillotson. PEARS. 67 PEARS. Pears thrive best in the Transition and Upper Austral zones and _ fairly well in the Lower Austral, though the number of varieties adapted to the latter is relatively small. In the Gulf strip only four varieties flourish. Zone ranges of pears. [Key.—Cross (+), do not thrive in the Upper Mississippi section (Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the eastern Dakotas) except in eastern Wisconsin in vicinity of Green Bay; (7}, in northern part only; (s), in southern part only; (7), information sufficiently positive to make the listing neces- sary. but lacking such full verification as to require qualification. ] TRANSITION ZONE. Alleghanian (eastern) area. Arid Transition area. Pacific Transition area. + Andrews. Angouleme, Duchess de. Bartlett. +Angouleme, Duchess de (s). Anjou. Bose (s). + Anjou (s). Bartlett. Boussock. +Bartlett (s). Bose. Clairgeau (s). + Bose (s). Boussock. Clapp Favorite. +Boussock. Brandywine. Flemish Beauty. +Brandywine (s). Clairgeau. -| Seckel (s). +Buffum. Clapp Favorite. Tyson (s). +Clairgeau (s). Columbia. Winter Nelis (s). +Clapp Favorite (s). Easter Beurre. +Columbia (s). Flemish Beauty. +Dana Hovey (s). Lawrence. +Diel. Lucrative. +Dix. Onondaga. +Elizabeth, Manning. Osband Summer. +Flemish Beauty. Seckel. +Fulton. Tyson. 4Giffard (s). Winter Nelis. +Goodale. +Howell (s). 4Julienne (s). +Lawrence (s). +Louise Bonne de Jersey. 4 Lucrative (s). +McLaughlin. + Madeleine (s). +WMalines, Josephine de (s). + Onondaga (s). +Osband Summer. +Pound. + Rostiezer (s). +Seckel (s). +Sheldon (s). Souvenir dw Congress (s). +Sterling. 4Summer Doyenne (s). 4Tyson. UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. Carolinian area. Upper Sonoran area. Angouleme, Duchess de. Angouleme, Duchess de. Anjou (7). Anjou. Bartlett (7). Bartlett. ' Bloodgood. Bosc. ; Bose (7). Boussock. Boussock (7). Brandywine. Brandywine. Clairgeau. Buffum (7). Clapp Favorite. Chambers. Columbia. Clairgeau (7). Dana Hovey. Clapp Favorite (n). Diel. Columbia. Easter Bewrre. Comice, Doyenne du (1). Flemish Beauty. Diel Glout Morceau. Easter Beurre. Idaho [local in Idaho]. Garber. Lawrence. Giffard. Louise Bonne de Jersey. Gray Doyenne (m). Lucrative. Hosenschenk. Margaret. Got | LIFE ZONES ANI Zone ranges of pears Contented UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE—Continued. | Carolinian area. Howell. Onondaga. = } Julienne. Osband naner 5 Kieffer. Patrick Barry. i Kirtland. Seckel. Lawrence. White Doyenne. ouise Bonne de Jersey. Winter Nelis. ucrative (7). Vicar of Winkfield. Madeleine (n). Malines, Josephine de (n). Marguerite, Petite (n). Mt. Vernon (7). Napoleon (7). Onondaga (7). Osband Sunimer. Paradise d’ Automne (n). : Rostiezer. Rutter. Seckel. Sheldon. Summer Doyenne. Superfin (7). Tyson. White Doyenne (7). Winter Nelis. LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. 2 Lower Sonoran area. Austroriparian area. Gulf strip. | eeaaiente. Duchess de. Angouleme, Duchess de (1). Garber. Bartlett. Garber. Kieffer. Bosc. Julienne (7). Le Conte. Boussock. Kieffer. Magnolia. Brandywine. Lawrence (7). Clairgeau. Le Conte. Easter Beurre. Magnolia. Glout Morceau. Rostiezer (7). Howell (7). : Seckel (7). Lawrence. Tyson (7). Louise Bonne de Jersey. Lucrative. Patrick Barry. Pound. Seckel. ene, oon (?) hite Doyenne. Winter Nelis. PLUMS. Plums have a wide range. They attain their highest develop in the Upper Austral zone, but numerous varieties flourish it in t Transition and Lower Austral zones. In the dry summer h the Upper and Lower Sonoran areas many varieties develop so sugar that they make the best of prunes, but in the cooler Tran zone and the more humid Carolinian and Austroriparian areas p culture is not a success. PLUMS. : 69 Zone ranges of plums (including prunes). [Kny.—Cross (+), do not thrive in the Upper Mississippi section (Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the eastern Dakotas) except in eastern Wisconsin in_vicinity of Green Bay; (),in northern part only; (s), in southern part only. | TRANSITION ZONE. Alleghanian (eastern) area. Arid Transition area. Pacific Trausition area. > : ——} - a +Arctic, Moore. | De Soto. Agen (French, Petite, etc.) (s). Aubert, Yellow. | Forest Garden. j Columbia. +Bavay Green Gage. Dosch De Soto. +Diamond, Black (s). +Drap d’Or (s). +Duane Purple (s). +Engiebert (s). +German Prune (s). +Golden Drop, Coe (s). +Grand Duke (s). Green Gage. +Hudson River Purple Egg (s). +Hulings Superb (s). +Imperial Gage (s). + Jefferson (s). +Kingston (s). +Lawrence Favorite (s). Lombard. ee (s). MoldayEa. 4+ Monroe gq (s). + Orleans (s). 4+ Ottoman (s). +Pond (Hungarian Prune). +Purple Gage (s). +-Quackenboss (s). Richland. +Shropshire (s). +Smith Orleans (s). +Transparent Gage (s). +Wales, Prince of (s). + Wangenheim (s). + Washington (s). Wolf Yellow Egg. a 7 Carolinian area. — Abundance. Agen (French, Petite, ete.) (1). Archduke (7). Bavay Green Gage (1). Bleecker Gage (7). Bradshaw (7). Burbank. Chabot. Clinton. Columbia (7). Copper (7). Damson. Diamond, Black (n). Drap @’Or (7). Duane Purple (7). Englebert (7). German Prune (n). Golden Drop, Coe. Grand Duke (7). Hand (7). Hudson River Purple Egg (1). Hulings Superb (n). Imperial Gage (n). _ Italian (Fellenberg) (n). Jefferson. Kerr (Hattankio 2). Kingston (7). Lawrence Favorite (1), Lombard. Miner. Monroe Egg (1). Newman. Italian (Fellenberg). German Prune. Golden Drop, Coe. Golden Prune. Pond (Aungarian Prune). Silver Prune. Tragedy. Yellow Egg. UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. Upper Sonoran area. | Agen (French, Petite, etc). Bavay Green Gage. Bradshaw. Cherry. Clyman. Columbia. German Prvne. Golden Drop, Coe. Golden Prune. Imperial Gage. Italian. Kanawha. Lombard. McLaughlin. Peach. Pond (Hungarian Prume). Sergent, Robe de. Shropshire. Silver Prune. Tragedy. Washington. Yellow Egg. Zone ranges of plums (including prunes)— on’ 1ed. cc UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE—Continued. Carolinian area. Upper Sonoran ar Ogon. mea Orleans (n). : ; Ottoman (7). si Peach (7). : f Prince Yellow. a » Purple Favorite (n). Purple Gage (n). 5 : Red Nagate. : Richland (17). Robinson. Saratoga (71). Sauncers (7). Satsuma. Shropshire. : Smith Orleans (n). Transparent Gage (n). Washington (7). i Wales, Prince of (n). Wangenheim (7). Wild Goose. Willard, Yellow Egg (7). LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. Lower Sonoran area. Austroriparian area. Gulf strip. Agen (French, Petite, etc. ). reer eles (Botan.). Kelsey. Caddo Chief. Burbank. Satsuma. Columbia. Caddo Chief [western]. Wild Goose. E] Paso. Caradeuc, De German Prune. Chabot. Golden Drop, Coe. Cumberland. Italian( Fellenberg). E] Paso [western]. Jefferson, Georgeson (Hattankio). Peach. Golden Beauty. Sergent, Robe de. Kerr (Hattankio 2). Simon ( Prunus simonii). Indian Chief. Lone Star. Marianna. Miner. Newman. Red Nagate. Satsuma. x Transparent, Yellow. ‘ Weaver. Wiid Goose. STRAWBERRIES. being commercially profitable in every zone from the lower ec the Boreal in Canada to the semitropical strip bordering the Mexico. Nevertheless, the strawberry is the product of cool tem ate climates, and by far the larger number of varieties are fou 1 the Transition and Upper Austral, zones. STRAWBERRIES AND NUTS. ak Zone ranges of strawberries. _[Key.—(2), in northern part only; (s),in southern part only; (?),information sufficiently posi- tive to make the listing necessary, but lacking such full verification as to require qualification. } TRANSITION ZONE. Alleghanian (eastern) area. Arid Transition area. Pacific Transition area. Bubach Wo. 5. Bubach No. 5. Bubach Wo. 5 Crescent. Captain Jack. Clark Seedling. Cumberland. , Jessie (7). Crescent. Downing, Charles. Everbearing. Eureka (s). ne Jessie. Haverland. Monarch. Jessie. ee Perry. Michel Early (s). Sharpless. Miner. Vick. Sharpless. Wilson Albany. Warfield. s Wilson. UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. Carolinian area. | Upper Sonoran area. | Bubach No. 5. Bubach No. 5. Crescent. Captain Jack. Cumberland. Clark Seedling. Downing, Charles. Crawford. Enhance. Jessie. Eureka. Longfellow. Gandy. Monarch. Greenville. Parker Earle. Haverland. Sharpless. Jersey Queen. Thompson Wo. 7. Jessie. Michel Early. Miner. Parker Earle. Sandoval. Sharpless. Warfield. Wood, Beder. LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. Lower Sonoran area. Austroriparian area. Gulf strip. Australian Crimson. Bubach No. 5 (n). Hoffman. Burt. Cloud [Mississippi Valley]. Michel Early. Longfellow. Crescent. Neunan. 3 Monarch. Gandy (7). Thompson, Lady, Sharpless. Hoffman. - Michel Early. Parker Earle. Thompson, Lady. Warfield [Mississippi Valley ]. 1 Markedly successful at Hood River, Oregon, where the Pacific or humid division of the Tran- sition zone merges into the arid Upper Sonoran. NUTS. Our native wild nuts, of which the butternut, chestnut, hazelnut, hickorynut, and black walnut are of some commercial importance, are not included in the table, which treats of cultivated kinds only. Peanuts are grown on a small scale in hot localities in the Caro- linian area, in Michigan and Nebraska, and to a greater extent in New Jersey and Delaware, but belong properly to the Austroriparian. Pecans thrive in the Austroriparian and Lower Sonoran areas, but do Austroriparian area, do not fruit well, and are not a comm cess except in the Lower Sonoran area of California and where they and English walnuts are very important crops. — Zone ranges of nuts. [Kry.—(h), in hottest part only] UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. Boa —— : { he a Carolinian area. i Upper Sonoranarea. | ap Peanuts (h). Euro oe ota . aber Franquette. Mayette. Parisienne. Preeparturiens. Serotina. . Bur atl chestnuts: mbale, Marron. De Lyon, Marron. Filberts ae hazelnuts: Panbert : Piedmont. | Purple Leaf. I Red Aveline. LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. nn eet nt cae et ne ge rate me a --- aa ere Le | " Lower Sonoran area. Austroriparian area. Gulf strip. ne ee ee een eve { Almonds: Almonds. Peanuts. Blowers. Brier. English walnuts.) Pecans. Drake. i Golden State. Peanuts. Gray [southwestern Utah]. Harriott. Pecans. IXL. King Soft Shell. ) Languedoc. Lewelling. | tere | Ne Plus Ultra. Nonpareil (£xtra). Paper Shel Routier, New. Soft Shell, Routier. Supremo. ‘ Tarragona. Twin, Rowtier. cee walnuts: Franquette. Gant (Bijou). Kaghazi. Mayette. Mesange (Paper Shell). Mission (Los Angeles). - Parisienne. Proeparturiens. Santa Barbara. Serotina, Peanuts. Pecans. | Pistachio nut. i ¥ LN ok acrarienmesal grown in the Austroriparian area. MISCELLANEOUS CROPS. 73 Z MISCELLANEOUS CROPS. This list is only the merest skeleton. Additions of all kinds, particularly specific information respecting the ranges of definite varieties of garden vegetables, will be thankfully received. Zone ranges of miscellaneous crops. [Key.—(h), in hottest part only: (7), in northern part only; (s), in southern part only.] TRANSITION ZONE. ri | Alleghanian (eastern) area. Arid Transition area. Pacific Transition area. | Flax (s). Flax. Alfalfa (s). Hops. | Sugar beet. Hops. Maple sugar. | White potatoes. | Sugar beet (s). Sorghum (s). | Sweet corn. Sugar beet. | White potatoes. Sweet corn. { } White potatoes. | | UPPER AUSTRAL ZONE. Carolinian area. Upper Sonoran area. Cowpeas. Alfalfa. Flax. , Cowpeas. Hemp (Cannabis sativa). Kafir corn. Lima beans. ; Hemp. Sorghum. | Lima beans. Sugar beet. Sorghum. Sweet potatoes (h). Sugar beet (7). Tobacco. Sweet potatoes. White potatoes. | Tobacco | White potatoes. LOWER AUSTRAL ZONE. Lower Sonoran area. Austroriparian area. | Gulf strip. —— SaaS enEnEnaeemneeemee | — Alfalfa. China grass. | China grass (for fiber). Black wattle. Castor bean. Cotton. Canaigre. Cotton. Jute. Castor bean. Cowpeas. ice. Cork oak. Jute. Sea Island cotton. Cotton. Lima beans. Sorghum. .- Jowpeas. Rice. Sugar cane. Flax (seed). Sorghum. Sweet potatoes. Hemp. Sugar cane. Tobacco. Mustard. Sweet potatoes. Olive oil. Tea. | Opium poppy. Tobacco. Pyrethrum. Turpentine. Ramie. ; ' Roselle. Sorghum. Sugar cane. Sweet potatoes. Tagasaste. Tobacco. TROPICAL FLORIDA. Camphbor. Coffee. Ramie. Sisal hemp. Tobacco. INDEX. Page. PPMICM I GUvAl) NELIONS. = s--2- 5-52 ee =e aio == 12-13 Agriculture in California .....-.--.-------- 14 PAPULAR re ialote Se ca ois 2 = ai ciels Aeisalswe cine’ 30, 45 Ailleshanian area... .2-s--¢2.2-2-+2< ee 20-24 ERIM EPs ee a arse cee SEE om eae 20 BRET OU Sees emia Beenie ctvis eae cia at 21 TUES a SS See ree aera ie eet ane ae ete 24 TONES a ieee geen eee eee 21-24 TER Sos ESA ae ee eer ese ae 24 Mammals ..... aes Poo ROE R Cage as 20 Wier mloOIs toa tase.c chess fob esse se es clk Sa 24. UME oe ee cea em acs ek aceue ss 20-21 SVC eRe aoe cence rene sesr ees oes 24 EO RPAD OCU to. 2 penis errin/cis eum biaisiaiinie od 24 EMER COLUM Sct o > cia ciein\simisicie eicioieinoicmier~ == 24 UNPRBS seo kigemet GB Se ApS De BOND OCD DOE reese 20 MILLER POLATOCS a> Sccvoss esos cc—n o 33 Lower Sonoran area.......---.-----.-:. 42 PeBPEL SOUOLAL ATCA). 2<\- <=). -\2 sicine ssc 38 | PMU AN EOS Ol seats nlera\n\s)2,s(seleeie imei a =a iatals 62 PEECUIE A DINO! ZONG® .<- o-f2 can cncnacelecd enn 18-19 ict: a oe = Spodegeensoessesoeesecee 18 REET bee Qe et ssho 12sec ams 18-19 Plants...... (oe weadzapSsesecdespsoeesone 18 PMR ote. 20/2) clea 's)in'nccinlociewie'e cei ses 15 PAU VANSIION ALCAG..- 2-0-2002 -erde ene 25-27 TDG) SES aS Sea a 25 SC OROMEA ee pe seins serie cata acl> xe eaieis ysis 25-26 MD eae ators sis ojo o one 2issilsicis roel eacane 27 ME Nera t io tanta ataeiha nkosi wiecences 26-27 MNAERRIDEL DLN cere epee Saicts oo s(aidiz Ay a nitrate se 26 LOGS (2)S) Sr ae cere ae a 27 BeAr DR OU) a's sects ae = aciaiecsiave ooieleieeyete 27 PMHSLLOYIPATIAN ATCA, --2 22 s22-ssceeec~ 2222 45-49 ANE ere Ite tsi o xe arena ee Sicvecieis ace oles 45 BARUOE- OU DEAN orcs he nye 2v eke oti Stanens <2 49 (CLL EEO ee Se ae a EO 46 Page. Austroriparian area—Continued. (QUNDTE ONPISas cc conenmneadaeccacemeegcse 49 Cottbony ase ot oie aa case cece ene 49 (Olin ALES nsuiood ade proces ease saan ee 49 TR See ee eee Memes ae nena eae 46-48 Bhi sane se eSee ae aGenauede ree ee bac es 49 Tima PECANS -A2s;, sa aes ioe posites ee be ee 49 Mammal sic a5: thease ee see cee 45 INS ese aeon eee eas Pa ie gen ai ae 48 IRAC OSes eee ESerieis so tosis ne ae eee ae 49 SOMO, 2 ssos8SsqespeaoononccctsozuSts 49 SU CAM CAN Osseo eee sane ie ee eee 49 SWECb) POLALOCS esate janes eee ee eee eee 49 INGA Fe Shea dk cima a erence Bete No teem ae eke iaey See 49 MNoDACCOrssik sme sen ne oncicesete cue seereeee 49 Dress tees ac seas ie Sees aes ae cee 45 Taxrpentine ss Sosa oe cele emia see 49 BESS VOLGEYO (OIE Gea hn SEE Deo SOO ee eae 42) 52 ‘Banana eeeeccs= BSS ame ete eae ere 52 Barbados gooseberry..-.-...--+------<------ 52 Barley— ; Ailes hamiamt areal cries o eee se oe PAL Arid: Transition area... -<-e=0 ses 26 Austroriparian area. ....--2...--.----2- 46 @arohmiangaredis ees esce eas eee ee eee 31 Hower Sonoran areaine-.- - s-ss-e5 eee 42 Upper Sonoran area.....-...... aE 37 Bergamo pf OLANe eran ser er ee- = ee sneer 49, 52 Birds— PNUCNEMEN UB WIGE eno daee cna sadaeonc 20 Aretic-Alpine ZOne S255 25-2 5s-seece 522 18 AvideDransitiom aveae---es-eeeeree eee ae 25 Austroriparian area .....--.---.-.----- 45 Canadian Zone see eae eee eee eee 19 Carolinianvanealess \ ose aeeee = see neces 31 Gultistrip) sos nets ws aneet aoe eee 49 Hudsonianvaneas 3 22.22 eceen 2s 19 Lower Sonoram zone --.---2-22-<------- 16 Mower Sonoran area. 525-22 2-2 sees eeoe 41 Pacific Coast Transition area-...-.---- oi MPramsitioneZONes sescialosscteee sae cere 20 Mropicalessaccaceccene sien: secon eae ees 52 JOSIE OME INGRER) AacececooannseedcqesesonnT < 49 Blackeurrantsee -2-eo-seacren sscreeceeeres 23 Blackawateleccsens scat eee ee sewed eer 45, Buckwheat— Mileghamiaivaneas sees 2. - 2 c-- asec 21 ATidsDransiplomareds ss) see eo eeeee ee 26 Carobinitamtaneagees aren semen cre Sele sate ia e 31 Pacific Coast Transition area ...-.. -.- 29 California, development of agriculture.... 14 Camphore settee raise astee ccs toca eeee 53 (76 Page. INDEX. Canadian zone --..-- PSE AE EE Soe hoe .- 19-20 IBITdS reese e esa G See eae eee ee ees 19 IBTUIGS sen oA eee o she eee ee se eee AMIN AIS oa ct, te ele ae estenee ee aa 19 INES Soe Sse ob eee Pere Sa 20 Canaigre .-.---- Soman sosho eee sso. Se ooS a 3) Cape gooseberry --.----- Be Bee ee ee 52 Capuiliny =... ABST Poss Ae Han oe eee 42 @araunds) 2-24 4-<.5-- Rae eee Caper eee 52 Garab scans ss Sod weirs MR cnne Ne TTR ee ONT ee 42, 52 Carolmian area ..-------- Per i te Ee ets ee . 30-36 Birds--... Pa era Sree eee aaa ce 31 Geareals=snnec. Sess ret oes eee 31 COM PEAR he aoe ae rene area aq eRe 4s 36 UL bce oe eeneie aetna ears sais nameniaees 36 Lima beans ...-....- Nee) ses oe MA | 36 Mammals -~,.--r¢e-+0s-=.-sesnnsstenase 31 ONAL ae Snis cosas h te Save kis vis creme sintale eter i = 36 Potatoes ..-...-- SOPeHuM -< 2.6 -s-- vase Sugar beet....-... ee Sweet potatoes ...,......-. SeSwe ed Rees wie 36 ALU or Tee Rese eee Bae miele s oeieee tates 36 ELTORE ica a-ak St eee newer ame riee cen eee 31 MOFSNEW- Nib noses soa dhs cae sak eke che eee be 52 Castor-oil bean. ..... Pa Se: BRE Cereals— Alleghanian area ...,..--. Arid Transition area. AUStOTipaTiAN ATCA. ...<..cswecaesences er Carolinian area ....... Sama Amiga oe Se dale s 31 Lower Sonoran @r@&..s. 2+ .es00--2-s.-- 42 Pacitic Coast Transition area .......... Upper Sonoran area.,.-..-..-. GONE, PANPRS Of oc owe vewssavyusuanse oes WSL OY ONnincen cons snuele-tnvadee pein shames Cherries— Alleghanian area......-. Axid Transition area-<--....- o~.-= ane 26 Austroriparian area.....--. Shamuncacnee 47 Carolinian area..........-... eer =e 33 Lower Sonoran area...-.....----+ scenes Pacific Coast Transition area ...... vane 29 | Flax— Upper Sonoran area........-sesessee- 38 Zone ranges of...-.-....-- owauccsweeves | O2-64 Chestnuts— » EUropean -..~-..--.ce-nse-e hoawepes Se Moreton (Baye 2, cc2qahasee arenes oo ona 2 VIMO PTASS -2 5.5 - once d pee shinee aRatea tie 49, 51 GHINngsG Quine = s-2- . 5527-5 wicca os Meena noes 47,50 SSHGISU RGU ones eS owen renderer ae Pini sue: 5 Citrons..6.- >> Citrus fruits Cocoannt-. ~:~. .%.-; RR PN lene sree pieey 8 on : : : : ‘ : ' : A : ‘ . _ ria o > oon or wo bo bo bo ww Corn— Alle chanian area. s.c<.=...+-. ««ssaneeeeeeee Gulf strip...-..... Ssinekee ws Lower Sonoran are&....--- <.ss-css) Pacific Coast Transition area ....-. INDEX. C7 nits—-Continued. Page. | Mammals—Continued. i: Page. Transition zone..... Riera See eciciey wicieiais ate 20 Arid Transition area......---. per lsete nicl 25 5 SNraprealuMlovidaises cers mie czas seve sens 52 AMUIStLOriparian areas. sess. s ene nse ees 45 MMe piOL Spanish LIM... cece. ce ee ces 1 53 Canadianyzon@rene..---e-eiece eee we 19 _ Gooseberries .-...-...... Stine meee mee 30 C@aroliniamsaneamessaceacsee sere sesenees 31 Granadillas ..-...- SEG Be Ory CHCA SRD Ee Ae ES 43, 50, 53 Hudsonian zone ....2.2+--22-.+-0-----: 19 _ Grapes— x Lower Sonoran area@--...-22-22-2------- 41 ‘ PMS ANTAN GALE Actas -s cn mncinincieiios= sels 23 Pacific Coast Transition area -...-.-.-- 27 Arid Transition area. .....-.--2....-.0- 26 Eropicall TegioMy. seem cess ee esses 52 : Austroriparian area...-..------------+- 472 eViammee apples.csesssereaceaseraeeee nee 53 # Ghrolmiamarea sss. seen csee ee eae ,. 33-34 | Mammee sapota...---.... Wels sawieh Sap ae Ee 53 = (Rill? Ghia Doe es Seen este Se sea een aac Os Mandarin sss seme: ooaastiniemact er seesere 43, 50, 52 Lower Sonoran area..-..-.......----- tr £30) EVAN G Olas es olacemiese sees Soe momeoeen asad 42, 53 Pacific Coast Transition area .....-.... 30) HeeMiaple\s oan aati cite atin oreelere seca 24 Wpper Sonoran area..--...----- 2. 39 | Mapping agricultural regions Bates Seat 12-13 UME AUS Su OL. ss ocecicte nes cn Sele siale 64-65 | Melon papaw...-...--22.-----0---eecee-e-2= 53 sf BEPEAN Se mca ce sare oe acne SSeS sets 43,51,53 | Miscellaneous crops— BEL ACCUM GS a= ecm amie See eee etm ine ime 40 Alleghanian area.........----:-.------- 24 See ifemp.:.....--2.-..--- EE ene oe a 36, 40, 45 Arid Transition area......-.--- pate hee 27 fe Hoe plum. ....:-- Eas aes eee ere aera 53 Austroriparian area.......-..--...----- 45 MILODS sonia ce coe ccise sacle tseciseuece sss ce asin. 24, 30 Carolinian/arealepscsceseee sees ee ees 36 PAGEANT | ZON OLS 7s ca 52)s scan Soe =e nciceis ee H Guullig stripeasoescenisse ceeacisce Sees 51 . PESIMEL A eer sroin pee cise as aioe acin Ss were cise 19 Lower Sonoran area....-..-----.------- 45 Mammals ..... oreeabe ne ere eee acon aes 19 Pacific Coast Transition area .....----- 30 4 JUGS So eee eas Sheed Sep oseaeseseoes 19 MropicalMloriday espe. soca eee 53 § Japanese persimmons....-.....-...----- 43, 47, 51 Wpper Sonoram area--.2--+------5--25--- 40 ie sajwbe-------.-- Seana aysaicele ean 43 | Monstera deliciosa.......-.....------------- 53 BA UCG s 5. os Beater Reece Saye bene 4985S AM PErrles! S322 eae eon eos eee eens 43, 47 - OORT GOI 2 oe a Ree ree are x 40 Wi eMiarstardiecke seks hae hiceawises Sham aneeemeiis 45 SIRE yO) See Soe Soca et aeesa caeeees essere 42h WENO CARING eee cs Sem ees se cee eee Ae ee 34, 39, 44 UGG Gy 2 oc oe acne cn vp cen ewc ne 43, 51,53 | Nuts— . SUT SANT Nee eC R ee 43, 49, 52 Alleghanian area..........-- pe RL a ae 20-21 Type] ESSIEN FR ga eee ee 36, 40, 49 Austroriparian area........-.--.---. oe4 48 43,52 CanadianZonen.-2 sete ee ence see rise ee 20 43, 51, 53 @anolimiambareaseee ese eee ee a ae ener 36 41-51 Gulf strip..--.- Dusisisle gee cies hoe es me Ne r 51 41-45 Lower Sonoran area...--:. seers CE wie 45 ke AMATO) S€ San See See es See ers 5 45 Upper Se¢norananeaeee- sees s-e eae 40 NEB Roma ei oman Sale wioe ee aSielaeceeics tae "16, 41 AONE TANS eS1Ol ae oreee eee eee ae 71-12 a Bla ckewabtles<. -+- nice kepietetctciemt hy 40) SWeelicOrleestmcaiteteiciet e-em ee ene 30 Be DACCGicpemcmetc stale cece’ os 45 DMRS Le do denuaes eu aconceuecsesocdeecene 27 - Mammals— Peaches— Alleghanian area..........- SEOs BSO Ia 20 Austroriparian area......---..--...---+ 48 Srsios mracteieie siete 18 Carolinian area.........-.---..---0---+- 34 Arctic-Alpine zone } L —_—— < e BS; are : : vs) *6 TNDE e e ano F Page. ete Peaches—Continued. Semitropical or Gulf strip—Contint Gulf. strips . 2-2 s-2- eects sake = Se 51 Lower Sonoran area.--..--------------- 44 Pacific Coast Transition area-.......... 30 RiGet sere ee once Upper Sonoran area....-..--..:.---..2. 39 Sorghum -- 52326 405) eee HONOWAN CES Ofa— ane eee eee 65-66 SU fan Cane --s--5- eee eee : SPeANMbS |. aoriietote= FI eo soe a ae cee aeleeere a 45, 48, 51 Sweet potatoes. .........--2-- 2 Pears— Tobacco: <=...) 3.- 2 - eee ores Alleghantantanea-ee- = seeeeseeesne eae 23-24 Trees: 2. rte Arid iransition area paseo a ae 26 | “Shrabs: 222.2220. -).4keaoe eee eee Amstroripariaw area. ---eeeee ee cee 48) |) Sisal. hemp: ..52222e--6eeeeer fas Carolinian-areaeic- 52 32 -eeeeee 34-35 | Sorghum— ; “ Gulstrip sce: le oe eee cece eens 51 Alleghanian area ........--.-.-..- Lower Sonoran area....-...-.---------- 44 Austroriparian area. .-......----- if Upper Sonoran areg.-.5.----4-5-4- 22-2 39-40 Carolinian area ¢2+./.22- se eee eee ZONO WANES (Ole san 5-5-2 2 = Rosme sees 67-68 Guilf:striph*=7---*- eee. wien Cees Pecan She cater eee kbc ee eiee sseeesnete 45, 48, 51 Lower Sonoran: . -=.)--4 24 eee : PEpINOzeacrscink 2 Se ocepe oe eee eee 42, 44, 53 Upper Sonoran area....---.-.---..----- sPistachi ome s5-/soe cee eee eee 45.| Soursop)..-.<.-.2=2::'26>-he eee Plants— Southern dewberry ---2.- =-22-=6- eee 2 Anctic-Alpine ZONGC- <== ~-secse.-6-saac 18 | Spanish lime or ginep : Lower Sonoran area.--.-.---------.---. 41 | Strawberries— Rropicalirepiones le -~ nce cseees soem 52 Alleghanian ares, -.-2.2=-2-eseeeeeeeeee Upper Sonoran area...--...........-.--- 36 Arid Transition area..-.---.----2.----- Plums— Austroriparian area ...--.-....- :: Aullephanian area: ------papceseoencerene 24 Carolinian area : Arid Transition area-...-.......-...... 27 Gulf strip::2-2--)222.2=-eee eee Sigs Austrouiparian’ area... -...0-h.-.=ecsee 48 Lower Sonoran area: . 223222—-- =e eee : Caroliniam area-ia-. s+. -.> een eee ghiee 35 Pacific Coast Transition area .......-.-. (GUE BUD UD Se atc apne em on eee ice ee 51 Upper Sonoran area......--.--..-. fone AGN O VE OS Ot nese ie ne einen 68-70 Zone ranges of ..2.. 5. eee ‘Jame Pe Plums (including prunes)— Strawberry tomato: -+.5...-.-22-5=seeeeeee Mower SOMeran/ares: -< -. se. cena ee 44 |. Sugar apple. -~..<5--2 5 eee “a ae ee Pacific Coast Transition area ........-.. 30 | Sugar beet— Upper Sonoran area..-..-............--- 40 Alleghanian area .....--5/22.-5=see eee Aonewan ces Ole ts-6 vee segs 2 Nee conse 68-70 Arid Transition area ......-----.....--- IEOMEPTARALES Sco sces tinea ae pe en eee le 44, 48, 51 Carolinian area..........- we eceees eens a POMBIGER=5-5 5 tc non teea as osueesaeae ees 44, 50, 52 Pacitic Coast Transition area .......... RANGA plOsi2 21 cs nae Usa as emis coe se 44,53 | Upper Sonoran area..-.......----- se EOUMAD DOs jer. scam ose se ae se 41-51 MD LGA gies oi aiaie. x cps wie Sioccleleiave'aahs saluted de aid 40 REAM STON ssere eels seis eae i arya ae ie 20-30 LU edti/2) S332 SG SORE ees Ae eee ae Sar 36 UpperrAustrale seria. osscsss essen 30-40 LP HORNY TISGY So See See ener ae a Sie eee eee 40° | ‘Zone temperatures... 25-20 -e ener = ce 54-55 PUPS MITT meets aces reo Maras sae aaa 40 INGOUIG Sr esbac sasoascsHddoceoolosceosese 54 REP ATG into \ai2.ae aia ls = nsminicisroin wie sowie 40 Camadiant sss 2ce sacadnete mae eale sees: 54 BNEO POLALOOS: - << 2ic,-2 = cc soc isie's sels oe 40 ds onian eee ema oo ee eee 54 MRE MAC peers asic acsate aoe hil aie eae ene tnvaaesinierainieis 40) Te owenyAcus baller eye sm acie aap) te ete 55 SORE MEE ira a) ja (state o.-isie nic a\sinee emia ree 36 DransitioOni s/c sss: eae ceeseeciatoe 55 BMA OR erate ocineve aici sa uincls saersjeceamape 20 Tropicals ches seisse ose dete ose eee 55) Miaots Polish. 3... .2.2-2---s250ce50c55 48 WipnencAwts ira levee eee race ete 55 ae Butuerin Rotr . o ‘Uz S. DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE | DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY Goographic Distribution of Cereals in North Amerie GC. S. PLUMB, B. S. DIRECTOR, INDIANA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE, IND. PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF DR. C. HART MERRIAM CHIEF OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1398 men Ls eee. eae Py" Ay, ’ ‘ +a . % ’ se r at Pi oaaee z by ¥. * J < 4 - Pa) 2 Pn ce ee tts Seber ee eres eee s 7 oe ~~ ‘ j Pos Razed tas > 5 ? qe LS Le ee ae ee ee ee ae ee ea 130° Corrected to December, 1897. LIFE ZONES OF C. HAR FRONTISPIECE. Lo [sal Transition. Fe Upper Austral | 730° | Lower Austral Gulf Strip of Lower Austral Tropic al The dotted parts of the Austral Zones east of the Great Plains wurdicate the extart of the humid divisions of these Zones, knowin respec- | vey as the Alegnaniar,Caroliniar and Aus- troriparvar faunas. Theundoticed parts of the same lones are known as the Transttior, Upper Sonoran and Lower Sonora . JULIUS BIEN & CO. N.Y. UNITED STATES RRIAM. U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE FRONTISPIECE. BUL.1!, BIOLOGICAL SURVEY, t RSet. Boreal [al Transition Bes Upper Austral Aenean ge ' reas palace sy Lower Austral *#e tae Gulf Strip of Lower Austral Tropical _— 25° The dotted parts of the Austral Zones cast of the Great Plains writicute the extent of the humid divisions of these Zones, known respec uvely asthe Alleghantar,Caroliniar and Aas troriparvan faunas, Theundotted parts of the same Zones are known as the Transition, Upper Sonoran and Lower Sonoran. JULIUS BIEN & CO.N.Y. Corrected to December, 1897. LIFE ZONES OF THE UNITED STATES C. HART MERRIAM. Pecetin No. 11. Peo VP PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY -Creooraphic Distibution of Cereals in North America BY OOS PLUME, B.S: DrirREcTOR, INDIANA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE, IND. PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF DR. C. HART MERRIAM CHIEF OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1898 EPP TERC OF TRANSMEMEAL: U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY, Washington, D. C., June 26, 1898. Sig: I have the honor to transmit herewith, for publication as Bul- letin No. 11 of the Biological Survey, a report on ‘The Geographic Dis- _ tribution of Cereals in North America,’ by Prof. C. 8. Plumb, the result 4 of an investigation made under an authorization of the Sauna of P - Agriculture under date of January 2, 1897. The object of the inquiry was to ascertain the areas in which the more important varieties of — Za certain cereals were cultivated and to determine how far the distribu- _ tion of cereals accords with the boundaries of the life zones as mapped __ by the Biological Survey. _ his report was received a year ago, but its publication has been 2 delayed in order that it might be accompanied by a revised map of the life zones, necessary to its proper comprehension. Respectfully, C. HART MERRIAM, Chief, Biological Survey. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. CONDE Nise AnaprOCtenON ns. 262cceces<5>—= Ste ie ier eel iete oe eeee Sage Geographic distribution .......<. 22 s-02-c.scGe se dass Soees< ee = eee Worse oe cc: Pere a eares WENGE fay abi oO RE ote Coek odd ee Groups and Varieties... ... 0-65 - cai oceans canaries ace 225s 4 Notes on the groups and varieties--..-.. #eeltees tacest a 2a Nheateesse hss. Soviet to lobe cece Ghose ce nen e gob Sace eee ee So es | Groups and varieties 2+... .5-. 3. 22225 Jos ee teas 2 ee 3 ) Notes on the groups and varieties... .-. Spion pilacbio eee: Seba ae tele ethan ROS reer se bia abate pit eee amb ame mel aimee mite peri e iee e Sees Groups and varieties ....-......-----.- ae ae ornece >. es" Notes on the groups and varieties.------.---.-2-.----- 6 << ee Distribution of cereals by zones. .....- 20-2 <.. 2.22. 2l a2) 2e. ee oa Map showing life zones of the United States..........--.---.--- .--.. Frontisp ‘Fic. 1. Map showing distribution of three varieties of corn: Pride of the ate North, Leaming, and White Gourd Seed .......-...---------- +222. 2, Map showing distribution of four yarieties of wheat: Red Fife, Med- iterranean, May, and Sonora ...........---- Bassas “see eee ocean 3. Map showing distribution of three varieties of oats: Black Tartarian, Red Rust Proof, and Welcome. .---- pees ae eee oes eee ran aq Cee Pe ae ee ae ay ee a ee ee ; j : | THE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CEREALS IN NORTH AMERICA. INTRODUCTION. Through the assistance of the experiment stations in the United States and Canada, and in a few cases through secretaries of boards of agriculture, were secured the addresses of about twenty-five hun- dred intelligent corn, wheat, and oat growers throughout the two coun- tries. To each of these persons was sent a circular letter explaining the object of the inquiry, and requesting that the blanks on the form accompanying the letter be filled out with the names of not more than ten well-established varieties each of corn, wheat, and oats which were grown most successfully in the neighborhood reported on, together with a statement as to how long the variety had been known, the aver- age yield, and whether it succeeded best on lowland or upland. ; Of the 1,033 reports received, 897 came from the United States, (representing all the States and Territories), and 136 from the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Assiniboia, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. A large percentage of the replies were very intelli- gently made, and many blanks were completely and carefully filled. These reports showed that in many localities but little attention was given to keeping varieties pure, and many farmers used mixed, un- known, or local varieties of ordinary merit for seed. In the East and South this was more frequently the case than in the Central, North- ern, and Western States, or in the Canadian provinces. In most of the Eastern and Southern States, as compared with the rest of the country, grain growing is not an important industry. In New England _ but little grain is grown for seed, owing to the cheapness of Western grain, and wheat was rarely reported. Oats are now mostly sown from Western seed, the resulting crop being mown for hay, while much of the corn is cut for green fodder or silage. On certain fine lowlands, as, for example, in the Connecticut Valley, oats, and more especially corn, are often grown for grain. While reports on most of the cereals were rendered from the Lower Austral zone,' this region, except where it merges with the Upper 1North America is divisible into seven transcontinental belts or life zones, each characterized by particular associations of animals and plants and suited for special crops. These zones are: The Arctic-Alpine, Hudsonian, Canadian, Transition, Upper Austral, Lower Austral, and Tropical. The Transition, Upper and Lower Austral are the ones most frequently referred to in this bulletin (see frontispiece). The Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States are described in detail in Bulletin No. 10 of the Biological Survey. a 6 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CEREALS. Austral, is apparently outside the area of profitable cultivation of wheat and oats. In Louisiana wheat is almost an unknown crop, and the — same may be said of most other parts of the Lower Austral, except in northern Texas and Oklahoma. The warm, moist summer climatic conditions here favor the development of fungous diseases to such a degree that the plants are usually ruined or greatly injured at an early stage of growth. In Florida, as a rule, cereals are rarely culti- vated, except on the uplands at the northern end of the State. Both corn and oats make an unsatisfactory growth compared with that in the Upper Austral, while wheat is not grown at all on a commercial scale. The only class of oats that yield crops of any consequence in the oat-growing territory in the Lower Austral zone are the so-called rust- proof varieties, chief among which is the Texas Red Rust Proof, com- monly grown in all the Gulf States. In a general way, corn and wheat are most successfully grown in the Upper Austral zone, while oats are best and most productive in the Transition zone, or along the border of the Upper Austral and the Transition. The gradual acclimation of varieties of cereals, through years of selec- tion and cultivation, has gone so far, however, that some varieties are now much better adapted to one zone than to another. The Flint corns come to their best development in the higher Upper Austral and Transi- tion, while Mosby’s Prolific of the Dents clings close to the Lower Aus- tral. Burt oats thrive best in the higher Lower Austral, while Black Tartarian reaches greatest perfection in the Transition. These exam- ples are given simply to show the adaptability of varieties to certain zones. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION. In the following discussion only those varieties are included which are recognized as standard ones by seedsmen and grain growers generally. Many others were reported on, but in no instance were enough returns received concerning any one to justify mapping its geographic distribu- tion. It is but fair to assume that the reports represent the relative importance of the different varieties over the country in general. It is not intended, however, that the impression shall be created that many of them will or will not thrive in localities from which no reports have been received. It is believed that enough facts have been secured to demonstrate that, in their present stage of development, the varieties here mentioned are better suited to successful cultivation in the zones from which they are favorably reported than in other areas. A discussion of each variety follows, based on a careful study of a map showing its distribution and data concerning its maturing or productive powers in the regions where grown. On the basis of this evidence it is believed that the varieties may be classified according to their adaptability to successful culture in the several life zones. CORN. . 7 he following table has been prepared to show the zones in which _ eacn variety of corn, wheat, and oats reported on seems to be best adapted.’ A list of the varieties of cereals specially adapted to each zone is given in the table on page 22. Distribution of Cereals in North America, by Varieties. Cereal. Group. Variety. Zone. Angel of Midnight -.-.--- Transition and upper edge of Up- per Austral. Canadian EHight-rowed | Transition and upper edge of Up- (a) Flint Yellow. per Austral. airs eae King Philip --....--..-.-.| Transition and upper edge of Up- per Austral. Longfellow -------.-.----- Transition and upper edge of Up- per Austral. Bloody Butcher--.-.----.--- Upper Austral. Golden Dent.-.-25-4----:- Lower Austral and lower edge of ea Upper Austral. 2s 7 Sega Hickory King .-.--..----.| Upper Austral and upper part of ower Austrai. (5) Dent os..22255-5: Leaming ee --| Upper Austral. re Mosby’s Prolific . -| Lower Austral. Pride of the North -| Transition. St. Charles White. -| Upper Austral. White Gourd Seed aie Upper and Lower Austral en (Aisi) 8 eee ee SAQMAW cee taatarcmaweneta = Transition. (d) Sweet. --| Stowell’s Evergreen --.--- Upper Anstral. (2) PoOpy2> 203-5 --55 All varieties .........----- Upper Austral. Clawson st: Pa. o5--22 055552 Transition and Upper Austral. Muleasters.as. 2s 2csas252 Upper Austral. eae EERE Aaasteoneccoree Pepey Austral. ae age . Bye eee Senate as elec ae uower Austral and lower edge o (2) gE sesacec ee 32 Upper Austral. Mediterranean......--..--- Upper Austral. Turkey Red .......-..-:..| Upper Austral. Wheat..-.---.-.- Welyvei: Chatty 2 eos hs: Upper Austral. Australian: oo. c<.<- 32-5. Lower and Upper Austral. ee ies peO peer rau ON: . askatchewan Fife ....--- Tansition. (6) Spring <--.-.--.. Scotch Fife. Fife ......-.. Transition. DOU OLA ates ae eee eee Upper and Lower Austral. Red! Wife s<--2. 2222 s.22e5- Transition. American Banner...-..---. Transition. paneoll coe wee tee seen oeee aren a apuee Peart . eleomeé) 52508 -o2s6<3= oe Transition and Upper Austral. Oats (2) Oper panicle. --. (BOtt ssc csc ce scot eee Lower Austral. mare et Red Rust Proof.........-.| Where Upper Austral and Lower ae ieee La oe . ite: Russian: 22252 -5:22: Transition and Upper Austral. tH) Closed pamicle {Black Wartarian! =2.2-.5-=5 Transition. CORN. Indian corn is known botanically as Zea mays Linn. The varieties of this species are many, and may be subdivided into five principal groups, viz: Flint, Dent, Soft, Sweet, and Pop. There is one other group, known as Pod corn, which, however, does not find a place in our agriculture. Sturtevant also places in a group by itself, under the name of Starchy Sweet corns, the varieties grown by the Indians of Arizona, New Mexico, and Mexico. In this report are considered only the Flint, Dent, Soft, Sweet, and Pop varieties. For convenience, each is placed in its proper group, and discussed separately. 1No doubt occasionally varieties were incorrectly named by correspondents, but such errors are probably so small as not to be worthy of serious consideration. 8 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CEREALS. GROUPS AND VARIETIES. (a) FLINT CORN. (b) DENT CORN—Continued. (1) Angel of Midnight. (10) Pride of the North. (2) Canadian Eight-rowed Yellow. (11) St. Charles White. (3) King Philip. (12) White Gourd Seed. (4) Longfellow. (c) SOFT CORN. (6) DENT CORN. (18) Squaw. (5) Bloody Butcher. (d) SWEET CORN. (6) Golden Ent (14) Stowell’s Evergreen. (7) Hickory King. : (8) Leaming. (€) POP CORN. (9) Mosby’s Prolific. (15) All varieties. NOTES ON THE GROUPS AND VARIETIES. The geographic distribution of the above-mentioned varieties is given in order, as follows: (a) FLINT CORN. Flint corn comprises a comparatively small amount of the corn of commerce, and is generally grown in the Transition zone in the North- eastern States and Canada. (1) Angel of Midnight.—Reported by twenty-four persons as growing and maturing grain in Colorado, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, Wisconsin, and Ontario. It is also reported as grown. for green fodder in British Columbia, Sas- katchewan, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Manitoba, where it will not mature seed. It is commonly grown in Massachusetts and Con- necticut, but elsewhere only in widely separated localities. All reports where it matures are from points in the Transition zone and in the higher limits of the Upper Austral. (2) Canadian Eight-rowed Yellow.—This is also known as Canada Yellow, Canadian Yellow, Early Canada, etc. Thirty-eight persons report this variety, or one closely related to it, as growing in all the New England States, in Missouri, Nevada, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Utah, Wash- ington, Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick. It is, however, a stand- ard stock corn of New England and the eastern .Canadian provinces, and, in some cases, has been grown in the Northeast for nearly a cen- tury. While it will yield satisfactory crops in the upper edge of the Upper Austral, it is essentially a plant of the Transition zone. The one report from Missouri probably names the variety incorrectly. (3) King Philip—tThis variety was first distributed in the United States in 1852, and is to-day one of the best-known Flint varieties, being extensively grown in the Northeastern States, where it is highly regarded. Forty-six correspondents report it as growing in nineteen States and in the Province of Ontario. It is widely scattered (in the Transition and to some extent in the Upper Austral zones) from the DENT CORN. 9 Atlantic to the Pacific. Besides the New England States, it is reported from northern New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, southern Michi- gan, Wisconsin, and from one point each in northern Missouri, central Kansas, North Dakota, South Dakota, Colorado, and Idaho. It grows in California near the coast at a number of points in the Upper Austral zone and at one point in the Transition; at four points in the Transi- tion in Oregon and one point in Colorado. In Minnesota it is reported entirely from the Transition, while in Utah reports are from both the Upper Austral and Transition zones. The Ontario reports are from the Upper Austral. (4) Longfellow.—This variety has been known in New England for nearly sixty years, and is a favorite, being generally cultivated all over that section. It is also reported maturing seed in northern Colorado, Utah, Idaho, North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and northern New Jersey. These localities are nearly all in the Transi- tion zone, except in the Connecticut Valley, and possibly one point in Venango County, Pa., which are in the Upper Austral. Reports from Manitoba, Nova Scotia, and British Columbia state that it is only grown for green fodder. Reports from Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick give yields of grain in the Transition zone ranging from 30 to 90 bushels per acre. Generally speaking, it is a variety of the Transition zone, and also of the edge of the Upper Austral. (6) DENT CORN. (5) Bloody Butcher.—F¥orty-five persons report this variety from thirteen States and Territories, mainly in the central West, and with slight exception, entirely in the Upper Austral. One report from Ash- tabula County, Ohio, places it in the Transition zone, while eight per- sons in Oklahoma report it a standard variety in the Lower Austral, along the border of the Upper Austral. The reports, however, from Oklahoma, indicate unprofitable culture. Bloody Butcher is clearly an Upper Austral variety grown mainly in Indiana, Ilinois, Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska. (6) Golden Dent.—Thirty-three persons report this variety from six- teen States. It is reported mostly from the Lower Austral zone in Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, and South Carolina. It is also reported from the Upper Austral in Arkansas, Illinois, North Carolina, South Carolina, Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. One New Jersey correspondent writes that it is uncertain in ripening in Morris County. Golden Dent is evidently well suited to the Lower Austral zone, though it may do well in the Upper Austral if not carried ; too far toward the Transition. : (7) Hickory King.—Sixty-one persons report this variety grown in twenty-two States and Territories, in the main, in the lower part of the a eee ee ee Ee ee ee ea, Se ee ee ee ae . ose — ork } . \ 10 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CEREALS. Upper Austral zone, and in the Lower Austral in Louisiana, Missis-_ sippi, Alabama, Texas, and Oklahoma. The reports from the Lower Austral are, however, generally unsatisfactory in productiveness, and do not indicate a high yield. The reports from the Upper Austral indicate that it is better adapted to the lower part of that zone, espe- — ss cially in Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Nebraska, Virginia, West Virginia, and Delaware. ; (8) Leaming.—This is one of the very best known, most widely grown, 4 and most productive of the Dent corns. A number of correspondents report having grown it as long as twenty-five years. One hundred and thirty-one persons state that this variety is grown, with minor exceptions, in the Upper Austral zone up to its northern border, espe- cially in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Arkansas, Kansas, Nebraska, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and New Jersey. lLeaming is reported as_ ripening all over Massachusetts, except in Suffolk, Barnstable, and Nantucket counties, although it is very unlikely that it will ripen any- where in the Transition. It is said to yield well in Dakota County, Minn., which is near the boundary of the Upper Austral zone. Reports from New Mexico, Utah, Idaho, and Colorado also seem to come from points within the Upper Austral. Eight reports show that it yields crops in Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, all in the Lower Austral, but as a rule the yields are much inferior to those in the Upper Austral, to which zone this variety clearly belongs. (See me ol Dp.) 2.) (9) Mosby’s Prolific.—This variety seems to be quite restricted in geo- graphic distribution, thirty-two persons reporting it from five States— Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina. But one report was received from Arkansas, one from South Carolina, while thirty came from Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. These reports, with the exception of that from South Carolina, are all from the Lower Austral zone, to which Mosby’s Prolific is evidently best adapted. (10) Pride of the North.—This is one of the few Dent varieties that seem adapted to the border of the Upper Austral and Transition zones, Sixty-two persons report that it is grown successfully in nineteen States and in the province of Ontario. With five exceptions, all these points are in the more northern States, notably Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, lowa, Nebraska, South Dakota, Minnesota, Wiscon- sin, and Michigan. Pride of the North is reported in the Transition zone in northern South Dakota, at three points in Minnesota, at a number in Wisconsin, at one in Ohio, and at one in Ontario. Itis reported to succeed all over Massachusetts, except Suffolk, Barnstable, and Nantucket counties, but it is doubtful if it will ripen outside of the valleys in that State. This variety does best in the Transition and along the upper edge of the Upper Austral zones. (See fig 1, p. 11.) SS *poeg panod of1T AA =(O) eat “curmeerTT =(@)g0dg ‘qy10NT OT) Fo opla4g — (-++) ss0TH :UIOH FO SOrjoTIVA OdITTY JO TOMNGIAASIp SULMOYS deyy—"T ‘Hy IL a I J DENT CORN. 12 _ GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CEREALS. (11) St. Charles White—This is quite a well-known variety in the Mississippi Valley States south of Iowa. Twenty-three persons report — it from seven States and Oklahoma. Three reports from southern — Oklahoma, northern Louisiana, and southern Alabama, come from the Lower Austral zone, the other twenty from the lower part of the — Upper Austral, in Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas, Illinois, Tennessee, and northern Alabama. St. Charles White may be regarded as an Upper Austral type since two of the three yields reported from the Lower Austral (Louisiana and Alabama) can hardly be regarded as within the limits of successful or profitable culture. (12) White Gourd Seed.—This variety is also known as Gourd Seed, Improved Gourd Seed, Southern Gourd Seed, Big Gourd Seed, Large Gourd Seed, etc. It is essentially a southern corn, that is gener- ally grown in the Gulf and lower Atlantic seaboard States. Sixty- nine reports on it were received from seventeen States, including one each from California, Ohio, and Florida. In the Lower Austral zone White Gourd Seed succeeds in Texas, Louisiana, southern Arkansas, western Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina. In the Upper Austral it succeeds in northern Arkansas, central and eastern Tennessee, northern Georgia and South Carolina, western North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. While grown much more in the Lower than the Upper Austral, the best yields are reported from the latter zone. There is one report from the Transition zone (Ashtabula County, Ohio), where the seed, I think, must be planted for fodder or silage. This variety seems to be adapted to successful growth not far from the boundary between the Upper and Lower Austral zones. (See fis, tp: 11;) (c) SOFT CORN. (13) Squaw.—No other Indian corn will mature seed so far north as will this variety. It is reported to have been grown by the Indians, particularly in the Northwest, from times antedating the settlement — of the country by the whites. Fifty-two persons reported on it from twelve States and six Canadian provinces, and all of the localities except four are west of the. Mississippi River. In the Upper Austral zone it is reported from New Mexico, Nevada, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho. In the Transition it is reported as maturing seed in Flathead, Missoula, and Lewis and Clarke counties, Mont.; in North Dakota and the northern part of South Dakota; in northwestern Minnesota and southern Michigan. In the Canadian provinces it is reported to mature seed at Glencross and Grund, Manitoba; in the Kettle River district, British Columbia; _ and at Danville, Quebec. Most reports from the Canadian Northwest, — Quebec, and Nova Scotia, however, state that it is only grown as gar- den stuff, and many indicate that it is only raised for green fodder for - ee Se ee VS , ai 2 Se, a Ei aS kg al aR WHEAT. 13 ive stock. George Martin writes from Saltcoats, eastern Assiniboia, We are too far north to grow ensilage corn with success.” Squaw - corn does not mature in Manitoba at Turtle Mountain, Pembina, or - Winnipeg, or at Spy Hill, Assiniboia. It is doubtful if it can be _ depended upon to mature a crop above the Transition, to which zone it properly belongs. (d) SWEET CORN. 14) Stowell’s Evergreen or Evergreen Sweet.—Comparatively few notes 9 _ were received on Sweet or Sugar corn, but as thirty-six persons re- _ ported from twenty-eight States, it is thought best to touch upon the distribution of this variety. Sweet corn is essentially successful in the Upper Austral, maturing generally in this zone. No report on Stowell’s Evergreen was received from the Transition, except from one point each in northwestern Pennsylvania, southern Wisconsin, north- eastern South Dakota, eastern North Dakota, and southern Montana. {t was reported from four points in the Lower Austral, in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. It does not do well, however, in the Lower Austral, and its successful cultivation may be said to be restricted largely to the Upper Austral zone. (e€) POP CORN. (15) All varieties—No one variety of pop corn was specified to any extent by the twenty-five persons reporting from fifteen States and two Canadian provinces. No reports are at hand from the Lower Austral. Nearly all are from the Upper Austral, except the following from the Transition zone: One from Keremeos, British Columbia; one from California; one from Howard, 8S. Dak.; one from Upper Quebee, 3 and one from Maine. This is really an Upper Austral crop, not com- ing to its fullest powers in either the Lower Austral or the Transition. WHEAT. _ All of the wheats under consideration belong to the species Triticum sativum, and for the purpose of this work may be divided into two groups, winter and spring, as follows: GROUPS AND VARIETIES. (@) WINTER WHEAT. (6) SPRING WHEAT. (1) Clawson. (8) Australian. (2) Fulcaster. (9) Ladoga. (3) Fultz. (10) Saskatchewan Fife. (4) May. (11) Scotch Fife or Fife, (5) Mediterranean. (12) Sonora. (6) Turkey. (18) Red Fife. (7) Velvet Chaff. 14 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CEREALS. NOTES ON THE GROUPS AND VARIETIES. The above-mentioned varieties are shown by the reports to be dis- ™ tributed as follows: x (a) WINTER WHEAT. (1) Clawson.—Reports from fifty-five correspondents in nineteen States localize this variety entirely within the Upper Austral and Transition zones. Itseems best fitted for the Upper Austral, but thrives also in southern parts of the Transition, in Pennsylvania and Massa- chusetts. This is due to the wheat having been planted in the upper Ohio and Connecticut River valleys, which traverse the Transition zone. | (2) Fulcaster.—Reports from ninety-five correspondents in twenty States limit this variety mainly to the Upper Austral. It is reported, however, from three counties in northern Texas, five in Oklahoma, and one in Mississippi, all in the Lower Austral zone. In Pennsylvania, it touches the Transition, although usually in valleys where Upper Aus- tral conditions prevail. (3) Fultz.— Reports on this variety were received from two hundred and twenty-five correspondents scattered over thirty States. This is the most extensively grown variety of wheat reported on, being raised from the Atlantic almost to the Pacific, and from the Gulf States to those bordering the Great Lakes. Its successful cultivation, however, is mainly restricted to the Upper Austral zone. Here it grows in upper Mississippi and some parts of Alabama, at three points in Texas, seven in Oklahoma, and seven in Tennessee. In the North, at one point in southwestern Wyoming (Evanston), at two in western Mon- tana (Plains and Springhill), at two in Wisconsin, and at a number of points in northeastern Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York it seems to — make successful growth within the Transition zone. Along the Alle- ghanies, in Tennessee, North Carolina, West Virginia, and Virginia it succeeds in Upper Austral valleys. The general reports of corre- spondents indicate that it does not find the most successful conditions in the Lower Austral, although, with one exception, reports from Okla- homa are excellent. Fultz really belongs to the Upper Austral and has been grown in many localities in this zone from twenty to thirty years with much success. (4) May.—This variety, or one closely related to it, is also known in some localities by the names of Red May, Little May, Big May, Early May, and Late May. Reports were received from sixty-four correspond- ents in fourteen States, from points in either the Upper or Lower Austral, usually the latter, but none from localities in the Transition zone, May wheat seems to be grown most extensively in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Kansas, Mississippi, Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Texas. Except in Kansas, two points in south and central Illinois, WINTER WHEAT. 15 one in extreme northwestern New Mexico, and one in the southwest corner of South Dakota, all in the Upper Austral, this variety is best known along the line where the Upper and Lower Austral overlap, _ apparently favoring the latter zone. It is unquestionably the best known variety which seems at all suited to the higher temperatures of the Lower Austral. (See fig. 2, p. 16.) (5) Mediterranean.—This is one of the oldest and best known varieties of wheat that has been grown in the United States, having been intro- duced in this country in 1836. It has a long bearded panicle and the grain isamber or redincolor. This wheat must not be confounded with Mediterranean Hybrid or any other recently introduced variety with the word Mediterranean forming part of the name. One hundred and three correspondents from twenty-three States reported on it from ‘points almost entirely in the Upper Austral zone. It was reported as growing quite successfully in ten counties in northern Texas and four in southern Oklahoma, which are located in the Lower Austral. It was also noted at one point in California and two in Montana in the Upper Austral, and even reached the Transition at one locality in northeastern Ohio, and one in southern New York. With these excep- tions all the reports come from the Upper Austral. (See fig. 2, p. 16.) (6) Turkey hed.—This variety is known under a number of names, as Turkey, Turkey Red, Turkish, etc. Fifty-six correspondents report it grown in Colorado, Illinois, lowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. The reports show it to be entirely restricted to the Upper Austral zone except along the border of the Lower Austral in southern Oklahoma. This variety is principally raised in Kansas, where it has been grown for fifteen or twenty years, and is still a general favorite. (7) Velvet Chaff—There are two types of wheat having this name, one being grown somewhat as a spring wheat in the Northwestern States, and the other as a winter variety, mainly in the Central West. This report relates to the winter variety. Velvet Chaff is of four kinds, irrespective of the above distinction. The panicles are _ divided into two classes, bronze and white, and each of these into two groups, bearded and beardless. A characteristic of each variety, which gives it its name, is the presence of a silvery pubescence on the glumes. No distinction between these four varieties is recognized in considering their geographic distribution. Forty-eight correspond- ents, representing fourteen States and Oklahoma, and Ontario, Canada, reported on this wheat. It is restricted almost entirely to the Upper Austral, except at one point in the Saginaw region of Michigan in the Transition zone, and three points in southern Oklahoma in the upper portion of the Lower Austral zone. One report from Moscow, _ Idaho, really comes within the Upper Austral on account of the valley conditions there. Velvet Chaff seems best known in Onio, Indiana, and Illinois, and is reported to have been grown in Ohio for forty ‘years. a Nae i A a pi ot a ie ge 4 “ , CEREALS, — OF GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 16 Bisel artarian Oats -..-<-.--2----<---- 2s 22 Bloody Butcher Corn.-.----.....---------- 7, 9, 22 Bains sense aawcesSe Joe neet ee te Tak), 2 Canadian Eight-rowed Yellow Corn....... 7, 8, 22 Cereals, distribution by varieties......--.-- 7 distribution by zones ......---.---- 22 Clawson SWEHC AU ee secon omiameeininceemie=—) Vg 14, 22 Corn: Angel of Midnight.........:.-.--.---- Ta Sno2 Hera ccourd: Seed’. 2... 2=-52----<5\-20=s- 12 BOO: BUtCHOM once eeceen cee en 7, 9, 22 ada VOMON aaecie Seri Soave cer eens 8 Canadian Hight-rowed Yellow -.-..-.- 7, 8, 22 Canadian Wellowas--2s-- ssc Sean Oats e ese ose a ame eee oe ewe wees 18 SIMMS Sas22sscshc5 -< ee Wilhleat 2-62 fo seceat ose cseeccos lobe seeee 13 Turkey <-- .-.. >. 2s eee Melvet: Chait Wheatie=-t acccstecceccemc 7,15, 22 Turkey Reds = .----ee Wielcomte Oats) sen sie ee er ae eee e 7,19, 22 Tarkish-:-5--2----5-eee Wheat: Velvet Chaff ..-..-2.-- PARIS ET AMAT See aye iol marate = = am satel 7, 17, 22 Winters ace ssse-ceee Iie Wiens eens ae Ses se Seeseee ssc ---- 14} White Australian Oats ---.-- ; COST In Wael eae See a ete aR tee es 7, 14,22 | White Australian Wheat ....... arly ety ie Sees acme oars =e samen ele 14 White Belgian Oats -.-..--.- Ss HILO Ps so Poe ete tes Ao Series seem ete 7,17,22 White Gourd Seed Corn -.... RICAS LOGE otc cee se ere ee 7, 14,22 | White Russian Oats ..-..--- NE 7 oo sos Ue a ee eww we sees 7,14,22 | Winter Wheat-.-...--2-2-e-ee lbp ats omen one eesti oose saat 1,11, 22" | ZG: MY S Sao e eeeloeee = eee LAE see see so As saee een sc se == t4 | Zones: Whittle May .-22-.s2..se=-0 Senna ete 14 Distribution of cereals by. IVI eects Sirois ers! s aloes eee aera 7, 14-15, 22 Lower Austral ..-..-.2-2-- Mediterranean -............. BsecsecSe 15, 22 Transition -......-..--..- Red Wife ~~... aeemtarte sonvberes Secs Weleies Upper Austral ............-. =) « teat Ri 4 fe ’. J; a : ig y ‘ es = yes ; x s Ree y ; j rae SS - w: ~ a — = = z = Ewe G $ : e Tt = - % a 1p = PALMER “ASSISTANT CHIE F, BIOLOGICAL SURVEY “ Sie my aa PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECEION OF 5 4: Dr. C. HART MERRIAM eee CHIEP OF BIOLOGICAn SURVEY ; ares “ WASHINGTON | me GOVERNMENT PRINTING. OFFICE RU at A ca eee > , eee —ropaarord jnougtat sf 47 S19qIO OM} UT ara reac 4B tuo (poyj0p) GT UT ‘souTT} [TB 7B pojoojosd st yf (pEpRYs) SoqwIS ZI UT ‘Saws payTUy ey) INoYysnoIyy : - ‘ : ‘Sqduig JO NOILOSLOYd SHL YO4 SMV] 3LVLS NI ALISHSAIG ONILVYLSNTIA dV —s ee - = » F pUNOy St (DinoWoDW DANpIDUIZ) BAOT UOMIMIOD ATL, "770 Sim /. LL Ree YY, YY *| aLV1d ‘ainyjnousy yo ‘}daq °s ‘fA ‘Aening jeolsojoig ‘71 “119g U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE _ DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY ISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS OTHER THAN GAME BIRDS BY assy EAS VIER Ee i : ASSISTANT CHIEF, BIOLOGICAL SURVEY i PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF IB)ra5 (Or De Coan Sd BE hy Wa ebid Sey avy IE AIG CHIEF OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1900 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Derarrmenr or AGRICULTURE, Diviston or BroLocicaL SURVEY, Washington, D. C., May 1, 1900. Str: I have the honor to submit herewith and to recommend for for the Protection of Birds other than Game Birds, by my assistant, I a T.S. Palmer. This report has been prepared in response to numer- ous inquiries in regard to existing regulations for the protection of birds. Its object is to present in convenient form a review of protec- tive legislation, together with the various State laws now in force. he present widespread interest in birds and the importance of calling ention to existing laws in order to render more effective the efforts y being made to protect birds during the breeding season make it : irable that this report be published and distributed as promptly as possible. i Respectfully, _C. Harr Merriam, . Chief, Bisicenel Survey. - Hon. James WILson, Secretary of Agriculture. PREFACE. It is generally admitted that birds which are neither fit for food nor jurious to crops, and more especially species which are insectivorous, _ are entitled to protection, but the laws enacted for their preservation lack uniformity, and many useful species are not now protected. Fully 90 percent of existing bird legislation has been enacted for the benefit § of game birds, which comprise less than 20 percent of all the birds — @ _ of North eee The other species, which are of special interest to — _ the farmer and the general public, have, until recent years, received 3 scant protection. It is the legislation affecting this large group (more than 80 percent of the species on the Continent) which forms the sub- ject of the present bulletin. 2 The complicated regulations for the preservation of game birds do ES not come within the limits of this discussion; hence, such topics as © _ Open seasons, swivel guns, night shooting, fies. hunting, gun licenses, "nonresident eernes, appointment and duties of game wardens, cold- storage traffic, nonexport clauses, and similar matters relating properly 4 to game, receive merely iaeieneal notice. Full information on these Sections may be obtained from the laws themselves, or from the very convenient abstract of game legislation published quarterly in ‘Game Laws in Brief and Woodcraft Lees which has been freely used — in the preparation of this bulletin. 7 An attempt has been made to bring together in convenient form the _yarious State Jaws, and in such a compilation it is possible that in spite — of all precautions some paragraphs may have been omitted which should have been included, or later amendments than those here given _ have been overlooked. It is hoped that such omissions will not detract seriously from the value of the work; but any suggestions as to inaccuracies or important additions will i welcomed. . T. S. Paumer. 5 CONTENTS. _ History of protective eee a a gah at tee a ee ee, ave Re Definitions of game birds.............-..-- se cemtne eeen ME Bh, oe pene tae mopeciesierroneously considered game birds ---.-.......5:-..-.------1---- Peer Pai AMG, CLOMER Ea ona) cla eh whe eee Meer Sue Se aig Pee eee So ee oS eer see et he hate ATO a mas 2 es Perens anc SONGS DILASts 4 ae sso A Slee So oe A ee a RPPRGRERIOLICIS) Seto te et a ek ae Ne, RS or de 2a RN SEOLRLS) GIL DPS 7 Re Se eR ae a ae eee Sd ; Lists of species protected in each State and in the Canadian Provinces. --- i Species specifically exempted from protection .-.---.....--------------- =. Permits for collecting birds and eggs for scientific purposes.....--------- a Licenses and other regulations regarding shooting ---.--.----.-------- Pore 27 3 1 GAREVETN VL y TS Be es I Se a i Mg ee enc ef ai eC ae rg A Enforcement of protective laws......---.--.--.----- SA eG. te 7 eee Mececonmy tor further State legislation .-_.-.2--: 20222-6222 2s--2-4622i54 es Act proposed by the American Ornithologists’ Union...........-.---- : 107 G0 7 Se] BT 0 ape a pce pe ag gy A a gn A q Pitemel ont Dilys ee Bae eee coe ras e oie hs 2 ae OS The TS eo ae ln papa Es Lal ey oe Np ERAN ya es ' II. State laws for the protection of birds.........-.....-.---+--------+-++-- JAVIER TO ISS) SS SENS BO Shee Ne eens ae Cee Ie en ey Sa ee ee eee EE CAMTAOT STING), SPAAS ee ieee Me a a eter Meena are Pem kd epee ante Sap Ute ea ening Nar pac Gee a a CONIC SAR Wa at SE eee ee en ee ema fed a SAUL miata ae «SER SATO SY ECE Tea ASN ee GS oe PR os LER PAR ee a me ts Spa Se Pe So 5 doesn be wake res ceuce Sos secsee oes cee ese ee ces late 3 MRR TOO aif iy ie o ufoy DENS Reh i A Ve tat oie ee SECTOR Papa aia oy Sy Sn es Bese stay a See) Na SAT a Nps NURS at ee a ae SmEreMURE oar Tee i keg AN 2 bal Sa ewe tea orn ths St ate al See ay a : Louisiana PRS res Leh 80 aaa MD OS Seay 0 Le Keg A geB tas ae weno Pan arte Vata Re & Ses siiet oP I EN AS Oenee eee ea ee eS Sa ee ey MERE CG SCuinens. Mer teehoi ee aS a2 Ee then enh eee oss Sh soy SS EAE RS em a tea on apg Ne ee ce aS a: CULMS) SS ee ees Oe eer nee ake Bee een ae nce : Neva Seo) Sk oee 2 eee ao poaes Sch Stas ee New Hampshire’: . -- 0 ugeoe ool So Se [ae New: Jermey 2 2252- 5, hee Snel deste ee eae See 24 New York 2222 ).40-See522 0: 22st eee ee = North-Carolina =: 2c 24. os ee North: Dakota 2c 2e 2280 eee ae wee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee Pennsylvania 2020. Aes A ee "_ gueeaes aa Rhode Island’ 222 2 222.22 22 os ee ee 3 South.Carolina 2:2. -26222-2--S0ii22 2522s South ‘Dakota’. 222222. 2232 235 Je eee eee Le ee MUNENMNESSEG. Ise Fe 4 SIS es Le as eee ees what Se NY ‘2S eee pee 2s Wernlont. 3. 5 [022 2225 22 fee Ses Se no Oe Se Wireinia so f2625 6 fold rse Seed aan ae ere re Washington. ~~... 2.225. a2 Sao z Wet Vireimia 2 se 355238. 2 ge ccononeawapees Swowe mee onan Wisconsin 22.22.0222 ls Soe a Wyoming: -22F) bei o2cn5 52S eo sabe es See we ee III. Canadian laws for the protection of birds- ------..:.-.:..-12-22aaeeee e British Columbia:.:-s<... <-> .256s-¢sn,-422-4eeeee ae Manitoba... -.-- Te ctid ceed town casts Sek U ER ue lee ner e New. Bronswiek. : <2... 02. 72. 22-2 2 se so ee Newtoundland —..2-2:5.2:05 05 5¢ec 38 1894 another act was passed enabling the secretary of state, upon "4 application of a county council, to pr ohibit the taking of eggs of Bes wild bird either in the county or in certain areas within it.° a e és. in oe : Rae bE Masdabhunetie 1897, chap. 524, p- . 561. * Acts of Massachusetts, 1898, chap. 339, p. 275. * Laws of Maryland, 1898, chap. 206, sec. 15m, p. 711. ‘Laws of 1900, chap. 20, see. 33. °J. K. Harting, Eneyclopeedia of Sport, I, p. 447, 1898. | DEFINITIONS OF GAME BIRDS. 13: will be noticed that in one respect there is a wide difference between — nglish and American laws. Under the former all birds are treated like and are protected only during five months that cover the breeding season, whereas in the United States it is customary to divide birds into two or more categories and protect game birds only during the breeding season, and the other protected species at: all times. As will be explained later (see p. 45), only a few States, notably Georgia, orth Carolina, and ‘Tennessee, treat all birds alike, but these States _ really protect few species besides game birds. The English law has the advantage of being more comprehensive than most of our statutes, _ but the principle of establishing protection only during the breeding season would be open to serious objection in many States on account of _ the tendency to class a number of insectivorous birds as game. Under _ that plan such birds would be killed for market in large numbers — _ during the winter months. DEFINITIONS OF GAME BIRDS. From the standpoint of the sportsman, birds are either game birds - or non-game birds, but from the legislative standpoint they may be roughly divided into three groups: (1) Species which should be pro- tected at all times, as thrushes; (2) species which may be killed at cer- _ tain seasons for food or sport, as quail; (8) species which are injurious __and therefore excluded from protection, as the English sparrow. The first group is usually called ‘insectivorous’ or ‘song’ birds, the sec- - ond ‘game,’ and the third ‘injurious’ birds; but these groups are necessarily arbitrary, and their limits are by no means certain. About _ 1,125 species and subspecies of birds inhabit North America north - _ of Mexico, and of these only about 200 (18 percent) can properly be _ considered game. (See p. 25.) _ As the wording of modern protective laws turns largely on the definition of ‘ game birds,’ it may be well to note some of the differ- _ ent interpretations which have been applied to this term. A game bird, according to the Century Dictionary is ‘‘a bird ordinarily pur- _ sued for sport or profit, or which is or may be the subject of a game law.” Bouvier’s Law Dictionary defines game in general as ‘‘ birds and beasts of a wild nature obtained by fowling and hunting.” In different State laws the term is defined in various ways without special 3 regard for uniformity. Thus Maine’ fixes an annual close season for _ “game birds,’ and enumerates under this head the wood duck, dusky a Ranck (commonly called black duck), teal, gray duck, ruffed grouse _- (commonly called partridge), woodcock, quail, plover, snipe, and sand- _ pipers. In the Michigan law® the term ‘game bird’ is construed = : > aay 1 Rey. Stat., chap. 30, sec. 11. 2 Public Acts, 1897, p. 202, sec. 21, - British Columbia decrees that a game bird ‘‘ shall mean a bird protect _ larger groups called orders and families, into which birds are com and oun so called.”* Nova Scotia declares: ‘‘ ‘Game?’ shall nean and include * * * Canada and ruffed grouse (commonly eal a f partridge), pheasants, blackcock, capercailzie, ptarmigan, sharp-tailed grouse, woodcock, snipe, Te Ae ducks, teal, and wood ducks. by the provisions of this act,”* and New Brunswick ‘‘any bird me tioned in this act, or of a species or class similar thereto.” * oes The plan of enumerating each species, as in some of these laws, i not clear or concise. It also lacks uniformity because of the confusior existing in the common names of certain game birds and the presen of species in one State which do not occur in another.° . In order to overcome this difficulty, the Committee on Protestian of Birds of the American Ornithologists’ Union has suggested using th i! monly divided,’ instead of species, which gives at once a simple an concise definition. ‘*The following only shall be considered game birds: The Anatidx, commonly known as swans, geese, brant, rive and sea ducks; the Rallide, commonly known as rails, coots, sadhana and oeillinnless the Limic ole, commonly known as shore birds, ployers, surf birds, snipe, woodcock, sandpipers, tatlers, and curlews; the Galline, commonly known as wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, pheasants, partridges, and quail.” These four groups, the Anatide, t Rallidee, Limicole, and Galling, include all the species which are com- | monly hunted for sport or for food in the United States, with the — exception of cranes, wild pigeons, dov es, flickers, meadowlarks, reed birds, blackbirds, and robins. Cranes, pigeons, and doves are ordinarih considered legitimate game, but are now so rare in most States that has become necessary to remove them from the game list. Flickers, meadowlarks, blackbirds, reedbirds, and robins being insectivorous are a more falusble for other purposes than for food, and merit Baie attention. Zi ‘Annotated Code, 1892, sec. 2118. : im 7 2 Laws of 1896, chap. 4, sec. 2. bes 5 Statutes, 1898, chap. 24, sec 2. * Acts of 1899, Chap. VIII, sec. 2. ei 5 Tf these species are not mentioned in the game list of the latter State, they ca be imported and sold during close seasons, thus furnishing a market for the illeg mate sale of game from other States. 6Ornithologists divide the class of birds into orders which are subdivided i groups called families, these again into genera, which in turn are composed of specie and subspecies. Only 17 orders and 67 families are represented in North Amelld north of Mexico, V 7 PIGEONS AND DOVES. 15 SPECIES ERRONEOUSLY CONSIDERED GAME BIRDS. PIGEONS AND DOVES. _ The order Columbx, comprising wild pigeons and doves, is repre- sented in the United States by 15 species and subspecies. Of these, _ only three have any practical importance as game birds, viz, the pas- senger pigeon (/ctopistes migratorius), now almost exterminated; the _ band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata), found from the Rocky Moun- _ tains to the Pacific coast, and the common, mourning, turtle, or Carolina dove (Zenatdura macroura), distributed more or less generally through- ce out the United States. The wild pigeon is now rarely seen except in ane es Pea Bali AHH AAU Hf 4 iy Ui Fic. 1.—Mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura). two or three of the States about the Great Lakes, where it is rigidly _ protected.' Although it was formerly one of the most important game __ birds of the country, its numbers have been so diminished during the last thirty or forty years that it can no longer be considered as belong- ing in the game list. The band-tailed pigeon is an important game bird in only half a dozen States, and Colorado seems to be the only one which provides an open season (July 15 to September 30). The common dove (fig. 1) is protected in some States throughout the year, in others only during the breeding season, while in still others it is not _ mentioned in the laws, and hence may be killed at. any season. (See frontispiece.) Where it is abundant, as in southern California and a 1The Provinces of Manitoba and Quebec, however, exclude it from the list of pro- ___ tected birds (see pp. 37, 86, 89). As shown in the following table and diagram, dove shooting is all during periods varying from two to nine months. (See ie 2. a Open seasons for doves. State or Territory. Open season. State or Territory. Open season. “ Alabamal......- Noyember 1 to March1. Mississippi-.-----.- September 15 to March Arizona ........- June 1 to March 1. Missouri ......-... August 1 to January 1. California ...--.- July 15 to February 15. New Jersey--..--- August 1 to September 30. Colorado. .2--2-- July 15 to September 30. North Carolina ...| October 15 to Aprilil, Georgia......-..-. August 15 to March 15. Ohies sss = July.4 to December 15. MEMOS C32 ses ccs September 1 to December 1.|) Oklahoma..-.---- August 1 to December 31. ; Kentucky -...... August 1 to February 1. South Carolina ...| August1 to Mareh1, Louisiana .....-: September 1 to April 1. Tennessee 2. ...... Noyember1 to February 1. Maryland -...... August 15 to December 24. || Utah .......-...-- July 1to December. Minnesota....-..- September 1to November 1. ———eee 1 The evident intention was to make the open season August 1 to March 1 (see p. 56). 2Tn Greene and Bradley counties; in Wilson County the open season extends from August 1 to LE 1, and in Montgomery and Cheatham counties from August 1 to March 1. x STATE [smilFab Fess en aa ee 4] Rinbana V1 Ll ; Yj, LTD. ee cueeger == -_.| 7,7 =a WI. ne WOT ee oe | Ly, Maryland Minnesota Wyo | CY, YUWAUWUA 1 Hida | | ht A BZZZ7 7 3V me 7) aa a era New Jerse, Tha poeta: FPeinascoe 4 Fie. 2.—Diagram showing open seasons for doves: The shaded area indicates the months dove shooting is permitted. ; FLICKERS. LF weeds, such as pokeweed and several species of the genera Lithosper- mum, Oxalis, and Huphorbia. In certain parts of California the habit of feeding on the seeds of turkey mullein (Hremocarpus setigerus) is so well known that a botanist, on inquiring how he could collect some seeds of this plant, was advised to shoot a few doves and open their crops. Under some circumstances enormous quantities of weed seed are devoured, as shown by the crop of a dove killed in a rye field at Warner, Tenn., which contained no less than 7,500 seeds of Oxalis stricta. Asa weed destroyer, the dove more than compensates for the grain which it occasionally consumes, and the value of its services is certainly greater than the few cents which its body brings in market, Fic. 3.—F licker ( Colaptes auratus). FLICKERS. Of the woodpeckers, the flickers or pigeon woodpeckers (fig. 3), represented in the East by the yellow-shafted flicker (Colaptes auratus) and in the West by the red-shafted flicker (C. cafer), are the only ones which are killed to any extent for food.* They are still regarded as legitimate game in some sections, but apparently are so treated by law only in Nevada, which fixes an open season from September 15 to March 15. Like other woodpeckers, the flicker is 1Tn some parts of the South the pileated woodpecker (Ceophleus pileatus) is sold as game, and a few specimens can be found occasionally in the markets of Washing- ton, D.C. 22186—No. 12——2 ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ‘mainly insectivorous. An examination of 230 stomachs of chiefly May beetles, a few snapping beetles, and carabids, or pre _ chonyx oryzivorus—tig. +) which flock to the Atlantic coast each autu m 18 LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF vegetable, and 56 percent animal matter.’ The mineral eleme mainly sand, probably picked up accidentally along with other The vegetable matter consisted of the seeds of a number of weeds grain, but too little to be of much consequence. Flickers are terrestrial than other woodpeckers, and a large part of their an food consists of ants, which constitute nearly half the food of tl year. Several stomachs contained little else, and at least two ¢ tained more than 3,000 each of these insects. Beetles stand next to ants in importance, forming about 10 percent of the food, and includ: ceous ground beetles. Grasshoppers also are eaten at certain times shown by several stomachs (collected in June, 1865, in Dixon Coun Nebr.), which contained from 15 to 48 grasshoppers each. A bir with such a record is far too valuable to be killed for food, and is entitled to all the protection ordinarily accorded insectivorous species. BOBOLINKS OR REEDBIRDS. me Comparatively few passerine birds are treated as game. Among a these few, bobolinks (reedbirds), blackbirds, meadowlarks, and robins _ are the most important. The enormous numbers of bobolinks (Doli- to feed on the seeds of wild rice before taking their departure for the _ rice fields of the South and their winter haunts inSouth America have _ given rise to the sport of reedbird shooting, a sport scarcely known — seasons are legalized in the Middle States as follows: Delaware, — September 1 to February 1; District of Columbia, August 21 to Feb- sylvania, September 1 to November 30. For a few weeks it is killed — in enormous numbers for market, and when it reaches the Carolinas, — farther south, where it is known as the ricebird, the slaughter Re increased, not for sport, but as protection against its ravages in the — rice fields. Here it becomes a veritable pest, and may be killed lawfull = at any season. To many persons it is a delicious morsel, although its diminutive body furnishes little more than a taste of meat. Ther ‘Beal, Food of Woodpeckers, Bull. 7, Div. Ornith. and Mamm., Dept. Agr., pp - 16-20, 1895, a -BOBOLINKS OR REEDBIRDS. 19 ould be no objection to utilizing the bird for food were it not for the abuse to which this custom of killing it for market has given rise. Not _ only are other birds killed for reedbirds, but in States in which reed- birds do not occur marketmen try to make up the deficiency by fur- nishing various small birds under that name. In the markets of San _ Francisco horned larks (O¢ocoris), red-winged blackbirds (Agelacus), q _ Brewer’s blackbirds (Scolecophagus), white-crowned and golden-crowned Fie. 4.—Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) . sparrows (Zonotrichia), song sparrows (Melospiza), savanna sparrows (Ammodramus), house finches (Carpodacus), and even goldfinches (Astragalinus), have all been sold as reedbirds.* Such conditions serve only to defeat the object of protective laws, and for this reason, if for no other, reedbirds should be taken off the game list, except in the few States in which they are known to be abundant; and even here their sale should be carefully regulated to prevent the slaughter of robins, larks, and other birds, which are almost certain to be killed by market hunters. ; ‘Bryant, Zoe, II, pp. 142-145, 1891, 20 LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS. MEADOWLARKS. ~ ae Like the flicker, the meadowlark (Sturnella magna—tig. 5) is con: ered game by many persons, mainly on account of the character of meat, which in some respects resembles that of quail. A few States — March 1; Georgia apparently allows the bird to be killed at any — season. Its importance to sportsmen is small in comparison with — its value tofarmers. Professor Beal, in speaking of its food habits says: ‘‘It is one of the most useful allies to agriculture, standing — almost without a peer as a destroyer of noxious insects. * * *— 4 a / ! / / i f} I i Fie. 5.—Meadowlark (Sturnelia magna). In summing up the record of the meadowlark, two points should be especially noted: (1) The bird is most emphatically an insect eater, evidently preferring insects above all other food; and (2) in default _ of its favorite food it can subsist on a vegetable diet.” * 8 Professor Beal made an examination of 238 stomachs, and reported that the contents comprised about 27 percent vegetable matter and 73 percent animal matter. In other words, nearly three-fourths of the food of the meadowlark for the year, including the winter months, — consists of insects. The vegetable food comprises mainly seeds of weeds, grasses, and a little grain, but the grain, chiefly corn, amounted __ to only 14 percent. No sprouting corn was found in any stomach, and no grain of any kind was found in stomachs taken in summer; the _ largest quantity was eaten in January, when other food was scarce, 1 Yearbook Dept. Agr., 1895, pp, 420 and 426, ee | ee BLACKBIRDS. On _ Among the insects taken at various times during the year, grasshop- pers, locusts, and crickets are by far the most important, since they averaged 29 percent of the food. Of the 238 stomachs examined, 178 contained grasshoppers, and 37 of these insects were found in a single stomach. In August stomachs they constituted 69 percent of the food. Beetles, which stand next in importance to grasshoppers, included chiefly May beetles (Scarabzeide), snout-beetles or weevils (Rhynco- phora), and leaf-beetles (Chrysomelid). Caterpillars formed an im- portant element of the food, and ants a small, but fairly constant, ‘item, about 3 percent for the year. Fic. 6,—Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phaniceus) BLACKBIRDS. In the District of Columbia red-winged, or marsh, blackbirds (Age- - laius pheniceus—tig. 6) are treated as game birds and an open season for shooting them is set apart. The argument is made that on account of the damage they do to grainfields, particularly in the spring and autumn, blackbirds may be kept from becoming too abundant by treat- ing them as game. But it may well be questioned whether this would reduce their numbers as effectually as if they were excluded entirely _ from protection in localities where they are injurious. Game birds are necessarily protected for a longer or shorter time during the breed- - ing season, while species excepted from protection may be killed at any season. A full account of the food habits of the various black- birds may be found in Bulletin No. 13 of the Biological Survey. 22 LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS. ROBINS. offered for sale in the markets. According to Prof. H. Nehrling, ‘one main cause of the fearful decrease of our small migratory birds — must be looked for in our Southern States. There, millions of ali — kinds of birds are killed to satisfy the palate of the gourmand. * * * — There is scarcely a hotel in New Orleans where small birds do not — form an item on the bill of fare. At certain seasons the robin, wood — thrush, thrasher, olive-backed thrush, hermit thrush, chewink, flicker, and many of our beautiful sparrows form the bulk of these victims; — but cat-birds, cardinals, and almost all small birds, even sewallows, can — Fic. 7.—Robin (Merula migratoria). be found in the markets.”' Mr. Andrew Allison, of New Orleans, _ gives similar testimony: ‘* In the fall migrations, when all the migrants — are literal butter-balls, appalling numbers of cat-birds, wood thrushes, — -red-eyed vireos, king birds, tanagers, and in fact any easily-shot birds — are killed * * * near the coast towns. Wood thrushes and cat- birds are more persecuted than any other, under the name of grassé, and many are sent to the markets here in September and October.”* Robins (Irula migratoria—tfig. 7) are perhaps more generally killed — than any of the other thrushes, and in some States their killing is legalized at certain seasons—for example, in North Carolina, from oe October 15 to April 1. A few years ago large numbers of robins were ate Ye Chae "See W. T. Hornaday, 2d Ann. Rept. N. Y. Zool. Soe., p. 86, 1898. INSECTIVOROUS AND SONG BIRDS. 938 Biisiped to the markets of Wastincton, D. C., from various points in Virginia and North Carolina. In the spring of 1897 no less than 2,700 were received in one lot. These birds were killed near roosts just before the northward migration set in; fortunately their sale could be stopped in the District of Columbia, but their killing at this season was lawful in North Carolina. It seems hardly necessary to call attention to the insectivorous habits of robins; but a few details may add emphasis. In an examination of 330 stomachs,’ 42 percent of the food was found to consist of animal matter, chiefly insects, while the remainder was made up largely of small fruits or berries. Grasshoppers, caterpillars, and beetles com- posed the principal part of the insect food, grasshoppers forming nearly 30 percent of the total food in the foun of August. The veg- etable element, 58 percent, was largely composed of wild fruits, which had been eaten in nearly every month. Cultivated fruit was found in small amounts, chiefly in stomachs collected in June and July, but the depredations of the birds seemed to be confined mainly to smaller and earlier fruits, and as Professor Beal has shown, the damage thus done may be obviated by planting wild fruits, which the birds prefer to cultivated varieties. INSECTIVOROUS AND SONG BIRDS. An examination of the various State laws shows that definitions of non-game birds accorded protection are in most cases very loose. The matter of definition is a difficult one in view of the fact that the num- ber of birds now recognized in North America is over 1,100, and that the list of even so small a State as Rhode Island (with an area of only about 1,000 square miles) contains no less than 291” species, while 374 species are known to occur in Colorado® and 415 in Nebraska. * Attempts are often made to name the more important birds (as in the case of the Alabama law, which enumerates 50 species), but it is obviously impracticable to name all, and the common practice is to mention a few and to include the others under such general terms as ‘insectivorous,’ ‘song,’ or ‘useful’ birds. Georgia depends entirely on the term ‘insectivorous or song birds’ and Missouri likewise pro- hibits the killing of ‘any wild song bird or insectivorous bird,’ without mentioning species. Other States extend their lists of protected species by the terms ‘other harmless birds’ (lowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin), ‘any other of the small birds known as singing birds’ 1 Beal, Farmers’ Bulletin 54, p. 38, 1897. *Howeand Sturtevant, Birds of Rhode Island, 1899. This number does not include the introduced English sparrow. ’ Cooke, Bull. 44, Colo. Agr. Expt. Station, p. 150, 1898. ‘Bruner, Some Notes on Nebraska Birds, p. 49, 1896. aiid My! ae ee mS =p: Pe shu 24 LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION. (Montana), ie pee bird whose habits are not essential atory upon and destructive of the agricultural products of ma (West Virginia), ‘birds of like nature that promote agriculture a horticulture by feeding on noxious worms and insects, or that ar attractive in appearance or cheerful in song’ ees oe Even a liberal interpretation of the term excludes more than one-thire of ne birds unless they y are pikes by some additional a ek oe iebas cranes, per Pits a In the report of the New Jersey Fish and Game Commission for 1899, some objections to the indefinite term ‘insectivorous’ are statec as follows: The question naturally arises as to what constitutes an insectivorous bird. Is a bird to be regarded as insectivorous which feeds on insects for two or three weeks every year? Under the provisions of the present law persons might be prosecu ec for killing shore birds, for these feed to a great extent on aquatic insects, and - prosecution against a person for having killed reedbirds during the open season walle result in a conyiction, for the reedbirds destroy insects in large numbers, and the prohibition of the law against killing insectivorous birds is certainly sweeping.' Although this is doubtless an extreme, if not erroneous, interpreta-— tion of the phrase, it shows the objection to the use of this term unles qualified in some such way as in the South Carolina statute. But the chief objection is that the definition is vague and instead of going too far, does not go far enough, and thus fails to cover a large number of ke birds which are as worthy of protection as those which depend nla ‘ on insects for food. Inasmuch as game birds constitute but a small proportion of the avifauna of any State, it seems more reasonable to enumerate them an extend protection to all others, as is now the practice in some States” (see pp. 63, 67, 82). This may be done quite briefly by following the i groups or families and orders into which ornithologists combine vari ous species. Of the 17 orders of North American birds shown in th table on page 25, only 4+ (marked with an asterisk) include true ge ‘i birds and but 4 oier eas Se are propery sea so t thai aS ve ats PLUME BIRDS. ERAS 25 ‘re Boed to a ise words, as follows: Any wild bird, other than a game d, excepting the English sparrow (and such other species as may be nsidered injurious). Orders of North American birds. [The orders marked with an asterisk (*) are the only ones which include game birds proper. | : | Species a ; Order. Birds. and sub- * species. ! x a . VE OPOGES=- = - 3. -= <= Beco ee Grebes, loons, and auks ................---/.--- 37 7s Longipennes ....-.-.-....- Jaegers, culls: anditerns: 52.252 225252212222 50 Py IMAMeS eso 2 oie aS oe en Albatrosses, sShearwaters, and petrels.......-..-- 41’ 4 LCP AMOPOUESE. oo -s2s-s55-- Gannets, cormorants, and pelicans.......--.--- 24 A me *Anseres (Anatide) .....-. Ducks, geese, and swans .........--------------- 64 e Odontoglossx.....-......-- TEED OSHS Se Oe ee pee eA ora ates ee 1 zh ERETOOUONCS = 2.2.2 c22.002022 Herons, bitterns, ibises, etc...-..-...----------- 24 SS PANIC Ole 222s as2 ee CranesranilssanG@icoousesasss seen ee eee ee aoe 22 eS pbamitcoles: 22-84 202020052: Soren pinnae ae epee ee ae Lol easter Muna 76 Ss BG allinest sc sehate. coasts sce Pheasants, grouse, and quail..................- We 0 sk, a) @olumilbee <4 2ss2en cee eee | Piseons amd: dOVesseas eens se seeeae oe een eeeren 15 y Raptores....-.---- coe Birds of prey: Buzzards, hawks, and owls. ----- 94. eS NESULEENGT 7. ila cints ois! 2a eine IPATROUS Morena < stem teemtis Ne aes seem ne seen eres 1 a i (CLOMENHES Soocce a aanedessede | Cuckoos, anis, and kingfishers....-..--..-..---- ite i PE TCiee ners eyo ceil oi \NVOVONSavevolatriast eae SEU eis Se Eee ae 43 4 ; WiriGrOcChbires’s.-22-225---4-+ | Goatsuckers, swifts, and hummingbirds -..---- 34 PASSES Pee atte eck. PIReRchinoupirds shoe ee ate serene ae eee ae eae 540 x TSE ih Bl AR a re ee UBD: Sansa ea 1,124 1GCorrected to include the ninth supplement of the American Ornithologists’ Union Check List, 1899. k ¢ 2Comprises three families, Gruidz, Aramidée, and Rallide, of which only the last (containing 18 of the 22 species and subspecies) is included in the list of game birds. ) @ ‘ > ae PLUME BIRDS. Bratt: bs The general term ‘plume birds’ is here used to include not only the herons, which are killed for their nuptial plumes, but a number of water birds which are used for decorative purposes, such as pelicans, terns, gulls, and grebes. The snowy heron furnishes the well-known _ algrettes; pelicans supply quills and breasts; gulls and terns are worn in great numbers on hats; while grebes’ breasts, besides being used for + eo hats, are also mete into muffs, collar oes. and capes. There is an enormous demand for plume birds ante the millinery trade in years when they are in fashion, and the localities where the birds breed are scoured by hunters, who find a pee: market. for the skins at prices _ varying from 10 to 50 cents apiece.* As these birds all nest in col- _ onies, it is a simple matter to destroy large numbers on the breeding _ grounds; and so thoroughly is the work done that some of the species, rs a 1Bird Lore, II, p. 66, April, 1900. and even the services of the Salle as scavengers are cee paratively few places. As a result, birds of plume being ae ee nor ‘insectivorous,’ Bish: are o killed most Pane a an in the greatest numbers a ar very ones which are accorded the least protection. . Plume birds as well as insectivorous birds are protected in Sta which have Sea apis laws atlas oea sae killing of all bi se But these States are few in number, and include o Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts,” New York! Rhode Is and Vermont and also the Provinces of eee and ‘Oneatant a The only States that have special legislation for plume birds + Floridaand Texas. In her law of 1877, Florida prohibited the destrt tion of nests, eggs, or young of any sea bird or bird of plume un a fine not exceding $20; two years later she made the killing of an ‘birds for the purpose of obtaining plumes’ by persons who wer not citizens of the United States a crime punishable by a fine of ne more than $100. Later, in 1891, the killing of cranes, egrets, ibise curlews, or herons for purposes of sale, or the purchasing or tr ing in such birds, was made a riindgoueaats punishable by a fine no exceeding $300.4 The plume-bird law of Texas, enacted April 13, 189 declares the killing of sea gulls, terns, shearwaters, egrets, he ons, and pelicans a misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of from $5 to $25. In addition to these two States, Maine has recently enacted a spec law protecting terns; Maryland protects both gulls and terns; } Jersey and Pennsylvania protect these and similar birds under term ‘web-footed wild fowl;? Michigan, under the term ‘ wild wa fowl;’ Minnesota and Wisconsin, under * aquatic fowl,’ while Michig; — ntti ~~ — 1 ie an account of the slanghies of iia in the Bandi see Scott, Auk, IV, 135, 213, 273, 1887; Chapman, Handbook Birds East. N. Am., p. 134, 1895. on extermination of terns, see Chapman, ibid., p. 82; Bird Lore, I, pp. 205-206, Decer 1899. On the destruction of grebes, see Railay: Bird Lore, I, p. 34, February, 1 “In Massachusetts exceptions are made in the case of gulls and terns, whic: protected only from May to September, inclusive. ’In New York the protection of gulls and terns is practically reduced to four mi by the clause which prohibits the killing of ‘web-footed wild fowl’ only betw the last day of April and the last day of August; exceptions are also made in the ¢ of grebes and bitterns, which are protected only during the same period. * Rev. Stat., 1892, sees. 2755-2756; Appendix, chap. 4050. 5 Rey, Stat., 1895, Penal Code, p. 100. “PLUME. BIRDS, te : 27 Plume birds protected in various States. [The x indicates the bird to which the State law applies. ] _ States. Grebes. | Gulls. Terns. | Pelicans.| Egrets. Remarks. SATKANSAS |. 2.22... x SFiS x x x Wild birds. 1 ROTM es ro | Stas 3 Le 3 x Eee ce coe eda Mea oy oe Local acts for Santa Monica and Santa Barbara County, | and about San Francisco Bay. Sabie | SSoe 4 Sees nbs IES See Bc ree amiss is NA UetaE a erie xe Bee it = ie x x x XK Xe | Wild birds. Beet cies Be x x x Be Do. ey rr enn aE eee aS afuta oe whe x Siac Same ln ete LIBS Bees aan eee — Gee IIs CRBS oetoun eee Massachusetts -..-- x x x x SC Gulls and terns only 5 months. Cie eae x x x Nome |e aera a: Gulls specifically and the oth- ( ers under wild waterfowl. _ Minnesota......... x x x Salaried eos Aquatic fowl for 8 months. eNew Jersey-=--.---|..-------- x << Be a gs le ye Web-footed wild fowl for 4 q : months. _ New York ......... x x x x x Grebes and web-footed wild — ; fowl for 4 months. SECA AG a eee ime uly tae ye eae | fa. el A ea _ Pennsylvania ....- jee Saoes x x Savi Gell See Web-footed wild fowl for 4 4 months. Rhode Island...--. x oe x x x Wild birds. CESS Oe eer err Da x x x ia 2 c2 |= minin sine a= x anew Mer aes [acetic esee Meise ae x Be x x x Do. A c2 ph Rene eee x Bee ee eee eee | eee aa PrOLeGLeEd Uni) septemberile: « Wisconsin ......... x =< x BS diarsatiy) Ser eae Aquatie fowl for 8 months. 1 The term ‘wild birds’ indicates that the law prohibits the killing of any wild birds other than game _ birds and certain excepted species, thus including birds of plume. -2No plume birds can be killed by persons who are not citizens of the United States. In the absence of State laws, protective legislation is occasionally : secured through county A of supervisors, which have authority in some States to make ordinances covering such matters. Thus, in Jalifornia, although the State passed a special act prohibiting the rele ng of gulls near Santa Monica, Los Angeles County, it has no general w protecting these birds. Santa Barbara County, however, passed a special ordinance on October 3, 1899, prohibiting the killing of eagles, gulls, terns, and pelicans, oie should effectually protect these birds within ihe limits of this county. Gulls are also protected - in a few other localities, as about San Francisco Bay. . _ A few States have more comprehensive laws for the protection of nests and eggs than for birds. Thus, Florida protects only cranes, egrets, ibises, curlews, and herons, but forbids the destruction of the nest, eges, or young of any sca birds ev birds of plume. Maine 28 «LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS. al and terns. 2" The following list of references < been prepared to facilitate « sultation of the various State laws relating to plume birds: " Arkansas: Acts, 1897, XLI, sec. 1, p. 53 (wild birds). California: Penal Code, 1897, p. 563, sec. 1 (gulls at Santa Monica). Delaware: Rey. Stat., 1893, Ch. LV, sec. 6 (nests or eggs of any bird). Florida: Rey. Stat. 1892, p. 847, sec. 2755 (nests, eggs, or young of sea birds or b of plume); p. 992, sec. 1 (cranes, egrets, ibises, curlews, and herons). Illinois: Laws, 1899, p. 224, sec. 3 (wild birds). Indiana: Thornton’s Rey. Stat., 1897, sec. 2243 (wild birds). Kentucky: Statutes, 1894, sec. 1948 (nests or eggs of any wild bird). Louisiana: Rey. Laws, 1897, p. 247, sec. 5 (nests or eggs of any wild bird). Maine: Pub. Laws, 1899, ch. 42, sec. 12, p. 35 (nest, eggs, or young of any wild | bird) ch. 116, p. 119 eae! Cag Maryland: Laws, 1898, ch. 206, sec. 15m. (gulls and terns ma gulls]). my Massachusetts: Supplement Pub. Stat., 1888, ch. 276, sees. 2 and 4 (wild bag Michigan: Pub. Acts, 1897, p. 202, sec. 20 (gulls) . Minnesota: Laws, 1899, ch. 242, sec. 10, p. 275. | New Jersey: Gen. Pub. Laws, 1895, oy CCLY, sec. 8, p. 476 (nest or eggs obs a wild bird) ; Laws, 1900, ch. 73, sec. 5 (web-footed wild fowl). New York: Laws, 1900, ch. 20, sec. 20 (ee eb-footed wild fowl) ; sec. 30 (grebes) . Oregon: Gen. Laws, 1895, p. 97, sec. 27 (gulls). Pennsylvania: Act of May 17, 1883, sec. 1 (web-footed wild fowl). Rhode Island: Laws, 1900, ch. 746, sec. 2 (wild birds). ; Texas: Rey. Stat., 1895, Penal Code, art. 519, p. 100 (sea gulls, terns, shearwate rs, egrets, herons, and pelicans). : Utah: Laws, 1899, ch. 26, sec. 22, p. 42 (gulls). Vermont: Stat., 1894, p. 829, sec. 4614 (wild birds). Virginia: Cole; 1887, p. 520, sec. 2079 (gulls or ‘strikers’ ). Wisconsin: Acts, 1899, ch. 267, sec. 1 (any aquatic fowl except geese). BIRDS OF PREY. fe e am Bie: panied erst jaa The list of species exempt fi protection on pages 36-37 indicates how generally hawks and owls. 1 still held in disfavor. ' Except herons, etc. (see p. 66). * For a brief review of bounty legislation in the United States, see Palmer, Year Dept. Agr., 1896, pp. 58-59; Yearbook Dept. Agr., 1899, pp. 279-282. BIRDS OF PREY. BING) A hasty examination of the various State laws will show that the le of popular prejudice has, however, begun to turn, and some effort is now being made to distinguish the useful from the injurious birds of prey. Nine States and the District of Columbia protect turkey buzzards, three States forbid the killing of eagles, one protects fish hawks, while one prohibits the killing of any hawks or owls. In addi- tion, buzzards, owls, and certain hawks are included by implication in _ the list of species protected in Illinois, Minnesota, and New York. It issomewhat surprising that the value of turkey buzzards is not more _ generally recognized. They are specifically protected in Maryland, the — District of Columbia, Virginia, West Virginia, South Carolina, Texas, ~ Oklahoma, Colorado, and Wyoming, but protection should be accorded _ them by all the States in the South and Southwest as well as the Terri- tories of Arizona and New Mexico. According to Chapman,” ‘‘ their _ services as scavengers are invaluable.” The work of these birds at _ Charleston, 5. C., is well known, and the high estimation in which they are there held is shown by the fact that a fine of $10 apiece is imposed _ for killing them. The penalty in Texas ranges from $5 to $15, but about one-fourth of the counties in the State are exempt from the oper- ation of the law. The term ‘turkey buzzard’ includes not only the true _ turkey buzzard (Cathartes aura), but also the black vulture or carrion — erow (Catharista urubu), which is found in the South Atlantic and _ Gulf States, where the two species often associate together. The laws of Texas and Virginia are apparently the only ones which distinguish _ the two species and mention, the one, the ‘carrion crow’ and, the other, the ‘black buzzard’ in addition to the turkey buzzard. _ The protection of eagles is probably based on sentimental rather _ than economic grounds, and is inspired by a desire to insure against _ extermination the bird which has been adopted as the national emblem. _ Ohio includes eagles in its list of protected species and Connecticut _ protects them by a special law, while New Hampshire has prohibited the killing of any bald eagles before 1902 under a penalty of $40. In the protection of hawks and owls nearly all the States are notice- _ ably conservative, and few mention these birds in the list of protected _ species. Illinois extends protection to all birds with the exception of ‘chicken hawks’ and a few other species, New York to ‘wild birds’ except hawks and a few others, and Minnesota to ‘harmless birds’ q except hawks, crows, blackbirds, and English sparrows. Rhode Island extends protection to fish hawks, while Utah is the only State which goes so far as to protect all hawks and owls. In reality, so far from being injurious, the great majority of the birds of prey in the United States are decidedly beneficial. Of the 90 1 Birds Eastern N. Am., p. 192, 1895. 30 LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIR the 73 eee species and subspecies, only 6 have been shor i be actually injurious, viz, the sharp-shinned hawk (Aceipiter velt Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooper), goshawk (Accipiter -atricapillu duck hawk (Falco peregrinus anatum), pigeon hawk (Lalco cob rius), and great horned owl (Bubo virginianus).* On the other some of ae species are decidedly useful as insect destroyers. the large hawks commonly included under the term * chicken hawk : Swainson’s hawk (Buteo swainson?) and the red-shouldered hawk (Bud lineatus)—feed largely on insects, and the former bird destroys immense numbers _ er sae when eon food is available. In an exan Loe or birds. A still more stirficing example of oases proclivities is that of the sparrow hawk—one of our most useful birds In referring to this species, Dr. Fisher says: . Ta The subject of the food of this hawk is one of great interest, and considered in its economic bearings, is one that should be carefully studied. The sparrow hawk is— almost exclusively insectivorous, except when insect food is difficult to obtain. In — localities where grasshoppers and crickets are abundant these hawks congregate, often — in moderate-sized flocks, and gorge themselves continuously. Rarely do they tou h any other form of food until, either by the advancing season or other natural cai Ses, the grasshopper crop is so lessened that their hunger can not be appeased without undue exertion. Then other kinds of insects and other forms of life contribute to— their fare. Beetles, spiders, mice, shrews, small snakes, lizards, or even birds may © . be required to bring up the balance.” he The diet of these species would seem to entitle them to rank — insectivorous, but it is doubtful whether the State laws protectin insectivorous birds contemplated including any birds of prey und mas that term. AM LISTS OF SPECIES PROTECTED IN EACH STATE AND IN THE ; CANADIAN PROVINCES. For convenience in comparison, the lists of birds protected und various State laws have been brought together in tabular form. as these State lists have little uniformity (see pp. 56-84), it has oe necessary to adopt some definite order of sequence, and for this re the species have been rearranged in accordance with the Cheek I of the American Ornithologists’ Union. Although the enumerati ion 'For a full cist ussion of the food of hawks and owls, based on an examination n of 3 nearly 3,000 stomachs, see A, K. Fisher, ‘Hawks and Owls of the United States’, : 3, Div. Ornith. and Mamm., 1893; ‘Hawks and Owls from the Standpoint of t Farmer’, Yearbook Dept. Agr 1894, pp. 215-232. ? Bull. Haw ks and Owls, p. 116. SPECIES PROTECTED. bi 31 inder different States is yet far from uniform, still this plan has the Beeoee of bringing related birds together; certain ene like law, will usually be fagnd near the vache of each of the lists ere given, while certain others, such as thrushes, robins, and blue- irds, will be found at the end. ~ Loéal names have been carefully preserved, so that the same bird ften appears under several designations, as ‘wake-up’ or ‘yellow ammer’ for flicker, and ‘chewink,’ ‘joree,’ ‘joewink,’ or ‘ground robin’ for towhee. The penalties fixed by law for killing birds or destroying nests or eggs show nearly as much diversity as the lists of pecies. Some States impose the same penalty for both offenses, others _ have none for the destruction of eggs, while still others impose heavier ee maltics for destruction of eggs than for the killing of birds, and _ protect more species. With one or two exceptions, the fines vary _ from $1 to $100, but are usually less than $25. In Florida a violation of the plume-bird law is punishable by a fine not exceeding $300, or ’ imprisonment not exceeding six months, at the discretion of the court. _ List of species* protected in each State and in the Canadian Provinces, with penalties He ee killing the birds and destroying nests and eggs. Penalties. Species protected. - ; . Birds. Eggs. > Wiabama .....-...- Tilcup, kildee, turtle dove, cuckoo, rain crow, hairy | Not less| Not less 4 iG woodpecker, downy woodpecker, pileated wood- than $10. than 50. By pecker, red-headed woodpecker, red-bellied wood- pecker, whippoorwill, nighthawk, swift, hum- i mingbird, phcebe bird, pewee, shore lark, cow- Re By bird, starling or bunting, meadowlark, fieldlark, A oriole, grackle, finch, linnet, sparrow, American % sparrow, hair bird, snowbird, chewink, redbird, Ba” grosbeak, indigo bird, blue finch, joree, tanager, ; martin, swallow, shrike, vireo, warbler, yellow- bird, chat, redstart, mockingbird, catbird, wren, nuthatch, titmouse, chickadee, gnatcatcher, r. thrush, robin, bluebird, or any bird of song. F PUAQUB, .- =. 52-21 «5 DOV Ge 122 aera pisimis aos seme mien peace ei eemcoate cee Misde- Misde- | % meanor. meanor. See Arkansas .......... All wild birds (other than game birds, English spar- #3 to $10 | $3 to $10 ‘s row, hawks, eagles, owls, and other birds of prey, i crow, blackbirds). : Be California .*.... .| Hummingbird, English skylark, canary, mocking- $20 to $500 $20 to $500 ae | pird, thrush, robin. af SEB ena orca tetera ers en eee ea te a $50 to $100 | #50 to $100 BRC OlOTAGO .22.-:.-2: Turkey buzzard, whippoorwill, kingbird, raven, HOMO: S300 ME see eee crow, bobolink, red-winged blackbird, lark, oriole, finch, sparrow, snowbird, song sparrow, martin, swallow, mockingbird, wren, thrush, robin, other insectivorous birds. 1 * For convenience in reference, the species have been arranged in a uniform order, according to the Cheek List of the American Ornithologists’ Union, but the common names have been strictly followed in all cases. eb List of species protected in each State and in the Canadian. I State or Territory. Species protected. Connecticut. ....-- Eagle Woodpecker, whippoorwill, nighthawk, chimney swift, hummingbird, flycatcher, phcebe, bobo- link, Baltimore oriole, purple finch, sparrow, rose- breasted grosbeak, indigo bird, scarlet tanager, martin, swallow, cedar bird, vireo, warbler, yel- lowbird, catbird, wren, creeper, nuthatch, tit- mouse, chickadee, kinglet, thrush, robin, blue- bird, other song or insectiyorous birds. Delaware Woodpecker, sapsucker, flicker, wakeup, whippoor- will, nighthawk, hummingbird, skylark, oriole, ground robin, redbird, martin, swallow, yellow- bird, mockingbird, catbird, wren, thrush, robin, } bluebird. District of Colum- | Turkey buzzard, woodpecker, sapsucker, whippoor- bia. will, hummingbird, pewit, blue jay, oriole, hang- ing bird, crow blackbird, goldfinch, cardinal, martin, swallow, mockingbird, catbird, wren, wood robin, robin, bluebird, and other insectivo- rous birds. _ Florida Ibis, heron, egret, crane, curlew Georgia Insectivorous or singing birds Wild birds (other than game birds, English sparrow, chicken hawks, crows, or crow blackbirds). Wild birds (other than game birds, English sparrow, hawks, and other birds of prey, or crows). Sandpiper, turtle dove, whippoorwill, nighthawk, bobolink, lark, blackbird, finch, linnet, snowbird, martin, swallow, catbird, wren, thrush, robin, blue- bird, and other harmless birds, _ Turtle dove, yellow-hammer, blue jay,oriole,meadow- ) lark, redbird, mockingbird, thrush, robin, bluebird. | Woodpecker, flicker, meadowlark, oriole, redbird, finch, tanager, martin, swallow, catbird, thrush, bluebird, and other song or insectivorous birds. Whippoorwill, nighthawk, oriole, blackbird, finch, sparrow, swallow, mockingbird, bluebird, and any song bird. Maine Woodpecker, oriole, lark, sparrow, swallow, robin, and other insectivorous birds. Maryland | Herring gull, mackerel or other gull, turkey buz- gard, sapsucker, whippoorwill, hummingbird, pewit, blue jay, lark, oriole, goldfinch, sparrow, joewink, redbird, indigo bird, martin, swallow, cedar bird, yellow-breasted chat, mockingbird, eatbird, wren, thrush, wood robin, red-breasted robin, bluebird. Massachusetts Wild birds (other than game birds, English sparrow, certain fresh-water and sea fowl, birds of prey, | crows, jays, and crow blackbirds). ; * “ Or destroy the eggs or nest of any of the aforesaid birds, or any other birds except | crows, and English sparrows.” + Not more than amount stated. 33 of species protected in each State and in the Canadian Provinces, etc.—Continued. Penalties. State or Territory. Pee Species protected. - ee : Birds. Eggs. Se ee Sea gull, woodpecker, whippoorwill, nighthawk, $10 to $125 bobolink, lark, oriole, finch, martin, swallow, yel- lowbird, catbird, brown thrasher, wren, thrush, robin, bluebird, or any song or insectivorous bird. Mourminerd OVese se cc eer ieee eee eee neon cree $5 to PLO0) [P22 2. ee eee sRaeease Whippoorwill, nighthawk, bobolink, lark, finch, $10 to $25 $10 to $100 linnet, martin, swallow, catbird, wren, thrush, i robin, bluebird, and any other harmless bird. SB EN og Turtle dove, starling or fieldlark (March 1 to Septem- $5 to $25 * PL to 25 ber 15). Mockingbird, catbird, thrush, or nest of any wild #1 to $10 *H1 to $25 _bird (except English sparrow, hawks, owls, and other birds of prey, blue jay, crow, and blackbirds). Teese Wild song birds or insectivorous birds ........-.----- $19 to 850 $10 to $50 ee a a Stork, woodpecker, meadowlark, oriole, goldfinch, $5 to #100 $5 to $25 snowbird, cedar bird, mockingbird, thrush, blue- bird, and ‘ other of the small birds known as sing- ing birds.’ A OE ae Turtle dove, cuckoo, woodpecker, yellow-hammer, $3 to #10 kingbird, jay, pobolink, lark, oriole, sparrow, swal- a i low, yellowbird, wren, thrush, robin, bluebird, z 7 ‘ and other insectivorous or song birds. BeNevada.. 22 .02-- 22. Hummingbird, blue jay, meadowlark, sparrow, $25 to $200 £25 to $200 oe Imartin, mockingbird, catbird, wren, thrush, red fo + breast, robin, bluebird, and any song birds. Bewensttompshire=<.|)Baldveaple.: .l. <2 522 aoe orca cdecccccccueans S10) | econ ee oan JS Woodpecker, hummingbird, flycatcher, bobolink, $5 +92 an lark, oriole, finch, sparrow, bunting, tanager, mar- tin, swallow, vireo, warbler, creeper, nuthatch, thrush, robin, bluebird, and other song or insectiv- ! “ite orous birds. : : New JeVSCY = o2--<-- Woodpecker, whippoorwill, nighthawk, meadow- $20 $20 - lark, oriole, finch, cardinal, cedar bird, tanager, martin, barn swallow, thrush, robin, and other in- ; sectivorous birds. ewe VOVK .2.----<- Wild birds (other than certain specified game birds, t #60 $60 ‘ English sparrow, crane, hawk, kingfisher, raven, crow, common blackbird, and crow blackbird). orth Carolina....| Dove, lark, mockingbird, robin ......-..-..-...-.---- SUGBTIOI eck siceie aeeoneeem orth Dakota ..... Any song bird or insect-eating bird (except certain § $10 § $10 specified game birds). : it Mouse hawk, eagle, woodpecker, flicker, whippoor- $25 to #100 $25 to $100 will, hummingbird, flycatcher, pewee or phoebe bird, blue jay, starling, bobolink, redwing, oriole, goldfinch, sparrow, snowbird, chewink, ground robin, redbird, grosbeak, bunting, tanager, purple martin, waxwing, vireo, warbler, redstart, catbird, brown thrasher, wren, creeper, nuthatch, titmouse, chickadee, gnatcatcher, and robin. me Oklahoma Rice isGsim = Turkey buzzard, martin, swallow, wren, robin, and $25 to $100 h insectivorous birds. es * Twelve counties excepted from section relating to eggs. + Nests of certain birds only. : { Also an additional penalty of $25 for each bird or part thereof (see p. 74). § Not exceeding. 22186—No. 12——3 ” y' List of species protected in each State and in the State or Territory. _ Species protected. Horned lark, meadowlark, oriole, California linnet, American goldfinch, pine linnet, lark finch, snow- bird, song sparrow, grosbeak, lazuli finch, tanager, swallow, vireo, warbler, yellow-breasted chat, house wren, winter wren, kinglet, wood thrush, hermit thrush, robin, variegated thrush, bluebird. Sea-gull, meadowlark, mockingbird, Oregon robin (and 12 introduced European birds). Pennsylvania -.| Least bittern, tiltup, killdeer, cuckoo, hairy wood- pecker, downy woodpecker, pileated woodpecker, red-headed woodpecker, red-bellied woodpecker, whippoorwill, nighthawk, swift, hummingbird, phcebe bird, pewee, shore lark, starling, cow- bird, meadowlark, oriole, grackle, finch, linnet, sparrow, hair bird, snowbird, chewink, grosbeak, blue finch, indigo bird, bunting, tanager, martin, swallow, shrike, vireo, warbler, yellowbird, chat, redstart, catbird, wren, nuthatch, titmouse, chickadee, gnateatcher, thrush, robin, bluebird, or any bird of song. Rhode Island Wild birds (other than game birds, English sparrow, hawks—except fish hawk—owls, crows, and crow blackbirds). South Carolina ....| Turkey buzzard, woodpecker, whippoorwill, hum- mingbird, flycatcher, lark, oriole, finch, warbler, thrasher, nuthatch, bluebird, and other insectiv- orous and harmless land birds which are unfit for food. : Woodpecker, beebird, redbird, nonpareil, swallow, $5 mockingbird, wren, thrush. South Dakota.: Any song bird or insect-eating bird, except crow, *310 blackbirds, and sparrows. : Tennessee + Woodpecker, oriole, sparrow, redbird, mocking- |$2. 50 to $5.00 |: bird, catbird, thrush, robin, bluebird, and other song or insectivorous birds. Sea gull, tern, shearwater, pelican, heron, egret $5 to $25 Buzzard or carrion crow, whippoorwill, nighthawk, $5 to $15 scissortail, bobolink, linnet, finch, sparrow, red- bird, nonpareil, martin, swallow, mockingbird, eatbird, wren, thrush, bluebird. < Gull, hawk, owl, whippoorwill, lark, snowbird, swallow, thrush, robin, and other insectivorous or song birds, Vermont Wild birds, (other than 10 specified game birds, and certain species considered injurious). Virginia Gull or striker, turkey buzzard or black buzzard, starling, cardinal, house martin, mockingbird, brown thrush, wood robin, bluebird. “Washington Skylark, meadowlark, goldfinch, wild canary bird, | $10 to $100 bullfinch, greenfinch, black starling, grosbeak, . mockingbird, nightingale, black thrush, gray singing thrush, English robin, red-breasted robin, or other song bird. : * Not exceeding. + County legislation only. t Not less than, § Nests only, except in the case of gulls, whose eggs are protected after July 20, a [ES EXEMPTED FROM PROTECTION. 35 ; Penalties. Species protected. zee, : Birds. Eggs. = Besos Dove, turkey buzzard, cuckoo, woodpecker, yellow- $2 to $25 $2 to $25 hammer or flicker, whippoorwill, hummingbird, phoebe bird or pewee, blue jay, redwing, oriole, ' blackbird, purple grackle, family Fringillide or sparrows, finch, crossbill, chewink, redbird or car- dinal grosbeak, indigo bird, martin, swallow, war- bler, redstart, mockingbird, catbird, wren, nut- hatch, titmouse, tit or tomtit, dummock, night- ingale, thrush, robin, Hungarian robin, bluebird, and other birds not predatory or destructive to crops. aoeconse Turtle dove, whippoorwill, nighthawk, lark, finch, * $50 = HO thrush, robin, bluebird, and other harmless birds. woes e eee Turkey buzzard, whippoorwill, lark, finch, snow- $10) tonp50) asses bird, thrush, robin, or other insectivorous birds. -| Gull, bittern, skylark, meadowlark, linnet, chaffinch, (f) (1) - English blackbird, thrush, robin, and birds living on noxious insects. , BAe ee Any birds (except game birds and certain species $1 to $20 SL to $20 on considered injurious). New Brunswick .--| Sea gull, small birds which frequent the fields and $5 $5 woods (except English sparrow, crow, and black- bird). : Newfoundland ....| Wild or migratory birds (January 12 to August 20)..| #25 to $200 |.............- Nova Scotia -....-. Sparrow, swallow, robin, other small birds, and birds BL | $1 of song which frequent fields and gardens. Ontario.....-.--... Wild native birds (other than game birds, English $1 to $20 #1 to $20 ; sparrow, hawks, crow, and blackbirds) 2 BaMEDEC..2.2..-.-. Cuckoo, woodpecker, whippoorwill, hummingbird, #2 to $5 $2 to #5 a birds known as perchers, kingbird, flycatcher, ay : bobolink, cowbird, grackle, finches (song sparrow, is redbird, indigo bird, ete.), goldfinch, grosbeak, = swallow, warbler, titmouse, kinglet, grive (robin, wood thrush, etc.). * Not exceeding. + Eggs or nest of any water fowl or other birds, except crows and English sparrows. { Penalties fixed by lieutenant-governor in council. SPECIES SPECIFICALLY EXEMPTED FROM PROTECTION. ___ Twenty-seven States, the District of Columbia, and four Canadian _ Provinces exempt from protection certain species which are commonly considered injurious. These species include (1) the English sparrow; _ (2) birds which destroy poultry and game, as certain hawks and owls; _ (8) birds which destroy grain, as blackbirds, crows, and ricebirds; (4) birds which destroy fish, as loons, fish-eating ducks, herons, and king- 9 fishers. Of these thirty-two' States and Provinces, twenty-eight specifically mention the English sparrow, and South Dakota and Que- bec virtually include it with other sparrows, thus leaving only two 1 Including the District of Columbia. Y injurious species. i At least nineteen St tates and Provinees, ote those’ wi still es from ‘chicken hawks,’ or hawks and owls estate t poultry,’ while a few, like edie and Pennsylvania, specify pa lar species, as Gone s hawk and the sharp-shinned hawk. q Twenty -two States pe Provinces a birds deshrncig ty ; fish. Among fish-eating birds, loons are excepted in Maine," Ve U and Manitoba, certain water fowl in Massachusetts, herons in M: and Vermont, the green heron and night heron in Alabama and ] sylvania, bitterns in Vermont and Manitoba, and kingfishers in Alab New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Manitoba, and Quebec. — List of birds specifically exempted from protection. State. : Species. AIR DAMA six Sess 2 English sparrow, green heron, night heron, sharp-shinned hawk, hawk, duck hawk, pigeon hawk, barred owl, great horned owl, g ATIANGRS o.oo Jou sews we English sparrow, hawks, eagles, owls, and other birds of prey, crow, bi] { birds. nt Connecticut ........... English sparrow. DGIAWSIG ...--sevss cs English sparrow, hawks, owls, crows. District of Columbia ..| English sparrow. ROPE iiss a wes an ee tte English sparrow, night hawks, crows, ricebirds, aakal whewk birds. TSHOUN oc ede apwemy oe English sparrow, chicken hawk, crow, crow blackbird. eh) es ie eee English sparrow, hawks, and other birds of prey, crow. INE sa wto wale eave’ an we English sparrow, blue jay. NIG oceania ww ste a English sparrow, hawks, crow, and the young of loons, herons, and ow eee Wie C0 i ae English sparrow, hawks, and other birds destructive to poultry, crow, birds. Massachusetts ......... English sparrow, birds of prey, jays, crow, crow blackbird, certain fresh and sea fowl. Michigans .. asces sesame English sparrow, blue jay, blackbirds, butcher bird. DEINNCSOE. «-< 0c ew wae English sparrow, hawks, crow, blackbirds. m Missiasippi# : .......2..2 English sparrow, hawks, owls and other birds of prey, blue jay, crow, t birds. OVAOG. 64 isawn snp ace Linnet (house finch). New Hampshire. ...... English sparrow. New Jersey.....-.---.. English sparrow, cranes, hawks, kingfisher, raven, crow, red-winged b bird, crow blackbirds. ; ING: POMK spsuvanckene English sparrow, cranes, hawks, kingfisher, raven, crow,common bla crow blackbirds. (0)1 15 Se ey See English sparrow. j Pennsylvania ......... English sparrow, green heron, night heron, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooy hawk, duck hawk, pigeon hawk, barred owl, great-horned owl, king} *Applies only to nests; not to the birds themselves. 1 Young only. PERMITS FOR COLLECTING FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES. 37 List of birds specifically exempted from protection—Continued. Species. English sparrow, birds of prey (except the fish hawk) , crow, crow blackbirds. Hawks, eagles, owls, crow, crow blackbirds, jackdaw (boat-tailed grackle). Crow, sparrows, blackbirds. English sparrow. English sparrow, mergansers, loons, bitterns, blue heron, birds of prey, Jays, crow, crow blackbird. English sparrow. English sparrow, crow, blackbirds. English sparrow, loons, gulls, cormorants, ees, mergansers, bitterns, cranes, curlews, wild pigeon, falcons, eagles, hawks, owls, kingfisher, jays, ravens, crow, blackbirds, rusty grackle, purple grackle, shrikes. English sparrow, crow, blackbirds. English sparrow, hawks, crow, blackbirds. Wild pigeon, falcons, eagles, hawks, owls, kingfisher, magpie, jays, raven, crow, starlings, sparrows, waxwings (recollets), shrikes. New Bruaswick....... WrbATiO = 22525. .5)--2 -. ~~ OG "PERMITS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS AND EGGS FOR SCIENTIFIC Bi, PURPOSES. The rights of ornithologists and bird students should be recognized as well as those of sportsmen. Collecting birds and eggs for scientific purposes under proper restrictions is not only legitimate, but should _ be encouraged, and failure to recognize and provide for the needs of _ students retards the progress of natural-history work. q Provisions for collecting specimens have been made by a majority of the States, and should be adopted by all. Twenty-five States, the _ District of Columbia, and six Canadian Provinces either make an excep- ~ tion i in the case of birds collected for scientific purposes or furnish _ students with permits authorizing the holder to collect under certain conditions for a definite length of time. North Dakota makes it unlawful for anyone, whether resident or nonresident, to kill birds - without first obtaining a hunting permit. _ These certificates, or permits, are generally issued by some State offi- cer, such as the fish and game commissioner or game warden, on satis- " factory evidence that the applicant 1 is a fit person to receive then the ~ evidence being usually required in the form of testimonials snecn two. well-known scientific men. A minimum age limit is insisted on by cer- _ tain States: In Massachusetts holders of certificates must be 21, in Maryland, New Jersey; and New York at least 18, while in Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island the recommendation of the American Ornithologists’ Union is followed, and permits are issued to appli- _ cants of 15 years or over. A bond of $100 or $200, signed by two _ responsible residents of the State or county, is required in Alabama, Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, New Jersey, New _ York. Ohio. and Pennsylvania, and a small fee varying from $1 to $5 bat = ae. 38 is charged to cover the cost of issuing certificates. Rest tion 8 li ing the time, number of permits issued, and disposition of are also peel by several States. ° Gente are issued for varying from two years to a few months—in Indiana and Ohio f years, in Alabama, Connecticut, Minnesota, New Jersey. New } and Pennsylvania for one year, in Colorado for three months, and Illinois until the first of June following date of issue. Maine |] lin the number of permits in force at one time to ten and Vermont to five. Colorado, Maine, Minnesota, and Wisconsin issue certificates only | A condition that the specimens collected shall be xchana and not sold — or disposed of by gift. While such permits should be guarded by all necessary restricti to prevent, abuse, still the formality of obtaining them should be as simple as voile and the fees should be within the reach of all desery ing students. High fees and large bonds are objectionable for th reason that some persons who are otherwise entirely qualified ar unable to comply with these conditions. A nominal fee of $1 should | sufficient to deter many who simply desire a license to shoot and w eget apply for the alee if it were to be — ae the asking, wh will insure the carrying out of the intent of the nas, It may well ee goa a a a limitations as to number insisted on by on the number of snideees who desired to collect would greatly exce - the permit limit set by law, while the depletion in the ranks of » birds by such collecting is comparatively trifling. The Committee on n Protection of Birds of the American Ornithologists’ Union especia a recommends that the age limit should xo¢ be placed higher than 16 years, as this would prevent young students from collecting at a t ime when they most need encouragement. The chief requirements of the various States regarding cortificg are shown in the following table: ; fs Regulations and permits for collecting birds, nests, and eggs for scientific purposes. : — ——— —_ = State. Permits issued by— | Testimonials from— | Fee. |Bond. Remarks. © +h Alabama ...... Probate] wedi e-iO'Etusss sneace cus neeee sees $5 | $100 | In foree 1 year; appit- | county. cant must be 15 or ov COUTOINIA ®. 2 on} 5s» ve pcan e's akine 6 winleAc we] Nelelalbaca tate mol cog ater ees Colorado ...... Forest, game, and fish | Two well-known citi- 5 | 100] In foree 8 months; commissioner. zens. plicant must be | ne ber of, or acered Natural History ety, specimens can be exchanged. : In force 1 year, = ~ Connecticut ...| President board com-| Officer Hartford Sci- 1 ‘ missioners of fish- entific Society. eries and game. * Law not applicable to specimens collected for educational purposes, State. Permits issued by— Fee. |Bond. Remarks. Semon OO nt SUPermbendent) | VOR 2: occa ame. oes) ata| eee Under restrictions pre- -Tumbia police. seribed by Secretary of 3 Smithsonian Institu- tion, Beeps ate County elerk .........; Two well-known sci- $1 | $200 | In force until June 1 fol- entific men. t lowing date of issue; : applicant must be 15 or , over. diana -...... Executive board In- | Two well-known sci- 1} 200 | In force 2 years. ; diana Academy of | entific men. Science. PEE emer a | ecm ree Steers meee | aveiees <5 = See Aaiete ooo cis ae sieiailisije apes = ite See Commissioners inland | eee anaes Sao ee eae Sula sass Licenses limited to 10 at fisheries and game. one time; specimens canonly be exchanged; - : - ; no Sunday collecting. ‘Maryland ..... State game warden... | Wee sh Sao ea nce matas ees meee eee eee Permit issued upon filing 3 application and affi- dayit; applicant must ~ ive 5 | be 18 or over. “Massachusetts .| Game commissioners, |............--------+---|.-----[------! Applicant must be of age. E or president Boston Society of Natural History. Michigan :.-.-.- Statespame ands fish" |e see tee ce eels cle see ee tells. assess ee f warden. Minnesota ..... Board game and fish | Two well-known sci- 2} 100} Applicant must be mem- f ; commissioners. entific men. ber of, or accredited by, scientific society; speci- | mens can only be ex- changed; in forcel year, Math erlilem geen |e calle Seo eee cb eats cc ste wus(iacsececmnseen cee sine seal sececs RAMU areey teats Sas thes = eicclayee Some) sais views ie wlan cloias's slate selec aisle Se [acne ole Pama U UT) fase amens Se cits sz )slard ooo eial| einee ereld = alee ocibicj2 bisiate cies.«}| == sales Manse shire. ft , ew Jersey....| Board fish and game | Two scientific-men ... 1| 200 | Inforcel year; applicant commissioners. “must be 18 or over; bondsmen must be property holders of the State. New Work =... Any incorporated so- | Two well-known sci- 1} 200) In foree 1 year; appli- ciety of natural his- entific men. cant must be 18 or over. tory in the State or regents University ; i of New York. OCC MeOta = COUN AMIGILOLS oc ne claceeee vee sles enim senine RCS: paeeer In force until Dec. 31 . following date of issue; nonresident fee, $25. Berean 2 President fish and | Two well-known sci- 1} 100 | In force 2 years, game commission. entific men or 5 teachers of science. | | : _ Pennsylvania .| Board game commis- | Two well-known sci- 5 | 100 | Inforeelyear; applicant sioners. ; entific men. | must be 15 or over. urator, F Testimonials from— _ * Law not applicable to specimens collected for scientific purposes. { Law not applicable to specimens collected under direction of any State educational institution. {Law not applicable to specimens collected for an educational institution under direction of the >» State Permits issued by— Re Rhode Island =| (1) Curator Museum’ ||; 2.5... 5-5----¢s-een= a5 [ose eee Applicant. Zoology, Brown ~ over. University; (2) president Rhode Island College of Agriculture; (3) any incorporated society of natural history; or, (4) any college in the State. Bonth | 'Caro-"|.525-.c.20c coacsccseuce= [saws cass dacs ckedouedecee Reason teseee lina.* CSAS fo at ais wie | s ae win a'nbtein mw vowiwre Se wee aah ck eee nap SEA Os alco ee oS ees aes Vermont .....- Fish and game com= }.c: ssc neneesncs .32n-bdheeeeeatneneee Permits limited to missioners. force at one time Wisconsin ..... Fish and game war- | Well-known sCi- |......]....-. Applicant must be. den. entists. ber of, or accredit Society of Natu tory or education: stitution;specim: only be excha rash COLIN Iie a cpeckastacape coe Wansnbsmpenm can epee sean lene bia.t Manitoba...... Minigter’ ‘of -Apricul- "|i o>... snccte: coches ewes eeee = nana ture. : nie Ww. “Brnns-'} Surveyor-General’ 2} 2-2. o-oo es eww nnonioer ere eee wick. Nova Scotia ...| Provincial Secretary..|...+...-....--.-cesecsnu}oasnus|sannae bs Ontario...:.... Chief SAME WATAEI a alas ses ce panne eacmnceeedaleeeee cl venee In foree to end of endar year in y issued. Quebec........ Commissioner ‘lands: |i. inwosspwecws cerns few eed nee Nonresident fee $5 to forests, and fisher- c.. ies. * Law not applicable to specimens collected for scientific purposes. + Law not applicable to specimens of plume birds collected for scientifie purposes. } Law not applicable to specimens collected by curator, assistants, or agents of Provincial Mu ‘ LICENSES AND OTHER REGULATIONS REGARDING SHOO General regulations regarding shooting belong more properh treatise on game laws, but since in some States they are made to ¢ all birds, they may be considered very briefly in this connecti Their primary object, of course, is game preservation whether restricting hunting, limiting the number of birds which may beim ki in a day or a season or the purposes for which they may be kille le establishing special close seasons. The system of gun licenses: is strongly advocated by the League of American Sportsmen, which has been adopted recently in Wyoming for big game, does seem to have been applied thus far to birds in general. REGULATIONS REGARDING SHOOTING. . al icenses, however, are required in North Dakota, where it is unlawful to kill any birds without a permit. A sharp distinction is drawn between residents and nonresidents of the State, for residents may obtain a license for 75 cents, whereas nonresidents must pay $25. In _ Virginia, nonresidents are prohibited from killing wild fowl below the head of tide water except in Accomac and Northampton counties; and in Missouri they are prohibited from killing certain specified game. Nonresident licenses are required in some of the counties of Maryland, _ and also in Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, South Carolina, South Dakota, West Virginia, and Wisconsin, as well as in British Columbia, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, and the Northwest Territories. In some States they apply only to game birds; in others they cover all species. The fee ordinarily varies from $10 to $25, but amounts to $50 in British Columbia. Full information on this point, as well as on the manner of obtaining permits, may be found in the various State laws or in ‘Game Laws in Brief’ (New York, 1900). Restrictions regarding bags, or the Emaiies of birds which may bE killed within a specified time, are becoming rather common; and a few States forbid absolutely the killing of certain birds for sale. Non- export clauses, prohibiting the shipment into other States of birds and game protected by local acts, have been incorpor ated into the game laws of a number of States fete recent years, and have been upheld by the Supreme Court of the United States.1_ Thus, Delaware imposes a fine of $5 for each robin, partridge, quail, or woodcock exported; Massachusetts, a fine of $10, and Rhode Island, a fine of $20 for each ruffed grouse, quail, or woodcock shipped out of the State. Kansas, _ Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Utah also forbid export of game and certain birds. Regulations as to the manner or time of hunting—as, for example, prohibiting the use of swivel guns or shooting between sunset and -sunrise—are confined almost entirely to game birds; but laws governing shooting on Sunday apply equally to birds of all kinds. Nine States, the District of Columbia, and several Canadian Provinces, viz, Alabama, Delaware, Maine, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, North Caro- lina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, District of Columbia, New Brunswick, Ontario, and Newfoundland, prohibit shooting on Sunday, thus making that day in effect a special close season.’ 1Geer v. State of Connecticut, 161 U. S., 519. 2 References to Sunday laws are as follows: Alabama, Gen. Laws, 1898-99, p. 77, sec. 1; Delaware, Rev. Stat., 1893, Ch. LV, sec. 7, p. 457; District of Columbia, 30 Stat. L., p. 1012; Maine, Laws of 1899, ch. 42, sec. 22, p. 42; Massachusetts, Acts of 1899, ch. 116, p. 57; New Jersey, Laws of 1895, Ch. CCLV, sec. 15, p. 478; New York, Penal Code, sec. 1109; North Carolina, Code of 1883, sec. 2837, p. 236; Ohio, Rev. _ $Stat., 1897, sec. 6961, p. 3198; Pennsylvania, Laws of 1897, No. 103, sec. 1, p. 123; New iaroyick, Laws of 1899, Ch. VIII, see. 4; Ontario, Laws of 1896, ch. 198, sec. 24; _ Newfoundland, Act of 1899, sec. 10. 42 LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF BI BIRDS IN CAPTIVITY. almost to extermination in the case of certain species, would ane follow the wholesale capture which is possible under these method Such restrictions, aimed mainly at market hunters, are intended pri- marily to insure the preservation of game birds, but they are often _ needed to protect some of the smaller ee or insectivorous = , ro oa on in trapping certain native birds which are, in demand for pets « or cage birds. Mockingbirds, brown thrushes, bobolinks, cardinals, black- _ headed grosbeaks, indigo birds, paupara housefinches, colin ; and others are captured in large numbers for sale. Ordinarily no objection is made to keeping caged birds as pets, although there may be considerable difference of opinion on the ques tion as regards native birds.'. But when large numbers are systematic- cally trapped in any locality to supply the trade the practice is very — properly condemned, and steps are usually taken to restrict the — operations of the bird trappers. My, Some State laws are so worded as to prevent the capture of song 4 birds for purposes of domestication or propagation, and in a few in- stances the matter has been deemed of sufficient importance to warrant 6 making exceptions in favor of owners of captive birds. At least en i States and the Provinces of British Columbiaand Ontario have legisla % on this point, as follows: tg ¥ Alabama: ‘Nothing herein shall be construed to prevent the keeping of. rig fr birds in cages as domestic pets.’’ (Gen. Laws, 1898-99, p. 77, sec. 2.) California: ‘‘ Every person who, in the State of California, shall at any time hun * * * take, * * * buy, sell, give away, or have in his possession, exce for the purpose of propagation, or for educational or scientific purposes, any Eng- — lish skylark, robin, canary, humming bird, thrush, or mockingbird * * * Ms “ is guilty of a misdemeanor,’’ provided, however, that the right of possession | for — the purpose of propagation shall first be obtained by a permit in writing from Re 3 the board of fish commissioners of the State of California. (Penal Code, 1897, — p. 216, sec. 626.) an Iowa: ‘Nothing herein shall be construed to prevent * * * the keeping of son: Bs birds in cages as domestic pets.”? (Annotated Code, 1897, sec. 2561, p. 888.) — Louisiana: ‘‘ That no person shall entrap, net, kill, or pursue with such inten oF have the same in possession at any time during the year, any song bird, esp e- cially the mockingbird, except domesticated Ras a: except the birds be entrappe od or netted for the purpose of domestication.”” (Rey. Laws, 1897, p. 247, sec. 6.) , Maryland: “ Provided, that it shall be lawful to have mockingbirds or redbirds ¢ ws . other song birds in cages.’’ (Laws of 1898, ch. 206, sec. 151.) 4? 1 For arguments pro and con on ‘the question of the ethics of caging birds,’ = Bird Lore, I, pp. 158-162, October, 1899. ENFORCEMENT OF PROTECTIVE LAWS. «48 chigan: ‘‘ Nothing in this act shall prevent the taking or catching alive of birds, game or fish for domestication, propagation, or breeding purposes.’’ (Public Acts, 1893, No. 196, sec. 5.) Minnesota: ‘‘ But nothing herein contained shall be construed to prevent the keeping of song birds as domestic pets.’’ (Gen. Laws, 1897, ch. 221, sec. 10.) New Jersey: ‘‘ That nothing in this act shall be construed to prevent associations or ___ individuals from domesticating or bringing into this State any animals or birds for the purpose of propagating the same, or keeping the same until a reasonable opportunity offers for their release.”’ (Gen. Public Laws, 1895, Ch. CCLYV, sec. 4 Ge) s _ Pennsylvania: ‘‘ But nothing herein shall be construed to prevent the keeping of song birds in cages as domestic pets.’’ (Laws of 1897, no. 103, sec. 2, p. 124.) South Carolina: “Provided, that nothing herein contained shall prohibit any person from taking and keeping any bird of song or plumage for his own pleas- ure or amusement, and not for sale, traffic, or gain.’’ (Rev. Stat., 1893, Vol. I], p. 405, sec. 427.) : British Columbia: ‘‘ Provided, however, it shall be lawful for the Provincial Secre- tary, on such conditions as he shall think fit, by writing under his hand, to at any time authorise any person to trap or have in his possession any birds, or take eggs, for breeding or acclimatization purposes.’’ (Stat., 1898, ch. 24, sec. 7.) Ontario: ‘‘ Nothing in this act contained shall be held * * * to apply to any imported cage birds or other domesticated bird or birds generally known as cage birds.”’ (Rev. Stat., 1897, ch. 289, sec. 1.) ENFORCEMENT OF PROTECTIVE LAWS. To the efforts of private individuals or organizations interested in game protection are primarily due not only the existence, but what is more important, the enforcement of most of the laws now on the statute books. Probably no branch of criminal law depends so much for its enforcement on the interest and public spirit of the individual as that _ relating to the protection of game and birds. Experience has shown that under ordinary circumstances such measures are apt to become dead let- _ tersunless the regular officials charged with enforcing the laws happen to be personally interested in game protection. For this reason special _ Officers, known as game wardens or deputy wardens, are usually employed; and it is customary in many States, in case of conviction, to pay part of the fine to the person instrumental in causing the arrest, as an inducement to bring violators of the game laws to justice. In the United States regulations for the protection of birds are enforced by several different agencies, both State and private, which may be conveniently arranged in four groups: (1) State fish and game _ commissions or wardens, supported in twenty-nine States; (2) national organizations, such as the League of American Sportsmen, which has branches in twenty-two States, and the American Ornithologists’ Union, which hasa special committee on protection; (3) fishand game protective associations—voluntary organizations of enthusiastic and public- spirited sportsmen, which have been formed in many States and which are represented by State associations in at least seventeen; and, (4) 44 LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS. Audubon societies, now represented in twenty-three States.! these different organizations naturally overlap one another in fields of labor, they work harmoniously for the common cause. fish and game associations are naturally most active in protecting ga birds within their respective States, while the Audubon societies interested more especially in the protection of birds that are not The activities of the latter societies are not necessarily limited by Stat lines. Efforts are constantly made to extend the work in new fields, and © recently the Pennsylvania Audubon Society has done effective work f the protection of insectivorous birds in Delaware. The labors of bo game associations and Audubon societies are supplemented by those the League of American Sportsmen and the committee of the American — Ornithologists’ Union. The League has a membership of over 2,700, _ and one of its main objects is the enforcement of game laws; it not only 3 prosecutes violations of State laws, but offers rewards to wardens in any — State who secure convictions. The American Ornithologists’ Union — : committee now has a special fund at its disposal which will be devoted — this year largely to protecting gulls and terns along the Atlantic coast. - In States where the importance of protection has long been recog- — nized and is strongly supported by public sentiment, fish and game . | protection is in charge of a board of commissioners and regular wardens are employed by the State to enforce the game laws. New. yy York includes forestry in the duties of its board, and has five com- missioners of fisheries, game, and forests, but the majority of the | . States combine fish and game matters, although a few consider the te subjects of sufficient importance to require the attention of separate 7 officials. Thus, Illinois has a State game commissioner » Pennsylvania — ti has a board of seven game commissioners distinct from its fish com-_ mission, Rhode Island a board of five commissioners of birds, and | a North Dakota, Oregon, ard Wyoming have special game wardens, a NECESSITY FOR FURTHER STATE LEGISLATION. In a suggestive paper on **The destruction of our birds and mam- mals,” Mr. William T. Hornaday*® has made estimates of the decrease “fg in bird life in the United States during the last fifteen years, based on Mi reports from observers in thirty different States. < Such estimates are of course merely matters of opinion, but never- } theless are interesting. Naturally there is a wide range in the opinions” iy of the various observers, and the alleged decrease of birds varies from 10 to 77 percent, while the average for the thirty States is 46 peréel Nebraska shows a decrease of only 10 and Massachusetts of 27 ee : ‘For a list of these commissions and the more important State associations, wit h their officers, see Appendix to the Yearbook Dept. Agr., 1899, pp. 710-717. *Second Annual Report New York Zoological Society, p. 95, 1898, | NECESSITY FOR FURTHER STATE LEGISLATION. 35) _ Territory, and Montana, and to 77 in Florida. Evidently existing _ State laws are defective or are not properly enforced! 7 Some States and Territories, as Idaho, Alaska, Arizona, Indian Terri- tory, and New Mexico, apparently afford no protection at present to birds other than game; and while the necessity for such legislation may _ be small in unsettled portions of the West, still it will be more and _ more urgent as the country becomes developed. Other States which have bird laws on their statute books really afford very little pro- 4 _ tection, because these laws apply to only a small number of species, are limited to only part of the year, or are restricted to only part of the State. Aside from game birds and the young of sea birds, Florida pro- tects only ibises, herons, egrets, cranes, and curlews; North Carolina only doves, larks, mockingbirds, and robins. Kansas and Virginia name but 10 birds each, and Delaware but 20. Louisiana, while mention- ing 8 (whippoorwill, nighthawk, blackbird, oriole, sparrow, finch, swallow, and bluebird), really has a somewhat more extended list, ‘since each of the terms blackbird, oriole, sparrow, finch, and swallow includes a number of species. Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, and a Tennessee treat all birds alike in protecting them for only part of the _ year, and providing open seasons, as in the case of game, when they can be killed.t. In exceptional cases, so many counties are exempted from the provisions of a law that the act. becomes operative in only a small part of the State. Thus, Texas exempts 56 out of 244 counties from the operation of the act of 1895, so that a comparatively large part of the State is no better off than if there were no bird law (see fig. 8). Alabama exempts 60 out of 66 counties from the act of Bee: and thus the law actually applies to only 6 counties. Another difficulty lies in the diverse and oftentimes contradictory laws in force in neighboring counties in the same State, as in Mary- land, Virginia, and Tennessee. Special county laws’ have long been popular in Maryland and Virginia, but the Maryland act of 1898 did much to harmonize conflicting: game regulations. Mississippi gives county boards of supervisors full jurisdiction over such matters, and _ her bird protection therefore depends mainly on local regulations. Under the constitution of Tennessee* game legislation may be enacted 1The open seasons are as follows: Alabama, November 1 to March 1 (except red- q _ headed woodpecker, catbird, pewee, and vireo, which are protected from August 1 to March 1, and mockingbirds which are protected at all seasons) ; Georgia, Novem- ber 1 to. March 15; North Carolina, October 15 to April 1; Tennessee, varying from three to eight months, according to the county. *New York has special laws for Long Island, Michigan for the Upper Peninsula, and Washington for that part of the State east of the Cascades, but these regulations apply chiefly to game birds. In Canada, also, there are special regulations in Quebec for the two ‘zones’ into which the Province is divided at the river Saguenay. 5 Art. XI, sec. 13. in favor of certain counties or geographical icts of the State, availing themselves of this provision, have di Nowhere are protective measures more needed than in Ce ee | Fic. 8.—Map of Texas showing counties exempted under law of 1895 (the excepted count e - shaded and numbered): Angelina, 45. Coryell, 33. Lampasas, 34. Archer, 6. Dimmit, 52. Lee, 41. Atascosa, 4. Franklin, 17. bynn, 3. Bastrop, 48. Freestone, 35. | Madison, 43. Brazoria, 51. Garza, 4. Mills, 30. Brazos, 42. Hill, 29. Nacogdoches, 37 Burnet, 39. Hopkins, 14. Panola, 21. Callahan, 26 Jack, 12. ; Polk, 47. Camp, 20. Jackson, 56, Rains, 18. Cass, 16. Jones, 22. Rock wall, 15. Cherokee, 36. Karnes, 55, Runnels, 27. Clay, 7. Kaufman, 24 Rusk, 31. Comanche, 28. Kent, 5. ; Sabine, 38. Cooke, 8. Lamar, 9. San Augustine, 46, So many northern birds pass the winter in this part of the Unit States, and so many resident species begin to breed here es rly spring, that it is particularly important to have the laws com prehensi ‘CESSITY FOR FURTHER STATE LEGISLATION, AT id rigidly enforced. Tilris question is one of general interest, for igratory birds, even if effectually protected during the breeding eason in New England and the Northern and Middle States, may yet de killed to such an extent during their stay in the South as te render protection on their breeding grounds of comparatively little avail. _ The smaller land birds now receive but little protection during their sojourn in the South, with no applicable laws in Florida, and open _ seasons in winter in Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, and Tennessee. 3 However important it may be to secure protective legislation in_ | _ States which now have none, or in those which restrict it to a few months of the year, :t isalmost equally important to amend the imper- fect laws of other States in order to render them more effective. The most striking defects of existing legislation have already been dis- eussed, and, as suggested, they may be remedied best by securing greater “oceans This may be accomplished— 2 (1) By extending the list of protected species to all birds other than - - game birds and a few specially excepted species. ; (2) By removing all insectivorous birds from the game list. (3) By reducing the list of species excluded from protection. (4) By restricting special legislation, and as far as possible bringing all the counties in a State under one common law. (5) By making proper provisions me collecting specimens for scien- tific purposes. (6) By harmonizing the penalties for violations of the law. As a suggestion of what a comprehensive law should be, the text of an act prepared by the American Ornithologists’ Union is given in full below. ‘This act was originally prepared and published early in 1886+ by the Committee on Bird Protection, composed of ten active members of the Union, with the late George B. Sennett as chairman. While it can hardly be expected to meet the needs of all the States without change, it can easily be adapted to local requirements by making the necessary modifications, as suggested under the head of Rea This act is not an exper “out for it has been tested in several States, has been adopted almost fiterally by Illinois and Indiana, and has been in force in the latter State for nearly ten years. Its main features have also been incorporated in the laws of Massachusetts, New York, and Rhode Island, and the provisions regarding permits in those of Colo- rado, Connecticut, Minnesota, New Jersey, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. 1Supplement to Science, No. 160, February 26, 1886, 48 PROTECTION 0 ACT PROPOSED BY THE AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION. An Act for the protection of birds and their nests and eggs. | Secrion 1. No person shall, within the State of purchase, offer, or expose for sale any such wild bird after it has boca kil caught. No part of the plumage, skin, or body of any bird protected by this s shall be sold or had in possession for sale. For the purposes of this act the f mud-hens, and gallinules; the Limicole, commonly known as shore birds, plo surf birds, snipe, woodcock, sandpipers, tatlers, and curlews; the Gallinze, common known as wild turkeys, grouse, prairie ideals pheasants, partridges, and qu Src. 2. No person shall, within the State of , take or needlessly destroy nest or the eggs of any wild bird nor shall have aan. nest or eggs in his or | possession. a Pecsnekagr: od shall be wails to a fine is five dollars for each offense, and additional fine of five dollars for each bird, living or dead, or part of bird, or and eggs possessed in violation of this act, or to imprisonment for ten days, or b at the discretion of the court. Sec. 4. Sections 1, 2, and 3 of this act shall not apply to any person holds ce cate giving the right to take birds and their nests and eggs for scientific purposes, provided for in section 5 of this act. Sec. 5. Certificates may be granted by [here follow the names of the persons, any, duly authorized by this act to grant such certificates], or by any incorporat society of natural history in the State, through such persons or officers as said societ iy may designate, to any properly accredited person of the age of fifteen years o upward, permitting the holder thereof to collect birds, their nests or eggs, for strictly. scientific purposes only. In order to obtain such certificate the applicant for he same must present to the person or persons having the power to grant said certifica te written testimonials from two well-known scientific men, certifying to the good. char- acter and fitness of said applicant to be intrusted with such privilege; must pay By said persons or officers one dollar to defray the necessary expenses attending the | granting of such certificates; and must file with said persons or officers a proper! executed bond, in the sum of two hundred dollars, signed by two responsible citi ‘~ zens of the State as sureties. This bond shall be forfeited to the State, and the cer- — tificate become void, upon proof that the holder of such a certificate has killed mes 4 bird, or taken the nest or eggs of any bird, for other than the purposes named sections 4 and 5 of this act, and shall be fecthiee subject for each such offense to the Ps penalties provided therefor in section 3 of this act. aS Sec, 6. The certificates authorized by this act shall be in force for one year on ly, “ from the date of their issue, and shall not be transferable. os Src. 7. The English or European house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is not incl 2 among eee birds protected by this act. —— Sec. 8. All acts or parts of acts, heretofore passed, inconsistent with or contrary 4 to the provisions of this act, are hereby repealed. Sec. 9. This act shall take effect Spe its PoEtES 8 'The original Ww ording of the sections 1 and 2 has been modified in accordance — with suggestions made by Mr. William Dutcher, and approved by Mr. Witmer Stone, chairman of the committee on protection of North American birds. These sections - 5 have been recast and somewhat elaborated, the penalties combined as section 3, bi ju the other sections have been merely renumbered. THE HOAR BILL. 49 REMARKS. ‘The accompanying law is calculated to protect our birds as effectually as any legis- lation can, and it i is desirable if possible to obtain its passage as it stands. ” It is, however, a well-known fact that in many of our States the act would not ceive favorable consideration unless modified in several particulars. * * * It is very desirable that this act be adopted in as nearly the present form as possible, and since revision by persons unfamiliar with bird protection is liable seriously affect the force of the law, we offer the following suggestions regarding vision when it is unavoidable: (1st) Game birds.—In many States doves are universally classed as game birds, d where the game laws cover their protection during a closed season they may be classed in section 1 if necessary. Reed birds and blackbirds may have to be treated in the same way in several States. Robins, flickers, and meadowlarks, however, should not be permitted to be classed as game. (2d) Cage birds.—There is nothing in the law to prevent the keeping of foreign cage birds as canaries, ete. To keep native birds alive for study, etc., a certificate must be secured as per section 5. ¥ This is necessary to prevent the traffic in live birds. (3d) Other birds which may have to be excluded from protection— Hawks and owls.—The prejudice against these birds is very strong, while the argu- ments in their favor are well known and conclusive. They should be protected if _ possible. Ii nothing better can be done, effect a compromise by excluding Cooper’s hawk, goshawk, sharp-shinned hawk, and great horned owl, and protect the rest. _ Crows may have to be denied protection; there is about as much evidence for as _ against them, however. Shrikes, herons, gulls, and terns should by all means be protected. (4th) Where it is absolutely necessary to exclude any birds from protection they : may be added to section 7, so as not to alter the main text. (5th) On no account omit sections 4, 5, and 6, asis done in some of the present laws. With the restrictions placed upon holders of certificates there is no danger of improper persons obtaining them. A small number of birds are required for scienti- fic purposes, and provision should be made for obtaining them as much as for shoot- ‘ing game birds. The fee should be abolished, if possible, and should on no account _ be more than $1. The age limit should, moreover, not be raised above fifteen years. FEDERAL LEGISLATION. During the last three years several bills for the preservation of irds have been considered by Congress. The most important of these are the ‘Hoar bill,’ the ‘Teller bill,’ and the ‘Lacey bill,’ _ all of which were introduced in the Fifty-fifth Congress, but failed ~ _ to pass, and were reintroduced at the first session of the Fifty-sixth _ Congress. The Hoar bill was intended to restrict the traffic in birds _ and feathers, while the others were directed mainly toward the pro- tection of game. THE HOAR BILL. The Hoar bill ‘for the protection of song birds,’ was first introduced in __ the Senate by Hon. George F. Hoar, of Massachusetts, March 14, 1898,* Cong. Record, XX XI, pt. 3, p. 2757. 22186—No. 12——4 ‘ SMe 3 SONY? Ter Sa aaa ; a 50 11-12.) The bill, however, failed to pass the House before adie n and was reintr dared in fe Senate, in essentially the same me It prohibits (1) importation into the United States; (2) ‘tail from one State to another; and, (3) sale within the Territories o District of Columbia, of birds or feathers for ornamental purpo This legislation was aimed directly against the feather trade, — naturally aroused the opposition of the millinery interests. The feai has also been expressed that the clause prohibiting the importatio: foreign birds would result in an increased demand for native specie and hence increase, rather than diminish, the destruction of birds ix i this country. The prohibition of the nae of feathers relates only #3 Alaska, Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Indian Territory, and t mea District of Columbia: and even if strictly enforced here would have little effect so long as such sales were unrestricted elsewhere. The — "7 text of the bill as it now stands is as follows: abe A Bill (S. 1883) for the protection of song birds. : Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of A in Congress assembled, That the importation into the United States of birds, fea or parts of birds for ornamental purposes, or for any purpose except for food, be, and _ the same is hereby, prohibited: Provided, however, That nothing herein contained shall — be construed as prohibiting the importation of birds for museums, zoological garder or scientific collections, or the importation of living birds or of feathers taken fro living birds without injury to the bird. The Secretary of the Treasury is here! authorized to make regulations for carrying into effect the provisions of this secti Sec. 2. That the transportation of birds, feathers, or parts of birds, to be used sold, except such as are excepted in the first section of this Act, from any State e ¢ Territory of the United States to or through any other State or Territory of United States, is hereby prohibited. Whoever shall violate the provisions of section shall, upon conviction in the district where the offense shall have been ¢ mitted, be punished for each such offense by a fine of fifty dollars. < Sec. 3. That the sale, keeping, or offering for sale, within any Territory of United States, or within the District of Columbia, of birds, feathers, or parts of bi for ornamental purposes, except such as are excepted in the first section of this be, ane, the same is hereby, Pepa. Whoev er ere, violate the provisions fifty sac THE TELLER BILL. The Teller bill, ‘to regulate interstate traffic in wild game,’ was introduced in the Fifty-fifth Congress by Senator Henry M. Tell ' Cong. Record, XXXI, sits 3, p. 3166; Forest and Stream, L, p. 264, a THE TELLER BILL. “51 Colorado, on July 2, 1897 1 and referred to the Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game. As originally pre- ared, it was intended merely to prevent the shipment of deer, elk, elope, bison, or Rocky Mountain sheep from Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah. Under its provisions any person, railroad or express com- _ pany, or other common carrier who received such game for transpor- “4 tation, unless the export was permitted by the laws of the State from Seiich the shipment was made, was liable to a penalty of $100 to 1,000. The bill was, however, materially modified a few months ter, and reintroduced in the Senate on January 18, 1898. It was broadened so as to prohibit interstate traffic in game killed in violation _ of local laws from any State or Territory or the District of Columbia, and the game list was considerably extended by including certain specified game birds and ‘other waterfowl,’ so that it really covered a number of birds. The penalty was also changed so as to conform to section 10 of the Interstate-commerce Act.’ The bill failed to pass, _ and was introduced for the third time early in the first session of the | Fifty-sixth Congress, on December 15, 1899, and was referred to the - Committee on Interstate Commerce. No changes were made in the wording, which -was as follows: A Bill (S. 1680) to regulate the shipment of wild game from one State to another. Bs Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America wr Congress assembled, That it shall be unlawful for any railroad company, express company, or other common carrier, or its officers, agents, or servants, to receive for _ shipment or transportation, or for any person or corporation to ship or offer to any common carrier for shipment, from any place within any of the States or Territories of _ the United States or District of Columbia, to any place without any of the States or ___ Territories of the United States or District of Columbia, or to any foreign country, for sale, for market, or for storage, any moose, elk, deer, buffalo or bison, caribou, ante- lope, mountain sheep, or mountain goats, or any parts thereof, or any wild turkey, prairie chicken, or pinnated grouse, sage hen, Mongolian or ringneck pheasant, grouse, pheasant or partridge, quail, wild goose, duck, brant, swan, woodcock, snipe, rail, plover, or other waterfowl: Provided, That nothing herein contained shall pro- hibit the shipment of any wild game, animals, or birds, or parts of the same that may be expressly authorized or permitted by the laws of the State in and from which the shipment is made, if the same is conspicuously labeled ‘‘ wild game,’’ on which label shall be stated the kind and quantity of said wild game, animals, or parts of the same, i and the date and place of shipment, and the name or names of both the consignor and __ the consignee, a copy of which label shall be kept on file by the common carrier at the place from which said wild game, animals, or birds, or parts of the same, are shipped. Src. 2. That any person or corporation guilty of violating the provision of this sec- | ___ tion shall, upon conviction, be punished as provided in section ten of the Act to regu- | late interstate commerce; and the Interstate Commerce Commission is hereby given jurisdiction in the matter of the transportation of game as in other matters affecting | __ traffic between the States. ‘Cong. Record, XXX, pt. 2, p. 2198. * Forest and Stream, X LIX, p. 328, October 23, 1897. 3Thbid., L, p. 81, January 29, 1898. 5DY LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF B: THE LACEY ACT. yew The Lacey bill was first introduced in the House by Hon. John Lacey, of Iowa, on July 1, 1897.* Its object was to aid in the proj gation and Hiienine Pa of new or valuable bir ds, and the work Ww: eries. The Commission was to be given authority to propa tribute, transport, or introduce game ane cine wild Bes and i was inated 1 by the addition of the Hoar pill, Bee had already til 2 acted upon. On January 6, 1899, the combined Lacey-Hoar bill was: passed and sent to conference,* but was not reported before sdjoue : ment. =i At the opening of the Fifty-sixth Congress the Lacey bill was rena duced in the House, but it had been changed so that the work was placed _ under the Department of Agriculture instead of under the FishCommis- _ sion, and interstate traftic in game in violationof State laws was restricted — by a section very similar to that in the Teller bill. Again the bill was — .modified, was reintroduced on January 17, 1900, referred to the Com- mittee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, and favorably reported with an amendment by the committee on March 1. It was passed by — the House by a vote of 141 to 27 on April 30,‘ and was supported by — Representatives from thirty-four States. On the following day it was 4 referred to the Senate Committee on Interstate Commerce, favorably again on May 17, passed by the Senate without. amendment on May — 4 18,° and approv ed May 25, 1900.° p This act is the broadest and inioat'é omprehensive measure of its kind . ever considered by Congress. It is intended to supplement existing ; State laws, and in regulating interstate commerce in game it will — doubtless mark the beginning of a new era in bird protection. Tt — contains three main provisions: (1) It places the preservation of birds under the jurisdiction of the Department of Agriculture; (2) authorizes — the Secretary of Agriculture to regulate the importation of foreign — birds and animals, and to prohibit the introduction of the mongoose, — ‘flying foxes,’ English sparrow, starling, or other species which may be — injuric ious; and, (3) pr ohibits interstate traftic in birds killed in oh 4 1 Cong. fi the purpose of sale or commercial traffic any of the marta named plumed bi That is to say any crane, egret, ibis, curlew or heron. Sec. 2. That hereafter it shall be unlawful for any person to purchase, trade traffic in any of the plumed birds hereinbefore mentioned, or for commercial ir poses to purchase, trade or traffic in the plumes or pelfry of the said plumed bir of the State. sa Sec. 3. That whoever shall violate any of the provisions of this act shall be gi of a misdemeanor, and, upon conviction thereof, shall be fined in a sum not e: ing three hundred dollars, or imprisoned in the county jail not exceeding six m¢ at the discretion of the court. Approved June 5, 1891. GEORGIA. Public Laws of 1896, Title VII, No. 68, p. 74. Sec. 1. * * * Jtshall be unlawful for any person to shoot, trap, kill, ensna net or destroy in any manner * * * any insectivorous or singing bird, exce English sparrows, crows, larks, rice birds, night-hawks, wheat birds and doves between the fifteenth day of March and the first day of November. It shall also be unlawful to shoot, trap, kill, ensnare, net or in any manner destroy any do e's between the fifteenth day of March and the fifteenth day of August. It shall also_ 4 be unlawful for any person to remove from the nests, or in any manner destroy the _ eggs of any of the birds protected by this Act during the periods they are so pro- tected. * * * It shall be further unlawful for any person to sell or offer for sale any game, bird or animal, or any part of either, whether dead or alive, that are pro tected by this Act during the periods so protected, and it shall be taken and deemed — as prima facie evidence of a violation of the provision of this section for any person or persons to be found in possession of any of the animals or birds (or the eggs of =, birds) during the periods in which they are protected by this Act, and any person — or persons who shall violate any of the provisions of this Act as enumerated in this — section shall be guilty of a misdemeanor. Approved December 22, 1896. General Laws of 1898, Title VI, No. 13, p. 259. Sec. 1. * * * That from and after the passage of this Act, the baiting ov kil i ing of as es thus baited, any season of the year, shall be a misdemeanor, and 4 person convicted thereof shall be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than f fi ty aa dollars. By Approved December 6, 1898. ie Be: ILLINOIS. Laws of 1899, pp. 224-228. Sec. 1. [Permits killing of mourning doves between September 1 and December 1.] Src. 3. Any person who shall, within the State, kill or catch or have in ion or her | possession, living or dead, any wild bird other than a game bird, English s crow, crow-blackbird or chicken hawk, or who shall purchase, offer or expos sale any such wild bird after it has been killed or caught, shall, for each otecaapt i ILLINOIS—INDIANA. 638 bject to a fine of five dollars for each bird killed or caught, or had in possession, _ living or dead, or imprisonment for ten days, or both, at the discretion of the court: Provided, That nothing in this section shall be construed to prevent the owner or occupant of lands from destroying any of such birds when deemed necessary by him _ for the protection of fruits or property. For the purposes of this act the following only shall be considered game birds: The An[a]tide, commonly known as swans, geese, brant and river and sea ducks; the Rallidz, commonly known as rails, coots, mud-hens and gallinules; the Linicole [Limicolee], commonly known as shore birds, plover, surf birds, snipe, wood-cock, sand-pipers, tatlers and curlews; the Galline, commonly known as wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, pheasants, partridges, quails, and mourning doves.! Sec. 6. [Provides that this act shall not apply to the killing of birds by or for the a use of taxidermists, for preservation either in public or private collections, if so pre- served. ] Suc. 11. The ownership and title to all wild game and birds in the State of Ulinois is hereby declared to be in the State. * * * Src. 13. Any person who shall, within the State of Illinois, take or needien destroy the nest or the eggs of any wild game or birds, or shall have such nest or ~ eges in his or her possession, shall be subject for each offense to a fine of five (5) dollars, or imprisonment for ten days, or both, at the discretion of the court. Secs. 15 and 16. [Provide that certificates for collecting birds, nests and eggs for strictly scientific purposes may be granted by county clerks to persons 15 years of ageor upwards. The applicant must present to the county clerk written testimonials certifying to his good character and fitness, from two well-known scientific men, must pay one dollar, and must file a properly executed bond, in the sum of two hun- dred dollars, signed by two responsible citizens of the State as sureties. Certificates shall be in force until the 1st of June following date of issue, and shall not be trans- - ferable. | Approved April 24, 1899 INDIANA. Thornton’s Revised Statutes, 1897, pp. 361-362. Src. 2243. It shall be unlawful for any person to kill any wild bird other than a game bird, or purchase, offer for sale any such wild bird after it has been killed, or to destroy the nests or the eggs of any wild bird. Suc. 2244. For the purpose of this Act the following only shall be considered game birds: the Anatide, commonly called swans, geese, brant, and river and sea ducks; the Rallide, commonly known as rails, coots, mud-hens, and gallinules; the Limicolz, commonly known as shore birds, plovers, surf birds, snipe, woodcock, and sandpipers, tattlers, and curlews; the Galline, commonly known as wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, quail, and pheasants, all of which are not intended to be affected by this act. Sec. 2245. Any person violating the provisions of section one [2243] of this ea: shall, upon conviction, be fined in a sum not less than ten nor more than fifty dol- lars, to which may be added imprisonment for not less than five days nor more than thirty days. Sxc. 2247. [Provides for granting permits by the Executive Board of the Indiana Academy of Science to properly accredited persons for collecting birds, nests, and — eggs for strictly scientific purposes. The applicant must present written testimonials 1 Mourning doyes properly belong to the Columbee, not to the Gallinee. 64 LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIR from two well known scientific men certifying to his an character : must pay one dollar, and must file a bond in the sum of two hundred dollars, by at least two responsible citizens of the State. ] Sec. 2248. [Provides that permits shall be in force only two years from issue, and shall not be transferable. ] Src. 2249. The English or European house sparrow (Passer domesticus), hawks, and other birds of prey are not included among the birds protected by 1 act. Approved March 5, 1891. IOWA. Annotated Code, 1897, p. 888. Src. 2561. No person shall destroy the nests or eggs of, or catch, take, kill or in possession or under control for any purpose whatever, except specimens for | taxidermists, at any time, any whippoorwill, night-hawk, bluebird, finch, thru linnet, lark, wren, martin, swallow, bobolink, robin, turtle-dove, catbird, sandpiper, _ snowbird, blackbird, or any other harmless bird except bluejays and English spar-_ rows, but nothing herein shall be construed to prevent the removal of nests f ‘ buildings, and the keeping of song birds in cages as domestic pets. Any person \ lating any of the provisions of this section shall be fined not less than one dollar 1 more than twenty-five dollars and costs of prosecution, and may be committed to t county jail until such fine and costs are paid. In effect October, 1897. KANSAS. Session Laws of 1897, chap. 135, p. 293. Sec. 1. It shall be unlawful for any person or persons, at any time, except as here Snake provided, to hunt, catch, kill, shoot, pursue, entrap or ensnare, any * * — oriole, meadow-lark, robin, thrush, redbird, mocking-bird, blue jay, turtle-doy ey yellowhammer or bluebird: * * * Provided furthermore, That this act shall no = + prevent the owner of an orchard from shooting blue jays, orioles or yalonie at any time. : Sec. 4. The provisions of this act shall not apply to the catching or killing of ¢ wild a for the sole purpose of preserving it as a specimen for scientific purposes. Sec. 6. [It shall be unlawful to buy, or sell, or offer for sale, or shipment, any t rd or bird ‘aeroed i in section 1.] Sec. 7. It shall be unlawful for any railroad, express, or transportation comps or caehdarein to accept, within the State of Kansas, for shipment or transfer, any the birds mentioned in section 1 of this act. ; Src. 8. Any person, or the manager, agent or employee of any company or ¢o ration found guilty of a violation of any of the provisions of this act, shall be deem guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, before any court of compet jurisdiction, shall be fined in a sum not less than five dollars nor more than © hundred dollars, for each and every offense, and costs, together with an attorn fee of ten dollars, and shall be committed until such fine, costs and attorney's ( ‘ shall be paid. oe Approved March 13, 1897. = _ KENTUCKY—MAINE. ee 515) KENTUCKY. Kentucky Statutes, 1894, pp. 718-719. Src. 1945. [Protects doves between February 1 and August 1.] 4 Src. 1946. No person shall at any time catch, kill, or pursue with such intent, or __haye in possession after the same has been caught or killed, any thrush, meadow- lark, finch, martin, swallow, woodpecker, flicker, oriole, red bird, tanager, cat-bird, plue-bird or other song or insectivorous bird, except where the same shall be destructive to the fruit or grain crops. Src. 1948. No person shall rob or destroy the nests or eggs of any wild bird w me soever, save only those of a predatory nature, and destructive of other birds or fowls. - Sxc. 1949. Any person guilty of violating any of the provisions of either of the preceding sections shall be fed for each offense not less than five nor more than twenty-five dollars. _ Sec. 1952. [Unlawful killing, catching, or possession of each of the birds protected by this law shall constitute a separate offense, and two or more offenses may be joined in the same warrant or indictment. ] Act of February 27, 1894. LOUISIANA. Revised Laws, 1897, p. 247. Sec. 4. That no person shall catch, kill or pursue, with such intent, or have in pos- session after the same has been caught or killed, any whippoorwill, sparrow, finch, oriole, bluebird, swallow, night hawk, or blackbird, except when the same shall be destructive to the fruit or grain crop, under a penalty of not less than five nor more than twenty-five dollars for each offense. 0 Sxc..5. That no person shall rob or destroy the nests or eggs of any wild bird what- ’ - soever, save only those of a predatory nature, and destructive of game or insectivo- : rous birds, under a penalty of not less than five nor more than twenty-five dollars for each offense. ae Sec. 6. That no person shall entrap, net, kill, or pursue with such intent, or have the same in possession at any time during the year, any song bird, especially the mocking bird, except domesticated birds, except the birds be entrapped or netted E for the purpose of domestication, under a penalty of not less than five nor more than . twenty-five dollars for each offense, except when the same shall prove destructive to the fruit or grain crops. a Src. 14. That all acts and violations of this law denominated as offenses in the ___ foregoing sections shall be and are hereby declared to be crimes against the State of - _ Louisiana, and it shall be the duty of all district attorneys and district attorneys pro 4 tempore of the State to prosecute before any court of competent jurisdiction all offenders and persons committing misdemeanors under the provisions of this Act, (Act 60, Extra session 1877, p. 100.) [Act of 1900 protects doves from April 1 to September 1.] MAINE. Public Laws of 1899, chap. 42, pp. 35-36. Sc. 12. Whoever kills, or has in his possession, any birds commonly known as larks, robins, swallows, sparrows, woodpeckers or orioles, or other insectivorous birds, crows, English sparrows and hawks excepted, forfeits not less than one dollar, 22186—No.. 12 5) , , Ee a Sp ee eo eee SLD pees 66 LEGISLATION YOR THE PROTECTIO _ son of such dead bird, is prima facie evidence that he killed such bird. kill, or in any manner destroy, at any time, any hawk or other birds destrueti nor more than five dollars, for each such bird killed; and the possession any time wantonly takes or destroys the nest, eggs or unfledged young of 2 my bird, except crows, hawks, herons, loons and owls, or takes any eggs or y such nests forfeits not less than one dollar nor more than ten dollars, for each egg or young so taken or destroyed. Whoever carries or transports from place, any of the birds named in this chapter during the period in which the of such bird is prohibited, forfeits five dollars for each bird so carried or tran Sec. 14. [The commissioners of inland fisheries and game may issue licenses t c idermists of good reputation and to suitable persons, not exceeding 10 at one 1 collect isa nests and eggs for scientific purposes. Applicants shall pay Sec. 22. [Sunday is a dose time, in which it is unlawful to hunt, kill, or d birds of any kind. ] Approved March 8, 1899. Public Laws of 1899, chap. 116, p. 119. known as tern. Whoever violates provisions of this act shall be subject toa fi not less than one dollar nor more than ten dollars. Approved March 17, 1899. MARYLAND.' Laws of 1898, chap. 206, pp. 709-713. Sec. 15n. [Permits killing of doves between August 15 and December 24.] e.. Src. 15p. [Permits shooting of reedbirds between September 1 and November 1.] Sec. 15z. [Permits sale of flickers in Baltimore between August 15 and Dee: ber 24. 4 ; Sec. 15. No person shall, in this State, at any time shoot or in any manner ¢a or kill, expose for sale, sell or buy, or have in possession, alive or dead, any tu baseird. wren, sparrow, bluebird, humming bird, bluejay, migratory or other wood robin, red breasted robin, martin, mocking bird, cat bird, swallow, oriole, bird, lark, indigo bird, joe wink, pewitt, sapsucker, whippoorwill, gold finch, yell breasted chat, cedar bird, herring gull or mackerel gull, or gull of any deseri under a penalty of not less than one ($1) dollar nor more than five ($5) dolla each such bird so shot, caught, killed, exposed for sale, sold, bought or had in- session; and no person shail, under like penalty, have in his or her possession, ¢ for sale or wear, the skins, plumage, wings, or feathers of any of the birds, the « ¢ ing or killing of which is prohibited by this section; provided, however, that ing herein contained shall be so construed as to make it unlawful to shoot, cat domestic poultry, or any English sparrow, or crow, or blackbird; provided, that section shall not apply to St. Mary’s County and Calvert County; provided, ha shall be lawful to have mocking birds or red birds, or other songbirds in ec stuffed specimens of any said birds in educational institutions, or public or priy museums. P 1 “Nore.—The old County acts in regard to song and insectivorous birds * except in St. Mary’s County and Calvert County * * * have been repealed the State law is now in force over the entire State.’’—Maryland Game and Protective Association, Game Laws, 1898, p. 124. * ee ak T ee ae ee a a: 5 ta . st se - MARYLAND—MASSACHUSETTS. 67 at Src. 150. No person shall, in this State, at any time, molest or destroy the nests or eggs of any of the aforesaid birds, except those of hawks or other birds destructive to domestic poultry and game birds, or those of English sparrows, crows and black- _ birds, under a penalty of not less than one nor more than five ($5) dollars nor more than twenty-five ($25) for each and every such offense. Sec. 15r. [Provides far issue of certificates by State Game Warden to persons over 18 years of age, for killing birds or collecting eggs for purely scientific purposes, pro- vided application and affidavit have been filed with the warden. ] Approyed April 9, 1898. MASSACHUSETTS. Supplement Public Statutes, 1888, chap. 2776, p. 435. Src. 2. Whoever takes or kills * * * a wild or passenger pigeon, or a gull, or a tern, between the first day of May and the first day of October, shall be punished by a fine of ten dollars for every bird so taken or killed. Sec. 4. Whoever takes or kills any wild or undomesticated bird not named in sec- tions one and two [the species there named are pinnated grouse, woodcock, ruffed grouse, quail, ducks, plover, snipe, sandpiper, rail, shore birds, wild pigeon, gull and tern] except English sparrows, crow blackbirds, crows, jays, birds of prey, wild geese, and such fresh water and sea fowl as are not named in sections one and. two, or wilfully destroys, disturbs or takes a nest or eggs of any wild or undomesticated birds, except of the birds herein exempt from protection, shall be punished by a fine of ten dollars: Provided, That any person above the age of twenty-one years hay- ing a certificate from the game commissioners or from the president of the Boston Society of Natural History to the effect that such person is engaged in the scientific study of ornithology or collecting in the interest of a scientific institution, may take the nests and eggs of, or at any season take or kill, any undomesticated bird, except woodcock, ruffed grouse and quail. * * * And provided further, That.the game commissioners and the president of the Boston Society of Natural History may at any time revoke any certificate they have respectively issued. Act of June 10, 1886. Acts and Resolves of 1897, chap. 140, p. 102. CAPE ANN. Whoever takes orkills * * * any land bird, except the English sparrow, within the limits of that section of this Commonwealth bounded by Squam river, Ipswich bay, the Atlantic ocean, Massachusetts bay and Gloucester harbor, at any time within five years from the passage of this act, shall be punished by a fine of twenty dollars for every * * * bird so taken or killed. Approved March 8, 1897. Acts and Resolves of 1898, chap. 339, p. 275. Src. 1 [chap. 524, Acts of 1897, amended to read:] Whoever has in his possession the body or feathers of any bird whose taking or killing is prohibited by section four of chapter two hundred and seventy-six of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and eighty six [=chap. 276, Pub. Stat., 1888], whether taken in this Commonwealth or elsewhere, or wears such feathers for the purpose of dress or ornament, shall be pun- ished as provided in said section: Provided, That this act shall not be construed to prohibit persons haying the certificate provided for in said section from taking or killing such birds; and provided further, That this act shall not apply to natural 68 LEGISLATION FOR THE TION RDS history associations or to the proprietors of museums, or other collec tific purposes, nor to nonresidents of-the Commonwealth passing througl porarily dwelling within the limits thereof. _ Approved April 14, 1898; in effect April 1, 1899. Acts and Resolves of 1899, chap. 116, Boone [Every Lord’s day shall be close season. Whoever hunts or destroys bird game of any kind on this day, shall be liable to the penalties imposed for violati the law in other close seasons, in addition to those for shooting on the Lord’s d Approved March 1, 1899. MICHIGAN. Public Acts of 1893, No. 196, pp. 312-314. in, or subject to his dominion or control, any of the birds, game or fish, the k taking, or having in possession of which is at any time or at all times prohibite conditions be and remain the sole property of the State. * * * When - killing is not prohibited by law, the same may be used at the time, in the mai and for the purposes expressly authorized by law, but not otherwise. . killing of which is at any nas or “all times prohibited by ae or shall ship, allow aid in their shipment out of the State. ] x Sec. 5. [Sale or possession of birds during close seasons prohibited. But not hing in this at shall prevent the taking or catching alive of birds for domestication, pro} gation, or breeding purposes. ] Sec. 6. [Any person violating any of the provisions of this act shall be punish by a fine of $10-$50, or imprisonment not exceeding 30 days. ] Approved June 1, 1893. Public Acts of 1897, No. 159, p. 202. . 14 [(as amended by Acts of 1899, p. 80.) Protects ‘‘wild ducks * * or pe wild water fowl’’ between February 1 and August 31, except in Up Peninsula, where the close season is January 16 to August 31. It also protects w pigeons at all times until 1905, and thereafter from December 1 to October 19. il 3 Sec. 17. No person or persons shall at any time or in any manner whatever i or destroy or rob the nest, or take, injure, destroy or have in possession the eg; any bird the killing of which is at any time or at all times prohibited by law, shall any person or persons at any time or in any manner whatever, mola or annoy such birds while on their nesting places. Sec. 19. [EtOR ay for the baaser: of pigeon roosts until after 1905. ] kill or idacteoy, or pe re injure, kill or destroy, any robin, night hawk, w poor-will, finch, thrush, lark, swallow, yellow bird, blue bird, brown thresher, | bird, wren, martin, oriole, sea gull, woodpecker, bobolink, or any song bi rd insectivorous bird excepting black bird, blue jay, English sparrowallal butcher di Src. 21. The term ‘‘game bird’’ used in this act shall be construed to mes birds named or referred to except those mentioned ‘and referred to in section tw Src. 27. [State game and fish warden authorized to issue permits in writin, collecting birds for scientific or propagating purposes. Such permits are not tre ferable. ] “t3 MICHIGAN—MINNESOTA. 69 Src. 29. The injuring, destruction or killing of each animal and bird injured, cap- tured, killed or destroyed contrary to the provisions of this act shall be a separate offense, and the person so offending shall be liable to the penalties and punishments herein provided for each such offense. . Sec. 30. Any person or persons violating any of the provisions of this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine not less than ten dollars and not exceeding one hundred and twenty-five dol- - Jars, and costs of prosecution, or by imprisonment in the county jail not less than’ thirty days and not exceeding six months, or by both such fine and imiprigenicn in the discretion of the court. Approved May 26, 1897. Public Acts of 1899, No. 288, p. 374. Sec. 1. That hereafter no person or persons shall pursue, injure, kill or attempt to kill, capture or attempt to capture by any means whatever, any mourning dove ___- within the limits of this State. Src. 2. [Any person or persons violating any of the provisions of this act shall _ fine and imprisonment. ] ag Approved June 15, 1899. | a MINNESOTA. General Laws of 1897, chap. 221, pp. 413-427. a Sec. 10 (as amended by Gen. Laws of 1899, chap. 242, p.275). No person shall ___— eateh, take, kill or have in possession or under control, for any purpose whatever, s at any time, any whippoorwill, night hawk, bluebird, finch, thrush, linnet, lark, e wren, martin, swallow bobolink, robin, catbird, or any other harmless bird, except blackbirds, crows, hawks and English sparrows, except as hereinafter allowed (but nothing herein contained shall be-construed to prevent the keeping of song birds as domestic pets). It shall be unlawful, and is prohibited, to catch, take, kill, or have in possession or ship any turtle dove * * -* between the first day of November and the first day of September following; * * * wild ducks * * * or any ie variety of aquatic fowl whatever, between the first (1st) day of January and the first & (Ist) day of September following. * * * Whoever shall offend against any of the provisions of this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by a fine of not less than ten (10) dollars nor more than twenty . five (25) dollars and costs of prosecution or by imprisonment in the county jail for not less than ten (10) days nor more than thirty (30) days for each and every bird so caught, taken or killed, shipped or had in possession or under control. ig Sec. 11. No person, for any reason or purpose whatever, shall take or have in -_—s possession or under control, break up or destroy, or in any manner interfere with any nest, or the eggs therein, of any of the kinds of birds the lina of which is at BEA, any or all times herein prohibited. a Any person offending against any provision of this section shall be guilty of a mis- demeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less than ten (10) dollars nor more than one hundred (100) dollars and costs of prosecution, e or by imprisonment in the county jail for not less than ten (10) days nor more than = ninety (90) days. Sec. 12. No person shall at any time catch or kill any of the birds permitted to be ‘fe killed by this act at any time in any other manner than by shooting them with a gun a held to the shoulder of the person discharging the same. - No person shall at any time set, lay or prepare any trap, snare, net, birdlime, swivel >= gun or any contrivance or device whatever with intent to catch, take or kill any of be punished by a fine of $5-$100 or by imprisonment for 10 to 90 days, or by both 10 the pide in this act mentioned ENE: Fee ie inde same penalty as pro} violation of section 11.] a Src. 13. [No person shall at any time catch, take, kill or have in pee of the birds mentioned in this act with intent to ship them out of this State, un un penalty of a fine of $10-$25 or imprisonment of 10-30 ere for each and every bi had in possession. ] ie Src. 32. No person shall at any time have in possession or under control in th State any bird, animal or fish caught, taken or killed outside of this State at a t when it is unlawful to have in possession or under control such birds, animal fish when caught, taken or killed in this State [under penalty of a fine of $10-$5 imprisonment of 10-60 days for each and every bird had in possession]. E Sec. 41. [Certificates for collecting birds, nests, and eggs for scientific purp may be granted by the board of game and fish commissioners to any member of i. incorporated society of natural history or other scientific body organized for the study — of natural history, or to any properly accredited person designated by such socie aes but specimens thus collected can only be disposed of by exchange. Applicants m ca file with the board of game and fish commissioners written testimonials, as to goc character and fitness, from two well known scientific men; a properly executed bon of $100 signed by two responsible freeholders of the State as sureties; and must ay said board the sum of two dollars. Such certificate to be in force for 1 year from date of issue, and not transferable. Penalty for violation of this section a fine | not less than fifty (50) dollars or imprisonment in county jail for sixty oo 6 or both. ] Approved April 23, 1897. MISSISSIPPI. Annotated Code, 1892, pp. 346, 538. [Sec.] 1134. If any person shall at any time shoot, wound, injure, kill, catch, or pursue with such intent, a mocking-bird, or cat-bird, or thrush; or shall destroy or. rob the nest of any wild bird whatever, except crows, black-birds, English sparrows, blue jays, hawks, owls, and other birds of prey, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, on conviction, shall be fined not less than one dollar nor more Chan ten dolla or be imprisoned in county jail not exceeding ten days. [Sec.] 1135. If any persons shall shoot, wound, injure, kill, catch or pursue y such intent, any deer, or any turtle-dove (sometimes called mourning dove), or any — _ starling (commonly called field-lark), between the first day of March and the fifteenth day of September, or any wild turkey, or any quail (usually called par tridges), between the first day of May and the first day of October, in any year, | shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, on conviction, shall be punished by fine n less than five dollars nor more than twenty-five dollars, or be imprisoned in county jail not exceeding thirty days; but this-section, so far as it relates to deer and wild turkeys, shall not apply to the counties of Calhoun, Clarke, Covington, Greer Jasper, Jones, Marion, Newton, Perry, Pearl-River, Simpson, and Smith. (L 1882, p. 146; Laws 1884, p. 129.) fan [Src.] 1136. If any person, save in the counties named in the last section, s sha a have in his possession, or shall sell or buy, or offer or expose for sale, or receive f transportation or carriage, or on deposit, or for sale, or for any other purpose, any the eggs of any wild bird, except those in the section next before the last exceptec * * * during the period in which it is made unlawful to kill such animal or bi he shall on conviction, be fined not less than one dollar nor more than twenty- dollars. (Laws 1882, p. 91.) Be [Sec.] 2118. The term ‘‘game’’ includes all kinds of animals and birds four nd din the state of nature, and commonly so called; * * * [Sec.] 2119. The boards of supervisors are given full jurisdiction and authority for » MISSISSIPPI—NEBRASK A. 71 the protection and preservation of game and fish in their respective counties, and to - conserve the same for the use and consumption of the inhabitants. Secs. 2120, 2121. [Boards of supervisors authorized to regulate times and places _ in which game may be taken, and to adopt such regulations, not contrary to law, as they deem necessary for the protection of game in their counties. ] Src. 2123. [Boards of supervisors may entirely prohibit the taking of any species of game for one or more years or seasons when they believe that the species of game is about to be destroyed or become extinct. ] MISSOURI. Laws of 1895, p. 182. Sec. 1. * * * It is further declared unlawful to kill any wild song bird or. insectivorous bird at any season of the year, or to disturb, rob or destroy the nests of such birds, or take therefrom any egg or eggs. [Killing of turtle doves and meadow- larks permitted between August 1 and January 1.] * * * And any person offending against any of the provisions of this section shall be deemed guilty ofa misdemeanor, and subject to a fine of not less than ten dollars nor more than fifty dollars. Approved April 8, 1895. A MONTANA. Laws of 1897, p. 251. Src. 7. Every person, who, wilfully shoots, or otherwise kills or causes to be killed, any meadow lark, biue bird, thrush, oriole, woodpecker, mocking bird, gold-finch, snow-bird, cedar-bird, stork, or any other of the small birds known as singing birds, shall be punishable by a fine not exceeding One Hundred Dollars, nor less than five Dollars and by imprisonment in the county jail not to exceed three months, or by both such fine and imprisonment. : Sec. 9. Any person who shall wilfully destroy the nests or carry away the eggs from the nests of any of the birds or wild fowls mentioned in this Act, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall be fined in any sum not less than Five Dollars nor more than Twenty five Dollars for each offense committed, or by imprisonment in the county jail for a eee of not exceeding sixty days, or both, at the discretion of the court. Sec. 25. None of the Sections of this Act shall apply to persons hunting or other- wise engaged in collecting specimens under the direction of, and in the interest of any State Educational Institution of the State of Montana. Approved March 8, 1897. . NEBRASKA. Compiled Statutes, 9th ed., 1899 (Criminal Code, Chap. XI), p: 1384. Sec. 6736. It shall be unlawful for any person in the State of Nebraska to know- ingly and intentionally kill, injure, or harm, except upon the lands owned by such person, any robin, lark, thrush, bluebird, king bird, sparrow, wren, jay, swallow, turtle dove, oriole, wood pecker, yellow hammer, cuckoo, yellow bird, bobolink, or other bird or birds of like nature, that promote agriculture and horticulture, by feed- ing on noxious worms and insects, or that are attractive in appearance or cheerful in song. Any person violating any of the provisions of this section shall be fined not less than three nor more than ten dollars for each bird killed, injured, or harmed. ee eae humming-bird, or any song bird, except linnets, within this State, or who shall a ‘young of robins, thrushes, larks, bluebirds, sparrows (except English sparrow a 72 “LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRD NEVADA. Statutes of 1893, Chap. XLIX, p. 49. Sec. 1. It shall be unlawful for any person or persons, firm, company, cory or association, to kill, destroy, wound, trap, snare, injure or in any other 1 catch, or capture, or to pursue with such intent, any sparrow, bluebir martin, thrush, mocking-bird, redbreast, cat-bird, wren, robin, meado injure or destroy the nest or eggs of said before mentioned birds. Sec. 2 [(as amended by Statutes of 1895, Chap. LVIII, p. 55). Makes it to kill sand hill cranes between April 1 and September 15, or bitterns an hammers between March 15 and September 15.] Sec. 6. * * * Provided, that nothing in this Act shall be so construed as de hibit any person or persons, firm, company, corporation, or association, taking bird, fowl], or animal mentioned in this Act, at any time, for scientific purposes. ~ Sec. 7. Any person or persons, firm, company, corporation, or association, 0 ‘0 mon carrier, or the agent of any such firm, company, corporation, or associatio common carrier, violating any of the provisions of this Act shall be deemed gui a misdemeanor, and upon conviction be fined in any sum not less than twenty-fiy ($25) dollars, nor more than two hundred ($200) dollars, or imprisonment in t county jail of the county in which said conviction is had, for any term not exceeding six months, or by both such fine and imprisonment, and in addition to the costs allowed by law on criminal prosecution, twenty-five ($25) dollars liquidated dam: shall be entered up as costs against each defendant, and * * * shall be pai the party instrumental in securing the arrest and conviction of said defendant. _ Approved February 27, 1893. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Public Statutes, 1891, chap. 132, p. 365. Src. 1. If any person shall, at any season of the year, take or destroy any ro thrush, lark, bluebird, sparrow (except English sparrows), finch, bunting, m oriole, swallow, flycatcher, warbler, tanager, bobolink, vireo, nuthatch, ere woodpecker, humming-bird, or any other of the song or insectivorous birds, ted be fined five dollars for each bird so taken or destroyed, or be imprisdned not exceed ing thirty days, or both. Sec. 6. If any person shall designedly take from the nest and destroy the exes martins, woodpeckers, bobolinks, yellow Pirds, linnets, flycatchers, warblers, * * or wild pigeons, he shall forfeit and pay, for every egg or young of any of said so taken and destroyed, the sum of two dollars. é Sec. 9. The provisionsof this chapter shall not apply to the collecting of specin for the cabinet of an educational institution by the curator thereof, or by or w his direction. Laws of 1899, chap. 44, p. 279. Sec. 1. If any person shall, for a period of three years from and after the passa of this act, kill any American or bald eagle he shall be punished by a fine of for dollars for each bird so killed, or be imprisoned not exceeding three months, or bo . Approved March 8, 1899. MEWOSMREEY 2 0. nese): A ‘NEW JERSEY. General Public Laws of 1895, Chap. CCLV, pp. 476-478. Sec. 5 [(as amended by Laws of 1898, chap. 94). Permits killing of reedbirds _ between August 25 and January 1.] g Sec. 6 [(as amended by Act of April 14, 1896). Permits killing of doves in a eteae _ _ and September. | ; Sec. 7. That it shall be unlawful to capture, kill or injure or have in possession _ aiter the same have been captured, killed or injured, any night hawk, whip-poor- will, thrush, meadow lark, finch, martin, barn swallow, woodpecker, robin, oriole, red or cardinal bird, cedar bird, tanager, or other insectivorous bird, under a penalty of twenty dollars for every bird so captured, killed, injured or had in possession; Provided, That nothing in this section shall be so construed as to prevent the taking or killing of English sparrows, cranes, hawks, crows, ravens, crow-blackbirds, king- fishers or red-winged black birds. Src. 8. That it shall be unlawful to rob or sesine the eggs or nests of any wild ‘bird whatever, under a penalty of twenty dollars for each and every nest so robbed or destroyed. Sec. 11. That it shall be unlawful to catch, kill or injure, or to have unlawfully in possession after the same has been caught, killed or injured, any goose, duck, brant or other web-footed wild fowl, excepting only between the thirtieth day of Septem- ber! and the first day of May, inclusive, in each and every year, under a penalty of twenty dollars for every goose, duck, brant or other web-footed wild fowls caught, killed, injured or had unlawfully in possession. [The term ‘‘ other web-footed wild fowls’’ includes gulls, terns, etc. ] Sec. 15. [That it shall be unlawful to hunt with a gun or with a dog, or to carry a gun in the fields or woods on Sunday. } Src. 16. That nothing in this act shall be construed to prevent associations or individuals from domesticating or bringing into this State any animals or birds for the purpose of propagating the same, or keeping the same until a seasonable oppor- tunity offers for their release. Sec. 47. [Provides that in case of second conviction penalty shall be doubled. ] Approved March 22, 1895.. Laws of 1899, chap. 180, p. 483. Src. 1. A certificate may be granted by the New Jersey board of fish and game commissioners to any properly accredited person of the age of eighteen years or upward, permitting the holder thereof to collect birds and their nests and eggs for strictly scientific purposes only. Src. 2. [Applicant must present written testimonials from two scientific men, - certifying to his good character and fitness; must pay fee of one dollar; and must file with said board a properly executed bond in the sum of two hundred dollars, signed by two property holders of the State. ] re Ae Sec. 3. [Certificates shall be in force one year from date of issue and shall not be transferable. ] ‘Sec. 4. This act shall take effect immediately. Passed March 24, 1899. 1 Open season changed to September 1 to May 1 by Laws of 1900, chap. 73, sec. 5. eee ea ey ha pm —e F = 74 LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS NEW YORK. ~~ - Laws of 1900, chap. 20. thirtieth, both sichniee: sec. 103]; or taken in the night from an hour aie s until an hour before sunrise. ype Src. 30. [Grebes and bitterns shall not be killed from May 1 to Anieetie 31 inclusive. (On Long Island grebes shall not be taken from December 31 to 15, both inclusive, sec. 105, and bitterns from January 1 to June 30, both ine sec. 108.) ] Sec. 33. Wild birds other than the English sparrow, crow, hawk, crane, Ye crow-blackbird, common blackbird, kingfisher, and birds for which there is an op season, shall not be taken or possessed at any time, dead or alive, except under authority of a certificate issued under this act. No part of the plumage, skin, body of any bird protected by this section shall be sold or had in possession for Src. 34. Nests of wild birds other than the English sparrow, hawk, crane, ero raven, crow-blackbird, common blackbird, or kingfisher, shall not be robbed willfully destroyed except when necessary to protect buildings or prevent bs defacement. Src. 36. [Certificates for collecting birds, nests, or eggs for scientific purposes m yo be granted by any society of natural history incorporated in the State, or by | the. regents of the University of the State of New York, to any properly aceredited per-— son of eighteen years of age or upward. The aprlicant for such certificate must P sent written testimonials as to his good character and fitness from two well-kno’ scientific men. Applicants, except officers of the New York State Museum, musty - one dollar and must also file a properly executed bond in the sum of two hundr dollars, signed by two responsible and approved sureties. Certificates shall force for only one year from date of issue and shall not be transferable. ] Sec. 38 (as amended by chap. 604, laws of 1900). [Birds or game taken in t State shall not be transported without the State, nor taken or possessed with i : to transport the same without the State. ] % Src. 39. A person who violates any provision of this article is guilty of a misde- meanor, and is liable to a penalty of sixty dollars and to an additional penalty 0 twenty-five dollars for each bird, or part of bird taken or possessed in viol thereof. ‘Approved May 2, 1900. Sec. 1109, Penal Code. [Shooting or hunting upon the first day of the week prohibited. ] NORTH CAROLINA. Code of North Carolina, 1888, Vol. II, p. 235. * Src. 2834. No person shall kill or shoot, trap or net any partridges, quail, da robins, lark, mocking-birds or wild turkeys, between the first day of April and fifteenth day of October in each year; and the person so offending shall be g il a misdemeanor, and fined not exceeding ten dollars for each offence. (1874-75, ch 195; 1881, chap. 254.) : Sec. 2837. [No person shall hunt or shoot wild fowl on Sunday. ] 4 a A 2 is ; NORTH DAKOTA—OHIO. 75 NORTH DAKOTA. Laws of 1899, chap. 93, p. 125. - Sec. 2. [It shall be unlawful for any person to hunt, kill, or wound any of the birds hereinafter mentioned without having first obtained a permit, under penalty of a fine of $20 to $50 or imprisonment not exceeding 30 days: Provided, That nothing in this section shall prevent any resident of this State, or member of his family liy- ing at home, from hunting on lands owned or controlled by him during the open season as provided by law, or shall prevent children under the age of 16 years from hunting if they have the written consent of their parents or guardians. | Ssc. 4. [The county auditor shall issue permits to any person applying therefor, on payment of $25, if the applicant is a nonresident of the State, and on payment of 75 cents if a resident of this State. All permits shall expire on the thirty-first day of December next after their issuance. It shall be unlawful for the State game warden or any of his deputies, or any county auditor, to issue complimentary or special — permits. ] Src. 7. Every person who either: 1 Shoots or kills * * * any song bird or insect-eating bird, except snipe or plover, at any time; or 4 Shoots or killsany * * * crane * * * between the first day of May and the twentieth day of August following; or 6 Uses or employes any trap, snare, net or bird lime, or medicated, drugged or poisoned grain or food to capture or kill any of the birds mentioned in subdivisions 1, 2,3, or 4 of this section; or 7 Wantonly destroys any nest or eggs of any of the birds mentioned * * * Is guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof before any justice of the peace of the county, is punishable by a fine of not exceeding ten dollars for each of the birds mentioned in subdivisions 1, 2,3 or 4 of this section, so shot or killed or nest or eggs so destroyed, and for each violation of subdivisions 5 or 6 of this sec- LOGI ial Approved March 8, 1899. OHIO. Revised Statutes, 1897 (as amended by General Acts of 1898, Vol. XCIII, p. 106). Src. 6960. No person shall at any time, kill or injure, or pursue with such intent, any sparrow, nuthatch, warbler, flicker, viroe [vireo], wren, robin, catbird, tanager, bobolink, blue-jay, oriole, grosbeak or red bird, creeper, redstart, waxwing, wood- pecker, humming bird, bunting, starling, redwing, purple martin, brown thrasher, American goldfinch, chewink or ground robin, pewee or phoebe bird, chickadee, fly catcher, gnat catcher, mouse hawk, whippoorwill, snowbird, titmouse or eagle. No person shall, at any time, destroy the eggs or nest of any of the birds named in this section. Any person violating any of the provisions of this act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof, shall be fined as provided in section 6968; provided further, that nothing in this act shall prohibit the killing of the house or English sparrow at any time, by anybody, or prohibit the killing of the American robin and blue-jay, by the owner or tenant of any premises where such birds are found destroying berries or fruit growing on such premises. Src. 69600. The provisions in section 6960 of this act shall not apply to any person holding a permit giving the right to take birds or their nests and eggs for scientific purposes as herein provided. [Permits may be granted by the president of the fish pay one dollar, and must file a properly executed bond in the sum of one | dollars signed by at least two responsible citizens of the State as sureties. _ shall be in force two years from. date of issue and shall not be transferable. ]_ or ee ie eggs or nests of any of the birds named in this section. shall hunt, shoot, or trap, or have in possession in the open air, the implem: hunting, shooting, or trapping, on the first day of the week, called enna ] cee Passed April 12, 1898. Sec. 6965. [Prohibits killing, maiming, or discharging firearms at any wilds pige while it is on its nesting ground or at its roosting place, or breaking up or dist any pigeon roost or nesting place or the birds therein, or discharging any fi within one-half mile of any pigeon roost or nesting place, or disturbing or de ing any pigeon eggs or nestlings, under penalty provided in section 6968. ] . Src. 6968. [Any person convicted of any violation of any of the provider of (Revised eawieas 1897. )] OKLAHOMA. Session Laws of 1899, Chap. XV, p. 164. Sec. 1. It shall be unlawful for any person to wound, kill, ensnare, or trap in any manner within this Territory, any * * * wren, martin, swallow, robin, turk buzzard, plover, dove or insectiverous [sic] birds, or pursue the same with s intent or to have the same in their possession, except * * * it shall be lawful: *% shoot plover and doye between the first day of August and the thirty-first day of — lars, with costs of suit, and in default of payment shall be committed until sa paid. Approved March 10, 1899. OREGON. General Laws of 1895, p. 59. Act to protect the native song birds. Sec. 1. Every person who shall, within the State of Oregon, after the pas this act, for any purpose, injure, take, kill or destroy, or have in his possession, or offer for sale any yellow-breasted chat, meadow lark, robin, song sparrow, — finch, variegated thrush, wood thrush, hermit-thrush, American goldfinch, bluebi snowbird, oriole, lazuli-finch, house and winter wren, pine linnet, California pa warblers, vireo, swallow, tanager, grossbeaks, kinglets or horned lark, shall beg of PGRda Rann: Sec. 2. Every person who shall, within the State of Oregon, at any time << passage of this act, destroy or remove from nests of any yellow-breasted chat, meas lark, robin, song sparrow, lark-finch, variegated thrush, wood thrush, hermit-thr American goldfinch, bluebird, snowbird, oriole, lazuli-finch, house and winter w pine linnet, California linnet, warblers, vireo, swallow, tanager, grossbeak, or horned larks, any egg or eggs of such birds or have in possession, sell, or off . OREGON——PENNSYLVANTIA. vate sale any such eggs, or willfully destroy the nests of any such birds shall be guilty of a misdemeanor. Src. 3. Every person convicted of a violation of any of the provisions of this act shall be punished by a fine of not less than five dollars, and not more than one hun- dred dollars, and in default of the payment of the fine imposed, shall be imprisoned in the county jail of the county where the offense was S qguaiieaaced, at the rate of one day for each dollar of the fine imposed. Approved February 23, 1895. General Laws of 1895, p- 97. Act for the protection of game, fish and wild fowl. Src. 25. Every person who shall within the State of Oregon after the passage of this act for any purpose injure, take, kill or destroy or have in his possession, except for breeding purposes, sell or offer for sale any nightingale, skylark, black thrush, gray singing thrush, linnet, goldfinch, greenfinch, chaffinch, bullfinch, red-breasted European robin, black starling, grossbeak, Oregon robin or meadow lark or mocking bird, shall be guilty of a Me enicenor Src. 26. Every person who shall within the State of Oregon at any time after the ~ passage of this act, destroy or remove from the nest of any nightingale, skylark, black thrush, gray singing thrush, linnet, goldfinch, greenfinch, chaffinch, bullfinch, red-breasted European robin, black starling, grossbeak or mocking bird, any egg or eggs of such bird, or have in possession, sell or offer for sale any such egg or eggs, or willfully destroy the nests of any such birds, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor. Src. 27. That every person who shall, within the State of Oregon, after the passage of this act, willfully take, injure or destroy, any sea gull shall be guilty of a mis- demeanor. Src. 31. Every person convicted of a violation of sections * * * [25, 26, and 27] of this act shall be punished by a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars and not more than two hundred dollars, or imprisonment in the county jail of the county _ where the offense was committed for not less than three months, or both such fine and imprisonment. Approved February 25, 1895. PENNSYLVANIA. Laws of 1897, No. 108, p. 124. Sec. 1. [That there shall be no hunting or shooting on the first day of the week called Sunday, under penalty of $25 for each offense, or imprisonment for a period of one day for each dollar of penalty imposed. ] Sec. 2. That no person in this Commonwealth shall kill, Sioa trap, net, snare, catch with birdlime or any similar substance, poison or drug, any bird of song or any warbler, linnet, titmouse, blue bird, sparrow, yellow bird, aie downy wood- pecker, hairy woodpecker, pileated woodpecker, red bellied woodpecker, red headed woodpecker, catbird, pewee, vireo, martin, tanager, tiltup, blue finch, indigo bird, oriole, shrike, kildeer, gnatcatcher, snow bird, hair bird, grossbeak, whip-poor-will, cuckoo, chewink, chickadee, chat, phoebe bird, redstart, finch, humming bird, cow bird,-shore lark, wren, swallow, robin, grackle, meadow lark, nuthatch, least bittern, swift, nighthawk, starling or bunting. Nor shall any person purchase or haye in possession, or expose for sale, any of the aforesaid song or wild birds, or the game © mammals killed or taken in this State except as hereinafter provided; but nothing herein shall be construed to prevent the keeping of song birds in cages as domestic pets. No person shall take or needlessly destroy the nest or eggs of any song or 78 we 3IRD and game mammals for scientific ammiaees in accordance with ie follo v visions. [Certificates may be granted by board of game commissioners toe Commonwealth as sureties. Certificates shall be in force one year from di te issue and shall not be transferable.] The English or European house sparro pee cooper’s hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, duck hawk, pigeon hawk, of cae day for each dollar of penalty imposed. Src. 6. [No person shall catch, take, kill or have in his possession any ot : birds, the killing of which is prohibited, with intent to ship or remoye the same beyond the limits of this State or with intent to allow or aid in the shipment or remoyal thereof out of this State. ] S Sec. 10. Except as provided for in section two, no person, for any reason or pur- pose whatever, shall take, have in his or her possession or under control, break destroy or in any manner interfere with any nest or the eggs therein or [of?] any of — the kinds of birds the killing of which is at any time or all time herein prohibited: , Provided, That this does not apply to persons who have obtained certificates permit-_ ting them to collect the nests and eggs of wild birds other than game birds. - Whe ; ever shall offend against any of the provisions of this section shall be liable to 2 penalty of fifty dollars for each and every offense so committed, or by i imprison- " ment in the county jail for a period of one day for each dollar of penalty imposed. _ Approved June 4, 1897. i. Ri Sec. 11, (Act of June, 1878.) [No person shall kill any reedbird except in the months of September, October and November. ] Sec. 1. (Act of May 17, 1883.) [It shall be lawful to kill web-footed wild fowl only from September 1 to May 1 in each year. ] RHODE ISLAND. General Laws, 1896, chap. 112, p. 380 (as amended by Public Laws 1900, chap. 746. ) a t; " Sec. 1. Every person who shall take, kill, destroy, buy, sell, or offer for sale, ¢ have in cae possession any wild bird, or birds, at any season of the year, except hereinafter provided, shall be fined twenty dollars for each of such birds. a Sec. 2. Every person who shall pursue with intent to kill any wild bird, omer b as hereinafter provided, shall be fined twenty dollars for each offence. Sec. 3. Every person who shall wilfully disturb or destroy the nest or eggs of any wild bird, except as hereinafter provided, shall be fined twenty dollars for ea ch offence. . Sec. 5. Sections 1, 2, and 3 of chapter 112 shall not apply to the killing of a ae h sparrows, hawks (except fishhawks), owls, crows, and crow-blackbirds at any season of the year, by any person on his own land. ; Sec. 11. Every person who shall between the sixteenth day of December and the 15th day of October next following, inclusive, shoot at or kill any bird upon kk Jand— not owned or occupied by himself, and without permission of the owner or occups at ee . ty ‘ ¥ ie RHODE ISLAND—SOUTH CAROLINA. 79 _ thereof, shall forfeit and pay to the owner or occupant thereof five dollars for the first offence and ten dollars for every subsequent offence in addition to the damages sustained. . Src. 12. Any person above the age of fifteen years, having a certificate from the curator of the museum of zoology of Brown University, the President of the Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, or from any incorporated society of natural history or college in the State, to the effect that said person is engaged in the scientific study of ornithology, or is making collections in the interest of, or for ‘said institutions, or any one of them, may take the nest and eggs of, or at any season of the year may take or kill, any undomesticated birds, except those named in section four [woodeock, ruffed grouse, quail, black duck, wood-duck, teal, coot, scoter, or any other duck, geese, brant, peep, plover, snipe, sandpiper, sanderling, greater and lesser yellowlegs, curlew, and rail]. Passed May 4, 1900. Src. 16 (as amended by chap. 678, Public Laws of 1899, p. 119). [Provides that the governor shall appoint five commissioners of birds one from each county, who shall hold office for three years and shall protect birds throughout the state and prosecute every person violating laws relating to birds. Said commissioners may appoint depu- ties not exceeding five in each county and any commissioner or deputy may arrest, without warrant, every person whom they shall find pursuing with intent to kill, tak- ing or killing birds, or who shall have birds in his possession contrary to the laws of the state relating to birds; and may seize without warrant, any birds found in the 8 possession of any person when killing of such birds is prohibited. ] Passed May 25, 1899. SOUTH CAROLINA. Revised Statutes, 1893, vol. 2, p. 405. Sec. 426. It shall not be lawful for any person in this State to wantonly shoot, or entrap for the purpose of killing, or in any other manner destroy, any bird whose principal food is insects, or take or destroy the eggs or young of any of the species or varieties of birds that are protected by the provisions of this Section, comprising all the species and varieties of birds represented by the several families of bats, whippoorwills, fly-catchers, thrashers, warblers, finches, larks, orioles, nut-hatchers [sic], woodpeckers, humming birds, blue-birds, and all other species and varieties of land birds, whether great or small, of every description, regarded as harmless in their habits, and whose flesh is unfit for food, including the turkey buzzard, but excluding the jackdaw, the crow, the crow black-bird, the eagle, and all hawks and owls which prey upon other birds; and any person violating the provisions of this Section shall on conviction thereof forfeit and pay a fine of ten dollars or be impris- oned not less than ten days, * * * Provided, that no person shall be prevented from protecting any crop of fruit or grain on his own lands from the depredations of any birds herein intended to be protected. (1872, XIV, 160.) Src. 427. No person or persons shall at any time or place within this State take, _kill, sell, expose for sale, export beyond the limits of the State, or cause to be taken, killed, sold, exposed for sale or exported beyond the limits of the State, any mock- ing bird, nonpareil, swallow, bee bird, red-bird, woodpecker, thrush or wren under a penalty of five dollars for each bird so taken, killed, sold, exposed for sale or exported beyond the limits of the State; and it shall be lawful for any person to take or destroy any net, traps or snares used for taking such birds wheresoever found ~ set for such purpose: Provided, That nothing herein contained shall prohibit any person from taking and keeping any bird of song or plumage for his own pleasure or amusement, and not for sale, traffic or gain. (1878, XVI, 406; 1883, XVIII, 324.) Src. 428. No person or persons shall destroy or rob the nests of any of the said birds under a penalty of ten dollars for each offense. sell or expose for sale * * * any dove between the first day - first day of August. And any person so doing shall be deemed gui meanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be fined not more than twent be imprisoned not more than thirty days. OM Sec. 433. Nothing herein shall apply to any person who shall kill or te of the said birds in the act of destroying fruit or grain crops. SOUTH DAKOTA. Session Laws of 1899, chap. 90, p. 111. Sec. 1. (1) Every person who shoots or kills * * * any song bird or eating bird at any time, excepting crows, blackbirds and sparrows; or (2) * kills any * * * wild crane between the first day of May and the first September following; * * * or (4) uses or employs any trap, snare, net o b lime, or medicated, drugged or poisoned grain or food to capture or kill any of ¢ t birds mentioned * * * or (5) wantonly destroys any nest of [or] eggs or [1 ‘ any of the birds mentioned * * * (8) is guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon co viction thereof before a age of the peace of the county, is punishable by a fine eenied : a violation of such provision. Approyed March 6, 1899. TENNESSEE.' Annotated Code, 1896. [ArticLe XI, section 13 of the constitution provides that ‘‘The general asset shall have power to enact laws for the protection and preservation of game and within the State, and such laws may be enacted for and applied and enforced particular counties or geographical districts, designated by the general assembly Src. 2898. [It shall be unlawful for any person to kill ‘‘any song bird, or bird feeds on insects that destroy fruit trees,”’ in the county of Hardin between March 15 and September 15, or to destroy the nests or young of such birds. (1889 i ‘ sec. 2.) ] : Src. 2899. [Penalty for violation of section 2898, a fine of not less than $5. By Secs. 2905, 2907. [Prohibit killing of larks in Warren-County between March 1 October 1, under penalty of fine of $10 to $25 for each lark killed. (1895, chap. 162 Src. 2936. No person shall hunt, capture, or kill any song bird, as the m bird, thrush, robin, and oriole; or any game bird asthe * * * lark; or any bi that feeds on insects which destroy fruit trees, as the sparrow, catbird, hee woodpecker, in Robertson, Davidson, Maury, and Shelby counties, from the first of February to the first day of September; nor in Lincoln county from the fi of March to the fifteenth day of September. (1873, chap. 83; 1877, chap. 162; chap. 99. ) ; Src. 2937. No person shall at any time destroy the nests or eggs of any of said Lt in any of the counties named in last section. (Ibid.) 'These laws are compiled from the Annotated Code. There may be other © laws passed since 1896 which have been overlooked. | TENNESSEE—TEXAS. eae) Se \ Sec. 2938. [Penalty for violation of sections 2936 and 2937, fine of $5 for every bird killed, and also for every nest robbed or destroyed. | Secs. 2940-2941. [Prohibit killing of larks, from March 1 to September 15, or killing of mocking birds, thrushes, robins or orioles, ‘‘ or any birds known to destroy insects, as the sparrow, bluebird, woodpecker, or yellowhammer;’’ or to destroy their nests or eggs in Henry, Dyer, Giles, Maury, Davidson, Madison, Hamilton, Bedford, and Wilson counties under penalty of fine of $2.50 for every bird killed or nest robbed or destroyed. (1875, chap. 127; 1887, chap. 130.) Doyes, larks and robins may be killed in Wilson county between August 1 and Aprill. (Acts 1899, chap. 57, sec. 4, p. 80.) ] Sxcs. 2943-2946. [Prohibit killing in Montgomery and Cheatham counties ‘‘any song bird as the mocking bird, thrush, robin, or oriole; or any bird that feeds on insects, as the sparrow, catbird, bluebird or woodpecker”’ or lark from March 1 to October 15, or killing of doves from March 1 to August 1, or destroying the nests and eggs or holding any lark or dove in captivity during close season, except oath is made at time of acquiring possession that they are retained in captivity for purpose of being set free in county aforesaid, under penalty of punishment for misdemeanor. (1879, chap. 22.).] Sec. 2957. [Prohibits killing, in Greene and Bradley counties, of larks and danas between February 1 and November 1, or killing or capture of ‘‘ any of the birds of song as the thrush, the robin, the nedivind: the oriole, the mocking bird,” or ‘‘any of the birds known to destroy insects, as the American sparrow, bluebird, woodpecker, yel- lowhammer,”’ under penalty of fine of not less than $5 or imprisonment not less than p MY p five days. (1893, chap. 152.) .] TEXAS. Revised Statutes, 1895, Penal Code, Title XIII, chap. 5, p. 100. Arr. 518. If any person shall willfully kill or in any manner injure any mocking bird, whippoorwill, night hawk, blue bird, red bird, finch, thrush, linnet, wren, martin, swallow, bobolink, cat bird, nonpareil, scissortail, sparrow, buzzard or carrion crow, he shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conyiction before a jus- tice of the peace or other court of competent jurisdiction, he shall be fined a sum of not less than five nor more than fifteen dollars. (Act March 15, 1881, p. 30.) Arr. 519. If any person shall willfully kill any seagull, tern, shear-water, egret, heron, or pelican, or shall willfully take from their nests or in any manner destroy any egg or eggs of any seagull, tern, shear-water, egret, heron or pelican, he shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less than five nor more than twenty-five dollars; provided, that the kill- ing of any of the birds above enumerated, or taking of their eggs with intent to pre- serve the same for scientific purposes, shall not be construed to be a violation of this act. (Act April 13, 1891, chap. 71, p. 90.) Arr 520 (as amended by Acts of 1895, p. 158). [The following counties are hereby exempted from the provisions of tle 518: Cherokee, Shelby, Franklin, Rockwall, Hopkins, Williamson, Coryell, Mills, Commanche, Runnels, Cooke, Wise, Madison, Clay, Jack, Stephens, Polk, Throckmorton, Callahan, Taylor, Jones, Kent, Garza, Lynn, Terry, Yoakum, Trinity, Archer, Lamar, Cass, San Jacinto, Camp, Dimmit, Jackson, Kaufman, Angelina, Sabine, Walker, Trinity, Panola, Jack, Young, Lee, Bastrop, Brazos, Wilson, Freestone, Lampasas, Brazoria, Nacogdoches, Hill, Rusk, Burnet, Karnes, Neco Wood, Rains, and San Augustine. (See p. 46.) ] 2218 on ety es < Sarees 7 \ ; ate Boe Pinihaeee 3 ba ee Ay i, wie LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS UTAH. Laws of 1899, chap. 26, p. 42. ‘bird, robins or other imeeennenene or ae ee except ihe English sparro rob or destroy the nests, eggs or young of any of said protected Looe menti this section. Src. 27. Any person violating any of the provisions of this act * * * a ~ guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be fined not less than'ten dollars. Src. 29. [It shall be unlawful for any person at any time to ship or cause to be shipped out of the State, any of the birds or any part thereof mentioned in th Approved March 9, 1899. \ VERMONT. Vermont Statutes, 1894, title 31, chap. 189, p. 829. Src. 4614. If a person shoots, or otherwise intentionally wounds, entraps, or n or captures a wild or undomesticated bird, except quail, woodcock, wild duck, merganser, blue heron, bittern, loon, English sparrow, crow black bird, crow or birds of prey, or if a person destroys the nest or eggs of any wild or undon cated birds, except the nest or eggs of a merganser, blue heron, bittern, loon, Englis sparrow, crow black bird, crow, jay and birds of prey, he shall be fined five dolla for each offense. ; Src. 4613 (as amended November 4, 1898, Act 104, p. 81). [Provides for perm collect for scientific purposes as follows: ‘‘The fish and game commissioners commission persons, for a time specified, reserying a power of revocation, to tak kill, capture and have in possession any species of birds other than domestic, ar the nests and eggs thereof, for scientific purposes only, but the number of such co n missions in force at any one time shall not exceed five.’’] VIRGINIA. A Code, 1887, title 27, chap. 95, p. 520. Src. 2079. It shall be unlawful for any person * * * pe ints Pros < BS: ae ane ame, to kill the vidoes Pua or black buzzard, or destroy their nests or SUEDE q ie NEW BRUNSWICK—NOVA SCOTIA. 87 (a) Hunts, takes, hurts, injures, traps, snares, shoots, wounds, killsordestroys: * * * II. Any game on Sunday: [Penalty, double that for killing same game on any ' week day in close season. ] IlJ. Any game in any park, pleasure resort, land or forest now or hereafter set apart or reserved for public park purposes: [Penalty, double that for killing same game in any other closed district. ] © IV. Any sea gull, pheasant or any small birds which frequent the fields and woul (except such birds as to which special provisions are made in this Act, and excepting also blackbirds, crows and English sparrows), or removes, damages or destroys the nest or eggs thereof. [Penalty, $5 fine or 5 days’ imprisonment. ] [Sec.] 7. Notwithstanding anything in this Act contained it shall be exe to (a) Hunt, take, shoot or kill * * * IJ. Any game for preservation as specimens of natural history, or for scientific investigation, provided a license therefor is first obtained as provided in section 44. [Sec.] 44. * * * The Surveyor-General may also issue licenses permitting the taking or killing of any game within the Province for preservation as specimens of natural history, or for scientific investigation. [Sxc.] 45. No license or permit issued under the provisions of this Act shall be yalid unlegs signed by the Suryeyor-General and countersigned by the chief game commissioner or warden who may have issued the same. NEWFOUNDLAND. Consolidated Statutes, second aeries, 1892, chap. 144, p. 980. [Suc.] 2. No person shall hunt, wound, kill, take, sell, purchase, or give away, or ' have in his possession, any curlew, plover, snipe, or other wild or migratory birds (excepting wild geese), or the eggs of any such birds, within this colony between the twelfth day of January and the twentieth day of eae in each year, under a — penalty of not less than twenty-five dollars nor exceeding two hundred dollars, or, in default of payment, of imprisonment for a period not exceeding three months. [Sec. 10 (Act of 1899). Any person, except a traveler on a journey, found on Sunday carrying firearms, shall be subject to a fine not exceeding $40, and in default of payment to imprisonment not exceeding one month. ] NOVA SCOTIA. Statutes of 1896, chap. 4. [Suc.] 22. The killing of robins, swallows, sparrows and other small birds and birds of song, which frequent the fields and gardens, and the selling and offering for sale, and the having in possession such birds when killed, is prohibited and unlawful. [Sxc.] 23. Any game mentioned in this Act may be killed or taken at any time for purposes of scientific investigation, and the eggs of game birds procured for propa- gation, a special license, setting forth the particular purpose of the inquiry, and signed by the Provincial Secretary or his deputy, having been first obtained for that purpose from the Provincial Secretary’s office. . [Sec.] 24. The trapping, snaring or otherwise taking alive, or exposing for sale alive, of any of the birds mentioned in the twenty-second section, and the destroying of the nests or eggs of such birds, shall hereafter be unlawful, and any such trap or snares when found may be destroyed, and any such bird if alive shall be set free. [Suc.] 25. Any person offending against the twenty-second or twenty-fourth section, - shall for each offence incur a penalty of one dollar. bem, ONTARIO. Revised Statutes, 1897, ae 289." birds Bonerallsy known as cage birds, or to any bird or birds generally kno poultry. (52 V., c. 50, s. 1.) = _[Sec.] 2. (1) Except as in section 6 of this Act provided, it shall not be lay shoot, destroy, wound, catch, net, snare, poison, drug or otherwise kill or i or to attempt to shoot, destroy, wound, catch, net, snare, poison, drug or oth English sparrows, and the birds specifically mentioned in The Ontario Game I tion Act. known as the robin without being liable to any penalty under this Act. ‘er c. 50, s. 2.) [Sec.] 3. Except as in section 6 of this Act provided, it shall not be lawful to capture, expose for sale or have in possession any bird whatsoever, save the k hereinbefore or hereinafter excepted, or to set, wholly or in part, any net, by whic any bird whatsoever, save and except hawks, crows, blackbirds and English spar- rows, might be killed and captured; and any net, trap, springe, snare, cage or oth r machine or engine, set either wholly or in part for the purpose of either capt or killing any bird or birds, save and except hawks, crows, blackbirds and Engl sparrows, may be destroyed by any person without such person incu ang liability therefor. (52 V., ¢. 50, s. 3.) [Sxc.] 4. Save as in section 6 of this Act provided, it shall not be lawn to také” injure, destroy or have in possession Any nest, young or eggs of any bird whatsoever, | except of hawks, crows, blackbirds, and English sparrows. (52 V., ¢.50,s.4.) [Sxc. 6. The chief game warden may grant to ornithologists, student of oe biologists, or students of biology, permits to collect, purchase or exchange birds o ag eggs. ] [Src. 7. Such permits shall continue in force until the end of the calendar year in which issued, and may be renewed at the option of the chief game warden. ] on [Sec. 8. V ‘olatiatt of any provision of this Act shall subject the offender to the — payment of a fine of $1-$20 with costs, or in default of payment imprisonment 0 of from 2 to 20 days. ] Ontario Game Protection Act, 1900. [Src. 4. No person shall kill ducks of any kind or any other waterfowl betwe December 15 and September 1 of the following year. ] [Sec. 6. No person shall, on the Lord’s Day, hunt, take, kill, or destroy any ga animal or bird, or use any gun for that purpose. ] . QUEBEC. Statutes of 1899, Chap. XXIV, p. 73. By, [Src.] 1895h. For the purposes of this act, which may be cited as the “Queb Game Laws,’’ the Province of Quebec is divided into two zones, known respecti as Zone No. 1 and Zone No. 2. ‘For fie copy Fok this law I am indebted to Mr. H. 8. Osler, of Montreal. _ Be ee a QUEBEC. 89 Zone No. 1 comprises the whole Province, less that part of the counties of Chi- coutimi and Saguenay to the east and north of the river Saguenay. Zone No. 2 comprises that part of the counties of Chicoutimi and Saguenay to the east and north of the river Saguenay. : [Sxc.] 1401. It is forbidden at all times [under a penalty of $2 to $5, provided by sec. 1410] to shoot or kill, and, between the first day of March and the first day of September in each year, to take by means of nets, traps, springs, snares, cages or otherwise any of the birds known as perchers, such as swallows, kingbirds, warblers, flycatchers, woodpeckers, whip-poor-wills, finches, (song sparrows, red-birds, indigo birds, &c.,) cow-buntings, titmice, goldfinches, grives, (robins, wood-thrushes, &c.,) kinglets, bobolinks, grakles, grosbeaks, humming-birds, cuckoos, &e., or to take their nests or eggs, except eagles, falcons, hawks and other birds of the falconide, owls, wild-pigeons, kingfishers, crows, ravens, waxwings (recollets), shrikes, jays, magpies, _ sparrows and starlings; and whosoever finds any nets, traps, springs, snares, cages, &c., so placed or set, may take possession of or destroy the same. (R. S. Q., 1401.) [This section applies to both zones 1 and 2.] [Ssc.] 1417. The Commissioner may grant written licenses to any person, bona fide, desirous of obtaining birds’ eggs or fur-bearing or other animals for scientific or _ breeding purposes during the close season. Persons not domiciled in the Province of Quebec shall for such licenses, pay a fee which shall not be less than five dollars, nor more than twenty-five dollars, to be | determined by the Commissioner according to the number and importance of the objects such licenses are applied for. ‘ No person, who has obtained such a license, shall be liable to any penalty enacted by this section, provided that, at the expiration of his license, he files, in the Depart- ment of Lands, Forests and Fisheries, a solemn declaration setting forth the species and number of birds, eggs and fur-bearing or other animals so procured by him for scientific or breeding purposes. (R. 8. Q., 1417; 59 V., c. 20, s. 9.) [Src.] 1420. The Lieutenant-Governor in Council may, in his discretion, prohibit the hunting or killing of any bird or fur-bearing animal, for a period not exceeding five years. (R.S. Q., 1420.) Assented to, February 25, 1899. CONNECTICUT. a Public Acts of 1899, chap. 14, p. 992. 2 Section 1576 of the general statutes is hereby amended to read as . governor shall annually, in the spring, designate, by official proclamati and bird day, to be observed in the schools, and in any other way as) cated in such official proclamation. z Approved March 17, 1899. MINNESOTA. a General Laws of 1899, chap. 36, p. 34. oe. Sec. 1. The governor is hereby authorized to set apart each year by p f one day to be designated as Arbor and Bird Day, and to request its ob all public schools, private schools, colleges and other institutions, by the | an having for their object the advancement of the study of arboriculture and me of the spirit of protection to birds and trees and the cultivation of an ap ; sentiment concerning them. Approved March 3, 1899. WISCONSIN. Laws of 1897, chap. 61, p. 87. Sec. 1. * * * The governor is hereby authorized to set apart each proclamation, one day, to be designated as Arbor and Bird Day, and to having for thar ‘objec: the advancement of the daa of arboriculture, the of a spirit of protection to birds and trees, and the cultivation of an apprecia | ~ ment concerning them. Approved March 17, 1897. 90 Act , Lacey, 52-54. a et proposed by American ESET GSS Union, 47-49, Age limits for issue of permits, 37. Alabama, counties exempt om law of 1899, 45. law, 56-57. s captive birds, 42. Alaska law, 57. American Ornithologists’ game birds, 14. groups of birds recognized, 14, 25. proposed act, 47-49. Arizona law, 57. Arkansas law, 57-58. _ Audubon societies, 9, 44. Bill, Hoar, 49-50. Lacey, 52-54. Teller, 50-51. Bird and Arbor Day laws, 12, 90. Connecticut, 90. Minnesota, 90. ‘ Wisconsin, 90. caged, 42-43. exempt from protection, 35-37. imported, subject to State laws, 55. not to be used for millinery purposes, 11-12. number of species in North America, 25. of prey, 28-30. plume, 25-28. sea, 26-27. Bitterns, exempt from protection, 37. _ protected, 34, 35, 74, 85. - Blackbirds, 21. — exempt from protection, 36, 37. marsh, regarded as game, 21. _ red-winged, regarded as game, 21. Bobolinks or reedbirds, 18-19. _ Bonds required from scientific collectors, 37-40. Bounty laws, 28. : Bouvier, definition of game birds, 13. : _ British Columbia, definition of game birds, 14. % law, 85-86. captive birds, 43. ; Butcher birds exempt from protection, 36. _ Buzzards, turkey, 29. mer a ~ Me Ph . oy , Caged birds, 42-43. California, county legislation, 27. law, 58-59. against millinery use of birds, 11. captive birds, 42. plume-bird protection, 27. INDEX. Union, definition of Canadian laws, 85-89. Captive birds, 42-43. Collecting for scientific purposes, 37-40. Colorado, law, 59-60. number of species of birds, 23. Commissioners of birds in Rhode Island, 44, 79. Connecticut, Bird Day, 12, 90. . early law, 10. law, 60. Convention of 1885 between France and Switzer- ! land, 10. Cormorants exempt from protection, 37. Counties exempt from State laws, 45-46. County laws, conflicting, 45-46. legislation, 27. Cranes, exempt from protection, 36, 37. protected, 31, 32, 60. Crow blackbirds exempt from protection, 36, 37. Crows exempt from protection, 36, 37. Curlews exempt from protection, 37. Decisions, State courts, 55. Supreme Court, 55-56. Defects of existing laws, 45-47. Definitions, game birds, 13-14. insectivorous birds, 23-24. plume birds, 25-28. Delaware law, 60-61. District of Columbia law, 61. Dove, Carolina, 15-17. food, 16-17. mourning, 15-17, 31-35. open seasons, 16. turtle, 15-17, 31-35. Eagles, exempt from protection, 36, 37. protected, 29. Eggs and nests, 27-28, 31-39. Egrets protected, 27, 32, 34, 62, 81. Enforcement of protective laws, 43-44. England, protection of eggs, 12. game birds, 12. sea birds, 12. wild birds protection act, 12. wild fowl, 12. English sparrows exempt from protection, 36, 37. Falcons exempt from protection, 37. Feathers, laws prohibiting Wearing or sale, 11-12, 49-50. Federal legislation, 12, 49-54. Fees for collectors’ permits, 31-35. Fish hawks protected in Rhode Island, 29, 78. 91 Flickers, 17-18. food, 18. Florida, law, 61-62. plume-bird protection, 26. France, convention of 1885 with Switzerland, 10. Game and fish commissions, 43, 44. Game and fish protective associations, 43. Game birds, definitions, 13-14. species erroneously considered, 15-23. Game, property of the State, 55. protection act, Ontario, 88. wardens, 43. Georgia law, 62. Grackles, exempt from protection, 37. boat-tailed, 37. purple, 37. rusty, 37. Grebes protected, 27, 74. Gulls, exempt from protection, 37. protected, 27, 31-35. Hawk, chicken, 36. Cooper’s, 36. duck, 36. fish, 29, 78. pigeon, 36. sharp-shinned, 36. Hawks, exempt from protection, 36, 37. food, 30. protected, 29. Heron, blue, 37. green, 36. night, 36. Herons, exempt from protection, 36, 37. protected, 32, 34, 62,81. slaughter of, in the South, 26. Hoar bill, 49-5 House finches exempt from protection, 36. Hunting licenses, 41. Idaho, protection limited to game, 45, 55, Illinois law, 62-63. Indiana law, 63-64. Indian Territory, protection limited to game, 45, 55. Insectivorous and song birds, 23-25. objections to use of terms, 24. Insectivorous birds act, Manitoba, 86. . Iowa, law, 64. captive birds, 42. Jackdaws exempt from protection, 37, Jays exempt from protection, 36, 37. Kansas law, 64. Kentucky law, 65. Kingfishers exempt from protection, 36, 37. Lacey act, 52-54. Larks exempt from protection, 36. Laws, bounty, 28. Canadian, 85-89. defects of existing, 45-47. early, 10-11. plume-bird, 28. se proposed by American Om : 47-49. remedies for dees of exi Sunday, 41. ; Laws, State, 55-90. Alabama, 56-57. Alaska, 57. Arizona, 57. Arkansas, 57-58. British Columbia, 85-86. California, 58-59. ; Colorado, 59-60. Connecticut, 60. Delaware, 60-61. District of Columbia, 61. Florida, 61-62. Georgia, 62. Illinois, 62-63. Indiana, 63-64. Towa, 64. Kansas, 64. Kentucky, 65. Louisiana, 65. Maine, 65-66. Manitoba, 86. Maryland, 66-67. Massachusttts, 67-68. Michigan, 68-69. Minnesota, 69-70. Mississippi, 70-71. Missouri, 71. Montana, 71. Nebraska, 71. Nevada, 72. New Brunswick, 86-87. Newfoundland, 87. New Hampshire, 72. New Jersey, 73. New York, 74, - North Carolina, 74. North Dakota, 75. Nova Scotia, 87. Ohio, 75-76. Oklahoma, 76. Ontario, 88. Oregon, 76-77. Pennsylvania, 77-78. Quebec, 88-89. Rhode Island, 78-79. South Carolina, 79-80. South Dakota, 80. Tennessee, 80-81. Texas, $1. Utah, 82. Vermont, 82. Virginia, 82. Washington, 83. West Virginia, 83. Wisconsin, 84. Wyoming, 54 : League of American Sportsmen, 44. Legislation, federal, 12, 49-54. : necessity for further State, 44-47. Licenses, 40-41. Licenses, hunting, 41. nonresident, 41. resident, 41. : Linnets exempt from protection, 36. Loons exempt from protection, 36, 37. Louisiana law, 65. captive birds, 42. Magpies exempt from protection, 37, Maine, definition of game birds, 13. law, 65-66. Manitoba law, 86. ‘Maryland law, 66-67. against selling or wearing birds or feathers, 12, 66. captive birds, 42. Massachusetts, early game law, 10. law, 67-68. against wearing birds and feathers, 11, 67, Meadowlarks, 20-21. _food, 20-21. open seasons, 20. Mergansers exempt from protection, 37. Michigan, definition of game birds, 13. law, 68-69. captive birds, 43. Millinery use of birds, law against in California, 11,58. Maryland, 12, 66. Massachusetts, 11-12, 67-68. New York, 12, 74. Minnesota, Bird Day, 12, 90. Jaw, 69-70. captive birds, 43. Mississippi, definition of game, 14. law, 70-71. Missouri law, 71. Montana law, 71. Nebraska, law, 71. number of species of birds, 23. Nests and eggs, 27-28. Nevada law, 72. New Brunswick, definition of game, 14, 86. law, 86-87. Newfoundland law, 87. New Hampshire law, 72. New Jersey, first legislation, 10. law, 73. captive birds, 43. New Mexico, protection limited to game, 45,55. , New York, early game law, 10. law, 74. against sale of birds for millinery purposes, 12, 74. Nighthawks exempt from protection, 36. - Nonexport laws, constitutional, 55-56. Non-game birds defined, 23-24. Nonresident licenses, 41. North Cgrolina law, 74. North Dakota law, 75. Nova Scotia, definition of game, 14., law, 87. Objections, to enumerating species protected, 23-25, to term insectivorous birds, 23-25. to treating reedbirds as game, 19. INDEX. Ohio law, 75-76. Oklahoma law, 76. Ontario law, 88. captive birds, 438. Open seasons, doves, 16. flickers, 17. meadowlarks, 20. reedbirds, 18. robins, 22. Orders of North American birds, 25. * Oregon law, 76-77. Owl, barred, 36. great horned, 36. Owls, exempt from protection, 36, 37. protected, 29. Pelicans, exempt from protection, 37. protected, 27. ~ : Penalties for destroying birds and eggs, 31-35. Pennsylvania law, 77-78. captive birds, 43. Permits for collecting for scientific purposes, 37-40. Pigeons, band-tailed, 15. passenger, 15. roosts protected, 68. wild, exempt from protection, 37. protected, 60, 67. . Plumage, sale prohibited, 11-12. Plume birds, 25-28. protected, 27. special legislation, 26. Protective legislation, history, 10-12. Quebec game laws, 88-89. Ravens exempt from protection, 36, 37. Recollets, 37. (See Waxwings.) Red-winged blackbirds exempt from protection, a. Reedbirds or bobolinks, 18-19. Regulations, as to collecting for scientific pur- poses, 38-40. as to number of birds killed, 41. prohibiting export of birds, 41. prohibiting sale of certain birds, 41. Rhode Island, law, 78-79. number of species of birds, 23. Ricebirds, 18-19. exempt from protection, 36. Robins, 22-23. food, 23. Scientific collecting, provisions, 37-40. Sea birds, in England, 12. protected, 26-28. Shrikes exempt from protection, 37. Song and insectivorous birds, 23-25. South Carolina law, 79-80. captive birds, 43. South Dakota law, 80. A Sparrows exempt from protection, 36, 37. Species, exempt from protection, 35-37. number in North America, 20. objections to enumerating, 23-25. protected, 30-35. Starlings exempt from protection, 37. State courts’ decisions, 55. Epa UN State laws, 55-90. aga ES 5 | Sunday laws, 41. We Supreme Court aca 55-56. Switzerland, convention of 1885 with France, 10. mi pl Teller bill, 50-51. z ae _ Tennessee, county legislation, 45-46. Bact law, 80-81. <3 Terns, protected, 27. : ™ ’ special law in Maine, 66. Bois __ Texas, counties exempted, 45-46. a law, 81. : plume-bird protection, 26-27. , Turkey buzzards protected, 29. * Utah law, 82 2 a : ij Vs ; * » a : é a Wardens, 43. Washington law, 83. | Waxwings exempt from rele 5 West Virginia law, 83. Wheat birds exempt from pri Wild birds protection act, En; Wild fowl, protection in En Wild pigeons, 15. exempt from protection, 37. protected, 60, 67. » Wisconsin, Bird Day,12,90. law, 81. ; Wyoming law, 84. a Reg ote! ~~ a Pact No. 13 . | pee Sion DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY > - FOOD BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES BY Py Be. BEAL, B.S. ASSISTANT BIOLOGIST PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF DR.-C. HART MERRIAM CHIEF OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY WASHINGTON 7 } GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE , 1900 eel ee ea eps ans sg _ a ~ TSI INS b ZENA “AD3IdSILNOY “eanynousy 40 3deq °s ‘fy ‘ening jeo!Boj01g ‘EL “ON “11INg y ¥ 4 LA er cae \ i ey _S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE J DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY HOO) ae OF THE BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES ee ; BY 18 Ds A od yeh Da sree ASSISTANT BIOLOGIST fe | PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF ot e DR. C. HART MERRIAM CHIEF OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1900 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Division oF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY, Washington, D. C., May 22, 1900. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith for publication as Bul- letin No. 13 a report on ‘The Food of the Bobolink, Blackbirds, and Grackles,’ by Prof. F. E. L. Beal, assistant biologist. This report is based on a careful examination of the contents of more than 4,800 stomachs, representing nine species and several subspecies of Amer- ican blackbirds. The family of orioles and blackbirds, to which the _ bobolink, cowbird, blackbirds, and grackles belong, is one of much economic importance. The ravages of the bobolink in the rice fields. of the South, and of some of the blackbirds in the grainfields of the Upper Mississippi Valley at planting and harvesting time, are matters of common knowledge, but the other food of these and other species is not so well known. The present bulletin is devoted mainly to the food of the various blackbirds during the summer months; several of the species consume insects in such quantities at this time as to com- pensate in great measure for the es they destroy. Respectfully, C. Hart Merriam, Chief, Biological Survey. Hon. James WiLson, Secretary of Agriculture. CONTENTS. Ye S shcitied blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus ) Red ae blackbird (Agelaius pheniceus) blackbird ie carolinus) - ers blackbird (Scolecophagus cyanocephalus) ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATE. Pare I. Map showing breeding range of the bobolink (Dolichonyxe oryz : a TEXT FIGURES. oe ; gis Bobolink 5-20 joen< oe eics ace ee a ... 2. Diagram illustrating proportions of food elements of bobolink-~ ay ‘ 3. Diagram illustrating proportions of food elements of cowbird....- : 4, Red-winged blackbird .. ...2.-----e0s Jnuueutecne ose ee : 5. Diagram illustrating proportions of food elements of redwing ----- : 6. Crow blackbird .........:..--. Sari a iwc eee — i 6 , ’ ¥ + ; : ‘ > » a i : 7? oo =[=SS—S=S====I CSS SS Ss SS oo SE ES _ SaaS SS EEE EES \\\ eS SS (2 SSS SS EES Ge ees ree | SS SS SS SS SS WG SS SSS SS SS SSS S\\X \N ——————— —————————— Fic. 3.—Dia; “ieee opor ofa imal a any eae ee cA eres ach month of the eee resi ie ieee on indic se pests; so on the whole it is probable that birds do little harm by eating them. The so-called leaf-hoppers live to a great extent upon grass and might very properly be called grasshoppers were it not that that name has been appropriated for other insects. Those eaten are so little that it would require a number of them to fill the stomach of even a small bird. All are harmful, and some, as for example those that feed on the grapevine and rose, are very injurious. Cowbirds eat a great many of these leaf-hoppers, which in some stomachs amount to 60 percent of the whole contents. The greater number are eaten in June and July, but the aggregate for the year is small, about 1} percent. De AE RAO Pe tem e oe eee or those that we to a greater or 16s ee on Suse inse bide and a few Cicindelide), although living on the ground often found by cowbirds, are rarely eaten, the aggregate for the being about three-fourths of one percent of the whole food. Of t eight families of beetles represented in the food, only one group, t! snout-beetles or weevils (Rhynchophora), are eaten to any noti extent, and these amount to little more than 2 percent of the foo the year, although in J une they rise to more than 9 pore curculios (Curculionide), and ‘bill Hone (Calandrianee and as are all potentially harmful and most of them actual pests, the destruction i isa benett to newionline ue rest of the beetle — ‘S little more than 2 percent, and is ‘bce chiefly in April, ‘May, a u June. Grasshoppers appear to be the cowbirds’ favorite animal food, és compose almost half of the insect food, or 11 percent of the who They are-first taken in March, when the birds return from their wint home, reach a maximum of 45.1 percent in August, and decrease to 6.2 percent in November. This is a large record, compared with ia those of most other birds whose food has been aoburatele determined. — It is much greater than those of the crow, crow blackbird, or red-— winged blackbird, all noted ground feeders, and is exceeded only bes those of the meadowlark and a few of other families. Caterpillars are eaten to some extent in every month of the co birds’ stay in the North, but do not constitute a very important eleme of the food, averaging only a little more than 2 percent of the who The gr eatest number, amounting to a little more than 10 percent, a eaten in May. The notorious army worm (Leucania wnipuncta) W 7 identified in four stomachs, and was probably contained in many more, _ but not in a condition to be recognized. One small moth and one 7 ephemerid were also found. : Spiders were found in many stomachs, but not in large numbe They seem to be eaten wherever they are found, but probably only ter-— restrial species are taken. Snails were found in a number of storied ~ Eggshells occurred in several stomachs, but in such small quantities f as to preclude the probability that they were taken from the nests of — other birds. When young birds are hatched the parents remove the eggshells and drop them at some distance from the nest, whe doubtless, they are found and eaten by other birds, for bits of egg: appear more or less frequently in the stomachs of nearly every sp examined. es The vegetable food of the cowbird exceeds the animal food, both in quantity and variety. When searching the ground about barny or roads the bird is evidently looking for scattered seeds rather insects, though the latter are probably taken whenever found. Vai a us “7 " at ‘ eS 4 a. THE COWBIRD. betes OD other substances are also eaten, but they are mostly of the same gen- _ eral character, such as hard seeds of grasses or weeds, with but little indication of fruit pulp or other soft vegetable matter. The following table shows the various grains and seeds identified, with the number of stomachs in which they were contained: Vegetable substances found in stomachs of cowbirds. Grain: Stomachs. | Weeds—Continued. Stomachs. sittin ter ee oh Sosa 2 06 Pennyroyal (Trichostema dicho- peidineaireenenu le Se 2 2S eg 9h: 20 lOmin) Sess ee 2 (DSSS Ee eee 102 Mouse-ear chickweed (Ceras- TENGE S2 en 1 titon):o2k2c hue ee Fruit: ‘ Planitams (Plantago) 2922s il Blueberry ( Vucciniwm) .....--- t Sunflower (Helianthus) ....--.--- 8 Raspberry (Rubus)-...--.------ + Gromwell (Iathospermum) .----- 4 Forage: Blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium Glovers @rifolium) .< << S2..2<\- 8 DOT UDLONLG)) anes eae 1 imonhy. (CPAeum,) -s...-2524-5 8 Barngrass (Cheetochloa) -.---.--- 265 Sorghum (Andropogon sorghum). 2 Panic-grass (Panicum) .-------- 133 Weeds: ; Joint-grass (Paspalum) ...------ 22 Ragweed (Ambrosia) ..-...----- 176 Yard-grass (Hleusine indica).... 2 Knotweed (Polygonum) -------- 49 Unidentified (mostly unknown Bommel (Rumer) 22-20-40 2-22--6 37 erase! Séed§)i 2. bc... 22 0.0 Mbistie(Oarduus) 2.2.2.2 222-22 1 | Miscellaneous: Amaranth (Amaranthus) ------- 11 Vets iy os OS ae Co eee 1 Mustard (Brassica nigra) .------ 4 1 Lo (eTe aver Mae aie ONS Fae 2 Chickweed (Alsine).-....-....- ) ARVN OL OTIS) Mecsas ees Bene ae 5) Oats are apparently the favorite grain with the cowbdird, as they were found in 102 stomachs, a record which exceeds the total of those containing either wheat or corn. They first appear in March, when 12.9 per cent are eaten, evidently waste grain picked up in the stubble- fields, highways, and barnyards, except in the southern part of the country, where sowing may take place as early as this month. Oats constitute less than 2 per cent in April, nearly 8 percent in May (probably partly made up of grain from newly sown fields), 3.7 in June, 25.1 in July, 31.5 in August, 19.4 in September, and after that decrease rapidly and reach zero before the 1st of November. The average consumption for all the months of the year is 8.6 percent. Corn was found in 56 stomachs, but the irregular manner in which it is distributed through the food of the year indicates that it is not a — favored diet. The record for January, which shows a little more than 33 per cent, is based on only 3 stomachs, and so can not be considered very reliable. In any case the corn eaten must have been scattered grain, unless it was some that had been left in the shock over winter. Eyen in October, when corn is abundant everywhere, it is scarcely touched. Only 1 bird out of 70 taken in that month had eaten any, and in this single instance it amounted to only 6 percent of the entire food. In the other months the quantity ranges downward to zero, but in such an erratic manner as to indicate that it is never sought, but _ merely eaten when found and when better food is not at hand. The = yy: f 28 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRAOCKL aggregate for the year is 6.5 percent. Wheat was fou stomachs, and amounts to 1.4 percent of the year’s food. I its distribution is irregular and does not appear to have any rel . the seasons. Itis probable that it is a purely accidental food, eat only when nothing better is to be had. The greatest quantity (4 cent) was taken in September. A single kernel of buckwheat found in 1 stomach. Grain as a whole amounts to 16.5 percent, or practically ont ; of the food of the year; buta consideration of its distribution as gin above leads to the conclusion that a large portion of this, probablh one-half, is waste. In comparing the record of the cowbird with that oi the red-winged blackbird, the cowbird’s shows the greater consump of grain; that is, 16.5, as against 13.9 for the redwing. In view of | fact it would seem somewhat strange, were not a large proportio the grain consumed waste, that no complaints should have been m against the cowbird on the score of grain eating. It is possible course, that observers have not always distinguished the two speci in the field, as male cowbirds do not differ greatly in color or size f female redwings—and their great abundance in the West lends s color to this supposition. But it seems far more probable that gather a very impor tant part of the grain found in their stomachs their gleaning in roads, about barnyards, and wherever cattle a found, and so do far less actual damage to growing crops than t! redwings. “¢ Fruit forms an insignificant part of the food. Some traces of what may have been fruit pulp were found, and a few seeds of raspberri were in each of 4 stomachs, and some blueberry seeds in one; bu some of the raspberry seeds were in stomachs collected in April they were evidently eaten as dry seeds, and this may have been true of all. — The seeds of plants classified as weeds in the list of vegetable food constitute by far the most important part of the diet. They form largest item of food in every month except July and August, and a of importance in every month, Beginning with 64.4' percent January and 95.5 percent in February, they slowly decrease to | percent in August, but rise suddenly to 58.1 percent in Septem attain their maximum of 97 percent in October, and end with { percent in December. They constitute practically the whole foo the winter months. The aggregate for the year is 60 percent of the food, or more than three-fourths of the vegetable food, and m than three and a half times the total amount of grain. Barngrass and ragweed are especially well known as troublesome weeds throughout the country wherever field crops are cultivated, and these two con tute the great bulk of this food. Barngrass seed was found in stomachs and ragweed in 176. Panicums, while ostensibly for plants, are often troublesome weeds. Their seeds were found in ‘Based on 3 stomachs. A larger number would probably greatly increase the percentage. >) ‘THE COWBIRD. | tats 29 stomachs, which shows that the birds relish them. Knotweed, smart- weed, and other species of the genus Polygonum, all noted weeds, were found in 49 stomachs. The other items of the weed-seed food are eaten to a greater or less extent, but not by so many birds as are those specifically mentioned. Of the 544 stomachs only 2 were filled with grain alone, while 94 contained nothing but weed seed. The amount 4 of weed seed destroyed by birds in a single year in the United States __ isimmense, and it is evident that the cowbird is one of the noteworthy i agents by which the already overflowing tide of noxious weeds is kept __-within its present limits. . SUMMARY. 5: In summing up the results of the investigation, the following points may be considered as fairly established: (1) Twenty per cent of the cowbirds’ food consists of insects, which are either harmful or annoy- ing. (2) Sixteen per cent is grain, the consumption of which may be considered a loss, though it is practically certain that half of this is waste. (3) More than 50 per cent consists of the seeds of noxious weeds, whose destruction is a positive benefit to the farmer. (4) Fruit is practically not eaten. 2 The following table shows the percentage of each of the principal] kinds of food for every month in the year: Food of the cowbird. [NUMBER OF STOMACHS EXAMINED: January, 3; February,10; March,18; April, 88; May, 99; June, 53; July, 57; August, 38; September, 79; October, 70; November, 23; December, 11. Total, 544.] Food. January February. April. y September. November. December. ANIMAL. Per- | Per- | Per-| Per-| Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per-| Per-| Per- cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. |} cent..| cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. Predaceous bee- . ES. 3) Been eee (ee eae Tal Sal aU bn ee ee) Pte eee Ime eb ares ee 0.4 |. 0.7 ; Other beetles... .. he) fe OAL nO eBay byl: itchal Weel WEGy = Os I6 4) wanbes ses 4.6 Grasshoppers. ---.|------|.:--.- 9) || bayitai IOS Os |) PA Te Atalay SD bGE | alts) GA to ones 11.0 Caterpillars ...-.. ELT oin led eco Ime | coer tal. Ossede| (eo eoeron| os al Oss od sce || eT a! |p en ae 252, Other insects - ..-- COE OROE a aKON| ie OM Gu times tLOtem hams (OF Al ive eit: 0.1 (05333 2583 Spiders and myr- : MPOUS.--5----55|oo22.5 Qe 2eeerteens DEO) Dees ile An Gillie eas) HOE 9) lie Olt) || et Mer eed Be aes 1.1 Otheranimalfood]...-..|...... Ope Wo CLO es) Os | SOR OM Ne ees eollosccds 0.4 Total animal EQUGIs 9 a0. 2.0 | 4.0 |) 896, 25.7 |) 42.7 259: 1 | 51.9) |) 50! 5.) 1350) | 159) || 623) ON 22e3: VEGETABLE. ee | em ee Nea EMI shee see! Be Gr legeaee 31.3 | 7.1 | 15.7 | 12.9 | 27.2 ).31.7 | 28.9) 1.1] 6.1) 2:5) 16.5 Weed seeds....... 64.4 | 95.5 | 49.1 | 66.1 | 41.5 | 28.0 | 19.2 | 16.6 | 58.1 | 97.0 | 87.6 | 96.8 | 60.0 Other vegetable MOOCU sree tae hale sicielt awe ce Il @ | Ail), Mil eescan Weg Ded eed eecisene pee aerel | apetcresc 1.2 Total vegeta- ble food ....| 97.7 | 95.5 | 91.4 | 74.3 | 57.3 | 40.9 | 48.1 | 49.5 | 87.0 | 98.1 | 98.7 | 99.3 | 77.7 iTr, = trace. whether this parasitism is necessarily as injurious as has b When a single young cowbird replaces a brood of four other each of which wee food habits as good as its own, there is, = es < in the Besnonie scald on account of its food habits, and it must | remembered that in most cases the birds destroyed are much small than the intruder, and so of less effect in their feeding, and thats 5) or three cowbird eggs are often deposited i in one nest. 7 The question is a purely economic one, and until it can be sho that the young birds sacrificed for the conti have more econom value than the parasite, judgment must be suspended. THE YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD. (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus. ) The yellow-headed blackbird is locally distributed throughout Western United States, where it frequents marshes and sloughs avoids the more arid seuuriee extensive forests, and wooded mountat Its range in summer extends from southern California through nor ern Arizona and New Mexico to Indiana, and northward ined Canadian Provinces. It winters in the southern part of its range on the table-lands of Mexico. Stragglers have been found from Gre land to Cuba. ' Its breeding habits are much like those of the redwing, but it i usually less abundant than that bird. It is gregarious and resorts 1 marshes to build its nest, which is very similar to that of the redwing and similarly placed. Although it breeds in marshes, it does not any means confine itself to them in its search for food, but forages afield, visiting corncribs, grainfields, and barnyards. T he writer's experience with the wallow: headed blackbird was on the prairies Nebraska, where flocks visited the railway then in process of constr tion, running about among the feet of the mules and horses in sear of grubs and worms exposed by the plow and scraper, and all the tin uttering their striking gutteral notes (almost precisely like those « brood of suckling pigs). In their habit of visiting barnyards and h pastures they resemble cowbirds much more than redwings. Wk the breeding season is over they often visit grainfields in large fl and become the cause of much complaint by Western farmers. The investigation of their food is founded upon an examinati 188 stomachs received from ten of the Mississippi Valley States from California and Canada, and collected during the seven m from April to October, inclusive (see p. 73). While decidedly to to give entirely reliable results, they may furnish some preli as a eee a4 ee oe yy ye Pee ee are THE YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD. 31 data regarding the food. As indicated by the contents of these stomachs, the food for the seven months consists of 33.7 percent of animal (insect) matter and 66.3 percent of vegetable matter. The animal food is composed chiefly of beetles, caterpillars, and grass- hoppers, with a few of other orders, while the vegetable food is made up almost entirely of grain and seeds of useless plants. Predaceous beetles (Carabide) constitute 2.8 percent of the season’s food, a very small amount for a bird of such pronounced terrestrial habits. Most — of these beetles are eaten in May, June, and July, and none are taken in the fall months. Other beetles amount to a little more than 5 per- cent, and are eaten mostly in the early part of summer. Caterpillars constitute 4.6 percent, but nearly two-thirds of them are taken in July, and in that month they form 21.5 percent of the month’s food. Remains of the army worm (Leucania unipuncta) were identified in 6 stomachs. Grasshoppers are first eaten in May, but do not amount to any important percentage until July, the month of maximum con- sumption. In this respect this bird appears to differ, like the bobolink, from most other species, as August is usually the month in which _ grasshoppers are eaten most freely; but the examination of a larger number of stomachs might prove the yellowhead to be no exception to the usual rule. After August the consumption of grasshoppers is considerably increased, and the total for the season is 11.6 percent. The remainder of the animal food, 9.7 percent, is made up of other insects, chiefly Hymenoptera (ants, wasps, etc.), with a few dragon- _ flies and an occasional spider and snail. So far as its animal food is concerned, the yellowhead has a very- good record. For a ground feeder, it takes very few predaceous beetles, while insects harmful to vegetation constitute 380 percent of its food. The vegetable food consists almost entirely of seeds, and for eco- nomic purposes may be divided into grain and weed seed. Of grain, oats hold first place, as in the food of the redwing, and are probably eaten in every month when they can be obtained, although none were found in any of the 5 stomachs taken in September. The 3 October stomachs contained an average of 63 percent, but a greater number of stomachs would in all probability give a smaller average. August, apparently the next month of importance, shows 43.2 percent. Next to oats corn is the favorite grain, and was eaten to the extent of 9.8 percent, nearly all in the months of April, May, and June, with a maximum of 48.8 percent in April, when no wheat was eaten. Wheat appears from May to August, inclusive, and is the only vegetable food that reaches its highest mark in August. The average for the ‘season is 3.5 percent. Grain collectively amounts to 38.9 percent, or considerably more than half of the total vegetable food, and more than one-third of all en reeset in er PONG si is more especially emphasized by the large saab mee tl ni cent of the total food) eaten in August. Corn, from its appear such large quantities in the food of the early spring months, is dently picked up as waste grain to a considerable extent, but oat wheat, which appear at the same time, are probably lane ken — from newly sown fields. ln J ee and fe they vii om x AED harvest pelts of Er kotauce the cornfields of the table-lands of Mexico are m oh damaged by yellowheads. Weed seed appears as a very prominent item of food in every. of the seven months under consideration, except October, the re for which is based on only 3 stomachs and hence can not be made | basis for sound conclusions. Beginning with 18 percent in April, i increases to 34 percent in June, drops to 6.6 in July (to make roo: for caterpillars and grasshoppers), rises to 36.1 percent in Aug and finally to 64.4 percent in September. While, as stated abc none was found in the 3 October stomachs, there is no reason to doul that weed seed is not only a common article of food in that month — but also a staple diet in the other colder months of the year. It is to’ . be regretted that no stomachs of the yellowhead have been received a. from its winter range, to give some idea of its food during the colder season. It is almost certain, however, that this would be found to co; sist of weed seed and waste grain, as in the case of its neighbor, the red- " wing. ‘The weeds found in the stomachs are almost precisely the same as those eaten by the redwings, and in practically the same proportions. — Barngrass (Chwtochloa), Panicum, and ragweed (Ambrosia) are the — leading kinds, supplemented by Polygonum, Rumew, and others. | SUMMARY. From this brief review some conclusions may be drawn, but tl somewhat fragmentary nature of the evidence makes it probable th they may be subject to considerable modification in future. It isaln certain that the rather peculiar distribution of the various items of foc through the season will prove to be more apparent than real in tl light & more extensive observations. In the meantime we may sa conclude (1) that the yellowhead feeds principally upon insects, g does much good by eating noxious insects and troublesome weeds, (3) that where too abundant it is likely to be injurious to grain. When it is considered that the redwing has been accused of doing immense damage to grainfields, it is evident that the yellowhead, whiel THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. _ 33 has been found to eat nearly three times as much grain as the former, must be capable of much mischief in localities where it becomes superabundant. The following table shows the various elements of the food for each month of the season: Food of the yellow-headed blackbird. [NUMBER OF STOMACHS EXAMINED: April, 9; May, 31; June, 14; July, 16; August, 60; September, 5 October, 3; total, 138.] Sep- | Octo- ven Food. April. | May. | June. | July. /August. aearloan|| jer. age. aSUMU ME Percent.| Percent.| Percent.| Percent.| Percent.| Percent.| Percent. Hee | Predaceous beetles -....-.--- 2.7 8.0 4.1 4,7 ORR ee Eee 2.8 Witter pectles: 22-5. Je22 4.42 3.9 12.6 7.8 7.8 Qeie enone D8) 5.0 Caterpillars’. 32--.-/s-222 3 0.1 6.0 4.4 Diese On eae al eee 4.6 IST ASSNO DP PCUSms ccs etel== Sec oe cerees 1.0 0.4 32.0 8.0 15.6 24.3} 11.6 Other insects ..:..--.-.-.--.- 2.6 5.3 22.6 6.9 0.8 19.0 10.4 9.7 Total animal food..-.- 9.3] %32.9 39.4 72.9 9.7 34.6 37.0 | 33.7 VEGETABLE. COT aes ae ae a eae 48.8 9.0 ese itis site erase Eat (eae een ep a 9.8 SU aeiee eee wes oi titans cele i eee Sa oe 5.7 3.4 5.8 Qu Od (Fac cieed all sere Cote 3.0 Chis 653 35c6sheeeee see ee aes 23.9 21.9 12.8 14.4 EO aes ai 63.0 | 25.6 NVECCORSGCO es 2'5. oonik sec asse! 18.0 30.5 34.0 6.6 36. 1 64.4) |s2 es Deal Other vegetable food ........|....- 0s). <--.02. 0.7 OFS) sees 22 ALS OW eiyten is 0.3 Total vegetable food..| 90.7 67.1 60.6 Dells 90.3 65, 4 68.0] 66.3 THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. (Agelaius pheniceus. ) The red-winged blackbird (otherwise known as the red-shouldered blackbird, swamp blackbird, and American starling), including its various races,’ inhabits North America from Nova Scotia and Great Slave Lake south to Costa Rica. It breeds throughout its range in the United States and Canada. The typical form is replaced at differ- ent places in the southern part of the range by the Bahama, Florida, and Sonoran redwings, but the differences that separate these various subspecies are scarcely appreciable by the casual observer. The bird is curiously restricted in its local distribution by the fact that it nests as a rule only in the immediate vicinity of water, and preferably directly over it. For this reason it is absent from extensive tracts of country either in high mountainous regions or in desert or forest areas. Nests have occasionally been found in perfectly dry situations at a distance from water, but such cases are exceptional. The prairies of the Upper Mississippi Valley, with their numerous sloughs and ponds, furnish ideal nesting places for redwings, and con- sequently this region has become the great breeding ground for the 1The different subspecies are not considered separately in this bulletin. 3074—No. 183——3 RU le Ma eee, ee ae ee mS er a ee a ee ities X : iy £ By ak . 34 FOOD OF “BOBOLINK, BLACKBII species. In many places, especially on the ae of “aha thousands of acres of rushes and reeds of various kinds affor sites for redwings, yellowheads, and marsh wrens, while my more aquatic species swim in the waters below and nest amid th broken herbage. It is from such breeding grounds that the » flocks are recruited that make such havoc upon fields of grain an forth the maledictions of the unfortunate farmer. East of the A lachian Range the conditions are different. Marshes on the shores o: lakes, rivers, and estuaries are here the only sites available for breec ing purposes, and as these are more restricted in number and : than the western breeding grounds the species is much less abmada than in the West. Fic. 4.—Red-winged blackbird. Like their associates, the marsh wrens, and their neighbors, the bank swallows, the redwings are eminently gregarious, living in flocks — for the greater part of the time and breeding in communities which — vary in size according to the area of the swamp they occupy. Sousa a times these colonies are reduced to a single family, which in such — cases usually consists of one male bird with several females and their — nests; for this species practices polygamy, a habit noted in the case — of baly a few species of song birds. a During the winter the redwings are in the South, but may occasion-— ally be found as far north as latitude 40°, and stragglers may occur at — any point within their summer range. (A young male was shot by the writer in central Iowa in January, 1879, and one bird whose stoma ach | le La cee a fe THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. ; 35 is included in this investigation was killed in northern Massachusetts on January 29, 1896.) In their northward migration they begin to appear in the Upper Mississippi Valley about the last of February or during the first half of March, and by the middle of March enter the New England States. On the return journey they begin to leave the - more northern portions of their range in September, and the migration is practically complete by the end of October. Although they arrive from the South at an early date, they are by no means early breeders, for at that time the marshes are desolate wastes of dead and broken-down herbage, and the birds do not build until the new growth is considerably advanced. This involves a delay of several weeks, during which the birds, having taken possession of a marsh where they intend to construct their homes, sit idly about and behave as though time hung heavily upon them. The females usually perch upon the dead vegetation as if watching for the new growth to appear, while their liege lord, with the resplendent insignia of his rank conspicuous on his shoulders, struts about upon some fence or tree and swells his little body, ruffles up his feathers, and by a display of his brilliant colors and a rather poor attempt at singing tries to make the time less wearisome to his patient mates. Owing to their peculiar nesting habits these birds do not come in contact with the farmers’ crops appreciably during the breeding sea- son, since at this time they confine themselves to the immediate _ vicinity of their marshy homes. After the season of reproduction they assemble in flocks, usually of a considerable size and often immense, and it is at this time that they frequently do serious harm to crops of standing grain. Much testimony has been received by the Department of Agriculture indicating that the damage is sometimes enormous. In letters received from the rice growers in the South the redwing is implicated equally with the bobolink in destroying rice both in spring and fall. It is claimed by some, however, that the redwing is not wholly bad, as it remains in the fields during the winter and eats the ‘ volunteer’ rice, which, if it grew in any consid- erable quantity, would spoil the crop. On the other hand, there is considerable evidence that redwings eat a great many insects, and that it is only under exceptional circum- stances that they eat grain to an injurious extent. It is noticeable that nearly all complaints against them come from the Mississippi Valley, where the native grasses and weeds of the prairies have been - replaced by vast fields of grain. It has also been stated that the greatest damage was done when but few fields of grain had been planted. These afforded a new and easily accessible supply of food of which the birds were not slow to avail themselves; but since the grainfields have increased in area the work of the birds has become more widely distributed, and the damage has not been so apparent. i el a il) ae eee Rel oie a “i al ea ee? a a Te ef, The whole season of winter, that, with most birds, is ae in strogz life in silent melancholy, is, with the redwings, one continued carnival. gleanings of the old rice, corn, and buckwheat fields, supply them wi food, at once ready and nutritious. eee ee the ean of they are seen, like vast clouds, w pealifg? and driving over the meadows ey cornfields, darkening the air with their numbers. Then commences the wo destruction on the corn, the husks of which, * * * are soon completely o1 tially torn off; while from all quarters myriads continue to pour down like a tem: till little remains but the cob and the shriveled skins of the grain; what lit left of the tender ear, being exposed to the rains and weather, is generally m much SOR 6 Re am It has been already stated, that they arrive in Pennsylvania late in March. general food at this season, as well as during the early part of summer, consists of grubworms, caterpillars, and various other larvee, the silent, but di enemies of all vegetation, and whose secret and insidious attacks are more dreaded by the husbandman than the combined forces of the whole feathered together. For these vermin, the starlings search with great diligence; in the grout at the roots of plants, in setrae ia and baprepss 8, aS W uh as among buds, leaves, 3 Hiieoy a mee be Shit Let me Haag this by a short computation: If suppose each is on an average, to devour fifty of oe larvee in a day, (av after, will consume ae Bea of tw oie AS, It is below that not less t han million pair of these birds are distributed over the whole extent of the United Sta in summer; whose food, being nearly the same, would swell the amount of yer destroyed to twelve thousand millions. But the number of young birds may fairly estimated at double that of their parents; and, as these are constantly fed laryze for at least three weeks, making only the same allowance for them as for : old ones, their share would amount to four thousand two hundred millions; ma a grand total of sixteen thousand two hundred millions of noxious insects des in the space of four months by this single species! The combined ravages of hideous host of vermin would be sufficient to spread famine and desolation oy wide extent of the richest and best cultivated country on earth. All this, it said, is mere supposition. It is, however, supposition founded on known acknowledged facts. I have never dissected any of these birds in spring wit receiving the most striking and satisfactory proofs of these facts; and though, n matter of this kind, it is impossible to ascertain precisely the amount of the be derived by agriculture from this, and many other species of our birds, yet, present case, I can not resist the belief, that the services of this species, in sprin far more important and beneficial than the value of all that portion of corn wh careful and active farmer permits himself to lose by it.' ‘ Audubon, in speaking of this species, says: The marsh blackbird is so well known as being a bird of the most nefarious p pensities, that in the United States one can hardly mention its name, without hear such an account of its pilferings as might induce the young student of nature to co ceive that it had been created for the purpose of annoying the farmer. r ? Am. Ornith., Edinburgh ed., Vol. I., pp. 193-198, 1831. THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. . a destroys an astonishing quantity of corn, rice, and other kinds of grain, cannot be denied; but that before it commences its ravages, it has proved highly serviceable to the crops is equally certain. * * * Their food at this season [spring], is almost exclusively composed of grubs, worms, caterpillars, and different sorts of coleopterous insects, which they procure by searching with great industry, in the meadows, the orchards, or the newly plowed fields. * * * The millions of insects which the redwings destroy at this early season, are, in my opinion, a full equivalent for the corn which they eat at another period. Of more recent writers, probably Dr. B. H. Warren has made the most extensive researches upon the food habits of these birds. In stating the results of the examination of 25 stomachs, he says: eC ee eek ee ee The redwing * * * destroys large numbers of ‘‘cutworms.’’ I have taken from . the stomach of a single swamp blackbird as many as 28 ‘‘cutworms.’’ In addition to the insects, etc., mentioned above, these birds also, during their residence with us, 7 feed on earth-worms, grasshoppers, crickets, plant-lice and various larvee, so destruc- tive at times in the field and garden. During the summer season, fruits of the : blackberry, raspberry, wild strawberry, and wild cherry are eaten to a more or less extent. The young, while under parental care, are fed exclusively on an insect diet.” N. 8. Goss says of the redwings: During the fall and winter months they assemble in large flocks, and do much damage in the ricefields, and are often more or less injurious to the grains within their summer homes; but the damage they do in the latter case is overbalanced by the destruction of injurious insects, upon which they almost wholly feed during the breeding season; busy hunters of the field and followers of the plow.* Stomach examination does not indicate that the redwings are especially fond of grain. The diagram here given (fig. 5) illustrates the variation in the relative proportions of the more important ele- ments of the food throughout the year. The preponderance of weed seeds over grain or other vegetable food is apparent at a glance. Weed seeds, such as Chetochloa (Setaria), Ambrosia, Rumex, Polygo- num, etc., constitute more than half the food of the year, while grain (nearly half oats) is less than one-seventh. The only varieties of Chetochloa that are cultivated extensively are Hungarian grass and millet, but as these are raised to a great extent as forage plants no great harm is done by taking the seed, except when it is newly sown or where the crop is raised for seed alone. The other species are all noxious weeds, and probably the greater part of the Chatochloa eaten by birds is from wild plants, which are as much of a nuisance as any of the other weeds when they get into cultivated fields. In the matter of fruit the redwings are almost total abstainers, only on rare occa- sions tasting a blackberry or some other of the smaller varieties by way of experiment. 1Ornith. Biog., Vol. I, pp. 348-349, 1831. * Birds of Pennsylvania, revised ed., p. 212, 1890. ’ History of the Birds of Kansas, p. 399, 1891. 38 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES. The increase of vegetable food other than grain and weed seeds during August and September is due to the consumption of wild rice (Zizania aquatica), which at this time forms quite an important item. __ In their insect diet the redwings do much good, for only a small _ proportion of the species they eat are beneficial. More destructive snout-beetles (weevils) are eaten by them than by any other birds that the writer has examined, with the single exception of the bobolinks. — Other beetles and grasshoppers also constitute an important part of [serr|ocr. [nov [Deo ISS SSC SSISINW : iy et (I z Mm fi cj Ga ic < > (oa a w ro) YC SETHE SASF VLOLE y 7 077 D Op Gf D7 YY VY) Y Y/ ( Z saeces shen. ACO e ORB Braud. Aa hee Bh lee ue (Soh Oi) WAGO Ae sscee 6.0 Other vegetable food ........|...... Daron eaiOn|eeeAs (owls Oulnos nl P2056 nlelinte|26son| Gosia el Omos Total vegetable food ..|100.0 | 27.8 | 55.2 | 31.3 | 37.0 3.2 | 40.6 | 34.2 | 72.5 | 68.3 | 47.0 3074—No. 18——4 Le RL de ek ees te 50 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES _ BREWER’S BLACKBIRD. — (Scolecophagus cyanocephalus. ) a the Great Plains south to northern New Mexico and westwar Pacific, and spends the winter in the southern part of this re in Mexico. The economic status of the species has as yet hard! become well defined, but some complaints have been received from grain-gr owing Sees and it may possibly be a pest where it exis § - inany great numbers. The bird is eminently gregarious most of the | year, though less so at breeding time. Like the cowbird, it is a eee ene gleaner in pastures, barnyards, and roads, and even invad the streets of towns for the purpose of gathering scattered grain : other forage. | But little testimony is available as to the food of eh ewer’s blackb ( : but Goss says that the members 8 this species are “‘ social, gregarious birds, breeding in small colonies, and foraging: together over the ev vated fields, pastures and plains; indisorimhinatt eaters of insect. seeds, ete., cer * * * Yyegular visitants of the slaughterhouses In he investigation by the Biological Survey 146 stomachs we examined, colleated from six States and representing every month except April (see p. 75).”. The first analysis of the food shows tha animal matter forms 31.8 percent and vegetable matter 68.2 percen The animal food consists almost wholly of insects, the only exceptio being a few spiders and snails. The insects are mostly beetles, ant wasps, and gr sea s, with a few caterpillars, flies, and bugs. Beetles amount to 7.8 percent of the food of the year. The onl ly group which appears at all prominently is that of the snout-beetles, or Rhynchophora, which in May constitute 29 percent of the food. Int other months they are not found so often, and the average for the y w is only 3.4 percent. Predaceous beetles (Carabidae) are eaten to t amount of 1.7 percent, and are not conspicuous in any mon Hymenoptera constitute 14.8 percent of the food for August, but not appear very prominently in the other months, and average but 2. percent for the year. They consist for the most part of WaEPe ie ants, with a few of the smaller parasitic species. Ghaashoppers are the favorite insect diet, constituting more half of the total animal food (16.1 percent). Only a trace appa the February stomachs, but in March the amount increases to percent, and except in July does not fall below this figure until O ber. In August, which as usual is the month of greatest consum tion, grasshoppers constitute 47.5 percent—nearly half of all the fc 1Hist. Birds of Kansas, p. 409, 1891. 5 2One stomach was taken in April, but as its contents were quite unlike the avera of those collected in March and May, it has been discarded — more ca obtained for the same month. % e: * a | es BREWER’S BLACKBIRD. 5a Pin J uly the percentage falls to 8.2, apparently because at that time the grain harvest is at hand and the birds eat freely of oats, wheat, etc. The miscellaneous list is made up of a few flies, bugs, and cater- pillars, the latter such as might be expected in the stomach of a bird of the habits of the species under consideration, though the number really found is surprisingly small. One stomach taken in California in March contained 90 per cent of caterpillars, and a few other stomachs contained them in smaller amounts; but they do not constitute an important percentage of any month. Mr. J. F. Ilimgsworth, of Ontario, Cal., says that be has never failed to find from one to five worms [caterpillers] in each stomach that he has examined, which indicates that under some circumstances they do eat these insects _ extensively. The vegetable food of Brewer’s blackbird is preeminently grain, which amounts to 60.3 percent of the total food of the year, while all other vegetable food aggregates only 7.9 percent. Oats, corn, — wheat, and a little barley are eaten, and of these oats are the most important, amounting to nearly three-fourths of the total quantity and being eaten in every month of the year.’ Corn stands next to oats, but far below in quantity; wheat follows next in order, and bar- ley comes last, the latter having been found in only two stomachs. So important an element is grain that it constitutes more than 50 percent of the food in each of eight months, and in May, the month of least consumption, still ameunts to 21 percent of the whole food. While much of this may be waste grain, it can hardly be probable that all of it is picked up in highways and byways. In July it amounts to nearly 72 percent of the food, and there can be no doubt that much of this is gathered from ripening fields. Other vegetable food con- sists for the most part of weed seed, but the small amount differs remarkably from the quantities eaten by the redwing and cowbird, which are great weed destroyers at all times, and especially in winter. Brewer's blackbird eats grain in every month, and in winter subsists upon it almost entirely. Mr. Walter K. Fisher, writing from Stock- ton, Cal., reports it as feeding on newly sown wheat that had not been harrowed in and eating nearly all that had been thus left exposed. He describes the birds as visiting the fields in immense flocks, which, at a distance, look like smoke rising from the ground, and says that stomachs of birds taken on such fields were found to be full of wheat. SUMMARY. In summing up the results of this investigation it must be acknowl- edged that the stomachs examined are too few, and are not distributed widely enough geographically, to justify a final economic classification of the bird. Nevertheless some very salient points seem to have been 1The greatest quantities were found in stomachs taken in January at Escondido, Cal. brought out, viz: (1) No peter of fecets is espec ul grasshoppers (Orthoptera), which constitute more than abundant; and (3) seeds of harmful weeds are eaten sparingly. In spite of this apparently discreditable record complaints blackbird have been fewer than of several other species, while, other hand, some observers speak highly of it. 9 in a California bird. Mr. J. F. Illingsworth, of Ontario, Cal., ir paper read before the Pomona Farmers’ Club,’ speaks of the spe | as a beneficial one that should be protected. It is possible that th large amount of grain found in the stomachs consists principally ; gleanings from the harvested fields, corrals, and other places; but ey if this be true, a bird with such a peaiioaneed taste for grain woul abundant, always be a menace to ripening crops. The following ta lar statement shows the principal elements of the food: Food of Brewer’s blackbird. [NUMBER OF STOMACHS EXAMINED: January,7; February,7; March,4; April, no stomachs colle May, 7; June, 10; July, 10; August, 24; September, 38; October, 14; November, 10; December, Total, 146.] ee : 5 PH eee ee eine a hig Bt Bee ate ee eee 3 3 a =) J 5 2 RS tae oe A Ud a ke r=) ANIMAL. Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent Predaceous beetles) 5.0 SR im ee O, Sn role lasers S.97 O29") eee Snout-beetles......)...... | 0.4) 2.0] 29.0) 4.5) 0.5)3Tr. | 0.3 |.--..- Other beetles. ..... 8.451) 8.0] 0.8 |) 8.0/8.7 1) B.Sa) VOl6 OB on Wasps, ants, etc... -]...... 0.1] 0.5) 0.8) 8.2:] Off 4589) “008 |S eee Grasshoppers ...-...|------ 0.2 | 20.5 | 33.3 1986.8 | 8.2) 47.6 | 83.1] 0.6 |...25. Other insects ....-. 1.03 PAO S206 4) 9500) JO.6 tere ous 0.64 ea Os Total animal . TOOGLs pS ee 9.4| 8.3 | 45.8 | 75.4 | 62.1 | 12.9 | 67.4 | 36.8 VEGETABLE. Ay an ee ae ar AOA Vic's aioe bins sie = 90.6 | 77.1 | 58.2 | 21.0 | 32.7 | 71.9 | 29.8 | 48.1 | 85.4 Other vegetable NOOO tien onse'e then! seems 14.6] 1.0] $.6.) 6/2) 46.2.) 2°87) doveaSeae Total vegeta- ble food ...| 90.6 | 91.7 | 54.2 | 24.6 | 37.9 | 87.1 1Tr,= trace. ‘Ontario Observer, June 3, 1899. woe THE CROW BLACKBIRD. i atte ite THE CROW BLACEBIRD.! ( Quiscalus quiscula. ) - Throughout the Eastern States and Mississippi Valley the grackle, or crow blackbird, is one of the most familiar and conspicuous birds. It appears in spring and early summer about farmhouses and villages, where it finds its favorite nesting places. Five different kinds occur within our borders, but the present paper is concerned only with the common purple grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) and its two subspecies, the bronzed grackle (Qwiscalus ¢. eneus) and the Florida grackle (Qudscalus g- agleus). The purple grackle is abundant in the region east of the Alleghenies as far north as New York, and is found sparingly in New )) buddy, fa i ny ( Fie. 6.—Crow Blackbird. England. The Florida grackle is distributed over the region extend- ing from the coast of South Carolina southward into the peninsula of Florida and westward to Louisiana. The bronzed grackle occupies | the Mississippi Valley and Great Plains as far west as the Rocky Moun- tains, ranges northward to Great Slave Lake and southern Newfound- land, and east to the coast of southern New England. In Canada and the Northern United States the crow blackbird is only asummer resident, but in the Southern States it is present throughout the year, and in winter its numbers are increased by mil- lions of migrants from the North, which find here a congenial winter * Revised and republished from the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1894, pp. 233-248, with the addition of new material. aadine in the ord ie is ee mee ee that at this seas river, *‘flocks of such size that the roar of their wings could be hea 54 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRA home. It does not occur south of the Gulf States, bu have been found during the a months as far north as I even Minnesota. me At the first approach of spring the crow blackbirds begin to me northward, closely following the retreat of winter. During the s mer caus ey cover the whole of the United States east of | In New aniee crow pleebenice are “of Wat occurrence. tolerably abundant in Connecticut, but in the more northern Sta breed only in certain favored locales! and are entirely absent fr : large areas. ee In the Northern United States the southward movement begins about the end of September, although the habit of collecting in flocks — immediately after the breeding season causes the birds’ to or from many localities during the month of August. Their stay in 1 a northern part of the country is thus limited to the six warmest month h Ss of the year; hence whatever they do that is either beneficial or inju ne rious must be accomplished during that time. In the South, on the — contrary, they are found thr oushout the year, and in largely increase ees during oe w inter. Seeman Ay ; nOveN bay time of their they feed largely on weed seeds, mast, and waste grain scattered the field. ee Crow blackbirds are gregarious, usually breeding in colonies a £ migrating in flocks. Tn: fall, young and old collect in large “ ; pees, nee h in the Mississippi oe often sisi to enormous siz C Phan), ri dic rusty blackbird (8. pom often associate withthem. Moving southward, immense flocks cross the Red River Va ley between Texas. and Indian Territory. In September, 1886, Mr. George H. Ragsdale reported at Gainesville, on the Texas side of th for a quarter of a mile,” and that, according to a statement publish in a local paper, one person had on hand 8,000 blackbirds which b been netted for the use of gun clubs. Mr. Ragsdale stated that at same time the grass worm was destroying the crab-grass and pursl and attributed ake pnpeualy large flocks of ava to thes te bulk af the birds “drifted aes ce hisist the first of Octo o the worms and birds disappeared simultaneously. na Crow blackbirds are well known to the farmer as foragers a the ber nyar aes and goa oe they arrive in spring, 7 their THE CROW BLACKBIRD. ‘ ek ay some of their first meals; but when the plow begins its work they are on the alert, and-follow it up and down the furrows, seizing every grub or other insect that may be turned up. Their sadnsieyt in this respect is very noticeable, and if not disturbed or frightened in any way they often become so tame as scarcely to get out of the way of the team in their eager search for food. Very soon a nest is built, and in a short time four or more gaping mouths demand to be filled, and the parent birds must then work harder and go farther afield to provide for the increased number of stomachs. When the cherries and other early fruits ripen, the birds take a share for themselves thinking, no doubt, ‘that they are fairly entitled to them for the good work they did earlier in the season. When the corn ‘comes into the milk’ they also take a portion, —_ In the selection of food the crow blackbird is almost omnivorous. Its partiality for corn, wheat, rice, oats, and other grain is well known, and is the cause of nearly all the complaints about its depredations. . This diet is supplemented by various fruits, berries, nuts, seeds, and insects, the last in large proportion. But the character of the food varies materially with the season. During the fall and winter blackbirds subsist largely on seeds and grain, as spring approaches they become more insectivorous, in summer they take small fruits, and in September they attack the ripening corn; but at all seasons they probably select the food that is most easily obtained. To this varied diet are due the conflicting statements respecting the useful or noxious habits of the species. When feeding on grain, the birds are usually in large flocks and their depredations are plainly visible. When breeding they are less gregarious, and the good work they do in the fields is scarcely noticed, although at this season the grubs and other insects devoured compensate in large measure for the grain taken at other times. As Mr. N. W. Wright, of Farmland, Ind., aptly says, ‘‘It is hard to tell on which side to place the crow blackbirds, for we can see the damage done, but not the benefits.” During the spring they destroy many noxious insects. Prof. D. E. Lantz states that at Manhattan, Kans., from the time of their arrival until August they feed almost entirely upon cutworms, and Prof. Herbert Osborne, writing from Ames, Iowa, reports that during the spring of 1883 he saw them destroy great numbers of May-beetles (Lachnosterna fusca), and found them feeding on them for several weeks. Grasshoppers, crickets, locusts, and other insects are also largely eaten. ‘Mr. J. Perey Moore, = Hiiladelphia, Pa., wrote in 1885: “urine the recent visit of the 17-year cicada this species [the purple grackle] Ydeyourdd immense numbers of pupze and imagos. It also ate large numbers of the “grabs of the June. bug, which it generally obtained by searching in the furrows in newly plowed fields, and all stages of the Carolina and other grasshoppers, the com- mon white butterfly (I saw one catch several of this species on the wing May 26, 1885), and other species not identified. Varese ae -ef ’ $y . i a pee " ee 56 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GR Nir W. 7B. Hall, of Wakeham, Oi, einen ee eee of some young grackles which were eae in Ses He old bird could not reach the mouth of the young. The food brought co. largely of larvee of Coleopterous and Lepidopterous insects, with an occasional — If freshly plowed fields were in the vicinity the food consisted largely of the v V grub and cutworm, a few tent caterpillars, one worm that I took to bea small At and beetles of the genera Galerita, Cetonia, Lachnosterna, and their kindred. An estimate of the amount of food required to support a large floc of blackbirds has been made by Mr. H. H. Johnstin, of London, Ohio During the autumn of 1894 he counted 1,100 blackbirds one morning as they left their roosting places for the feeding grounds, and estimat the birds which flew by at 50,000. Allowing 2 ounces as the quanti of food collected by each bird during the day, he arrived at the con. clusion that 6,250 pounds, or more than 3 tons, of food was consumed by this army of blackbirds ina single day. Even if the number birds in this case is not overestimated, the amount of food per bird undoubtedly too great. The species of blackbirds to which these not refer are not stated, but it is safe to assume that the flocks we made up of redwings (Agela‘us) and crow blackbirds (Qudscalus). A full stomach of the crow blackbird, selected at random from specimen: in the collection of the Biological Survey, was found to weigh 0.158 ounce, or 2.53 drams, while the contents of another stomach weighec only 0.116 ounce, or 1.85 drams. The average of two full stomach: of red-winged blackbirds was 0.049 ounce, or 0.78 dram, and the — stomach contents of a third weighed only 0.021 ounce, or 0.33 dram. While of course these figures do not give the quantity of food a bird — blackbird weighs comparatively little. In order to consume 1 ounce of food per day a crow blackbird must eat six or eight full mea according to the kind of food, and the redwing three or four times many. At this rate the amount consumed by the flock of 50,000 birds would be about a ton and a half per day. These figures are undoubt edly still too large, but they serve to give a slight hint of the quantit of grain a large Hoe k could destroy. -, The accusations against the crow blackbird, briefly stated, rela mainly to the destruction of grain, especially corn, soon after plank in the spr ing, and again in the autumn, when the corn is ‘in the mil and nearly ripe. In the Southern States rice is also destroyed ] grackles. In some sections they are said to feed upon young grai such quantities as seriously to injure the value of the crop, and for reason they are poisoned in large numbers. A more effectual meth is to prevent the birds from taking the seed by tarring the corn be: it is planted. This is better, simpler, and cheaper than the whole destruction of the birds. et ee Pee a}. Oe alr is i = THE CROW BLACKBIRD. Bie Mr. 8. T. Kimball, of Ellington, Conn., says: As a rule, farmers here tar their corn, but last June I sowed some without tarring, and the result was that by the time it was out of the ground the blackbirds had attacked it. They worked all day, carrying their bills full—load after load—to a cemetery where there is quite a colony. They kept this up till the corn was entirely absorbed by the stalk, although I shot some five or six of them. Mr. George K. Cherrie states that in Monona County, lowa, during the spring of 1884, both the crow blackbird and the yellow-headed blackbird did considerable damage by pulling the corn just as it came’ through the ground, and were poisoned in great numbers by corn which had been soaked in water containing arsenic. Similar depreda- tions are sometimes committed in the rice fields of the South. According to Mr. W. C. Perey, jr., of Bayou Goula, La., the crow blackbirds destroy rice and corn at that place to a great extent, and would do so totally were not men stationed with guns. They eat it in -planting time only. In the autumn, when the corn begins to ripen, the fields are again visited by blackbirds in larger flocks than in the spring, and the birds renew their work of destruction. Mr. Daniel 8. Wardsworth reports that in a field of 2 acres near Hartford, Conn., the grackle has been known to ruin from one-third to one-half of a crop of corn ‘in the milk’ or when ripe. A similar complaint was made by Mr. George H. Selover, of Lake City, Minn. Mr. S. Powers, of Lawtey, Fla., writes that in the section where he lives corn is left on the stalk as long as possible, to escape the weevils, and the blackbirds eat the ends of many. ears, sometimes one- third of their length. Another accusation often made against the crow blackbird is that it destroys the eggs and young of other birds. A cursory examination of the statements of writers shows that very few are based on original observation; the majority are either repeated from the observations of others or are taken from published accounts of the bird’s habits. It can not be doubted, from the statements which have been made, that these birds do occasionally destroy the eggs of the robin, bluebird, chipping sparrow, small flycatchers, and other species, and more rarely the young of the robin. But stomach examination offers little cor- roborative evidence. Of 2,346 stomachs, only 37 contained any trace of birds’ eggs, and 1 contained the bones of a young bird. These were distributed as follows: In April, 9; May, 9; June, 7; July, 7; and August, 5. The greatest quantity of eggshell was found in May, aggregating forty-six one-hundredths of one percent of the stomach contents for that month. This certainly does not show that black- birds are much given to robbing their neighbors. Further, the egg- shells found in a number of stomachs were identified as those of domesticated fowls, and were probably obtained from compost heaps, Wat td bak", _ f: : a + ’ <5 ee = i: Tie 58 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACK where they had been thrown. Hence, it seems fair to inf grackle indulges its nest-robbing proclivities only occasi that the prevalence of the habit has been considerably exags The crow blackbird, by reason of its habits, oo and its food habits is cpapieas in previous publications. ae Wilson refers to it as a ‘noted depredator’ that ‘is well kno every careful farmer of the Northern and Middle States,’ and say hand for the havoc they intend to make among his crops of Indian corn. *_ The trees where these birds build are often at no great distance from the farm hot : and overlook the plantations. From thence they issue, in all directions, and ) with much confidence, to make their daily depredations among the surrounding fie | if the whole were intended for their use alone. Their chief attention, howe directed to the Indian corn in all its progressive stages. As soon as the infant b. di : : of this grain begins to make its appearance above ground, the grakles hail the wel- come signal with screams of peculiar satisfaction, and, without waiting for a fo invitation from the proprietor, descend on the fields and begin to pull up and themselves on the seed, scattering the green blades around. * * * About the ‘ay ; beginning of August, w nen the bist te ears are ey ee eaiys: state, they are atta i cobs, and shriveled tis that contained their favorite Aa I have seen Ae corn of many acres, Ww ae more ed one- sae was thus ruined. Indeed the fan share. * * * As some consolation, however, to the industrious cultivator, I ean a him, that were I placed in his situation, I should hesitate whether to consider the birds most as friends or enemies, as thes are particularly destructive to almost al all th noxious worms, grubs, and caterpillars, that infest his fields, which, were they allow to multiply unmolested, would soon consume nine-tenths of all the predation labour, and desolate the country with the miseries of famine.' Nuttall speaks of the bird’s destructiveness in the cornfield en n the same terms, and adds: : Up to the time of harvest, I have uniformly, on dissection, found their foo consist of these larvee, caterpillars, moths, and beetles, of which they deyour numbers, that but for this providential economy, the whole crop of grain, in n places, would probably be destroyed by the time it began to germinate. In they collect the mast of the beech and oak for food, and may be seen assembled large bodies in the woods for this purpose.” = 1Am. Ornith., Edinburgh ed., Vol. I, pp. 227-230, 1831. 5 *Manual of Ornith., Land Birds, pp. 195-196, 1832. a 9 2 a = E as ¥ te THE CROW BLACKBIRD. Ab ‘Mr. C. J. Maynard repeats the charges of depredations in the corn- field, but contends that their trait of robbing nests of other birds is by _ far the worst damage they do. He says: They will visit the homes of those species which build in accessibie situations and deliberately remove the eggs or, what is more to be deplored, the helpless young and devour them in spite of the cries of the distracted parents who are powerless to pre- vent the outrage. * * * So frequently were these depredations committed upon _ the homes of the Robins and other birds, that built about my place this season, that there was scarcely an hour in the day during early summer when I could not hear the warning cries of the adult birds, followed by the harsh, scolding notes of the Crow Blackbird as he was vigorously attacked on all sides, but he seldom retreated without accomplishing his purpose. Such continuous slaughter must greatly thin the ranks of the birds that are thus robbed and it will be safe to say that the Purple Grackles destroy more birds than all the other predatory species combined. * * * ‘In Florida * * * they also eat avariety of food. In early Winter large flocks may be seen on the tops of the palmettos, feeding on the fruit, and they also eat berries in their season. Later small flocks are found on the margin of streams, fre- quently wading into them in search of little mollusks, crabs, etc., and it is not rare to meet with one or two scattering individuals in the thick hummocks, overturning the leaves in order to find insects or small reptiles which they devour. I once saw one catch a lizard which was crawling over the fan-like frond of a palmetto, and fly _with it to the ground. The reptile squirmed all the while in its frantic endeavors to escape, but the Blackbird held it firmly and, after beating it to death, removed the skin as adroitly as if accustomed to the operation, then swallowed the body.? _ Dr. B. H. Warren says as a result of his investigations of the i of the crow blackbird: In the wake of the plowman, as he turns the crumbling earth, closely follow the argus-eyed Grackles, ever on the alert to seize the wriggling worm, the agile beetle, or the glistening grub, and the numerous larvxw thrown out as each furrow is turned. Certainly, at this season our sable acquaintances are engaged only in that which will prove of utility to the cultivator when his crops are growing. We repeatedly hear of how the blackbirds tear up and devour the young and growing corn. This, unquestionably, is sometimes the case, but I am confident that the destruction thus done is much exaggerated. J am aware that on more than one occasion I have seen the tender blades of corn lying on the ground where were actively at work Crow ~ Blackbirds, a number of which were shot, and on a post-mortem dissection their stomachs revealed almost entirely insects. Some six years ago I was visitingsa friend who had thirty-odd acres of corn (maize) planted. Quite a number of “‘blackies,”’ as he styled them, were plying themselves with great activity about the growing cereal. We shot thirty-one of these birds feeding in the corn field. Of this number nineteen showed only cut-worms in their stomachs. The number of cut-worms' in each, of course, varied, but as many as twenty-two were taken from one stomach. In seven some corn was found, in connection with a very large excess of insects, to wit: Beetles, earth-worms, and cut-worms. The remaining ao showed chiefly beetles. * * # Strawberries, blackberries and other fruits are fed upon, but to a very limited extent, by this species. The diet of the young birds, while under parental care, is almost exclusively insectivorous, consisting mainly of caterpillars and grubs. It is a well-established fact that they are given to pillaging the eggs of other birds, especially the common Robin. Gentry, however, states that they destroy the young of birds, a fact, as yet, unobserved by the writer.? 1 Birds of Eastern N. A., pp. 149-150, 1881. * Birds of Pa., revised ed., pp. 221-222, 1890. Nebraska and Dakota are the most western States in which any were col lected, and Florida and Texas the most southern. The stomachs we taken during every month in the year, but as the great body of birds leaves the Northern States in October and does not return) March, but few stomachs could be procured in November, Decer January, and February. Great pains were taken to secure a le number during the breeding months of May and June, with the re that a little more than half of the whole collection was obtained at — this time. Observation has shown that the food of young birds often — differs materially from that of the adults, and in order to test th point 456 nestlings were collected in May and June. ) The food of the whole year, taking into account all the 2,346 s achs, young and adult, comprised 30.3 percent animal, and 69.7 per cent vegetable matter. The animal food was found to he composed ¢ of insects, “spiders, myriapods, crayfish, earthworms, sowbugs, hair snakt snails, a tree toads, salamanders (nea lizards, snakes, birds’ eg: and mice. . Insect food constitutes 27 per cent of the entire food for the yea and is the most interesting part of the bird’s diet from an econo mit point of view. = When it is examined month by month, the smallest quantity appears in February (less than 3 per cent of the whole food), but as only stomachs were taken in this month the result can not be conside very reliable. In March it rises to one-sixth, and steadily incre till May, when it reaches its maximum of five- eighths of the whole; 1 5 then decreases to one-sixth in October, and appears to rise again in November, but the number of stomachs taken in that month is too — small to warrant any gener al ie ee ay fdr number of i insec ects ine baa on idee kind of Pst Analysis of the insect food presents many points of interest. 4 A: the most important families of beetles are the scarabeids, of which th common June bug or May-beetle and the rose bug are familiar ex ples. These insects are eaten, either as beetles or grubs, in e month except January and November; in May they constitute m than one-fifth, and in June one-seyenth of the entire food. The h grackles have of following the plow to gather grubs is a matter: common observation which has been fully confirmed by stomach exa inations. Many stomachs were found literally crammed with grul and in many more, where other food predominated, the hard showed that grubs had formed a goodly portion of a previous meal. THE CROW BLACKBIRD. Po: Oe The species most commonly found in the stomach belong to the well- known genus Lachnosterna, or common May-beetle, several species of dung-beetles belonging to the genera Aphodius and Atenius, and the wonderfully brilliant Phanwus carnifex. The last is one of the most conspicuously colored of all the beetles, being clad in green, purple, and gold, which shade to crimson with the changing light. Whether _ these splendid tints attract the birds’ attention, whether there is some peculiarly agreeable flavor to recommend the insects as an article of diet, or whether the simple fact of availability from their great abun- 4 dance impels the birds to eat them so freely is yet to be determined; but, from whatever cause, a majority of the stomachs of all the grackles taken in the Mississippi Valley during summer contained at least a trace and often the remains of several of these beetles. Curculios, snout-beetles or weevils, are eaten in every month of the year, but, while they are taken in great numbers, the individuals are so small that the percentage of bulk does not rise as high as in the case of the scarabeeids. The maximum is reached in June, when they con- stitute more than 5 percent of the total food, with a gradual decrease in the succeeding months. Insects of such small size could hardly be obtained except by diligent search, and their presence in so many stomachs (1,059), and also the large numbers in single stomachs (some- times exceeding 40), warrants the conclusion that they are sought as choice articles of food. The species most often eaten are picwrus imbricatus, Phytonomus punctatus, Sitones hispidulus, and more rarely __ Sphenophorus zew and other species of Sphenophorus. Of this last, ~ commonly known as the corn weevil, 17 were found in one stomach and 14 in another. Many other beetles were found in the stomachs, but, with one excep- tion, in quantities too small to be of much economic interest. The Colorado potato beetle was not present, but several species belonging to the same family were identified. The one exception just referred to is that of the carabids or predaceous beetles. These valuable destroyers of noxious insects are eaten in every month of the year in varying quantities, but with less variability than most other insects. They constitute more than 7 percent of the food in January, attain a maximum of 13 percent in June, and end with one-half percent in December. From these figures it would seem that they are highly prized by blackbirds; but there are other facts that have a bearing on the case. Most carabid beetles are of fair size and easily seen, and many of them are quite large; moreover, they live on the ground and are much oftener seen running than flying. They are the first beetles observed in spring, and are usually abundant at all times when insects are to be found. Since blackbirds seek a great portion of their food on the ground it is apparent that these beetles must naturally fall in their way oftener than any others, and so are freely eaten, especially bs : - : Ys a ‘ es ‘ indicating that the binds ent as many as they find. 62 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS et ES. if other food be wanting. They may thus be eaten more from n than from choice. It does not, however, necessarily follow th are doing harm by eating insects that on account of their fooc are classed as useful. This point has been fully elucidated by writers, notably by Prof. 5S. A. Forbes.* Next in importance to beetles as an article of blagehieal dict the grasshoppers. For convenience, grasshoppers, locusts ( the stomachs, and are on in avers month except January. T constitute less than 1 percent of the total February food, and the fac that they are found at all in this month indicates that the birds we hunters, for it would puzzle an entomologist to find grasshoppers in Babraaty in most of the Northern States. It is probable that som 7 of those eaten in this and the succeeding month are dead insects | over from the previous year. The proportion of grasshoppers in- stomachs increases with each month up to August, when it attains: maximum of 23.4 percent of all the food. It is worthy of note th: crickets, considered apart from grasshoppers, reach their maximum i June, when they form a little more than 5 percent of the monthly food per August the grasshopper diet falls off, but even in November it still constitutes 9 percent of the total for the month. The ; quency with which these insects appear in the stomachs, the gr numbers found in single stomachs (often more than 30), and t fact that they are fed largely to the young, all point to the conelusi M est all times. The good that is done by their destruction can hardly overestimated, particularly as many of the grasshoppers found in th stomach were females filled with egg aa Caterpillars form another pallets element of this bird’s fo od bo They were found throughout the year, except in November, and ay age 2.3 percent In ek month. In May a maximum of somethin more than 8 percent is reached, followed by a little less than 4 pe cent in June, and falling below this through the remainder of the year The famous army worm (Leucania wunipuncta) was identified in a half a dozen stomachs. Most persons who have picked and eaten berries from the ioib have had the disagreeable experience of getting into their mouth small bug which is a little too highly flavored to suit the taste of | human race, but which is eaten by the crow blackbird in every m from February to October, inclusive. These bugs are not, howe consumed in large quantities, probably for the reason that great ; n bers can not be found; still, traces of them appear in many stoma 1 Bull, Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist. Vol. I, No. 3, Novi! 1880, “THE CROW BLACKBIRD. , 638 In addition to the insects specified, representatives of several other orders were found, but not in such large or regular quantities as to _ render them an important element of food. Hymenoptera are repre- sented mostly by ants, while flies are entirely absent, being probably too lively to be taken by such sluggish birds. Spiders and myriapods - (chousand-legs) were noted in sufficient numbers to demand recogni- tion. They are eaten to some extent during every month, but not, as a tule, in large quantities. The spiders attain a maximum of more than 7 percent in May, and not only the spiders themselves, but their cocoons full of eggs appear to be taken whenever found. The myria- pods are eaten somewhat less frequently, but appear in nearly every month. Crustaceans, represented by crayfish, are very commonly eaten, though they do not constitute a large percentage of the food. It often happens that the only trace of these creatures found in a bird’s stom- ach consists of the gastroliths, or ‘stomach stones,’ which are two saucer-shaped calcareous bodies found one on each side of the cray- fish’s stomach. One grackle, taken in Iowa, had no less than 26 of these stomach stones in its stomach. It seems hardly probable that this bird had eaten 13 crayfish at one meal or within a very short time, and it is possible that the gastroliths had been picked up on the banks ‘of a pond or stream where the crustaceans had died and left their remains. In addition to crayfish, a few sowbugs (Onzscus) were found in some of the stomachs. Snails of various species, both terrestrial and aquatic, with a few small bivalve mollusks, are also eaten by blackbirds, but, like the crustaceans, they form only a small percentage of the food. It might. at first be supposed that these creatures were taken for the sake of the lime in their shells, as an aid in forming the eggshells of the black- birds, but we find that they are eaten by both adult and young birds, _ by both sexes and at all seasons, which precludes the idea that the _ lime is used exclusively for this purpose. Earthworms were found in _ only a few stomachs, their se¢w being noticed in a few others; but such soft and probably easily digested creatures are difficult to iden- _ tify when they have been in the stomach a short time, and so may be _ easily overlooked. The vertebrate food of the grackles consists of mice, birds and their eggs, lizards, snakes, frogs and salamanders (newts), and fish. So few remains of mice were found that these mammals can hardly be considered a legitimate article of the birds’ diet. Birds and their eggs have been already discussed. Lizards’ remains were found in a few stomachs taken in Florida, and the vertebre of snakes were found occasionally, but not often. Frogs, tree toads, and salamanders are _ eaten, but not frequently, and do not appear to be a favorite food, or _ else are not easily taken. The same may be said of the fish whose _ bones appear now and then in the stomachs. diversified as the animal food, showing plainly that w of diet is wanting the bird can make up the deficiency | thing else that is more easily obtained. The following all the vegetable substances identified in the stomachs, bu some that could not be positively determined. The ~ when unaccompanied by seeds and already half digested, is diffieul distinguish with precision, and this is also true of the hulls o1 left after kernels of grain have been digested and passed; bu of such unrecognized matter is not great. . Vegetable substances found in stomachs of crow blackbirds. Grain: . | Seeds and nuts: Ps Corn. Poison ivy (Rhus radicans) Oats. Harmless sumac (Rhus glabr Wheat. Bayberries (Myrica cerifera). Rye. Hornbeam ( Ostrya virginiana). *. Buckwheat. Chestnuts and chinquapins ( Cé Fruit: dentata and pumila). Blackberries and raspberries. Beechnuts (Fagus atropunice Strawberries. Acorns ( Quercus). Cherries (cultivated). Weeds: Mulberries. Ragweed ( Ambronane ¥ Currants. Barngrass (Chetocloa). rr. Grapes. Gromwell (Lithospermum). wh Apples. Smartweed (Polygonum). oe Blueberries and cranberries ( Vacein- Pokeweed (Phytolacca), ium sp. ). Sorrel (Rumer). Huckleberries ( Gaylussacia sp. ). Miscellaneous: Dogwood berries ( Cornus sp. ). Small bulbs or tubers. Elderberries (Sambucus sp. ). Galls containing larvee. Chokeberries (Aronia arbutifolia). Pieces of plant stems. Service berries (Amelanchier canaden- Bits of grass and leaves. sis. ) Thorn of locust (Robinia). Hackberries ( Celtis occidentalis). Pieces of rotton wood, Of all the various items of food, the chief interest conten abou grain and fruit, for it is through their consumption that bl; inflict the greatest damage upon the farmer; in fact, th that has been said of the erookioe } is that they eat large qu grain. Of the five grains named in the list corn is the ing been found in 1,321 stomachs, or more than 56 percent whole tiumber. It is eaten at all seasons of the year; and— month except January, July, August, and November amounts than one-half of the total vegetable food. The corn ob winter and until planting in the spring can be but little 1 farmer, as it must be mostly waste grain. This view was | firmed by the contents of a series of stomachs taken in ear! which consisted to a great extent of corn that had evidently and frozen, and had Jain out all winter. After February Perrine Pa x Pg pone oe | | d THE CROW BLACKBIRD. 65 _ decrease in the quantity of corn eaten until July, when it reaches a ‘minimum of 7.7 percent. May shows no increase over the preceding months, although it is the time for planting; nor is there an important, increase in June, the month of sprouting corn in the North. In fact, very little evidence was found to indicate that blackbirds pull up sprouting grain. In this respect they differ conspicuously from the crow. In August corn amounts to one-seventh of the whole food, and this, together with a part of that taken in September, is green corn ‘in the milk.’ The maximum amount, 82 percent, is eaten in February, but this, as already stated, is chiefly waste. In September and October, on the other hand, when corn constitutes 53.2 and 51.5 percent, respectively, of the food totals, it is undoubtedly all taken from the fields of standing corn, representing so much good grain con- tributed by the farmer; and in the Middle and Western States, where grain often stands in the fields until December, the November corn food must be obtained in the same way. Oats, which are eaten in very irregular quantities in every month except January, November, and December, form much less of the _ food than corn. They appear in the greatest amount in April (a little more than one-seventh of the total food), fall to less than 1 percent in June, but rise to more than 9 percent in August. The oats eaten in April are probably picked up from newly sown fields, and it is likely that those taken in August and September are gleaned from fields after harvest, while those found in the other months are acci- dental and of no importance. . . Wheat is eaten in every month from April to September, inclusive, but makes very little showing except in July and August, when it forms 26 percent of the whole food, these being the only months of the year in which it reaches a higher percentage than corn. As July and August are the months of the wheat harvest, it is easy to account for the large amount eaten at that time; but whether the grain so eaten is taken from the standing crop, or consists merely of scattered ker- nels gleaned after the harvest, is not manifest from stomach examina- tion. Probably the birds take whichever is more accessible. Rye was found in only one stomach and buckwheat in nine. The former was from a bird taken in May in Pennsylvania, and is evi- _ dently not a favorite food. Three birds taken in New Jersey in Feb- Tuary were found to have eaten a small quantity of buckwheat. A _ single bird killed in July in New York and one killed in September _ in Iowa had also eaten this grain, as had four birds that were all taken _ at once in November in New Jersey. The buckwheat eaten in Febru- _ary and November must have been waste grain, and the fact that _ birds from the same localities, taken at the time when this grain was _ harvested, had not eaten it, indicates that it is not a desirable food and is eaten only under stress of hunger. 3074—No. 183——5 66 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRAC According to reports from the Southern States, crow but unfortunately the collection contains few stomachs from t region, so that no corroborative evidence is at hand. ; Mitieneh fruit of some kind is eaten in every month from Mare December, inclusive, it does not become important until June. tively. This aggregate is made up from a number of elements” p- 64), but the only ones likely to possess any economic interes are blackberries, raspberries, cherries, currants, grapes, and apples. Apple pulp was found in 3 stomachs, grapes in 3, currants in 1, cherri and raspberries were the favorites, and made up the great bulk of t! fruit eaten. They were eaten from May to September, inclusive, b only a few in each month, except in July and August, when they were found in 96 and 68 stomachs, respectively. When we consider that the latter fruits are much more abundant in the wild than in- cultivated state, and bear in mind the small amount of other f eaten, it certainly must appear that the damage to fruit by crow black- birds is of no great moment. None of the wild fruits mentioned ix the table were found in large quantities or in many stomachs. Mast, under which term are included chestnuts, chinquapins, acorns and beechnuts, forms quite an important element in the fall and ear Spring months. It constitutes the principal part of the vegetable fo of the 7 stomachs taken in January and does not appear in the 8 Fel ruary stomachs to an important extent; but this record, based on on 15 stomachs, can not be considered very reliable. It composes abo 10 percent of the March food, but decreases through the ensuii months till September, when it again becomes an important eleme and so continues through the rest of the year. Weed seeds form another interesting element of vegetable food ¢ are of considerable importance in the colder months. Beginning February, they constitute more than 7 percent of the food, inerea slightly in March, and then gradually diminish until they almost_ appear in June, but again increase to a maximum of more than percent in October. As all the plants included in this category nuisances, it is, perhaps, needless to say that by eating their si the birds are doing good work. ' The mineral component of the stomach contents possesses li if any, economic interest, but it is curious to note how many d ent things a blackbird can pick up. Sand, gravel, pieces of br bits of mortar, plaster of paris, charcoal, hard coal, and cinders y the most common of the various hard substances which helped to the mill in which their grist was ground. A glass bead was foun one stomach. Much of the gravel from stomachs of birds take ee TO a pee - tek, 6 | ie i ne ies hd sabe. Ji Sa ai a - THE CROW BLACKBIRD. eel 47 Kansas was found to contain fossil remains of corals, crinoid stems, shells, ete. _ As previously stated, 456 nestlings are included in the 2,346 birds whose food has been already discussed. A separate study was made of these, in order to ascertain in what respect, if any, their food dif- fered from that of the adults. It would have given more satisfactory results if it had been possible to separate the younger nestlings—say those under 1 week of age—from the older ones, for it was noticed that as the young approach maturity and get ready to fly, their food becomes more like that of their parents. The young were collected — from May 22 to June 30, inclusive, and represent every age, from the newly hatched to those about to leave the nest. The whole food, when separated into its two principal components, was found to be as follows: Animal matter, 74.4 percent; vegetable, 25.6 percent. The much higher percentage of animal food in the young as compared with the adults (30.3 percent) is at once noticeable, although it may be insisted that the food of the young should be compared with that of the adults in the corresponding season; that is, in the months of May and June. If this view be taken, the difference is not so great. The percentage of mineral matter in the stomachs is also a little greater than in the case of adults. The animal food is practically the same as that of the parent birds, and likewise consists chiefly of insects. These amount to 70 percent, 43 percent more than in the adults. The animal food other than insects, amounting to less than 5 percent, is not important enough to merit attention. The insect food is made up of about the same kinds as are eaten by the old birds, but in somewhat different proportions. Adult beetles, on account of their hard shells, are not fed to very s young birds, but a few are given to the older ones. Grubworms (the larve of scarabeids) are fed freely after the first or second day. A little more than 19 percent of the food of the nestlings consists of this family of beetles, and for the most part in the form of the larve — or grubs. Predaceous beetles (carabids) constitute about 10 percent of the food, weevils a little more than 3 percent, and there were traces of five or six other families, none of which reached 1 percent. Grasshoppers and crickets, the former predominating, are a favorite food for the young, being softer and more easily digested than beetles. They constitute more than 21 percent of the total food. This is nearly as much as the parent birds consume in August, and three times as much as they eat in May and June, when they are feeding the young. This shows that they select the grasshoppers and other soft insects for their offspring, while they eat beetles and other hard things themselves. Caterpillars constitute 6 percent of the food of the young birds, which is not as much as might be expected when we consider how soft 4 and apparently well adapted they are for this purpose. 68 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES. flies, bugs, May-flies, myriapods, and spiders were given to the y These last merit a special notice from the fact that they form t earliest food of the bird. A number of tiny stomachs were examin evidently taken from birds less than 24 hours old. In nearly every case they contained either a single spider or several very small one; undoubtedly the bird’s first meal. The very young stomachs are thin, s almost membranous sacs, entirely unlike the stout, muscular gizzards — of the adult birds, viliiol explains why soft, easily crushed food is © required for the newly hatched young. It is only after they ieee B attained considerable growth and the stomach walls haye become — somewhat muscular that they are able to digest such food as — em beetles and corn. Ta The vegetable food of the young consists of corn and fruit, with me mere traces of half a dozen other things. Corn amounts to 15 pertenti oh of the total food, but is fed only to the older birds, whose stomachs have acquired the requisite muscular strength to digestit. Fruiteon- stitutes about 7 percent of the food, almost exactly the same quantity as is consumed by the adults in the month of June, and consists of the __ same varieties. SUMMARY. From the foregoing results it appears that the food of the crow e blackbird for the whole year consists of animal and vegetable matter in| “a quite unequal proportions. Of the animal component, nine-tenths are ; insects, and of the insects two-thirds are noxious species. The charge — 4 that the blackbird is a habitual robber of other birds’ nests seems. ae a be disproved by the stomach examinations. - Of the vegetable food it has been found that corn constitutes more _ than half and other grain less than one-seventh. Oats are seldom — eaten except in April ‘and August, and wheat is taken chiefly in J malt a and August. Fruit is eaten in such moderate quantities that it has no economic importance, Reeseclnnly in view of ae fact that so little 4G belongs to cultivated varieties.’ The farmer whose grain is damaged, if not wholly ruined, by thes birds, may attempt to count his loss i in dollars and cents, but the good | services rendered by the same birds earlier in the season can not be — estimated with sufficient precision for entry on the credit side of the — ledger. And although the number of useful predaceous beetles they _ destroy is rather large, yet it must be considered that the final value — of useful birds depends not so much on the character of the insects they _ destroy as on the extent of their work in keeping the © great tide | of mt Ba the appended table blackberriee, raspberries, ‘and other fruity of the genus i Rubus are classed as cultivated fruit, since it is impossible to distinguish the w ld from the cultivated in stomach examinations; but probably by far the greater part a comes from wild plants. : THE CROW BLACKBIRD. Bau (sr) insect life down to a proper level. The examination of the food of the _biackpirds has shown that they do a good share of this work, and are _ therefore most emphatically useful birds—so useful that no general war of extermination should be waged against them. This does not mean that they do no harm, or that they should be permitted to do harm with- outrestraint. A bird whose diet contains 46.5 percent of grain must be capable of considerable damage in any section of country where grain is an important crop; and when blackbirds descend upon a corn or wheat field in flocks of hundreds or thousands, they inflict a real loss, from which the farmer should protect himself by any practicable means. Still, crow blackbirds have not been complained of so much as red- wings, and they probably do not ordinarily cause much loss to the farmer, since such a large part of the grain they eat consists of scat- tered or waste kernels. The local ravages they commit are usually due to overcrowding in a restricted area, and when this occurs there is no doubt that their numbers should be reduced. The following table shows the percentage of each article of diet for each month: Food of the crow blackbird. [NUMBER OF STOMACHS EXAMINED: January,7; February,8; March,53; April, 289; May, 348; June, 887; July, 346; August, 197; September, 81; October, 111; November, 11: December, 8. Total, 2,346.] i = ra = ig; : 2 ne 5 eS o Food. 5 Seeaercie ine : : | 3 SS) | q =. =} = 2 To a o S 5p P=) fo) v 3) a fa fee toe pts ecg nN ee = a PO test) aa | Seas jeess alae | se | oS ales 1d cea lee ANIMAL Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- |. Per- | Per- ‘ cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. Pred. beetles ..... ial faye cee ee mel eteuislE AC) erties fester [ ae eal geet [labial ast) |). 5.6 May-beetle family|....-. Oils neta) | 658) (22402 let aete |e S20; |) (OnSeplOsGulaOh 5) bese 1.6| 4.9 Snout-beetles..... 29053 12) 181 8.5 | Sed) 454 | 20 WA ON Orie SON al een) Other beetles..... 253". oasis TA Meal esals 7 caletay tees CUD Oy bab oescse 0.6) 1.0 Caterpillars ...... Jey WOR Bi) Sta eA EPR) Na ROy he Sasa ae ie haloes Te RY /all Maleeseih Oleerolta 5 oe i |, 2538 Grasshoppers ...-.|.----- O86 '/20;8° | 1.2) |).8.'8.)| 14.6 | 12:7 | 23.4 || 8.19) 5629)! , 950) sdeoN ives Other insects .--.- SON ONS | 3.8 |) 259) 3.2 | 2597) 4080 WO aac | 2e3 OS! Or4aa ere Spiders and myr- RAPOOS:. 652.0254 TON Osbn pOnGuie2raal) Wadele 209) oles OFS Ora 0X6) |) 055) EsONGm mete Crustaceans and mollusks ....... i IS Al eames On eG) | DS5) 254 10598) 0225) 226 223 GEO a eae rece Mertebrates.: 32 2)o2----|s.--2- eae ORS! 77a1| am Ostse | UO Delon OF eal le OSG: a Ciere= | eerie | eee 0.3 Total animal FOO 253). 5 32.3 | 2.4 | 17.6 | 26.8 ; 65.9 | 62.1 ; 45.9 | 39.7 | 20.3 | 17.0 | 21.5 | 12.5 | 30.3 VEGETABLE. Fes [ne ntl ca A ET PC Une Paes are Pest UAH a ee 1.4 | 82.0 | 58.4 | 40.9 | 27.2 | 28.2 | 7.7 | 14.0 | 68.2 | 51.5 | 35.4 | 47.3 | 87.2 O20 ee eee Se Meee On Ont 415 | 02,2) Ostend! sOb3 ie ae ONS eter eee Pe) TO ee ao oe |e See eee 2 ONG) OF 2026: dle 2509" | 078i eae ee eee | eee 4.8 Other grain. ..-..|. 022. GEIR EB SE CHG UBM aoe ne (009 (ete HDT On Sa | Ou n | seers 1.6 PMOESHIO TMs 22). 2 a |e. OF4aa pee eet PPT DSi LOnsiy 9k We edi ON, |e ee Pay) 22-8) \CAINGS St 01) Fe ae [P| (es 7a eader |e ORAM Lea P27) cle iLicreae\ fe Were) ||) a Deree |e Alley ecole eae Bveed seeds. sce ea |es- 5-2 7.3 | 10.6} 6.2] 0.4)1Tr. | 0.6] 0.38] 2.5 | 11.6 | 11.6 }.-.--.- 4,2 MAST, Ct@.s.-./.:-2- 66.3 | 0.4/10.4|) 86] 3.0) 2.0] 1.3] 0.4] 19.4 | 15.7 | 16.5 | 23.9 | 14.0 Total vegeta- Pe rtierle re Cake Sie Sc sMbe ni aeape | ea eee ble food ...| 67.7 | 97.6 | 82.4 73.2 | 34.1 | 37.9 |-54.1 | 60.3 | 79.8 | 88.0 | 78.5 | 87.5 | 69.7 1Tr, = trace. Ce ee ee ee of crow blackbirds: Cicindela punctulata. Cicindela purpurea. Cychrus sp. Carabus sp. Calosoma scrutator. Calosoma calidum. Calosoma externum. _Pasimachus depressus. ‘Scarites subterraneus. Amara sp. Chleenius sp. Agonoderus pallipes. Harpalus caliginosus. Harpalus pennsylvanicus. Helophorus inquinatus. Olophrum convyexum. Scymnus sp. Hister americanus. Ips quadriguttatus. _ Drasterius elegans. - Drasterius dorsalis. Podabrus ruguiosus. Canthon sp. Phanzeus carnifex. Onthophagus hecate. Onthophagus pennsylvanicus. Ateenius sp. Aphodius fimetarius. Aphodius inquinatus. Leucania unipuncta. Euschistus sp. The following is a list of the various insec Insects found in stomachs of crow blackbirds. _ COLEOPTERA. Bolbocerus farctus. Geotrupes sp. Dichelonycha elongata. Macrodactylus subspinosus. Lachnosterna sp. Anomala varians. Ligyrus gibbosus. Allorhina nitida. Euphoria fulgida. Euphoria inda. Cremastochilus sp. Prionus sp. Strangalia sp. Cryptocephalus venustus. Typophorus canellus. Colaspis brunnea. Chrysomela pulchra. Gastroidea polygoni. Haltica sp. Dibolia sp. Coptocycla signifera. Eleodes tricostata. Epiczerus imbricatus. Phytonomus punctatus. Sitones hispidulus. Lixus sp. Balaninus sp. Sphenophorus zez, et al. Calandra granaria. LEPIDOPTERA. Deilephila lineata, HEMIPTERA. Prionidus cristatus. NEUROPTERA. Corydalis cornutus. THE BOAT-TAILED GRACKLE. ( Quiscalus major. ) The boat-tailed grackle, one of the largest of the blac Di ; United States, inhabits the South Atlantic and Gulf States ginia to Texas, and is not found at any great distance from THE BOAT-TAILED GRACKLE. (ea Its food habits have received but brief consideration from ornitholog- ical writers. Audubon, whose account is apparently the best, says: The food of this species consists principally of those small crabs called ‘‘fiddlers,’’ of which millions are found along the margins of the rivers and mud-flats, as well as of large insects of all kinds, ground-worms, and seeds, especially grains. * * * In autumn, while the rice is yet in the stack, they commit considerable mischief by feed- ing on the grain, although not so much as when it is in a juicy state, when the plant- ers are obliged to employ persons to chase them from the fields.! In the preliminary investigations made by the Biological Survey there have been examined 116 stomachs from Florida, Georgia, and Texas, representing every month in the year (see p. 76). The food consists of 39.8 percent of animal matter and 60.2 percent of vegeta- ‘ble matter. The former is made up of insects and crustaceans, with a few lizards, batrachians, small mammals, ete. Crustaceans amount to about two-fifths of the animal food (15.6 percent of the total food), and consist of crayfishes, crabs, and shrimps, which plainly indicate the littoral habits of the species. No insects appear to be specially sought. Predaceous beetles (Carabide) are eaten to the extent of 3.3 percent and are taken mostly in fall. Other beetles are eaten to some extent, but no family isconspicuous. Grasshoppers are eaten in July and August, to the extent of 31.9 and 47.7 percent, respectively, but very few in any other month. The average for the year is 7.3 per- cent. Various other insects form 9.7 percent of the food, but no order is especially prominent. Six birds taken in Texas in September are ~ worthy of special mention from the fact that they had all eaten cotton- ball worms (//eliothis armiger).in quantities varying from 26 to 93 percent of the food. While remains of small vertebrates are frequent in the stomachs, they do not form an important element. Grain constitutes 46.8 percent of the total food. Of this all but a mere trace is corn, which composes part of the food of every month except May—the only stomachs collected in this month came from a rice field at Savannah, Ga., where corn was probably not readily obtainable. In each month except May and November corn consti- tutes more than half of the vegetable food, and in March, April. and August it is the only vegetable matter taken. April shows the great- est amount (92.7 percent of the total food), but as only 3 stomachs were taken in this month, this result can hardly be regarded as a fair average. The pulp of some large seed or nut, not otherwise identi- fied, was the most important element next to corn. The remains of figs were found in several stomachs and wild grapes in one, which indicates that fruit is eaten, though sparingly. No weed seed was found in any of the stomachs. 1Ornith. Biog., Vol. II, p. 504, 1835. a i a oe = - are entirely conte would probably eat caterpillars as well if it found them more ‘ than other food. The animal food it decidedly prefers is small taceans, and these, so far as the interests of agriculture are concer In its vegetable diet, the bird certainly does not commend. ital the agriculturist. Its preference for corn is very marked and | ‘sh no variance with the change of season. That it visits the grow crop. for its supplies is evident from the fact that much of the co: found 2 the prone ae the eanlyg summer was ‘in the yar. . almost necessarily be hat mful to the corn crop ; ee rendering a well-defined service in return. ; DISTRIBUTION OF STOMACHS. Distribution of stomachs, by months and States. BOBOLINK. States. | January. | February. | March. April July. June. | September. Connecticut: -:....2)...... Dist. of Columbia GOOUPIO..ccscctswacidoan ee TOW ti acvee ta eete dens foe MGA NBRS cs sueeweee | eacde : Massachusetts .....|...... WIRGDIPEN oo. ceo nee] s. acc DELOMESOta.. .5 ss seen] - on. oe New York.....<... North Dakota ..... Pennsylvania -.... Rhode Island...... iePUON ciate oc sti ae Witst Virginia < oss |. su0 5 1 sha s Laie nnn [alge Gate aCe bale erae a neeeal Sooke |). 1h Wisconsin ......... pees Weer Pareom oe oe ‘ay iG 2 7 YP pee Ontario, Canada ...|...... PREPAY aes ce fan TB bee S| 8 lv.cc eee ou Dota cee leg 1 oe ae 52 | 41) + 45') 08") pO ec eee - Distribution of stomachs, by months and States—Continued. COWBIRD. September. June July. November. December. | Total. Distribution of stomachs, by months and RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. States. January February. Galitornia sce! Moennecheut. 2.5 s<|a=2 5-41 55--4 Maryland: . 22-222 52|20- 2.c)-sce- Massachusetts ....-) New Jersey.......- New York=--+----- bee ) ee North Dakota ..... (Cit hee ae ees Pennsylvania ..... Rhode Island...--.. Bont Caroling... 2]. 22 .-f2---.- South Dakota...... Waeee traee s AMPA SSL aS Geli oa West Virginia -..<.|-~<-<: WISCONSIN, 25. 2 ed ed eed eee Re ce ee _ (Se) bo | _ Montana ..........].--.--|------|------|----+-Je-eee-]eeeee-feee---{ 12 | 18 |......]--.---|------ 25 _ North Dakota west See Sees See [Se Hae kt eal a Se ssa fee 27 Meera Olas 22 o\2-2---\eeeacleeeeee|e--n--| |G |-~---|----2-|--2---|2>-2--|-=- et ee = eae 6 Distribution of stomachs, by months and States CROW BLACKBIRD—Continued. é H oS oO toe (nes 2 States. Sli pae babes ieee Pa) |lit. z g - =I ele la |B | eee ia ee 5 fe = < = 5 5 < nD Wiest Vane iO Ia se choc onto. ky Ace eels cee Cee eat gulbse aleee IWASCONSIN <4. aprclt Bese | bess 2 Ble eee S| Zee cele mei emeciee lee ee | een eee ; Ontario, Canada...|..-...|..--.- Bos pees) eSese/Sesose P| (SEcigios |e We) > Wlorida....°......, rip ae: Sas (ak 2 : G20) yy | eet | eae eer leeresere) cere BcJuclerd ba sced| te. Fee eed ee MOKAS .saecan eae od 23 20 3 oe eee | eel B 14 2 ¥ . =< —-*s * oy. eo, ae eS a a ae eee Tee eRe ey Agelatus gubernator californicus, 44. Agelaius pheniceus, 33. Boat-tailed grackle, 70-72. food, animal, 71. vegetable, 71. stomachs collected, 76. Bobolink, 12-22. destruction of rice by, 13-18. food, animal, 19-20, 22. vegetable, 20-21, 22. regarded as game, 8. stomachs collected, 72. Brewer’s blackbird, 50-52. food, animal, 50-51, 52. vegetable, 51, 52. stomachs collected, 75. Bronzed grackle, 53. California red-winged blackbird, 44-45. food, animal, 45. vegetable, 45. stomachs collected, 74. Cowbird, 22-30. food, animal, 24-26, 29. vegetable, 26-29. parasitism of, 23-24, 30. stomachs collected, 73. Crow blackbird, 53-70. food, animal, 60-63, 69. of nestlings, 67-68. vegetable, 64-66, 69. grain destruction by, 56-57. nest robbing by, 57-58. stomachs collected, 75-76. Destruction of grain by crow blackbird, 56-57. of grain by red-winged blackbird, 41-43. of rice by bobolink, 13-18. Dolichonyx oryzivorus, 12. Florida grackle, 53. Food, animal, boat-tailed grackle, 71. bobolink, 19-20, 22. Brewer’s blackbird, 50-51. California red-winged blackbird, 45. cowbird, 24-26. crow blackbird, 60-63. z nestling crow blackbirds, 67-68. red-winged blackbird, 39-40. rusty blackbird, 46-47. yellow-headed blackbird, 31. INDEX. Food, vegetable, boat-tailed grackle, 71. bobolink, 20-21. Brewer s blackbird, 51. California red-winged blackbird, 45. cowbird, 26-29. crow blackbird, 64-66. red-winged blackbird, 40-43. rusty blackbird, 47-48: ~ yellow-headed blackbird, 31-32. Game, bobolink regarded as, 8. red-winged blackbird regarded as, 8. Grain destruction, by crow blackbird, 56-57. by red-winged blackbird, 41-43. Molothrus ater, 22. Nestlings of crow blackbird, food of, 67-68. Nest robbing by crow blackbird, 57-58. Parasitism of cowbird, 23-24, 30. Protection, exemption of blackbirds from, 8. Purple grackle, 53. Quiscalus major, 70. Quiscalus quiscula, 53. Quiscalus quiscula xneus, 53. Quiscalus quiscula agleus, 58. Red-shouldered blackbird, 33. Red-winged blackbird, 33-44. food, animal, 39-40, 44. vegetable, 40-43, 44. grain destruction by, 41-43. regarded as game, 8. stomachs collected, 74. Reedbird, 13. Ricebird, 13. Rice destruction by bobolink, 13-18. Rusty blackbird, 45-49. food, animal, 46-47, 49. vegetable, 47-48, 49. stomachs collected, 74-75. Rusty grackle, 45. Scolecophagus carolinus, 45. Scolecophagus cyanocephalus, 50. Starling, American, 33. Stomachs collected, tables of, 72-76. Swamp blackbird, 33. Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus, 30. Yellow-headed blackbird, 30-33. food, animal, 31, 33. vegetable, 31-32, 33. stomachs collected, 73. 7 ate Sl ab 4 ne 5 Powcath oy! Ca Rs t Tiara ec oe ne rx ST ae CE a eS oe ah eas) Non emhen ry a’ an a » * ‘aa. a am om! ARAAA AANRAAAR ahaa RAR ARARA ANA. 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